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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood-Carving
+       Design and Workmanship
+
+Author: George Jack
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2007 [EBook #22107]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD-CARVING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Suzanne Shell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R.
+LETHABY
+
+WOOD-CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF
+TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.
+
+Edited by W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic
+arts. It will consist of authoritative statements by experts in every
+field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the whole
+sphere of the so-called "dependent arts."
+
+
+     BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs,
+     Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120
+     Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype
+     reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net; postage, 12 cents
+     additional.
+
+     SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in
+     Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+     Illustrations. 12mo. $1.40 net; postage, 12 cents additional.
+
+     WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings
+     by the Author and other Illustrations.
+
+
+_In Preparation_:
+
+CABINET-MAKING AND DESIGNING. By C. SPOONER.
+
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
+
+[Illustration: A SUGGESTION FROM NATURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY.
+See page 197.]
+
+WOOD-CARVING
+DESIGN AND
+WORKMANSHIP
+BY GEORGE JACK
+WITH
+DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR
+AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1903
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1903,
+BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+_Published October, 1903_
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic
+Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims.
+
+In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of
+workshop practise, from the points of view of experts who have
+critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside
+vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set
+up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially
+associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design
+itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During the last century
+most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were
+little considered, and there was a tendency to look on "design" as a
+mere matter of _appearance_. Such "ornamentation" as there was was
+usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by
+an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in
+production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by Ruskin
+and Morris, it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design
+from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an
+inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection
+of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert
+workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and
+indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine
+workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when
+separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from
+design--inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation,
+divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into
+affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language
+addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of
+the tool.
+
+In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship
+before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would
+gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the
+competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent can
+fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic
+craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would
+pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and
+design would reach a measure of success.
+
+In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to
+deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary
+routine of hack labor as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art.
+It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be
+brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of
+us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be
+given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This third volume of our series treats of one branch of the great art of
+sculpture, one which in the past has been in close association with
+architecture. It is, well, therefore, that besides dealing thoroughly,
+as it does, with the craftsmanship of wood-carving, it should also be
+concerned with the theory of design, and with the subject-matter which
+the artist should select to carve.
+
+Such considerations should be helpful to all who are interested in the
+ornamental arts. Indeed, the present book contains some of the best
+suggestions as to architectural ornamentation under modern circumstances
+known to me. Architects can not forever go on plastering buildings over
+with trade copies of ancient artistic thinking, and they and the public
+must some day realize that it is not mere shapes, but only _thoughts_,
+which will make reasonable the enormous labor spent on the decoration of
+buildings. Mere structure will always justify itself, and architects who
+can not obtain living ornamentation will do well to fall back on
+structure well fitted for its purpose, and as finely finished as may be
+without carvings and other adornments. It would be better still if
+architects would make the demand for a more intellectual code of
+ornament than we have been accustomed to for so long.
+
+On the side of the carver, either in wood or in stone, we want men who
+will give us their own thought in their own work--as artists, that
+is--and will not be content to be mere hacks supplying imitations of all
+styles to order.
+
+On the teaching of wood-carving I should like to say a word, as I have
+watched the course of instruction in many schools. It is desirable that
+classes should be provided with casts and photographs of good examples,
+such as Mr. Jack speaks of, varying from rough choppings up to minute
+and exquisite work, but all having the breath of life about them. There
+should also be a good supply of illustrations and photographs of birds
+and beasts and flowers, and above all, some branches and buds of real
+leafage. Then I would set the student of design in wood-carving to make
+_variations_ of such examples according to his own skill and liking. If
+he and the teacher could be got to clear their minds of ideas of
+"style," and to take some example simply because they liked it, and to
+adapt it just because it amused them, the mystery of design would be
+nearly solved. Most design will always be the making of one thing like
+another, with a difference. Later, motives from Nature should be brought
+in, but always with some guidance as to treatment, from an example known
+to be fine. I would say, for instance, "Do a panel like this, only let
+it be oak foliage instead of vine, and get a thrush or a parrot out of
+the bird book."
+
+In regard to the application of carving, I have been oppressed by the
+accumulation in carving classes of little carved squares and oblongs,
+having no relation to anything that, in an ordinary way, is carved. To
+carve the humblest real thing, were it but a real toy for a child, would
+be better than the production of these panels, or of the artificial
+trivialities which our minds instinctively associate with bazaars.
+
+
+W. R. LETHABY.
+
+_September, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+TO THE READER,
+
+Be you 'prentice or student, or what is still better, both in one, I
+introduce the following pages to you with this explanation: that all
+theoretical opinions set forth therein are the outcome of many years of
+patient sifting and balancing of delicate questions, and these have with
+myself long since passed out of the category of mere "opinions" into
+that of settled convictions. With regard to the practical matter of
+"technique," it lies very much with yourself to determine the degree of
+perfection to which you may attain. This depends greatly upon the amount
+of application which you may be willing or able to devote to its
+practise.
+
+Remember--the laws which govern all good art must be known before they
+can be obeyed; they are subtle, but unalterable. The conditions most
+favorable to your craft must first be understood before these laws can
+be recognized. There yet remains at your own disposal that devotion of
+energy which is the first essential step, both in the direction of
+obtaining clearer views and in conquering technical difficulties.
+
+I have to thank the following gentlemen for their assistance in
+providing photographs for some of the illustrations: Messrs. Bedford
+Lemere & Co.--H. Sandland--Charles C. Winmill--W. Weir--J. R. Holliday
+and F. K. Rives.
+
+G. J.
+
+_September, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+Editor's Preface                                                       7
+
+Author's Preface                                                      15
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PREAMBLE
+
+Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of Work--Necessity
+for Some Equality between Theory and Practise--The Student's
+Opportunity lies on the Side of Design                                25
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS
+
+Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for
+Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition
+by Degrees                                                            31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH
+
+Different Stones in Use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet
+Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips          42
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WOODS USED FOR CARVING
+
+Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages
+of Pine and English Oak                                               48
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SHARPENING THE TOOLS
+
+The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad
+Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing
+Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools       52
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+"CHIP" CARVING
+
+Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic
+Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Patience
+and Precision--Technical Methods                                      63
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD
+
+Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in Grounding--Description
+of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of Tools, Danger of
+Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting                             69
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS
+
+Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative
+Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a
+Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional"          82
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROUNDED FORMS
+
+Necessity for every Carver Making his own Designs--Method
+of Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground                             88
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND
+
+Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern
+and Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval
+Choice of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern             96
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONTOURS OF SURFACE
+
+Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing
+About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds   103
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ORIGINALITY
+
+Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An
+Unwholesome Kind of "Originality"                                    108
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+PIERCED PATTERNS
+
+Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling
+and Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns            110
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HARDWOOD CARVING
+
+Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on
+Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner
+Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form,
+and Simple in Character--Methods of Carving Grapes                   115
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE SKETCH-BOOK
+
+Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be approached
+with Caution.--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of
+Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies                                137
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment
+as Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records
+of Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time                   149
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE
+
+Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise
+Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character                153
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CARVING ON FURNITURE
+
+Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of
+Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is
+Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures                      161
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING
+
+Misproportion Not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The
+Sham Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to
+the Carver                                                           180
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS
+
+The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality better than Dull
+"Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for Town-Bred
+Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline Drawing and
+Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies, Sections, and
+Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use and Abuse       191
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF
+
+Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses                              205
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK
+
+Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and Abuse--"Built-up"
+Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work                                 214
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE
+
+The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial
+Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible
+in a Limited Way                                                     219
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL CARVING
+
+The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of
+Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance
+of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the Carver--Carpenters'
+Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too Far                      223
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE
+
+Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture
+Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling         234
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT
+
+The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy
+Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing
+Variety of Choice                                                    240
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN
+BUILDER AND CARVER
+
+The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence: Sculpture
+an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the so-called
+"Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival of the
+Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time; their
+Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent
+upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer"
+and "Executant"                                                      249
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                        265
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 271
+
+INDEX                                                                305
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                                    Page
+A Suggestion from Nature and Photography                    Frontispiece
+FIG. 1.                                                               37
+FIG. 2.                                                               37
+FIG. 3.                                                               39
+FIG. 4.                                                               43
+FIG. 5.                                                               46
+FIG. 6.                                                               46
+FIG. 7.                                                               47
+FIG. 8. A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+        B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD                                         52
+FIG. 9. C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE
+        D. BADLY FORMED EDGE.                                         54
+FIG. 10.                                                              58
+FIG. 11.                                                              61
+FIG. 12.                                                              68
+FIG. 13.                                                              74
+FIG. 14.                                                              74
+FIG. 15.                                                              78
+FIG. 16.                                                              88
+FIG. 17.                                                              91
+FIG. 18.                                                              94
+FIG. 19.                                                              94
+FIG. 20.                                                              96
+FIG. 21.                                                             100
+FIG. 22.                                                             103
+FIG. 23.                                                             105
+FIG. 24.                                                             111
+FIG. 25.                                                             113
+FIG. 26.                                                             113
+FIG. 27.                                                             116
+FIG. 28.                                                             119
+FIG. 29.                                                             120
+FIG. 30.                                                             120
+FIG. 31.                                                             120
+FIG. 32.                                                             123
+FIG. 33.                                                             123
+FIG. 34. CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33                                 126
+FIG. 35.                                                             127
+FIG. 36.                                                             127
+FIG. 37.                                                             131
+FIG. 38.                                                             131
+FIG. 39. _a._                                                        131
+FIG. 39. _b._                                                        131
+FIG. 40.                                                             133
+FIG. 41.                                                             133
+FIG. 42.                                                             135
+FIG. 43.                                                             135
+FIG. 44.                                                             137
+FIG. 45.                                                             137
+FIG. 46.                                                             139
+FIG. 47.                                                             145
+FIG. 48.                                                             145
+FIG. 49.                                                             145
+FIG. 50.                                                             145
+FIG. 51.                                                             145
+FIG. 52.                                                             145
+FIG. 53.                                                             151
+FIG. 54.                                                             166
+FIG. 55.                                                             166
+FIG. 56.                                                             168
+FIG. 57.                                                             170
+FIG. 58.                                                             174
+FIG. 59.                                                             174
+FIG. 60.                                                             176
+FIG. 61.                                                             179
+FIG. 62.                                                             179
+FIG. 63.                                                             183
+FIG. 64.                                                             187
+FIG. 65.                                                             187
+FIG. 66.                                                             190
+FIG. 67.                                                             190
+FIG. 68.                                                             199
+FIG. 69.                                                             199
+FIG. 70.                                                             202
+FIG. 71.                                                             208
+FIG. 72.                                                             209
+FIG. 73.                                                             209
+FIG. 74.                                                             213
+FIG. 75.                                                             229
+FIG. 76.                                                             229
+FIG. 77.                                                             229
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 271
+I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.
+
+II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury Cathedral.
+
+III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.
+
+IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk.
+
+V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.
+
+VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.
+
+VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By Phillip Webb.
+
+VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)
+
+IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)
+
+X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox."
+(only carved portions shown.)
+
+XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester Cathedral.
+
+XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester Cathedral.
+
+XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk.
+
+XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb.
+One executed, one in drawing.
+
+XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.
+
+XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church, Somersetshire.
+
+
+
+
+PREAMBLE
+
+
+     Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of
+     Work--Necessity for some Equality between
+     Theory and Practise--The Student's Opportunity
+     lies on the Side of Design.
+
+
+The study of some form of handicraft has of late years become an
+important element in the training of an art student. It is with the
+object of assisting such with practical directions, as well as
+suggesting to more practised carvers considerations of design and
+treatment, that the present volume has been written. The art of
+wood-carving, however, lends itself to literary demonstration only in a
+very limited way, more especially in the condensed form of a text-book,
+which must be looked upon merely as a temporary guide, of use only until
+such time as practise and study shall have strengthened the judgment of
+the student, and enabled him to assimilate the many and involved
+principles which underlie the development of his craft.
+
+If the beginner has mastered to some extent the initial difficulties of
+the draftsman, and has a fair general knowledge of the laws of design,
+but no acquaintance with their application to the art of wood-carving,
+then the two factors which will most immediately affect his progress
+(apart from natural aptitude) are his opportunities for practise, and
+his knowledge of past and present conditions of work. No one can become
+a good carver without considerable practise--constant, if the best
+results are to be looked for. Just as truly, without some knowledge of
+past and existing conditions of practise, none may hope to escape the
+danger of becoming, on the one hand, dull imitators of the superficial
+qualities of old work; or on the other, followers of the first
+will-o'-the-wisp novelty which presents itself to their fancy.
+
+If use of the tools and knowledge of materials were the only subjects of
+which a carver need become master, there would be no way equal to the
+old-fashioned one of apprenticeship to some good craftsman. Daily
+practise with the tools insures a manual dexterity with which no amateur
+need hope to compete. Many traditional expedients are handed down in
+this way that can be acquired in no other. There is, however, another
+side of the question to be considered, of quite as much importance as
+the practical one of handicraft skill. The art of wood-carving has also
+to fulfil its intellectual function, as an interpreter of the dreams and
+fancies of imagination. In this respect there is little encouragement to
+be looked for in the dull routine of a modern workshop.
+
+There are, therefore, two widely separated standpoints from which the
+art may be viewed. It may be looked at from the position of a regular
+craftsman, who regards it primarily as his means of livelihood; or it
+may be dealt with as a subject of intellectual interest, based upon its
+relation to the laws of art in general. As, in the first instance, the
+use of the tools can not be learned without _some_ accompanying
+knowledge of the laws of art, however slight that acquaintance may be,
+the method of apprenticeship has the advantage of being the more
+practical of the two; but it must be accepted with all the conditions
+imposed upon it by the pressure of commercial interest and its usages:
+conditions, which, it may easily be imagined, are far more favorable to
+the performance of dull task-work, than to the adventurous spirit of
+curiosity which should prompt the enterprise of an energetic student.
+
+On the other hand, although an independent study of the art offers a
+wider range of interest, the student is, for that very reason, exposed
+to the risk of involving himself in a labyrinth of confusing and
+ineffectual theories. The fact is, that neither method can at the
+present time be exclusively depended upon as a means of development;
+neither can be pronounced complete in itself nor independent of the
+other. The only sure safeguard against the vagueness of theory is
+constant practise with the tools; while, to the craftsman in the full
+enjoyment of every means for exercising and increasing his technical
+skill, a general study and intelligent conception of the wide
+possibilities of his art is just as essential, if it were only as an
+antidote to the influence of an otherwise mechanical employment. The
+more closely these contradictory views are made to approximate, the
+more certain will become the carver's aims, and the clearer will be his
+understanding of the difficulties which surround his path, enabling him
+to choose that which is practicable and intrinsically valuable, both as
+regards the theory and practise of his art.
+
+If the student, through lack of opportunities for practise, is debarred
+from all chance of acquiring that expertness which accompanies great
+technical skill, he may at least find encouragement in the fact that he
+can never exhaust the interest afforded by his art in its infinite
+suggestion to the imagination and fancy; and also that by the exercise
+of diligence, and a determination to succeed, he may reasonably hope to
+gain such a degree of proficiency with the tools as will enable him to
+execute with his hands every idea which has a definite existence in his
+mind. Generally speaking, it will be found that his manual powers are
+always a little in advance of his perceptions.
+
+Thus the student may gradually work out for himself a natural and
+reliable manner of expressing his thoughts, and in a way, too, that is
+likely to compensate for his technical shortcomings, by exciting a more
+lively interest in the resources of the art itself. The measure of his
+success will be determined partly by his innate capacity for the work,
+and partly by the amount of time which he is enabled to give to its
+practise. The resources of his art offer an infinite scope for the
+exercise of his powers of design, and as this is the side which lies
+nearest to his opportunities it should be the one which receives his
+most earnest attention, not merely as experiments on paper, but as
+exercises carried out to the best of his ability with the tools. Such
+technical difficulties as he may encounter in the process will gradually
+disappear with practise. There is also encouragement in the thought that
+wood-carving is an art which makes no immediate calls upon that
+mysterious combination of extraordinary gifts labeled "genius," but is
+rather one which demands tribute from the bright and happy inspirations
+of a normally healthy mind. There is, in this direction, quite a life's
+work for any enthusiast who aims at finding the bearings of his own
+small but precious gift, and in making it intelligible to others; while,
+at the same time, keeping himself free from the many confusions and
+affectations which surround him in the endeavor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS
+
+
+     Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for
+     Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition
+     by Degrees.
+
+
+We will suppose that the student is anxious to make a practical
+commencement to his studies. The first consideration will be to procure
+a set of tools, and we propose in this place to describe those which
+will answer the purposes of a beginner, as well as to look generally at
+others in common use among craftsmen.
+
+The tools used by carvers consist for the most part of chisels and
+gouges of different shapes and sizes. The number of tools required by
+professional carvers for one piece of work varies in proportion to the
+elaborateness of the carving to be done. They may use from half a dozen
+on simple work up to twenty or thirty for the more intricate carvings,
+this number being a selection out of a larger stock reaching perhaps as
+many as a hundred or more. Many of these tools vary only in size and
+sweep of cutting edge. Thus, chisels and gouges are to be had ranging
+from 1/16th of an inch to 1 inch wide, with curves or "sweeps" in each
+size graduated between a semicircle to a curve almost flat. Few carvers,
+however, possess such a complete stock of tools as would be represented
+by one of each size and shape manufactured; such a thing is not
+required: an average number of, say seventy tools, will always give a
+sufficient variety of size and sweep for general purposes; few pieces of
+work will require the use of more than half of these in its execution.
+
+The beginner, however, need not possess more than from twelve to
+twenty-four, and may even make a start with fewer. It is a good plan to
+learn the uses of a few tools before acquiring a complete set, as by
+this means, when difficulties are felt in the execution of work, a tool
+of known description is sought for and purchased with a foreknowledge of
+its advantages. This is the surest way to gain a distinct knowledge of
+the varieties of each kind of tool, and their application to the
+different purposes of design.
+
+The following list of tools (see Figs. 1 and 2) will be found sufficient
+for all the occasions of study: beginning by the purchase of the first
+section, Nos. 1 to 17, and adding others one by one until a set is made
+up of twenty-four tools. The tools should be selected as near the sizes
+and shapes shown in the illustration as possible. The curved and
+straight strokes represent the shape of the actual cuts made by pressing
+the tools down perpendicularly into a piece of wood. This, in the case
+of gouges, is generally called the "sweep."
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3 are gouges, of sweeps varying from one almost flat (No. 1)
+to a distinct hollow in No. 3. These tools are made in two forms,
+straight-sided and "spade"-shaped; an illustration of the spade form is
+given on the second page of tools. In purchasing his set of tools the
+student should order Nos. 1, 2, 3, 10, 11 in this form. They will be
+found to have many advantages, as they conceal less of the wood behind
+them and get well into corners inaccessible to straight-sided tools.
+They are lighter and more easily sharpened, and are very necessary in
+finishing the surface of work, and in shaping out foliage, more
+especially such as is undercut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Nos. 5, 6, 7 are straight gouges graduated in size and sweep. No. 8 is
+called a Veiner, because it is often used for making the grooves which
+represent veins in leaves. It is a narrow but deep gouge, and is used
+for any narrow grooves which may be required, and for outlining the
+drawing at starting.
+
+No. 9 is called a V tool or "parting" tool, on account of its shape. It
+is used for making grooves with straight sides and sharp inner angles at
+the bottom. It can be used for various purposes, such as undercutting,
+clearing out sharply defined angles, outlining the drawing, etc., etc.
+It should be got with a square cutting edge, not beveled off as some are
+made. Nos. 10, 11, 12 are flat chisels, or, as they are sometimes
+called, "firmers." (Nos. 10 and 11 should be in spade shape.) No. 13 is
+also a flat chisel, but it is beveled off to a point, and is called a
+"corner-chisel"; it is used for getting into difficult corners, and is a
+most useful tool when used as a knife for delicate edges or curves.
+
+Nos. 14 and 16 are what are known as "bent chisels"; they are used
+principally for leveling the ground (or background), and are therefore
+also called "grounders." These tools are made with various curves or
+bends in their length, but for our present uses one with a bend like
+that shown to tool No. 23, Fig. 2, and at _a_ in Fig. 3, will be best;
+more bend, as at _b_, would only make the tool unfit for leveling
+purposes on a flat ground.
+
+No. 15 is a similar tool, but called a "corner grounder," as it is
+beveled off like a corner-chisel.
+
+No. 17 is an additional gouge of very slow sweep and small size. This is
+a very handy little tool, and serves a variety of purposes when you come
+to finishing the surface.
+
+These seventeen tools will make up a very useful set for the beginner,
+and should serve him for a long time, or at least until he really begins
+to feel the want of others; then he may get the remainder shown on Fig.
+2.
+
+Nos. 18, 19, 20 are deep gouges, having somewhat straight sides; they
+are used where grooves are set deeply, and when they are required to
+change in section from deep and narrow to wide and shallow. This is done
+by turning the tool on its side, which brings the flatter sweep into
+action, thus changing the shape of the hollow. Nos. 21, 22 are gouges,
+but are called "bent gouges"--"front bent" in this case, "back bent"
+when the cutting "sweep" is turned upside down. It is advisable when
+selecting these tools to get them as shown in the illustration, with a
+very easy curve in their bend; they are more generally useful so, as
+quick bends are only good for very deep hollows. These tools are used
+for making grooves in hollow places where an ordinary gouge will not
+work, owing to its meeting the opposing fiber of the wood.
+
+No. 23 is a similar tool, but very "easy" both in its "sweep" and
+bend--the sweep should be little more than recognizable as a curve. This
+tool may be used as a grounder when the wood is slightly hollow, or
+liable to tear up under the flat grounder.
+
+No. 24 is called a "Maccaroni" tool. This is used for clearing out the
+ground close against leaves or other projections; as it has two square
+sides it can be used right and left.
+
+In the illustration, Fig 3, _a_ shows the best form of grounding tool;
+_b_ is little or no use for this purpose, as it curves up too suddenly
+for work on a flat ground. It is a good thing to have the handles of
+tools made of different colored woods, as it assists the carver in
+picking them out quickly from those lying ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+When in use, the tools should be laid out in front of the carver if
+possible, and with their points toward him, in order that he may see the
+shape and choose quickly the one he wants.
+
+The tempering of tools is a very important factor in their efficiency.
+It is only of too common occurrence to find many of the tools
+manufactured of late years unfit for use on account of their softness of
+metal. There is nothing more vexatious to a carver than working with a
+tool which turns over its cutting edge, even in soft wood; such tools
+should be returned to the agent who sold them.
+
+With a selection from the above tools, acquired by degrees in the manner
+described, almost any kind of work may be done. There is no need
+whatever to have a tool for every curve of the design. These can readily
+be made by using straight chisels in combination with such gouges as we
+possess, or by sweeping the curves along their sides with a chisel used
+knife fashion. No really beautiful curves can be made by merely
+following the curves of gouges, however various their sweeps, as they
+are all segments of circles.
+
+Tools generally come from the manufacturer ground, but not sharpened. As
+the student must in any case learn how to sharpen his tools, it will be
+just as well to get them in that way rather than ready for use. As this
+process of sharpening tools is a very important one, it must be reserved
+for another place. Should tools be seriously blunted or broken they must
+be reground. This can be done by the carver, either on a grindstone or a
+piece of gritty York stone, care being taken to repeat the original
+bevel; or they may be sent to a tool shop where they are in the habit
+of grinding carving tools.
+
+Catalogues of tools may be had from good makers; they will be found to
+consist mainly in a large variety of the tools already mentioned. Those
+which are very much bent or curved are intended for special application
+to elaborate and difficult passages in carving, and need not concern the
+student until he comes to find the actual want of such shapes; such, for
+instance, as bent parting tools and back bent gouges.
+
+In addition to the above tools, carvers occasionally use one called a
+"Router." This is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicular blade. It
+is used for digging or "routing" out the wood in places where it is to
+be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be recommended for the use
+of beginners, who should learn to make sufficiently even backgrounds
+without the aid of mechanical contrivances. Carvers also use the
+"Rifler," which is a bent file. This is useful for very fine work in
+hard wood, and also for roughly approximating to rounded forms before
+finishing with the tools.
+
+A few joiner's tools are very useful to the carver, and should form
+part of his equipment. A wide chisel, say about 1-1/4 in. wide, a small
+iron "bull-nose" plane, and a keyhole saw, will all be helpful, and save
+a lot of unnecessary labor with the carving tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH
+
+
+     Different Stones in use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet
+     Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips.
+
+
+The stones which are most generally used for the purpose of sharpening
+carving tools are "Turkey" and "Washita." There are many others, some
+equally good, but "Washita" is easily procured and very serviceable. It
+is to be had in various grades, and it may be just as well to have one
+coarse and one fine, but in any case we must have a fine-grained stone
+to put a keen edge on the tools. A "Turkey" stone is a fine-grained and
+slow-cutting one, and may take the place of the finer "Washita." The
+"India" oilstone is a composition of emery with some kind of stone dust,
+and is a useful stone for quickly rubbing down superfluous steel before
+putting an edge to the tool. It is better to get these stones without
+cases, as they can then be used on both sides, one for flat tools and
+one for gouges, which wear the face of a stone into grooves. A case may
+be made by hollowing out a block of wood so as to take the stone
+loosely; and if at one end a small notch is made in this block, a
+screwdriver may be inserted under the stone when it is necessary to turn
+it. Two brads or pins should be inserted in holes, having their points
+just appearing below the bottom of the block. These prevent it slipping
+about when in use. These stones should be lubricated with a mixture of
+olive oil and paraffin in equal parts. Bicycle lubricating oil is very
+good for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+For sharpening the insides of tools, "slips" are made with rounded edges
+of different sizes. One slip of "Washita" stone and one of "Arkansas"
+will be enough for the present, as they will fit moderately well most of
+the gouges in the beginner's set of tools; the "Arkansas" being used for
+the smaller tools. The "Arkansas" slip should be what is called
+"knife-edged." This is required for sharpening such tools as the veiner
+and V tool; it is a very fine marble-like stone, and exceedingly
+brittle; care must be taken in handling it, as a fall would in all
+probability be fatal.
+
+
+THE BENCH AND MALLET
+
+_The Mallet._--The carver's mallet is used for driving his tools where
+force is required. The most suitable form is the round one, made of
+beech; one 4 ins. diameter will be heavy enough.
+
+_The Bench._--Every carver should provide himself with a bench. He may
+make one for himself according to the size and construction shown in the
+illustration, Fig. 5. The top should be made of two 11 x 2 in. boards,
+and, as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed at, the joints should
+have some care. Those in illustration are shown to be formed by
+checking one piece of wood over the other, with shoulders to resist
+lateral strain. Proper tenons would be better, but more difficult to
+make. It must have a projecting edge at the front and ends, to receive
+the clamps. The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw" attached to
+the back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its edges or
+ends. The feet should be secured to the floor by means of iron brackets,
+as considerable force is applied in carving hard wood, which may move
+the bench bodily, unless it is secured, or is very heavy. Professional
+carvers use a bench which is composed of beech planks, three or four
+inches in thickness, and of length according to shop-room.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+Should it not be possible to make or procure a bench, then a substitute
+must be used. Fig. 6 gives a suggestion for making such a temporary
+bench. The top is composed of one piece of board, 11 ins. wide and 1-1/2
+in. thick. It should be about 2 ft. 6 ins. long and rest on two blocks
+fixed about 1-1/2 in. from the ends, which must project, as in Fig. 6.
+This may be used on any ordinary table, to which it should be secured by
+means of two 3-1/2-in. clamps. The height from the floor should be 3 ft.
+2 ins. to top of board. This gives a good height for working, as carvers
+invariably stand to their work. The height can be regulated by making
+the blocks, _a_, higher or lower to suit the table which is to be used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Cramps._--Cramps for holding the work in position on the bench are of
+several kinds. For ordinary thicknesses of wood, two 4-1/2-in. screw
+clamps, like the one in Fig. 7, will be sufficient. Wooden blocks may be
+also used to hold one end of the work down while the other is held by a
+clamp. These blocks are notched out to fit over the thickness of the
+board being carved, as in Fig. 7. Carvers use for their heavier work a
+"bench-screw," as it is called; that is, a screw which passes through
+the bench into the back of the work, which may thus be turned about at
+will; also, if the work is very thick, they hold it in position by means
+of a bench "holdfast," a kind of combined lever and screw; but neither
+of these contrivances is likely to be required by the beginner, whose
+work should be kept within manageable dimensions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WOODS USED FOR CARVING
+
+
+     Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages
+     of Pine and English Oak.
+
+
+The woods suitable for carving are very various; but we shall confine
+our attention to those in common use. Of the softer woods, those which
+are most easily procured and most adaptable to modern uses are yellow
+pine, Bass wood, Kauri pine, and Lime. These are all good woods for the
+carver; but we need not at present look for any better qualities than
+we shall find in a good piece of yellow pine, free from knots or shakes.
+
+The following woods may be considered as having an intermediate place
+between soft and hard: Sycamore, Beech, and Holly. They are
+light-colored woods, and Very useful for broad shallow work.
+
+_English Oak._--Of the hard woods in common use, the principal kinds are
+Oak, Walnut, and occasionally Mahogany. Of oak, the English variety is
+by far the best for the carver, being close in the grain and very hard.
+It is beyond all others the carvers' wood, and was invariably used by
+them in this country during the robust period of medieval craftsmanship.
+It offers to the carver an invigorating resistance to his tools, and its
+character determines to a great extent that of the work put upon it. It
+takes in finishing a very beautiful surface, when skilfully handled--and
+this tempts the carver to make the most of his opportunities by adapting
+his execution to its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian and American,
+are often used, but they do not offer quite the same tempting
+opportunity to the carver. They are, by nature, quicker-growing trees,
+and are, consequently, more open in the grain. They have tough, sinewy
+fibers, alternating with softer material. They rarely take the same
+degree of finish as the English oak, but remain somewhat dull in
+texture. Good pieces for carving may be got, but they must be picked out
+from a quantity of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for
+oak, but it is better fitted for large-scaled work where fineness of
+detail is not of so much importance.
+
+_Italian Walnut._--This is a very fine-grained wood, of even texture.
+The Italian variety is the best for carving: it cuts with something of
+the firmness of English oak, and is capable of receiving even more
+finish of surface in small details. It is admirably suited for fine work
+in low relief. In choosing this wood for carving, the hardest and
+closest in grain should be picked, as it is by no means all of equal
+quality. It should be free from sap, which may be known by a light
+streak on the edges of the dark brown wood.
+
+English walnut has too much "figure" in the grain to be suitable for
+carving. American walnut is best fitted for sharply cut shallow carving,
+as its fiber is caney. If it is used, the design should be one in which
+no fine modeling or detail is required, as this wood allows of little
+finish to the surface.
+
+_Mahogany_, more especially the kind known as Honduras, is very similar
+to American walnut in quality of grain: it cuts in a sharp caney manner.
+The "Spanish" variety was closer in grain, but is now almost
+unprocurable. Work carved in mahogany should, like that in American
+walnut, be broad and simple in style, without much rounded detail.
+
+It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of woods beyond the few
+kinds mentioned. Woods such as ebony, sandalwood, cherry, brier, box,
+pear-tree, lancewood, and many others, are all good for the carver, but
+are better fitted for special purposes and small work. As this book is
+concerned more with the _art_ of carving than its application, it will
+save confusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft wood, and
+good close-grained oak as representing hard wood. It may be noted in
+passing that the woods of all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very
+liable to the attack of worms and rot.
+
+No carving, in whatever wood, should be polished. I shall refer to this
+when we come to "texture" and "finish."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SHARPENING THE TOOLS
+
+
+     The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad
+     Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing
+     Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools.
+
+
+Having given this brief description of the tools and materials used by
+carvers, we shall suppose a piece of work is about to be started. The
+first thing the carver will require to do is to sharpen his tools. That
+is, if we may assume that they have just come from the manufacturer,
+ground but not yet brought to an edge. It will be seen that each has a
+long bevel ending in a blunt ridge where the cutting edge should be. We
+shall take the chisel No. 10 and sharpen that first, as it is the
+easiest to do, and so get a little practise before we try the gouges.
+The oilstone and oil have already been described. The first thing is to
+well oil the stone and lay it on the bench in a position with its end
+toward the operator.
+
+[Illustration: A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+
+B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD
+
+FIG. 8.]
+
+Tools which are going to be used in soft wood require rather a longer
+bevel and more acute edge than when they are wanted for hard wood. Both
+angles are shown in Fig. 8. Lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an
+angle of about 15°, with the handle in the hollow of the right hand, and
+two fingers of the left pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as
+possible. Then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone,
+taking care not to rock the right hand up and down, but to keep it as
+level as possible throughout the stroke, bearing heavily on the blade
+with the left hand, to keep it well in contact with the stone. Rocking
+produces a rounded edge which is fatal to keenness. C (Fig. 9) gives
+approximately, to an enlarged scale, the sections of a good edge, and D
+that of an imperfect one.
+
+[Illustration: C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE D. BADLY FORMED EDGE. FIG. 9.]
+
+Practise alone will familiarize the muscles of the wrist with the proper
+motion, but it is important to acquire this in order to form the correct
+habit early. It should be practised very slowly at first, until the
+hands get accustomed to the movements. When one side of the tool has
+been rubbed bright as far as the cutting edge, turn it over and treat
+the other in the same way. Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed
+on both sides, in the proportion of about two-thirds outside to
+one-third inside. When a keen edge has been formed, which can easily be
+tested by gently applying the finger, it should be stropped on a piece
+of stout leather. It will be found, if the finger is passed down the
+tool and over its edge, that the stoning has turned up a burr. This must
+be removed by stropping on both sides alternately. A paste composed of
+emery and crocus powders mixed with grease is used to smear the leather
+before stropping; this can either be procured at the tool shop, or made
+by the carver. When the tool has been sufficiently stropped, and all
+burr removed, it is ready for use, but it is as well to try it on a
+piece of wood first, and test it for burr, and if necessary strop it
+again.
+
+Before we leave this tool, however, we shall anticipate a little, and
+look at it after it has been used for some time and become blunt. Its
+cutting edge and the bevel above it are now polished to a high degree,
+owing to friction with the wood. We lay it on the stone, taking care to
+preserve the original angle (15°). We find on looking at the tool after
+a little rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along the edge
+in contrast with the gray steel which has been in contact with the
+stone. This bright rim is part of the polished surface the whole bevel
+had before we began this second sharpening, which proves that the actual
+edge has not yet touched the stone. We are tempted to lift the right
+hand ever so little, and so get rid of this bright rim (sometimes called
+the "candle"); we shall thus get an edge quicker than if we have to rub
+away all the steel behind it. We do this, and soon get our edge; the
+bright rim has disappeared, but we have done an unwise thing, and have
+not saved much time, because we have begun to make a rounded edge,
+which, if carried a little farther, will make the tool useless until it
+is reground. There is no help for it: time must be spent and trouble
+taken in sharpening tools; with method and care there need be very
+little grinding, unless tools are actually broken.
+
+To resume our lesson in tool-sharpening: we can not do much carving with
+one chisel, so we shall now take up gouge No. 2 as being the least
+difficult. This being a rounded tool, we must turn the stone over and
+use the side we have determined to keep for gouges, etc. We commence
+rubbing it up and down the stone in the same manner as described for the
+chisel, but, in addition, we have now another motion. To bring all the
+parts of the edge into contact with the stone the gouge must be rolled
+from side to side as it goes up and down. To accomplish this the wrist
+should be slowly practised until it gets into step with the up and down
+motions; it matters very little whether one turn of the tool is given to
+one passage along the stone, or only one turn to many up and down
+rubbings. The main thing is evenness of rubbing all along the circular
+edge, as if one part gets more than its share the edge becomes wavy,
+which is a thing to be avoided as much as possible. When the outside has
+been cleanly rubbed up to the edge, the inside is to be rubbed out with
+the Washita slip and oil to the extent of about half as much as the
+outside. The handle of the tool should be grasped in the left hand,
+while its blade rests on a block of wood, or on the oilstone. Hold the
+slip between the fingers and thumb, slanting a little over the inner
+edge; and work it in a series of short downward strokes, beginning the
+stroke at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at the other (see Fig.
+10). Strop the outside of the tool, and test for burr, then lay the
+leather over the handle of another tool and strop the inside, repeating
+the operation until all burr has been removed, when probably the tool
+will be ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The Veiner requires the same kind of treatment, only as this tool is not
+part of a circle in its section (having straight sides), only one-half
+must be done at a time; and it is as well to give the straight sides one
+stroke or so in every half-dozen all to itself to keep it in shape. Care
+must be taken with this tool as it is easily rubbed out of shape. The
+inside must be finished off with the Arkansas knife-edged slip, one side
+at a time, as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section of these
+deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must follow as before, but as this
+tool is so small that the leather will not enter its hollow, the leather
+must be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn along its edge
+until it makes a little ridge for itself which fills the hollow and
+clears off burr (see Fig. 11); if any such adheres outside, a slight rub
+on the Arkansas stone will probably remove it. When the edges of the
+tools begin to get dull, it often happens that they only require to be
+stropped, which should be frequently done. As the treatment of all
+gouges is more or less like what has been described, practise will
+enable the student to adapt it to the shape of the tool which requires
+his attention. There remains only the V tool, the Spoon tools, and the
+Maccaroni, which all require special attention. The point of the V tool
+is so acute that it becomes difficult to clear the inside. A knife-edged
+slip is used for this purpose, and it is well also to cut a slip of wood
+to a thin edge, and after rubbing it with paste and oil, pass it down
+frequently over the point between the sides. Unless a very sharp point
+is obtained, this tool is practically useless; the least speck of burr
+or dullness will stop its progress or tear up the wood. In sharpening
+it, the sides should be pressed firmly on the stone, watching it every
+now and then to see what effect is being produced. If a gap begins to
+appear on one side, as it often does, then rub the other side until it
+disappears, taking care to bear more heavily on the point of the tool
+than elsewhere. If the sides get out of shape, pass the tool along the
+stone, holding it at right angles to the side of the stone, but at the
+proper angle of elevation; in this case the tool is held near its end,
+between fingers and thumb. Spoon tools must be held to the stone at a
+much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the right relation to the
+surface, or they may be drawn sidewise along it, taking care that every
+part of the edge comes in contact and receives an equal amount of
+rubbing. These may be treated half at a time, or all round, according to
+the size and depth of the tool. However it is produced, the one thing
+essential is a long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not a rounded or
+obtuse one. Strop the inside by folding up the leather into a little
+roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the tool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+For the small set of tools described in Chapter II one flat oilstone and
+two slips will be found sufficient for a beginning, but as a matter of
+fact, it will be advisable, as the number of tools is enlarged, to
+obtain slips of curves corresponding to the hollows of all gouges as
+nearly as possible. Many professional carvers have sets of these slips
+for the insides of tools, varying in curves which exactly fit every
+hollow tool they possess, including a triangular one for the inside of
+the V tool. The same rule sometimes applies to the sweeps of the
+outsides of gouges, for these, corresponding channels are ground out in
+flat stones, a process which is both difficult and laborious. If the
+insides are dealt with on fitting slips, which may be easily adapted to
+the purpose by application to a grindstone, the outsides are not so
+difficult to manage, so that grooved stones may be dispensed with.
+
+Before we leave the subject of sharpening tools it will be well to
+impress upon the beginner the extreme importance of keeping his tools in
+good order. When a tool is really sharp it whistles as it works; a dull
+tool makes dull work, and the carver loses both time and temper. There
+can be no doubt that the great technical skill shown in the works of
+Grinling Gibbons and his followers could not have been arrived at
+without the help of extraordinarily sharp tools. Tools not merely
+sharpened and then used until they became dull, but tools that were
+always sharp, and never allowed to approach dullness. Sharpening tools
+is indeed an art in itself, and like other arts has its votaries, who
+successfully conquer its difficulties with apparent ease, while others
+are baffled at every point. Impatience is the stumbling-block in such
+operations. Those most painstaking people, the Chinese, according to all
+accounts, put magic into their sharpening stones; the keenness of their
+blades being only equaled by that of their wits in all such matters of
+delicate application. To make a good beginning is a great point gained.
+To carefully examine every tool, and at the expense of time correct the
+faults of management, is the only way to become expert in sharpening
+tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CHIP CARVING
+
+
+     Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic
+     Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Impatience
+     and Precision--Technical Methods.
+
+
+One of the simplest forms of wood-carving is that known as "chip"
+carving. This kind of work is by no means of modern origin, as its
+development may be traced to a source in the barbaric instinct for
+decoration common to the ancient inhabitants of New Zealand and other
+South Sea Islands. Technically, and with modern tools, it is a form of
+the art which demands but little skill, save in the matter of precision
+and patient repetition. As practised by its savage masters, the
+perfection of these two qualities elevates their work to the dignity of
+a real art. It is difficult to conceive the contradictory fact, that
+this apparently simple form of art was once the exponent of a struggling
+desire for refinement on the part of fierce and warlike men, and that it
+should, under the influence of polite society, become the all-too-easy
+task of esthetically minded schoolgirls. In the hands of those warrior
+artists, and with the tools at their command, mostly fashioned from
+sharpened fish-bones and such like rude materials, it was an art which
+required the equivalent of many fine artistic qualities, as such are
+understood by more cultivated nations. The marvelous dexterity and
+determined purpose evinced in the laborious decoration of canoe paddles,
+ax-handles, and other weapons, is, under such technical disabilities as
+to tools, really very impressive. This being so, there is no inherent
+reason why such a rudimentary form of the art as "chip" carving should
+not be practised in a way consistent with its true nature and
+limitations. As its elemental distinctions are so few, and its methods
+so simple, it follows that in recognizing such limitations, we shall
+make the most of our design. Instead, then, of trusting to a forced
+variety, let us seek for its strong point in an opposite direction, and
+by the monotonous repetition of basket-like patterns, win the
+not-to-be-despised praise which is due to patience and perseverance. In
+this way only can such a restricted form of artistic expression become
+in the least degree interesting. The designs usually associated with the
+"civilized" practise of this work are, generally speaking, of the kind
+known as "geometric," that is to say, composed of circles and straight
+lines intersecting each other in complicated pattern. Now the "variety"
+obtained in this manner, as contrasted with the dignified monotony of
+the savage's method, is the note which marks a weak desire to attain
+great results with little effort. The "variety," as such, is wholly
+mechanical, the technical difficulties, with modern tools at command,
+are felt at a glance to be very trifling; therefore such designs are
+quite unsuitable to the kind of work, if human sympathies are to be
+excited in a reasonable way.
+
+An important fact in connection with this kind of design is that most of
+these geometric patterns are, apart from their uncomfortable "variety,"
+based on too large a scale as to detail. All the laborious carving on
+paddles and clubs, such as may be seen in our museums, is founded upon
+a scale of detail in which the holes vary in size from 1/16 to something
+under 1/4 in. their longest way, only in special places, such as
+borders, etc., attaining a larger size. Such variety as the artist has
+permitted himself being confined to the _occasional_ introduction of a
+circular form, but mostly obtained by a subtle change in the proportion
+of the holes, or by an alternate emphasis upon perpendicular or
+horizontal lines.
+
+As a test of endurance, and as an experimental effort with carving
+tools, I set you this exercise. In Fig. 12 you will find a pattern taken
+from one of those South Sea carvings which we have been considering.
+Now, take one of the articles so often disfigured with childish and
+hasty efforts to cover a surface with so-called "art work," such as the
+side of a bellows or the surface of a bread-plate, and on it carve this
+pattern, repeating the same-shaped holes until you fill the entire
+space. By the time you have completed it you will begin to understand
+and appreciate one of the fundamental qualities which must go toward the
+making of a carver, namely, patience; and you will have produced a
+thing which may give you pleasant surprises, in the unexpected but very
+natural admiration it elicits from your friends.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Having drawn the pattern on your wood, ruling the lines to measurement,
+and being careful to keep your lines thin and clear as drawn with a
+somewhat hard pencil, proceed to cut out the holes with the chisel, No.
+11 on our list, 1/4 in. wide. It will serve the purpose much better than
+the knife usually sold for this kind of work, and will be giving you
+useful practise with a very necessary carving tool. The corner of the
+chisel will do most of the work, sloping it to suit the different angles
+at the bottom of the holes. Each chip should come out with a clean cut,
+but to insure this the downward cuts should be done first, forming the
+raised diagonal lines.
+
+When you have successfully performed this piece of discipline, you may,
+if you care to do more of the same kind of work, carry out a design
+based upon the principles we have been discussing, but introducing a
+very moderate amount of variety by using one or more of the patterns
+shown in Fig. 12, all of which are from the same dusky artist's designs
+and can not be improved upon. If you wish for more variety than these
+narrow limits afford, then try some other kind of carving, with perhaps
+leafage as its motive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD
+
+
+     Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in
+     Grounding--Description of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of
+     Tools, Danger of Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting.
+
+
+It is curious to imagine what the inside of a young enthusiast's head
+must be like when he makes his first conscious step toward artistic
+expression. The chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling about in
+its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic effects, which to him look like the
+most lovely pictures. If he could only learn to put them down! let him
+but acquire the technical department of his art, and what easier than to
+realize those most marvelous dreams. Later in his progress it begins to
+dawn upon him that this same technical department may not be so very
+obedient to his wishes; it may have laws of its own, which shall change
+his fairy fancies into sober images, not at all unlike something which
+has often been done before by others. But let the young soul continue to
+see visions, the more the better, provided they be of the right sort. We
+shall in the meantime ask him to curb his imagination, and yield his
+faculties for the moment to the apparently simple task of realizing a
+leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted valley.
+
+With the student's kind permission we shall, while these lessons
+continue, make believe that teacher and pupil are together in a
+class-room, or, better still, in a country workshop, with chips flying
+in all directions under busy hands.
+
+I must tell you then, that the first surprise which awaits the beginner,
+and one which opens his eyes to a whole series of restraints upon the
+freedom of his operations, lies in the discovery that wood has a decided
+grain or fiber. He will find that it sometimes behaves in a very
+obstinate manner, refusing to cut straight here, chipping off there, and
+altogether seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort. By
+and by he gets to know his piece of wood; where the grain dips and
+where it comes up or wriggles, and with practise he becomes its master.
+He finds in this, his first technical difficulty, a kind of blessing in
+disguise, because it sets bounds to what would otherwise be an
+infinitely vague choice of methods.
+
+We shall now take a piece of yellow pine, free from knots, and planed
+clean all round. The size may be about 12 ins. long by 7 ins. wide. We
+shall fix this to the bench by means of two clamps or one clamp and a
+screwed block at opposite corners. Now we are ready to begin work, but
+up to the present we have not thought of the design we intend executing,
+being so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack upon the
+silky wood with their sharp edges.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 13, gives a clue to the sort of design to begin
+with; it measures about 11 ins. long by 7 ins. wide, allowing a margin
+all round. The wood should be a little longer than the design, as the
+ends get spoiled by the clamps. This little design need not, and indeed
+should not, be copied. Make one for yourself entirely different, only
+bearing in mind the points which are to be observed in arranging it,
+and which have for their object the avoidance of difficulties likely to
+be too much for a first effort. These points are somewhat to this
+effect: the design should be of leaves, laid out flat on a background,
+with no complication of perspective. They should have no undulations of
+surface. That is to say, the margins of all the features should be as
+nearly as possible the original surface of the wood, which may have just
+the least possible bit of finish in the manner I shall describe later
+on. The articulation of the leaves and flower is represented by simple
+gouge cuts. There should be nothing in the design requiring rounded
+surfaces. The passage for tools in clearing out the ground between the
+features must not be less than 1/4 in.; this will allow the 3/16 in.
+corner grounder to pass freely backward and forward. The ground is
+supposed to be sunk about three-sixteenths of an inch.
+
+As you have not got your design made, I shall, for convenience' sake,
+explain how Fig. 13 should be begun and finished. First having traced
+the full-size design it should be transferred to the wood by means of a
+piece of blue carbon paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Then with either the Veiner or V tool outline the whole of the leaves,
+etc., about 1/8 in. deep, keeping well on the outside of the drawing.
+Ignore all minor detail for the present, blocking out the design in
+masses. No outline need be grooved for the margin of the panel at
+present, as it should be done with a larger tool. For this purpose take
+gouge No. 6 (1/4 in. wide), and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of
+the panel, cut a groove about 1/16 in. within the blue line, taking care
+not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process; begin a little above
+the corner at the bottom, and leave off a little below that at the top.
+The miters will be formed later on.
+
+In this operation, as in all subsequent ones, the grain of the wood will
+be more or less in evidence. You will by degrees get to know the piece
+of wood you are working upon, and cut in such a way that your tool runs
+_with_ the grain and not _against_ it; that is to say, you will cut as
+much as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber. This can not
+always be done in deep hollows, but then you will have had some practise
+before you attempt these.
+
+Now take chisel No. 11, and with it stab into the grooved outline,
+pressing the tool down perpendicularly to what you think feels like the
+depth of the ground. The mallet need not be used for this, as the wood
+is soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the hand alone,
+but remember that the force must be proportioned to the depth desired,
+and to the direction of the grain; much less pressure is wanted to drive
+a tool into the wood when its edge is parallel with the grain than when
+it lies in a cross direction; small tools penetrate more easily than
+large ones, as a matter of course, but one must think of these things or
+accidents happen.
+
+When you have been all round the design in this way with such gouges as
+may be needed for the slow and quick curves, get the wood out nearly
+down to the ground, leaving a little for finishing. Do this with any
+tool that fits the spaces best; the larger the better. Cut across the
+grain as much as possible, not along it. The flat gouge, No. 1, will be
+found useful for this purpose in the larger spaces, and the grounders
+for the narrow passages. This leaves the ground in a rough state, which
+must be finished later on.
+
+Now take gouges Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and chisels Nos. 10, 11, 12, and
+with them cut down the outline as accurately as possible to the depth of
+the ground, and, if you are lucky, just a hair's breadth deeper. In
+doing this make the sides slope a little outward toward the bottom. If
+the gouges do not entirely adapt themselves to the contours of your
+lines, do not trouble, but leave that bit to be done afterward with a
+sweep of the tool, either a flat gouge, or the corner-chisel used like a
+knife.
+
+Now we have all the outline cut down to the depth of the background, and
+may proceed to clear out the wood hanging about between the design and
+the ground all round it. We shall do this with the "grounders," using
+the largest one when possible, and only taking to the smallest when
+absolutely necessary on account of space. This done, we shall now
+proceed to finish the hollow sides of the panel and make the miters.
+Again, take No. 6 gouge and drive a clear hollow touching the blue line
+at end of panel, and reaching the bottom of the sinking, i.e., the
+actual ground as finished, see _a_, Fig. 15. To form the miter at top of
+left-hand side of panel, carry the hollow on until the tool reaches the
+bottom of the hollow running along the top; as soon as this point is
+gained, turn the tool out and pitch it a little up in the way shown at
+_c_, Fig. 15, in which the tool is shown at an angle which brings the
+edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the miter to be formed.
+Beginning as it does at _b_, this quick turn of the handle to the left
+takes out the little bit of wood shown by dotted lines at _b_, and
+forms one-half of the miter. The cross-grain cut should be done first,
+as in this way there is less risk of splintering. Now repeat the process
+on the long-grain side of the panel, and one miter is in a good way for
+being finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+A word now about these sides of sunk panels. They always look better if
+they are hollowed with a gouge instead of being cut square down. In the
+first case they carry out the impression that the whole thing is cut out
+of a solid piece of wood, whereas when they are cut sharply down they
+always suggest cabinet-making, as if a piece had been glued on to form a
+margin.
+
+We have now got the work blocked out and the ground fairly level, and we
+are ready to do the little carving we have allowed ourselves. Before we
+begin this I shall take the opportunity of reminding you that you must
+be very careful in handling your tools; it is a matter of the greatest
+importance, if the contingency of cut fingers or damaged work is to be
+avoided. The left hand in carving has nearly as much to do as the right,
+only in a different way. Grasp the chisel or gouge in the left hand
+with the fingers somewhat extended, that is, the little finger will come
+well on to the blade, and the thumb run up toward the top of the handle;
+the wrist meanwhile resting on the work. The right hand is used for
+pushing the tool forward, and for turning it this way and that, in fact
+does most of the guiding. Both hands may be described as opposing each
+other in force, for the pressure on the tool from the right hand should
+be resisted by the left, until almost a balance is struck, and just
+enough force left to cut the wood gently, without danger of slipping
+forward and damaging it or the fingers. The tool is thus in complete
+command, and the slightest change of pressure on either hand may alter
+its direction or stop it altogether. Never drive a tool forward with one
+hand without this counter-resistance, as there is no knowing what may
+happen if it slips. Never wave tools about in the hand, and generally
+remember that they are dangerous implements, both to the user and the
+work. Never put too much force on a tool when in the neighborhood of a
+delicate passage, but take time and eat the bit of wood out mouse-like,
+in small fragments.
+
+Now we are ready to finish our panel. Take the grounders, according to
+the size required, always using the biggest possible. Keep the tool well
+pressed down, and _shave_ away the roughness of the ground, giving the
+tool a slight sideway motion as well as a forward one. Work right up to
+the leaves, etc., which, if cut deep enough, should allow the chips to
+come away freely, leaving a clear line of intersection; if it does not,
+then the upright sides must be cut down until the ground is quite clear
+of chips. Grounder tools are very prone to dig into the surface and make
+work for themselves: sharp tools, practise, and a slight sideway motion
+will prevent this. Tool No. 23 is useful in this respect, its corners
+being slightly lifted above the level of the ground as it passes along.
+Corners that can not be reached with the bent chisels may be finished
+off with the corner-chisel.
+
+Now we come to the surface decorations, for the carving in this design
+consists of little more. This is all done with the gouges. Generally
+speaking, enter the groove at its widest end and leave it at the
+narrowest, lowering the handle of the tool gradually as you go along to
+lift the gouge out of the wood, producing the drawing of the forms at
+the same time. A gouge cut never looks so well as when done at one
+stroke; patching it afterward with amendments always produces a labored
+look. If this has to be done, the tool should be passed finally over the
+whole groove to remove the superfluous tool marks--a sideway gliding
+motion of the edge, combined with its forward motion, often succeeds in
+this operation. To form the circular center of the flower, press down
+gouge Nos. 5 or 6, gently at first and perpendicular to the wood. When a
+cut has been made all round the circle, work the edge of the tool in it,
+circus-like, by turning the handle in the fingers round and round until
+the edge cuts its way down to the proper depth. (See A, Fig. 15.)
+
+Carve the sides of the leaves where necessary with flat gouges on the
+inside curves, and with chisels and corner-chisels on the outside ones.
+These should be used in a sliding or knife-like fashion, and not merely
+pushed forward. Finish the surface in the same manner all over between
+the gouge grooves and the edges of the leaves, producing a very slight
+bevel as in section _a_, Fig. 13, and this panel may be called finished.
+
+Fig. 14 is another suggestion for a design, upon which I hope you will
+base one of your own as an exercise at this stage of your progress.
+
+Before we begin another, though, I shall take this opportunity of
+reading you a short lecture on a most important matter which has a great
+deal to do with the preparation of your mind in making a suitable choice
+of subject for your future work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS
+
+
+     Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative
+     Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a
+     Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional."
+
+
+Broadly stated, the three most formidable difficulties which confront
+the beginner when he sets out to make what he is pleased to call his
+design for carving in relief, are: Firstly, the choice of a subject;
+secondly, how far he may go in the imitation of its details; thirdly,
+its arrangement as a whole when he has decided the first two points.
+
+Just now we shall deal only with the second difficulty, that is, how far
+may likeness to nature be carried. We shall do this, because until we
+come to some understanding on that point, a right choice of subject
+becomes practically impossible, consequently the consideration of its
+arrangement would be premature.
+
+There is, strictly speaking, only one aim worthy of the artist's
+attention, be he carver or painter; and that is the representation of
+some form of life, or its associations. Luckily, there is a mighty
+consensus of opinion in support of this dictum, both by example and
+precept, so there is no need to discuss it, or question its authority.
+We shall proceed, therefore, to act upon it, and choose for our work
+only such material as in some way indicates life, either directly, as in
+trees, animals, or figures, or by association, and as explanation
+thereof, as in drapery and other accessories--never choosing a subject
+like those known to painters as "still life," such as bowls, fiddles,
+weapons, etc., unless, as I have said, they are associated with the more
+important element.
+
+You have already discovered by practise that wood has a grain which sets
+bounds to the possibilities of technique. You have yet to learn that it
+has also an inordinate capacity for swallowing light. Now, as it is by
+the aid of light that we see the results of our labor, it follows that
+we should do everything in our power to take full advantage of that
+helpful agency. It is obvious that work which can not be seen is only so
+much labor thrown away. There is approximately a right relative distance
+from which to view all manner of carvings, and if from this position the
+work is not both distinct and coherent, its result is valueless.
+
+Then what is the quality which makes all the difference between a
+telling piece of carving, and one which looks, at a moderate distance,
+like crumpled paper or the cork bark which decorates a suburban
+summer-house? The answer is, attention to _strict economy in detail_.
+Without economy there can be no arrangement, and without the latter no
+general effect. We are practically dealing, not with so much mere wood,
+but unconsciously we are directing our efforts to a manipulation of the
+light of day--playing with the lamps of the sky--and if we do not
+understand this, the result must be undoubtedly failure, with a piece of
+wood left on our hands, cut into unintelligible ruts.
+
+But what, you will say, has all this to do with copying the infinite
+variety of nature's detail; surely it can not be wrong to imitate what
+is really beautiful in itself? You will find the best answer to this in
+the technical difficulties of your task. You have the grain of the wood
+to think of, and now you have this other difficulty in managing the
+light which is to display your design. The obstinacy of the wood may be
+to some extent conquered, and indeed has been almost entirely so, by the
+technical resources of Grinling Gibbons, but the treatment demanded by
+the laws of light and vision is quite another question, and if our work
+is to have its due effect, there is no other solution of the problem
+than by finding a way of complying with those laws.
+
+If I want to represent a rose and make it intelligible at a glance from
+such and such a point of view, and I find after taking infinite pains to
+reproduce as many as I can of its numerous petals, and as much as
+possible of its complicated foliage, that I had not reckoned with the
+light which was to illuminate it, and that instead of displaying my work
+to advantage, it has blurred all its delicate forms into dusky and
+chaotic masses, would I not be foolish if I repeated such an experiment?
+Rather, I take the opposite extreme, and produce a rose this time which
+has but five petals, and one or two sprays of rudimentary foliage.
+Somehow the result is better, and it has only taken me a tenth part of
+the time to produce. I now find that I can afford, without offending the
+genius of light, or straining my eyesight, to add a few more petals and
+one or two extra leaves between those I have so sparingly designed, and
+a kind of balance is struck. The same thing happens when I try to
+represent a whole tree--I can not even count the leaves upon it, why
+then attempt to carve them? Let me make one leaf that will stand for
+fifty, and let that leaf be simplified until it is little more than an
+abstract of the form I see in such thousandfold variety. The proof that
+I am right this time is that when I stand at the proper distance to view
+my work, it is all as distinct as I could wish it to be. Not a
+leaf-point is quite lost to sight, except where, in vanishing into a
+shadow, it adds mystery without creating confusion.
+
+We have in this discovery a clue to the meaning of the word
+"Conventional": it means that a particular method has been "agreed upon"
+as the best fitted for its purpose, i.e., as showing the work to most
+advantage with a minimum of labor. Not that experience had really
+anything to do with the invention of the method. Strange to say, the
+earliest efforts in carving were based upon an unquestioning sense that
+no other was possible, certainly no attempts were made to change it
+until in latter days temptations arose in various directions, the
+effects of which have entailed upon ourselves a conscious effort of
+choice in comparing the results of the many subsequent experiments.
+
+Before I continue this subject further, I shall give you another
+exercise, with the object of making a closer resemblance to natural
+forms, bearing in mind the while all that has been said about a sparing
+use of minute detail with reference to its visible effect. We shall in
+this design attempt some shaping on the surface of the leaves and a
+little rounding too, which may add interest to the work. In my next
+lecture to you, I shall have something to say about another important
+element in all designs for wood-carving. I mean the shapes taken by the
+background between the leaves, like the patches of sky seen behind a
+tree.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROUNDED FORMS
+
+
+     Necessity for Every Carver Making his own Designs--Method of
+     Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+Fig. 16, our second exercise, like the first one, is only to be taken as
+a suggestion for a design to be made by yourself. It is a fundamental
+principle that both design and execution should be the work of one and
+the same person, and I want you to begin by strictly practising this
+rule. It was indeed one of the main conditions of production in the best
+times of the past, and there is not a shadow of doubt that it must again
+come to be the universal rule if any real progress is to be made in the
+art of wood-carving, or in any other art for that matter. Just think
+for a moment how false must be the position of both parties, when one
+makes a "design" and another carries it out. The "designer" sets his
+head to work (we must not count his hands at present, as they only note
+down the results in a kind of writing), a "design" is produced and
+handed over to the carver to execute. He, the carver, sets his hands and
+eyes to work, to carry out the other man's idea, or at least interpret
+his notes for the same, his head meanwhile having very little to do,
+further than transfer the said notes to his hands. For very good reasons
+such an arrangement as this is bound to come to grief. One is, that no
+piece of carving can properly be said to be "designed" until it is
+finished to the last stroke. A drawing is only a map of its general
+outline, with perhaps contours approximately indicated by shading. In
+any case, even if a full-size model were supplied by the designer, the
+principle involved would suffer just the same degree of violence, for it
+is in the actual carving of the wood that the designer should find both
+his inspiration and the discipline which keeps it within reasonable
+bounds. He must be at full liberty to alter his original intention as
+the work develops under his hand.
+
+Apparently I have been led into giving you another lecture; we must now
+get to work on our exercise.
+
+Draw and trace your outline in the same manner as before, and transfer
+it to the wood. You may make it any convenient size, say on a board 18
+ins. long by 9 ins. wide, or what other shape you like, provided you
+observe one or two conditions which I am going to point out. It shall
+have a fair amount of background between the features, and the design,
+whatever it is, shall form a traceable likeness to a pattern of some
+description; it shall have a rudimentary resemblance to nature, without
+going into much detail; and last, it shall have a few _rounded_ forms in
+it, rounded both in outline and on the surface, as, for instance, plums.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+In setting to work to carve this exercise, follow the same procedure as
+in the first one, up to the point when the surface decorations began. In
+the illustration, there is a suggestion for a variety in the background
+which does not occur in the other. In this case the little branches are
+supposed to lie along the tops of gentle elevations, and the plums to
+lie in the hollows. It produces a section something like this, Fig. 17.
+There is a sufficient excuse for this kind of treatment in the fact that
+the branches do not require much depth, and the plums will look all the
+better for a little more. The depth of the background will thus vary,
+say between 3/16 in. at the branches and 3/8 in. at the plums. The
+branches are supposed to be perfectly level from end to end, that is,
+they lie parallel to the surface of the wood, but of course curve about
+in the other direction. The leaves, on the other hand, are supposed to
+be somewhat rounded and falling away toward their sides and points in
+places. The vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a parting
+tool, as well as the serrations at the edge, or the latter may perhaps
+be more surely nicked out with a chisel, after the leaves have received
+their shapes, the leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher
+than the other, and as though their points, in some cases, touched the
+background, while in others the base may be the lowest part. The twigs
+coming out from the branches to support the plums should be somewhat
+like this in section, and should lie along the curve of the background,
+and be in themselves rounded, as in Fig. 18, see section _a a_. The
+bottom of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border: this will
+serve to distinguish it as a starting-point for the little branches
+which appear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground. The plums
+should be carved by first cutting them down in outline to the
+background, as A, Fig. 19. Then the wood should be removed from the edge
+all round, to form the rounded surface. To do this, first take the large
+gouge, No. 2, and with its hollow side to the wood, cut off the top,
+from about its middle to one end, and reversing the process do the same
+with the other side. Then it will appear something like B (Fig. 19).
+The remainder must be shaped with any tool which will do it best. There
+is no royal road to the production of these rounded forms, but probably
+gouge No. 1 will do the most of it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+Here it may be observed that the fewer tools used the better, as if many
+are used there is always a risk of unpleasant facets at the places where
+the various marks join each other. Before you try the plums, or apples,
+or other rounded fruit which you may have in your design, it would be as
+well to experiment with one on a piece of spare wood in order to decide
+upon the most suitable tools. The stems or branches may be done with
+flat gouge No. 1, or the flat or corner chisel. A very delicate twist or
+spiral tendency in their upward growth will greatly improve their
+appearance, a mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or chisel will do
+this; anything is better than a mere round and bare surface, which has a
+tendency to look doughy. The little circular mark on the end of the plum
+(call it a plum, although that fruit has no such thing) is done by
+pressing gouge No. 7 into the wood first, with the handle rather near
+the surface of the wood, and afterward at a higher inclination, this
+taking out a tiny chip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shaped
+groove.
+
+Now I am going to continue the subject of my last lecture, in order to
+impress upon you the importance of suiting your subject to the
+conditions demanded by the laws of technique and light. Practise with
+the tools must go hand in hand with the education of the head if good
+results are to be expected; nor must it be left wholly to hand and eye
+if you are to avoid the pitfalls which lie in wait for the unwary
+mechanic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND
+
+
+     Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern and
+     Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval Choice
+     of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+By a comparison of the piece of Byzantine sculpture, Fig. 20, with the
+more elaborate treatment of foliage shown in Fig. 21, from late Gothic
+capitals, in Southwell Minster, it will be seen how an increasing desire
+for imitative resemblance has taken the place of a patterned foundation,
+and how, in consequence, the background is no longer discernible as a
+contrasting form. The Byzantine design is, of course, little more than a
+pattern with sunk holes for a background, and it is in marble; but those
+holes are arranged in a distinct and orderly fashion. The other is a
+highly realistic treatment of foliage, the likeness to nature being so
+fully developed that some of these groups have veins on the _backs_ of
+the leaves. The question for the moment is this, which of the two
+extremes gives the clearest account of itself at a distance? I think
+there can be little doubt that the more formal arrangement bears this
+test better than the other, and this, too, in face of the fact that it
+has cost much less labor to produce. Remember we are only now
+considering the question of _visibility_ in the design. You may like the
+undefined and suggestive masses into which the leaves and shadows of the
+Southwell one group themselves better than the unbending severity of the
+lines in the other, but that is not the point at present. You can not
+_see_ the actual work which produces that mystery, and I may point out
+to you, that what is here romantic and pleasing on account of its
+changeful and informal shadows, is on the verge of becoming mere
+bewildering confusion; a tendency which always accompanies attempts to
+imitate the accidental or informal grouping of leaves, so common to
+their natural state. The further this is carried, the less is it
+possible to govern the forms of the background pattern; they become less
+discernible as contrasting _forms_, although they may be very
+interesting as elements of mystery and suggestive of things not actually
+seen. The consequence is a loss of power in producing that
+instantaneous impression of harmony which is one of the secrets of
+effectiveness in carving. This is greatly owing to the constant change
+of plane demanded by an imitative treatment, as well as the want of
+formality in its background. The lack of restful monotony in this
+respect creates confusion in the lights, making a closer inspection
+necessary in order to discern the beauty of the work. Now the human
+imagination loves surprises, and never wholly forgives the artist who,
+failing to administer a pleasant shock, invites it to come forward and
+examine the details of his work in order to see how well they are
+executed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+These examples, you will say, are from architectural details which have
+nothing to do with wood-carving. On the contrary, the same laws govern
+all manner of sculpturesque composition--scale or material making no
+difference whatever. A sculptured marble frieze or a carved ivory
+snuff-box may be equally censurable as being either so bare that they
+verge on baldness and want of interest, or so elaborate that they look
+like layers of fungus.
+
+Do not imagine that I am urging any preference for a Byzantine treatment
+in your work; to do so would be as foolish as to ask you to don
+medieval costume while at work, or assume the speech and manners of the
+tenth century. It would be just as ridiculous on your part to affect a
+bias which was not natural to you. I am, however, strongly convinced
+that in the choice of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly
+masses (more particularly with regard to their appearance in silhouette
+against the ground), and also in the matter of an economical use of
+detail, we have much to learn from the carvers who preceded the
+fourteenth century. They thoroughly understood and appreciated the value
+of the light which fell upon their work, and in designing it arranged
+every detail with the object of reflecting as much of it as possible. To
+this end, their work was always calculated for its best effects to be
+seen at a fairly distant point of view; and to make sure that it would
+be both visible and coherent, seen from that point, they insisted upon
+some easily understood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a
+glance. To make a pattern of this kind is not such an easy matter as it
+looks. The forms of the background spaces are the complementary parts of
+the design, and are just as important as those of the solid portions;
+it takes them both to make a good design.
+
+Now I believe you must have had enough of this subject for the present,
+more especially as you have not yet begun to feel the extraordinary
+difficulty of making up your mind as to what is and what is not fit for
+the carver's uses among the boundless examples of beauty spread out for
+our choice by Dame Nature.
+
+Meantime, I do not want you to run away with the impression that when
+you have mastered the principles of economy in detail and an orderly
+disposition of background, that you have therefore learned all that is
+necessary in order to go on turning out design after design with the
+ease of a cook making pancakes according to a recipe. You will find by
+experience, I think, that all such principles are good for is to enforce
+clearness of utterance, so to speak, and to remind you that it is light
+you are dealing with, and upon which you must depend for all effects;
+also that the power of vision is limited. Acting upon them is quite
+another matter, and one, I am afraid, in which no one can help you
+much. You may be counseled as to the best and most practical mode of
+expressing your ideas, but those thoughts and inventions must come from
+yourself if they are to be worth having.
+
+In my next lecture I shall have something to say with regard to
+originality of design, but now we must take up our tools again and begin
+work upon another exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONTOURS OF SURFACE
+
+
+     Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing
+     About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+Here are two fragments of a kind of running ornament. Fig. 22 is a part
+of the jamb molding of a church in Vicenza. If you observe carefully,
+you will find that it has a decidedly classical appearance. The truth is
+that it was carved by a Gothic artist late in the fourteenth century,
+just after the Renaissance influence began to make itself felt. It is an
+adaptation by him of what he remembered having seen in his travels of
+the new style, grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand.
+It suits our purpose all the better on that account, for the reason that
+we are going to re-adapt his design into an exercise, and shall attempt
+to make it suitable to our limited ability in handling the tools, to the
+change in material from stone to wood, and lastly, to our different
+aims and motives in the treatment of architectural ornament. Please do
+all this for yourself in another design, and look upon this suggestion
+merely in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+In this exercise (Fig. 23) you will repeat all you have already done
+with the others, until you come to the shaping of the leaves, in which
+an undulating or up and down motion has been attempted. This involves a
+kind of double drawing in the curves, one for the flat and one for the
+projections; so that they may appear to glide evenly from one point to
+the other, sweeping up and down, right and left, without losing their
+true contours. Carvers call this process "throwing about," i.e., making
+the leaves, etc., appear to rise from the background and again fall
+toward it in all directions. The phrase is a very meager one, and but
+poorly expresses the necessity for intimate sympathy between each
+surface so "thrown about." It is precisely in the observance of this
+last quality that effects of richness are produced. You can hardly have
+too much monotony of surface, but may easily err by having too much
+variety. Therefore, whatever system of light and shade you may adopt, be
+careful to repeat its motive in some sort of rhythmic order all over
+your work; by no other means can you make it rich and effective at a
+distance.
+
+It is well every now and then to put your work up on a shelf or ledge at
+a distance and view it as a whole; you will thus see which parts tell
+and which do not, and so gain experience on this point. Work should also
+be turned about frequently, sidewise and upside down, in order to find
+how the light affects it in different directions. Of course, you must
+not think that because your work may happen to look well when seen from
+a little way off that it does not matter about the details, whether they
+be well or poorly carved. On the contrary, unless you satisfy the eye at
+both points of view, your work is a partial failure. The one thing is as
+important as the other, only, as the first glance at carved work is
+generally taken at some little distance, it is the more immediately
+necessary to think of that, before we begin to work for a closer
+inspection. First impressions are generally lasting with regard to
+carved work, and, as I have said before, beauty of detail seldom quite
+atones for failure in the arrangement of masses.
+
+The rounded forms in this design may give you a little trouble, but
+practise, and that alone, will enable you to overcome this. Absolute
+smoothness is not desirable. Glass-papered surfaces are extremely ugly,
+because they obtrude themselves on account of their extreme smoothness,
+having lost all signs of handiwork in the tool marks. We shall have
+something to say presently about these tool marks in finishing, as it is
+a very important subject which may make all the difference between
+success or failure in finishing a piece of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ORIGINALITY
+
+
+     Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An
+     Unwholesome Kind of "Originality."
+
+
+I told you that I should have something to say about originality. Almost
+every beginner has some vague impression that his first duty should be
+to aim at originality. He hears eulogiums passed upon the individuality
+of some one or other, and tries hard to invent new forms of expression
+or peculiarities of style, only resulting, in most cases, in new forms
+of ugliness, which it seems is the only possibility under such conscious
+efforts after novelty. The fact is that it takes many generations of
+ardent minds to accomplish what at first each thinks himself capable of
+doing alone. True originality has somewhat the quality of good wine,
+which becomes more delightful as time mellows its flavor and imparts to
+it the aroma which comes of long repose; like the new wine, too,
+originality should shyly hide itself in dark places until maturity
+warrants its appearance in the light of day. That kind of originality
+which is strikingly new does not always stand the test of time, and
+should be regarded with cautious skepticism until it has proved itself
+to be more than the passing fashion or novelty of a season. There is a
+kind of sham art very conspicuous at the present time, which was at
+quite a recent date popularly believed to be very original. It seems to
+have arisen out of some such impatient craving for novelty, and it has
+been encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban _refinement_, which
+neither knows nor cares very much what really goes to the making of a
+work of art. This new art has filled our shops and exhibitions with an
+invertebrate kind of ornament, which certainly has the doubtful merit of
+"never having been seen before." It has evidently taken its inspiration
+from the trailing and supine forms of floating seaweed, and revels in
+the expression of such boneless structure. By way of variety it presents
+us with a kind of symbolic tree, remarkable for more than archaic
+flatness and rigidity. Now, this kind of "originality" is not only
+absolutely valueless, but exceedingly harmful; its only merit is that,
+like its ideal seaweed, it has no backbone of its own, and we may hope
+that it will soon betake itself to its natural home, the slimy bottom of
+the ocean of oblivion.
+
+Meantime, the only thing we are absolutely sure of in connection with
+that much-abused word "originality" is this, that no gift, original or
+otherwise, can be developed without steady and continuous practise with
+the tools of your craft.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+PIERCED PATTERNS
+
+
+     Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling and
+     Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns.
+
+
+The present exercises may be described as a kind of carved open
+fretwork--that is to say, the ground is entirely cut away, leaving the
+pattern standing free. This will form an excellent piece of discipline
+with regard to the design of background forms, because in such work as
+this, those forms assert themselves in a very marked manner; if they are
+in any way found to be conspicuously unequal in size or are awkwardly
+designed as to shape, the whole effect of the work is spoiled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+For your first effort make a design based upon No. 24, and please to
+observe these rules in its construction. The main or leading lines of
+the pattern are to run as much as possible without crossing each other.
+The holes are to be fairly equal in size, or rather in area, as they
+need not be at all like each other in shape. The amount of wood left
+standing to be of a width averaging never less than half the length of
+the average-sized hole. This is necessary for securing sufficient
+strength of material in the cross-grained pieces, which would be liable
+to split if made too long and narrow. The pattern should be formal in
+character, not necessarily symmetrical, but it should be well balanced.
+You may have one part of your design composed of large holes and another
+of small ones, provided the change is part of a definite design, as in
+Fig. 25. You may even leave the wood in some parts forming a solid
+background, or you may treat it as a separate piece of simple carving
+on the solid, as in Fig. 26, being careful to execute it in a
+consistently simple manner, as in this kind of work much change of
+manner in execution is inadvisable, although, at the same time, it is
+open to any amount of variety in design of outline and combination of
+contrasts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+Take a piece of pine about 3 or 4 ft. long and 7 or 9 ins. wide by 3/4
+in. thick. Trace on your pattern and drill circular holes in the middle
+of each space to be cut through. Then take a keyhole saw, and remove the
+wood by sawing round the space close to the blue line, taking care not
+to cut through it in any place. The saw must be held very truly upright
+in order to cut the sides of the spaces at right angles to the face of
+the wood. Now carve the pattern on the surface in whatever manner you
+have designed--in grooves suggesting the articulation of the leaves, in
+short grooves which may pass for additional leaves, or in a dozen ways
+which practise may help you to invent.
+
+The wood should be held tightly down to the bench in all its parts, or,
+at least, in those being operated upon, as it may, if unsupported, crack
+across some of the narrow parts. The sides of all the holes must be
+carved out clean to remove the rough saw marks. This can be done partly
+by gouges, or still better, the wood may be held up on its edge and the
+holes cut round with a sharp penknife where the grain allows it. Now
+turn the work over on its face and carve bevels round each of the holes.
+This reduces the apparent thickness of wood, and adds to the effect of
+delicacy in the pattern.
+
+This work may be used for the cresting of some large piece of furniture,
+or may be adapted to fill screens or partitions, stair newels, and
+balusters, or it may be used as a cornice decoration in the manner
+suggested by No. 26, where the pierced work can be backed by a hollow
+cornice which it fills and enriches.
+
+In our next exercise we shall try our hands upon a piece of hardwood for
+a change--meantime do one or two of these fret patterns by way of
+disciplinary exercise in outline forms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HARDWOOD CARVING
+
+
+     Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on
+     Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner
+     Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple in
+     Character--Methods of Carving Grapes.
+
+
+We now come to the question, what are we going to do with all the pieces
+of carving which we propose to undertake.
+
+There is no more inexorable law relating to the use of wood-carving than
+the one which insists upon some kind of passport for its introduction,
+wherever it appears. It must come in good company, and be properly
+introduced. The slightest and most distant connection with a recognized
+sponsor is often sufficient, but it will not be received alone. We do
+not make carvings to hang on a wall and be admired altogether on their
+own account. They must decorate some object. A church screen, a font, a
+piece of furniture, or even the handle of a knife. It is not always an
+easy matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise our
+wood-carving talents. Our furniture is all made now in a wholesale
+manner which permits of no interference with its construction, while at
+the same time, if we wish to put any carving upon it, it is absolutely
+essential that both construction and decoration should be considered
+together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+A very modest beginning may be made in adapting ornament to a useful
+article, by carving the surface of a bread plate. These are usually made
+of some hard wood, such as sycamore. They may be made of oak, but
+sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color, which is more likely to
+be kept clean. Two suggestions are given in Figs. 27 and 28 for carving
+appropriate to this purpose. The essentials are, that there should be a
+well-defined _pattern_ simple in construction, and as effective as
+possible with little labor; that there should be little or no rounding
+of surface, the design consisting of gouge cuts and incisions arranged
+to express the pattern. The incisions may form a regular sunk ground,
+but it should not be deep, or it will not be easily kept clean. Then, as
+in cutting bread the knife comes in contact with the surface, no
+delicate work is advisable; a large treatment with broad surfaces, and
+some plain spaces left to protect the carved work, is likely to prove
+satisfactory in every way. A piece of sycamore should be procured, ready
+for carving; this may be got from a wood-turner, but it will be as well
+to give him a drawing, on which is shown the section of edge and the
+position of all turned lines required for confining the carving. If the
+plate is to be of any shape other than circular, then it must be neatly
+made by a joiner, unless you can shape it yourself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+Many of you are, I have no doubt, handy joiners, and may with a little
+help put together some slight pieces of furniture to serve at least as
+an excuse for the introduction of your carving. Here are some
+suggestions for corner cupboards, chosen as giving the largest area for
+carved surface with the minimum of expense in construction. The material
+should be oak--English if possible, or it may be Italian walnut. The
+doors of Figs. 40 and 41 are in three narrow boards with shallow beads
+at the joints, those of the others are each made of a single board, and
+should be 1/2 in. to 5/8 in. thick, the doors may be about 2 ft. 6 ins.
+high, each having two ledges about 3 ins. wide, screwed on behind top
+and bottom to keep them from twisting. All moldings, beads, etc., are to
+be carved by hand, no planes being used. Having traced the lines of your
+design upon the board, you may begin, if there are moldings as in Fig.
+32, by using a joiner's marking gage to groove out the deepest parts of
+the parallel lines in the moldings along the edges, doing the same to
+the curved ones with a V tool or Veiner. Then form the moldings with
+your chisels or gouges. Keep them very flat in section as in Fig. 29.
+The fret patterns on Figs. 32, 35, and 36, where not pierced, should
+also be done in low relief, not more than 1/8 in. deep, and the sides of
+the bands beveled as in section _a_, Fig 30. The widths of these bands
+ought not to be less than 1/2 in., and look better if they are wider.
+Very narrow bands have a better appearance, if, instead of being cut
+straight down, they are hollowed at sides like _b_ in Fig. 30.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+Fig. 31 is a detail of a kind of gouge work which you must all know very
+well. One perpendicular cut of a gouge driven in with the mallet, and
+one side cut, should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped holes.
+They should not be too deep in proportion to their size. Their
+combinations may be varied to a great extent. Two or three common ones
+are shown in the illustration. This form of ornament was in all
+likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with a turn for art and
+a limited stock of carving tools. His humble contribution to the
+resources of the carver's art has received its due share of the flattery
+which is implied by imitation. In all these patterns it is well to
+remember that the flat surface of the board left between the cuts is
+really the important thing to consider, as all variety is obtained by
+disposing the holes in such a way as to produce the pattern required by
+means of their outlines on the plain surface. Thus waved lines are
+produced as in Fig. 31, and little niches like mimic architecture as in
+Fig. 34, by the addition of the triangular-shaped holes at the top, and
+the splayed sills at the bottom. (It is obvious that an arrangement like
+the latter should never be turned upside down.) If this attention to the
+surface pattern is neglected the holes are apt to become mere confused
+and meaningless spots.
+
+In small pieces of furniture like these, which are made of comparatively
+thin wood, the carving need not have much depth, say the ground is sunk
+1/4 in. at the deepest. As oak is more tenacious than pine, you will
+find greater freedom in working it, although it is so much harder to
+cut. You may find it necessary to use the mallet for the greater part of
+the blocking out, but it need not be much used in finishing. A series of
+short strokes driven by gentle taps of the mallet will often make a
+better curve than if the same is attempted without its aid.
+
+It will be well now to procure the remainder of the set of twenty-four
+tools if you have not already got them, as they will be required for the
+foliage we are about to attempt. The deep gouges are especially useful:
+having two different sweeps on each tool, they adapt themselves to
+hollows which change in section as they advance.
+
+Fig. 32 contains very little foliage, such as there is being disposed in
+small diamond-shaped spaces, sunk in the face of the doors, and a small
+piece on the bracket below. All this work should be of a very simple
+character, definite in form and broad in treatment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. _Half_]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. _Half_]
+
+Fig. 33 is more elaborate, but on much the same lines of design varied
+by having a larger space filled with groups of leaves. Fig. 34 gives the
+carving to a larger scale; in it the oak-leaves are shown with raised
+veins in the center, the others being merely indicated by the gouge
+hollows. There is some attempt in this at a more natural mode of
+treating the foliage. While such work is being carved, it is well to
+look now and then at the natural forms themselves (oak and laurel in
+this case) in order to note their characteristic features, and as a
+wholesome check on the dangers of mannerism.
+
+It is a general axiom founded upon the evidence of past work, and a
+respect for the laws of construction in the carpenter's department, that
+when foliage appears in panels divided by plain spaces, it should never
+be made to look as if it grew _from one panel into the other_, with the
+suggestion of boughs passing behind the solid parts. This is a
+characteristic of Japanese work, and may, perhaps, be admirable when
+used in delicate painted decorations on a screen or other light
+furniture, but in carvings it disturbs the effect of solidity in the
+material, and serves no purpose which can not be attained in a much
+better way.
+
+[Illustration: CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33 FIG. 34.]
+
+Expedients have been invented to overcome the difficulty of making a
+fresh start in each panel, one of which is shown in Fig. 34, where the
+beginning of the bough is hidden under a leaf. It is presumable that the
+bough _may_ go on behind the uncarved portions of the board to reappear
+in another place, but we need not insist upon the fancy, which loses all
+its power when attention is called to it, like riddles when the answer
+is known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+In Fig. 35, like the last, the treatment is somewhat realistic. This is
+shown to a larger scale in Fig. 38. Nevertheless, it has all been
+"arranged" to fit its allotted space, and all accidental elements
+eliminated; such, for instance, as leaves disappearing in violent
+perspective, or even turned sidewise, and all minute details which would
+not be likely to show conspicuously if carved in wood. In Fig. 39, (_a_)
+is an outline of a group of vine-leaves taken from nature, as it
+appeared, and in which state it is quite unfitted for carving, on
+account of its complicated perspective and want of definite outline;
+Fig. 39 (_b_) is a detail also copied from nature, but which might stand
+without alteration provided it formed part of a work delicate enough
+to note such close elaboration in so small a space. This, of course,
+would entirely depend upon the purpose for which the carving was
+intended, and whether it was meant for distant view or close inspection.
+As there is arrangement necessary in forming the outline, so there is
+just as much required in designing the articulation of the surfaces of
+the leaves, which should be so treated that their hollows fall into a
+semblance of some kind of pattern. Fig. 36 is a more formal design, or,
+to use a very much abused word, more "conventional," in which such
+leafage as there is only serves the purpose of ornamental points,
+marking the divisions of the general design. The gouge work upon the
+leaves should be of the simplest description, but strict attention is
+necessary in drawing the grooves, so that their forms may be clear and
+emphatic, leaving no doubt as to the pattern intended. Designs of this
+kind have no interest whatever except as pieces of patterned work, to
+which end every other consideration should be sacrificed. It must not be
+cut too deep--say 1/4 in. at the deepest--and the sides of the panels
+should be very gently hollowed out with a flattish sweep (see section on
+Fig. 37) in order to avoid any appearance of actual construction in
+what more or less imitates the stiles and rails of a door. Fig. 37 shows
+a portion of the leafage to a larger scale, and also a plan explaining
+the construction of all these cupboards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_a_).]
+
+Fig. 40 is designed upon the barest suggestion of natural foliage, the
+wavy stem being quite flat, and running out flush into the flat margins
+at the sides, connecting them together. The leaves in this case should
+be carved, leaving the veins standing solid; grooved veins would have a
+meager look upon such rudimentary leaves. Of course a more natural
+treatment may be given to this kind of design, but in that case it would
+require to be carried all over the door, and replace the formally
+ornamental center panel. The pierced pattern in cresting should be done
+as already described for Fig. 24.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_b_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41]
+
+Fig. 41 is a variant on the last design. In this case a little more play
+of surface is attempted, making a point of carving the side lobes of
+the leaves into little rounded masses which will reflect points of
+light. This is shown better on Fig. 42.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+In carving foliage like that of the vine, where small dark holes or eyes
+occur, enough wood should be left round them to form deep dark little
+pits. They are very valuable as points of shadow. In doing this, cut the
+rim all round with a very slight bevel as in section, Fig. 43. Whenever
+leaves run out to a fine edge they also should have a small bevel like
+this in order to avoid an appearance of weakness which acute edges
+always present. As a general rule leave as much wood as possible about
+the edges of leaves as you want shadow from them--dipping them only
+where you are sure the variety will be effective. In the execution of
+bunches of rounded forms like grapes there is no special mechanical
+expedient for doing them quickly and easily; each must be cut out
+separately, and carved with whatever tools come handiest to their shape
+and size. It is a good way to begin by cutting triangular holes between
+the grapes with the point of a small chisel (see Fig. 44), after which
+the rough shapes left may gradually be formed into ovals. When the work
+is very simple in character, and does not require a realistic treatment,
+the grapes may be done in a more methodical way, as in Fig. 45. First
+cut grooves across both ways with a V tool, dividing the grapes as at _a
+a_, then with a gouge turned hollow down round each line of grapes into
+rolls as at _b b_. Do this both ways, and afterward finish the form as
+best you can.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE SKETCH-BOOK
+
+
+     Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be Approached
+     with Caution--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of
+     Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies.
+
+
+In holiday time, and as other opportunity arises, be sure to visit some
+old building, be it church or mansion. In this way you will make
+acquaintance with many a fine specimen of old work which will set your
+fancy moving. In the one there may be a carved choir-screen or bench
+ends, in the other a fireplace or table. The first sight of such things
+in the places and among the surroundings for which they were designed,
+is always an eventful moment in the training of a carver, because the
+element of surprise acts like a tonic to the mind by arousing its
+emulative instincts. It is by seeing such things in their proper home
+and associations that the best lessons are learned. One sees in that
+way, for instance, _why_ the tool marks left by the old carvers on their
+work look more effective than smoothly perfect surfaces, when associated
+with the rough timbers of the roof, or the uneven surface of the
+plastered wall. One sees, too, the effect of time and friction in the
+polished surfaces of bench ends, rubbed and dusted by countless hands
+until they have become smooth to the eye and touch, and a mental note is
+made to avoid sharp or spiky work in anything that is likely to be
+within reach of the fingers. In this way a certain balance is given to
+the judgment in proportioning to each piece of work its due share of
+labor, and we come away with a fixed determination to pay more attention
+in future to breadth of design and economy of actual carving, a problem
+which no carver finds easy, but which must be faced if wasted work is
+not to be his only reward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+In museums, too, we shall find many useful lessons, although there we
+see things huddled together in a distracting fashion which demands great
+wariness of selection. The great point to be observed in making our
+notes for future reference is, that each sketch should contain some
+memorandum of a special quality, the one which attracted us at the time
+of making it. One may be made for sake of a general arrangement, another
+to remind us of some striking piece of detail or peculiarity of
+execution. The drawings need not be elaborate or labored, provided they
+make clear the points they were intended to record. Thus Fig. 46 is a
+sketch which is meant as a memorandum of a lively representation of
+birds, taken from an old Miserere seat. Fig. 47 was done for sake of the
+rich effect of an inscription on the plain side of a beam, and also for
+the peculiar and interesting section to which the beam had been cut.
+Fig. 48, again, for sake of the arrangement of the little panels on a
+plain surface, and the sense of fitness and proportion which prompted
+the carver to dispose his work in that fashion, by which he has enriched
+the whole surface at little cost of labor, and by contrast enhanced the
+value of the little strips and diamonds of carved work, otherwise of no
+particular interest. Figs. 49 and 50 are two sketches of Icelandic
+carved boxes. Fig. 49 was drawn as an example of the rich effect which
+that kind of engraved work may have, and of the use which it makes of
+closely packed letters in the inscription. The pattern is, of course, a
+traditional Norse one, although the carving is comparatively modern. The
+points to be noted in the other box were its quaint and simple
+construction, the use of the letters as decoration, more especially the
+unpremeditated manner in which they have been grouped, the four letters
+below making a short line which is eked out by a rude bit of ornament.
+The letters are cut right through the wood, and are surrounded with an
+engraved line. Fig. 51 was noted on account of the way in which a very
+simple pierced ornament is made much of by repetition. The ornament is
+on a Portuguese bed, and this is only a detail of a small portion. The
+effect greatly depends upon the quantity, but in this case that is a
+point which is easily remembered without drawing more of it than is
+shown. The fact that this work is associated with richly turned
+balusters is, however, noticed in the sketch, as that might easily be
+forgotten. Figs. 47 to 51 are from South Kensington Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Then we come to the sketch of a chair (Fig. 52), or combined table and
+chair. The richly carved back is pivoted, and forms the table top when
+lowered over the arms, upon which it rests. The points to be noted in
+this are, the general richness of effect, the contrast of wavy and rigid
+lines, and the happy way in which the architectural suggestion of arch
+and pillars has been translated into ornament. As this sketch was not
+made so much for the chair itself as for its enriched back, no
+measurements have been taken; otherwise chairs, as such, depend very
+much upon exact dimensions for their proportions. This chair is at
+Exning in Suffolk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+Now we shall suppose that you are going to make many such sketches
+both in museums and in country churches or houses. You will find some
+too elaborate for drawings in the time at your disposal, in which case
+you should obtain a photograph, if possible, making notes of any detail
+which you wish particularly to remember--such, for instance, as the
+carved chest shown in Plate I. The subject, St. George and the Dragon,
+is given with various incidents all in the one picture. This is a
+valuable and suggestive piece of work to have before you, as the manner
+in which the pictorial element has been managed is strikingly
+characteristic of the carver's methods, and well adapted to the
+conditions of a technique which has no other legitimate means of dealing
+with distant objects. The king and queen, looking out of the palace
+windows, are _almost_ on the same scale as the figures in the
+foreground; the walls of the houses, roofs, etc., have apparently quite
+as much projection as the foreground rocks--distance is inferred rather
+than expressed. The very simple construction, too, is worth noting. It
+is practically composed of three boards, a wide one for the picture, and
+two narrower ones for ends and feet.
+
+The object in making these sketches should be mainly to collect a
+variety of ideas which may brighten the mind when there is occasion to
+use its inventive faculties. Suggestive hints are wanted; rarely will it
+be possible, or wise, to repeat anything exactly as you see it. These
+sketches, if made with care, and from what Constable used to call
+"breeding subjects," will give your fancy a very necessary point of
+vantage, from which it may hazard flights of its own.
+
+As much of our knowledge must necessarily be gained from museums, and as
+they now form such an important feature of educational machinery, I
+think it will be well to devote a word or two of special notice to the
+drawbacks which accompany their many advantages. This I propose to do in
+the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+
+     False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment as
+     Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records of
+     Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time.
+
+
+A new world of commerce and machinery, having slain and forgotten a past
+race of artist craftsmen, makes clumsy atonement by sweeping together
+the fragments of their work and calling the collection a museum. From
+the four corners of the earth these relics have been gathered. Our
+hungry minds are bidden to make choice according to fancy, for here is
+variety of food! Here are opportunities, never before enjoyed by mortal,
+for an intellectual feast!--and of a kind which might be considered
+god-like, were it not for the suspicion of some gigantic joke. That out
+of all this huge mass of chaotic material we have not as yet been able
+to make for ourselves some living form of art, must indeed be to the
+gods a continual subject of merriment.
+
+Museums of art are in no respect the unmixed blessings which they appear
+to be. They have, to be sure, all the advantages of handy reference;
+but at the same time, on account of the great diversity in the character
+of their exhibits, they tend to encourage the spread of a patchy kind of
+knowledge, far from being helpful to the arts in the interests of which
+they are established. It must be remembered that, in these collections,
+all specimens of architecture and architectural carving are invariably
+seen in false positions. All have been wrenched from their proper
+settings, and placed, more or less at random, in lights and
+relationships never contemplated by their designers. To the environment
+of a piece of architecture, and the position and surroundings of carved
+decorations, are due quite half of their interest as works of art.
+Deprive them of these associations, and little is left but fragmentary
+specimens of handicraft, more or less unintelligible in their lonely
+detachment, misleading to the eye, and dangerous as objects of
+imitation, in proportion to the dependence they once had upon those
+absent and unknown associations.
+
+The educational purpose which these collections are intended to serve is
+liable to be construed into an unreasoning assumption that every
+specimen exhibited is equally worthy of admiration. How often the
+plodding student is to be seen carefully drawing and measuring work of
+the dullest imaginable quality, with no other apparent reason for his
+pathetically wasted industry!
+
+It would be strange, indeed, if all in this vast record of past activity
+was of equal value; if merely to belong to the past was a sure warrant
+that such work was the best of its kind. Far from this being the case,
+it requires the constant use of a more or less trained and critical
+judgment to separate what is good from the indifferent or really bad in
+these collections, for all are usually present. There is inequality in
+artistic powers, in technical skill, and a distinction of yet greater
+importance, which lies in the significance the works bear as records of
+the inner life of their creators. Artists, carvers in particular, are
+the true scribes and historians of their times. Their works are, as it
+were, books--written in words of unconscious but fateful meaning. Some
+are filled with the noblest ideals, expressed in beautiful and serious
+language, while others contain nothing but sorry jests and stupidities.
+
+As all the works of the past, whether good or bad, are the achievements
+of men differing but little from ourselves, save in the direction of
+their energies and in their outward surroundings, there is surely some
+clue to the secret of their success or failure, some light to be thrown
+by their experience upon our own dubious and questioning spirit.
+
+What better could we look for in this respect than a little knowledge of
+the lives led by the carvers themselves, a mental picture of their
+environment, an acquired sense of the influence which this, that, or the
+other set of conditions must have imposed upon their work. With a little
+aid from history in forming our judgments, their works themselves will
+assist us--so faithful is the transcript of their witness--for, with
+more certainty than applies to handwriting, a fair guess may be made by
+inference from the work itself as to the general status and ideals of
+the workman. The striking analogy between its salient characteristics
+and the prevailing mood of that ever-changing spirit which seeks
+expression in the arts, is nowhere more marked than in the work of the
+carver.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE
+
+
+     Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise
+     Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character.
+
+
+It is high time now that we had some talk about the studies from nature
+which are to furnish you with subjects for your work. I shall at present
+deal only with studies of foliage, as that is what you have been
+practising, and I wish you to carry on your work and studies as much as
+possible on the same lines.
+
+Between the few abstract forms, representing a general type of foliage,
+so dear to the heart of the medieval carver, and the unstinted variety
+of choice displayed in the works of Grinling Gibbons and his time, there
+is such a wide difference that surely it points to a corresponding
+disparity of aim. Although there is no doubt whatever that such a
+striking change of views must have had its origin in some deeper cause
+than that which is to be explained by artistic and technical
+development, yet I think that for our immediate purpose we shall find a
+sufficiently good lesson in comparing the visible results of the two
+methods. Broadly speaking, then, the medieval carver cared more for
+general effect than for possibilities of technique. He therefore chose
+only such natural forms as were amenable to his preconceived
+determination to make his work telling at a distance. He had no
+botanical leanings, and rejected as unfit every form which would not
+bend to his one purpose--that of decoration on a large scale--and which
+he aimed at making comprehensive at a glance, rather than calling for
+attention to its details. He invented patterns which he knew would
+assist in producing this result, and here he further handicapped his
+choice by limiting it to such forms as would repeat or vanish at
+regulated intervals, reflecting light or producing shadow just where it
+was wanted to emphasize his pattern.
+
+The more modern carver, on the contrary, offered an all-embracing
+welcome to every form which presented itself to his notice. He rejected
+nothing which could by any possibility be carved. Nothing was too small,
+too thin, or too difficult for his wonderful dexterity with the carving
+tools. His chief end was elaboration of detail, and it was often
+carried to a point which ignored the fact that nearly all of it would
+become invisible when in position, or, if seen at all, would only appear
+in confused lumps and unintelligible masses.
+
+Now, for many reasons, I think we had better take the medieval method as
+our model up to a point, and make a certain selection of material for
+our studies, based upon some relation to general effect, but not
+necessarily imitating a medieval austerity of rejection, which would be
+the merest affectation on our part. Upon these principles, and taking
+somewhat of a middle course, I shall here note a few types of foliage
+which I think may be useful to you in the work upon which you are
+engaged.
+
+Leaf forms, with their appropriate flowers or fruit, afford the carver a
+very large proportion of his subject material. They serve him as
+principal subject, as bordering or background to figures of men or
+animals; they occur as mere detached spots, to break the monotony of
+spaces or lines; and in a thousand other ways give exercise to his
+invention.
+
+As a general rule, those leaves with serrated, or deeply cleft and
+indented edges, lend themselves most readily to decorative treatment.
+Large, broad leaves, with unbroken surfaces, and triangular or rounded
+outlines, are less manageable. Those most commonly taken as models are:
+
+_The Vine, with its Grapes._--This was freely used by medieval carvers,
+at first for its symbolic significance, but afterward even more on
+account of its rare beauty of form. The play of light and shade on its
+vigorous foliage, the variety of its drawing in leaf, vine, and tendril,
+and the contrast afforded by its bunches of oval fruit, caused it to be
+accepted as a favorite subject for imitation in all kinds of carving. It
+lends itself kindly to all sorts of relief, either high or low, in
+almost any material. It is so recognizable, even in the rudest attempts
+at imitation, that its popularity is well deserved.
+
+The hop-vine shares some of these qualities, though much less strongly
+marked in character.
+
+_The Acanthus._--This leaf was first adapted for the purpose of ornament
+by the workmen of classical Greece. The inspiration was one of the few
+which they took directly from nature's models. It was also freely used
+by medieval carvers, but with an insistence upon the flowing and
+rounded character of its surface forms; and again by the Renaissance
+artists, with a return to its classical character of fluted and formal
+strength of line. The graceful drawing of its elaborately articulated
+surface, and the extraordinary accentuation of its outline, provide an
+endless source of suggestion. It has been adapted in all manners,
+according to the fancy of the carver--sometimes long and drawn out, at
+others wide and spreading. Altogether it has been more thoroughly
+"generalized" than any other natural form.
+
+_The Oak, with its Acorns_, appears in early medieval work, but without
+much attempt to represent its form with anything like individual
+character. In later work it has more justice done to its undoubted
+merits as a decorative feature by a clearer recognition of its beauty in
+clumps and masses. Fruit, other than the grape and a nondescript kind of
+berry, was seldom represented by medieval craftsmen; it formed, however,
+a marked feature in Renaissance ornament, where pomegranate, apple, fig,
+and melon were in constant requisition.
+
+_Flowers_ in general were very little used in early times, and then only
+in a highly abstract form corresponding to that of the foliage. The rose
+and lily were the two most frequently seen, but they seldom had more
+individuality about them than was sufficient to make them recognizable.
+During the Renaissance flowers were treated with much more regard to
+their inherent beauties, and were represented with great skill and power
+of imitation, although often carried beyond legitimate limits in this
+direction. When dealt with as ornaments, rather than botanical details,
+they form a rich source of suggestion to the carver, and offer a ready
+means of contrast with masses of foliage. The rose and lily are such
+conspicuous flowers that they should, in modern times, be used in a way
+consistent with our demands for individual character and likeness. They
+should be fairly well defined and easily recognizable. It is quite
+possible to treat these flowers in a very realistic way, without
+endangering their effect as decorative details: they have both such
+distinguished forms in flower and foliage.
+
+Flowers should be chosen for their _forms_; color should not be allowed
+to deceive the eye in this respect, unless the color itself is
+suggestive of lines and contours.
+
+_Foliage_ should always be studied at its prime, never when it is dried
+and contorted in its forms.
+
+Here is a short list of subjects, including those I have mentioned, all
+having a sufficiently pronounced character to make them valuable as
+stock in trade. Many more might be named, but these are chosen as being
+commonly familiar, and as being representative types of various forms.
+
+_For their Leaves and Fruit._--The grapevine, hop-vine, globe artichoke,
+tomato, apple, plum, pear, bramble, and strawberry.
+
+_For Fruit and Vine-like Growths (leafage too massive and smooth to be
+of much value without adaptation)._--The melon, vegetable-marrow,
+pumpkins, and cucumber.
+
+_For Leafage, Flowers, or Seed Vessels._--The acanthus, oak, thistles,
+teazle, giant hemlock, cow-parsley, buttercup.
+
+_Of Garden Flowers._--The rose, lily, larkspur, peony, poppies,
+columbine, chrysanthemum, tulip, Christmas rose, Japanese anemone.
+
+_For Close and Intricate Designs._--Periwinkle, winter aconite,
+trefoils of various kinds.
+
+Many valuable hints on this subject may be gleaned by a study of
+Gerrard's Herbal, which is full of well-drawn illustrations, done in a
+way which is very suggestive to the designer.
+
+A careful study of the outline forms of leaves is a schooling in itself,
+so much may be learned from it. It teaches the relation between form and
+growth in a way which makes it possible to use the greatest freedom of
+generalization without violating structural laws. The same causes which
+govern the shaping of a tree are present in the leaf, settling its final
+outline, so that, however wandering and fantastic it may appear, there
+is not the smallest curve or serration which does not bear witness to a
+methodical development, and to every accidental circumstance which
+helped or hindered its fulfilment.
+
+You could not do better than make a collection of suitable leaves, press
+them flat and trace them very carefully, keeping the tracings together
+in a book for reference. Accompanying this you should have in each case
+a drawing of the leaf as it appears in its natural state, always being
+careful to do this from a point of view which will accommodate itself to
+carving the leaf if you should have occasion to use it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CARVING ON FURNITURE
+
+
+     Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of
+     Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is
+     Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+You will find in the illustrations, Figs. 53 to 62, certain suggestions
+for various pieces of furniture. They are given with the intention of
+impressing upon you the fact that very little carving can be done at all
+without some practical motive as a backbone to your fancies. To be
+always carving inapplicable panels is very dull work, and only good for
+a few preliminary exercises. It is much better to consider the matter
+well, and resolve upon some "opus," which will spread your efforts over
+a considerable period. When you have decided upon the piece of furniture
+which is most likely to be useful to you, and which lies within your
+powers of design and execution, then make a drawing for it, and have it
+made by a joiner (unless you can make it entirely yourself), to be put
+together in loose pieces for convenience of carving, and glued up when
+that is finished. You should certainly design the piece yourself, as you
+should make all your own designs for the carving. The two departments
+must be carried on in the closest relation to each other while the work
+is in progress, otherwise their association will not be complete when it
+is finished. Take, for instance, the head of the bed in the
+illustration. Why should it stand up so high, like the gable of a house?
+It is for no other reason than to give an opportunity for carving. A
+plain board of half the height would have been just as effective as a
+protection to the sleeper. Useless as carving may be from this practical
+point of view, it must nevertheless be amenable to utilitarian laws. It
+must be smooth where it is likely to be handled, as in the case of the
+knobs on top of the posts; and even where it is not likely to be
+handled, but may be merely touched occasionally, it should still have an
+inviting smoothness of surface. As a matter of fact, all carving on a
+bed should be of this kind, with no deep nooks or corners to hold dust.
+Here, then, are a number of conditions, which, instead of being a
+hindrance, are really useful incentives to fresh invention. Just as the
+construction of joiner's work entails concessions on the part of the
+carver, so the carver may ask the joiner to go a little out of his way
+in order to give opportunities for his carving. A little knowledge of
+this subject will make a reasonable compromise possible.
+
+You will find a further advantage in undertaking a fairly large piece of
+work. As it is almost certain to be in several parts, each may thus
+receive a different treatment, by which means you not only obtain
+contrast, but get some idea of the extraordinary power with which one
+piece of carving affects another when placed in juxtaposition. Whatever
+designs you may decide upon, should you undertake to carve the panels
+for a bed, let them be in decidedly low relief. The surface must be
+smoothly wrought, doing away with as much of the tool marking as you
+can, but this smoothing to be done entirely with the tools, not by any
+means with glass paper. Great attention must be paid to the drawing of
+the forms, as it is by this that the impression of modeling and
+projection will be expressed. A very pleasant treatment of such low
+relief when a smooth and even appearance is wanted, is to carve the
+ground to the full depth, say 1/8 in., only along the outlines of the
+design, and form the remainder into a kind of raised cushion, almost
+level in the middle with the original surface of the wood. The whole
+design need thus be little more than a kind of deepish engraving,
+depending for its effect upon broad lights defined by the engraved
+shadows. See Fig. 54 for an example of this treatment applied to
+letters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+Now I expect you to make a fresh design. The illustrations in all such
+cases are purposely drawn in a somewhat indefinite way, in order that
+they may suggest, without making it possible to copy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+Now we come to the mirror frame, Fig. 55. I should suggest that this be
+done in some light-colored wood like pear-tree, which has an agreeably
+warm tone, or if a hard piece of cedar can be found, it would look well,
+but in no case should polish be added except that which comes from the
+tool. The construction need not be complicated. Take two 3/4-in. boards,
+glue them together to form the width, shape out the frame in the rough.
+Put behind this another frame of 3/4-in. thick stuff, and make the
+cornice out of wood about 1-1/2 in. thick. The parts to be kept separate
+until the carving is finished, and afterward glued or screwed together.
+The carving on the body of the frame, that is, in the gable above and
+the front of bracket below, should be in very low relief, the lower
+part being like the last, a kind of engraving. The fret above may be
+sunk about 1/16 in. and the ground slightly cushioned. The carving on
+sides and cornice is of a stronger character, and may be cut as deeply
+as the wood will allow, while the cornice is actually pierced through in
+places, showing the flat board behind. The design for this cornice
+should have some repeating object, such as the kind of pineapple-looking
+thing in the illustration, and its foliage should be formed with plenty
+of well-rounded surfaces, that may suggest some rather fat and juicy
+plant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+In Fig. 56 you have a suggestion for carving a bench or settle, the
+proportions of which have been taken from one found at a Yorkshire
+village inn. The actual measurements are given in order that these
+proportions may be followed. It is a well-known fact, that chairs, or
+seats of any kind, can not be successfully designed on paper with any
+hope of meeting the essential requirements of comfort, lightness, and
+stability. Making seats is a practical art, and the development of the
+design is a matter of many years of successive improvements. A good
+model should therefore be selected and copied, with such slight
+changes as are necessary where carving is to be introduced. The main
+lines should not be interfered with on any account, nor should the
+thickness of the wood be altered if possible. The carving on this settle
+is intended to be in separate panels, about two inches apart. These
+panels will look all the better if no two are quite alike; a good way to
+give them more variety will be to make every alternate one of some kind
+of open pattern, like a fret. These piercings need not extend all over
+the design in the panel in every case: some may have only a few shapely
+holes mixed up with the lines, others again may be formed into complete
+frets with as much open as solid. (See Fig. 57.)
+
+The carving should be shallow, and not too fine in detail, as it will
+get a great deal of rubbing. The material should be, if possible, oak;
+but beech may be used with very good effect--in neither case should it
+be stained or polished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+Fig. 58 is a clock case. Something of this kind would make an excellent
+"opus" such as I have alluded to, and give plenty of scope for
+invention. As clocks of this kind are generally hung on a wall, the
+brackets, from a practical point of view, are of course unnecessary, but
+as it is important that they should _look_ as if they were supported and
+to satisfy the eye, something in the way of a bracket or brackets is
+generally added. A bracket like the one in the illustration, not being a
+real support constructively speaking, but only put there to give
+assurance that such has not been overlooked or neglected, becomes a kind
+of toy, and may be treated as such by adding some little fancy to make
+it amusing, and give an excuse for making a feature of it. This will be
+a good place to try your hand at some modest attempt at figure work. In
+designing your bracket, should you wish to introduce a little figure of
+man or beast, I think you will find it more satisfactory if the figure
+is separated from the structural part by a slight suggestion of solid
+surroundings of its own. Thus the little roof over, and the solid bit of
+wood under, the figure in the illustration serve this purpose, lending
+an appearance of steadiness which would be wanting in a bracket formed
+of a detached figure. At any rate, never make your figures, whether of
+man or beast, seem to carry the clock; you may hunch them up into any
+shape you like, but no weight should be supposed to rest upon them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+For sake of the carving, oak will be the best wood to employ in making
+this clock, or one like it, but Italian walnut will do equally well. The
+size should be fairly large, say about three feet over all in height.
+This will give a face of about ten inches in diameter, which face will
+look best if made of copper gilt, and not much of it, perhaps a mere
+ring, with the figures either raised or cut out, leaving nothing but
+themselves and two rings surrounding. This should project from the wood,
+leaving a space of about one inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+If you are inclined to try a heavier piece of work, the bench or
+settle-end in Fig. 59 may give you a suggestion. In this there is a bird
+introduced in the shape of a cock roosting on the branch of a tree. It
+would require to be done in a thick piece of wood, say 3 ins. thick, and
+would be best in English oak. The idea will be, to cut away the wood
+from the outer lower portion, leaving only about 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 in.
+thickness, but at the top retaining the full thickness; in which the
+bird must be carved, the outer edges being kept full thickness in order
+to give the structural form and enclose the carving. The inside of this
+upper part, toward the seat, should also be carved, but with a smooth
+and shallow pattern of some kind, as both may be seen together, and in
+contrast to each other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+The introduction of figures leads me to a subject which it will be
+better to discuss in the next chapter, i.e., the question as to how far
+it is possible or consistent with present conditions to attempt
+anything that may bear the character of humor. But in the meantime here
+are three more subjects upon which fancy and ingenuity may be expended
+with profit. In Fig. 60 you have a heraldic subject. In all such cases
+the heraldry should be true, and not of the "bogus" kind. This shield
+represents a real coat of arms, and was done from a design by Philip
+Webb, being finally covered with gesso, silvered and painted in
+transparent colors.
+
+Figs. 61 and 62 are suggestions for wooden crosses, oak being the best
+material to use for such a purpose. The carving should be so arranged as
+to form some kind of pattern on the cross. In Fig. 62 the black trefoils
+are supposed to be cut right through the thin pieces of wood forming the
+center portion, and the carving on that part is very shallow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING
+
+
+     Misproportion not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The Sham
+     Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to the
+     Carver.
+
+
+The dullness which comes of "all work and no play" may be said to affect
+the carver at times. He tires of carving leaves and ornaments: what more
+natural than to seek change and amusement in the invention of droll
+figures of men or animals? The enjoyment which we all feel in
+contemplating the outcome of this spirit in ancient work, leads us to
+the imitation of both subject and manner, hoping thereby that the same
+results may be obtained; but somehow the repetition is seldom attended
+with much success, while of original fancies of the same sort we are
+obliged to confess ourselves almost destitute. Who can behold the
+fantastic humors of Gothic carvings without being both amused and
+interested? Those grotesque heads with gaping mouths recall the stories
+of childhood, peopled with goblins and gnomes. It is all so natural, and
+so much in keeping with the architecture which surrounds it, the carving
+is so rude and simple, that it seems absurd when some authority on such
+matters makes a statement to the effect that all such expression of
+humor has become forever impossible to ourselves.
+
+This important part of the question must be left to your own meditation,
+to settle according to your lights; experience will probably lead you
+ultimately to the same opinion. Meantime, the point I wish to impress
+upon you is this, that until you feel yourself secure, and something of
+a master of various branches of your craft, you should not attempt any
+subject which aims at being decidedly grotesque. There are very good and
+practical reasons for this; one is, that while you are studying your
+art, you must do nothing that may tend to obscure what faculties you
+have for judging proportion. Now, as all grotesque work is based more or
+less on exaggeration, it forms a very dangerous kind of exercise to the
+beginner, therefore I should never allow a pupil of mine to so much as
+attempt it. Do not think that I wish to discourage every effort which
+has not an ultra-serious aim. On the contrary, I am but taking a rather
+roundabout way to an admission that the humorous element has, and must
+have at all times, a powerful attraction for the wood-carver; and to the
+statement of an opinion that it should not be allowed to take a
+prominent place in the work of a student; moreover, that it is quite
+possible to find in nature a varied and unfailing source of suggestion
+in this respect (more, in fact, than we are ever likely to account for),
+and which requires no artificial exaggeration to aid its expression.
+Some tincture of the faculty is absolutely necessary to the carver who
+takes his subjects from birds or beasts, in order that he may perceive
+and seize the salient lines and characteristic forms, of which the
+key-note is often to be found in a faint touch of humor, and which, like
+the scent of a flower, adds charm by appealing to another sense.
+
+The same argument applies to the treatment of the human figure. Let no
+student (and I may include, also, master-carver) think that a grotesque
+treatment will raise the smile or excite the interest which is
+anticipated. The "grotesque" is a vehicle for grim and often terrible
+ideas, lightly veiled by a cloak of humorous exaggeration; a sort of
+Viking horse-play--it is, in fact, a language which expresses the mixed
+feelings of sportive contempt and real fear in about equal proportions.
+When these feelings are not behind the expression, it becomes a language
+which is in itself only contemptible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+If, carried away by fancy, you must find vent for its impulses, and
+carve images of unearthly beings, at least make them cheerful looking;
+one can imagine such demons and goblins as being rather nice fellows
+than otherwise. A grim jest that fails is generally a foolish one--at
+least its perpetrator neither deserves nor receives sympathy for his
+discomfiture. Now, I shall show you one or two examples which may make
+this matter a little clearer to you, if you are at all inclined to argue
+the position. I think, at any rate, they will prove that the expression
+of humor does not always depend upon exaggeration, and may exist in a
+work which is, one may say, almost copied from nature. Fig. 63 is an
+example to this effect. The little jester just emerging from a flower,
+one of the side-pieces to a Miserere seat carving, is undoubtedly a true
+portrait, carved without the slightest attempt at exaggeration. The
+quiet humor which it evinces required only sympathy to perceive and
+skill to portray on the part of its carver. He had nothing to invent in
+the common acceptation of the word. The carving of the mendicant, which
+comes on the other side, is equally vivid in its truth to nature. It is
+so lifelike that we do not notice the humorous enjoyment of the artist
+in depicting the whining lips and closed eyes of the professional
+beggar. Observe the good manners of it all--the natural refinement of
+the artist who leaves his characters to make all the fun, without
+intrusion from himself other than to give the aid of his skill in
+representation. Now, subjects of this class will, in all probability,
+present themselves until the end of the world; but artists like this
+Gothic one are not so likely to be common. Great technical skill, a
+large fund of vitality, and many other controlling qualities are
+necessary to the production of such an artist; but he gives a clue to
+the right action, which we may with safety accept, even if we can not
+hope to equal his performance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+The center-piece, Fig. 64, tells a little story of Samson. It is
+noticeable in these medieval picture subjects, how, when a story has to
+be told, the details are treated in a broad and distinct fashion, as if
+the story could take care of itself, and only required to be stated
+clearly as to facts. The detached ornamental parts, on the contrary,
+receive a degree of careful attention not given to the picture,
+seemingly with the object of making their loneliness attractive.
+
+The broad-humor characteristic of the companion picture of medieval
+life, in the little domestic scene, Fig. 65, is equally free from forced
+exaggeration or intentional misproportion. Scale and anatomy, to be
+sure, have had little consideration from the carver, but we readily
+forgive the inaccuracies in this respect, on account of his quick wit in
+devising means to an end.
+
+Before we leave this subject, look at Plate II, in which you will see a
+curious use of misproportion--intentional, too, in this case--and used
+for quite other than humorous purposes. This is a little ornamental
+figure from the tomb of Henry IV, in Canterbury Cathedral. You will see
+that the body is out of all proportion; too small for the head which
+surmounts it, or too big for the feet upon which it stands. Now, what
+could have induced the carver to treat a dainty little lady thus? It
+certainly was not that he considered it an improvement upon nature, nor
+was it a joke on his part. It could only be done for some practical
+reason such as this: that the little figure does part duty as a bracket,
+hence, more appearance of solidity is required at the top, and less at
+the foot, than true proportions would admit. It is all done so
+unostentatiously that one might look for hours at the figure without
+noticing the license. Not that I should advise you to imitate this
+naive way out of a difficulty. The childlike simplicity of its treatment
+succeeds where conscious effort would only end in affectation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+In Fig. 66 you will see another little figure doing duty in connection
+with a stall division in the Lady Chapel at Winchester Cathedral. Its
+smooth roundness of form is very appropriate to the position it
+occupies; while its polished surface bears ample testimony that it has
+given no offense to the touch of the many hands which have rested upon
+it.
+
+Fig. 67 shows another example of the same sort, but perched on a lower
+part of the division. This one is from the cathedral at Berne, each
+division of the stalls having a different figure, of which this is a
+type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS
+
+
+     The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality Better than Dull
+     "Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for
+     Town-Bred Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline
+     Drawing and Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies,
+     Sections, and Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use
+     and Abuse.
+
+
+Nothing enlivens or gives more variety of interest to wood-carving than
+the introduction of animal forms. They make agreeable halting-places on
+which the eye may rest with pleasure. They are, in general, both
+beautiful in their shapes and associated with ideas which appeal
+strongly to the imagination, thus affording in masses of abstract
+ornament the pleasantest kind of relief by adding to it points of
+definite lineament and meaning.
+
+To carve animals as they ought to be carved, one must have something
+more than a passing interest in their forms; there must be included also
+an understanding of their natures, and some acquaintance with their
+habits. A cattle-drover is likely to know the salient points of a
+bullock, a horse-breeder all those connected with a horse, and so on. We
+students, however, not having the advantage of such accurate and
+personal knowledge, must make shift in the best way we can to discover
+and note the points so familiar to trained eyes. To see animals in this
+way, and, with knowledge of their forms and habits, treat their
+sculptured images according to the laws of our craft, is no light task.
+If choice were to be made between a rude manner of carving--but which
+familiarity with the subject invested with lively recognition of
+character--and a more cultured and elaborate, but lifeless study in
+natural history, there should be no hesitation in making choice of the
+former method, because animal forms, without some indication of
+vitality, are the dullest of all dull ornaments.
+
+It is quite impossible to describe in words the kind of "action" which
+is most appropriate to sculpture, it being much more a question of
+treatment, and the guiding spirit of the moment, than a subject which
+can be formulated. As a broad and general principle which may be taken
+for guidance, you will always find yourself on surer ground in the
+attempt to indicate the _capacity_ for energy and the suggestion of
+_movement_, than you will if your aim is the extremity of action in any
+direction. You may, with some justice, point to the illustration given
+in Fig. 65, and which appears to contradict this statement, as being an
+example in which violent action is the key-note. You must notice,
+however, that the two figures, although struggling, are for the moment
+still, or may be supposed so. There is enough suggestion of this
+pause to excuse the attitudes and save the composition from
+restlessness--even the raised hands may be supposed to remain in the
+same position for a second or two. This imaginary pause, however
+infinitesimal, is essential to the dignity of the sculptor's art, as
+nothing is more irritating to the mind than being forced to recognize
+the contradiction between a motionless image and its suggestion of
+restless action. It is necessary to observe the same rule in the
+expression of actual repose, as some clue must be given, some completed
+action be suggested, in order to distinguish dormant energy from
+downright inertia. I should like to impress upon you the importance of
+making a special study of the characteristic movements of animals. You
+will in time become so far familiar with them that certain standards of
+comparison and contrast will be established in your mind as aids to
+memory. Thus you will be all the better able to carve with significance
+the measured and stately action of a horse, if you have in your mind's
+eye at the same time a picture of the more cumbrous and slower movements
+of a cow; and you will be helped in the same way when you are carving a
+dog, by remembering that the movements of a cat afford a striking
+contrast, in being stealthy where the other is nervous and quick.
+
+For the unfortunate town-bred student or artist, who has had few
+opportunities to study birds and beasts familiar to the country
+schoolboy, there is no other way but to make the best of stuffed birds,
+photographs, etc. Much may be done with these aids if a little personal
+acquaintance with their habits and associations is added like salt, to
+keep the second-hand knowledge sweet and wholesome.
+
+In the absence of opportunity for study from the life, no pictures of
+animals can compare in their usefulness to the carver with those by
+Bewick. They are so completely developed in essential details, so full
+of character and expressive of life, that even when personal
+acquaintance has been made with their various qualities, a glance at one
+of his engravings of birds or beasts conveys new meaning, either of
+gesture or attitude, to what we have previously learned. Every student
+who wishes to make a lively representation in carving of familiar beast
+or bird should study Bewick's engravings of "Quadrupeds" and "Birds."
+
+Drawings made for the purpose of study need not be elaborate: indeed,
+such drawings are only embarrassing to work from. The most practical
+plan is to make a drawing in which the main masses are given correctly,
+and in about the same relative position that they will occupy in the
+carving. I give you in Plate VII an example of this in a drawing made by
+Philip Webb, who, by the study of a lifetime, has amassed a valuable
+store of knowledge concerning animals, and acquired that extraordinary
+skill in their delineation and the expression of character which is only
+to be attained by close observation and great sympathy with the subject.
+The drawing in question was made for myself at the time I was carving a
+lion for the cover of a book (given in Plate VIII). It was made, in his
+good-natured way, to "help a lame dog over a stile," as I had got into
+difficulties with the form. This drawing is all that a carver's first
+diagram should be, and gives what is always the first necessity in such
+preliminary outlines--that is, the right relationship of the main
+masses, and the merest hint of what is to come in the way of detail; all
+of which must be studied separately, but which would be entirely
+useless if a wrong start had been made. In Fig. 68 I give you tracings
+from some notes I made myself while carving the sheep in Plates V and
+VI. The object was to gain some definite knowledge of form by noting the
+relation of planes, sections of parts, projections, etc., etc. The
+section lines and side-notes are the most valuable part of the
+memoranda. In the same manner the illustration, Fig. 69, shows diagrams
+made from a heron, giving section lines of beak, etc.
+
+The side-notes about the colors are valuable, as, although not
+translatable into carving, they do to some extent influence the manner
+of interpreting forms.
+
+Photographs must not be despised, but they are only of use if read by
+the light of previous knowledge. For this reason you can not make too
+many notes of sectional structure through heads, necks, and legs, which
+will help to explain the mystery common to all photographs.
+
+The bear shown in the frontispiece is traced from a photographic
+illustration which appeared in the Westminster Budget some time ago. By
+the merest accident it is suggestive of a subject almost ready for the
+carver's hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+
+Until tourists began to explore the beauties of Switzerland, there were
+no better carvers of animals than the serious but genial craftsmen of
+that noble country, more especially of such animals as were familiar to
+their eyes. This preeminence shows distinct signs of soon becoming a
+thing of the past in the endeavors to meet the demands created by
+thoughtless visitors. Still, it is possible to obtain a little of the
+traditional work, uninfluenced by that fatal impetus originating in
+modern commerce. A piece of this kind is shown in Fig. 70, bought by a
+friend only a year or two ago in the Grindelwald, and which, although
+forming part of the usual stock of such things made for tourist
+consumption, was picked out with judicious discrimination from a number
+of stupid and trivial objects which displayed neither interest of design
+nor other than mechanical skill of carving. This little bear, a few
+inches in size, is carved in a way which shows long experience of the
+subject, and great familiarity with the animal's ways. The tooling of
+the hair is done with the most extraordinary skill, and without the
+waste of a single touch. Now, a word or two more on studies from the
+life before we leave this subject. I have given you examples of
+diagrams made for this purpose, but much may be done without any
+drawings, further than a preliminary map of the general masses. In the
+case of such an animal as the horse, which can be seen in every street,
+I have myself found it useful to follow them in my walks, taking mental
+note of such details as I happened to be engaged upon, such as its legs
+and joints, its head or neck; another day I would confine my attention
+to eyes, ears, mane, etc., always with reference to the work
+immediately in hand, as that is the time to get the best results from
+life study; because the difficulties have presented themselves, and one
+knows exactly what to look for. Five minutes spent thus after the work
+has been started (provided the start has been right and involves no
+mistake in the general masses) is more valuable than hours of labor in
+making preliminary drawings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+The use of experimental models in clay or wax has, of course, its
+advantages, but it will be well to know just how far such an aid is
+valuable, and at what point its use becomes hurtful to one's work. It is
+a common practise in large carving shops for one man to design the
+figure or animal subjects in clay, while another carves them in stone or
+wood. Now, apart from the difference in material and the unnatural
+"division of labor," which we have discussed before, it is beyond
+question that a model of this kind has even a more paralyzing effect on
+the actual carver than a drawing would have. Of course, the work is more
+certain to reach a recognized standard, and the risk of total failure is
+reduced to a minimum, but there is literally nothing left for the
+carver to invent; who, if he is a man with a turn for that kind of
+thing, and of a nervous temperament, must suffer untold irritation in
+its execution. The good and bad results of the use of a modeled pattern
+attend in a modified degree even where both are done by the same hand,
+but for all that it is a useful and convenient way of making experiments
+in doubtful passages of the work. The "how far" a model is to be carried
+must be regulated by the amount of confidence the carver has in his own
+foresight, but in any case it is always well to remember the difference
+of treatment required in plaster, clay, and hard wood, which lead to
+such different results that often fresh difficulty arises in having to
+translate the one manner into the other. For the purpose of roughing out
+the general scheme, the clay, if it must be resorted to, should be used
+in soft masses, then a drawing in outline made from this; but all
+doubtful detailed work should be carved, not modeled, and for this
+purpose the clay should be allowed to harden until it is nearly dry.
+
+The opinions of the well-known wood-carver, Mr. W. Aumonier, on this
+subject, will be of value to you; he says with regard to the best
+method of going to work: "A fresh piece of wood-carving executed without
+a model is distinctly a created work," and that much good work may come
+by "chopping boldly at a block without any preconceived design, but
+designing as you go on." But he thinks it is best to work from drawings;
+"rough, full-size charcoal cartoons, which give the effect wanted by
+their light and shade." He also says that he "strongly protests against
+the too frequent use of clay or plaster models, because they are often
+worse than useless, and not infrequently absolutely immoral in their
+tendency, because they absorb time and money, which ought more
+legitimately to be spent on the carving itself."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF
+
+
+     Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+     Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses.
+
+
+I have spoken of the necessity for careful balance between the outlines
+of subject and background: that both should be agreeable in shape. This
+becomes complicated and more difficult to arrange when we admit into our
+design anything resembling what painters call foreshortening, and the
+awkwardness is felt even in the placing of such a small thing as an
+apple-leaf, which may be treated in such a way that the intention of the
+drawing is entirely lost in the confusion which arises between the
+inferred and the actual projection.
+
+In designing such subjects it will be good to bear in mind as a guiding
+principle that no matter what excuse there may be in the nature of the
+inferred position of the leaf or limb, the outline against the
+background must be at once agreeable and explanatory.
+
+Every kind of work in relief develops a species of compromise in the
+expression of form, lying somewhere between the representation of an
+object on a perfectly flat ground, as in a painting, and the complete
+realization of the same form, copied from nature in some solid material,
+without any background whatever. In proportion to the amount of actual
+projection from the background, of course the necessity diminishes for
+that kind of foreshortening which is obtained by delineation. It might
+be inferred, therefore, that in very low relief--which is more nearly
+akin to the nature of a picture--more liberty may be taken in this
+direction. It is not so, however, for where actual depth or projection
+exists, as in carving, be it only so much as the depth of a line, it
+makes foreshortening well-nigh impossible, except to a very limited
+extent. There must be, of course, _some_ appearance of this quality, so
+a certain conventional standard has been set up, beyond which one only
+ventures at one's own risk. Thus, care is taken that every object
+composing the subject lies with its _longest lines_ parallel to the
+background. In this way the least possible violence is done to the
+imagination in completing the picture. As an example, no single leaf
+should be represented in relief as turning or coming forward more than
+it would do if plucked from the tree and laid loosely down upon a sheet
+of paper. A, Fig. 71, is an outline of an apple-leaf pressed out flat. B
+is an attempt to present it in violent foreshortening, showing its back
+to the spectator, while its point is supposed to be buried in the
+background. C is the same leaf turned the other way, and supposed to be
+projecting forward; both are exceedingly awkward and unintelligible as
+mere outlines, and if expressed in relief would not be any more
+convincing as portraits of the thing intended--rather less so, in fact,
+than the diagram, which has no projection to interfere with the drawing.
+So we must turn our leaf until it presents its long side more or less to
+the spectator, as in D; but even here part of the edge is so thin at _a_
+that it will be better to turn it a little farther, as in E, showing
+more of its surface, as at _b_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+Again, if we take as another example two apples, one partly covering the
+other, as in _a_, Fig. 72, where one apple is supposed to be behind the
+other, and so implies distance. There is no means of expressing this
+distance in carving. Lowering the surface of the hindmost apple would
+merely throw out the balance of masses without giving a satisfactory
+explanation of its position, while to cut a deep groove between the two
+would be an equally unsightly expedient. The difficulty should, whenever
+it is possible, be avoided by partially separating the two forms, as in
+_b_, where the center of the hindmost apple clears the outline of the
+other; thus making it possible to get a division without awkwardness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+A good expedient, where leaf or scroll forms are to be carved, and when
+very truthful drawing is necessary to explain their convolutions, is
+that adopted by Professor Lethaby at the Royal College of Art. It
+consists in cutting the leaf out of a piece of stiffish paper, and with
+a knife or pen-handle curling it into the required form. The main lines
+will thus be seen in true relation to one another, and all the
+distortion avoided which arises from disconnection of parts; not only
+that, but it is a useful aid to the invention, as much variety can be
+hinted at by a skilful manipulation in curling its lobes. Fig. 73 was
+drawn from a paper model of this kind. Of course, it is quite without
+the necessary veins or minor articulations, but is useful as a
+suggestion of main lines. With regard to subjects containing figures of
+men or animals, the same principle governs the placing of the whole body
+in the first instance, then of the different members, so that heads,
+arms, and legs take up a position as nearly as may be with a piece of
+background all to themselves. Thus, no two bodies should be
+super-imposed if it can be in any way avoided. (I am speaking now of
+moderate and low relief, although even in high relief the best masters
+have always respected the principle.) The temptation to imitate effects
+of foreshortening for its own sake is not without some excuse, as it is
+quite possible to make presentable pictures in this way. A horse, for
+instance, may be carved in low relief, presenting either its head or
+hindquarters to the spectator, and yet not look absolutely absurd.
+Again, a front face may be carved in the same way, notwithstanding the
+difficulty presented by the projection of the nose. Neither of these
+experiments can ever be said to prove entirely successful. It is not so
+much that they are either difficult or impossible, as that a more
+suitable method, one more natural to the technique of the carver, is
+being neglected, and its many good qualities sacrificed for sake of an
+effect which can never be fully realized in sculpture. To so dispose the
+various masses, great and small, that they fall easily into groups, each
+having some relation to, and share of the background, is a true carver's
+artifice. A skilful use of this arrangement makes it quite unnecessary
+to encroach upon the domain of another art in the imitation of an
+effect which may be successfully rendered with the pencil, but only so
+to a very limited extent with the carving tools.
+
+You have all seen the actors, when called before the curtain at the
+close of the play, how they pass before it one by one, and perhaps
+joining hands make their bows _in line_, to all appearance, on a very
+narrow platform. The curtain is your background, while the footlights
+may stand for the surface of your wood. In illustration of this
+principle, let me call your attention to the arrangement of the animals
+in Plate VI, where economy of space, and a desire to display each detail
+to advantage, are the leading motives. I give it as the readiest example
+to hand, and because it fairly illustrates the principle in question.
+You must excuse the apparent vanity in making choice of one of my own
+works to exemplify a canon of art. The sheep at the top is supposed to
+be scampering over rocks; the ram below may be any distance from the
+sheep that you choose to imagine--the only indication of relative
+position is _separation_, by means of a ridge that may pass for a rock.
+The head of the ram is somewhat foreshortened, but there was enough
+thickness of wood contained in the big mass of the body to allow of
+this being done in the smaller mass of the head, without leaving too
+much to be supposed. The heads of the sheep in the fold have been as
+closely packed as was consistent with showing as much of each as
+possible, as it was considered better to give the whole head and no body
+than to show only a part of both: most of the bodies, therefore, are
+supposed to be hidden behind the wall, only one showing in part.
+
+It is a general axiom of the craft, that every mass (be it body or leaf)
+must be made as complete in itself as the circumstances will allow; but,
+if partly hidden, the concealment should be wilful, and without
+ambiguity. Thus, a dog's head may be rightly carved as being partly
+hidden in a bucket, but ought not to be covered by another head if it is
+possible to avoid it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK
+
+
+     Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and
+     Abuse--"Built-up" Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work.
+
+
+By undercutting is meant the cutting away of the solid portions of
+projections in such a manner as to make them invisible, thus throwing
+the carved surface work into more complete relief by detaching it from
+the background. This device has often been carried so far, where the
+projection was sufficient, that entire groups of figures and foliage
+have been practically detached from the background, like pieces of
+separate sculpture carved all round. This desire for completeness of
+relief was more or less a departure from the orthodox aims of the
+carvers' craft, and led ultimately to what is known as "built-up"
+work--that is to say, work in which the projecting parts were composed
+of many different pieces of wood, each carved separately, and afterward
+glued or pinned together to form the composition. Many of the most
+elaborate carvings by Grinling Gibbons are of this kind; they have a
+charm of their own, but it is one of quite separate interest, and
+belongs to a category entirely removed from the art of carving objects
+in a solid piece of wood. Apart from this distinction, the difficulty of
+the method requires the most accomplished mechanical skill and a highly
+trained eye to either carve or compose such work in a way to command
+respect. I shall therefore dismiss this branch of the subject as being
+outside of our present limits.
+
+Undercutting, on the other hand, is an expedient distinctly
+characteristic of solid wood-carving, and some experiments ought to be
+made by you in designing work in which it can be used. It may be either
+partial or complete--complete, of course, only up to a point; that is to
+say, the connection with the background must in every case be not only
+maintained but visibly demonstrated. Partial undercutting applies to
+such portions as the sides of leaves, the receding parts of heads,
+wings, etc., where the wood between the object and its background is cut
+away on an inward bend, either completing the projecting form, as in
+the case of a head, or merely to hide the superfluous wood in the case
+of a leaf. All this presupposes a certain amount of elevation in the
+relief; indeed, it is only in such cases that the process is necessary
+or can be carried out. The use of undercutting of this kind is like
+every other technical process, liable to abuse through too much being
+made of its effects. Fortunately the time it consumes is a safeguard
+against any tendency to run riot in this direction. The point at which
+it should in all cases stop, and that relentlessly, is where it begins
+to cause a separation between any entire mass of ornament and its
+background. If _portions_ are thus relieved almost to complete
+detachment, but visibly reconnect themselves in another place, a certain
+piquancy is gained which adds charm without destroying character. A
+curious use is made of undercutting in the bunch of leaves given in
+Plate XI from a Miserere seat in Winchester Cathedral; it may be said to
+be completely undercut in so far that the whole bunch is hollowed out
+under the surface, leaving from 1/4 to 1/2 in. thickness of wood, in
+which the leaves are carved, so that you may put your finger in at one
+hole and see it at the bottom of another. The only end all this extra
+labor seems to have attained is that of changefulness in the shadows of
+the holes between the leaves, in which one sees dark rims with light at
+the bottom, a condition which certainly adds a mysterious lightness to
+the whole mass. It is a very refined and appropriate use of
+undercutting, but would only be possible where time could be spent to
+secure a variant of such epicurean delicacy, as all the superfluous wood
+must be taken out through the spaces between the leaves, and in this
+case they are not overlarge for that purpose.
+
+Work which has its background entirely cut away, and which is afterward
+glued or "planted" on a fresh background to save labor, can not be
+called "undercut"; this method has generally a cheap look, as it is used
+with the object of saving time and expense. Carving which is treated in
+this way, but instead of being "planted" close to the background, is
+fixed at a little distance from it (as is the case with the lace-like
+designs fitted into the hollow moldings of fifteenth-century
+choir-screens), is of quite a different order, although even in this
+case it can not be strictly described as undercut: it is more nearly
+akin to pierced fretwork. It has, however, all the general effect of
+undercut work, and is the only possible way of obtaining this effect in
+wood where a large quantity of such ornament is required. The face of
+such carving is generally a little convex, while the back is hollowed
+out to give an equal thickness of section. The ornaments in Figs. 75,
+76, and 77 are of this description, and are calculated to give great
+play of light and shade, and be seen well at a considerable distance.
+
+Undercutting in the strict and more laborious sense must be reserved for
+occasions where the labor is repaid by the additional charm. It must be
+considered in the light of a _tour de force_, which, on account of its
+cost in the matter of time, should only be used under exceptional
+circumstances, care being taken to make it clear that it is _an
+exception_ to the general rule of solid carving on a solid background.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE
+
+
+     The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial
+     Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible
+     in a Limited Way.
+
+
+Those vague and shadowy boundaries which separate the domains of the
+different arts are being perpetually called in question. By what
+landmarks such indefinite frontiers may be distinguished, and how far
+they may be extended or transgressed, will always be a matter of
+dispute. Excursions of conquest are continually being made, and
+conspicuous among these, one which animates the hopes of many sculptors
+and modelers. Its aim is the appropriation of those charms which are the
+peculiar property of the graphic arts, more especially their power of
+expressing the effects of distance by means of linear and aerial
+perspective.
+
+The background of a piece of carving is so obviously solid and
+impenetrable that any attempt to imitate an appearance of distance is
+sure to defeat its own ends, the loss being greater than the gain. If
+there are limits to be observed in the foreshortening of a single leaf,
+how much more must they apply to the representation of whole landscapes?
+Properly speaking, there is no _distance_ available in the carver's art;
+its whole interest lies near the surface, and in the direct rays of the
+light which illuminates it. There is even a distinct pleasure to be
+derived from the sense that it is all carved out of a block of such and
+such thickness, pointing to the reasonable conclusion that this
+thickness should never be lost sight of, the carving ever and anon
+returning to the surface as a measure of music does to its key-note.
+This is exemplified in all the great works of antiquity, among which the
+Parthenon frieze may be quoted as evidence. On the other hand, all
+pictorial sculpture, such as carved landscapes with figures diminishing
+both in scale and projection, necessarily fail to uphold this sense of
+solidity, as there must occur large spaces which are hollowed out far
+below the surface to give another plane on which to carve the more
+distant objects in low relief, in the vain hope of making them appear to
+recede. Work in which perspective of this kind is used must be viewed
+as nearly as possible from the point of vision produced by its
+vanishing-lines; this point is intelligible enough in the case of a
+painting, but when it comes to be carved into relief, if it happens to
+be seen from any other point of view, it necessarily looks all wrong,
+because every part is thrown into false relationship.
+
+All this, of course, forms no argument against the use of explanatory
+landscapes with trees, buildings, etc. It only means that all such
+features must be treated in a way entirely different to that adopted by
+the painter--that is to say, in detached groups, each having some due
+relation to the original surface of the wood, and only very little to
+their perspective positions. In Fig. 74 are two diagrams of a landscape
+composition. The one is appropriate to a painted picture and the other
+to carving; both have pretty nearly the same number of features, except
+that in the carving there is no _effect_ of distance attempted, whereas
+in the painting everything leads to this one particular distinction. The
+road goes _into_ the picture, the bridge is seen end on, the house and
+mill are diminished in size, and the horizon is strongly enforced by a
+shadow echoed in the sky. The carving looks ridiculous beside the
+painting, but it is a severe test, as it is not a subject which should
+be carved at all in that condensed way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL CARVING
+
+
+     The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of
+     Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance
+     of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the
+     Carver--Carpenter's Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too
+     Far.
+
+
+That the study of wood-carving should be confined to the narrow field of
+its own performances would be the surest way to bring contempt upon an
+art which already offers too many temptations for the easy embodiment of
+puerile motives. Such a limited range would exclude all the stimulating
+lessons to be derived from the many other kinds of carving and
+sculpture; forgetful that they are, after all, but different forms of
+the same art, differing only in technique and application. It would take
+no note of the stately sculptures of Greece--the fountain-head of all
+that is technically and artistically perfect in expression of form--or
+of the splendor of imagination displayed in the ivories of Italy. Many
+another source of inspiring impetus would be neglected, including the
+greatest of all, the influence of architecture, and through it, the
+dignified association or the carver's art with all that is noble in the
+life of mankind.
+
+The dry and uninviting aspect which a serious study of architecture
+presents to some minds is such that it is too often avoided as both
+useless and wearisome. Much of this diffidence is due to a misconception
+of the aims which should govern the student of decorative design in
+making an acquaintance with its principles. The study should not be
+looked upon as pertaining exclusively to the functions of an architect,
+nor as having only an accidental connection with particular crafts. It
+must be remembered that in the old days mason and carpenter were both
+craftsmen and architects, and the sculptor and wood-carver had an equal
+share in creating every feature which gives any distinction of style to
+the buildings that were the outcome of their united efforts. So,
+instead of looking upon the subject as only a study of dates for the
+antiquary, and rules of construction for the architect, the carver
+should take his own view, and regard architecture for the time being as
+what in some sense it really is: a very large kind of carving, which
+includes and gives reason for his own particular branch. The importance
+of the subject is proved by the experience of centuries; history showing
+plainly how the two arts grew in strength and beauty only when closely
+associated, and shared each other's fate in proportion to their
+estrangement.
+
+In this place I can say but very little upon such a vast subject; all I
+can do is to call your attention to one or two examples of carved work
+combined with structural carpentry, in order that you may see for
+yourselves what a power of effect lies in that union, and how by
+contrast it enhances the value and interest of both. I do this in the
+hope that it may possibly lead you to a more complete study of
+architecture, for which there is no lack of opportunity in books and
+museums, but more especially in what remains of the old buildings
+themselves, with which a familiar and personal acquaintance will be
+much better than a theoretical or second-hand one.
+
+No carver with a healthy ambition can long continue to make designs and
+produce them in wood without feeling intensely the want of some
+architectural occasion for his efforts. Had he only a barge-board to
+carve, or the canopy of a porch, it would be such a relief to turn to
+its large and general treatment after a course of the panels and
+ornaments peculiar to domestic furniture. Look, for instance, at the
+carved beams of the aisle roof in Mildenhall Church given in Plate III,
+and think what a fund of powerful suggestion lay in the bare timbers
+before they were embellished by the carver with lion, dragon, and
+knight. Even the carpenter became inspired with a desire to make
+something ornamental of his own department, and has shaped and carved
+(literally carved) his timbers into graceful moldings. Then, again, in
+the roof of Sall Church, Norfolk, shown in Plate IV, you have a noble
+piece of carpentry which is as much the work of an artist as the carved
+figures and tracery which adorn it--indeed it is all just as truly
+carved work as those figures, being chopped out of the solid oak with
+larger tools, ax and adze, so that one knows not which to admire most,
+carved angels or carved carpentry.
+
+Plates XI and XII are details of the carvings which fill the spandrels
+of arch and gable in the choir stalls and screen at Winchester
+Cathedral. There are a great many of these panels similar in character
+but differing in design, some having figures, birds, or dragons worked
+among the foliage. They are comparatively shallow in relief, and this
+appears less than it really is owing to the fact that many parts of the
+carving dip down almost to the background, giving definite but not deep
+shadows. The main intention seems to have been to allow only enough
+shadow to secure the pattern, and then to emphasize this by means of a
+multitude of little _illuminated_ masses. The leading lines run through
+the pattern as continuously as possible, but the surface of the leafage
+is divided up into numbers of little hills and hollows. The sides of
+these prominences catch and reflect light more readily than they produce
+shadow, so that it is possible to trace the pattern at a considerable
+distance by means of the lights alone. Unfortunately for all believers
+in the historical evidence of ancient handicrafts, this work was
+overhauled some half century ago, and in parts "_restored_." The old
+work has been imitated in the new with surprising cleverness, but for
+that, no one who has a clear sense of the true function of the carver's
+art, or of the historical value of its witness to past modes of life,
+will thank those who carried out the "restoration," so confusing is it
+to be unable to distinguish at a glance the old from the new, so
+depressing to find such laborious efforts wasted in pleasing a childish
+desire for uniformity of treatment when it could only be achieved at the
+cost of deception, and, I may add, so irritating to find oneself for a
+moment deceived into accepting one of the "restored" parts as genuine
+old work. To add to the deception, the whole of the old woodwork, as
+well as the new, was smeared over with a black stain in order the better
+to hide the difference of color in old and new wood, thus forever
+destroying its soft and natural color, as well as the texture of its
+surface, so dear to the wood-carver.
+
+The fifteenth century in England was a period of great activity among
+wood-carvers, and many beautiful choir-screens were added about this
+time to the existing churches, all in the traditional Gothic manner, as
+the Renaissance influence was a full century at work in other countries
+before its power began seriously to affect the national style. The West
+of England (Somerset and Devon in particular) is rich in the remains of
+this late Gothic carving, some details of which are shown in the
+accompanying illustrations, Figs. 75, 76, 77.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+As a general rule the supporting carpentry of these screens bears a
+strong resemblance to stonework; so imitative is it in treatment, that
+it is only by the texture of the wood and its lightness of construction
+that the distinction is made evident. Now a certain degree of modified
+imitation, where one craft models its forms of design upon those of
+another, using a different material, as in the case of woodwork
+imitations of arches, tracery, etc., is not only legitimate, but very
+pleasing in its results. To attain this end, the carpenter need only be
+true to his own ideals--there is no occasion to abandon the methods of
+his own craft in order to copy the construction which is peculiar to
+another. The resources of carpentry offer an infinite field for the
+invention of new and characteristic forms, and these may be made all the
+more attractive if they show, to some extent, the influence of an
+associated craft, but never fail to become wearisome if essential
+character has been sacrificed for the sake of an ingenious imitation.
+The structural parts of some of these screens are composed of elaborate
+imitations of stone vaulting and tracery, so closely copied as to be
+almost deceiving, therefore they can not be taken as good examples of
+suggestive opportunity for the wood-carver.
+
+The carved work, on the other hand, is marked by a strong craft
+character, essentially _woody_ both in design and execution. The
+illustrations referred to are typical examples of this kind of work,
+and, although the execution can not be indicated, they at least give the
+disposition of parts, and some idea of the contrast obtained by the use
+of alternate bands of ornament differing in scale, or, as in some cases,
+the agreeable monotony produced by a repetition of almost similar
+designs, varied slightly in execution.
+
+Another prominent feature of church woodwork, which developed about this
+time into magnificent proportions, was the font cover and canopy. Many
+of these were, however, more like glorifications of the carpenter's
+genius for construction than examples of the carver's art, as they were
+composed of a multitude of tiny pinnacles and niches, the carver's work
+being confined to a repetition of endless crockets, tracery, and
+separate figures or groups. However, in Plate XIII an example is given
+of what they could do when working together on a more equal footing;
+although much mutilated, enough remains to show how the one craft gains
+by being associated with the other in a wholesome spirit of rivalry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE
+
+
+     Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture
+     Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling.
+
+
+The term "texture" is sometimes applied to the quality of finish which
+is characteristic of good carving; it has a somewhat misleading sound,
+which seems to suggest that the final treatment of the surface is the
+work of a separate operation. However, it is a right enough word, as the
+texture which wood-carvers aim at is that of the wood in which they are
+carving. One might naturally think that this texture must necessarily
+appear when the work was finished, but that is not the case, as it is
+only rescued by the most skilful use of the tools, and easily disappears
+under the mismanagement of clumsy or unsympathetic hands.
+
+Texture in carving is in some respects on a parallel with tone in
+painting--it depends upon a right relation of many qualities. As in the
+painting good tone is the outcome of the combined effects of truth in
+color and a right balance of what are called the "values," together with
+decision in the handling of the brush, so in carving, texture depends
+upon, first, having a clear idea of what is being carved, and making it
+clear to others; that if it be round, hollow, or flat, it must be so
+indeed; that edges and sharpnesses be really where they were intended to
+be, and not lost in woolly confusion. Then again, as with the painter's
+brush, the tool must be moved by a hand which adapts itself to every
+changing plane, to all manner of curves and contours, with touches
+sometimes delicate and deliberate, at others broad and sweeping, or
+even, at times, brought down with the weight and force of an ax-blow.
+
+A good quality of finish may exist in the most divergent kinds of work,
+each having its own characteristic texture. Thus a broad treatment on a
+large scale will make much of the natural texture of the wood, enforcing
+it by crisp edges and subtle little ridges which catch the light and
+recall the momentary passage of the sharp tool, while elaborate work in
+low relief may have a delicate texture which partly imitates that of the
+details of its subject, and partly displays the nature of the wood. In
+either case, the texture must be consciously aimed at by the carver as
+the last but by no means least quality which is to give vitality to the
+work of his hands. A sense of the capabilities of his wood in this
+respect is one of the best aids to the carver, as it reacts on his sense
+of form and compels him to precision.
+
+Manual dexterity alone may succeed in making its work clearly
+intelligible, but that is all, and it generally leaves a surface in
+which there is little indication of any feeling for the material in
+which the work is carved, nothing, in fact, that marks it specially as
+carving in wood, or distinguishes it from a casting in metal.
+
+The technical operation which is most immediately answerable for the
+making or marring of texture is the disposition and nature of the final
+tool marks. These should be so managed that they help the eye to
+understand the forms. They should explain rather than confuse the
+contours of the surface. Just as in a good chalk drawing the strokes and
+cross-hatchings are put in with method, and if well done produce the
+effect of something solid, so in carving, the tool marks should
+emphasize the drawing without in any way calling attention to
+themselves.
+
+It is quite impossible to explain in words that will not be open to
+misconstruction the subtle commingling of qualities which make all the
+difference between good and bad texture. We may succeed better by
+describing those conditions which are unfavorable to it. Thus work which
+is very much cut up into minute detail, and which lacks a proper
+contrast of surface, or, for the same reason, work which is too
+generally bald and smooth, rarely exhibit a good surface texture. Again,
+work which is overlabored, or where delicate details have been attempted
+on a coarse-grained wood, or finally, work which, although done with
+success in the matter of mechanical dexterity, is deficient in feeling
+for its woody possibilities, are all likely to fail in the matter of
+texture.
+
+Punch-marked backgrounds have undoubtedly a legitimate place among the
+expedients of the carver for obtaining contrast, but on the whole, as
+such, they are of a somewhat meretricious order, and in almost every
+case their use is fatal to the charm of fine texture, as this always
+depends on an appreciation of the homogeneous connection of carving and
+background. If they are used at all they should be made to form patterns
+on the background, and not put down promiscuously. Little gouge marks
+are still better, as they are not so mechanical.
+
+I shall conclude this part of my subject with a quotation from the words
+of Mr. W. Aumonier, in a lecture delivered at the Royal Institute of
+British Architects.
+
+"_All carving to be treated according to the position it is to occupy._
+Not only the design, but the actual carving itself, should be considered
+with a view to the position it is to take and the light it will receive.
+Thus, even if quite close to the eye, where, of course, its position
+warrants or demands a certain amount of finish, it must be remembered
+that real finish rather means perfection of form than smoothness of
+surface, so that even there it should still show its cuts and its tool
+marks fearlessly, and be deepened in parts to make it tell its proper
+tale in the combined scheme of decoration; while if it is going a great
+height or distance from the eye it should be left as rough as ever you
+can leave it. The only points that have to be regarded are the outlines,
+varieties of planes, and depths, and if these be properly considered
+everything else will take care of itself, and then the whole work can
+not be left too rough. Its very roughness and choppy cuts will give it a
+softness and quality when in its place that no amount of smoothing or
+high finish can possibly attain to."
+
+Beware of putting a wrong interpretation upon the word "rough"--refer to
+what he says of the points to be regarded, i.e., the "varieties of
+planes, and depths." If they are right the "roughness" is not likely to
+be of the offensive kind.
+
+Nothing so effectually destroys the quality of texture as polish applied
+to carving. If furniture _must_ be polished it should not be carved. The
+only polish that improves carving is that which comes of use. On hard
+woods, such as oak or Italian walnut, the pressure of the tools leaves a
+pleasant polish, which is all that is necessary; the _most_ that should
+be allowed may be given by a little burnishing with the handle of the
+tool.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT
+
+
+     The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy
+     Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing
+     Variety of Choice.
+
+
+The present revival of interest in the arts, especially with regard to
+those of a decorative kind, is based on the recently awakened esthetic
+desires of a small section of the general public, who owe their activity
+in this direction to the influence of men like John Ruskin and William
+Morris. The first of these, by his magic insight, discerned the true
+source of vitality which lay in the traditions of medieval workmanship,
+i.e., their intensely _human_ character and origin. His fiery words
+compelled attention, and awakened a new enthusiasm for all that betokens
+the direct and inspiring influence of nature. They raised the hope that
+this passion might in some way provide a clue to the recovery of a
+fitting form of expression.
+
+William Morris, with no less power as a craftsman, was the first to
+give practical embodiment to this newly awakened impulse by a modified
+return to the older methods of production. His rare knowledge of
+medieval history, and manly sympathy with all that is generous in modern
+life, made it impossible for him to become a superficial imitator. His
+work is an example of what may be achieved by a union of high artistic
+instincts with a clear understanding of the conditions of modern life.
+
+Cheering as is the present activity in its encouragement of endeavor,
+the difficulties of establishing anything like an efficient system of
+education for the artist, more especially the sculptor, or carver
+artist, is only being gradually realized. The difficulties are not so
+much academic as practical. It is less a question of where to study than
+one of knowing what direction those studies should take. Before any
+genuine development in the art can be looked for, continuity of effort
+must be established, and that in a single direction, undisturbed as it
+is at present by differences of public taste.
+
+Opportunities for study are now afforded to an extent never before
+dreamed of: in books and schools, and in museums; but division of
+opinion mars the authority of the two first, while the last is
+confessedly but a kind of catalogue, which may only be read with profit
+by the light of considerable experience.
+
+A certain amount of success has undoubtedly attended the progress of the
+new system, but it must always be more or less at a disadvantage;
+firstly, by reason of its divided aims; secondly, because the system is
+more theoretic than practical, and is often based on the false
+assumption that "design" may be learned without attaining a mastery over
+technique, and _vice versa_.
+
+Until students become disillusioned on this latter point, and are at the
+same time permitted to follow their natural bent with as little
+interference as possible from the exigencies of public taste, uniformity
+of aim will be impossible, and consequently the system must remain
+artificial. It can never, under any circumstances, entirely replace that
+more natural one adopted by our ancestors. How can its methods compare
+for a moment with the spontaneous and hearty interest that guided the
+tools of those more happily placed craftsmen, whose subjects lay around
+them, of daily familiarity; whose artistic language was ready to hand
+and without confusion, affording an endless variety of expression to
+every new and individual fancy. Many of these craftsmen were, owing to
+their invigorating surroundings, gifted with a high poetic feeling for
+their art--a quality which gives to their work a transcendent value that
+no learning or manual cleverness could supply. They acquired their
+technical knowledge in genial connection with equally gifted members of
+other crafts, and in consequence expressed themselves with corresponding
+and justly proportioned skill in execution.
+
+Conditions that can not be altered must be endured while they last, but
+the first step toward their improvement must be made in gaining a
+knowledge of the facts as they are. This will be the surest foundation
+upon which to build all individual effort in the future.
+
+Who that has felt the embarrassing doubts and contradictory impulses,
+peculiar to modern study, can have failed to look disconsolately away
+from his own surroundings to those far-off times when craft knowledge
+was acquired under circumstances calculated to awaken the brightest
+instincts of the artist? The imaginary picture calls up the ancient
+carver at his bench, cheerfully blocking out images of leaves and
+animals in his busy workshop, surrounded with the sights and sounds of
+country life. His open door frames a picture of the village street,
+alive with scenes of neighborly interest. From the mill-wheel comes a
+monotonous music making pleasant cadence to his own woody notes, or the
+blacksmith's hammer rings his cheery counterpart in their companionable
+duet.
+
+Short as is the distance between workshop and home, it provides a world
+of beauty and incident; suggesting to his inventive mind the subjects
+suitable for his work. Birds, beasts, and flowers are as familiar to him
+as the tools with which he works, or the scent and touch of the solid
+oak he handles daily. There, among the aromatic chips, he spends the
+long working hours of a summer day; varied by the occasional visits of a
+rather exacting Father from the neighboring monastery; or perhaps some
+idle and gossiping acquaintance who looks in to hold a long parley with
+his hand upon the latch. Or it may be that the mind turns to another
+carver, at work in one of the many large colonies of craftsmen which
+sprang up amid the forest of scaffolding surrounding the slow and
+mysterious growth of some noble cathedral. Here all is organized
+activity--the best men to be found in the country have been banded
+together and commissioned to do their best, for what seems, in modern
+eyes, a ridiculously small rate of pay. Some are well known and
+recommended; others, as traveling artists, are seeking change of
+experience and daily bread. Foreigners are here, from France, Italy, and
+the East. All have been placed under the direction of competent masters
+of their craft; men who have long since served their apprenticeship to
+its mysteries, and earned an honorable position in its gilds.
+
+Here the carver works in an atmosphere of exhilarating emulation.
+Stone-carver and wood-carver vie with each other in producing work that
+will do credit to their respective brotherhoods. Painter and decorator
+are busy giving to the work of their hands what must have appeared to
+those concerned an aspect of heavenly beauty; the most precious
+materials not being considered too costly for use in its adornment.
+
+What an interchange of artistic experience!--interchange between those
+of similar craft from different countries, and the stimulating or
+refining influence of one craft upon another--sculptors, goldsmiths,
+wood-carvers, and painters, all uniting in a sympathetic agreement to do
+their utmost for the high authorities who brought them together; with a
+common feeling of reverence, alike for the religious traditions which
+formed the motives of their work and the representatives of that
+religion in the persons of their employers.
+
+What an endless variety of interruptions must have been common! all of a
+kind eminently calculated to stimulate the imagination. Municipal
+functions, religious festivals with their splendid gatherings and
+processions, the exciting events of political contest, often carried to
+the point of actual combat, to say nothing of the frequent Saint's day
+holidays, enjoyed by the craftsman in jovial social intercourse. All and
+every scene clothed in an outward dress of beauty, ranging from the
+picturesque roughness of the village inn to the magnificent pageantry of
+a nobleman's display, or the majestic surroundings of an archi-episcopal
+reception.
+
+From dreams of the past with its many-sided life and background of
+serious beauty, we turn with feelings almost bordering on despair to the
+possibilities of the present. Not only has the modern craftsman to
+master the technicalities of his business, but he must become student as
+well. No universally accepted form of his art offers him a ready-made
+language; he is left fatally free to choose style, period, or
+nationality, from examples of every conceivable kind of carving, in
+museums, photographs, and buildings. As proud but distracted heir to
+all, he may cultivate any one of them, from Chinese to the latest style
+of exhibition art. For his studies he must travel half a dozen miles
+before he can reach fields, trees, and animals in anything like
+inspiring conditions. He must find in books and photographs the
+botanical lineaments of foliage and flowers, of which he mainly seeks to
+know the wild life and free growth. With but one short life allowed him
+in which to make his poor effort in a single direction, he must yet
+study the history of his craft, compare styles, and endeavor with all
+the help he can get to shape some course for himself. Can he be assured
+of selecting the right one, or out of the multitude of counselors and
+contradictory views, is there not a danger of taking a false step? No
+wonder, if in the cloudy obscurity of his doubts, he sometimes feels a
+tired desire to abandon the problem as too intricate to be resolved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN BUILDER AND CARVER
+
+
+     The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence:
+     Sculpture an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the
+     so-called "Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival
+     of the Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time;
+     their Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent
+     upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer"
+     and "Executant."
+
+
+The prevailing architectural fashion of a time or country, known as its
+style, has generally been determined by the influence of more advanced
+nations on those of a ruder constitution; each modifying the imported
+style to suit its own climatic and social conditions, and imbuing it
+with its own individual temperament. The foreign idea was thus developed
+into a distinct and national style, which in its turn bore fruit, and
+was passed on as an initiative for other nations and new styles. The
+current of this influence, generally speaking, trended from east to west
+as though following the course of the sun, upon whose light it depended
+for the illumination of its beauties.
+
+There are so many styles of architecture, and consequently of carving,
+both in wood and other materials, that a history of such a subject would
+be a life study in itself, and be quite barren of results except those
+of a professional kind. It would include the characteristics of carvings
+from every country under the sun, from the earliest times known.
+Engravings on boars' tusks found in prehistoric caves, carvings on South
+Sea Island canoe paddles, Peruvian monstrosities of terror, the refined
+barbarity of India and China, the enduring and monumental efforts of
+Egyptian art, and a hundred others, down to times and countries more
+within reach. In fact, it would only be another name for a history of
+mankind from the beginning of the world.
+
+Nothing could be better for the student's purpose than to begin his
+studies of history at that point where the first indication of the
+Gothic or medieval period of architecture makes its appearance. For it
+was from this great and revolutionary change in the manner of building
+that all the subsequent variety of style in carving as well as building
+in medieval Europe took its origin. The first rudiments of the great
+school of art, which has been broadly classified as having a "Gothic"
+origin, began to make their appearance in Byzantium some three or four
+centuries after the birth of Christ. This city, said to have been
+founded by a colony of Greek emigrants, became the seat of Roman
+government in their eastern empire, and is now known as Constantinople:
+it contains a noted example of ancient art in the great church of St.
+Sophia. From the date of the building of this church in the sixth
+century A. D. to the beginning of the fifteenth century in Italy, and
+about a hundred years later, more or less, according to distance from
+that center, we have roughly the period during which the "medieval"
+spirit ruled the arts of Europe.
+
+The work of this long period is distinguished beyond all others by the
+varied beauty and interest of its carvings, a preeminence it owes in
+part to the strong bias in this direction which was given by its early
+founders, but still more to the unbroken alliance maintained between
+builders and carvers throughout the entire period. An inherited talent
+for sculpture, handed down, no doubt, from their classical forefathers,
+distinctly marks the commencement of the era; but from that time until
+the appearance of the "Renaissance" influence, builder and carver are no
+longer conceivable as being independent of each other. Sculpture of one
+kind or another not only played an important part in the decoration of
+its buildings, but became a necessary and integral element in every
+architectural conception, be its importance little or great. The masons
+designed their structural features with a view to the embellishments to
+follow from the hand of the carver; they were in full sympathy with the
+artistic intention of the decoration, therefore their own ideas were in
+complete conformity with those of the sculptor, while even in some cases
+they did this part of the work themselves. The sculptors, restrained by
+the severe laws of structural design, never transgressed the due limits
+of their craft, or became insistent upon the individuality of their own
+work. Hence, throughout all the successive changes of style brought
+about by time and difference of country, climate, or material, the art
+of carving steadily progressed hand in hand with the art of building.
+The changes were so very gradual, and grew so naturally from the
+conditions and requirements of social life, that ample time was allowed
+for the education of public feeling, which became in this way identified
+with the inventive progress of the craftsmen. As a happy result, one aim
+and desire governed alike builders, carvers, and people, and one style
+at a time, enjoyed and understood by all, was the wholesome regimen by
+which the architectural appetite of the period was sustained. Cathedral
+and cottage differed only in their relative grades of importance; each
+shared in due proportion the advantages of an architectural style common
+to all forms of building, and adaptable in the highest degree to every
+varying purpose of design, from the simplest piece of walling, with the
+barest indication of style, to the most elaborate arrangement of masonry
+and carving which could be devised to distinguish a stately and
+important structure.
+
+Time was, however, preparing a revolution which was destined to sweep
+away many old beliefs and established institutions, and with them those
+familiar motives and habits of thought, which had long formed the
+bountiful source of medieval inspiration and invention. The period
+between the beginning of the fifteenth century and the Reformation was
+like a fiery furnace, in which the materials for a new world were being
+prepared; it was no time for the leisurely enjoyment of the pleasures of
+art, which presupposes settled convictions and imperceptible
+developments.
+
+About this time many new forms of intellectual activity began to engage
+the minds of the more gifted. Speculative philosophy, the opening fields
+of science, the imaginative literature of the ancients; these were among
+the subjects which, while they enlarged the sphere of individual
+thought, destroyed that social ideal which had its roots in a common
+belief, and with it, the secret source of all past development in
+architecture. With the deep-lying causes and far-reaching effects of the
+unrest which disturbed this period, we are not here concerned, beyond
+the point where it touches our interest in architecture and sculpture.
+That drastic changes were in progress affecting the popular regard for
+these arts is undeniable. Educated and illiterate minds became alike
+indifferent to the authority of established religion--either they
+succumbed to the tyranny of its powerful but corrupt ministers, or stood
+out in open rebellion against its disputed dogmas. In either case, that
+architecture which had formerly been regarded as the chief symbol of
+united faith, shared the neglect of one section or the abhorrence of the
+other. That strong sense of beauty, once the common possession of
+builders, sculptors, and people, was now between the upper and nether
+millstones of fate, being ground into the fine dust which has served for
+centuries as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of an endless
+succession of moral puddings and pies, known in modern times as "art
+criticism."
+
+To earnest minds in all classes at that time, any enthusiasm for
+architectural styles, old or new, must have appeared as futile as an
+anxiety about appearances while one's house was burning.
+
+To the art of this period the title "Renaissance" has been foolishly
+applied. When used in association with the arts of architecture and
+sculpture, it is essentially a misnomer. For these arts it was merely a
+time of revival, not in any sense one of rebirth, as the word implies.
+In no way can this period claim to have conferred vitality along with
+the resuscitation of outward form. The revival of a classical style in
+architectural design, which began in the early years of the fifteenth
+century, was the sequel to a similar "revival" in the study of Greek and
+Roman literature, then occupying the interests of cultivated scholars.
+It was but a step further to desire also the realization of those
+architectural splendors which were associated with these studies. Such
+dilettante dreams can not be supposed to have deeply interested the
+general public, with whose concerns they had but a remote connection; so
+under these circumstances, probably the classical style was as suitable
+as any other, chosen on such narrow and exclusive grounds. There was
+even a certain fitness in it, a capability of much expansion on
+theatrical and grandiose lines. Its unbending demeanor toward craft
+talent of the humbler kind at once flattered the vanity of the cultured,
+and cowed uneducated minds.
+
+The Duomo at Florence was finished early in that century, and was one of
+the first buildings in which the new style was adopted. In this case it
+was used mainly in the completion of a building already well advanced on
+lines based upon the older traditions. The character of its design,
+although not of a strictly imitative kind, was distinctly based on a
+classical ideal. Imitations followed, mingling, as in the case of the
+Duomo, Gothic and classic elements, often with fine effect. It is quite
+possible to believe that, had this intermarriage of the two schools
+continued to bear fruit, some vertebrate style might have resulted from
+the union, partaking of the nature of both parents; but the hope was of
+short duration. Its architects, becoming enamored by the quality of
+scientific precision, which is the fundamental principle of classical
+design, soon abandoned all pretense of attempting to amalgamate the
+native and imported styles. They gave themselves up wholly to the
+congenial task of elaborating a scholarly system of imitation; so that,
+by the middle of the sixteenth century, no trace whatever remained of
+native feeling in the architecture of its important buildings.
+
+During the progress of this revolution in style, the old medieval habits
+of cooperation between master mason and sculptor were slowly being
+exchanged for a complete dependence upon a special architect, who was
+not necessarily a craftsman himself; but whose designs must be carried
+out line for line with the most rigid adherence to measurements.
+
+For a moment in history, the rival spirits of the two great schools of
+architecture stand face to face like opposing ideals. The classical one,
+recalled from the region of things past and forgotten, again to play a
+part on earth with at least the semblance of life; the Gothic spirit,
+under notice to quit and betake itself to that oblivion from which its
+rival is reemerging.
+
+In the heyday of their power, the first had shown a distinctly
+autocratic bearing toward its workmen; offering to its sculptors of
+genius opportunities for the exercise of highly trained powers, and to
+the subordinate workmen only the more or less mechanical task of
+repeating a limited number of prescribed forms. The other, a more genial
+spirit, had possessed the largest toleration for rude or untrained
+workmanship, provided that in its expression the carver had a meaning
+which would be generally understood and appreciated. If skill could be
+commanded, either of design or technique, it was welcomed; but it gave
+no encouragement to work which was either so distinctive as to be
+independent of its surroundings, or of a kind which could have no other
+than a mechanical interest in its execution. The abrupt contrasts, the
+variety and mystery, characteristic of Gothic architecture, had been a
+direct and irresistible invitation to the carver, and the freest
+playground for his fancy. The formality of the classical design, on the
+other hand, necessarily confined such carving as it permitted to
+particular lines and spaces, following a recognized rule; and except in
+the case of bas-relief figure subjects and detached statues, demanded no
+separate interest in the carvings themselves, further than the esthetic
+one of relieving such lines and spaces as were otherwise uncomfortably
+bare.
+
+Some modification of this extreme arrogance toward the decorative carver
+was only to be expected in the revived style, but the freedom allowed to
+the individual carver turned out to be more apparent than real. A new
+race of carvers sprang up, imbued with the principles of classical
+design; but being no longer in touch with natural and popular interests,
+nor stimulated by mutual cooperation with their brother craftsmen, the
+mason builders, they adopted the fashionable mode of expression invented
+by the new architects and the painters of the time. Elaborate
+"arabesque" and other formal designs gave employment to the carvers, in
+making an infinite repetition of fiddles, festoons, and ribbons, in the
+execution of which they became so proficient, that their work is more
+often admired for its exquisite finish than for any intrinsic interest
+in the subject or design.
+
+Judged by its effects upon the art of carving, without the aid of which
+a national style of architecture is impossible, the revival of classical
+architecture never had a real and enduring life in it. Strictly
+speaking, no organic style ever grew out of its ambitious promises; the
+nearest approach to such a thing is to be found in those uncouth
+minglings of Gothic tradition with fragments of classical detail which
+distinguish much of the domestic architecture during the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. Amusing in their quaint and often rich and
+effective combinations, humanly interesting in proportion to the
+predominance of the Gothic element, association has grown up around
+these homely records of a mixed influence, until they have come to be
+regarded with affection, if not with the highest admiration.
+
+The "revival" brought nothing but harm to the carver himself--that is,
+to the carver who found it impossible to reach the elevation of a
+sculptor of genius. He sacrificed his own small but precious talent as a
+creator of pleasant images for the attainment of a finesse in the
+execution of other people's ideas. To the "Renaissance" must be
+attributed that fatal separation of the craftsman's function into the
+hands of designer and executant which has so completely paralyzed the
+living spirit of individual invention. It has taken close upon four
+centuries to open the eyes of our craftsmen to this inconsistency, and
+"revive" the medieval truth that invention and execution are strictly
+but one and the same thing. Let us hope that the present awakening to
+the importance of this fact may yet lead to what will be truly worthy of
+being called a "Renaissance"; not merely of outward forms, but of that
+creative energy which alone justifies the true meaning of the word.
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I.--_Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral._ The front of a chest of
+almost similar design, only reversed, is to be seen in South Kensington
+Museum, which looks from its resemblance both in design and technique to
+be the work of the same carver, or at least to have been done about the
+same time. Note the absence of any attempt at elaborate perspective, and
+the "decorative" aspect of houses, rocks, trees, etc., also the
+distinctive treatment of the Knight and Princess who appear in the
+picture several times, representing various incidents of the story.
+
+PLATE II.--_Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV in Canterbury Cathedral._
+This figure is one of the corner ornaments on the canopy. The whole of
+the upper structure is of wood, painted in colors with parts picked out
+in gold.
+
+PLATE III.--_Aisle Roof, Mildenhall Church, Suffolk._ This is one of the
+many beautiful carved roofs which abound in Norfolk and Suffolk. The
+nave roof is enriched with carvings of angels with wings outspread.
+
+PLATE IV.--_Nave Roof, Sall Church, Norfolk._ This is another very
+beautiful timber roof showing the union of practical carpentry with
+carving to perfection.
+
+PLATE V.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ The other part
+is shown in Plate VI, as, owing to the proportion of this panel and the
+necessity for keeping the scale of the plates as large as possible, it
+has been divided and shown in two portions. It was begun without any
+premeditated intention as to use, the sloping end being the shape of the
+board as it came into the author's hands, the other end being sloped off
+to match it.
+
+PLATE VI.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ See
+description of Plate V.
+
+PLATE VII.--_Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving._ This plate is,
+as explained in the text, from a drawing by Philip Webb, the well-known
+architect. It was done by him to explain certain facts about the pose of
+a lion when the author was engaged in carving the book covers which are
+shown in Plates VIII and IX.
+
+PLATES VIII and IX.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were
+done by the author for one of the "Kelmscott Press" books, Tale of Troy,
+at the instance of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. The relief is very slight, and
+is rather exaggerated by the light and shade of the photograph. The
+carved portion only of these covers is shown, the size of which is
+11-1/2 x 5-3/4 ins.
+
+PLATE X.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were done by the
+author for Mr. F. S. Ellis's translation of Reynard the Fox. The size of
+the carved part is 8-3/4 x 5-1/4 ins.
+
+PLATE XI.--_Carvings from Winchester Cathedral._ This plate is from
+sketches made by the author at Winchester Cathedral. The upper one is a
+spandrel piece from the traceried arcading of the stalls. The lower one
+is a part of one of the carved Miserere seats. The spandrel carving is
+pierced; that is, has the ground cut right through. The other piece is
+elaborately undercut.
+
+PLATE XII.--_Carving from Choir-Screen, Winchester Cathedral._ This
+plate is from a sketch done for the purpose of noting the general effect
+of a large mass of carved foliage with particular reference to the
+distribution of lighted surfaces in the design.
+
+PLATE XIII.--_Font Canopy, Trunch Church, Norfolk._ The plate gives the
+upper portion only of this beautiful canopy; it is supported upon six
+posts richly carved on all sides, of which there are five to each post.
+The height of the whole canopy is about fifteen or sixteen feet--it
+presumably dates somewhere toward the end of the fourteenth century or
+beginning of the fifteenth.
+
+PLATE XIV.--_Designs for Carving, by_
+
+_Philip Webb._ This plate gives two examples of designs for carving by
+Philip Webb. The upper one is part of a richly carved cornice which was
+done for a chimney-piece; the carving was executed by Mr. Laurence
+Turner, from whom the author got his first lesson in wood-carving. The
+other example is a design on paper for carving to be done in oak. This
+was carried out in the paneling of the dining-room at Clouds House,
+Salisbury, and looked exceedingly effective. Much of the articulation on
+the surface of the leaves, it will be noticed, is got by sharp facets
+produced by the intersection of gouge cuts.
+
+PLATE XV.--_Leg of a Settle carved in English Oak._ This was begun by
+the author as forming part of a large oak seat or "settle," but has
+never been completed. The wood out of which it is carved came out of an
+old house at Tewkesbury and was full of cracks which were filled up with
+slips of oak glued in and carved over.
+
+PLATE XVI.--_Pew Ends in Carved Oak, Brent Church, Somersetshire._ The
+three bench ends shown in this plate are from Brent Church,
+Somersetshire. Although rude in execution, they are extremely effective
+in design. The bounding form of the molded edges and gracefully shaped
+top are worth noticing; the whole evidently the outcome of a nice and
+inherited sense of design, without any particular technical knowledge or
+experience. The termination of the finials was unfortunately omitted in
+the photograph, hence the abrupt line at the top.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+[Illustration: I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.]
+
+[Illustration: IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk.]
+
+[Illustration: V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.]
+
+[Illustration: VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.]
+
+[Illustration: VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By
+Phillip Webb.]
+
+[Illustration: VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox."
+(only carved portions shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk.]
+
+[Illustration: XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb. One
+executed, one in drawing.]
+
+[Illustration: XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.]
+
+[Illustration: XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church,
+Somersetshire.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acanthus, the, 156
+
+Aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+American woods, 48
+
+Animal carving, 161, 191
+
+Animal carving, Swiss, 191
+
+Animals, or figures, in carving, 161, 191
+
+Apprentice and student, their aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+Architectural carving, 223
+
+"Arkansas" slips, 44, 58
+
+Arms, coats of, 177
+
+Aumonier, W., 204, 238
+
+
+Background, patterned, 96
+
+Bas wood, 48
+
+Beads and moldings to be carved, 119
+
+Beam, carved, in South Kensington Museum, 140, 142
+
+Bear, drawing of (frontispiece), 197, 200
+
+Beast and bird studies, 191
+
+Bed, design and carving for a, 163
+
+Beech wood, 49
+
+Bench or settle, design and carving for, 168, 174, 269, 302
+
+Benches, 44
+
+Bench screw, 48
+
+Berne Cathedral, carved figure from, 191
+
+Bevels, tool, 52
+
+Bewick, studies from, 195
+
+Bird and beast studies, 191
+
+Book-covers in oak, 267, 288, 289, 291
+
+Books, aid of, 191
+
+Boxwood, 51
+
+Brackets, 172
+
+Bread plates, 116
+
+Brent Church, pew ends in, 269, 304
+
+Brier-wood, 51
+
+Builder and carver, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249
+
+"Built-up" work, 214
+
+Byzantine design, 96
+
+
+"Candle," 56
+
+Canopy, Font, 233, 268, 298
+
+Canterbury Cathedral, carved figure from, 188, 275
+
+Carpenter's imitation of stone construction, 223
+
+Carpenter's influence on carver, 223
+
+Cartoons, charcoal, 204
+
+Carver and builder, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249
+
+Carver and joiner, reciprocal aims of, 161
+
+Carving and sculpture, 249
+
+Carving, architectural, 223
+
+Carving, "chip," 63
+
+Carving, heraldic, 176
+
+Carving, Icelandic, 143
+
+Carving, New Zealand, 63
+
+Carving, Norse, 143
+
+Carving, South Sea, 63
+
+Carving, stone, 96, 223
+
+Carving, Swiss, 191
+
+Cedar wood, 166
+
+Chair, sketch of, etc., 145
+
+Character, works viewed as records of, 149
+
+Charcoal cartoons, 204
+
+Cherry wood, 51
+
+Chest, carved, from York Cathedral, 147, 265, 273
+
+Chestnut wood, 50
+
+"Chip" carving, 63
+
+Chisels, 31, 34, 35
+
+Choir-screens, 227, 229, 267, 295
+
+Choir-stalls at Winchester Cathedral, 227, 267, 293
+
+Classical style, revival of, 249
+
+Clay models, 191
+
+Clips, 47
+
+Clock, suggestion of design and carving for, 174
+
+Clock case, suggestion of design and carving for, 170
+
+Coats of arms, 176
+
+Cock, suggestion for carving a, 174
+
+Collotype plates, 273-304
+
+Collotype plates, notes on the, 265
+
+Colors noted on diagrams, 197, 199
+
+Colors of woods, 48
+
+Contours of surface, 103
+
+Corner cupboards, 119
+
+Cornice, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300
+
+Craft schools, past and present, 240
+
+Craftsmen, old-time and modern, 240
+
+Cramps, 42, 47
+
+Cross, design for, 177
+
+Cupboards, corner, 119
+
+Cutting, clearness of, 52, 69, 235
+
+
+Design, 71, 88
+
+Design, application of, 72
+
+Design, Byzantine, 96
+
+Design, factors in the arrangement of, 82
+
+Design, outline, and suggestion of main masses, 191
+
+"Designer" and "Executant," 88, 249
+
+Designs, adaptation of old, to modern purposes, 103
+
+Designs, humor in, 180
+
+Designs, list of fruit, flower, and vegetable subjects, 159
+
+Designs, necessity for every carver making his own, 88
+
+Designs, transferring, 72
+
+Detail, economy in, 84
+
+Diagrams, colors noted on, 197, 199
+
+Distance and light in design, 82
+
+Drilling and sawing, 110
+
+Duomo, the, at Florence, 257
+
+
+Ebony wood, 51
+
+Economy in detail, 84
+
+Edges of tools, 52
+
+Environment as important as handicraft, 149
+
+Execution and design, 88, 249
+
+Exning, chair at, 145
+
+
+Figures, or animals, in carving, 161, 191
+
+Finish, surface--texture, 234
+
+Florence, the Duomo at, 257
+
+Flowers as subjects, 158
+
+Foliage, 115, 153, 159
+
+Font canopy, 233, 268, 298
+
+Foreshortening as applied to work in relief, 205
+
+Forms, imitation of natural, 82
+
+Forms, plant, list of, 153
+
+Forms, rounded, 88
+
+Free rendering, 96
+
+Fruit subjects, 94, 157, 159
+
+Furniture, carving on, 161
+
+
+Gerrard's "Herbal," a source of design, 160
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, 62, 85, 153, 215
+
+Glass paper, 107, 164
+
+Gothic capital in Southwell Minster, 96
+
+Gothic carvings, 96, 180, 229, 249
+
+Gothic influence, 249
+
+Gouges, 31, 34, 35
+
+Gouges, sharpening, 56
+
+Grain of the wood, 48, 69
+
+Grapes, 115, 156, 159
+
+Grindelwald, carved bear from, 200
+
+Grotesque in carving, 180
+
+"Grounders," 34, 37
+
+Grounding, 69
+
+
+Handling tools, 27, 52, 78
+
+"Hard" wood, 48, 51
+
+Hardwood carving, 115
+
+Henry IV, figure from tomb of 188, 265, 275
+
+Heraldic carving, 176
+
+"Herbal," Gerrard's, a source of design, 160
+
+Heron, drawing of a, 197
+
+Holdfasts, 48
+
+Hollywood, 49
+
+Hop-vine, the, 156
+
+Humor in designs, 180
+
+
+Icelandic carving, 143
+
+Imitation of natural forms, 82
+
+"India" oilstone, 42
+
+
+Japanese work, a characteristic of, 125
+
+Joiner and carver, reciprocal aims of, 161
+
+Joiner, the amateur, 115
+
+Joiner's tools, 41
+
+
+Kauri pine wood, 48
+
+"Kelmscott Press," carved oak covers for, 267, 288, 289
+
+
+Lance-wood, 51
+
+Landscape in carving, 221
+
+Leather for stropping, 55
+
+Leaves, expedient for explaining convolutions, 209
+
+Leaves, list of, 159
+
+Letters, carved, 165
+
+Light and distance in design, 82
+
+Lime wood, 48
+
+Lion, preliminary drawing for carving a, 196, 267, 286
+
+
+"Maccaroni" tool, 35, 38, 59
+
+Mahogany wood, 48
+
+Mallets, 44
+
+Masses, right relationship of, 196
+
+Masses, suggestion of main, 191
+
+Masses, superposition of, 205
+
+Medieval and modern choice of form compared, 153
+
+Memoranda, methodical, 137
+
+Memoranda, sketch-book, 137
+
+Method, 137
+
+Mildenhall Church, aisle roof, 226, 266, 277
+
+Mirror frame, suggestion of design and carving for, 166
+
+Miserere seats, 139, 142, 185, 186, 187, 216, 293
+
+Miters, 77
+
+Models, clay, 202
+
+Morris, William, 240
+
+Moldings, to be carved, 119
+
+Museums, 137, 140, 145, 149
+
+
+Natural forms, imitation of, 82
+
+Nature, studies from, 153, 191
+
+New Zealand carving, 63
+
+Norse patterns, 143
+
+Notes on cooperation, 249
+
+
+Oak, 48, 157
+
+Oilstones, 42, 52
+
+Old work, 137
+
+Originality, 108
+
+Outline drawing, 191
+
+
+Panel, carved, "The Sheepfold," 197, 212, 266, 282, 284
+
+Paneling, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300
+
+Panels, 72, 125, 170, 197
+
+"Parting" tool, 34, 36
+
+Paste for stropping, 52
+
+Pattern and free rendering compared, 96
+
+Pattern, background, 110
+
+Pattern, importance of formal, 96
+
+Pattern, medieval choice of natural forms governed by a question of, 96
+
+Pattern, Portuguese, 145
+
+Patterned background, 96
+
+Patterns, 121
+
+Patterns, Icelandic, 143
+
+Patterns, New Zealand, 63
+
+Patterns, Norse, 143
+
+Patterns, pierced, 110, 145
+
+Patterns, South Sea, 63
+
+Pear-tree wood, 51
+
+Period "Renaissance," revival of the classical style, 249
+
+Perspective, 127, 205, 219
+
+Pew ends, 269, 304
+
+Photographs, aid of, 191
+
+Picture subjects and perspective, 219
+
+Pierced patterns, 110, 145
+
+"Pierced" work, 214
+
+Pine wood, 48, 71
+
+Pine wood, yellow, 48, 71
+
+Plant forms, list of, 153
+
+"Planted" work, 214
+
+Plums, 91
+
+Polish, 138, 164
+
+Portuguese pattern, 145
+
+Position of tools, 27, 52
+
+Practise and theory, 25
+
+Preamble, 25
+
+
+Relief, work in, 205
+
+"Renaissance," the, 249
+
+"Reynard, the Fox," carved oak book-cover, 267, 291
+
+"Rifler," 41
+
+Rounded forms, 88
+
+"Router," 41
+
+Ruskin, John, 240
+
+
+"S," pattern, 121
+
+St. Sophia, church of, 251
+
+Sall Church, nave roof, 226, 266, 279
+
+Sandalwood, 51
+
+Sawing and drilling, 110
+
+Schools, craft, past and present, 240
+
+Screens, choir, 227, 229, 268, 295
+
+Sculpture and carving, 249
+
+Settle or bench, design and carving for, 168, 174
+
+Settle, carved leg of, 269, 302
+
+Sharpening stones, 42
+
+Sharpening tools, 52
+
+Sheep, drawing of, 197, 212, 266, 282, 284
+
+Sheepfold, the, collotype plate, 266, 282, 284
+
+Sketch-book, use of the, 137, 191
+
+Slips, 43, 58, 61
+
+"Soft" wood, 51
+
+South Kensington Museum, carvings from, 140, 141, 142
+
+South Sea carving, 63
+
+Southwell Minster, Gothic capital in, 96
+
+Spoon tools, 59
+
+Stalls, choir, 227, 267, 293
+
+Stone carving, 96, 223
+
+Stones, sharpening, 42
+
+Stones (sharpening), case for, 42
+
+Stropping, 54
+
+Student and apprentice, their aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+Students, the, opportunity lies on the side of design, 25
+
+Studies, beast and bird, 191
+
+Studies from nature, 153, 191
+
+Study, necessity for variety in, 249
+
+Style, 249
+
+Subjects, animal, 161, 191
+
+Subjects, choice of, 82
+
+Subjects, flower, 158
+
+Subjects, foliage, 159
+
+Subjects, fruit, 159
+
+Subjects, in perspective, 219
+
+Subjects, picture, 219
+
+Subjects, still life, 83
+
+Subjects, vegetable, 159
+
+Surface contours, 103
+
+Surface finish, 234
+
+Swiss carving, 191
+
+Sycamore wood, 49
+
+
+"Tale of Troy," carved oak book-cover for, 267, 288, 289
+
+Tempering tools, 39
+
+Texture and surface finish, 234
+
+Theory and practise, 25
+
+Thimble pattern, 121
+
+"Throwing about," 106
+
+Time, carvers the historians of their, 149
+
+Tool marks, the importance of their direction, 234
+
+Tools, 31
+
+Tools, average number, 31
+
+Tools, blunted or broken, 40
+
+Tools, description of, 27
+
+Tools, handling, 27, 52, 78
+
+Tools, joiner's, 41
+
+Tools, position on oilstone, 52
+
+Tools, position when in use, 27
+
+Tools, sharpening, 52
+
+Tools, spoon, 59
+
+Tools, stropping, 54
+
+Tools, tempering, 39
+
+Tracing, 72
+
+Trunch Church, font canopy at, 233, 268, 298
+
+"Turkey," oilstone, 42
+
+Turner, Laurence, 269
+
+
+Undercutting and "built-up" work, 214
+
+
+"V" tool, 31, 34, 36, 59
+
+Vegetable designs, 159
+
+"Veiner," 31, 34, 36, 58
+
+Vines, the, 115, 156, 159
+
+
+Walnut wood, 48, 50
+
+"Washita" oilstone, 42
+
+Wave pattern, 121
+
+Webb, Philip, drawings and designs by, 177, 196, 268, 286, 300
+
+Winchester Cathedral, carvings from, 190, 216, 227, 267, 293, 295
+
+Wood, hard, 48, 51
+
+Wood, soft, 48, 51
+
+Woods, 48
+
+Woods, American, 48
+
+Woods, colors of, 48
+
+Woods, grain of, 48, 69
+
+Woods, list of, 48
+
+Woods, "soft" and "hard," 48, 51
+
+Work, critical inspection of, from a distance, as it proceeds, 103
+
+
+Yellow pine wood, 48, 71
+
+York Cathedral, old chest in, 265, 273
+
+Yorkshire settle, 168
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: Minor corrections were made to normalize spelling
+and punctuation. Small caps were replaced with all-caps.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood-Carving
+       Design and Workmanship
+
+Author: George Jack
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2007 [EBook #22107]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD-CARVING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Suzanne Shell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
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+</pre>
+
+
+<h2>THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES</h2>
+<h2>OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS</h2>
+<h2>EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY</h2>
+
+<h2>WOOD-CARVING: DESIGN AND</h2>
+
+<h2>WORKMANSHIP</h2>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[3]</span></p>
+<h4>ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF</h4>
+<h4>TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.</h4>
+
+<h5>Edited by <span class="smcap">W. R. Lethaby</span></h5>
+
+<blockquote><p>The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial
+and mechanic arts. It will consist of authoritative statements
+by experts in every field for the exercise of ingenuity,
+taste, imagination&mdash;the whole sphere of the so-called "dependent
+arts."</p>
+
+<p>BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF
+BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders,
+and Librarians. By <span class="smcap">Douglas Cockerell</span>. With
+120 Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and
+8 collotype reproductions of binding. 12mo.
+$1.25 net; postage, 12 cents additional.</p>
+
+<p>SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book
+for Students and Workers in Metal. By <span class="smcap">H.
+Wilson</span>. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+Illustrations. 12mo. $1.40 net; postage, 12 cents
+additional.</p>
+
+<p>WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND
+WORKMANSHIP. By <span class="smcap">George Jack</span>. With
+Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations.</p>
+
+<h4><i>In Preparation</i>:</h4>
+
+<p>CABINET-MAKING AND DESIGNING. By <span class="smcap">C.
+Spooner</span>.</p></blockquote>
+
+<h5>D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.</h5>
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[4]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="gs01" id="gs01"></a>
+<img src="images/gs01.png" width="300" height="443"
+alt="A Suggestion from Nature and Photography.
+See page 197." title="" />
+<span class= "caption">A Suggestion from Nature and Photography.
+See page 197.</span></div>
+<p>
+<span class='pagenum'>[5]</span></p>
+
+
+<h1>WOOD-CARVING</h1>
+<h1>DESIGN AND</h1>
+<h1>WORKMANSHIP</h1>
+<h2>BY GEORGE JACK</h2>
+<h2>WITH</h2>
+<h2>DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR</h2>
+<h2>AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>NEW YORK</h3>
+<h3>D. APPLETON AND COMPANY</h3>
+<h3>1903</h3>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[6]</span></p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1903,</h4>
+<h4><span class="smcap">By D. Appleton and Company</span></h4>
+
+<h5><i>All rights reserved</i></h5>
+
+<h5><i>Published October, 1903</i></h5>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[7]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>In issuing these volumes of a series of
+Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it will
+be well to state what are our general aims.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, we wish to provide
+trustworthy text-books of workshop practise,
+from the points of view of experts
+who have critically examined the methods
+current in the shops, and putting aside vain
+survivals, are prepared to say what is good
+workmanship, and to set up a standard of
+quality in the crafts which are more especially
+associated with design. Secondly, in
+doing this, we hope to treat design itself
+as an essential part of good workmanship.
+During the last century most of the arts,
+save painting and sculpture of an academic
+kind, were little considered, and there was
+<span class='pagenum'>[8]</span>
+a tendency to look on "design" as a mere
+matter of <i>appearance</i>. Such "ornamentation"
+as there was was usually obtained by
+following in a mechanical way a drawing
+provided by an artist who often knew little
+of the technical processes involved in production.
+With the critical attention given
+to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came
+to be seen that it was impossible to detach
+design from craft in this way, and that, in
+the widest sense, true design is an inseparable
+element of good quality, involving as it
+does the selection of good and suitable material,
+contrivance for special purpose, expert
+workmanship, proper finish, and so on,
+far more than mere ornament, and indeed,
+that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance
+of fine workmanship than a matter
+of merely abstract lines. Workmanship
+when separated by too wide a gulf from
+fresh thought&mdash;that is, from design&mdash;inevitably
+decays, and, on the other hand,
+ornamentation, divorced from workmanship,
+is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls
+into affectation. Proper ornamentation
+<span class='pagenum'>[9]</span>
+may be defined as a language addressed to
+the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in
+the speech of the tool.</p>
+
+<p>In the third place, we would have this
+series put artistic craftsmanship before people
+as furnishing reasonable occupations for
+those who would gain a livelihood. Although
+within the bounds of academic art,
+the competition, of its kind, is so acute that
+only a very few per cent can fairly hope to
+succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as
+artistic craftsmen, there is every probability
+that nearly every one who would pass
+through a sufficient period of apprenticeship
+to workmanship and design would
+reach a measure of success.</p>
+
+<p>In the blending of handwork and thought
+in such arts as we propose to deal with,
+happy careers may be found as far removed
+from the dreary routine of hack labor as
+from the terrible uncertainty of academic
+art. It is desirable in every way that men
+of good education should be brought back
+into the productive crafts: there are more
+than enough of us "in the city," and it is
+<span class='pagenum'>[10]</span>
+probable that more consideration will be
+given in this century than in the last to Design
+and Workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>This third volume of our series treats of
+one branch of the great art of sculpture,
+one which in the past has been in close association
+with architecture. It is, well, therefore,
+that besides dealing thoroughly, as it
+does, with the craftsmanship of wood-carving,
+it should also be concerned with the
+theory of design, and with the subject-matter
+which the artist should select to
+carve.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations should be helpful to
+all who are interested in the ornamental
+arts. Indeed, the present book contains
+some of the best suggestions as to architectural
+ornamentation under modern circumstances
+known to me. Architects can
+not forever go on plastering buildings over
+with trade copies of ancient artistic thinking,
+and they and the public must some day
+realize that it is not mere shapes, but only
+<span class='pagenum'>[11]</span>
+<i>thoughts</i>, which will make reasonable the
+enormous labor spent on the decoration of
+buildings. Mere structure will always justify
+itself, and architects who can not obtain
+living ornamentation will do well to fall
+back on structure well fitted for its purpose,
+and as finely finished as may be without
+carvings and other adornments. It would
+be better still if architects would make the
+demand for a more intellectual code of
+ornament than we have been accustomed to
+for so long.</p>
+
+<p>On the side of the carver, either in wood
+or in stone, we want men who will give us
+their own thought in their own work&mdash;as
+artists, that is&mdash;and will not be content to
+be mere hacks supplying imitations of all
+styles to order.</p>
+
+<p>On the teaching of wood-carving I should
+like to say a word, as I have watched the
+course of instruction in many schools. It
+is desirable that classes should be provided
+with casts and photographs of good examples,
+such as Mr. Jack speaks of, varying
+from rough choppings up to minute and exquisite
+<span class='pagenum'>[12]</span>
+work, but all having the breath of
+life about them. There should also be a
+good supply of illustrations and photographs
+of birds and beasts and flowers, and
+above all, some branches and buds of real
+leafage. Then I would set the student of
+design in wood-carving to make <i>variations</i>
+of such examples according to his own skill
+and liking. If he and the teacher could be
+got to clear their minds of ideas of "style,"
+and to take some example simply because
+they liked it, and to adapt it just because
+it amused them, the mystery of design
+would be nearly solved. Most design will
+always be the making of one thing like another,
+with a difference. Later, motives
+from Nature should be brought in, but always
+with some guidance as to treatment,
+from an example known to be fine. I would
+say, for instance, "Do a panel like this,
+only let it be oak foliage instead of vine,
+and get a thrush or a parrot out of the
+bird book."</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the application of carving,
+I have been oppressed by the accumulation
+<span class='pagenum'>[13]</span>
+in carving classes of little carved squares
+and oblongs, having no relation to anything
+that, in an ordinary way, is carved. To
+carve the humblest real thing, were it but
+a real toy for a child, would be better than
+the production of these panels, or of the
+artificial trivialities which our minds instinctively
+associate with bazaars</p>
+
+<p>W. R. LETHABY.</p>
+
+<p><i>September, 1903</i>.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[15]</span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">To the Reader</span>,</p>
+
+<p>Be you 'prentice or student, or what is
+still better, both in one, I introduce the following
+pages to you with this explanation:
+that all theoretical opinions set forth therein
+are the outcome of many years of patient
+sifting and balancing of delicate questions,
+and these have with myself long since passed
+out of the category of mere "opinions"
+into that of settled convictions. With regard
+to the practical matter of "technique,"
+it lies very much with yourself to determine
+the degree of perfection to which you may
+attain. This depends greatly upon the
+amount of application which you may be
+willing or able to devote to its practise.</p>
+
+<p>Remember&mdash;the laws which govern all
+<span class='pagenum'>[16]</span>
+good art must be known before they can be
+obeyed; they are subtle, but unalterable.
+The conditions most favorable to your
+craft must first be understood before these
+laws can be recognized. There yet remains
+at your own disposal that devotion of energy
+which is the first essential step, both in
+the direction of obtaining clearer views and
+in conquering technical difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>I have to thank the following gentlemen
+for their assistance in providing photographs
+for some of the illustrations: Messrs.
+Bedford Lemere &amp; Co.&mdash;H. Sandland&mdash;Charles
+C. Winmill&mdash;W. Weir&mdash;J. R.
+Holliday and F. K. Rives.</p>
+
+<p>G. J.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><i>September, 1903</i>.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[17]</span></p>
+
+<h2>Contents</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>
+<span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#EDITORS_PREFACE"><b>EDITOR'S PREFACE</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#AUTHORS_PREFACE"><b>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>15</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</b></a></td><td align='right'><b>&nbsp;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>25</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>PREAMBLE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of
+Work&mdash;Necessity for Some Equality between Theory and
+Practise&mdash;The Student's Opportunity lies on the Side of Design</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II</b></a></td
+><td align='right'><b>31</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>TOOLS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Average Number of Tools required by
+Carvers&mdash;Selection for Beginners&mdash;Description of Tools&mdash;Position
+when in Use&mdash;Acquisition by Degrees</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>42</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>SHARPENING-STONES&mdash;MALLET AND BENCH</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Different Stones in Use&mdash;Case for Stones&mdash;Slips&mdash;Round
+Mallet Best&mdash;A Home-Made Bench&mdash;A Makeshift
+Bench&mdash;Cramps and Clips</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[18]
+</span></p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>48</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>WOODS USED FOR CARVING</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Hard Wood and Soft Wood&mdash;Closeness of Grain
+Desirable&mdash;Advantages of Pine and English Oak</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>52</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>SHARPENING THE TOOLS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Proper Bevel&mdash;Position of Tools on Oilstone&mdash;Good and Bad
+Edge&mdash;Stropping&mdash;Paste and Leather&mdash;Careless
+Sharpening&mdash;Rubbing Out the Inside&mdash;Stropping Fine
+Tools&mdash;Importance of Sharp Tools</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><b>CHAPTER VI</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>63</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>"CHIP" CARVING</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Its Savage Origin&mdash;A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic
+Importance&mdash;Monotony better than Variety&mdash;An Exercise in
+Patience and Precision&mdash;Technical Methods</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><b>CHAPTER VII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>69</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber&mdash;First Exercise in
+Grounding&mdash;Description of Method&mdash;Cutting the
+Miters&mdash;Handling of Tools, Danger of Carelessness&mdash;Importance
+of Clean Cutting</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[19]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><b>CHAPTER VIII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>82</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement&mdash;Limits of an Imitative
+Treatment&mdash;Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a
+Design&mdash;Economy of Detail Necessary&mdash;The Word "Conventional"</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><b>CHAPTER IX</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>88</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>ROUNDED FORMS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Necessity for every Carver Making his own Designs&mdash;Method of
+Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><b>CHAPTER X</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>96</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility&mdash;Pattern and
+Free Rendering Compared&mdash;First Impressions Lasting&mdash;Medieval
+Choice of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><b>CHAPTER XI</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>103</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>CONTOURS OF SURFACE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes&mdash;"Throwing
+About"&mdash;Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[20]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><b>CHAPTER XII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>108</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>ORIGINALITY</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Dangers of Imposing Words&mdash;Novelty more Common than
+Originality&mdash;An Unwholesome Kind of "Originality"</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><b>CHAPTER XIII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>110</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>PIERCED PATTERNS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Exercise in Background Pattern&mdash;Care as to Stability&mdash;Drilling
+and Sawing out the Spaces&mdash;Some Uses for Pierced Patterns</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><b>CHAPTER XIV</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>115</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>HARDWOOD CARVING</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments&mdash;Carving Impossible on
+Commercial Productions&mdash;The Amateur Joiner&mdash;Corner
+Cupboards&mdash;Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple in
+Character&mdash;Methods of Carving Grapes</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><b>CHAPTER XV</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>137</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>THE SKETCH-BOOK</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place&mdash;Museums to be approached
+with Caution.&mdash;Methodical Memoranda&mdash;Some
+Examples&mdash;Assimilation of Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[21]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><b>CHAPTER XVI</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>149</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>MUSEUMS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits&mdash;Environment as
+Important as Handicraft&mdash;Works Viewed as Records of
+Character&mdash;Carvers the Historians of their Time</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><b>CHAPTER XVII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>153</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>STUDIES FROM NATURE&mdash;FOLIAGE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared&mdash;A Compromise
+Adopted&mdash;A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><b>CHAPTER XVIII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>161</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>CARVING ON FURNITURE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving&mdash;Reciprocal Aims of
+Joiner and Carver&mdash;Smoothness Desirable where Carving is
+Handled&mdash;The Introduction of Animals or Figures</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><b>CHAPTER XIX</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>180</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Misproportion Not Essential to the Expression of Humor&mdash;The Sham
+Grotesque Contemptible&mdash;A True Sense of Humor Helpful to the Carver</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[22]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XX"><b>CHAPTER XX</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>191</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>STUDIES FROM NATURE&mdash;BIRDS AND BEASTS</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Introduction of Animal Forms&mdash;Rude Vitality better than Dull
+"Natural History"&mdash;"Action"&mdash;Difficulties of the Study for
+Town-Bred Students&mdash;The Aid of Books and Photographs&mdash;Outline
+Drawing and Suggestion of Main Masses&mdash;Sketch-Book Studies,
+Sections, and Notes&mdash;Swiss Animal Carving&mdash;The Clay Model: its
+Use and Abuse </p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI"><b>CHAPTER XXI</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>205</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+Foreshortening&mdash;Superposition of Masses</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII"><b>CHAPTER XXII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>214</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and
+Abuse&mdash;"Built-up" Work&mdash;"Planted" Work&mdash;"Pierced" Work</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII"><b>CHAPTER XXIII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>219</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed&mdash;Aerial
+Perspective Impossible in Relief&mdash;Linear Perspective only Possible
+in a Limited Way</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[23]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV"><b>CHAPTER XXIV</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>223</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>ARCHITECTURAL CARVING</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Necessity for Variety in Study&mdash;A Carver's View of the Study of
+Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft&mdash;Importance
+of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the
+Carver&mdash;Carpenters' Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too Far</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV"><b>CHAPTER XXV</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>234</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>SURFACE FINISH&mdash;TEXTURE</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction&mdash;The Woody Texture
+Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI"><b>CHAPTER XXVI</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>240</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Country Craftsman of Old Times&mdash;A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy
+Intercourse&mdash;The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing
+Variety of Choice</p></blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><p><span class='pagenum'>[24]</span>
+</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII"><b>CHAPTER XXVII</b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>249</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td><h5>ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN
+BUILDER AND CARVER</h5></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><blockquote><p>The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles&mdash;The "Gothic" Influence:
+Sculpture an Integral Element in its Designs&mdash;The Approach of the
+so-called "Renaissance" Period&mdash;Disturbed Convictions&mdash;The
+Revival of the Classical Style&mdash;The Two Styles in Conflict for a
+Time; their Respective Characteristics Reviewed&mdash;Carvers Become
+Dependent upon Architects and Painters&mdash;The "Revival" Separates
+"Designer" and "Executant"</p> </blockquote></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#NOTES_ON_THE"><b><span class="smcap">Notes on
+the Collotype Plates</span></b></a></td><td align='right'><b>265</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES"><b><span class="smcap">
+The Collotype Plates</span></b></a></td><td align='right'><b>271</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#INDEX"><b><span class="smcap">
+Index</span></b></a></td>
+<td align='right'><b>305</b></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI">
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>
+<span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A Suggestion from Nature and Photography</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs01">Frontispiece</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs02">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs03">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs04">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs05">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs06">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs07">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs08">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs09">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs10">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs11">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs12">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs13">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs14">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs14a">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs15">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs16">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs17">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs18">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs19">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs20">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs21">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs22">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs23">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs24">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs25">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs26">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs27">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs28">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs29">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs29a">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs30">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs31">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs31">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34. CARVING
+IN PANELS OF FIG 33</td><td align='right'><a href="#gs32">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs33">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs33">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs34">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs35">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39.(a)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs36">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39.(b)</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs37">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs38">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs38">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 42.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs39">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 43.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs40">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs40a">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 45.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs40b">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs41">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs42">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs43">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 49.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs44">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs45">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs46">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs47">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs48">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs49">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs50">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 56.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs51">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 57.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs52">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs53">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 59.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs54">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs55">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 61.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs56">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 62.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs57">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 63.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs58">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 64.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs59">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 65.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs60">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 66.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs61">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 67.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs62">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 68.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs63">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 69.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs64">200</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 70.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs65">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 71.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs66">208</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 72.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs67">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 73.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs68">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 74.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs69">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 75.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs70">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 76.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs71">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 77.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#gs72">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 64.</td
+><td align='right'><a href="#gs59">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><h4><span class="smcap">The Collotype Plates</span></h4></td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>I.&mdash;Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate1">I</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>II.&mdash;Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury
+Cathedral.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate2">II</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>III.&mdash;Aisle Roof&mdash;Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate3">III</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>IV.&mdash;Nave Roof&mdash;Sall Church, Norfolk.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate4">IV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>V.&mdash;Portion of a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The
+Sheepfold.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate5">V</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VI&mdash;Portion of a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The
+Sheepfold.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate6">VI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VII.&mdash;Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving.
+By Phillip Webb.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate7">VII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>VIII.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English
+Oak&mdash;"Tale of Troy."</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate8">VIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>IX.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English
+Oak&mdash;"Tale of Troy."</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate9">IX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>X.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English
+Oak&mdash;"Reynard the Fox".<br />
+(only carved portions shown.)</td><td align='right'>
+<a href="#plate10">X</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XI.&mdash;Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester
+Cathedral.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate11">XI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XII.&mdash;Carving from Choir
+Screen&mdash;Winchester Cathedral.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate12">XII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XIII.&mdash;Font Canopy&mdash;Trunch Church, Norfolk.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate13">XIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XIV.&mdash;Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb.<br />
+One executed, one in drawing.</td><td align='right'>
+<a href="#plate14">XIV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XV.&mdash;Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.</td>
+<td align='right'><a href="#plate15">XV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>XVI.&mdash;Pew Ends in Carved
+Oak&mdash;Brent Church, Somersetshire.</td><td align='right'>
+<a href="#plate16">XVI</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+</p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>PREAMBLE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Student and Apprentice, their Aims and
+Conditions of
+Work&mdash;Necessity for some Equality between
+Theory and Practise&mdash;The Student's Opportunity
+lies on the Side of Design.</p></div>
+
+<p>The study of some form of handicraft
+has of late years become an important
+element in the training of an art student.
+It is with the object of assisting such with
+practical directions, as well as suggesting
+to more practised carvers considerations
+of design and treatment, that the present
+volume has been written. The art of
+wood-carving, however, lends itself to
+literary demonstration only in a very
+limited way, more especially in the condensed
+form of a text-book, which must
+be looked upon merely as a temporary
+guide, of use only until such time as
+practise and study shall have strengthened
+the judgment of the student, and enabled
+<span class='pagenum'>[26]</span>
+him to assimilate the many and involved
+principles which underlie the development
+of his craft.</p>
+
+<p>If the beginner has mastered to some extent
+the initial difficulties of the draftsman,
+and has a fair general knowledge of
+the laws of design, but no acquaintance
+with their application to the art of wood-carving,
+then the two factors which will
+most immediately affect his progress (apart
+from natural aptitude) are his opportunities
+for practise, and his knowledge of
+past and present conditions of work. No
+one can become a good carver without
+considerable practise&mdash;constant, if the best
+results are to be looked for. Just as
+truly, without some knowledge of past
+and existing conditions of practise, none
+may hope to escape the danger of becoming,
+on the one hand, dull imitators of
+the superficial qualities of old work; or
+on the other, followers of the first will-o'-the-wisp
+novelty which presents itself to
+their fancy.</p>
+
+<p>If use of the tools and knowledge of
+materials were the only subjects of which
+a carver need become master, there would
+be no way equal to the old-fashioned one
+of apprenticeship to some good craftsman.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Daily practise with the tools insures a
+manual dexterity with which no amateur
+need hope to compete. Many traditional
+expedients are handed down in this way
+that can be acquired in no other. There
+is, however, another side of the question
+to be considered, of quite as much importance
+as the practical one of handicraft
+skill. The art of wood-carving has also
+to fulfil its intellectual function, as an
+interpreter of the dreams and fancies of
+imagination. In this respect there is little
+encouragement to be looked for in the
+dull routine of a modern workshop.</p>
+
+<p>There are, therefore, two widely separated
+standpoints from which the art may
+be viewed. It may be looked at from the
+position of a regular craftsman, who regards
+it primarily as his means of livelihood;
+or it may be dealt with as a subject
+of intellectual interest, based upon its
+relation to the laws of art in general. As,
+in the first instance, the use of the tools
+can not be learned without <i>some</i> accompanying
+knowledge of the laws of art, however
+slight that acquaintance may be, the
+method of apprenticeship has the advantage
+of being the more practical of the
+two; but it must be accepted with all the
+<span class='pagenum'>[28]</span>
+conditions imposed upon it by the pressure
+of commercial interest and its usages:
+conditions, which, it may easily be
+imagined, are far more favorable to the
+performance of dull task-work, than to
+the adventurous spirit of curiosity which
+should prompt the enterprise of an energetic
+student.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, although an independent
+study of the art offers a wider
+range of interest, the student is, for that
+very reason, exposed to the risk of involving
+himself in a labyrinth of confusing
+and ineffectual theories. The fact is,
+that neither method can at the present time
+be exclusively depended upon as a means of
+development; neither can be pronounced
+complete in itself nor independent of the
+other. The only sure safeguard against
+the vagueness of theory is constant practise
+with the tools; while, to the craftsman
+in the full enjoyment of every means
+for exercising and increasing his technical
+skill, a general study and intelligent conception
+of the wide possibilities of his art
+is just as essential, if it were only as an
+antidote to the influence of an otherwise
+mechanical employment. The more
+closely these contradictory views are made
+<span class='pagenum'>[29]</span>
+to approximate, the more certain will
+become the carver's aims, and the clearer
+will be his understanding of the difficulties
+which surround his path, enabling him to
+choose that which is practicable and intrinsically
+valuable, both as regards the
+theory and practise of his art.</p>
+
+<p>If the student, through lack of opportunities
+for practise, is debarred from all
+chance of acquiring that expertness which
+accompanies great technical skill, he may
+at least find encouragement in the fact
+that he can never exhaust the interest
+afforded by his art in its infinite suggestion
+to the imagination and fancy; and also
+that by the exercise of diligence, and a
+determination to succeed, he may reasonably
+hope to gain such a degree of proficiency
+with the tools as will enable him
+to execute with his hands every idea which
+has a definite existence in his mind. Generally
+speaking, it will be found that his
+manual powers are always a little in advance
+of his perceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the student may gradually work
+out for himself a natural and reliable
+manner of expressing his thoughts, and
+in a way, too, that is likely to compensate
+for his technical shortcomings, by exciting
+<span class='pagenum'>[30]</span>
+a more lively interest in the resources of the
+art itself. The measure of his success will
+be determined partly by his innate capacity
+for the work, and partly by the amount of
+time which he is enabled to give to its practise.
+The resources of his art offer an infinite
+scope for the exercise of his powers
+of design, and as this is the side which lies
+nearest to his opportunities it should be the
+one which receives his most earnest attention,
+not merely as experiments on paper,
+but as exercises carried out to the best of
+his ability with the tools. Such technical
+difficulties as he may encounter in the process
+will gradually disappear with practise.
+There is also encouragement in the thought
+that wood-carving is an art which makes
+no immediate calls upon that mysterious
+combination of extraordinary gifts labeled
+"genius," but is rather one which demands
+tribute from the bright and happy inspirations
+of a normally healthy mind. There
+is, in this direction, quite a life's work for
+any enthusiast who aims at finding the bearings
+of his own small but precious gift,
+and in making it intelligible to others;
+while, at the same time, keeping himself
+free from the many confusions and affectations
+which surround him in the endeavor.
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>TOOLS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Average Number of Tools required by
+Carvers&mdash;Selection
+for Beginners&mdash;Description of Tools&mdash;Position
+when in Use&mdash;Acquisition by Degrees.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>We will suppose that the student is anxious
+to make a practical commencement to his
+studies. The first consideration will be to
+procure a set of tools, and we propose in
+this place to describe those which will
+answer the purposes of a beginner, as well
+as to look generally at others in common
+use among craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The tools used by carvers consist for
+the most part of chisels and gouges of
+different shapes and sizes. The number
+of tools required by professional carvers
+for one piece of work varies in proportion
+to the elaborateness of the carving to be
+done. They may use from half a dozen on
+simple work up to twenty or thirty for the
+<span class='pagenum'>[32]</span>
+more intricate carvings, this number being
+a selection out of a larger stock reaching
+perhaps as many as a hundred or more.
+Many of these tools vary only in size and
+sweep of cutting edge. Thus, chisels and
+gouges are to be had ranging from 1/16th
+of an inch to 1 inch wide, with curves or
+"sweeps" in each size graduated between
+a semicircle to a curve almost flat. Few
+carvers, however, possess such a complete
+stock of tools as would be represented by
+one of each size and shape manufactured;
+such a thing is not required: an average
+number of, say seventy tools, will always
+give a sufficient variety of size and sweep
+for general purposes; few pieces of work
+will require the use of more than half of
+these in its execution.</p>
+
+<p>The beginner, however, need not possess
+more than from twelve to twenty-four, and
+may even make a start with fewer. It is a
+good plan to learn the uses of a few tools
+before acquiring a complete set, as by this
+means, when difficulties are felt in the execution
+of work, a tool of known description
+is sought for and purchased with a foreknowledge
+of its advantages. This is the
+surest way to gain a distinct knowledge
+of the varieties of each kind of tool, and
+<span class='pagenum'>[33]</span>
+their application to the different purposes
+of design.</p>
+
+<p>The following list of tools (see Figs. 1
+and 2) will be found sufficient for all the
+occasions of study: beginning by the purchase
+of the first section, Nos. 1 to 17, and
+adding others one by one until a set is made
+up of twenty-four tools. The tools should
+be selected as near the sizes and shapes
+shown in the illustration as possible. The
+curved and straight strokes represent the
+shape of the actual cuts made by pressing
+the tools down perpendicularly into a piece
+of wood. This, in the case of gouges, is
+generally called the "sweep."</p>
+
+<p>Nos. 1, 2, 3 are gouges, of sweeps varying
+from one almost flat (No. 1) to a
+distinct hollow in No. 3. These tools are
+made in two forms, straight-sided and
+"spade"-shaped; an illustration of the
+spade form is given on the second page of
+tools. In purchasing his set of tools the
+student should order Nos. 1, 2, 3, 10, 11
+in this form. They will be found to have
+many advantages, as they conceal less of
+the wood behind them and get well into
+corners inaccessible to straight-sided tools.
+They are lighter and more easily sharpened,
+and are very necessary in finishing the surface
+of work, and in shaping out foliage,
+more especially such as is undercut.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"><a name="gs02" id="gs02"></a>
+<img src="images/gs02.png" width="378" height="640" alt="Fig. 1." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.</span></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"><a name="gs03" id="gs03"></a>
+<img src="images/gs03.png" width="377" height="640" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nos. 5, 6, 7 are straight gouges graduated
+in size and sweep. No. 8 is called a
+Veiner, because it is often used for making
+the grooves which represent veins in leaves.
+It is a narrow but deep gouge, and is used
+for any narrow grooves which may be required,
+and for outlining the drawing at
+starting.</p>
+
+<p>No. 9 is called a V tool or "parting"
+tool, on account of its shape. It is used
+for making grooves with straight sides and
+sharp inner angles at the bottom. It can
+be used for various purposes, such as
+undercutting, clearing out sharply defined
+angles, outlining the drawing, etc., etc. It
+should be got with a square cutting edge,
+not beveled off as some are made. Nos.
+10, 11, 12 are flat chisels, or, as they are
+sometimes called, "firmers." (Nos. 10 and
+11 should be in spade shape.) No. 13 is
+also a flat chisel, but it is beveled off to a
+point, and is called a "corner-chisel"; it
+is used for getting into difficult corners, and
+is a most useful tool when used as a knife
+for delicate edges or curves.</p>
+
+<p>Nos. 14 and 16 are what are known as
+"bent chisels"; they are used principally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+for leveling the ground (or background),
+and are therefore also called "grounders."
+These tools are made with various curves
+or bends in their length, but for our
+present uses one with a bend like that
+shown to tool No. 23, Fig. 2, and at <i>a</i>
+in Fig. 3, will be best; more bend, as at
+<i>b</i>, would only make the tool unfit for
+leveling purposes on a flat ground.</p>
+
+<p>No. 15 is a similar tool, but called a
+"corner grounder," as it is beveled off like
+a corner-chisel.</p>
+
+<p>No. 17 is an additional gouge of very
+slow sweep and small size. This is a very
+handy little tool, and serves a variety of
+purposes when you come to finishing the
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>These seventeen tools will make up a
+very useful set for the beginner, and should
+serve him for a long time, or at least until
+he really begins to feel the want of others;
+then he may get the remainder shown on
+Fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Nos. 18, 19, 20 are deep gouges, having
+somewhat straight sides; they are used
+where grooves are set deeply, and when
+they are required to change in section
+from deep and narrow to wide and
+shallow. This is done by turning the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+tool on its side, which brings the flatter
+sweep into action, thus changing the shape
+of the hollow. Nos. 21, 22 are gouges,
+but are called "bent gouges"&mdash;"front
+bent" in this case, "back bent" when the
+cutting "sweep" is turned upside down.
+It is advisable when selecting these tools
+to get them as shown in the illustration,
+with a very easy curve in their bend; they
+are more generally useful so, as quick
+bends are only good for very deep hollows.
+These tools are used for making grooves
+in hollow places where an ordinary gouge
+will not work, owing to its meeting the
+opposing fiber of the wood.</p>
+
+<p>No. 23 is a similar tool, but very "easy"
+both in its "sweep" and bend&mdash;the sweep
+should be little more than recognizable
+as a curve. This tool may be used as
+a grounder when the wood is slightly
+hollow, or liable to tear up under the flat
+grounder.</p>
+
+<p>No. 24 is called a "Maccaroni" tool.
+This is used for clearing out the ground
+close against leaves or other projections;
+as it has two square sides it can be used
+right and left.</p>
+
+<p>In the illustration, Fig 3, <i>a</i> shows the
+best form of grounding tool; <i>b</i> is little
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+or no use for this purpose, as it curves up
+too suddenly for work on a flat ground.
+It is a good thing to have the handles of
+tools made of different colored woods,
+as it assists the carver in picking them
+out quickly from those lying ready for
+use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs04" id="gs04"></a>
+<img src="images/gs04.png" width="400" height="166" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When in use, the tools should be laid
+out in front of the carver if possible, and
+with their points toward him, in order that
+he may see the shape and choose quickly
+the one he wants.</p>
+
+<p>The tempering of tools is a very important
+factor in their efficiency. It is
+only of too common occurrence to find
+many of the tools manufactured of late
+years unfit for use on account of their
+softness of metal. There is nothing more
+vexatious to a carver than working with a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+tool which turns over its cutting edge,
+even in soft wood; such tools should be
+returned to the agent who sold them.</p>
+
+<p>With a selection from the above tools,
+acquired by degrees in the manner described,
+almost any kind of work may be
+done. There is no need whatever to have
+a tool for every curve of the design.
+These can readily be made by using
+straight chisels in combination with such
+gouges as we possess, or by sweeping the
+curves along their sides with a chisel used
+knife fashion. No really beautiful curves
+can be made by merely following the curves
+of gouges, however various their sweeps,
+as they are all segments of circles.</p>
+
+<p>Tools generally come from the manufacturer
+ground, but not sharpened. As
+the student must in any case learn how to
+sharpen his tools, it will be just as well to
+get them in that way rather than ready for
+use. As this process of sharpening tools
+is a very important one, it must be reserved
+for another place. Should tools be seriously
+blunted or broken they must be reground.
+This can be done by the carver,
+either on a grindstone or a piece of gritty
+York stone, care being taken to repeat the
+original bevel; or they may be sent to a tool
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+shop where they are in the habit of grinding
+carving tools.</p>
+
+<p>Catalogues of tools may be had from
+good makers; they will be found to consist
+mainly in a large variety of the tools
+already mentioned. Those which are very
+much bent or curved are intended for
+special application to elaborate and difficult
+passages in carving, and need not
+concern the student until he comes to find
+the actual want of such shapes; such, for
+instance, as bent parting tools and back bent
+gouges.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the above tools, carvers
+occasionally use one called a "Router."
+This is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicular
+blade. It is used for digging
+or "routing" out the wood in places
+where it is to be sunk to form a ground.
+It is not a tool to be recommended for the
+use of beginners, who should learn to make
+sufficiently even backgrounds without the
+aid of mechanical contrivances. Carvers
+also use the "Rifler," which is a bent file.
+This is useful for very fine work in hard
+wood, and also for roughly approximating
+to rounded forms before finishing with the
+tools.</p>
+
+<p>A few joiner's tools are very useful to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+the carver, and should form part of his
+equipment. A wide chisel, say about 1-1/4 in.
+wide, a small iron "bull-nose" plane, and
+a keyhole saw, will all be helpful, and save
+a lot of unnecessary labor with the carving
+tools.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>SHARPENING-STONES&mdash;MALLET AND
+BENCH</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Different Stones in use&mdash;Case for
+Stones&mdash;Slips&mdash;Round
+Mallet Best&mdash;A Home-Made Bench&mdash;A
+Makeshift Bench&mdash;Cramps and Clips.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The stones which are most generally used
+for the purpose of sharpening carving tools
+are "Turkey" and "Washita." There
+are many others, some equally good, but
+"Washita" is easily procured and very serviceable.
+It is to be had in various grades,
+and it may be just as well to have one
+coarse and one fine, but in any case we
+must have a fine-grained stone to put a keen
+edge on the tools. A "Turkey" stone is
+a fine-grained and slow-cutting one, and
+may take the place of the finer "Washita."
+The "India" oilstone is a composition of
+emery with some kind of stone dust, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+is a useful stone for quickly rubbing down
+superfluous steel before putting an edge to
+the tool. It is better to get these stones
+without cases, as they can then be used on
+both sides, one for flat tools and one for
+gouges, which wear the face of a stone
+into grooves. A case may be made by
+hollowing out a block of wood so as to
+take the stone loosely; and if at one end
+a small notch is made in this block, a
+screwdriver may be inserted under the
+stone when it is necessary to turn it.
+Two brads or pins should be inserted in
+holes, having their points just appearing
+below the bottom of the block. These
+prevent it slipping about when in use.
+These stones should be lubricated with a
+mixture of olive oil and paraffin in equal
+parts. Bicycle lubricating oil is very good
+for this purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs05" id="gs05"></a>
+<img src="images/gs05.png" width="400" height="105" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For sharpening the insides of tools,
+"slips" are made with rounded edges of
+different sizes. One slip of "Washita"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+stone and one of "Arkansas" will be
+enough for the present, as they will fit
+moderately well most of the gouges in
+the beginner's set of tools; the "Arkansas"
+being used for the smaller tools. The
+"Arkansas" slip should be what is called
+"knife-edged." This is required for
+sharpening such tools as the veiner and V
+tool; it is a very fine marble-like stone,
+and exceedingly brittle; care must be
+taken in handling it, as a fall would in all
+probability be fatal.</p>
+
+
+<p>THE BENCH AND MALLET</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mallet</i>.&mdash;The carver's mallet is used
+for driving his tools where force is required.
+The most suitable form is the
+round one, made of beech; one 4 ins.
+diameter will be heavy enough.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bench</i>.&mdash;Every carver should provide
+himself with a bench. He may make
+one for himself according to the size and
+construction shown in the illustration,
+Fig. 5. The top should be made of two
+11 x 2 in. boards, and, as steadiness is the
+main feature to be aimed at, the joints
+should have some care. Those in illustration
+are shown to be formed by checking
+<span class='pagenum'>[45]</span>
+one piece of wood over the other, with
+shoulders to resist lateral strain. Proper
+tenons would be better, but more difficult
+to make. It must have a projecting edge
+at the front and ends, to receive the clamps.
+The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw"
+attached to the back leg for holding
+work which is to be carved on its edges
+or ends. The feet should be secured to
+the floor by means of iron brackets, as
+considerable force is applied in carving
+hard wood, which may move the bench
+bodily, unless it is secured, or is very
+heavy. Professional carvers use a bench
+<span class='pagenum'>[46]</span>
+which is composed of beech planks, three
+or four inches in thickness, and of length
+according to shop-room.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs06" id="gs06"></a>
+<img src="images/gs06.png" width="400" height="298" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs07" id="gs07"></a>
+<img src="images/gs07.png" width="400" height="520" alt="Fig. 6" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Should it not be possible to make or
+procure a bench, then a substitute must
+be used. Fig. 6 gives a suggestion for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+making such a temporary bench. The top
+is composed of one piece of board, 11 ins.
+wide and 1-1/2 in. thick. It should be about
+2 ft. 6 ins. long and rest on two blocks
+fixed about 1-1/2 in. from the ends, which
+must project, as in Fig. 6. This may be
+used on any ordinary table, to which it
+should be secured by means of two 3-1/2-in.
+clamps. The height from the floor should
+be 3 ft. 2 ins. to top of board. This gives
+a good height for working, as carvers invariably
+stand to their work. The height
+can be regulated by making the blocks, <i>a</i>,
+higher or lower to suit the table which is
+to be used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs08" id="gs08"></a>
+<img src="images/gs08.png" width="400" height="381" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cramps</i>.&mdash;Cramps for holding the work
+in position on the bench are of several
+kinds. For ordinary
+thicknesses
+of wood, two 4-1/2-in.
+screw clamps,
+like the one in
+Fig. 7, will be
+sufficient. Wooden
+blocks may be
+also used to hold
+one end of the
+work down while
+the other is held by a clamp. These blocks
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+are notched out to fit over the thickness of
+the board being carved, as in Fig. 7.
+Carvers use for their heavier work a
+"bench-screw," as it is called; that is, a
+screw which passes through the bench into
+the back of the work, which may thus be
+turned about at will; also, if the work is
+very thick, they hold it in position by means
+of a bench "holdfast," a kind of combined
+lever and screw; but neither of these contrivances
+is likely to be required by the beginner,
+whose work should be kept within
+manageable dimensions.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>WOODS USED FOR CARVING</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Hard Wood and Soft Wood&mdash;Closeness of Grain
+Desirable&mdash;Advantages of Pine and English Oak.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The woods suitable for carving are very
+various; but we shall confine our attention
+to those in common use. Of the softer
+woods, those which are most easily procured
+and most adaptable to modern uses
+are yellow pine, Bass wood, Kauri pine,
+and Lime. These are all good woods for
+the carver; but we need not at present
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+look for any better qualities than we shall
+find in a good piece of yellow pine, free
+from knots or shakes.</p>
+
+<p>The following woods may be considered
+as having an intermediate place between
+soft and hard: Sycamore, Beech, and
+Holly. They are light-colored woods, and
+Very useful for broad shallow work.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Oak</i>.&mdash;Of the hard woods in
+common use, the principal kinds are Oak,
+Walnut, and occasionally Mahogany. Of
+oak, the English variety is by far the best
+for the carver, being close in the grain and
+very hard. It is beyond all others the
+carvers' wood, and was invariably used by
+them in this country during the robust
+period of medieval craftsmanship. It offers
+to the carver an invigorating resistance to
+his tools, and its character determines to
+a great extent that of the work put upon
+it. It takes in finishing a very beautiful
+surface, when skilfully handled&mdash;and this
+tempts the carver to make the most of his
+opportunities by adapting his execution to
+its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian
+and American, are often used, but they do
+not offer quite the same tempting opportunity
+to the carver. They are, by nature,
+quicker-growing trees, and are, consequently,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+more open in the grain. They
+have tough, sinewy fibers, alternating with
+softer material. They rarely take the same
+degree of finish as the English oak, but remain
+somewhat dull in texture. Good
+pieces for carving may be got, but they
+must be picked out from a quantity of stuff.
+Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute
+for oak, but it is better fitted for large-scaled
+work where fineness of detail is not
+of so much importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italian Walnut</i>.&mdash;This is a very fine-grained
+wood, of even texture. The
+Italian variety is the best for carving: it
+cuts with something of the firmness of
+English oak, and is capable of receiving
+even more finish of surface in small details.
+It is admirably suited for fine work in low
+relief. In choosing this wood for carving,
+the hardest and closest in grain should be
+picked, as it is by no means all of equal
+quality. It should be free from sap, which
+may be known by a light streak on the
+edges of the dark brown wood.</p>
+
+<p>English walnut has too much "figure"
+in the grain to be suitable for carving.
+American walnut is best fitted for sharply
+cut shallow carving, as its fiber is caney. If
+it is used, the design should be one in which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+no fine modeling or detail is required, as this
+wood allows of little finish to the surface.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mahogany</i>, more especially the kind
+known as Honduras, is very similar to
+American walnut in quality of grain: it cuts
+in a sharp caney manner. The "Spanish"
+variety was closer in grain, but is now almost
+unprocurable. Work carved in mahogany
+should, like that in American walnut,
+be broad and simple in style, without
+much rounded detail.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject
+of woods beyond the few kinds mentioned.
+Woods such as ebony, sandalwood,
+cherry, brier, box, pear-tree, lancewood,
+and many others, are all good for
+the carver, but are better fitted for special
+purposes and small work. As this book is
+concerned more with the <i>art</i> of carving
+than its application, it will save confusion
+if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft
+wood, and good close-grained oak as representing
+hard wood. It may be noted in
+passing that the woods of all flowering and
+fruit-bearing trees are very liable to the attack
+of worms and rot.</p>
+
+<p>No carving, in whatever wood, should
+be polished. I shall refer to this when we
+come to "texture" and "finish."
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>SHARPENING THE TOOLS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Proper Bevel&mdash;Position of Tools on Oilstone&mdash;Good
+and Bad Edge&mdash;Stropping&mdash;Paste and
+Leather&mdash;Careless Sharpening&mdash;Rubbing Out
+the Inside&mdash;Stropping Fine Tools&mdash;Importance
+of Sharp Tools.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Having given this brief description of
+the tools and materials used by carvers,
+we shall suppose a piece of work is about
+to be started. The first thing the carver
+will require to do is to sharpen his tools.
+That is, if we may assume that they have
+just come from the manufacturer, ground
+but not yet brought to an edge. It will be
+seen that each has a long bevel ending in
+a blunt ridge where the cutting edge
+should be. We shall take the chisel No.
+10 and sharpen that first, as it is the easiest
+to do, and so get a little practise before we
+try the gouges. The oilstone and oil have
+already been described. The first thing is
+to well oil the stone and lay it on the bench
+in a position with its end toward the operator.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs09" id="gs09"></a>
+<img src="images/gs09.png" width="400" height="186" alt="A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+
+B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD
+
+Fig. 8." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+
+B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD
+
+Fig. 8.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tools which are going to be used in
+<span class='pagenum'>[53]</span>
+soft wood require rather a longer bevel
+and more acute edge than when they are
+wanted for hard wood. Both angles are
+shown in Fig. 8. Lay the flat of the tool
+on the stone at an angle of about 15&deg;, with
+the handle in the hollow of the right hand,
+and two fingers of the left pressed upon
+the blade as near to the stone as possible.
+Then begin rubbing the tool from end to
+end of the stone, taking care not to rock
+the right hand up and down, but to keep
+it as level as possible throughout the
+stroke, bearing heavily on the blade with
+the left hand, to keep it well in contact
+with the stone. Rocking produces a
+rounded edge which is fatal to keenness.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+C (Fig. 9) gives approximately, to an enlarged
+scale, the sections of a good edge,
+and D that of an imperfect one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs10" id="gs10"></a>
+<img src="images/gs10.png" width="400" height="195" alt="C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE
+D. BADLY FORMED EDGE.
+Fig. 9." title="" />
+<span class="caption">C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE
+D. BADLY FORMED EDGE.
+Fig. 9.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Practise alone will familiarize the muscles
+of the wrist with the proper motion, but it
+is important to acquire this in order to
+form the correct habit early. It should
+be practised very slowly at first, until the
+hands get accustomed to the movements.
+When one side of the tool has been rubbed
+bright as far as the cutting edge, turn it
+over and treat the other in the same way.
+Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed
+on both sides, in the proportion of about
+two-thirds outside to one-third inside.
+When a keen edge has been formed, which
+can easily be tested by gently applying the
+finger, it should be stropped on a piece of
+stout leather. It will be found, if the finger
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+is passed down the tool and over its edge,
+that the stoning has turned up a burr. This
+must be removed by stropping on both
+sides alternately. A paste composed of
+emery and crocus powders mixed with
+grease is used to smear the leather before
+stropping; this can either be procured at
+the tool shop, or made by the carver.
+When the tool has been sufficiently
+stropped, and all burr removed, it is
+ready for use, but it is as well to try it on
+a piece of wood first, and test it for burr,
+and if necessary strop it again.</p>
+
+<p>Before we leave this tool, however, we
+shall anticipate a little, and look at it after
+it has been used for some time and become
+blunt. Its cutting edge and the bevel
+above it are now polished to a high degree,
+owing to friction with the wood. We lay
+it on the stone, taking care to preserve the
+original angle (15&deg;). We find on looking
+at the tool after a little rubbing that this
+time it presents a bright rim along the
+edge in contrast with the gray steel which
+has been in contact with the stone. This
+bright rim is part of the polished surface
+the whole bevel had before we began this
+second sharpening, which proves that the
+actual edge has not yet touched the stone.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+We are tempted to lift the right hand
+ever so little, and so get rid of this bright
+rim (sometimes called the "candle"); we
+shall thus get an edge quicker than if we
+have to rub away all the steel behind it.
+We do this, and soon get our edge; the
+bright rim has disappeared, but we have
+done an unwise thing, and have not saved
+much time, because we have begun to
+make a rounded edge, which, if carried a
+little farther, will make the tool useless
+until it is reground. There is no help for
+it: time must be spent and trouble taken in
+sharpening tools; with method and care
+there need be very little grinding, unless
+tools are actually broken.</p>
+
+<p>To resume our lesson in tool-sharpening:
+we can not do much carving with one
+chisel, so we shall now take up gouge No.
+2 as being the least difficult. This being
+a rounded tool, we must turn the stone
+over and use the side we have determined
+to keep for gouges, etc. We commence
+rubbing it up and down the stone in the
+same manner as described for the chisel,
+but, in addition, we have now another
+motion. To bring all the parts of the
+edge into contact with the stone the
+gouge must be rolled from side to side
+<span class='pagenum'>[57]</span>
+as it goes up and down. To accomplish
+this the wrist should be slowly practised
+until it gets into step with the up and
+down motions; it matters very little
+whether one turn of the tool is given to
+one passage along the stone, or only one
+turn to many up and down rubbings. The
+main thing is evenness of rubbing all along
+the circular edge, as if one part gets more
+than its share the edge becomes wavy,
+which is a thing to be avoided as much
+as possible. When the outside has been
+cleanly rubbed up to the edge, the inside
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+is to be rubbed out with the Washita slip
+and oil to the extent of about half as much
+as the outside. The handle of the tool
+should be grasped in the left hand, while
+its blade rests on a block of wood, or on
+the oilstone. Hold the slip between the
+fingers and thumb, slanting a little over
+the inner edge; and work it in a series
+of short downward strokes, beginning
+the stroke at one corner of the gouge and
+leaving off at the other (see Fig. 10).
+Strop the outside of the tool, and test
+for burr, then lay the leather over the
+handle of another tool and strop the inside,
+repeating the operation until all burr
+has been removed, when probably the tool
+will be ready for use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs11" id="gs11"></a>
+<img src="images/gs11.png" width="400" height="325" alt="Fig. 10." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Veiner requires the same kind of
+treatment, only as this tool is not part of
+a circle in its section (having straight
+sides), only one-half must be done at a
+time; and it is as well to give the straight
+sides one stroke or so in every half-dozen
+all to itself to keep it in shape. Care
+must be taken with this tool as it is easily
+rubbed out of shape. The inside must be
+finished off with the Arkansas knife-edged
+slip, one side at a time, as it is impossible
+to sweep out the whole section of these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must
+follow as before, but as this tool is so small
+that the leather will not enter its hollow,
+the leather must be laid down flat and the
+hollow of the tool drawn along its edge
+until it makes a little ridge for itself which
+fills the hollow and clears off burr (see
+Fig. 11); if any such adheres outside, a
+slight rub on the Arkansas stone will probably
+remove it. When the edges of the
+tools begin to get dull, it often happens
+that they only require to be stropped, which
+should be frequently done. As the treatment
+of all gouges is more or less like
+what has been described, practise will enable
+the student to adapt it to the shape
+of the tool which requires his attention.
+There remains only the V tool, the Spoon
+tools, and the Maccaroni, which all require
+special attention. The point of the V
+<span class='pagenum'>[60]</span>
+tool is so acute that it becomes difficult
+to clear the inside. A knife-edged slip is
+used for this purpose, and it is well also
+to cut a slip of wood to a thin edge, and
+after rubbing it with paste and oil, pass
+it down frequently over the point between
+the sides. Unless a very sharp point is
+obtained, this tool is practically useless;
+the least speck of burr or dullness will
+stop its progress or tear up the wood. In
+sharpening it, the sides should be pressed
+firmly on the stone, watching it every now
+and then to see what effect is being produced.
+If a gap begins to appear on one
+side, as it often does, then rub the other
+side until it disappears, taking care to
+bear more heavily on the point of the
+tool than elsewhere. If the sides get out
+of shape, pass the tool along the stone,
+holding it at right angles to the side of
+the stone, but at the proper angle of
+elevation; in this case the tool is held near
+its end, between fingers and thumb. Spoon
+tools must be held to the stone at a much
+higher angle until the cutting edge is in
+the right relation to the surface, or they
+may be drawn sidewise along it, taking
+care that every part of the edge comes in
+contact and receives an equal amount of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+rubbing. These may be treated half
+at a time, or all round, according to the
+size and depth of the tool. However
+it is produced, the one thing essential is a
+long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not
+a rounded or obtuse one. Strop the inside
+by folding up the leather into a little
+roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the
+tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs12" id="gs12"></a>
+<img src="images/gs12.png" width="400" height="160" alt="Fig. 11." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For the small set of tools described in
+Chapter II one flat oilstone and two slips
+will be found sufficient for a beginning,
+but as a matter of fact, it will be advisable,
+as the number of tools is enlarged,
+to obtain slips of curves corresponding
+to the hollows of all gouges as nearly as
+possible. Many professional carvers have
+sets of these slips for the insides of tools,
+varying in curves which exactly fit every
+hollow tool they possess, including a triangular
+one for the inside of the V tool.
+The same rule sometimes applies to the
+sweeps of the outsides of gouges, for these,
+corresponding channels are ground out in
+flat stones, a process which is both difficult
+and laborious. If the insides are
+dealt with on fitting slips, which may be
+easily adapted to the purpose by application
+to a grindstone, the outsides are not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+so difficult to manage, so that grooved
+stones may be dispensed with.</p>
+
+<p>Before we leave the subject of sharpening
+tools it will be well to impress upon
+the beginner the extreme importance of
+keeping his tools in good order. When a
+tool is really sharp it whistles as it works;
+a dull tool makes dull work, and the
+carver loses both time and temper. There
+can be no doubt that the great technical
+skill shown in the works of Grinling
+Gibbons and his followers could not have
+been arrived at without the help of extraordinarily
+sharp tools. Tools not merely
+sharpened and then used until they became
+dull, but tools that were always sharp,
+and never allowed to approach dullness.
+Sharpening tools is indeed an art in itself,
+and like other arts has its votaries, who
+successfully conquer its difficulties with
+apparent ease, while others are baffled at
+every point. Impatience is the stumbling-block
+in such operations. Those most
+painstaking people, the Chinese, according
+to all accounts, put magic into their
+sharpening stones; the keenness of their
+blades being only equaled by that of their
+wits in all such matters of delicate application.
+To make a good beginning is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+a great point gained. To carefully examine
+every tool, and at the expense of
+time correct the faults of management, is
+the only way to become expert in sharpening
+tools.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>CHIP CARVING</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Its Savage Origin&mdash;A Clue to its only
+Claim to Artistic
+Importance&mdash;Monotony better than Variety&mdash;An
+Exercise in Impatience and Precision&mdash;Technical
+Methods.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>One of the simplest forms of wood-carving
+is that known as "chip" carving.
+This kind of work is by no means of
+modern origin, as its development may be
+traced to a source in the barbaric instinct
+for decoration common to the ancient inhabitants
+of New Zealand and other South
+Sea Islands. Technically, and with modern
+tools, it is a form of the art which demands
+but little skill, save in the matter of precision
+and patient repetition. As practised
+by its savage masters, the perfection
+of these two qualities elevates their work to
+the dignity of a real art. It is difficult to
+<span class='pagenum'>[64]</span>
+conceive the contradictory fact, that this
+apparently simple form of art was once the
+exponent of a struggling desire for refinement
+on the part of fierce and warlike men,
+and that it should, under the influence of
+polite society, become the all-too-easy task
+of esthetically minded schoolgirls. In
+the hands of those warrior artists, and
+with the tools at their command, mostly
+fashioned from sharpened fish-bones and
+such like rude materials, it was an art
+which required the equivalent of many fine
+artistic qualities, as such are understood by
+more cultivated nations. The marvelous
+dexterity and determined purpose evinced
+in the laborious decoration of canoe paddles,
+ax-handles, and other weapons, is,
+under such technical disabilities as to tools,
+really very impressive. This being so,
+there is no inherent reason why such a
+rudimentary form of the art as "chip"
+carving should not be practised in a way
+consistent with its true nature and limitations.
+As its elemental distinctions are so
+few, and its methods so simple, it follows
+that in recognizing such limitations, we
+shall make the most of our design. Instead,
+then, of trusting to a forced variety, let us
+seek for its strong point in an opposite
+<span class='pagenum'>[65]</span>
+direction, and by the monotonous repetition
+of basket-like patterns, win the not-to-be-despised
+praise which is due to patience
+and perseverance. In this way only can
+such a restricted form of artistic expression
+become in the least degree interesting.
+The designs usually associated with the
+"civilized" practise of this work are,
+generally speaking, of the kind known as
+"geometric," that is to say, composed of
+circles and straight lines intersecting each
+other in complicated pattern. Now the
+"variety" obtained in this manner, as contrasted
+with the dignified monotony of the
+savage's method, is the note which marks
+a weak desire to attain great results with
+little effort. The "variety," as such, is
+wholly mechanical, the technical difficulties,
+with modern tools at command,
+are felt at a glance to be very trifling;
+therefore such designs are quite unsuitable
+to the kind of work, if human sympathies
+are to be excited in a reasonable way.</p>
+
+<p>An important fact in connection with
+this kind of design is that most of these
+geometric patterns are, apart from their
+uncomfortable "variety," based on too
+large a scale as to detail. All the laborious
+carving on paddles and clubs, such as
+<span class='pagenum'>[66]</span>
+may be seen in our museums, is founded
+upon a scale of detail in which the holes
+vary in size from 1/16 to something under
+1/4 in. their longest way, only in special
+places, such as borders, etc., attaining a
+larger size. Such variety as the artist has
+permitted himself being confined to the
+<i>occasional</i> introduction of a circular form,
+but mostly obtained by a subtle change in
+the proportion of the holes, or by an
+alternate emphasis upon perpendicular or
+horizontal lines.</p>
+
+<p>As a test of endurance, and as an experimental
+effort with carving tools, I set
+you this exercise. In Fig. 12 you will find
+a pattern taken from one of those South
+Sea carvings which we have been considering.
+Now, take one of the articles so
+often disfigured with childish and hasty
+efforts to cover a surface with so-called
+"art work," such as the side of a bellows
+or the surface of a bread-plate, and on it
+carve this pattern, repeating the same-shaped
+holes until you fill the entire space.
+By the time you have completed it you
+will begin to understand and appreciate
+one of the fundamental qualities which
+must go toward the making of a carver,
+namely, patience; and you will have produced
+<span class='pagenum'>[69]</span>
+a thing which may give you pleasant
+surprises, in the unexpected but very
+natural admiration it elicits from your
+friends.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="gs13" id="gs13"></a>
+<img src="images/gs13.png" width="384" height="640" alt="Fig. 12." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Having drawn the pattern on your
+wood, ruling the lines to measurement,
+and being careful to keep your lines thin
+and clear as drawn with a somewhat hard
+pencil, proceed to cut out the holes with
+the chisel, No. 11 on our list, 1/4 in. wide.
+It will serve the purpose much better than
+the knife usually sold for this kind of
+work, and will be giving you useful practise
+with a very necessary carving tool.
+The corner of the chisel will do most of
+the work, sloping it to suit the different
+angles at the bottom of the holes. Each
+chip should come out with a clean cut,
+but to insure this the downward cuts
+should be done first, forming the raised
+diagonal lines.</p>
+
+<p>When you have successfully performed
+this piece of discipline, you may, if you
+care to do more of the same kind of work,
+carry out a design based upon the principles
+we have been discussing, but introducing
+a very moderate amount of
+variety by using one or more of the
+patterns shown in Fig. 12, all of which are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+from the same dusky artist's designs and
+can not be improved upon. If you wish for
+more variety than these narrow limits afford,
+then try some other kind of carving,
+with perhaps leafage as its motive.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber&mdash;First
+Exercise in
+Grounding&mdash;Description of Method&mdash;Cutting
+the Miters&mdash;Handling of Tools, Danger of
+Carelessness&mdash;Importance of Clean Cutting.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>It is curious to imagine what the inside of
+a young enthusiast's head must be like
+when he makes his first conscious step
+toward artistic expression. The chaotic
+jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling
+about in its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic
+effects, which to him look like the most
+lovely pictures. If he could only learn
+to put them down! let him but acquire the
+technical department of his art, and what
+easier than to realize those most marvelous
+dreams. Later in his progress it begins to
+dawn upon him that this same technical
+department may not be so very obedient
+<span class='pagenum'>[70]</span>
+to his wishes; it may have laws of its
+own, which shall change his fairy fancies
+into sober images, not at all unlike something
+which has often been done before
+by others. But let the young soul continue
+to see visions, the more the better, provided
+they be of the right sort. We shall in the
+meantime ask him to curb his imagination,
+and yield his faculties for the moment to
+the apparently simple task of realizing a
+leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted
+valley.</p>
+
+<p>With the student's kind permission we
+shall, while these lessons continue, make
+believe that teacher and pupil are together
+in a class-room, or, better still, in a
+country workshop, with chips flying in all
+directions under busy hands.</p>
+
+<p>I must tell you then, that the first surprise
+which awaits the beginner, and one
+which opens his eyes to a whole series of
+restraints upon the freedom of his operations,
+lies in the discovery that wood has a
+decided grain or fiber. He will find that
+it sometimes behaves in a very obstinate
+manner, refusing to cut straight here,
+chipping off there, and altogether seeming
+to take pleasure in thwarting his every
+effort. By and by he gets to know his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+piece of wood; where the grain dips and
+where it comes up or wriggles, and with
+practise he becomes its master. He finds
+in this, his first technical difficulty, a kind
+of blessing in disguise, because it sets
+bounds to what would otherwise be an
+infinitely vague choice of methods.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now take a piece of yellow
+pine, free from knots, and planed clean all
+round. The size may be about 12 ins.
+long by 7 ins. wide. We shall fix this to
+the bench by means of two clamps or one
+clamp and a screwed block at opposite
+corners. Now we are ready to begin work,
+but up to the present we have not thought
+of the design we intend executing, being
+so intent upon the tools and impatient for
+an attack upon the silky wood with their
+sharp edges.</p>
+
+<p>The illustration, Fig. 13, gives a clue
+to the sort of design to begin with; it
+measures about 11 ins. long by 7 ins.
+wide, allowing a margin all round. The
+wood should be a little longer than the
+design, as the ends get spoiled by the
+clamps. This little design need not, and
+indeed should not, be copied. Make one
+for yourself entirely different, only bearing
+in mind the points which are to be observed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+in arranging it, and which have
+for their object the avoidance of difficulties
+likely to be too much for a first effort.
+These points are somewhat to this effect:
+the design should be of leaves, laid out
+flat on a background, with no complication
+of perspective. They should have no
+undulations of surface. That is to say,
+the margins of all the features should be
+as nearly as possible the original surface
+of the wood, which may have just the least
+possible bit of finish in the manner I shall
+describe later on. The articulation of the
+leaves and flower is represented by simple
+gouge cuts. There should be nothing in
+the design requiring rounded surfaces.
+The passage for tools in clearing out the
+ground between the features must not
+be less than 1/4 in.; this will allow the
+3/16 in. corner grounder to pass freely
+backward and forward. The ground is
+supposed to be sunk about three-sixteenths
+of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>As you have not got your design made,
+I shall, for convenience' sake, explain how
+Fig. 13 should be begun and finished.
+First having traced the full-size design it
+should be transferred to the wood by
+means of a piece of blue carbon paper.
+<span class='pagenum'>[73]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a name="gs14" id="gs14"></a>
+<img src="images/gs14.png" width="390" height="315" alt="Fig. 13." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs14a" id="gs14a"></a>
+<img src="images/gs14a.png" width="400" height="259" alt="Fig. 14." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.</span></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[74]</span></p>
+
+<p>Then with either the Veiner or V tool
+outline the whole of the leaves, etc., about
+1/8 in. deep, keeping well on the outside
+of the drawing. Ignore all minor detail
+for the present, blocking out the design in
+masses. No outline need be grooved for
+the margin of the panel at present, as it
+should be done with a larger tool. For
+this purpose take gouge No. 6 (1/4 in.
+wide), and begin at the left-hand bottom
+corner of the panel, cut a groove about
+1/16 in. within the blue line, taking care
+not to cut off parts of the leaves in the
+process; begin a little above the corner
+at the bottom, and leave off a little below
+that at the top. The miters will be
+formed later on.</p>
+
+<p>In this operation, as in all subsequent
+ones, the grain of the wood will be more or
+less in evidence. You will by degrees get
+to know the piece of wood you are working
+upon, and cut in such a way that your
+tool runs <i>with</i> the grain and not <i>against</i> it;
+that is to say, you will cut as much as
+possible on the up-hill direction of the
+fiber. This can not always be done in deep
+hollows, but then you will have had some
+practise before you attempt these.</p>
+
+<p>Now take chisel No. 11, and with it
+<span class='pagenum'>[75]</span>
+stab into the grooved outline, pressing the
+tool down perpendicularly to what you
+think feels like the depth of the ground.
+The mallet need not be used for this, as
+the wood is soft enough to allow of the
+tools being pressed by the hand alone, but
+remember that the force must be proportioned
+to the depth desired, and to the
+direction of the grain; much less pressure
+is wanted to drive a tool into the wood
+when its edge is parallel with the grain
+than when it lies in a cross direction;
+small tools penetrate more easily than
+large ones, as a matter of course, but one
+must think of these things or accidents
+happen.</p>
+
+<p>When you have been all round the
+design in this way with such gouges as
+may be needed for the slow and quick
+curves, get the wood out nearly down to
+the ground, leaving a little for finishing.
+Do this with any tool that fits the spaces
+best; the larger the better. Cut across the
+grain as much as possible, not along it.
+The flat gouge, No. 1, will be found useful
+for this purpose in the larger spaces, and
+the grounders for the narrow passages.
+This leaves the ground in a rough state,
+which must be finished later on.
+<span class='pagenum'>[76]</span></p>
+
+<p>Now take gouges Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
+and chisels Nos. 10, 11, 12, and with them
+cut down the outline as accurately as possible
+to the depth of the ground, and, if
+you are lucky, just a hair's breadth deeper.
+In doing this make the sides slope a little
+outward toward the bottom. If the
+gouges do not entirely adapt themselves
+to the contours of your lines, do not
+trouble, but leave that bit to be done
+afterward with a sweep of the tool, either
+a flat gouge, or the corner-chisel used like
+a knife.</p>
+
+<p>Now we have all the outline cut down
+to the depth of the background, and may
+proceed to clear out the wood hanging
+about between the design and the ground
+all round it. We shall do this with the
+"grounders," using the largest one when
+possible, and only taking to the smallest
+when absolutely necessary on account of
+space. This done, we shall now proceed to
+finish the hollow sides of the panel and
+make the miters. Again, take No. 6
+gouge and drive a clear hollow touching
+the blue line at end of panel, and reaching
+the bottom of the sinking, i.e., the actual
+ground as finished, see <i>a</i>, Fig. 15. To form
+the miter at top of left-hand side of panel,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+carry the hollow on until the tool reaches
+the bottom of the hollow running along
+the top; as soon as this point is gained,
+turn the tool out and pitch it a little up
+in the way shown at <i>c</i>, Fig. 15, in which
+the tool is shown at an angle which brings
+the edge of the gouge exactly on the line
+of the miter to be formed. Beginning as it
+does at <i>b</i>, this quick turn of the handle to
+the left takes out the little bit of wood
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+shown by dotted lines at <i>b</i>, and forms one-half
+of the miter. The cross-grain cut
+should be done first, as in this way there is
+less risk of splintering. Now repeat the
+process on the long-grain side of the panel,
+and one miter is in a good way for being
+finished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs15" id="gs15"></a>
+<img src="images/gs15.png" width="400" height="395" alt="Fig. 15." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A word now about these sides of sunk
+panels. They always look better if they
+are hollowed with a gouge instead of
+being cut square down. In the first case
+they carry out the impression that the
+whole thing is cut out of a solid piece of
+wood, whereas when they are cut sharply
+down they always suggest cabinet-making,
+as if a piece had been glued on to form a
+margin.</p>
+
+<p>We have now got the work blocked out
+and the ground fairly level, and we are
+ready to do the little carving we have
+allowed ourselves. Before we begin this
+I shall take the opportunity of reminding
+you that you must be very careful in
+handling your tools; it is a matter of the
+greatest importance, if the contingency of
+cut fingers or damaged work is to be
+avoided. The left hand in carving has
+nearly as much to do as the right, only in
+a different way. Grasp the chisel or gouge
+<span class='pagenum'>[79]</span>
+in the left hand with the fingers somewhat
+extended, that is, the little finger
+will come well on to the blade, and the
+thumb run up toward the top of the
+handle; the wrist meanwhile resting on
+the work. The right hand is used for
+pushing the tool forward, and for turning
+it this way and that, in fact does most of
+the guiding. Both hands may be described
+as opposing each other in force,
+for the pressure on the tool from the
+right hand should be resisted by the left,
+until almost a balance is struck, and just
+enough force left to cut the wood gently,
+without danger of slipping forward and
+damaging it or the fingers. The tool is
+thus in complete command, and the
+slightest change of pressure on either hand
+may alter its direction or stop it altogether.
+Never drive a tool forward with one hand
+without this counter-resistance, as there is
+no knowing what may happen if it slips.
+Never wave tools about in the hand, and
+generally remember that they are dangerous
+implements, both to the user and the work.
+Never put too much force on a tool when
+in the neighborhood of a delicate passage,
+but take time and eat the bit of wood out
+mouse-like, in small fragments.
+<span class='pagenum'>[80]</span></p>
+
+<p>Now we are ready to finish our panel.
+Take the grounders, according to the size
+required, always using the biggest possible.
+Keep the tool well pressed down, and
+<i>shave</i> away the roughness of the ground,
+giving the tool a slight sideway motion
+as well as a forward one. Work right up
+to the leaves, etc., which, if cut deep
+enough, should allow the chips to come
+away freely, leaving a clear line of intersection;
+if it does not, then the upright
+sides must be cut down until the ground
+is quite clear of chips. Grounder tools
+are very prone to dig into the surface and
+make work for themselves: sharp tools,
+practise, and a slight sideway motion will
+prevent this. Tool No. 23 is useful in
+this respect, its corners being slightly lifted
+above the level of the ground as it passes
+along. Corners that can not be reached
+with the bent chisels may be finished off
+with the corner-chisel.</p>
+
+<p>Now we come to the surface decorations,
+for the carving in this design consists of
+little more. This is all done with the
+gouges. Generally speaking, enter the
+groove at its widest end and leave it at
+the narrowest, lowering the handle of the
+tool gradually as you go along to lift the
+<span class='pagenum'>[81]</span>
+gouge out of the wood, producing the
+drawing of the forms at the same time.
+A gouge cut never looks so well as when
+done at one stroke; patching it afterward
+with amendments always produces
+a labored look. If this has to be done,
+the tool should be passed finally over the
+whole groove to remove the superfluous
+tool marks&mdash;a sideway gliding motion
+of the edge, combined with its forward
+motion, often succeeds in this operation.
+To form the circular center of the flower,
+press down gouge Nos. 5 or 6, gently at
+first and perpendicular to the wood. When
+a cut has been made all round the circle,
+work the edge of the tool in it, circus-like,
+by turning the handle in the fingers
+round and round until the edge cuts its
+way down to the proper depth. (See
+A, Fig. 15.)</p>
+
+<p>Carve the sides of the leaves where
+necessary with flat gouges on the inside
+curves, and with chisels and corner-chisels
+on the outside ones. These should be
+used in a sliding or knife-like fashion, and
+not merely pushed forward. Finish the
+surface in the same manner all over
+between the gouge grooves and the edges
+of the leaves, producing a very slight
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+bevel as in section <i>a</i>, Fig. 13, and this
+panel may be called finished.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 14 is another suggestion for a
+design, upon which I hope you will base
+one of your own as an exercise at this
+stage of your progress.</p>
+
+<p>Before we begin another, though, I shall
+take this opportunity of reading you a short
+lecture on a most important matter which
+has a great deal to do with the preparation
+of your mind in making a suitable choice
+of subject for your future work.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Difficulties of Selection and
+Arrangement&mdash;Limits of
+an Imitative Treatment&mdash;Light and Distance
+Factors in the Arrangement of a Design&mdash;Economy
+of Detail Necessary&mdash;The Word
+"Conventional."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Broadly stated, the three most formidable
+difficulties which confront the beginner
+when he sets out to make what he is
+pleased to call his design for carving in
+relief, are: Firstly, the choice of a
+subject; secondly, how far he may go in
+the imitation of its details; thirdly, its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+arrangement as a whole when he has decided
+the first two points.</p>
+
+<p>Just now we shall deal only with the
+second difficulty, that is, how far may
+likeness to nature be carried. We shall
+do this, because until we come to some
+understanding on that point, a right
+choice of subject becomes practically impossible,
+consequently the consideration of
+its arrangement would be premature.</p>
+
+<p>There is, strictly speaking, only one aim
+worthy of the artist's attention, be he carver
+or painter; and that is the representation
+of some form of life, or its associations.
+Luckily, there is a mighty consensus of
+opinion in support of this dictum, both
+by example and precept, so there is no
+need to discuss it, or question its authority.
+We shall proceed, therefore, to act upon
+it, and choose for our work only such
+material as in some way indicates life,
+either directly, as in trees, animals, or
+figures, or by association, and as explanation
+thereof, as in drapery and other accessories&mdash;never
+choosing a subject like those
+known to painters as "still life," such as
+bowls, fiddles, weapons, etc., unless, as I
+have said, they are associated with the
+more important element.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>You have already discovered by practise
+that wood has a grain which sets bounds
+to the possibilities of technique. You
+have yet to learn that it has also an inordinate
+capacity for swallowing light.
+Now, as it is by the aid of light that we
+see the results of our labor, it follows
+that we should do everything in our
+power to take full advantage of that helpful
+agency. It is obvious that work which
+can not be seen is only so much labor
+thrown away. There is approximately a
+right relative distance from which to view
+all manner of carvings, and if from this
+position the work is not both distinct and
+coherent, its result is valueless.</p>
+
+<p>Then what is the quality which makes
+all the difference between a telling piece
+of carving, and one which looks, at a
+moderate distance, like crumpled paper or
+the cork bark which decorates a suburban
+summer-house? The answer is, attention
+to <i>strict economy in detail</i>. Without
+economy there can be no arrangement,
+and without the latter no general effect.
+We are practically dealing, not with so
+much mere wood, but unconsciously we
+are directing our efforts to a manipulation
+of the light of day&mdash;playing with the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+lamps of the sky&mdash;and if we do not
+understand this, the result must be undoubtedly
+failure, with a piece of wood
+left on our hands, cut into unintelligible
+ruts.</p>
+
+<p>But what, you will say, has all this to
+do with copying the infinite variety of
+nature's detail; surely it can not be wrong
+to imitate what is really beautiful in itself?
+You will find the best answer to this in
+the technical difficulties of your task.
+You have the grain of the wood to think
+of, and now you have this other difficulty
+in managing the light which is to display
+your design. The obstinacy of the wood
+may be to some extent conquered, and
+indeed has been almost entirely so, by the
+technical resources of Grinling Gibbons,
+but the treatment demanded by the laws
+of light and vision is quite another question,
+and if our work is to have its due effect,
+there is no other solution of the problem
+than by finding a way of complying with
+those laws.</p>
+
+<p>If I want to represent a rose and make
+it intelligible at a glance from such and
+such a point of view, and I find after
+taking infinite pains to reproduce as many
+as I can of its numerous petals, and as
+<span class='pagenum'>[86]</span>
+much as possible of its complicated foliage,
+that I had not reckoned with the light
+which was to illuminate it, and that instead
+of displaying my work to advantage,
+it has blurred all its delicate forms into
+dusky and chaotic masses, would I not be
+foolish if I repeated such an experiment?
+Rather, I take the opposite extreme, and
+produce a rose this time which has but
+five petals, and one or two sprays of rudimentary
+foliage. Somehow the result is
+better, and it has only taken me a tenth
+part of the time to produce. I now find
+that I can afford, without offending the
+genius of light, or straining my eyesight, to
+add a few more petals and one or two extra
+leaves between those I have so sparingly
+designed, and a kind of balance is struck.
+The same thing happens when I try to
+represent a whole tree&mdash;I can not even count
+the leaves upon it, why then attempt to
+carve them? Let me make one leaf that
+will stand for fifty, and let that leaf be
+simplified until it is little more than an
+abstract of the form I see in such thousandfold
+variety. The proof that I am right
+this time is that when I stand at the proper
+distance to view my work, it is all as distinct
+as I could wish it to be. Not a leaf-point
+<span class='pagenum'>[87]</span>
+is quite lost to sight, except where,
+in vanishing into a shadow, it adds mystery
+without creating confusion.</p>
+
+<p>We have in this discovery a clue to the
+meaning of the word "Conventional": it
+means that a particular method has been
+"agreed upon" as the best fitted for its
+purpose, i.e., as showing the work to most
+advantage with a minimum of labor.
+Not that experience had really anything
+to do with the invention of the method.
+Strange to say, the earliest efforts in carving
+were based upon an unquestioning sense
+that no other was possible, certainly no
+attempts were made to change it until in
+latter days temptations arose in various
+directions, the effects of which have entailed
+upon ourselves a conscious effort of choice
+in comparing the results of the many subsequent
+experiments.</p>
+
+<p>Before I continue this subject further, I
+shall give you another exercise, with the
+object of making a closer resemblance to
+natural forms, bearing in mind the while
+all that has been said about a sparing
+use of minute detail with reference to its
+visible effect. We shall in this design
+attempt some shaping on the surface of
+the leaves and a little rounding too, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+may add interest to the work. In my
+next lecture to you, I shall have something
+to say about another important element in
+all designs for wood-carving. I mean the
+shapes taken by the background between
+the leaves, like the patches of sky seen behind
+a tree.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>ROUNDED FORMS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Necessity for Every Carver Making his own
+Designs&mdash;Method
+of Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk
+Ground.</p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[89]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;"><a name="gs16" id="gs16"></a>
+<img src="images/gs16.png" width="369" height="640" alt="Fig. 16." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 16, our second exercise, like the first
+one, is only to be taken as a suggestion for
+a design to be made by yourself. It is a
+fundamental principle that both design and
+execution should be the work of one and
+the same person, and I want you to begin
+by strictly practising this rule. It was indeed
+one of the main conditions of production
+in the best times of the past, and
+there is not a shadow of doubt that it must
+again come to be the universal rule if any
+real progress is to be made in the art of
+wood-carving, or in any other art for that
+
+<span class='pagenum'>[90]</span>
+matter. Just think for a moment how
+false must be the position of both parties,
+when one makes a "design" and another
+carries it out. The "designer" sets his
+head to work (we must not count his hands
+at present, as they only note down the
+results in a kind of writing), a "design"
+is produced and handed over to the carver
+to execute. He, the carver, sets his hands
+and eyes to work, to carry out the other
+man's idea, or at least interpret his notes
+for the same, his head meanwhile having
+very little to do, further than transfer the
+said notes to his hands. For very good reasons
+such an arrangement as this is bound
+to come to grief. One is, that no piece of
+carving can properly be said to be "designed"
+until it is finished to the last
+stroke. A drawing is only a map of its
+general outline, with perhaps contours approximately
+indicated by shading. In any
+case, even if a full-size model were supplied
+by the designer, the principle involved
+would suffer just the same degree of violence,
+for it is in the actual carving of the
+wood that the designer should find both his
+inspiration and the discipline which keeps
+it within reasonable bounds. He must be
+at full liberty to alter his original intention
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+as the work develops under his
+hand.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently I have been led into giving
+you another lecture; we must now get to
+work on our exercise.</p>
+
+<p>Draw and trace your outline in the same
+manner as before, and transfer it to the
+wood. You may make it any convenient
+size, say on a board 18 ins. long by 9 ins.
+wide, or what other shape you like, provided
+you observe one or two conditions
+which I am going to point out. It shall
+have a fair amount of background between
+the features, and the design, whatever it
+is, shall form a traceable likeness to a
+pattern of some description; it shall have
+a rudimentary resemblance to nature, without
+going into much detail; and last, it
+shall have a few <i>rounded</i> forms in it,
+rounded both in outline and on the surface,
+as, for instance, plums.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs17" id="gs17"></a>
+<img src="images/gs17.png" width="400" height="42" alt="Fig. 17." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In setting to work to carve this exercise,
+follow the same procedure as in the first
+one, up to the point when the surface
+decorations began. In the illustration,
+there is a suggestion for a variety in the
+background which does not occur in the
+other. In this case the little branches are
+supposed to lie along the tops of gentle
+<span class='pagenum'>[92]</span>
+elevations, and the plums to lie in the
+hollows. It produces a section something
+like this, Fig. 17. There is a sufficient
+excuse for this kind of treatment in the
+fact that the branches do not require
+much depth, and the plums will look all
+the better for a little more. The depth
+of the background will thus vary, say
+between 3/16 in. at the branches and 3/8 in. at
+the plums. The branches are supposed
+to be perfectly level from end to end,
+that is, they lie parallel to the surface of
+the wood, but of course curve about in
+the other direction. The leaves, on the
+other hand, are supposed to be somewhat
+rounded and falling away toward their
+sides and points in places. The vein in
+the center of the leaves may be done with
+a parting tool, as well as the serrations at
+the edge, or the latter may perhaps be
+more surely nicked out with a chisel, after
+the leaves have received their shapes, the
+leaves being made to appear as if one side
+was higher than the other, and as though
+<span class='pagenum'>[93]</span>
+their points, in some cases, touched the
+background, while in others the base may
+be the lowest part. The twigs coming
+out from the branches to support the
+plums should be somewhat like this in
+section, and should lie along the curve
+of the background, and be in themselves
+rounded, as in Fig. 18, see section <i>a a</i>.
+The bottom of the panel shows a bevel
+instead of a hollow border: this will serve
+to distinguish it as a starting-point for
+the little branches which appear to emerge
+from it like trees out of the ground. The
+plums should be carved by first cutting
+them down in outline to the background,
+as A, Fig. 19. Then the wood should be
+removed from the edge all round, to form
+the rounded surface. To do this, first
+take the large gouge, No. 2, and with its
+hollow side to the wood, cut off the top,
+from about its middle to one end, and reversing
+the process do the same with the
+other side. Then it will appear something
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+like B (Fig. 19). The remainder
+must be shaped with any tool which will
+do it best. There is no royal road to the
+production of these rounded forms, but
+probably gouge No. 1 will do the most
+of it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs18" id="gs18"></a>
+<img src="images/gs18.png" width="400" height="77" alt="Fig. 18." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs19" id="gs19"></a>
+<img src="images/gs19.png" width="400" height="135" alt="Fig. 19." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here it may be observed that the fewer
+tools used the better, as if many are used
+there is always a risk of unpleasant facets
+at the places where the various marks join
+each other. Before you try the plums,
+or apples, or other rounded fruit which
+you may have in your design, it would be
+as well to experiment with one on a piece
+of spare wood in order to decide upon the
+most suitable tools. The stems or branches
+may be done with flat gouge No. 1, or the
+flat or corner chisel. A very delicate twist
+or spiral tendency in their upward growth
+will greatly improve their appearance, a
+mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or
+<span class='pagenum'>[95]</span>
+chisel will do this; anything is better than
+a mere round and bare surface, which has
+a tendency to look doughy. The little circular
+mark on the end of the plum (call it
+a plum, although that fruit has no such
+thing) is done by pressing gouge No. 7 into
+the wood first, with the handle rather near
+the surface of the wood, and afterward at
+a higher inclination, this taking out a tiny
+chip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shaped
+groove.</p>
+
+<p>Now I am going to continue the subject
+of my last lecture, in order to impress
+upon you the importance of suiting your
+subject to the conditions demanded by the
+laws of technique and light. Practise with
+the tools must go hand in hand with the
+education of the head if good results are
+to be expected; nor must it be left wholly
+to hand and eye if you are to avoid the
+pitfalls which lie in wait for the unwary
+mechanic.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to
+Visibility&mdash;Pattern
+and Free Rendering Compared&mdash;First
+Impressions Lasting&mdash;Medieval Choice of Natural
+Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs20" id="gs20"></a>
+<img src="images/gs20.png" width="400" height="565" alt="Fig. 20." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By a comparison of the piece of Byzantine
+sculpture, Fig. 20, with the more elaborate
+treatment of foliage shown in Fig. 21,
+from late Gothic capitals, in Southwell
+Minster, it will be seen how an increasing
+desire for imitative resemblance has taken
+the place of a patterned foundation, and
+how, in consequence, the background is no
+longer discernible as a contrasting form.
+The Byzantine design is, of course, little
+more than a pattern with sunk holes for a
+background, and it is in marble; but those
+holes are arranged in a distinct and orderly
+fashion. The other is a highly realistic
+treatment of foliage, the likeness to nature
+being so fully developed that some of these
+groups have veins on the <i>backs</i> of the
+leaves. The question for the moment is
+this, which of the two extremes gives the
+<span class='pagenum'>[98]</span>
+clearest account of itself at a distance? I
+think there can be little doubt that the more
+formal arrangement bears this test better
+than the other, and this, too, in face of the
+fact that it has cost much less labor to
+produce. Remember we are only now
+considering the question of <i>visibility</i> in the
+design. You may like the undefined and
+suggestive masses into which the leaves
+and shadows of the Southwell one group
+themselves better than the unbending severity
+of the lines in the other, but that
+is not the point at present. You can not <i>see</i>
+the actual work which produces that
+mystery, and I may point out to you, that
+what is here romantic and pleasing on account
+of its changeful and informal
+shadows, is on the verge of becoming mere
+bewildering confusion; a tendency which
+always accompanies attempts to imitate the
+accidental or informal grouping of leaves,
+so common to their natural state. The
+further this is carried, the less is it
+possible to govern the forms of the
+background pattern; they become less
+discernible as contrasting <i>forms</i>, although
+they may be very interesting as elements
+of mystery and suggestive of things not
+actually seen. The consequence is a
+<span class='pagenum'>[100]</span>
+loss of power in producing that instantaneous
+impression of harmony which
+is one of the secrets of effectiveness in
+carving. This is greatly owing to the
+constant change of plane demanded by an
+imitative treatment, as well as the want of
+formality in its background. The lack of
+restful monotony in this respect creates
+confusion in the lights, making a closer
+inspection necessary in order to discern the
+beauty of the work. Now the human imagination
+loves surprises, and never wholly
+forgives the artist who, failing to administer
+a pleasant shock, invites it to come forward
+and examine the details of his work
+in order to see how well they are executed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"><a name="gs21" id="gs21"></a>
+<img src="images/gs21.png" width="383" height="640" alt="Fig. 21." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These examples, you will say, are from
+architectural details which have nothing to
+do with wood-carving. On the contrary,
+the same laws govern all manner of
+sculpturesque composition&mdash;scale or material
+making no difference whatever. A
+sculptured marble frieze or a carved ivory
+snuff-box may be equally censurable as being
+either so bare that they verge on baldness
+and want of interest, or so elaborate
+that they look like layers of fungus.</p>
+
+<p>Do not imagine that I am urging any
+preference for a Byzantine treatment in
+<span class='pagenum'>[101]</span>
+your work; to do so would be as foolish
+as to ask you to don medieval costume
+while at work, or assume the speech and
+manners of the tenth century. It would
+be just as ridiculous on your part to affect
+a bias which was not natural to you. I
+am, however, strongly convinced that in
+the choice of natural forms and their
+arrangement into orderly masses (more
+particularly with regard to their appearance
+in silhouette against the ground), and
+also in the matter of an economical use of
+detail, we have much to learn from the carvers
+who preceded the fourteenth century.
+They thoroughly understood and appreciated
+the value of the light which fell upon
+their work, and in designing it arranged
+every detail with the object of reflecting as
+much of it as possible. To this end, their
+work was always calculated for its best
+effects to be seen at a fairly distant point
+of view; and to make sure that it would
+be both visible and coherent, seen from
+that point, they insisted upon some easily
+understood pattern which gave the key to
+the whole at a glance. To make a pattern
+of this kind is not such an easy matter as
+it looks. The forms of the background
+spaces are the complementary parts of the
+<span class='pagenum'>[102]</span>
+design, and are just as important as those
+of the solid portions; it takes them both
+to make a good design.</p>
+
+<p>Now I believe you must have had
+enough of this subject for the present,
+more especially as you have not yet
+begun to feel the extraordinary difficulty
+of making up your mind as to what
+is and what is not fit for the carver's
+uses among the boundless examples of
+beauty spread out for our choice by Dame
+Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, I do not want you to run
+away with the impression that when you
+have mastered the principles of economy
+in detail and an orderly disposition of
+background, that you have therefore
+learned all that is necessary in order to
+go on turning out design after design
+with the ease of a cook making pancakes
+according to a recipe. You will find by
+experience, I think, that all such principles
+are good for is to enforce clearness
+of utterance, so to speak, and to remind
+you that it is light you are dealing with,
+and upon which you must depend for all
+effects; also that the power of vision is
+limited. Acting upon them is quite
+another matter, and one, I am afraid, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+which no one can help you much. You
+may be counseled as to the best and most
+practical mode of expressing your ideas,
+but those thoughts and inventions must
+come from yourself if they are to be
+worth having.</p>
+
+<p>In my next lecture I shall have something
+to say with regard to originality of
+design, but now we must take up our
+tools again and begin work upon another
+exercise.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h3>CONTOURS OF SURFACE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern
+Purposes&mdash;"Throwing
+About"&mdash;Critical Inspection of
+Work from a Distance as it Proceeds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;"><a name="gs22" id="gs22"></a>
+<img src="images/gs22.png" width="246" height="640" alt="Fig. 22." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here are two fragments of a kind of
+running ornament. Fig. 22 is a part of
+the jamb molding of a church in Vicenza.
+If you observe carefully, you will find that
+it has a decidedly classical appearance.
+The truth is that it was carved by a
+Gothic artist late in the fourteenth century,
+just after the Renaissance influence began to
+make itself felt. It is an adaptation by him
+<span class='pagenum'>[104]</span>
+of what he remembered having seen in his travels of the new style,
+grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand. It suits our
+purpose all the better on that account, for the reason that we are going
+to re-adapt his design into an exercise, and shall attempt to make it
+suitable to our limited ability in handling the tools, to the change in
+material
+<span class='pagenum'>[105]</span>
+from stone to wood, and lastly, to our different aims and motives in the
+treatment of architectural ornament. Please do all this for yourself in
+another design, and look upon this suggestion merely in the light of
+helping a lame dog over a stile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 243px;"><a name="gs23" id="gs23"></a>
+<img src="images/gs23.png" width="243" height="640" alt="Fig. 23." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this
+exercise (Fig.
+23) you will
+repeat all you
+have already
+done with
+the others,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+until you come to the shaping of the
+leaves, in which an undulating or up and
+down motion has been attempted. This
+involves a kind of double drawing in the
+curves, one for the flat and one for the
+projections; so that they may appear to
+glide evenly from one point to the other,
+sweeping up and down, right and left,
+without losing their true contours. Carvers
+call this process "throwing about,"
+i.e., making the leaves, etc., appear to
+rise from the background and again fall
+toward it in all directions. The phrase
+is a very meager one, and but poorly expresses
+the necessity for intimate sympathy
+between each surface so "thrown about."
+It is precisely in the observance of this last
+quality that effects of richness are produced.
+You can hardly have too much
+monotony of surface, but may easily err by
+having too much variety. Therefore, whatever
+system of light and shade you may
+adopt, be careful to repeat its motive in
+some sort of rhythmic order all over your
+work; by no other means can you make
+it rich and effective at a distance.</p>
+
+<p>It is well every now and then to put
+your work up on a shelf or ledge at a
+distance and view it as a whole; you will
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+thus see which parts tell and which do
+not, and so gain experience on this point.
+Work should also be turned about frequently,
+sidewise and upside down, in
+order to find how the light affects it in
+different directions. Of course, you must
+not think that because your work may
+happen to look well when seen from a
+little way off that it does not matter
+about the details, whether they be well
+or poorly carved. On the contrary,
+unless you satisfy the eye at both points
+of view, your work is a partial failure.
+The one thing is as important as the
+other, only, as the first glance at carved
+work is generally taken at some little distance,
+it is the more immediately necessary
+to think of that, before we begin to work
+for a closer inspection. First impressions
+are generally lasting with regard to carved
+work, and, as I have said before, beauty
+of detail seldom quite atones for failure
+in the arrangement of masses.</p>
+
+<p>The rounded forms in this design may
+give you a little trouble, but practise, and
+that alone, will enable you to overcome
+this. Absolute smoothness is not desirable.
+Glass-papered surfaces are extremely
+ugly, because they obtrude themselves on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+account of their extreme smoothness,
+having lost all signs of handiwork in the
+tool marks. We shall have something to
+say presently about these tool marks in
+finishing, as it is a very important subject
+which may make all the difference between
+success or failure in finishing a piece of
+work.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h3>ORIGINALITY</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Dangers of Imposing Words&mdash;Novelty more Common
+than Originality&mdash;An Unwholesome Kind of
+"Originality."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>I told you that I should have something
+to say about originality. Almost every
+beginner has some vague impression that
+his first duty should be to aim at originality.
+He hears eulogiums passed upon the individuality
+of some one or other, and tries
+hard to invent new forms of expression or
+peculiarities of style, only resulting, in
+most cases, in new forms of ugliness, which
+it seems is the only possibility under such
+conscious efforts after novelty. The fact
+is that it takes many generations of ardent
+minds to accomplish what at first each
+<span class='pagenum'>[109]</span>
+thinks himself capable of doing alone.
+True originality has somewhat the quality
+of good wine, which becomes more delightful
+as time mellows its flavor and
+imparts to it the aroma which comes of
+long repose; like the new wine, too, originality
+should shyly hide itself in dark
+places until maturity warrants its appearance
+in the light of day. That kind of
+originality which is strikingly new does
+not always stand the test of time, and
+should be regarded with cautious skepticism
+until it has proved itself to be more
+than the passing fashion or novelty of a
+season. There is a kind of sham art very
+conspicuous at the present time, which was
+at quite a recent date popularly believed to
+be very original. It seems to have arisen
+out of some such impatient craving for
+novelty, and it has been encouraged by an
+easy-going kind of suburban <i>refinement</i>,
+which neither knows nor cares very much
+what really goes to the making of a work
+of art. This new art has filled our shops
+and exhibitions with an invertebrate kind
+of ornament, which certainly has the doubtful
+merit of "never having been seen before."
+It has evidently taken its inspiration
+from the trailing and supine forms
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+of floating seaweed, and revels in the
+expression of such boneless structure. By
+way of variety it presents us with a kind
+of symbolic tree, remarkable for more than
+archaic flatness and rigidity. Now, this
+kind of "originality" is not only absolutely
+valueless, but exceedingly harmful;
+its only merit is that, like its ideal
+seaweed, it has no backbone of its own,
+and we may hope that it will soon betake
+itself to its natural home, the slimy bottom
+of the ocean of oblivion.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, the only thing we are absolutely
+sure of in connection with that
+much-abused word "originality" is this,
+that no gift, original or otherwise, can be
+developed without steady and continuous
+practise with the tools of your craft.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h3>PIERCED PATTERNS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Exercise in Background Pattern&mdash;Care as to
+Stability&mdash;Drilling
+and Sawing out the Spaces&mdash;Some
+Uses for Pierced Patterns.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The present exercises may be described as
+a kind of carved open fretwork&mdash;that is to
+<span class='pagenum'>[111]</span>
+say, the ground is entirely cut away, leaving
+the pattern standing free. This will
+form an excellent piece of discipline with
+regard to the design of background forms,
+because in such work as this, those forms
+assert themselves in a very marked manner;
+if they are in any way found to be conspicuously
+unequal in size or are awkwardly
+designed as to shape, the whole
+effect of the work is spoiled.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs24" id="gs24"></a>
+<img src="images/gs24.png" width="400" height="214" alt="Fig. 24." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For your first effort make a design
+based upon No. 24, and please to observe
+these rules in its construction. The main
+or leading lines of the pattern are to run
+as much as possible without crossing each
+other. The holes are to be fairly equal in
+<span class='pagenum'>[112]</span>
+size, or rather in area, as they need not be
+at all like each other in shape. The
+amount of wood left standing to be of a
+width averaging never less than half the
+length of the average-sized hole. This is
+necessary for securing sufficient strength of
+material in the cross-grained pieces, which
+would be liable to split if made too long
+and narrow. The pattern should be
+formal in character, not necessarily symmetrical,
+but it should be well balanced.
+You may have one part of your design
+composed of large holes and another of
+small ones, provided the change is part of
+a definite design, as in Fig. 25. You may
+even leave the wood in some parts forming
+a solid background, or you may treat
+<span class='pagenum'>[113]</span>
+it as a separate piece of simple carving on
+the solid, as in Fig. 26, being careful to
+execute it in a consistently simple manner,
+as in this kind of work much change
+of manner in execution is inadvisable,
+although, at the same time, it is open to
+any amount of variety in design of outline
+and combination of contrasts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs25" id="gs25"></a>
+<img src="images/gs25.png" width="400" height="203" alt="Fig. 25." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs26" id="gs26"></a>
+<img src="images/gs26.png" width="400" height="210" alt="Fig. 26." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Take a piece of pine about 3 or 4 ft.
+long and 7 or 9 ins. wide by 3/4 in.
+thick. Trace on your pattern and drill
+circular holes in the middle of each space
+to be cut through. Then take a keyhole
+saw, and remove the wood by sawing
+round the space close to the blue line,
+taking care not to cut through it in any
+place. The saw must be held very truly
+<span class='pagenum'>[114]</span>
+upright in order to cut the sides of the
+spaces at right angles to the face of the
+wood. Now carve the pattern on the surface
+in whatever manner you have designed&mdash;in
+grooves suggesting the articulation of
+the leaves, in short grooves which may
+pass for additional leaves, or in a dozen
+ways which practise may help you to
+invent.</p>
+
+<p>The wood should be held tightly down
+to the bench in all its parts, or, at least, in
+those being operated upon, as it may, if unsupported,
+crack across some of the narrow
+parts. The sides of all the holes must be
+carved out clean to remove the rough
+saw marks. This can be done partly by
+gouges, or still better, the wood may be
+held up on its edge and the holes cut
+round with a sharp penknife where the
+grain allows it. Now turn the work
+over on its face and carve bevels round
+each of the holes. This reduces the apparent
+thickness of wood, and adds to the
+effect of delicacy in the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>This work may be used for the cresting
+of some large piece of furniture, or may
+be adapted to fill screens or partitions,
+stair newels, and balusters, or it may be
+used as a cornice decoration in the manner
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+suggested by No. 26, where the pierced
+work can be backed by a hollow cornice
+which it fills and enriches.</p>
+
+<p>In our next exercise we shall try our
+hands upon a piece of hardwood for a
+change&mdash;meantime do one or two of these
+fret patterns by way of disciplinary exercise
+in outline forms.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h3>HARDWOOD CARVING</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Carvings can not be Independent
+Ornaments&mdash;Carving
+Impossible on Commercial Productions&mdash;The
+Amateur Joiner&mdash;Corner Cupboards&mdash;Introduction
+of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple in
+Character&mdash;Methods of Carving Grapes.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>We now come to the question, what are
+we going to do with all the pieces of
+carving which we propose to undertake.</p>
+
+<p>There is no more inexorable law relating
+to the use of wood-carving than
+the one which insists upon some kind of
+passport for its introduction, wherever it
+appears. It must come in good company,
+and be properly introduced. The slightest
+and most distant connection with a recognized
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+sponsor is often sufficient, but it
+will not be received alone. We do not
+make carvings to hang on a wall and be
+admired altogether on their own account.
+They must decorate some object. A
+church screen, a font, a piece of furniture,
+or even the handle of a knife. It is not
+always an easy matter to find suitable
+objects upon which to exercise our wood-carving
+talents. Our furniture is all made
+now in a wholesale manner which permits
+of no interference with its construction,
+while at the same time, if we wish to
+put any carving upon it, it is absolutely
+essential that both construction and decoration
+should be considered together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs27" id="gs27"></a>
+<img src="images/gs27.png" width="400" height="400" alt="Fig. 27." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 27.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A very modest beginning may be made
+in adapting ornament to a useful article,
+by carving the surface of a bread plate.
+These are usually made of some hard
+wood, such as sycamore. They may be
+made of oak, but sycamore has the advantage
+in its lighter color, which is
+more likely to be kept clean. Two suggestions
+are given in Figs. 27 and 28 for
+carving appropriate to this purpose. The
+essentials are, that there should be a well-defined
+<i>pattern</i> simple in construction, and
+as effective as possible with little labor;
+<span class='pagenum'>[117]</span>
+that there should be little or no rounding
+of surface, the design consisting of gouge
+cuts and incisions arranged to express the
+pattern. The incisions may form a regular
+sunk ground, but it should not be deep,
+or it will not be easily kept clean. Then,
+as in cutting bread the knife comes in
+contact with the surface, no delicate work
+is advisable; a large treatment with broad
+surfaces, and some plain spaces left to
+<span class='pagenum'>[118]</span>
+protect the carved work, is likely to
+prove satisfactory in every way. A piece
+of sycamore should be procured, ready for
+carving; this may be got from a wood-turner,
+but it will be as well to give him
+a drawing, on which is shown the section
+of edge and the position of all turned
+lines required for confining the carving.
+If the plate is to be of any shape other
+than circular, then it must be neatly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+made by a joiner, unless you can shape it
+yourself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs28" id="gs28"></a>
+<img src="images/gs28.png" width="400" height="397" alt="Fig. 28." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many of you are, I have no doubt,
+handy joiners, and may with a little help
+put together some slight pieces of furniture
+to serve at least as an excuse for the introduction
+of your carving. Here are
+some suggestions for corner cupboards,
+chosen as giving the largest area for
+carved surface with the minimum of expense
+in construction. The material
+should be oak&mdash;English if possible, or it
+may be Italian walnut. The doors of Figs.
+40 and 41 are in three narrow boards
+with shallow beads at the joints, those
+of the others are each made of a single
+board, and should be 1/2 in. to 5/8 in. thick,
+the doors may be about 2 ft. 6 ins. high,
+each having two ledges about 3 ins. wide,
+screwed on behind top and bottom to
+keep them from twisting. All moldings,
+beads, etc., are to be carved by hand, no
+planes being used. Having traced the
+lines of your design upon the board, you
+may begin, if there are moldings as in
+Fig. 32, by using a joiner's marking gage
+to groove out the deepest parts of the
+parallel lines in the moldings along the
+edges, doing the same to the curved ones
+<span class='pagenum'>[120]</span>
+with a V tool or Veiner. Then form the
+moldings with your chisels or gouges.
+Keep them very flat in section as in Fig. 29.
+The fret patterns on Figs. 32, 35, and 36,
+where not pierced, should also be done
+in low relief, not more than 1/8 in. deep,
+and the sides of the bands beveled as in
+section <i>a</i>, Fig 30. The widths of these
+bands ought not to be less than 1/2 in.,
+and look better if they are wider. Very
+narrow bands have a better appearance, if,
+instead of being cut straight down, they
+are hollowed at sides like <i>b</i> in Fig. 30.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs29" id="gs29"></a>
+<img src="images/gs29.png" width="400" height="51" alt="Fig. 29." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs29a" id="gs29a"></a>
+<img src="images/gs29a.png" width="400" height="58" alt="Fig. 30." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"><a name="gs30" id="gs30"></a>
+<img src="images/gs30.png" width="368" height="640" alt="Fig. 31." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 31.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 31 is a detail of a kind of gouge
+work which you must all know very well.
+One perpendicular cut of a gouge driven
+in with the mallet, and one side cut, should
+form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped
+holes. They should not be too
+deep in proportion to their size. Their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a></span>
+<span class='pagenum'>[122]</span>
+combinations may be varied to a great
+extent. Two or three common ones are
+shown in the illustration. This form of
+ornament was in all likelihood invented
+by some ingenious carpenter with a turn
+for art and a limited stock of carving
+tools. His humble contribution to the
+resources of the carver's art has received
+its due share of the flattery which is implied
+by imitation. In all these patterns
+it is well to remember that the flat surface
+of the board left between the cuts is really
+the important thing to consider, as all
+variety is obtained by disposing the holes
+in such a way as to produce the pattern
+required by means of their outlines on the
+plain surface. Thus waved lines are produced
+as in Fig. 31, and little niches like
+mimic architecture as in Fig. 34, by the
+addition of the triangular-shaped holes at
+the top, and the splayed sills at the bottom.
+(It is obvious that an arrangement like
+the latter should never be turned upside
+down.) If this attention to the surface
+pattern is neglected the holes are apt to
+become mere confused and meaningless
+spots.</p>
+
+<p>In small pieces of furniture like these,
+which are made of comparatively thin
+<span class='pagenum'>[123]</span>
+wood, the carving need not have much
+depth, say the ground is sunk 1/4 in. at
+the deepest. As oak is more tenacious
+than pine, you will find greater freedom in
+working it, although it is so much harder
+to cut. You may find it necessary to use
+the mallet for the greater part of the
+blocking out, but it need not be much
+used in finishing. A series of short
+strokes driven by gentle taps of the mallet
+will often make a better curve than if the
+same is attempted without its aid.</p>
+
+<p>It will be well now to procure the remainder
+of the set of twenty-four tools if
+you have not already got them, as they will
+be required for the foliage we are about to
+attempt. The deep gouges are especially
+useful: having two different sweeps on
+each tool, they adapt themselves to
+hollows which change in section as they
+advance.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 32 contains very little foliage,
+such as there is being disposed in small
+diamond-shaped spaces, sunk in the face
+of the doors, and a small piece on the
+bracket below. All this work should be
+of a very simple character, definite in
+form and broad in treatment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"><a name="gs31" id="gs31"></a>
+<img src="images/gs31.png" width="377" height="640" alt="Fig. 32. Half" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 32. Half, Fig. 33. Half</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 33 is more elaborate, but on much
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+the same lines of design varied by having
+a larger space filled with groups of leaves.
+Fig. 34 gives the carving to a larger scale;
+in it the oak-leaves are shown with raised
+veins in the center, the others being merely
+indicated by the gouge hollows. There is
+some attempt in this at a more natural
+mode of treating the foliage. While such
+work is being carved, it is well to look
+now and then at the natural forms themselves
+(oak and laurel in this case) in
+order to note their characteristic features,
+and as a wholesome check on the dangers
+of mannerism.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general axiom founded upon the
+evidence of past work, and a respect for
+the laws of construction in the carpenter's
+department, that when foliage appears in
+panels divided by plain spaces, it should
+never be made to look as if it grew <i>from
+one panel into the other</i>, with the suggestion
+of boughs passing behind the solid parts.
+This is a characteristic of Japanese work,
+and may, perhaps, be admirable when used
+in delicate painted decorations on a screen
+or other light furniture, but in carvings
+it disturbs the effect of solidity in the
+material, and serves no purpose which
+can not be attained in a much better way.
+<span class='pagenum'>[126]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs32" id="gs32"></a>
+<img src="images/gs32.png" width="400" height="602" alt="CARVING IN
+PANELS OF FIG 33
+Fig. 34." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33
+Fig. 34.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Expedients have been invented to overcome
+the difficulty of making a fresh start
+in each panel, one of which is shown in Fig.
+34, where the beginning of the bough is
+hidden under a leaf. It is presumable
+that the bough <i>may</i> go on behind the
+uncarved portions of the board to reappear
+in another place, but we need not
+insist upon the fancy, which loses all its
+power when attention is called to it, like
+riddles when the answer is known.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 363px;"><a name="gs33" id="gs33"></a>
+<img src="images/gs33.png" width="363" height="640" alt="Fig. 35." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35., Fig. 36</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 35, like the last, the treatment is
+somewhat realistic. This is shown to a
+larger scale in Fig. 38. Nevertheless, it
+has all been "arranged" to fit its allotted
+space, and all accidental elements eliminated;
+such, for instance, as leaves disappearing
+in violent perspective, or even
+turned sidewise, and all minute details
+which would not be likely to show conspicuously
+if carved in wood. In Fig. 39,
+(<i>a</i>) is an outline of a group of vine-leaves
+taken from nature, as it appeared, and in
+which state it is quite unfitted for carving,
+on account of its complicated perspective
+and want of definite outline; Fig. 39 (<i>b</i>)
+is a detail also copied from nature, but
+which might stand without alteration provided
+it formed part of a work delicate
+<span class='pagenum'>[129]</span>
+enough to note such close elaboration in
+so small a space. This, of course, would
+entirely depend upon the purpose for which
+the carving was intended, and whether it
+was meant for distant view or close inspection.
+As there is arrangement necessary in
+forming the outline, so there is just as
+much required in designing the articulation
+of the surfaces of the leaves, which
+should be so treated that their hollows fall
+into a semblance of some kind of pattern.
+Fig. 36 is a more formal design, or, to
+use a very much abused word, more "conventional,"
+in which such leafage as there
+is only serves the purpose of ornamental
+points, marking the divisions of the general
+design. The gouge work upon the leaves
+should be of the simplest description, but
+strict attention is necessary in drawing the
+grooves, so that their forms may be clear
+and emphatic, leaving no doubt as to the
+pattern intended. Designs of this kind
+have no interest whatever except as pieces
+of patterned work, to which end every
+other consideration should be sacrificed.
+It must not be cut too deep&mdash;say 1/4 in.
+at the deepest&mdash;and the sides of the panels
+should be very gently hollowed out with
+a flattish sweep (see section on Fig. 37) in
+<span class='pagenum'>[130]</span>
+order to avoid any appearance of actual
+construction in what more or less imitates
+the stiles and rails of a door. Fig. 37
+shows a portion of the leafage to a larger
+scale, and also a plan explaining the
+construction of all these cupboards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"><a name="gs34" id="gs34"></a>
+<img src="images/gs34.png" width="385" height="640" alt="Fig. 37." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 37.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs35" id="gs35"></a>
+<img src="images/gs35.png" width="400" height="422" alt="Fig. 38." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 397px;"><a name="gs36" id="gs36"></a>
+<img src="images/gs36.png" width="397" height="640" alt="Fig. 39 (a)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39 (a).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 40 is designed upon the barest
+suggestion of natural foliage, the wavy
+<span class='pagenum'>[132]</span>
+stem being quite flat, and running out
+flush into the flat margins at the sides,
+connecting them together. The leaves in
+this case should be carved, leaving the
+veins standing solid; grooved veins would
+have a meager look upon such rudimentary
+leaves. Of course a more natural
+<span class='pagenum'>[133]</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a></span>
+treatment may be given to this kind of
+design, but in that case it would require
+to be carried all over the door, and replace
+the formally ornamental center panel. The
+pierced pattern in cresting should be done
+as already described for Fig. 24.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"><a name="gs37" id="gs37"></a>
+<img src="images/gs37.png" width="377" height="640" alt="Fig. 39 (b)." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39 (b).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;"><a name="gs38" id="gs38"></a>
+<img src="images/gs38.png" width="389" height="640" alt="Fig. 40." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40., Fig. 41.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 41 is a variant on the last design.
+In this case a little more play of surface is
+attempted, making a point of carving the
+<span class='pagenum'>[135]</span>
+side lobes of the leaves into little rounded
+masses which will reflect points of light.
+This is shown better on Fig. 42.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs39" id="gs39"></a>
+<img src="images/gs39.png" width="400" height="460" alt="Fig. 42." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 42.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs40" id="gs40"></a>
+<img src="images/gs40.png" width="400" height="110" alt="Fig. 43." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In carving foliage like that of the vine,
+where small dark holes or eyes occur,
+enough wood should be left round them
+to form deep dark little pits. They are
+very valuable as points of shadow. In
+doing this, cut the rim all round with a
+very slight bevel as in section, Fig. 43.
+Whenever leaves run out to a fine edge
+<span class='pagenum'>[136]</span>
+they also should have a small bevel like
+this in order to
+avoid an appearance
+of weakness
+which acute
+edges always present. As a general rule
+leave as much wood as
+possible about the edges of
+leaves as you want shadow
+from them&mdash;dipping them
+only where you are sure
+the variety will be effective.
+In the execution of bunches
+of rounded forms like
+grapes there is no special
+mechanical expedient for doing them
+quickly and easily;
+each must be cut
+out separately, and
+carved with whatever
+tools come
+handiest to their
+shape and size. It
+is a good way to
+begin by cutting
+triangular holes between
+the grapes
+with the point of
+a small chisel (see Fig. 44), after which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+the rough shapes left may gradually be
+formed into ovals. When the work is
+very simple in character, and does not
+require a realistic treatment, the grapes
+may be done in a more methodical way,
+as in Fig. 45. First cut grooves across
+both ways with a V tool, dividing the
+grapes as at <i>a a</i>, then with a gouge turned
+hollow down round each line of grapes
+into rolls as at <i>b b</i>. Do this both ways,
+and afterward finish the form as best
+you can.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs40a" id="gs40a"></a>
+<img src="images/gs40a.png" width="400" height="484" alt="Fig. 44." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 44.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs40b" id="gs40b"></a>
+<img src="images/gs40b.png" width="400" height="439" alt="Fig. 45." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 45.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SKETCH-BOOK</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place&mdash;Museums
+to be Approached with Caution&mdash;Methodical
+Memoranda&mdash;Some Examples&mdash;Assimilation of
+Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies.</p></div>
+
+<p>In holiday time, and as other opportunity
+arises, be sure to visit some old building,
+be it church or mansion. In this way you
+will make acquaintance with many a fine
+specimen of old work which will set your
+fancy moving. In the one there may be
+a carved choir-screen or bench ends, in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+the other a fireplace or table. The first
+sight of such things in the places and
+among the surroundings for which they
+were designed, is always an eventful
+moment in the training of a carver, because
+the element of surprise acts like a
+tonic to the mind by arousing its emulative
+instincts. It is by seeing such things
+in their proper home and associations
+that the best lessons are learned. One
+sees in that way, for instance, <i>why</i> the tool
+marks left by the old carvers on their work
+look more effective than smoothly perfect
+surfaces, when associated with the rough
+timbers of the roof, or the uneven surface
+of the plastered wall. One sees, too, the
+effect of time and friction in the polished
+surfaces of bench ends, rubbed and dusted
+by countless hands until they have become
+smooth to the eye and touch, and a mental
+note is made to avoid sharp or spiky work
+in anything that is likely to be within
+reach of the fingers. In this way a certain
+balance is given to the judgment in proportioning
+to each piece of work its due
+share of labor, and we come away with a
+fixed determination to pay more attention
+in future to breadth of design and economy
+of actual carving, a problem which no carver
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+finds easy, but which must be faced if
+wasted work is not to be his only reward.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs41" id="gs41"></a>
+<img src="images/gs41.png" width="400" height="314" alt="Fig. 46." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+In museums, too, we shall find many
+useful lessons, although there we see
+things huddled together in a distracting
+fashion which demands great wariness of
+selection. The great point to be observed
+in making our notes for future reference
+is, that each sketch should contain some
+memorandum of a special quality, the one
+which attracted us at the time of making
+it. One may be made for sake of a
+general arrangement, another to remind
+us of some striking piece of detail or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+peculiarity of execution. The drawings
+need not be elaborate or labored, provided
+they make clear the points they
+were intended to record. Thus Fig. 46
+is a sketch which is meant as a memorandum
+of a lively representation of birds,
+taken from an old Miserere seat. Fig. 47
+was done for sake of the rich effect of an
+inscription on the plain side of a beam,
+and also for the peculiar and interesting
+section to which the beam had been cut.
+Fig. 48, again, for sake of the arrangement
+of the little panels on a plain
+surface, and the sense of fitness and
+proportion which prompted the carver to
+dispose his work in that fashion, by which
+he has enriched the whole surface at little
+cost of labor, and by contrast enhanced
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+the value of the little strips and diamonds
+of carved work, otherwise of no particular
+interest. Figs. 49 and 50 are two sketches
+of Icelandic carved boxes. Fig. 49 was
+drawn as an example of the rich effect
+which that kind of engraved work may
+have, and of the use which it makes of
+closely packed letters in the inscription.
+The pattern is, of course, a traditional
+Norse one, although the carving is comparatively
+modern. The points to be
+noted in the other box were its quaint
+<span class='pagenum'>[144]</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a></span>
+and simple construction, the use of the
+letters as decoration, more especially the
+unpremeditated manner in which they
+have been grouped, the four letters below
+making a short line which is eked out
+by a rude bit of ornament. The letters
+are cut right through the wood, and are
+surrounded with an engraved line. Fig.
+51 was noted on account of the way in
+<span class='pagenum'>[146]</span>
+which a very simple pierced ornament is
+made much of by repetition. The ornament
+is on a Portuguese bed, and this is
+only a detail of a small portion. The
+effect greatly depends upon the quantity,
+but in this case that is a point which is
+easily remembered without drawing more
+of it than is shown. The fact that this
+work is associated with richly turned balusters
+is, however, noticed in the sketch, as
+that might easily be forgotten. Figs. 47
+to 51 are from South Kensington Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs42" id="gs42"></a>
+<img src="images/gs42.png" width="400" height="240" alt="Fig. 47." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs43" id="gs43"></a>
+<img src="images/gs43.png" width="400" height="611" alt="Fig. 48." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs44" id="gs44"></a>
+<img src="images/gs44.png" width="400" height="211" alt="Fig. 49." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs45" id="gs45"></a>
+<img src="images/gs45.png" width="400" height="360" alt="Fig. 50." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs46" id="gs46"></a>
+<img src="images/gs46.png" width="400" height="415" alt="Fig. 51." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Then we come to the sketch of a chair
+(Fig. 52), or combined table and chair.
+The richly carved back is pivoted, and
+forms the table top when lowered over the
+arms, upon which it rests. The points to
+be noted in this are, the general richness of
+effect, the contrast of wavy and rigid lines,
+and the happy way in which the architectural
+suggestion of arch and pillars has
+been translated into ornament. As this
+sketch was not made so much for the chair
+itself as for its enriched back, no measurements
+have been taken; otherwise chairs,
+as such, depend very much upon exact dimensions
+for their proportions. This chair
+is at Exning in Suffolk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs47" id="gs47"></a>
+<img src="images/gs47.png" width="400" height="622" alt="Fig. 52." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now we shall suppose that you are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+
+going to make many such sketches both
+in museums and in country churches or
+houses. You will find some too elaborate
+for drawings in the time at your disposal,
+in which case you should obtain a photograph,
+if possible, making notes of any detail
+which you wish particularly to remember&mdash;such,
+for instance, as the carved chest
+shown in Plate I. The subject, St. George
+and the Dragon, is given with various
+incidents all in the one picture. This is a
+valuable and suggestive piece of work to
+have before you, as the manner in which
+the pictorial element has been managed
+is strikingly characteristic of the carver's
+methods, and well adapted to the conditions
+of a technique which has no other
+legitimate means of dealing with distant
+objects. The king and queen, looking
+out of the palace windows, are <i>almost</i> on
+the same scale as the figures in the foreground;
+the walls of the houses, roofs, etc.,
+have apparently quite as much projection
+as the foreground rocks&mdash;distance is inferred
+rather than expressed. The very
+simple construction, too, is worth noting.
+It is practically composed of three boards,
+a wide one for the picture, and two
+narrower ones for ends and feet.
+<span class='pagenum'>[148]</span></p>
+
+<p>The object in making these sketches
+should be mainly to collect a variety of
+ideas which may brighten the mind when
+there is occasion to use its inventive
+faculties. Suggestive hints are wanted;
+rarely will it be possible, or wise, to repeat
+anything exactly as you see it. These
+sketches, if made with care, and from
+what Constable used to call "breeding
+subjects," will give your fancy a very
+necessary point of vantage, from which
+it may hazard flights of its own.</p>
+
+<p>As much of our knowledge must necessarily
+be gained from museums, and as
+they now form such an important feature
+of educational machinery, I think it will
+be well to devote a word or two of special
+notice to the drawbacks which accompany
+their many advantages. This I propose
+to do in the following chapter.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h3>MUSEUMS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary
+Exhibits&mdash;Environment
+as Important as Handicraft&mdash;Works
+Viewed as Records of Character&mdash;Carvers
+the Historians of their Time.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>A new world of commerce and machinery,
+having slain and forgotten a past
+race of artist craftsmen, makes clumsy
+atonement by sweeping together the fragments
+of their work and calling the collection
+a museum. From the four corners of
+the earth these relics have been gathered.
+Our hungry minds are bidden to make
+choice according to fancy, for here is
+variety of food! Here are opportunities,
+never before enjoyed by mortal, for an intellectual
+feast!&mdash;and of a kind which
+might be considered god-like, were it not
+for the suspicion of some gigantic joke.
+That out of all this huge mass of chaotic
+material we have not as yet been able to
+make for ourselves some living form of
+art, must indeed be to the gods a continual
+subject of merriment.</p>
+
+<p>Museums of art are in no respect the
+unmixed blessings which they appear to
+<span class='pagenum'>[150]</span>
+be. They have, to be sure, all the advantages
+of handy reference; but at the same
+time, on account of the great diversity in
+the character of their exhibits, they tend
+to encourage the spread of a patchy kind
+of knowledge, far from being helpful to
+the arts in the interests of which they are
+established. It must be remembered that,
+in these collections, all specimens of architecture
+and architectural carving are invariably
+seen in false positions. All have
+been wrenched from their proper settings,
+and placed, more or less at random, in
+lights and relationships never contemplated
+by their designers. To the environment
+of a piece of architecture, and the position
+and surroundings of carved decorations,
+are due quite half of their interest as
+works of art. Deprive them of these
+associations, and little is left but fragmentary
+specimens of handicraft, more or
+less unintelligible in their lonely detachment,
+misleading to the eye, and dangerous
+as objects of imitation, in proportion
+to the dependence they once had upon
+those absent and unknown associations.</p>
+
+<p>The educational purpose which these
+collections are intended to serve is liable
+to be construed into an unreasoning assumption
+<span class='pagenum'>[151]</span>
+that every specimen exhibited is
+equally worthy of admiration. How often
+the plodding student is to be seen carefully
+drawing and measuring work of the
+dullest imaginable quality, with no other
+apparent reason for his pathetically wasted
+industry!</p>
+
+<p>It would be strange, indeed, if all in
+this vast record of past activity was of
+equal value; if merely to belong to the
+past was a sure warrant that such work
+was the best of its kind. Far from this
+being the case, it requires the constant
+use of a more or less trained and critical
+judgment to separate what is good from
+the indifferent or really bad in these collections,
+for all are usually present. There is
+inequality in artistic powers, in technical
+skill, and a distinction of yet greater importance,
+which lies in the significance the
+works bear as records of the inner life of
+their creators. Artists, carvers in particular,
+are the true scribes and historians of
+their times. Their works are, as it were,
+books&mdash;written in words of unconscious
+but fateful meaning. Some are filled with
+the noblest ideals, expressed in beautiful
+and serious language, while others contain
+nothing but sorry jests and stupidities.
+<span class='pagenum'>[152]</span></p>
+
+<p>As all the works of the past, whether
+good or bad, are the achievements of men
+differing but little from ourselves, save in
+the direction of their energies and in their
+outward surroundings, there is surely some
+clue to the secret of their success or failure,
+some light to be thrown by their experience
+upon our own dubious and questioning
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p>What better could we look for in this
+respect than a little knowledge of the lives
+led by the carvers themselves, a mental
+picture of their environment, an acquired
+sense of the influence which this, that,
+or the other set of conditions must have
+imposed upon their work. With a little
+aid from history in forming our judgments,
+their works themselves will assist
+us&mdash;so faithful is the transcript of their
+witness&mdash;for, with more certainty than
+applies to handwriting, a fair guess may
+be made by inference from the work itself
+as to the general status and ideals of the
+workman. The striking analogy between
+its salient characteristics and the prevailing
+mood of that ever-changing spirit
+which seeks expression in the arts, is
+nowhere more marked than in the work of
+the carver.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h3>STUDIES FROM NATURE&mdash;FOLIAGE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared&mdash;A
+Compromise Adopted&mdash;A List of Plant Forms
+of Adaptable Character.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>It is high time now that we had some
+talk about the studies from nature which
+are to furnish you with subjects for your
+work. I shall at present deal only with
+studies of foliage, as that is what you
+have been practising, and I wish you to
+carry on your work and studies as much
+as possible on the same lines.</p>
+
+<p>Between the few abstract forms, representing
+a general type of foliage, so
+dear to the heart of the medieval carver,
+and the unstinted variety of choice displayed
+in the works of Grinling Gibbons
+and his time, there is such a wide difference
+that surely it points to a corresponding
+disparity of aim. Although there is no
+doubt whatever that such a striking change
+of views must have had its origin in some
+deeper cause than that which is to be explained
+by artistic and technical development,
+yet I think that for our immediate
+<span class='pagenum'>[154]</span>
+purpose we shall find a sufficiently good
+lesson in comparing the visible results of the
+two methods. Broadly speaking, then, the
+medieval carver cared more for general
+effect than for possibilities of technique.
+He therefore chose only such natural forms
+as were amenable to his preconceived determination
+to make his work telling at a
+distance. He had no botanical leanings,
+and rejected as unfit every form which
+would not bend to his one purpose&mdash;that of
+decoration on a large scale&mdash;and which he
+aimed at making comprehensive at a glance,
+rather than calling for attention to its details.
+He invented patterns which he knew
+would assist in producing this result, and
+here he further handicapped his choice by
+limiting it to such forms as would repeat
+or vanish at regulated intervals, reflecting
+light or producing shadow just where it
+was wanted to emphasize his pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The more modern carver, on the contrary,
+offered an all-embracing welcome to
+every form which presented itself to his
+notice. He rejected nothing which could
+by any possibility be carved. Nothing
+was too small, too thin, or too difficult for
+his wonderful dexterity with the carving
+tools. His chief end was elaboration of
+<span class='pagenum'>[155]</span>
+detail, and it was often carried to a point
+which ignored the fact that nearly all of it
+would become invisible when in position,
+or, if seen at all, would only appear in confused
+lumps and unintelligible masses.</p>
+
+<p>Now, for many reasons, I think we had
+better take the medieval method as our
+model up to a point, and make a certain
+selection of material for our studies, based
+upon some relation to general effect, but
+not necessarily imitating a medieval
+austerity of rejection, which would be the
+merest affectation on our part. Upon
+these principles, and taking somewhat of a
+middle course, I shall here note a few
+types of foliage which I think may be
+useful to you in the work upon which
+you are engaged.</p>
+
+<p>Leaf forms, with their appropriate
+flowers or fruit, afford the carver a very
+large proportion of his subject material.
+They serve him as principal subject, as
+bordering or background to figures of
+men or animals; they occur as mere detached
+spots, to break the monotony of
+spaces or lines; and in a thousand other
+ways give exercise to his invention.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, those leaves with serrated,
+or deeply cleft and indented edges,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+lend themselves most readily to decorative
+treatment. Large, broad leaves, with unbroken
+surfaces, and triangular or rounded
+outlines, are less manageable. Those
+most commonly taken as models are:</p>
+
+<p><i>The Vine, with its Grapes</i>.&mdash;This was
+freely used by medieval carvers, at first
+for its symbolic significance, but afterward
+even more on account of its rare
+beauty of form. The play of light and
+shade on its vigorous foliage, the variety
+of its drawing in leaf, vine, and tendril,
+and the contrast afforded by its bunches
+of oval fruit, caused it to be accepted as a
+favorite subject for imitation in all kinds
+of carving. It lends itself kindly to all
+sorts of relief, either high or low, in
+almost any material. It is so recognizable,
+even in the rudest attempts at imitation,
+that its popularity is well deserved.</p>
+
+<p>The hop-vine shares some of these
+qualities, though much less strongly
+marked in character.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Acanthus</i>.&mdash;This leaf was first
+adapted for the purpose of ornament by
+the workmen of classical Greece. The
+inspiration was one of the few which they
+took directly from nature's models. It
+was also freely used by medieval carvers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+but with an insistence upon the flowing
+and rounded character of its surface
+forms; and again by the Renaissance
+artists, with a return to its classical character
+of fluted and formal strength of line.
+The graceful drawing of its elaborately
+articulated surface, and the extraordinary
+accentuation of its outline, provide an
+endless source of suggestion. It has been
+adapted in all manners, according to the
+fancy of the carver&mdash;sometimes long and
+drawn out, at others wide and spreading.
+Altogether it has been more thoroughly
+"generalized" than any other natural
+form.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Oak, with its Acorns</i>, appears in
+early medieval work, but without much
+attempt to represent its form with anything
+like individual character. In later
+work it has more justice done to its undoubted
+merits as a decorative feature by
+a clearer recognition of its beauty in
+clumps and masses. Fruit, other than the
+grape and a nondescript kind of berry, was
+seldom represented by medieval craftsmen;
+it formed, however, a marked feature in
+Renaissance ornament, where pomegranate,
+apple, fig, and melon were in constant
+requisition.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Flowers</i> in general were very little used
+in early times, and then only in a highly
+abstract form corresponding to that of the
+foliage. The rose and lily were the two
+most frequently seen, but they seldom had
+more individuality about them than was
+sufficient to make them recognizable.
+During the Renaissance flowers were treated
+with much more regard to their inherent
+beauties, and were represented with great
+skill and power of imitation, although
+often carried beyond legitimate limits in
+this direction. When dealt with as ornaments,
+rather than botanical details, they
+form a rich source of suggestion to the
+carver, and offer a ready means of contrast
+with masses of foliage. The rose and lily
+are such conspicuous flowers that they
+should, in modern times, be used in a way
+consistent with our demands for individual
+character and likeness. They should be
+fairly well defined and easily recognizable.
+It is quite possible to treat these flowers in
+a very realistic way, without endangering
+their effect as decorative details: they
+have both such distinguished forms in
+flower and foliage.</p>
+
+<p>Flowers should be chosen for their
+<i>forms</i>; color should not be allowed to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+deceive the eye in this respect, unless the
+color itself is suggestive of lines and
+contours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foliage</i> should always be studied at its
+prime, never when it is dried and contorted
+in its forms.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a short list of subjects, including
+those I have mentioned, all having a sufficiently
+pronounced character to make them
+valuable as stock in trade. Many more
+might be named, but these are chosen as being
+commonly familiar, and as being
+representative types of various forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>For their Leaves and Fruit</i>.&mdash;The grapevine,
+hop-vine, globe artichoke, tomato,
+apple, plum, pear, bramble, and strawberry.</p>
+
+<p><i>For Fruit and Vine-like Growths (leafage
+too massive and smooth to be of much value
+without adaptation)</i>.&mdash;The melon, vegetable-marrow,
+pumpkins, and cucumber.</p>
+
+<p><i>For Leafage, Flowers, or Seed Vessels</i>.&mdash;The
+acanthus, oak, thistles, teazle, giant
+hemlock, cow-parsley, buttercup.</p>
+
+<p><i>Of Garden Flowers</i>.&mdash;The rose, lily,
+larkspur, peony, poppies, columbine,
+chrysanthemum, tulip, Christmas rose,
+Japanese anemone.</p>
+
+<p><i>For Close and Intricate Designs</i>.&mdash;Periwinkle,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+winter aconite, trefoils of various
+kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Many valuable hints on this subject
+may be gleaned by a study of Gerrard's
+Herbal, which is full of well-drawn illustrations,
+done in a way which is very suggestive
+to the designer.</p>
+
+<p>A careful study of the outline forms of
+leaves is a schooling in itself, so much
+may be learned from it. It teaches the
+relation between form and growth in a
+way which makes it possible to use the
+greatest freedom of generalization without
+violating structural laws. The same causes
+which govern the shaping of a tree are
+present in the leaf, settling its final outline,
+so that, however wandering and fantastic
+it may appear, there is not the
+smallest curve or serration which does not
+bear witness to a methodical development,
+and to every accidental circumstance which
+helped or hindered its fulfilment.</p>
+
+<p>You could not do better than make a
+collection of suitable leaves, press them
+flat and trace them very carefully, keeping
+the tracings together in a book for reference.
+Accompanying this you should
+have in each case a drawing of the leaf
+as it appears in its natural state, always
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+being careful to do this from a point of
+view which will accommodate itself to
+carving the leaf if you should have occasion
+to use it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h3>CARVING ON FURNITURE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Furniture Constructed with a View to
+Carving&mdash;Reciprocal
+Aims of Joiner and Carver&mdash;Smoothness
+Desirable where Carving is Handled&mdash;The Introduction
+of Animals or Figures.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;"><a name="gs48" id="gs48"></a>
+<img src="images/gs48.png" width="376" height="640" alt="Fig. 53." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>You will find in the illustrations, Figs.
+53 to 62, certain suggestions for various
+pieces of furniture. They are given with
+the intention of impressing upon you the
+fact that very little carving can be done
+at all without some practical motive as a
+backbone to your fancies. To be always
+carving inapplicable panels is very dull
+work, and only good for a few preliminary
+exercises. It is much better to consider
+the matter well, and resolve upon some
+"opus," which will spread your efforts
+over a considerable period. When you
+have decided upon the piece of furniture
+which is most likely to be useful to you, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+
+which lies within your powers of design
+and execution, then make a drawing for it,
+and have it made by a joiner (unless you
+can make it entirely yourself), to be put
+together in loose pieces for convenience of
+carving, and glued up when that is finished.
+You should certainly design the piece
+yourself, as you should make all your own
+designs for the carving. The two departments
+must be carried on in the closest
+relation to each other while the work is in
+progress, otherwise their association will
+not be complete when it is finished.
+Take, for instance, the head of the bed in
+the illustration. Why should it stand up
+so high, like the gable of a house? It is
+for no other reason than to give an opportunity
+for carving. A plain board of
+half the height would have been just as
+effective as a protection to the sleeper.
+Useless as carving may be from this
+practical point of view, it must nevertheless
+be amenable to utilitarian laws. It
+must be smooth where it is likely to be
+handled, as in the case of the knobs on top
+of the posts; and even where it is not
+likely to be handled, but may be merely
+touched occasionally, it should still have
+an inviting smoothness of surface. As a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+matter of fact, all carving on a bed should
+be of this kind, with no deep nooks or
+corners to hold dust. Here, then, are a
+number of conditions, which, instead of
+being a hindrance, are really useful incentives
+to fresh invention. Just as the
+construction of joiner's work entails concessions
+on the part of the carver, so the
+carver may ask the joiner to go a little
+out of his way in order to give opportunities
+for his carving. A little knowledge
+of this subject will make a reasonable
+compromise possible.</p>
+
+<p>You will find a further advantage in
+undertaking a fairly large piece of work.
+As it is almost certain to be in several
+parts, each may thus receive a different
+treatment, by which means you not only
+obtain contrast, but get some idea of the
+extraordinary power with which one piece
+of carving affects another when placed in
+juxtaposition. Whatever designs you may
+decide upon, should you undertake to
+carve the panels for a bed, let them be in
+decidedly low relief. The surface must
+be smoothly wrought, doing away with as
+much of the tool marking as you can, but
+this smoothing to be done entirely with
+the tools, not by any means with glass
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+paper. Great attention must be paid
+to the drawing of the forms, as it is by
+this that the impression of modeling
+and projection will be expressed. A very
+pleasant treatment of such low relief when
+a smooth and even appearance is wanted,
+is to carve the ground to the full depth,
+say 1/8 in., only along the outlines of the
+design, and form the remainder into a
+kind of raised cushion, almost level in
+the middle with the original surface of
+the wood. The whole design need thus
+be little more than a kind of deepish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+engraving, depending for its effect upon
+broad lights defined by the engraved
+shadows. See Fig. 54 for an example of
+this treatment applied to letters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs49" id="gs49"></a>
+<img src="images/gs49.png" width="400" height="306" alt="Fig. 54." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now I expect you to make a fresh
+design. The illustrations in all such cases
+are purposely drawn in a somewhat indefinite
+way, in order that they may
+suggest, without making it possible to
+copy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"><a name="gs50" id="gs50"></a>
+<img src="images/gs50.png" width="352" height="640" alt="Fig. 55." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Now we come to the mirror frame,
+Fig. 55. I should suggest that this be
+done in some light-colored wood like
+pear-tree, which has an agreeably warm
+tone, or if a hard piece of cedar can be
+found, it would look well, but in no case
+should polish be added except that which
+comes from the tool. The construction
+need not be complicated. Take two 3/4-in.
+boards, glue them together to form the
+width, shape out the frame in the rough.
+Put behind this another frame of 3/4-in.
+thick stuff, and make the cornice out of
+wood about 1-1/2 in. thick. The parts to
+be kept separate until the carving is
+finished, and afterward glued or screwed
+together. The carving on the body of the
+frame, that is, in the gable above and the
+front of bracket below, should be in very
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+low relief, the lower part being like the
+last, a kind of engraving. The fret above
+may be sunk about 1/16 in. and the ground
+slightly cushioned. The carving on sides
+and cornice is of a stronger character, and
+may be cut as deeply as the wood will
+allow, while the cornice is actually pierced
+through in places, showing the flat board
+behind. The design for this cornice
+should have some repeating object, such
+as the kind of pineapple-looking thing in
+the illustration, and its foliage should be
+formed with plenty of well-rounded surfaces,
+that may suggest some rather fat
+and juicy plant.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;"><a name="gs51" id="gs51"></a>
+<img src="images/gs51.png" width="386" height="640" alt="Fig. 56." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 56 you have a suggestion for
+carving a bench or settle, the proportions
+of which have been taken from one
+found at a Yorkshire village inn. The
+actual measurements are given in order
+that these proportions may be followed.
+It is a well-known fact, that chairs, or
+seats of any kind, can not be successfully
+designed on paper with any hope of meeting
+the essential requirements of comfort,
+lightness, and stability. Making seats is
+a practical art, and the development of
+the design is a matter of many years of
+successive improvements. A good model
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+should therefore be selected and copied,
+with such slight changes as are necessary
+where carving is to be introduced. The
+main lines should not be interfered with
+on any account, nor should the thickness
+of the wood be altered if possible. The
+carving on this settle is intended to be
+in separate panels, about two inches apart.
+These panels will look all the better if no
+two are quite alike; a good way to give
+them more variety will be to make every
+alternate one of some kind of open pattern,
+like a fret. These piercings need not extend
+all over the design in the panel in
+every case: some may have only a few
+shapely holes mixed up with the lines,
+others again may be formed into complete
+frets with as much open as solid. (See
+Fig. 57.)</p>
+
+<p>The carving should be shallow, and not
+too fine in detail, as it will get a great
+deal of rubbing. The material should
+be, if possible, oak; but beech may be
+used with very good effect&mdash;in neither
+case should it be stained or polished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"><a name="gs52" id="gs52"></a>
+<img src="images/gs52.png" width="378" height="640" alt="Fig. 57." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 57.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 58 is a clock case. Something of
+this kind would make an excellent "opus"
+such as I have alluded to, and give plenty
+of scope for invention. As clocks of this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+kind are generally hung on a wall, the
+brackets, from a practical point of view,
+are of course unnecessary, but as it is
+important that they should <i>look</i> as if
+they were supported and to satisfy the eye,
+something in the way of a bracket or
+brackets is generally added. A bracket
+like the one in the illustration, not being
+a real support constructively speaking, but
+only put there to give assurance that such
+has not been overlooked or neglected, becomes
+a kind of toy, and may be treated
+as such by adding some little fancy to
+make it amusing, and give an excuse for
+making a feature of it. This will be a
+good place to try your hand at some
+modest attempt at figure work. In designing
+your bracket, should you wish to
+introduce a little figure of man or beast,
+I think you will find it more satisfactory
+if the figure is separated from the structural
+part by a slight suggestion of solid
+surroundings of its own. Thus the little
+roof over, and the solid bit of wood under,
+the figure in the illustration serve this purpose,
+lending an appearance of steadiness
+which would be wanting in a bracket
+formed of a detached figure. At any rate,
+never make your figures, whether of man
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+or beast, seem to carry the clock; you may
+hunch them up into any shape you like,
+but no weight should be supposed to rest
+upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs53" id="gs53"></a>
+<img src="images/gs53.png" width="400" height="698" alt="Fig. 58." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 58.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>For sake of the carving, oak will be the
+best wood to employ in making this clock,
+or one like it, but Italian walnut will do
+equally well. The size should be fairly
+large, say about three feet over all in height.
+This will give a face of about ten inches in
+diameter, which face will look best if made
+of copper gilt, and not much of it, perhaps
+a mere ring, with the figures either
+raised or cut out, leaving nothing but
+themselves and two rings surrounding.
+This should project from the wood, leaving
+a space of about one inch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"><a name="gs54" id="gs54"></a>
+<img src="images/gs54.png" width="382" height="640" alt="Fig. 59." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 59.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If you are inclined to try a heavier
+piece of work, the bench or settle-end in
+Fig. 59 may give you a suggestion. In
+this there is a bird introduced in the shape
+of a cock roosting on the branch of a
+tree. It would require to be done in a
+thick piece of wood, say 3 ins. thick, and
+would be best in English oak. The idea
+will be, to cut away the wood from the
+outer lower portion, leaving only about
+1-1/4 or 1-1/2 in. thickness, but at the top
+retaining the full thickness; in which the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+bird must be carved, the outer edges
+being kept full thickness in order to
+give the structural form and enclose the
+carving. The inside of this upper part,
+toward the seat, should also be carved,
+but with a smooth and shallow pattern of
+some kind, as both may be seen together,
+and in contrast to each other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs55" id="gs55"></a>
+<img src="images/gs55.png" width="400" height="352" alt="Fig. 60." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The introduction of figures leads me to
+a subject which it will be better to discuss
+in the next chapter, i.e., the question as to
+how far it is possible or consistent with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+present conditions to attempt anything
+that may bear the character of humor.
+But in the meantime here are three more
+subjects upon which fancy and ingenuity
+may be expended with profit. In Fig. 60
+you have a heraldic subject. In all such
+cases the heraldry should be true, and not
+of the "bogus" kind. This shield represents
+a real coat of arms, and was done
+from a design by Philip Webb, being
+finally covered with gesso, silvered and
+painted in transparent colors.</p>
+
+<p>Figs. 61 and 62 are suggestions for
+wooden crosses, oak being the best material
+to use for such a purpose. The carving
+should be so arranged as to form some
+kind of pattern on the cross. In Fig. 62
+the black trefoils are supposed to be cut
+right through the thin pieces of wood forming
+the center portion, and the carving on
+that part is very shallow.
+<span class='pagenum'>[178]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs56" id="gs56"></a>
+<img src="images/gs56.png" width="400" height="705" alt="Fig. 61." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'>[179]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs57" id="gs57"></a>
+<img src="images/gs57.png" width="400" height="656" alt="Fig. 62." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Misproportion not Essential to the Expression of
+Humor&mdash;The Sham Grotesque Contemptible&mdash;A
+True Sense of Humor Helpful to the Carver.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The dullness which comes of "all work
+and no play" may be said to affect the
+carver at times. He tires of carving
+leaves and ornaments: what more natural
+than to seek change and amusement in
+the invention of droll figures of men or
+animals? The enjoyment which we all
+feel in contemplating the outcome of this
+spirit in ancient work, leads us to the
+imitation of both subject and manner,
+hoping thereby that the same results may
+be obtained; but somehow the repetition
+is seldom attended with much success,
+while of original fancies of the same sort
+we are obliged to confess ourselves almost
+destitute. Who can behold the fantastic
+humors of Gothic carvings without being
+both amused and interested? Those
+grotesque heads with gaping mouths recall
+<span class='pagenum'>[181]</span>
+the stories of childhood, peopled with
+goblins and gnomes. It is all so natural,
+and so much in keeping with the architecture
+which surrounds it, the carving is
+so rude and simple, that it seems absurd
+when some authority on such matters
+makes a statement to the effect that all such
+expression of humor has become forever
+impossible to ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>This important part of the question
+must be left to your own meditation, to
+settle according to your lights; experience
+will probably lead you ultimately to the
+same opinion. Meantime, the point I wish
+to impress upon you is this, that until you
+feel yourself secure, and something of a
+master of various branches of your craft,
+you should not attempt any subject which
+aims at being decidedly grotesque. There
+are very good and practical reasons for
+this; one is, that while you are studying
+your art, you must do nothing that may
+tend to obscure what faculties you have
+for judging proportion. Now, as all
+grotesque work is based more or less on
+exaggeration, it forms a very dangerous
+kind of exercise to the beginner, therefore
+I should never allow a pupil of mine to
+so much as attempt it. Do not think
+<span class='pagenum'>[182]</span>
+that I wish to discourage every effort
+which has not an ultra-serious aim. On
+the contrary, I am but taking a rather
+roundabout way to an admission that the
+humorous element has, and must have at
+all times, a powerful attraction for the
+wood-carver; and to the statement of an
+opinion that it should not be allowed to
+take a prominent place in the work of a
+student; moreover, that it is quite possible
+to find in nature a varied and unfailing
+source of suggestion in this respect (more,
+in fact, than we are ever likely to account
+for), and which requires no artificial exaggeration
+to aid its expression. Some
+tincture of the faculty is absolutely necessary
+to the carver who takes his subjects
+from birds or beasts, in order that he may
+perceive and seize the salient lines and characteristic
+forms, of which the key-note
+is often to be found in a faint touch of
+humor, and which, like the scent of a
+flower, adds charm by appealing to another
+sense.</p>
+
+<p>The same argument applies to the
+treatment of the human figure. Let no
+student (and I may include, also, master-carver)
+think that a grotesque treatment
+will raise the smile or excite the interest
+<span class='pagenum'>[183]</span>
+which is anticipated. The "grotesque"
+is a vehicle for grim and often terrible
+ideas, lightly veiled by a cloak of humorous
+exaggeration; a sort of Viking horse-play&mdash;it
+is, in fact, a language which
+expresses the mixed feelings of sportive
+contempt and real fear in about equal
+proportions. When these feelings are
+not behind the expression, it becomes a
+language which is in itself only contemptible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 279px;"><a name="gs58" id="gs58"></a>
+<img src="images/gs58.png" width="279" height="640" alt="Fig. 63." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+If, carried away by fancy, you must find
+vent for its impulses, and carve images of
+unearthly beings, at least make them
+cheerful looking; one can imagine such
+demons and goblins as being rather nice
+fellows than otherwise. A grim jest that
+fails is generally a foolish one&mdash;at least its
+perpetrator neither deserves nor receives
+sympathy for his discomfiture. Now, I
+shall show you one or two examples
+which may make this matter a little
+clearer to you, if you are at all inclined
+to argue the position. I think, at any
+rate, they will prove that the expression
+of humor does not always depend upon
+exaggeration, and may exist in a work
+which is, one may say, almost copied
+from nature. Fig. 63 is an example to
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+this effect. The little jester just emerging
+from a flower, one of the side-pieces
+to a Miserere seat carving, is undoubtedly
+a true portrait, carved without the slightest
+attempt at exaggeration. The quiet
+humor which it evinces required only
+sympathy to perceive and skill to portray
+on the part of its carver. He had nothing
+to invent in the common acceptation of
+the word. The carving of the mendicant,
+which comes on the other side, is equally
+vivid in its truth to nature. It is so lifelike
+that we do not notice the humorous
+enjoyment of the artist in depicting the
+whining lips and closed eyes of the professional
+beggar. Observe the good manners
+of it all&mdash;the natural refinement of the
+artist who leaves his characters to make
+all the fun, without intrusion from himself
+other than to give the aid of his skill
+in representation. Now, subjects of this
+class will, in all probability, present themselves
+until the end of the world; but
+artists like this Gothic one are not so
+likely to be common. Great technical
+skill, a large fund of vitality, and many
+other controlling qualities are necessary
+to the production of such an artist; but
+he gives a clue to the right action, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+we may with safety accept, even if we
+can not hope to equal his performance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs59" id="gs59"></a>
+<img src="images/gs59.png" width="400" height="275" alt="Fig. 64." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs60" id="gs60"></a>
+<img src="images/gs60.png" width="400" height="252" alt="Fig. 65." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The center-piece, Fig. 64, tells a little
+story of Samson. It is noticeable in these
+medieval picture subjects, how, when a
+story has to be told, the details are treated
+in a broad and distinct fashion, as if the
+story could take care of itself, and only
+required to be stated clearly as to facts.
+The detached ornamental parts, on the
+contrary, receive a degree of careful attention
+not given to the picture, seemingly
+with the object of making their loneliness
+attractive.</p>
+
+<p>The broad-humor characteristic of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+companion picture of medieval life, in
+the little domestic scene, Fig. 65, is equally
+free from forced exaggeration or intentional
+misproportion. Scale and anatomy,
+to be sure, have had little consideration
+from the carver, but we readily forgive
+the inaccuracies in this respect, on account
+of his quick wit in devising means to an
+end.</p>
+
+<p>Before we leave this subject, look at
+Plate II, in which you will see a curious
+use of misproportion&mdash;intentional, too,
+in this case&mdash;and used for quite other
+than humorous purposes. This is a
+little ornamental figure from the tomb of
+Henry IV, in Canterbury Cathedral. You
+will see that the body is out of all proportion;
+too small for the head which
+surmounts it, or too big for the feet upon
+which it stands. Now, what could have
+induced the carver to treat a dainty little
+lady thus? It certainly was not that he
+considered it an improvement upon nature,
+nor was it a joke on his part. It could
+only be done for some practical reason such
+as this: that the little figure does part
+duty as a bracket, hence, more appearance
+of solidity is required at the top, and less
+at the foot, than true proportions would
+<span class='pagenum'>[189]</span>
+admit. It is all done so unostentatiously
+that one might look for hours at the
+figure without noticing the license. Not
+that I should advise you to imitate this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+naive way out of a difficulty. The childlike
+simplicity of its treatment succeeds where
+conscious effort would only end in affectation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs61" id="gs61"></a>
+<img src="images/gs61.png" width="400" height="337" alt="Fig. 66." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"><a name="gs62" id="gs62"></a>
+<img src="images/gs62.png" width="396" height="640" alt="Fig. 67." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Fig. 66 you will see another little
+figure doing duty in connection with a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+stall division in the Lady Chapel at
+Winchester Cathedral. Its smooth roundness
+of form is very appropriate to the
+position it occupies; while its polished
+surface bears ample testimony that it has
+given no offense to the touch of the many
+hands which have rested upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 67 shows another example of the
+same sort, but perched on a lower part of
+the division. This one is from the cathedral
+at Berne, each division of the stalls
+having a different figure, of which this is a
+type.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h3>STUDIES FROM NATURE&mdash;BIRDS AND
+BEASTS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Introduction of Animal Forms&mdash;Rude Vitality
+Better than Dull "Natural History"&mdash;"Action"&mdash;Difficulties
+of the Study for Town-Bred Students&mdash;The
+Aid of Books and Photographs&mdash;Outline
+Drawing and Suggestion of Main Masses&mdash;Sketch-Book
+Studies, Sections, and Notes&mdash;Swiss
+Animal Carving&mdash;The Clay Model: its
+Use and Abuse.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Nothing enlivens or gives more variety
+of interest to wood-carving than the
+introduction of animal forms. They
+<span class='pagenum'>[192]</span>
+make agreeable halting-places on which
+the eye may rest with pleasure. They
+are, in general, both beautiful in their
+shapes and associated with ideas which
+appeal strongly to the imagination, thus
+affording in masses of abstract ornament
+the pleasantest kind of relief by adding
+to it points of definite lineament and
+meaning.</p>
+
+<p>To carve animals as they ought to be
+carved, one must have something more
+than a passing interest in their forms;
+there must be included also an understanding
+of their natures, and some
+acquaintance with their habits. A cattle-drover
+is likely to know the salient points
+of a bullock, a horse-breeder all those
+connected with a horse, and so on. We
+students, however, not having the advantage
+of such accurate and personal knowledge,
+must make shift in the best way
+we can to discover and note the points so
+familiar to trained eyes. To see animals
+in this way, and, with knowledge of their
+forms and habits, treat their sculptured
+images according to the laws of our craft,
+is no light task. If choice were to be
+made between a rude manner of carving&mdash;but
+which familiarity with the subject
+<span class='pagenum'>[193]</span>
+invested with lively recognition of character&mdash;and
+a more cultured and elaborate,
+but lifeless study in natural history, there
+should be no hesitation in making choice of
+the former method, because animal forms,
+without some indication of vitality, are the
+dullest of all dull ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite impossible to describe in
+words the kind of "action" which is
+most appropriate to sculpture, it being
+much more a question of treatment, and
+the guiding spirit of the moment, than
+a subject which can be formulated. As
+a broad and general principle which may
+be taken for guidance, you will always
+find yourself on surer ground in the
+attempt to indicate the <i>capacity</i> for energy
+and the suggestion of <i>movement</i>, than you
+will if your aim is the extremity of action
+in any direction. You may, with some
+justice, point to the illustration given in
+Fig. 65, and which appears to contradict
+this statement, as being an example in
+which violent action is the key-note. You
+must notice, however, that the two figures,
+although struggling, are for the moment
+still, or may be supposed so. There is
+enough suggestion of this pause to excuse
+the attitudes and save the composition
+<span class='pagenum'>[194]</span>
+from restlessness&mdash;even the raised hands
+may be supposed to remain in the same
+position for a second or two. This
+imaginary pause, however infinitesimal, is
+essential to the dignity of the sculptor's
+art, as nothing is more irritating to the
+mind than being forced to recognize the
+contradiction between a motionless image
+and its suggestion of restless action. It
+is necessary to observe the same rule in
+the expression of actual repose, as some
+clue must be given, some completed action
+be suggested, in order to distinguish dormant
+energy from downright inertia. I
+should like to impress upon you the importance
+of making a special study of the
+characteristic movements of animals. You
+will in time become so far familiar with
+them that certain standards of comparison
+and contrast will be established in your
+mind as aids to memory. Thus you will
+be all the better able to carve with significance
+the measured and stately action of a
+horse, if you have in your mind's eye at
+the same time a picture of the more cumbrous
+and slower movements of a cow; and
+you will be helped in the same way when
+you are carving a dog, by remembering
+that the movements of a cat afford a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+striking contrast, in being stealthy where
+the other is nervous and quick.</p>
+
+<p>For the unfortunate town-bred student
+or artist, who has had few opportunities
+to study birds and beasts familiar to the
+country schoolboy, there is no other way
+but to make the best of stuffed birds,
+photographs, etc. Much may be done
+with these aids if a little personal acquaintance
+with their habits and associations
+is added like salt, to keep the
+second-hand knowledge sweet and wholesome.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of opportunity for study
+from the life, no pictures of animals can
+compare in their usefulness to the carver
+with those by Bewick. They are so completely
+developed in essential details, so
+full of character and expressive of life,
+that even when personal acquaintance has
+been made with their various qualities, a
+glance at one of his engravings of birds or
+beasts conveys new meaning, either of
+gesture or attitude, to what we have
+previously learned. Every student who
+wishes to make a lively representation in
+carving of familiar beast or bird should
+study Bewick's engravings of "Quadrupeds"
+and "Birds."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Drawings made for the purpose of study
+need not be elaborate: indeed, such drawings
+are only embarrassing to work from.
+The most practical plan is to make a drawing
+in which the main masses are given
+correctly, and in about the same relative
+position that they will occupy in the carving.
+I give you in Plate VII an example
+of this in a drawing made by Philip Webb,
+who, by the study of a lifetime, has
+amassed a valuable store of knowledge
+concerning animals, and acquired that
+extraordinary skill in their delineation and
+the expression of character which is only to
+be attained by close observation and great
+sympathy with the subject. The drawing
+in question was made for myself at the
+time I was carving a lion for the cover of a
+book (given in Plate VIII). It was made,
+in his good-natured way, to "help a lame
+dog over a stile," as I had got into difficulties
+with the form. This drawing is all
+that a carver's first diagram should be, and
+gives what is always the first necessity in
+such preliminary outlines&mdash;that is, the right
+relationship of the main masses, and the
+merest hint of what is to come in the way
+of detail; all of which must be studied
+separately, but which would be entirely useless
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+if a wrong start had been made. In
+Fig. 68 I give you tracings from some notes
+I made myself while carving the sheep in
+Plates V and VI. The object was to gain
+some definite knowledge of form by noting
+the relation of planes, sections of parts, projections,
+etc., etc. The section lines and
+side-notes are the most valuable part of
+the memoranda. In the same manner
+the illustration, Fig. 69, shows diagrams
+made from a heron, giving section lines of
+beak, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The side-notes about the colors are
+valuable, as, although not translatable into
+carving, they do to some extent influence
+the manner of interpreting forms.</p>
+
+<p>Photographs must not be despised, but
+they are only of use if read by the light of
+previous knowledge. For this reason you
+can not make too many notes of sectional
+structure through heads, necks, and legs,
+which will help to explain the mystery
+common to all photographs.</p>
+
+<p>The bear shown in the frontispiece is
+traced from a photographic illustration
+which appeared in the Westminster Budget
+some time ago. By the merest accident
+it is suggestive of a subject almost ready
+for the carver's hand.
+<span class='pagenum'>[198]</span>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a name="gs63" id="gs63"></a>
+<img src="images/gs63.png" width="390" height="640" alt="Fig. 68." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"><a name="gs64" id="gs64"></a>
+<img src="images/gs64.png" width="379" height="640" alt="Fig. 69." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>Until tourists began to explore the
+beauties of Switzerland, there were no
+better carvers of animals than the serious
+but genial craftsmen of that noble country,
+more especially of such animals as were
+familiar to their eyes. This preeminence
+shows distinct signs of soon becoming a
+thing of the past in the endeavors to
+meet the demands created by thoughtless
+visitors. Still, it is possible to obtain a
+little of the traditional work, uninfluenced
+by that fatal impetus originating in modern
+commerce. A piece of this kind is shown
+in Fig. 70, bought by a friend only a year
+or two ago in the Grindelwald, and which,
+although forming part of the usual stock
+of such things made for tourist consumption,
+was picked out with judicious discrimination
+from a number of stupid and
+trivial objects which displayed neither interest
+of design nor other than mechanical
+skill of carving. This little bear, a few
+inches in size, is carved in a way which
+shows long experience of the subject, and
+great familiarity with the animal's ways.
+The tooling of the hair is done with the
+most extraordinary skill, and without the
+waste of a single touch. Now, a word
+or two more on studies from the life
+<span class='pagenum'>[201]</span>
+before we leave this subject. I have given
+you examples of diagrams made for this
+purpose, but much may be done without
+any drawings, further than a preliminary
+map of the general masses. In the case
+of such an animal as the horse, which can
+be seen in every street, I have myself
+found it useful to follow them in my
+walks, taking mental note of such details
+as I happened to be engaged upon, such as
+its legs and joints, its head or neck; another
+day I would confine my attention to eyes,
+ears, mane, etc., always with reference to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+the work immediately in hand, as that is
+the time to get the best results from life
+study; because the difficulties have presented
+themselves, and one knows exactly
+what to look for. Five minutes spent
+thus after the work has been started (provided
+the start has been right and involves
+no mistake in the general masses) is more
+valuable than hours of labor in making
+preliminary drawings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs65" id="gs65"></a>
+<img src="images/gs65.png" width="400" height="321" alt="Fig. 70." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of experimental models in clay
+or wax has, of course, its advantages,
+but it will be well to know just how far
+such an aid is valuable, and at what point
+its use becomes hurtful to one's work.
+It is a common practise in large carving
+shops for one man to design the figure
+or animal subjects in clay, while another
+carves them in stone or wood. Now,
+apart from the difference in material and
+the unnatural "division of labor," which
+we have discussed before, it is beyond
+question that a model of this kind has
+even a more paralyzing effect on the
+actual carver than a drawing would have.
+Of course, the work is more certain to
+reach a recognized standard, and the risk of
+total failure is reduced to a minimum, but
+there is literally nothing left for the carver
+<span class='pagenum'>[203]</span>
+to invent; who, if he is a man with a
+turn for that kind of thing, and of a
+nervous temperament, must suffer untold
+irritation in its execution. The good and
+bad results of the use of a modeled pattern
+attend in a modified degree even
+where both are done by the same hand,
+but for all that it is a useful and convenient
+way of making experiments in doubtful
+passages of the work. The "how far" a
+model is to be carried must be regulated
+by the amount of confidence the carver
+has in his own foresight, but in any case it
+is always well to remember the difference
+of treatment required in plaster, clay, and
+hard wood, which lead to such different
+results that often fresh difficulty arises in
+having to translate the one manner into
+the other. For the purpose of roughing
+out the general scheme, the clay, if it
+must be resorted to, should be used in
+soft masses, then a drawing in outline
+made from this; but all doubtful detailed
+work should be carved, not modeled, and
+for this purpose the clay should be allowed
+to harden until it is nearly dry.</p>
+
+<p>The opinions of the well-known wood-carver,
+Mr. W. Aumonier, on this subject,
+will be of value to you; he says with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+regard to the best method of going to
+work: "A fresh piece of wood-carving
+executed without a model is distinctly a
+created work," and that much good work
+may come by "chopping boldly at a block
+without any preconceived design, but designing
+as you go on." But he thinks it
+is best to work from drawings; "rough,
+full-size charcoal cartoons, which give the
+effect wanted by their light and shade."
+He also says that he "strongly protests
+against the too frequent use of clay or
+plaster models, because they are often
+worse than useless, and not infrequently
+absolutely immoral in their tendency,
+because they absorb time and money,
+which ought more legitimately to be
+spent on the carving itself."
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h3>FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK
+IN RELIEF</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+Foreshortening&mdash;Superposition of Masses.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>I have spoken of the necessity for careful
+balance between the outlines of subject
+and background: that both should be
+agreeable in shape. This becomes complicated
+and more difficult to arrange
+when we admit into our design anything
+resembling what painters call foreshortening,
+and the awkwardness is felt
+even in the placing of such a small thing
+as an apple-leaf, which may be treated in
+such a way that the intention of the drawing
+is entirely lost in the confusion which
+arises between the inferred and the actual
+projection.</p>
+
+<p>In designing such subjects it will be
+good to bear in mind as a guiding principle
+that no matter what excuse there
+may be in the nature of the inferred
+position of the leaf or limb, the outline
+<span class='pagenum'>[206]</span>
+against the background must be at once
+agreeable and explanatory.</p>
+
+<p>Every kind of work in relief develops
+a species of compromise in the expression
+of form, lying somewhere between the
+representation of an object on a perfectly
+flat ground, as in a painting, and the complete
+realization of the same form, copied
+from nature in some solid material,
+without any background whatever. In
+proportion to the amount of actual projection
+from the background, of course
+the necessity diminishes for that kind of
+foreshortening which is obtained by delineation.
+It might be inferred, therefore,
+that in very low relief&mdash;which is more
+nearly akin to the nature of a picture&mdash;more
+liberty may be taken in this direction.
+It is not so, however, for where actual
+depth or projection exists, as in carving,
+be it only so much as the depth of a line,
+it makes foreshortening well-nigh impossible,
+except to a very limited extent. There
+must be, of course, <i>some</i> appearance of
+this quality, so a certain conventional
+standard has been set up, beyond which
+one only ventures at one's own risk. Thus,
+care is taken that every object composing
+the subject lies with its <i>longest lines</i> parallel
+
+to the background. In this way the least
+possible violence is done to the imagination
+in completing the picture. As an example,
+no single leaf should be represented in
+<span class='pagenum'>[208]</span>
+relief as turning or coming forward more
+than it would do if plucked from the tree
+and laid loosely down upon a sheet of
+paper. A, Fig. 71, is an outline of an
+apple-leaf pressed out flat. B is an attempt
+to present it in violent foreshortening,
+showing its back to the spectator, while
+its point is supposed to be buried in the
+background. C is the same leaf turned the
+other way, and supposed to be projecting
+forward; both are exceedingly awkward
+and unintelligible as mere outlines, and if
+expressed in relief would not be any more
+convincing as portraits of the thing intended&mdash;rather
+less so, in fact, than the
+diagram, which has no projection to interfere
+with the drawing. So we must
+turn our leaf until it presents its long side
+more or less to the spectator, as in D; but
+even here part of the edge is so thin at <i>a</i>
+that it will be better to turn it a little
+farther, as in E, showing more of its surface,
+as at <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs66" id="gs66"></a>
+<img src="images/gs66.png" width="400" height="577" alt="Fig. 71." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Again, if we take as another example
+two apples, one partly covering the other,
+as in <i>a</i>, Fig. 72, where one apple is supposed
+to be behind the other, and so
+implies distance. There is no means
+of expressing this distance in carving.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+Lowering the surface of the hindmost
+apple would merely throw out the balance
+of masses without giving a satisfactory
+explanation of its position, while to cut
+a deep groove between the two would be
+an equally unsightly expedient. The
+difficulty should, whenever it is possible,
+be avoided by partially separating the two
+forms, as in <i>b</i>, where the center of the
+hindmost apple clears the outline of the
+other; thus making it possible to get a
+division without awkwardness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs67" id="gs67"></a>
+<img src="images/gs67.png" width="400" height="166" alt="Fig. 72." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs68" id="gs68"></a>
+<img src="images/gs68.png" width="400" height="145" alt="Fig. 73." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 73.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A good expedient, where leaf or scroll
+forms are to be carved, and when very
+truthful drawing is necessary to explain
+their convolutions, is that adopted by
+Professor Lethaby at the Royal College of
+Art. It consists in cutting the leaf out of a
+piece of stiffish paper, and with a knife or
+pen-handle curling it into the required
+<span class='pagenum'>[210]</span>
+form. The main lines will thus be seen in
+true relation to one another, and all the
+distortion avoided which arises from disconnection
+of parts; not only that, but
+it is a useful aid to the invention, as
+much variety can be hinted at by a
+skilful manipulation in curling its lobes.
+Fig. 73 was drawn from a paper model of
+this kind. Of course, it is quite without
+the necessary veins or minor articulations,
+but is useful as a suggestion of main
+lines. With regard to subjects containing
+figures of men or animals, the same principle
+governs the placing of the whole body
+in the first instance, then of the different
+members, so that heads, arms, and legs
+take up a position as nearly as may be with
+a piece of background all to themselves.
+Thus, no two bodies should be super-imposed
+<span class='pagenum'>[211]</span>
+if it can be in any way avoided.
+(I am speaking now of moderate and low
+relief, although even in high relief the best
+masters have always respected the principle.)
+The temptation to imitate effects of
+foreshortening for its own sake is not without
+some excuse, as it is quite possible to
+make presentable pictures in this way. A
+horse, for instance, may be carved in low
+relief, presenting either its head or hindquarters
+to the spectator, and yet not look
+absolutely absurd. Again, a front face
+may be carved in the same way, notwithstanding
+the difficulty presented by the
+projection of the nose. Neither of these
+experiments can ever be said to prove entirely
+successful. It is not so much that
+they are either difficult or impossible, as
+that a more suitable method, one more
+natural to the technique of the carver, is
+being neglected, and its many good qualities
+sacrificed for sake of an effect which
+can never be fully realized in sculpture.
+To so dispose the various masses, great
+and small, that they fall easily into groups,
+each having some relation to, and share of
+the background, is a true carver's artifice.
+A skilful use of this arrangement makes
+it quite unnecessary to encroach upon the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+domain of another art in the imitation
+of an effect which may be successfully
+rendered with the pencil, but only so to a
+very limited extent with the carving tools.</p>
+
+<p>You have all seen the actors, when
+called before the curtain at the close of the
+play, how they pass before it one by one,
+and perhaps joining hands make their bows
+<i>in line</i>, to all appearance, on a very narrow
+platform. The curtain is your background,
+while the footlights may stand for the
+surface of your wood. In illustration of
+this principle, let me call your attention to
+the arrangement of the animals in Plate
+VI, where economy of space, and a desire
+to display each detail to advantage, are the
+leading motives. I give it as the readiest
+example to hand, and because it fairly illustrates
+the principle in question. You must
+excuse the apparent vanity in making choice
+of one of my own works to exemplify a
+canon of art. The sheep at the top is supposed
+to be scampering over rocks; the ram
+below may be any distance from the sheep
+that you choose to imagine&mdash;the only
+indication of relative position is <i>separation</i>,
+by means of a ridge that may pass for a
+rock. The head of the ram is somewhat
+foreshortened, but there was enough thickness
+<span class='pagenum'>[213]</span>
+of wood contained in the big mass of
+the body to allow of this being done in
+the smaller mass of the head, without
+leaving too much to be supposed. The
+heads of the sheep in the fold have been
+as closely packed as was consistent with
+showing as much of each as possible, as it
+was considered better to give the whole
+head and no body than to show only a
+part of both: most of the bodies, therefore,
+are supposed to be hidden behind
+the wall, only one showing in part.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general axiom of the craft, that
+every mass (be it body or leaf) must be
+made as complete in itself as the circumstances
+will allow; but, if partly hidden,
+the concealment should be wilful, and
+without ambiguity. Thus, a dog's head
+may be rightly carved as being partly
+hidden in a bucket, but ought not to be
+covered by another head if it is possible to
+avoid it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h3>UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and
+Abuse&mdash;"Built-up" Work&mdash;"Planted" Work&mdash;"Pierced"
+Work.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>By undercutting is meant the cutting
+away of the solid portions of projections
+in such a manner as to make them invisible,
+thus throwing the carved surface
+work into more complete relief by detaching
+it from the background. This device
+has often been carried so far, where the
+projection was sufficient, that entire groups
+of figures and foliage have been practically
+detached from the background, like pieces
+of separate sculpture carved all round.
+This desire for completeness of relief was
+more or less a departure from the orthodox
+aims of the carvers' craft, and led ultimately
+to what is known as "built-up"
+work&mdash;that is to say, work in which the
+projecting parts were composed of many
+different pieces of wood, each carved
+separately, and afterward glued or pinned
+together to form the composition. Many
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+of the most elaborate carvings by Grinling
+Gibbons are of this kind; they have a
+charm of their own, but it is one of quite
+separate interest, and belongs to a category
+entirely removed from the art of
+carving objects in a solid piece of wood.
+Apart from this distinction, the difficulty
+of the method requires the most
+accomplished mechanical skill and a highly
+trained eye to either carve or compose
+such work in a way to command respect. I
+shall therefore dismiss this branch of the
+subject as being outside of our present
+limits.</p>
+
+<p>Undercutting, on the other hand, is an
+expedient distinctly characteristic of solid
+wood-carving, and some experiments ought
+to be made by you in designing work
+in which it can be used. It may be
+either partial or complete&mdash;complete, of
+course, only up to a point; that is to say,
+the connection with the background must
+in every case be not only maintained but
+visibly demonstrated. Partial undercutting
+applies to such portions as the sides
+of leaves, the receding parts of heads,
+wings, etc., where the wood between the
+object and its background is cut away on
+an inward bend, either completing the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+projecting form, as in the case of a head,
+or merely to hide the superfluous wood
+in the case of a leaf. All this presupposes
+a certain amount of elevation in the relief;
+indeed, it is only in such cases that the
+process is necessary or can be carried out.
+The use of undercutting of this kind is
+like every other technical process, liable to
+abuse through too much being made of
+its effects. Fortunately the time it consumes
+is a safeguard against any tendency
+to run riot in this direction. The point
+at which it should in all cases stop, and
+that relentlessly, is where it begins to
+cause a separation between any entire mass
+of ornament and its background. If <i>portions</i>
+are thus relieved almost to complete
+detachment, but visibly reconnect themselves
+in another place, a certain piquancy
+is gained which adds charm without
+destroying character. A curious use is
+made of undercutting in the bunch of leaves
+given in Plate XI from a Miserere seat
+in Winchester Cathedral; it may be said
+to be completely undercut in so far that
+the whole bunch is hollowed out under
+the surface, leaving from 1/4 to 1/2 in. thickness
+of wood, in which the leaves are
+carved, so that you may put your finger
+<span class='pagenum'>[217]</span>
+in at one hole and see it at the bottom of
+another. The only end all this extra
+labor seems to have attained is that of
+changefulness in the shadows of the holes
+between the leaves, in which one sees
+dark rims with light at the bottom, a condition
+which certainly adds a mysterious
+lightness to the whole mass. It is a very
+refined and appropriate use of undercutting,
+but would only be possible where
+time could be spent to secure a variant of
+such epicurean delicacy, as all the superfluous
+wood must be taken out through
+the spaces between the leaves, and in this
+case they are not overlarge for that
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Work which has its background entirely
+cut away, and which is afterward glued or
+"planted" on a fresh background to save
+labor, can not be called "undercut"; this
+method has generally a cheap look, as it is
+used with the object of saving time and
+expense. Carving which is treated in this
+way, but instead of being "planted" close
+to the background, is fixed at a little distance
+from it (as is the case with the lace-like
+designs fitted into the hollow moldings
+of fifteenth-century choir-screens), is
+of quite a different order, although even in
+<span class='pagenum'>[218]</span>
+this case it can not be strictly described as
+undercut: it is more nearly akin to pierced
+fretwork. It has, however, all the general
+effect of undercut work, and is the only
+possible way of obtaining this effect in
+wood where a large quantity of such
+ornament is required. The face of such
+carving is generally a little convex, while
+the back is hollowed out to give an equal
+thickness of section. The ornaments in
+Figs. 75, 76, and 77 are of this description,
+and are calculated to give great play
+of light and shade, and be seen well at a
+considerable distance.</p>
+
+<p>Undercutting in the strict and more
+laborious sense must be reserved for occasions
+where the labor is repaid by the
+additional charm. It must be considered
+in the light of a <i>tour de force</i>, which, on
+account of its cost in the matter of time,
+should only be used under exceptional circumstances,
+care being taken to make it
+clear that it is <i>an exception</i> to the general
+rule of solid carving on a solid background.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Limitations of an Art not Safely
+Transgressed&mdash;Aerial
+Perspective Impossible in Relief&mdash;Linear
+Perspective only Possible in a Limited Way.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Those vague and shadowy boundaries
+which separate the domains of the different
+arts are being perpetually called in
+question. By what landmarks such indefinite
+frontiers may be distinguished,
+and how far they may be extended or
+transgressed, will always be a matter of
+dispute. Excursions of conquest are continually
+being made, and conspicuous
+among these, one which animates the
+hopes of many sculptors and modelers.
+Its aim is the appropriation of those
+charms which are the peculiar property of
+the graphic arts, more especially their
+power of expressing the effects of distance
+by means of linear and aerial perspective.</p>
+
+<p>The background of a piece of carving is
+so obviously solid and impenetrable that
+any attempt to imitate an appearance of
+distance is sure to defeat its own ends, the
+<span class='pagenum'>[220]</span>
+loss being greater than the gain. If there
+are limits to be observed in the foreshortening
+of a single leaf, how much
+more must they apply to the representation
+of whole landscapes? Properly
+speaking, there is no <i>distance</i> available in
+the carver's art; its whole interest lies
+near the surface, and in the direct rays of
+the light which illuminates it. There is
+even a distinct pleasure to be derived from
+the sense that it is all carved out of a
+block of such and such thickness, pointing
+to the reasonable conclusion that this
+thickness should never be lost sight of,
+the carving ever and anon returning to the
+surface as a measure of music does to its
+key-note. This is exemplified in all the
+great works of antiquity, among which
+the Parthenon frieze may be quoted as
+evidence. On the other hand, all pictorial
+sculpture, such as carved landscapes with
+figures diminishing both in scale and projection,
+necessarily fail to uphold this sense
+of solidity, as there must occur large spaces
+which are hollowed out far below the
+surface to give another plane on which
+to carve the more distant objects in low
+relief, in the vain hope of making them
+appear to recede. Work in which perspective
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+of this kind is used must be
+viewed as nearly as possible from the point
+of vision produced by its vanishing-lines;
+this point is intelligible enough in the case
+of a painting, but when it comes to be
+carved into relief, if it happens to be seen
+from any other point of view, it necessarily
+looks all wrong, because every part
+is thrown into false relationship.</p>
+
+<p>All this, of course, forms no argument
+against the use of explanatory landscapes
+with trees, buildings, etc. It only means
+that all such features must be treated in a
+way entirely different to that adopted by
+the painter&mdash;that is to say, in detached
+groups, each having some due relation to
+the original surface of the wood, and only
+very little to their perspective positions.
+In Fig. 74 are two diagrams of a landscape
+composition. The one is appropriate
+to a painted picture and the other
+to carving; both have pretty nearly the
+same number of features, except that
+in the carving there is no <i>effect</i> of distance
+attempted, whereas in the painting
+everything leads to this one particular
+distinction. The road goes <i>into</i> the
+picture, the bridge is seen end on, the
+house and mill are diminished in size, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+the horizon is strongly enforced by a
+shadow echoed in the sky. The carving
+looks ridiculous beside the painting, but it
+is a severe test, as it is not a subject which
+should be carved at all in that condensed
+way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"><a name="gs69" id="gs69"></a>
+<img src="images/gs69.png" width="383" height="640" alt="Fig. 74." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 74.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h3>ARCHITECTURAL CARVING</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Necessity for Variety in Study&mdash;A Carver's
+View of the Study of Architecture; Inseparable
+from a Study of his own Craft&mdash;Importance of
+the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the
+Carver&mdash;Carpenter's Imitation of Stone Construction
+Carried too Far.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>That the study of wood-carving should
+be confined to the narrow field of its own
+performances would be the surest way to
+bring contempt upon an art which already
+offers too many temptations for the easy
+embodiment of puerile motives. Such a
+limited range would exclude all the stimulating
+lessons to be derived from the many
+other kinds of carving and sculpture; forgetful
+that they are, after all, but different
+forms of the same art, differing only in
+technique and application. It would take
+no note of the stately sculptures of
+<span class='pagenum'>[224]</span>
+Greece&mdash;the fountain-head of all that is
+technically and artistically perfect in expression
+of form&mdash;or of the splendor of
+imagination displayed in the ivories of
+Italy. Many another source of inspiring
+impetus would be neglected, including the
+greatest of all, the influence of architecture,
+and through it, the dignified association
+or the carver's art with all that is noble
+in the life of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The dry and uninviting aspect which a
+serious study of architecture presents to
+some minds is such that it is too often
+avoided as both useless and wearisome.
+Much of this diffidence is due to a misconception
+of the aims which should
+govern the student of decorative design in
+making an acquaintance with its principles.
+The study should not be looked upon as
+pertaining exclusively to the functions of
+an architect, nor as having only an accidental
+connection with particular crafts.
+It must be remembered that in the old
+days mason and carpenter were both craftsmen
+and architects, and the sculptor and
+wood-carver had an equal share in creating
+every feature which gives any distinction
+of style to the buildings that were the
+outcome of their united efforts. So, instead
+<span class='pagenum'>[225]</span>
+of looking upon the subject as only
+a study of dates for the antiquary, and
+rules of construction for the architect, the
+carver should take his own view, and regard
+architecture for the time being as
+what in some sense it really is: a very
+large kind of carving, which includes and
+gives reason for his own particular branch.
+The importance of the subject is proved
+by the experience of centuries; history
+showing plainly how the two arts grew in
+strength and beauty only when closely
+associated, and shared each other's fate in
+proportion to their estrangement.</p>
+
+<p>In this place I can say but very little
+upon such a vast subject; all I can do is
+to call your attention to one or two
+examples of carved work combined with
+structural carpentry, in order that you may
+see for yourselves what a power of effect
+lies in that union, and how by contrast it
+enhances the value and interest of both.
+I do this in the hope that it may possibly
+lead you to a more complete study of
+architecture, for which there is no lack of
+opportunity in books and museums, but
+more especially in what remains of the old
+buildings themselves, with which a familiar
+and personal acquaintance will be much
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+better than a theoretical or second-hand
+one.</p>
+
+<p>No carver with a healthy ambition can
+long continue to make designs and produce
+them in wood without feeling intensely
+the want of some architectural
+occasion for his efforts. Had he only a
+barge-board to carve, or the canopy of a
+porch, it would be such a relief to turn to
+its large and general treatment after a
+course of the panels and ornaments
+peculiar to domestic furniture. Look,
+for instance, at the carved beams of the
+aisle roof in Mildenhall Church given in
+Plate III, and think what a fund of powerful
+suggestion lay in the bare timbers before
+they were embellished by the carver
+with lion, dragon, and knight. Even the
+carpenter became inspired with a desire to
+make something ornamental of his own
+department, and has shaped and carved
+(literally carved) his timbers into graceful
+moldings. Then, again, in the roof of
+Sall Church, Norfolk, shown in Plate IV,
+you have a noble piece of carpentry which
+is as much the work of an artist as the
+carved figures and tracery which adorn it&mdash;indeed
+it is all just as truly carved
+work as those figures, being chopped out
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+of the solid oak with larger tools, ax and
+adze, so that one knows not which to admire
+most, carved angels or carved carpentry.</p>
+
+<p>Plates XI and XII are details of the
+carvings which fill the spandrels of arch
+and gable in the choir stalls and screen at
+Winchester Cathedral. There are a great
+many of these panels similar in character
+but differing in design, some having figures,
+birds, or dragons worked among the foliage.
+They are comparatively shallow in
+relief, and this appears less than it really
+is owing to the fact that many parts of the
+carving dip down almost to the background,
+giving definite but not deep
+shadows. The main intention seems to
+have been to allow only enough shadow
+to secure the pattern, and then to emphasize
+this by means of a multitude of little
+<i>illuminated</i> masses. The leading lines run
+through the pattern as continuously as
+possible, but the surface of the leafage is
+divided up into numbers of little hills and
+hollows. The sides of these prominences
+catch and reflect light more readily than
+they produce shadow, so that it is possible
+to trace the pattern at a considerable distance
+by means of the lights alone. Unfortunately
+<span class='pagenum'>[228]</span>
+for all believers in the historical
+evidence of ancient handicrafts, this work
+was overhauled some half century ago,
+and in parts "<i>restored</i>." The old work
+has been imitated in the new with surprising
+cleverness, but for that, no one
+who has a clear sense of the true function
+of the carver's art, or of the historical
+value of its witness to past modes of life,
+will thank those who carried out the "restoration,"
+so confusing is it to be unable
+to distinguish at a glance the old from the
+new, so depressing to find such laborious
+efforts wasted in pleasing a childish desire
+for uniformity of treatment when it could
+only be achieved at the cost of deception,
+and, I may add, so irritating to find oneself
+for a moment deceived into accepting one
+of the "restored" parts as genuine old
+work. To add to the deception, the
+whole of the old woodwork, as well as the
+new, was smeared over with a black stain
+in order the better to hide the difference
+of color in old and new wood, thus
+forever destroying its soft and natural
+color, as well as the texture of its surface,
+so dear to the wood-carver.</p>
+
+<p>The fifteenth century in England was
+a period of great activity among wood-carvers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+and many beautiful choir-screens
+were added about this time to the existing
+churches, all in the traditional Gothic
+manner, as the Renaissance influence was
+a full century at work in other countries
+before its power began seriously to affect
+the national style. The West of England
+(Somerset and Devon in particular) is
+rich in the remains of this late Gothic
+carving, some details of which are shown
+in the accompanying illustrations, Figs.
+75, 76, 77.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs70" id="gs70"></a>
+<img src="images/gs70.png" width="400" height="268" alt="Fig. 75." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="gs71" id="gs71"></a>
+<img src="images/gs71.png" width="400" height="370" alt="Fig. 76." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"><a name="gs72" id="gs72"></a>
+<img src="images/gs72.png" width="382" height="640" alt="Fig. 77." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a general rule the supporting carpentry
+of these screens bears a strong
+<span class='pagenum'>[230]</span>
+resemblance to stonework; so imitative
+is it in treatment, that it is only by the
+texture of the wood and its lightness of
+construction that the distinction is made
+evident. Now a certain degree of modified
+imitation, where one craft models its
+forms of design upon those of another,
+using a different material, as in the case of
+woodwork imitations of arches, tracery,
+etc., is not only legitimate, but very
+<span class='pagenum'>[232]</span>
+pleasing in its results. To attain this
+end, the carpenter need only be true to
+his own ideals&mdash;there is no occasion to
+abandon the methods of his own craft
+in order to copy the construction which
+is peculiar to another. The resources
+of carpentry offer an infinite field for
+the invention of new and characteristic
+forms, and these may be made all the
+more attractive if they show, to some
+extent, the influence of an associated
+craft, but never fail to become wearisome
+if essential character has been sacrificed for
+the sake of an ingenious imitation. The
+structural parts of some of these screens
+are composed of elaborate imitations of
+stone vaulting and tracery, so closely
+copied as to be almost deceiving, therefore
+they can not be taken as good examples
+of suggestive opportunity for the wood-carver.</p>
+
+<p>The carved work, on the other hand,
+is marked by a strong craft character,
+essentially <i>woody</i> both in design and execution.
+The illustrations referred to are
+typical examples of this kind of work, and,
+although the execution can not be indicated,
+they at least give the disposition of parts,
+and some idea of the contrast obtained by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+the use of alternate bands of ornament differing
+in scale, or, as in some cases, the
+agreeable monotony produced by a repetition
+of almost similar designs, varied
+slightly in execution.</p>
+
+<p>Another prominent feature of church
+woodwork, which developed about this
+time into magnificent proportions, was
+the font cover and canopy. Many of
+these were, however, more like glorifications
+of the carpenter's genius for construction
+than examples of the carver's art,
+as they were composed of a multitude
+of tiny pinnacles and niches, the carver's
+work being confined to a repetition of
+endless crockets, tracery, and separate
+figures or groups. However, in Plate
+XIII an example is given of what they
+could do when working together on
+a more equal footing; although much
+mutilated, enough remains to show how
+the one craft gains by being associated
+with the other in a wholesome spirit of
+rivalry.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h3>SURFACE FINISH&mdash;TEXTURE</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>Tool Marks, the Importance of their
+Direction&mdash;The
+Woody Texture Dependent upon Clearness of
+Cutting and Sympathetic Handling.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The term "texture" is sometimes applied
+to the quality of finish which is characteristic
+of good carving; it has a somewhat
+misleading sound, which seems to
+suggest that the final treatment of the
+surface is the work of a separate operation.
+However, it is a right enough
+word, as the texture which wood-carvers
+aim at is that of the wood in which they
+are carving. One might naturally think
+that this texture must necessarily appear
+when the work was finished, but that is
+not the case, as it is only rescued by the
+most skilful use of the tools, and easily
+disappears under the mismanagement of
+clumsy or unsympathetic hands.</p>
+
+<p>Texture in carving is in some respects
+on a parallel with tone in painting&mdash;it
+depends upon a right relation of many
+qualities. As in the painting good tone
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+is the outcome of the combined effects
+of truth in color and a right balance of
+what are called the "values," together with
+decision in the handling of the brush, so in
+carving, texture depends upon, first, having
+a clear idea of what is being carved, and
+making it clear to others; that if it be
+round, hollow, or flat, it must be so indeed;
+that edges and sharpnesses be really where
+they were intended to be, and not lost in
+woolly confusion. Then again, as with the
+painter's brush, the tool must be moved by
+a hand which adapts itself to every changing
+plane, to all manner of curves and contours,
+with touches sometimes delicate and
+deliberate, at others broad and sweeping,
+or even, at times, brought down with the
+weight and force of an ax-blow.</p>
+
+<p>A good quality of finish may exist in
+the most divergent kinds of work, each
+having its own characteristic texture.
+Thus a broad treatment on a large scale
+will make much of the natural texture
+of the wood, enforcing it by crisp edges
+and subtle little ridges which catch the
+light and recall the momentary passage
+of the sharp tool, while elaborate work
+in low relief may have a delicate texture
+which partly imitates that of the details
+<span class='pagenum'>[236]</span>
+of its subject, and partly displays the
+nature of the wood. In either case, the
+texture must be consciously aimed at by
+the carver as the last but by no means
+least quality which is to give vitality to the
+work of his hands. A sense of the capabilities
+of his wood in this respect is one of
+the best aids to the carver, as it reacts on
+his sense of form and compels him to precision.</p>
+
+<p>Manual dexterity alone may succeed
+in making its work clearly intelligible,
+but that is all, and it generally leaves
+a surface in which there is little indication
+of any feeling for the material in
+which the work is carved, nothing, in
+fact, that marks it specially as carving in
+wood, or distinguishes it from a casting in
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>The technical operation which is most
+immediately answerable for the making
+or marring of texture is the disposition
+and nature of the final tool marks. These
+should be so managed that they help the
+eye to understand the forms. They should
+explain rather than confuse the contours
+of the surface. Just as in a good chalk
+drawing the strokes and cross-hatchings
+are put in with method, and if well done
+<span class='pagenum'>[237]</span>
+produce the effect of something solid,
+so in carving, the tool marks should
+emphasize the drawing without in any way
+calling attention to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite impossible to explain in
+words that will not be open to misconstruction
+the subtle commingling of
+qualities which make all the difference
+between good and bad texture. We may
+succeed better by describing those conditions
+which are unfavorable to it. Thus
+work which is very much cut up into minute
+detail, and which lacks a proper contrast
+of surface, or, for the same reason, work
+which is too generally bald and smooth,
+rarely exhibit a good surface texture.
+Again, work which is overlabored, or
+where delicate details have been attempted
+on a coarse-grained wood, or finally, work
+which, although done with success in the
+matter of mechanical dexterity, is deficient
+in feeling for its woody possibilities,
+are all likely to fail in the matter of
+texture.</p>
+
+<p>Punch-marked backgrounds have undoubtedly
+a legitimate place among the
+expedients of the carver for obtaining
+contrast, but on the whole, as such, they
+are of a somewhat meretricious order, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+in almost every case their use is fatal to
+the charm of fine texture, as this always
+depends on an appreciation of the homogeneous
+connection of carving and background.
+If they are used at all they
+should be made to form patterns on the
+background, and not put down promiscuously.
+Little gouge marks are still better,
+as they are not so mechanical.</p>
+
+<p>I shall conclude this part of my subject
+with a quotation from the words of Mr.
+W. Aumonier, in a lecture delivered at
+the Royal Institute of British Architects.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>All carving to be treated according to
+the position it is to occupy</i>. Not only
+the design, but the actual carving itself,
+should be considered with a view to the
+position it is to take and the light it will
+receive. Thus, even if quite close to the
+eye, where, of course, its position warrants
+or demands a certain amount of finish, it
+must be remembered that real finish rather
+means perfection of form than smoothness
+of surface, so that even there it should still
+show its cuts and its tool marks fearlessly,
+and be deepened in parts to make it tell its
+proper tale in the combined scheme of
+decoration; while if it is going a great
+height or distance from the eye it should
+<span class='pagenum'>[239]</span>
+be left as rough as ever you can leave it.
+The only points that have to be regarded
+are the outlines, varieties of planes, and
+depths, and if these be properly considered
+everything else will take care of itself, and
+then the whole work can not be left too
+rough. Its very roughness and choppy cuts
+will give it a softness and quality when in
+its place that no amount of smoothing or
+high finish can possibly attain to."</p>
+
+<p>Beware of putting a wrong interpretation
+upon the word "rough"&mdash;refer to
+what he says of the points to be regarded,
+i.e., the "varieties of planes, and depths."
+If they are right the "roughness" is not
+likely to be of the offensive kind.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing so effectually destroys the
+quality of texture as polish applied to carving.
+If furniture <i>must</i> be polished it should
+not be carved. The only polish that improves
+carving is that which comes of use.
+On hard woods, such as oak or Italian walnut,
+the pressure of the tools leaves a
+pleasant polish, which is all that is necessary;
+the <i>most</i> that should be allowed may
+be given by a little burnishing with the handle
+of the tool.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI</h2>
+
+<h3>CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Country Craftsman of Old Times&mdash;A Colony
+of Craftsmen in Busy Intercourse&mdash;The Modern
+Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing Variety of
+Choice.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The present revival of interest in the arts,
+especially with regard to those of a decorative
+kind, is based on the recently awakened
+esthetic desires of a small section of the
+general public, who owe their activity in
+this direction to the influence of men like
+John Ruskin and William Morris. The
+first of these, by his magic insight, discerned
+the true source of vitality which
+lay in the traditions of medieval workmanship,
+i.e., their intensely <i>human</i> character
+and origin. His fiery words compelled
+attention, and awakened a new enthusiasm
+for all that betokens the direct
+and inspiring influence of nature. They
+raised the hope that this passion might in
+some way provide a clue to the recovery of
+a fitting form of expression.</p>
+
+<p>William Morris, with no less power as a
+<span class='pagenum'>[241]</span>
+craftsman, was the first to give practical
+embodiment to this newly awakened impulse
+by a modified return to the older
+methods of production. His rare knowledge
+of medieval history, and manly sympathy
+with all that is generous in modern
+life, made it impossible for him to become
+a superficial imitator. His work is an example
+of what may be achieved by a union
+of high artistic instincts with a clear understanding
+of the conditions of modern
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Cheering as is the present activity in
+its encouragement of endeavor, the difficulties
+of establishing anything like an
+efficient system of education for the artist,
+more especially the sculptor, or carver
+artist, is only being gradually realized.
+The difficulties are not so much academic
+as practical. It is less a question of where
+to study than one of knowing what direction
+those studies should take. Before
+any genuine development in the art can be
+looked for, continuity of effort must be
+established, and that in a single direction,
+undisturbed as it is at present by differences
+of public taste.</p>
+
+<p>Opportunities for study are now afforded
+to an extent never before dreamed of: in
+<span class='pagenum'>[242]</span>
+books and schools, and in museums; but
+division of opinion mars the authority of
+the two first, while the last is confessedly
+but a kind of catalogue, which may only
+be read with profit by the light of considerable
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>A certain amount of success has undoubtedly
+attended the progress of the
+new system, but it must always be more
+or less at a disadvantage; firstly, by reason
+of its divided aims; secondly, because the
+system is more theoretic than practical,
+and is often based on the false assumption
+that "design" may be learned without
+attaining a mastery over technique, and
+<i>vice versa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Until students become disillusioned on
+this latter point, and are at the same time
+permitted to follow their natural bent
+with as little interference as possible from
+the exigencies of public taste, uniformity of
+aim will be impossible, and consequently
+the system must remain artificial. It can
+never, under any circumstances, entirely
+replace that more natural one adopted by
+our ancestors. How can its methods compare
+for a moment with the spontaneous
+and hearty interest that guided the tools
+of those more happily placed craftsmen,
+<span class='pagenum'>[243]</span>
+whose subjects lay around them, of daily
+familiarity; whose artistic language was
+ready to hand and without confusion,
+affording an endless variety of expression
+to every new and individual fancy. Many
+of these craftsmen were, owing to their
+invigorating surroundings, gifted with a
+high poetic feeling for their art&mdash;a quality
+which gives to their work a transcendent
+value that no learning or manual cleverness
+could supply. They acquired their
+technical knowledge in genial connection
+with equally gifted members of other
+crafts, and in consequence expressed themselves
+with corresponding and justly
+proportioned skill in execution.</p>
+
+<p>Conditions that can not be altered must
+be endured while they last, but the first
+step toward their improvement must be
+made in gaining a knowledge of the facts
+as they are. This will be the surest
+foundation upon which to build all
+individual effort in the future.</p>
+
+<p>Who that has felt the embarrassing
+doubts and contradictory impulses, peculiar
+to modern study, can have failed to
+look disconsolately away from his own
+surroundings to those far-off times when
+craft knowledge was acquired under circumstances
+<span class='pagenum'>[244]</span>
+calculated to awaken the
+brightest instincts of the artist? The
+imaginary picture calls up the ancient
+carver at his bench, cheerfully blocking
+out images of leaves and animals in his
+busy workshop, surrounded with the
+sights and sounds of country life. His
+open door frames a picture of the village
+street, alive with scenes of neighborly
+interest. From the mill-wheel comes
+a monotonous music making pleasant
+cadence to his own woody notes, or the
+blacksmith's hammer rings his cheery
+counterpart in their companionable duet.</p>
+
+<p>Short as is the distance between workshop
+and home, it provides a world of
+beauty and incident; suggesting to his
+inventive mind the subjects suitable for
+his work. Birds, beasts, and flowers are
+as familiar to him as the tools with which
+he works, or the scent and touch of the
+solid oak he handles daily. There, among
+the aromatic chips, he spends the long
+working hours of a summer day; varied
+by the occasional visits of a rather exacting
+Father from the neighboring monastery;
+or perhaps some idle and gossiping acquaintance
+who looks in to hold a long
+parley with his hand upon the latch.
+<span class='pagenum'>[245]</span>
+Or it may be that the mind turns to
+another carver, at work in one of the
+many large colonies of craftsmen which
+sprang up amid the forest of scaffolding
+surrounding the slow and mysterious
+growth of some noble cathedral. Here
+all is organized activity&mdash;the best men
+to be found in the country have been
+banded together and commissioned to
+do their best, for what seems, in modern
+eyes, a ridiculously small rate of pay.
+Some are well known and recommended;
+others, as traveling artists, are seeking
+change of experience and daily bread.
+Foreigners are here, from France, Italy,
+and the East. All have been placed
+under the direction of competent masters
+of their craft; men who have long since
+served their apprenticeship to its mysteries,
+and earned an honorable position in its
+gilds.</p>
+
+<p>Here the carver works in an atmosphere
+of exhilarating emulation. Stone-carver
+and wood-carver vie with each
+other in producing work that will do
+credit to their respective brotherhoods.
+Painter and decorator are busy giving to
+the work of their hands what must have
+appeared to those concerned an aspect
+<span class='pagenum'>[246]</span>
+of heavenly beauty; the most precious
+materials not being considered too costly
+for use in its adornment.</p>
+
+<p>What an interchange of artistic experience!&mdash;interchange
+between those of
+similar craft from different countries, and
+the stimulating or refining influence of
+one craft upon another&mdash;sculptors, goldsmiths,
+wood-carvers, and painters, all
+uniting in a sympathetic agreement to
+do their utmost for the high authorities
+who brought them together; with a
+common feeling of reverence, alike for
+the religious traditions which formed the
+motives of their work and the representatives
+of that religion in the persons of
+their employers.</p>
+
+<p>What an endless variety of interruptions
+must have been common! all of
+a kind eminently calculated to stimulate
+the imagination. Municipal functions,
+religious festivals with their splendid
+gatherings and processions, the exciting
+events of political contest, often carried
+to the point of actual combat, to say
+nothing of the frequent Saint's day holidays,
+enjoyed by the craftsman in jovial
+social intercourse. All and every scene
+clothed in an outward dress of beauty,
+<span class='pagenum'>[247]</span>
+ranging from the picturesque roughness
+of the village inn to the magnificent
+pageantry of a nobleman's display, or
+the majestic surroundings of an archi-episcopal
+reception.</p>
+
+<p>From dreams of the past with its many-sided
+life and background of serious
+beauty, we turn with feelings almost
+bordering on despair to the possibilities of
+the present. Not only has the modern
+craftsman to master the technicalities of
+his business, but he must become student
+as well. No universally accepted form of
+his art offers him a ready-made language;
+he is left fatally free to choose style,
+period, or nationality, from examples of
+every conceivable kind of carving, in
+museums, photographs, and buildings.
+As proud but distracted heir to all, he
+may cultivate any one of them, from
+Chinese to the latest style of exhibition
+art. For his studies he must travel half
+a dozen miles before he can reach fields,
+trees, and animals in anything like inspiring
+conditions. He must find in
+books and photographs the botanical
+lineaments of foliage and flowers, of
+which he mainly seeks to know the
+wild life and free growth. With but
+<span class='pagenum'>[248]</span>
+one short life allowed him in which to
+make his poor effort in a single direction,
+he must yet study the history of his
+craft, compare styles, and endeavor with
+all the help he can get to shape some
+course for himself. Can he be assured
+of selecting the right one, or out of the
+multitude of counselors and contradictory
+views, is there not a danger of taking a
+false step? No wonder, if in the cloudy
+obscurity of his doubts, he sometimes
+feels a tired desire to abandon the problem
+as too intricate to be resolved.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII</h2>
+
+<h3>ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION
+BETWEEN BUILDER AND CARVER</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquote"><p>The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles&mdash;The "Gothic"
+Influence: Sculpture an Integral Element in
+its Designs&mdash;The Approach of the so-called
+"Renaissance" Period&mdash;Disturbed Convictions&mdash;The
+Revival of the Classical Style&mdash;The Two
+Styles in Conflict for a Time; their Respective
+Characteristics Reviewed&mdash;Carvers Become Dependent
+upon Architects and Painters&mdash;The
+"Revival" Separates "Designer" and "Executant."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>The prevailing architectural fashion of a
+time or country, known as its style, has
+generally been determined by the influence
+of more advanced nations on those of a
+ruder constitution; each modifying the
+imported style to suit its own climatic
+and social conditions, and imbuing it with
+its own individual temperament. The
+foreign idea was thus developed into a
+distinct and national style, which in its
+turn bore fruit, and was passed on as an
+initiative for other nations and new styles.
+<span class='pagenum'>[250]</span>
+The current of this influence, generally
+speaking, trended from east to west as
+though following the course of the sun,
+upon whose light it depended for the
+illumination of its beauties.</p>
+
+<p>There are so many styles of architecture,
+and consequently of carving, both in
+wood and other materials, that a history of
+such a subject would be a life study in
+itself, and be quite barren of results
+except those of a professional kind. It
+would include the characteristics of carvings
+from every country under the sun,
+from the earliest times known. Engravings
+on boars' tusks found in prehistoric
+caves, carvings on South Sea Island canoe
+paddles, Peruvian monstrosities of terror,
+the refined barbarity of India and China,
+the enduring and monumental efforts
+of Egyptian art, and a hundred others,
+down to times and countries more within
+reach. In fact, it would only be another
+name for a history of mankind from the
+beginning of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be better for the student's
+purpose than to begin his studies of history
+at that point where the first indication of
+the Gothic or medieval period of architecture
+makes its appearance. For it was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+from this great and revolutionary change
+in the manner of building that all the
+subsequent variety of style in carving as
+well as building in medieval Europe took
+its origin. The first rudiments of the
+great school of art, which has been broadly
+classified as having a "Gothic" origin,
+began to make their appearance in Byzantium
+some three or four centuries after
+the birth of Christ. This city, said to
+have been founded by a colony of Greek
+emigrants, became the seat of Roman
+government in their eastern empire, and
+is now known as Constantinople: it contains
+a noted example of ancient art in the
+great church of St. Sophia. From the date
+of the building of this church in the sixth
+century A. D. to the beginning of the fifteenth
+century in Italy, and about a
+hundred years later, more or less, according
+to distance from that center, we have
+roughly the period during which the
+"medieval" spirit ruled the arts of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The work of this long period is distinguished
+beyond all others by the varied
+beauty and interest of its carvings, a
+preeminence it owes in part to the strong
+bias in this direction which was given
+<span class='pagenum'>[252]</span>
+by its early founders, but still more
+to the unbroken alliance maintained
+between builders and carvers throughout
+the entire period. An inherited
+talent for sculpture, handed down, no
+doubt, from their classical forefathers,
+distinctly marks the commencement of
+the era; but from that time until the appearance
+of the "Renaissance" influence,
+builder and carver are no longer conceivable
+as being independent of each
+other. Sculpture of one kind or another
+not only played an important part in the
+decoration of its buildings, but became a
+necessary and integral element in every
+architectural conception, be its importance
+little or great. The masons designed
+their structural features with a view to
+the embellishments to follow from the
+hand of the carver; they were in full
+sympathy with the artistic intention of
+the decoration, therefore their own ideas
+were in complete conformity with those of
+the sculptor, while even in some cases
+they did this part of the work themselves.
+The sculptors, restrained by the severe
+laws of structural design, never transgressed
+the due limits of their craft, or
+became insistent upon the individuality of
+<span class='pagenum'>[253]</span>
+their own work. Hence, throughout all
+the successive changes of style brought
+about by time and difference of country,
+climate, or material, the art of carving
+steadily progressed hand in hand with the
+art of building. The changes were so
+very gradual, and grew so naturally from
+the conditions and requirements of social
+life, that ample time was allowed for the
+education of public feeling, which became
+in this way identified with the inventive
+progress of the craftsmen. As a happy
+result, one aim and desire governed alike
+builders, carvers, and people, and one
+style at a time, enjoyed and understood by
+all, was the wholesome regimen by which
+the architectural appetite of the period
+was sustained. Cathedral and cottage
+differed only in their relative grades of
+importance; each shared in due proportion
+the advantages of an architectural style
+common to all forms of building, and
+adaptable in the highest degree to every
+varying purpose of design, from the
+simplest piece of walling, with the barest
+indication of style, to the most elaborate
+arrangement of masonry and carving which
+could be devised to distinguish a stately
+and important structure.
+<span class='pagenum'>[254]</span></p>
+
+<p>Time was, however, preparing a revolution
+which was destined to sweep away
+many old beliefs and established institutions,
+and with them those familiar motives
+and habits of thought, which had long
+formed the bountiful source of medieval
+inspiration and invention. The period between
+the beginning of the fifteenth century
+and the Reformation was like a fiery
+furnace, in which the materials for a new
+world were being prepared; it was no time
+for the leisurely enjoyment of the pleasures
+of art, which presupposes settled convictions
+and imperceptible developments.</p>
+
+<p>About this time many new forms of
+intellectual activity began to engage the
+minds of the more gifted. Speculative
+philosophy, the opening fields of science,
+the imaginative literature of the ancients;
+these were among the subjects which,
+while they enlarged the sphere of individual
+thought, destroyed that social ideal
+which had its roots in a common belief,
+and with it, the secret source of all past
+development in architecture. With the
+deep-lying causes and far-reaching effects
+of the unrest which disturbed this period,
+we are not here concerned, beyond the
+point where it touches our interest in
+<span class='pagenum'>[255]</span>
+architecture and sculpture. That drastic
+changes were in progress affecting the
+popular regard for these arts is undeniable.
+Educated and illiterate minds
+became alike indifferent to the authority
+of established religion&mdash;either they succumbed
+to the tyranny of its powerful
+but corrupt ministers, or stood out in open
+rebellion against its disputed dogmas.
+In either case, that architecture which
+had formerly been regarded as the chief
+symbol of united faith, shared the neglect
+of one section or the abhorrence of the
+other. That strong sense of beauty, once
+the common possession of builders, sculptors,
+and people, was now between the
+upper and nether millstones of fate,
+being ground into the fine dust which
+has served for centuries as the principal
+ingredient in the manufacture of an
+endless succession of moral puddings
+and pies, known in modern times as "art
+criticism."</p>
+
+<p>To earnest minds in all classes at that
+time, any enthusiasm for architectural
+styles, old or new, must have appeared
+as futile as an anxiety about appearances
+while one's house was burning.</p>
+
+<p>To the art of this period the title
+<span class='pagenum'>[256]</span>
+"Renaissance" has been foolishly applied.
+When used in association with
+the arts of architecture and sculpture, it
+is essentially a misnomer. For these arts
+it was merely a time of revival, not in
+any sense one of rebirth, as the word
+implies. In no way can this period
+claim to have conferred vitality along
+with the resuscitation of outward form.
+The revival of a classical style in architectural
+design, which began in the early
+years of the fifteenth century, was the
+sequel to a similar "revival" in the
+study of Greek and Roman literature,
+then occupying the interests of cultivated
+scholars. It was but a step further to
+desire also the realization of those architectural
+splendors which were associated
+with these studies. Such dilettante dreams
+can not be supposed to have deeply interested
+the general public, with whose
+concerns they had but a remote connection;
+so under these circumstances,
+probably the classical style was as suitable
+as any other, chosen on such narrow and
+exclusive grounds. There was even a
+certain fitness in it, a capability of much
+expansion on theatrical and grandiose
+lines. Its unbending demeanor toward
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+craft talent of the humbler kind at once
+flattered the vanity of the cultured, and
+cowed uneducated minds.</p>
+
+<p>The Duomo at Florence was finished
+early in that century, and was one of the
+first buildings in which the new style
+was adopted. In this case it was used
+mainly in the completion of a building
+already well advanced on lines based
+upon the older traditions. The character
+of its design, although not of a
+strictly imitative kind, was distinctly based
+on a classical ideal. Imitations followed,
+mingling, as in the case of the Duomo,
+Gothic and classic elements, often with
+fine effect. It is quite possible to believe
+that, had this intermarriage of the two
+schools continued to bear fruit, some
+vertebrate style might have resulted from
+the union, partaking of the nature of both
+parents; but the hope was of short duration.
+Its architects, becoming enamored
+by the quality of scientific precision, which
+is the fundamental principle of classical
+design, soon abandoned all pretense of
+attempting to amalgamate the native and
+imported styles. They gave themselves up
+wholly to the congenial task of elaborating
+a scholarly system of imitation; so that,
+<span class='pagenum'>[258]</span>
+by the middle of the sixteenth century,
+no trace whatever remained of native
+feeling in the architecture of its important
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>During the progress of this revolution
+in style, the old medieval habits of
+cooperation between master mason and
+sculptor were slowly being exchanged for
+a complete dependence upon a special
+architect, who was not necessarily a craftsman
+himself; but whose designs must
+be carried out line for line with the most
+rigid adherence to measurements.</p>
+
+<p>For a moment in history, the rival
+spirits of the two great schools of architecture
+stand face to face like opposing
+ideals. The classical one, recalled from
+the region of things past and forgotten,
+again to play a part on earth with at
+least the semblance of life; the Gothic
+spirit, under notice to quit and betake
+itself to that oblivion from which its
+rival is reemerging.</p>
+
+<p>In the heyday of their power, the first
+had shown a distinctly autocratic bearing
+toward its workmen; offering to its
+sculptors of genius opportunities for the
+exercise of highly trained powers, and
+to the subordinate workmen only the
+<span class='pagenum'>[259]</span>
+more or less mechanical task of repeating
+a limited number of prescribed forms.
+The other, a more genial spirit, had possessed
+the largest toleration for rude or
+untrained workmanship, provided that in
+its expression the carver had a meaning
+which would be generally understood
+and appreciated. If skill could be commanded,
+either of design or technique,
+it was welcomed; but it gave no encouragement
+to work which was either so
+distinctive as to be independent of its
+surroundings, or of a kind which could
+have no other than a mechanical interest
+in its execution. The abrupt contrasts,
+the variety and mystery, characteristic
+of Gothic architecture, had been a direct
+and irresistible invitation to the carver,
+and the freest playground for his fancy.
+The formality of the classical design, on
+the other hand, necessarily confined such
+carving as it permitted to particular lines
+and spaces, following a recognized rule;
+and except in the case of bas-relief figure
+subjects and detached statues, demanded
+no separate interest in the carvings themselves,
+further than the esthetic one of
+relieving such lines and spaces as were
+otherwise uncomfortably bare.
+<span class='pagenum'>[260]</span></p>
+
+<p>Some modification of this extreme arrogance
+toward the decorative carver
+was only to be expected in the revived
+style, but the freedom allowed to the
+individual carver turned out to be more
+apparent than real. A new race of carvers
+sprang up, imbued with the principles of
+classical design; but being no longer in
+touch with natural and popular interests,
+nor stimulated by mutual cooperation
+with their brother craftsmen, the mason
+builders, they adopted the fashionable
+mode of expression invented by the new
+architects and the painters of the time.
+Elaborate "arabesque" and other formal
+designs gave employment to the carvers,
+in making an infinite repetition of fiddles,
+festoons, and ribbons, in the execution of
+which they became so proficient, that their
+work is more often admired for its exquisite
+finish than for any intrinsic interest
+in the subject or design.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by its effects upon the art
+of carving, without the aid of which a
+national style of architecture is impossible,
+the revival of classical architecture never
+had a real and enduring life in it.
+Strictly speaking, no organic style ever
+grew out of its ambitious promises; the
+<span class='pagenum'>[261]</span>
+nearest approach to such a thing is to
+be found in those uncouth minglings of
+Gothic tradition with fragments of classical
+detail which distinguish much of the
+domestic architecture during the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries. Amusing in
+their quaint and often rich and effective
+combinations, humanly interesting in proportion
+to the predominance of the Gothic
+element, association has grown up around
+these homely records of a mixed influence,
+until they have come to be regarded with
+affection, if not with the highest admiration.</p>
+
+<p>The "revival" brought nothing but
+harm to the carver himself&mdash;that is, to
+the carver who found it impossible to
+reach the elevation of a sculptor of genius.
+He sacrificed his own small but precious
+talent as a creator of pleasant images
+for the attainment of a finesse in the
+execution of other people's ideas. To
+the "Renaissance" must be attributed
+that fatal separation of the craftsman's
+function into the hands of designer and
+executant which has so completely paralyzed
+the living spirit of individual invention.
+It has taken close upon four
+centuries to open the eyes of our crafts
+<span class='pagenum'>[262]</span>men
+to this inconsistency, and "revive"
+the medieval truth that invention and
+execution are strictly but one and the
+same thing. Let us hope that the present
+awakening to the importance of this fact
+may yet lead to what will be truly worthy
+of being called a "Renaissance"; not
+merely of outward forms, but of that
+creative energy which alone justifies the
+true meaning of the word.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="NOTES_ON_THE" id="NOTES_ON_THE"></a>NOTES ON THE
+COLLOTYPE PLATES</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> I.&mdash;<i>Old Carved Chest in York
+Cathedral</i>. The front of a chest of
+almost similar design, only reversed, is
+to be seen in South Kensington Museum,
+which looks from its resemblance both
+in design and technique to be the work
+of the same carver, or at least to have
+been done about the same time. Note
+the absence of any attempt at elaborate
+perspective, and the "decorative" aspect
+of houses, rocks, trees, etc., also the
+distinctive treatment of the Knight and
+Princess who appear in the picture several
+times, representing various incidents of
+the story.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> II.&mdash;<i>Figure from the Tomb of
+Henry IV in Canterbury Cathedral</i>. This
+figure is one of the corner ornaments on
+the canopy. The whole of the upper
+structure is of wood, painted in colors
+with parts picked out in gold.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> III.&mdash;<i>Aisle Roof, Mildenhall
+Church, Suffolk</i>. This is one of the
+many beautiful carved roofs which abound
+in Norfolk and Suffolk. The nave roof
+is enriched with carvings of angels with
+wings outspread.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> IV.&mdash;<i>Nave Roof, Sall Church,
+Norfolk</i>. This is another very beautiful
+timber roof showing the union of
+practical carpentry with carving to perfection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> V.&mdash;<i>Portion of a Carved Oak
+Panel. The Sheepfold</i>. The other part
+is shown in Plate VI, as, owing to the
+proportion of this panel and the necessity
+for keeping the scale of the plates as
+large as possible, it has been divided and
+shown in two portions. It was begun
+without any premeditated intention as
+to use, the sloping end being the shape of
+the board as it came into the author's hands,
+the other end being sloped off to match it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> VI.&mdash;<i>Portion of a Carved Oak
+Panel. The Sheepfold</i>. See description
+of Plate V.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> VII.&mdash;<i>Preliminary Drawing of a
+Lion for Carving</i>. This plate is, as explained
+in the text, from a drawing by
+Philip Webb, the well-known architect.
+It was done by him to explain certain
+facts about the pose of a lion when the
+author was engaged in carving the book
+covers which are shown in Plates VIII and
+IX.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plates</span> VIII and IX.&mdash;<i>Book-Covers
+carved in English Oak</i>. These were done
+by the author for one of the "Kelmscott
+Press" books, Tale of Troy, at the instance
+of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. The
+relief is very slight, and is rather exaggerated
+by the light and shade of the
+photograph. The carved portion only of
+these covers is shown, the size of which is
+11-1/2 x 5-3/4 ins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> X.&mdash;<i>Book-Covers carved in English
+Oak</i>. These were done by the
+author for Mr. F. S. Ellis's translation
+of Reynard the Fox. The size of the
+carved part is 8-3/4 x 5-1/4 ins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XI.&mdash;<i>Carvings from Winchester
+Cathedral</i>. This plate is from sketches
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+made by the author at Winchester Cathedral.
+The upper one is a spandrel piece
+from the traceried arcading of the stalls.
+The lower one is a part of one of the
+carved Miserere seats. The spandrel carving
+is pierced; that is, has the ground cut
+right through. The other piece is elaborately
+undercut.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XII.&mdash;<i>Carving from Choir-Screen,
+Winchester Cathedral</i>. This plate is from
+a sketch done for the purpose of noting
+the general effect of a large mass of
+carved foliage with particular reference
+to the distribution of lighted surfaces in the
+design.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIII.&mdash;<i>Font Canopy, Trunch
+Church, Norfolk</i>. The plate gives the
+upper portion only of this beautiful
+canopy; it is supported upon six posts
+richly carved on all sides, of which there
+are five to each post. The height of the
+whole canopy is about fifteen or sixteen
+feet&mdash;it presumably dates somewhere
+toward the end of the fourteenth century
+or beginning of the fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XIV.&mdash;<i>Designs for Carving, by</i>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+<p><i>Philip Webb</i>. This plate gives two
+examples of designs for carving by Philip
+Webb. The upper one is part of a richly
+carved cornice which was done for a
+chimney-piece; the carving was executed
+by Mr. Laurence Turner, from whom
+the author got his first lesson in wood-carving.
+The other example is a design
+on paper for carving to be done in oak.
+This was carried out in the paneling
+of the dining-room at Clouds House,
+Salisbury, and looked exceedingly effective.
+Much of the articulation on the
+surface of the leaves, it will be noticed,
+is got by sharp facets produced by the intersection
+of gouge cuts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XV.&mdash;<i>Leg of a Settle carved in
+English Oak</i>. This was begun by the
+author as forming part of a large oak
+seat or "settle," but has never been
+completed. The wood out of which
+it is carved came out of an old house
+at Tewkesbury and was full of cracks which
+were filled up with slips of oak glued in and
+carved over.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plate</span> XVI.&mdash;<i>Pew Ends in Carved Oak,
+Brent Church, Somersetshire</i>. The three
+<span class='pagenum'>[270]</span>
+bench ends shown in this plate are from
+Brent Church, Somersetshire. Although
+rude in execution, they are extremely
+effective in design. The bounding form
+of the molded edges and gracefully shaped
+top are worth noticing; the whole evidently
+the outcome of a nice and inherited sense of
+design, without any particular technical
+knowledge or experience. The termination
+of the finials was unfortunately omitted
+in the photograph, hence the abrupt line at
+the top.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES" id="THE_COLLOTYPE_PLATES"></a>
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES</h2>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a>
+<img src="images/plate01.png" width="500" height="278" alt="I. Old Carved Chest
+in York Cathedral." title="" />
+<span class="caption">I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"><a name="plate2" id="plate2"></a>
+<img src="images/plate02.png" width="381" height="640" alt="II.&mdash;Figure from
+the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury Cathedral." title="" />
+<span class="caption">II.&mdash;Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury
+Cathedral.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 368px;"><a name="plate3" id="plate3"></a>
+<img src="images/plate03.png" width="368" height="640" alt="III.&mdash;Aisle
+Roof&mdash;Mildenhall Church, Suffolk." title="" />
+<span class="caption">III.&mdash;Aisle Roof&mdash;Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="plate4" id="plate4"></a>
+<img src="images/plate04.png" width="400" height="589" alt="IV.&mdash;Nave
+Roof&mdash;Sall Church, Norfolk." title="" />
+<span class="caption">IV.&mdash;Nave Roof&mdash;Sall Church, Norfolk.</span>
+</div><p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;"><a name="plate5" id="plate5"></a>
+<img src="images/plate05.png" width="259" height="640" alt="V.&mdash;Portion of
+a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The Sheepfold." title="" />
+<span class="caption">V.&mdash;Portion of a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The
+Sheepfold.</span>
+</div><p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;"><a name="plate6" id="plate6"></a>
+<img src="images/plate06.png" width="258" height="640" alt="VI&mdash;Portion
+of a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The Sheepfold." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VI&mdash;Portion of a Carved Oak Panel&mdash;The
+Sheepfold.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="plate7" id="plate7"></a>
+<img src="images/plate07.png" width="400" height="237" alt="VII.&mdash;Preliminary
+Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By Phillip Webb." title="" />
+<span class="caption">VII.&mdash;Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By
+Phillip Webb.</span>
+</div><p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"><a name="plate8" id="plate8"></a>
+<img src="images/plate08.png" width="333" height="640" alt="VIII.&mdash;Book Cover
+Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Tale of Troy.&quot;
+(only carved portion shown.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">VIII.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Tale
+of Troy.&quot;
+(only carved portion shown.)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a name="plate9" id="plate9"></a>
+<img src="images/plate09.png" width="330" height="640" alt="IX.&mdash;Book Cover
+Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Tale of Troy.&quot;
+(only carved portion shown.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">IX.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Tale
+of Troy.&quot;
+(only carved portion shown.)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"><a name="plate10" id="plate10"></a>
+<img src="images/plate10.png" width="401" height="640" alt="X.&mdash;Book Cover
+Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Reynard the Fox.
+(only carved portions shown.)" title="" />
+<span class="caption">X.&mdash;Book Cover Carved in English Oak&mdash;&quot;Reynard
+the Fox.
+(only carved portions shown.)</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"><a name="plate11" id="plate11"></a>
+<img src="images/plate11.png" width="377" height="640" alt="XI.&mdash;Carving from
+Choir Stalls in Winchester Cathedral." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XI.&mdash;Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester Cathedral.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;"><a name="plate12" id="plate12"></a>
+<img src="images/plate12.png" width="374" height="640" alt="XII.&mdash;Carving
+from Choir Screen&mdash;Winchester Cathedral." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XII.&mdash;Carving from Choir Screen&mdash;Winchester
+Cathedral.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span>
+></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;"><a name="plate13" id="plate13"></a>
+<img src="images/plate13.png" width="409" height="640" alt="XIII.&mdash;Font
+Canopy&mdash;Trunch Church, Norfolk." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XIII.&mdash;Font Canopy&mdash;Trunch Church, Norfolk.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a name="plate14" id="plate14"></a>
+<img src="images/plate14.png" width="370" height="640" alt="XIV.&mdash;Two designs
+for Carving, by Philip Webb.
+One executed, one in drawing." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XIV.&mdash;Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb.
+One executed, one in drawing.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"><a name="plate15" id="plate15"></a>
+<img src="images/plate15.png" width="288" height="640" alt="XV.&mdash;Leg of a
+Settle, carved in English Oak." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XV.&mdash;Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 407px;"><a name="plate16" id="plate16"></a>
+<img src="images/plate16.png" width="407" height="640" alt="XVI.&mdash;Pew Ends
+in Carved Oak&mdash;Brent Church, Somersetshire." title="" />
+<span class="caption">XVI.&mdash;Pew Ends in Carved Oak&mdash;Brent Church,
+Somersetshire.</span>
+</div><p><span class='pagenum'>[305]</span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[306]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p>
+Acanthus, the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Aims and conditions of work, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+American woods, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Animal carving, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Animal carving, Swiss, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Animals, or figures, in carving, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
+<a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Apprentice and student, their aims and conditions of work,
+<a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Architectural carving, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+<a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+"Arkansas" slips, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Arms, coats of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Aumonier, W., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Background, patterned, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Basswood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Beads and moldings to be carved, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Beam, carved, in South Kensington Museum, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
+<a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Bear, drawing of (frontispiece), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,
+<a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Beast and bird studies, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Bed, design and carving for a, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<br />
+Beech wood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Bench or settle, design and carving for, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
+<br />
+Benches, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Bench screw, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Berne Cathedral, carved figure from, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Bevels, tool, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Bewick, studies from, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<br />
+Bird and beast studies, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Book-covers in oak, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
+<a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+Books, aid of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Boxwood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Brackets, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Bread plates, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br />
+<br />
+Brent Church, pew ends in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+<a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<br />
+Brier-wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Builder and carver, notes on the importance of cooperation between,
+<a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+"Built-up" work, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Byzantine design, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"Candle," <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Canopy, Font, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Canterbury Cathedral, carved figure from, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<br />
+Carpenter's imitation of stone construction,
+<a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Carpenter's influence on carver, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Cartoons, charcoal, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Carver and builder, notes on the importance of cooperation between,
+<a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'>[307]</span><br />
+Carver and joiner, reciprocal aims of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving and sculpture, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, architectural, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, "chip," <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, heraldic, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, Icelandic, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, New Zealand, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, Norse, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, South Sea, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, stone, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Carving, Swiss, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Cedar wood, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Chair, sketch of, etc., <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Character, works viewed as records of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Charcoal cartoons, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Cherry wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Chest, carved, from York Cathedral, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
+<a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">273</a><br />
+<br />
+Chestnut wood, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+"Chip" carving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Chisels, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
+<a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Choir-screens, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+<a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
+<br />
+Choir-stalls at Winchester Cathedral, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+<a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Classical style, revival of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Clay models, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Clips, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Clock, suggestion of design and carving for,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Clock case, suggestion of design and carving for,
+<a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
+<br />
+Coats of arms, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+Cock, suggestion for carving a, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Collotype plates, <a href="#Page_272">273-304</a><br />
+<br />
+Collotype plates, notes on the, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+<br />
+Colors noted on diagrams, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,
+<a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Colors of woods, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Contours of surface, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Corner cupboards, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Cornice, design for, by Philip Webb, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+Craft schools, past and present, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Craftsmen, old-time and modern, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Cramps, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Cross, design for, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Cupboards, corner, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Cutting, clearness of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
+<a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Design, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Design, application of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Design, Byzantine, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Design, factors in the arrangement of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Design, outline, and suggestion of main masses, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+"Designer" and "Executant," <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Designs, adaptation of old, to modern purposes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Designs, humor in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Designs, list of fruit, flower, and vegetable subjects, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Designs, necessity for every carver making his own, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Designs, transferring, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Detail, economy in, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+Diagrams, colors noted on, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<br />
+Distance and light in design, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Drilling and sawing, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+Duomo, the, at Florence, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ebony wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Economy in detail, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+Edges of tools, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Environment as important as handicraft, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'>[308]</span><br />
+Execution and design, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Exning, chair at, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Figures, or animals, in carving, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Finish, surface&mdash;texture, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<br />
+Florence, the Duomo at, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+<br />
+Flowers as subjects, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Foliage, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Font canopy, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+Foreshortening as applied to work in relief, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+Forms, imitation of natural, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Forms, plant, list of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Forms, rounded, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Free rendering, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Fruit subjects, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Furniture, carving on, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gerrard's "Herbal," a source of design, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Gibbons, Grinling, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>,
+<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Glass paper, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Gothic capital in Southwell Minster, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Gothic carvings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+<a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Gothic influence, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Gouges, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Gouges, sharpening, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Grain of the wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Grapes, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Grindelwald, carved bear from, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Grotesque in carving, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+"Grounders," <a href="#Page_134">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Grounding, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Handling tools, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+"Hard" wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Hardwood carving, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Henry IV, figure from tomb of <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
+<a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<br />
+Heraldic carving, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
+<br />
+"Herbal," Gerrard's, a source of design, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Heron, drawing of a, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Holdfasts, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Hollywood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Hop-vine, the, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Humor in designs, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Icelandic carving, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Imitation of natural forms, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+"India" oilstone, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Japanese work, a characteristic of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Joiner and carver, reciprocal aims of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Joiner, the amateur, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
+<br />
+Joiner's tools, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kauri pine wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+"Kelmscott Press," carved oak covers for, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lance-wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Landscape in carving, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+Leather for stropping, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+<br />
+Leaves, expedient for explaining convolutions, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Leaves, list of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Letters, carved, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+<br />
+Light and distance in design, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Lime wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Lion, preliminary drawing for carving a, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"Maccaroni" tool, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Mahogany wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Mallets, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'>[309]</span><br />
+Masses, right relationship of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Masses, suggestion of main, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Masses, superposition of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+Medieval and modern choice of form compared, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Memoranda, methodical, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Memoranda, sketch-book, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Method, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Mildenhall Church, aisle roof, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<br />
+Mirror frame, suggestion of design and carving for, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Miserere seats, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
+<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+<a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Miters, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Models, clay, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<br />
+Morris, William, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Moldings, to be carved, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br />
+<br />
+Museums, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Natural forms, imitation of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Nature, studies from, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
+<a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+New Zealand carving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Norse patterns, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Notes on cooperation, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Oak, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Oilstones, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Old work, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<br />
+Originality, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+Outline drawing, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Panel, carved, "The Sheepfold," <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,
+<a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+<a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+<br />
+Paneling, design for, by Philip Webb, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+Panels, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+"Parting" tool, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Paste for stropping, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Pattern and free rendering compared, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Pattern, background, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+Pattern, importance of formal, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Pattern, medieval choice of natural forms governed by a question of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Pattern, Portuguese, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterned background, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, Icelandic, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, New Zealand, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, Norse, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, pierced, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Patterns, South Sea, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Pear-tree wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Period "Renaissance," revival of the classical style, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Perspective, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
+<a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+<br />
+Pew ends, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br />
+<br />
+Photographs, aid of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Picture subjects and perspective, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+<br />
+Pierced patterns, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+"Pierced" work, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Pine wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Pine wood, yellow, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Plant forms, list of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+"Planted" work, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+Plums, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Polish, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Portuguese pattern, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Position of tools, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Practise and theory, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Preamble, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Relief, work in, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
+<br />
+"Renaissance," the, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+"Reynard, the Fox," carved oak book-cover, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_291">291</a><br />
+<br />
+"Rifler," <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Rounded forms, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'>[310]</span><br />
+"Router," <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Ruskin, John, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"S," pattern, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+St. Sophia, church of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br />
+<br />
+Sall Church, nave roof, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
+<a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+<br />
+Sandalwood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Sawing and drilling, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br />
+<br />
+Schools, craft, past and present, <a href="#Page_240">240</a><br />
+<br />
+Screens, choir, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
+<br />
+Sculpture and carving, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Settle or bench, design and carving for, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a><br />
+<br />
+Settle, carved leg of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
+<br />
+Sharpening stones, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Sharpening tools, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheep, drawing of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
+<a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+<br />
+Sheepfold, the, collotype plate, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+<a href="#Page_285">285</a><br />
+<br />
+Sketch-book, use of the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Slips, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+"Soft" wood, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+South Kensington Museum, carvings from, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
+<a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+South Sea carving, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Southwell Minster, Gothic capital in, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Spoon tools, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Stalls, choir, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_293">293</a><br />
+<br />
+Stone carving, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Stones, sharpening, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Stones (sharpening), case for, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Stropping, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Student and apprentice, their aims and conditions of work, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Students, the, opportunity lies on the side of design, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Studies, beast and bird, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Studies from nature, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Study, necessity for variety in, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Style, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, animal, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, choice of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, flower, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, foliage, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, fruit, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, in perspective, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, picture, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, still life, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Subjects, vegetable, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+Surface contours, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+Surface finish, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<br />
+Swiss carving, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Sycamore wood, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"Tale of Troy," carved oak book-cover for, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+<a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br />
+<br />
+Tempering tools, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<br />
+Texture and surface finish, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<br />
+Theory and practise, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Thimble pattern, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+"Throwing about," <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Time, carvers the historians of their, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Tool marks, the importance of their direction, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, average number, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, blunted or broken, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, description of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, handling, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, joiner's, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, position on oilstone, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, position when in use, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, sharpening, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, spoon, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, stropping, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, tempering, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'>[311]</span><br />
+Tracing, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Trunch Church, font canopy at, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_298">298</a><br />
+<br />
+"Turkey," oilstone, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Turner, Laurence, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Undercutting and "built-up" work, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"V" tool, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Vegetable designs, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+"Veiner," <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
+<a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Vines, the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Walnut wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+"Washita" oilstone, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Wave pattern, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Webb, Philip, drawings and designs by, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
+<a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
+<br />
+Winchester Cathedral, carvings from, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
+<a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
+<a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
+<br />
+Wood, hard, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Wood, soft, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, American, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, colors of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, grain of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, list of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Woods, "soft" and "hard," <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Work, critical inspection of, from a distance, as it proceeds, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Yellow pine wood, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+York Cathedral, old chest in, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+<br />
+Yorkshire settle, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE END</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b> Minor corrections were made to normalize spelling
+and punctuation.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wood-Carving
+       Design and Workmanship
+
+Author: George Jack
+
+Editor: W. R. Lethaby
+
+Release Date: July 19, 2007 [EBook #22107]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOOD-CARVING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Ross Wilburn, Suzanne Shell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R.
+LETHABY
+
+WOOD-CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF
+TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS.
+
+Edited by W. R. LETHABY.
+
+
+The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial and mechanic
+arts. It will consist of authoritative statements by experts in every
+field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--the whole
+sphere of the so-called "dependent arts."
+
+
+     BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs,
+     Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120
+     Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype
+     reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1.25 net; postage, 12 cents
+     additional.
+
+     SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in
+     Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page
+     Illustrations. 12mo. $1.40 net; postage, 12 cents additional.
+
+     WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings
+     by the Author and other Illustrations.
+
+
+_In Preparation_:
+
+CABINET-MAKING AND DESIGNING. By C. SPOONER.
+
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.
+
+[Illustration: A SUGGESTION FROM NATURE AND PHOTOGRAPHY.
+See page 197.]
+
+WOOD-CARVING
+DESIGN AND
+WORKMANSHIP
+BY GEORGE JACK
+WITH
+DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR
+AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1903
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1903,
+BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+_Published October, 1903_
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+In issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic
+Crafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims.
+
+In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books of
+workshop practise, from the points of view of experts who have
+critically examined the methods current in the shops, and putting aside
+vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set
+up a standard of quality in the crafts which are more especially
+associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to treat design
+itself as an essential part of good workmanship. During the last century
+most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of an academic kind, were
+little considered, and there was a tendency to look on "design" as a
+mere matter of _appearance_. Such "ornamentation" as there was was
+usually obtained by following in a mechanical way a drawing provided by
+an artist who often knew little of the technical processes involved in
+production. With the critical attention given to the crafts by Ruskin
+and Morris, it came to be seen that it was impossible to detach design
+from craft in this way, and that, in the widest sense, true design is an
+inseparable element of good quality, involving as it does the selection
+of good and suitable material, contrivance for special purpose, expert
+workmanship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere ornament, and
+indeed, that ornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine
+workmanship than a matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when
+separated by too wide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from
+design--inevitably decays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation,
+divorced from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls into
+affectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a language
+addressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speech of
+the tool.
+
+In the third place, we would have this series put artistic craftsmanship
+before people as furnishing reasonable occupations for those who would
+gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic art, the
+competition, of its kind, is so acute that only a very few per cent can
+fairly hope to succeed as painters and sculptors; yet, as artistic
+craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly every one who would
+pass through a sufficient period of apprenticeship to workmanship and
+design would reach a measure of success.
+
+In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose to
+deal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the dreary
+routine of hack labor as from the terrible uncertainty of academic art.
+It is desirable in every way that men of good education should be
+brought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough of
+us "in the city," and it is probable that more consideration will be
+given in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This third volume of our series treats of one branch of the great art of
+sculpture, one which in the past has been in close association with
+architecture. It is, well, therefore, that besides dealing thoroughly,
+as it does, with the craftsmanship of wood-carving, it should also be
+concerned with the theory of design, and with the subject-matter which
+the artist should select to carve.
+
+Such considerations should be helpful to all who are interested in the
+ornamental arts. Indeed, the present book contains some of the best
+suggestions as to architectural ornamentation under modern circumstances
+known to me. Architects can not forever go on plastering buildings over
+with trade copies of ancient artistic thinking, and they and the public
+must some day realize that it is not mere shapes, but only _thoughts_,
+which will make reasonable the enormous labor spent on the decoration of
+buildings. Mere structure will always justify itself, and architects who
+can not obtain living ornamentation will do well to fall back on
+structure well fitted for its purpose, and as finely finished as may be
+without carvings and other adornments. It would be better still if
+architects would make the demand for a more intellectual code of
+ornament than we have been accustomed to for so long.
+
+On the side of the carver, either in wood or in stone, we want men who
+will give us their own thought in their own work--as artists, that
+is--and will not be content to be mere hacks supplying imitations of all
+styles to order.
+
+On the teaching of wood-carving I should like to say a word, as I have
+watched the course of instruction in many schools. It is desirable that
+classes should be provided with casts and photographs of good examples,
+such as Mr. Jack speaks of, varying from rough choppings up to minute
+and exquisite work, but all having the breath of life about them. There
+should also be a good supply of illustrations and photographs of birds
+and beasts and flowers, and above all, some branches and buds of real
+leafage. Then I would set the student of design in wood-carving to make
+_variations_ of such examples according to his own skill and liking. If
+he and the teacher could be got to clear their minds of ideas of
+"style," and to take some example simply because they liked it, and to
+adapt it just because it amused them, the mystery of design would be
+nearly solved. Most design will always be the making of one thing like
+another, with a difference. Later, motives from Nature should be brought
+in, but always with some guidance as to treatment, from an example known
+to be fine. I would say, for instance, "Do a panel like this, only let
+it be oak foliage instead of vine, and get a thrush or a parrot out of
+the bird book."
+
+In regard to the application of carving, I have been oppressed by the
+accumulation in carving classes of little carved squares and oblongs,
+having no relation to anything that, in an ordinary way, is carved. To
+carve the humblest real thing, were it but a real toy for a child, would
+be better than the production of these panels, or of the artificial
+trivialities which our minds instinctively associate with bazaars.
+
+
+W. R. LETHABY.
+
+_September, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+TO THE READER,
+
+Be you 'prentice or student, or what is still better, both in one, I
+introduce the following pages to you with this explanation: that all
+theoretical opinions set forth therein are the outcome of many years of
+patient sifting and balancing of delicate questions, and these have with
+myself long since passed out of the category of mere "opinions" into
+that of settled convictions. With regard to the practical matter of
+"technique," it lies very much with yourself to determine the degree of
+perfection to which you may attain. This depends greatly upon the amount
+of application which you may be willing or able to devote to its
+practise.
+
+Remember--the laws which govern all good art must be known before they
+can be obeyed; they are subtle, but unalterable. The conditions most
+favorable to your craft must first be understood before these laws can
+be recognized. There yet remains at your own disposal that devotion of
+energy which is the first essential step, both in the direction of
+obtaining clearer views and in conquering technical difficulties.
+
+I have to thank the following gentlemen for their assistance in
+providing photographs for some of the illustrations: Messrs. Bedford
+Lemere & Co.--H. Sandland--Charles C. Winmill--W. Weir--J. R. Holliday
+and F. K. Rives.
+
+G. J.
+
+_September, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+Editor's Preface                                                       7
+
+Author's Preface                                                      15
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PREAMBLE
+
+Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of Work--Necessity
+for Some Equality between Theory and Practise--The Student's
+Opportunity lies on the Side of Design                                25
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS
+
+Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for
+Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition
+by Degrees                                                            31
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH
+
+Different Stones in Use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet
+Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips          42
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WOODS USED FOR CARVING
+
+Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages
+of Pine and English Oak                                               48
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SHARPENING THE TOOLS
+
+The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad
+Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing
+Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools       52
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+"CHIP" CARVING
+
+Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic
+Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Patience
+and Precision--Technical Methods                                      63
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD
+
+Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in Grounding--Description
+of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of Tools, Danger of
+Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting                             69
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS
+
+Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative
+Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a
+Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional"          82
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROUNDED FORMS
+
+Necessity for every Carver Making his own Designs--Method
+of Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground                             88
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND
+
+Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern
+and Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval
+Choice of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern             96
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONTOURS OF SURFACE
+
+Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing
+About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds   103
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ORIGINALITY
+
+Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An
+Unwholesome Kind of "Originality"                                    108
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+PIERCED PATTERNS
+
+Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling
+and Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns            110
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HARDWOOD CARVING
+
+Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on
+Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner
+Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form,
+and Simple in Character--Methods of Carving Grapes                   115
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE SKETCH-BOOK
+
+Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be approached
+with Caution.--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of
+Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies                                137
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment
+as Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records
+of Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time                   149
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE
+
+Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise
+Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character                153
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CARVING ON FURNITURE
+
+Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of
+Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is
+Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures                      161
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING
+
+Misproportion Not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The
+Sham Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to
+the Carver                                                           180
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS
+
+The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality better than Dull
+"Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for Town-Bred
+Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline Drawing and
+Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies, Sections, and
+Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use and Abuse       191
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF
+
+Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses                              205
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK
+
+Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and Abuse--"Built-up"
+Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work                                 214
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE
+
+The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial
+Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible
+in a Limited Way                                                     219
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL CARVING
+
+The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of
+Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance
+of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the Carver--Carpenters'
+Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too Far                      223
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE
+
+Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture
+Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling         234
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT
+
+The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy
+Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing
+Variety of Choice                                                    240
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN
+BUILDER AND CARVER
+
+The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence: Sculpture
+an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the so-called
+"Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival of the
+Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time; their
+Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent
+upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer"
+and "Executant"                                                      249
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                        265
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 271
+
+INDEX                                                                305
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                                    Page
+A Suggestion from Nature and Photography                    Frontispiece
+FIG. 1.                                                               37
+FIG. 2.                                                               37
+FIG. 3.                                                               39
+FIG. 4.                                                               43
+FIG. 5.                                                               46
+FIG. 6.                                                               46
+FIG. 7.                                                               47
+FIG. 8. A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+        B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD                                         52
+FIG. 9. C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE
+        D. BADLY FORMED EDGE.                                         54
+FIG. 10.                                                              58
+FIG. 11.                                                              61
+FIG. 12.                                                              68
+FIG. 13.                                                              74
+FIG. 14.                                                              74
+FIG. 15.                                                              78
+FIG. 16.                                                              88
+FIG. 17.                                                              91
+FIG. 18.                                                              94
+FIG. 19.                                                              94
+FIG. 20.                                                              96
+FIG. 21.                                                             100
+FIG. 22.                                                             103
+FIG. 23.                                                             105
+FIG. 24.                                                             111
+FIG. 25.                                                             113
+FIG. 26.                                                             113
+FIG. 27.                                                             116
+FIG. 28.                                                             119
+FIG. 29.                                                             120
+FIG. 30.                                                             120
+FIG. 31.                                                             120
+FIG. 32.                                                             123
+FIG. 33.                                                             123
+FIG. 34. CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33                                 126
+FIG. 35.                                                             127
+FIG. 36.                                                             127
+FIG. 37.                                                             131
+FIG. 38.                                                             131
+FIG. 39. _a._                                                        131
+FIG. 39. _b._                                                        131
+FIG. 40.                                                             133
+FIG. 41.                                                             133
+FIG. 42.                                                             135
+FIG. 43.                                                             135
+FIG. 44.                                                             137
+FIG. 45.                                                             137
+FIG. 46.                                                             139
+FIG. 47.                                                             145
+FIG. 48.                                                             145
+FIG. 49.                                                             145
+FIG. 50.                                                             145
+FIG. 51.                                                             145
+FIG. 52.                                                             145
+FIG. 53.                                                             151
+FIG. 54.                                                             166
+FIG. 55.                                                             166
+FIG. 56.                                                             168
+FIG. 57.                                                             170
+FIG. 58.                                                             174
+FIG. 59.                                                             174
+FIG. 60.                                                             176
+FIG. 61.                                                             179
+FIG. 62.                                                             179
+FIG. 63.                                                             183
+FIG. 64.                                                             187
+FIG. 65.                                                             187
+FIG. 66.                                                             190
+FIG. 67.                                                             190
+FIG. 68.                                                             199
+FIG. 69.                                                             199
+FIG. 70.                                                             202
+FIG. 71.                                                             208
+FIG. 72.                                                             209
+FIG. 73.                                                             209
+FIG. 74.                                                             213
+FIG. 75.                                                             229
+FIG. 76.                                                             229
+FIG. 77.                                                             229
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES                                                 271
+I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.
+
+II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury Cathedral.
+
+III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.
+
+IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk.
+
+V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.
+
+VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.
+
+VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By Phillip Webb.
+
+VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)
+
+IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)
+
+X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox."
+(only carved portions shown.)
+
+XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester Cathedral.
+
+XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester Cathedral.
+
+XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk.
+
+XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb.
+One executed, one in drawing.
+
+XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.
+
+XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church, Somersetshire.
+
+
+
+
+PREAMBLE
+
+
+     Student and Apprentice, their Aims and Conditions of
+     Work--Necessity for some Equality between
+     Theory and Practise--The Student's Opportunity
+     lies on the Side of Design.
+
+
+The study of some form of handicraft has of late years become an
+important element in the training of an art student. It is with the
+object of assisting such with practical directions, as well as
+suggesting to more practised carvers considerations of design and
+treatment, that the present volume has been written. The art of
+wood-carving, however, lends itself to literary demonstration only in a
+very limited way, more especially in the condensed form of a text-book,
+which must be looked upon merely as a temporary guide, of use only until
+such time as practise and study shall have strengthened the judgment of
+the student, and enabled him to assimilate the many and involved
+principles which underlie the development of his craft.
+
+If the beginner has mastered to some extent the initial difficulties of
+the draftsman, and has a fair general knowledge of the laws of design,
+but no acquaintance with their application to the art of wood-carving,
+then the two factors which will most immediately affect his progress
+(apart from natural aptitude) are his opportunities for practise, and
+his knowledge of past and present conditions of work. No one can become
+a good carver without considerable practise--constant, if the best
+results are to be looked for. Just as truly, without some knowledge of
+past and existing conditions of practise, none may hope to escape the
+danger of becoming, on the one hand, dull imitators of the superficial
+qualities of old work; or on the other, followers of the first
+will-o'-the-wisp novelty which presents itself to their fancy.
+
+If use of the tools and knowledge of materials were the only subjects of
+which a carver need become master, there would be no way equal to the
+old-fashioned one of apprenticeship to some good craftsman. Daily
+practise with the tools insures a manual dexterity with which no amateur
+need hope to compete. Many traditional expedients are handed down in
+this way that can be acquired in no other. There is, however, another
+side of the question to be considered, of quite as much importance as
+the practical one of handicraft skill. The art of wood-carving has also
+to fulfil its intellectual function, as an interpreter of the dreams and
+fancies of imagination. In this respect there is little encouragement to
+be looked for in the dull routine of a modern workshop.
+
+There are, therefore, two widely separated standpoints from which the
+art may be viewed. It may be looked at from the position of a regular
+craftsman, who regards it primarily as his means of livelihood; or it
+may be dealt with as a subject of intellectual interest, based upon its
+relation to the laws of art in general. As, in the first instance, the
+use of the tools can not be learned without _some_ accompanying
+knowledge of the laws of art, however slight that acquaintance may be,
+the method of apprenticeship has the advantage of being the more
+practical of the two; but it must be accepted with all the conditions
+imposed upon it by the pressure of commercial interest and its usages:
+conditions, which, it may easily be imagined, are far more favorable to
+the performance of dull task-work, than to the adventurous spirit of
+curiosity which should prompt the enterprise of an energetic student.
+
+On the other hand, although an independent study of the art offers a
+wider range of interest, the student is, for that very reason, exposed
+to the risk of involving himself in a labyrinth of confusing and
+ineffectual theories. The fact is, that neither method can at the
+present time be exclusively depended upon as a means of development;
+neither can be pronounced complete in itself nor independent of the
+other. The only sure safeguard against the vagueness of theory is
+constant practise with the tools; while, to the craftsman in the full
+enjoyment of every means for exercising and increasing his technical
+skill, a general study and intelligent conception of the wide
+possibilities of his art is just as essential, if it were only as an
+antidote to the influence of an otherwise mechanical employment. The
+more closely these contradictory views are made to approximate, the
+more certain will become the carver's aims, and the clearer will be his
+understanding of the difficulties which surround his path, enabling him
+to choose that which is practicable and intrinsically valuable, both as
+regards the theory and practise of his art.
+
+If the student, through lack of opportunities for practise, is debarred
+from all chance of acquiring that expertness which accompanies great
+technical skill, he may at least find encouragement in the fact that he
+can never exhaust the interest afforded by his art in its infinite
+suggestion to the imagination and fancy; and also that by the exercise
+of diligence, and a determination to succeed, he may reasonably hope to
+gain such a degree of proficiency with the tools as will enable him to
+execute with his hands every idea which has a definite existence in his
+mind. Generally speaking, it will be found that his manual powers are
+always a little in advance of his perceptions.
+
+Thus the student may gradually work out for himself a natural and
+reliable manner of expressing his thoughts, and in a way, too, that is
+likely to compensate for his technical shortcomings, by exciting a more
+lively interest in the resources of the art itself. The measure of his
+success will be determined partly by his innate capacity for the work,
+and partly by the amount of time which he is enabled to give to its
+practise. The resources of his art offer an infinite scope for the
+exercise of his powers of design, and as this is the side which lies
+nearest to his opportunities it should be the one which receives his
+most earnest attention, not merely as experiments on paper, but as
+exercises carried out to the best of his ability with the tools. Such
+technical difficulties as he may encounter in the process will gradually
+disappear with practise. There is also encouragement in the thought that
+wood-carving is an art which makes no immediate calls upon that
+mysterious combination of extraordinary gifts labeled "genius," but is
+rather one which demands tribute from the bright and happy inspirations
+of a normally healthy mind. There is, in this direction, quite a life's
+work for any enthusiast who aims at finding the bearings of his own
+small but precious gift, and in making it intelligible to others; while,
+at the same time, keeping himself free from the many confusions and
+affectations which surround him in the endeavor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TOOLS
+
+
+     Average Number of Tools required by Carvers--Selection for
+     Beginners--Description of Tools--Position when in Use--Acquisition
+     by Degrees.
+
+
+We will suppose that the student is anxious to make a practical
+commencement to his studies. The first consideration will be to procure
+a set of tools, and we propose in this place to describe those which
+will answer the purposes of a beginner, as well as to look generally at
+others in common use among craftsmen.
+
+The tools used by carvers consist for the most part of chisels and
+gouges of different shapes and sizes. The number of tools required by
+professional carvers for one piece of work varies in proportion to the
+elaborateness of the carving to be done. They may use from half a dozen
+on simple work up to twenty or thirty for the more intricate carvings,
+this number being a selection out of a larger stock reaching perhaps as
+many as a hundred or more. Many of these tools vary only in size and
+sweep of cutting edge. Thus, chisels and gouges are to be had ranging
+from 1/16th of an inch to 1 inch wide, with curves or "sweeps" in each
+size graduated between a semicircle to a curve almost flat. Few carvers,
+however, possess such a complete stock of tools as would be represented
+by one of each size and shape manufactured; such a thing is not
+required: an average number of, say seventy tools, will always give a
+sufficient variety of size and sweep for general purposes; few pieces of
+work will require the use of more than half of these in its execution.
+
+The beginner, however, need not possess more than from twelve to
+twenty-four, and may even make a start with fewer. It is a good plan to
+learn the uses of a few tools before acquiring a complete set, as by
+this means, when difficulties are felt in the execution of work, a tool
+of known description is sought for and purchased with a foreknowledge of
+its advantages. This is the surest way to gain a distinct knowledge of
+the varieties of each kind of tool, and their application to the
+different purposes of design.
+
+The following list of tools (see Figs. 1 and 2) will be found sufficient
+for all the occasions of study: beginning by the purchase of the first
+section, Nos. 1 to 17, and adding others one by one until a set is made
+up of twenty-four tools. The tools should be selected as near the sizes
+and shapes shown in the illustration as possible. The curved and
+straight strokes represent the shape of the actual cuts made by pressing
+the tools down perpendicularly into a piece of wood. This, in the case
+of gouges, is generally called the "sweep."
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3 are gouges, of sweeps varying from one almost flat (No. 1)
+to a distinct hollow in No. 3. These tools are made in two forms,
+straight-sided and "spade"-shaped; an illustration of the spade form is
+given on the second page of tools. In purchasing his set of tools the
+student should order Nos. 1, 2, 3, 10, 11 in this form. They will be
+found to have many advantages, as they conceal less of the wood behind
+them and get well into corners inaccessible to straight-sided tools.
+They are lighter and more easily sharpened, and are very necessary in
+finishing the surface of work, and in shaping out foliage, more
+especially such as is undercut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Nos. 5, 6, 7 are straight gouges graduated in size and sweep. No. 8 is
+called a Veiner, because it is often used for making the grooves which
+represent veins in leaves. It is a narrow but deep gouge, and is used
+for any narrow grooves which may be required, and for outlining the
+drawing at starting.
+
+No. 9 is called a V tool or "parting" tool, on account of its shape. It
+is used for making grooves with straight sides and sharp inner angles at
+the bottom. It can be used for various purposes, such as undercutting,
+clearing out sharply defined angles, outlining the drawing, etc., etc.
+It should be got with a square cutting edge, not beveled off as some are
+made. Nos. 10, 11, 12 are flat chisels, or, as they are sometimes
+called, "firmers." (Nos. 10 and 11 should be in spade shape.) No. 13 is
+also a flat chisel, but it is beveled off to a point, and is called a
+"corner-chisel"; it is used for getting into difficult corners, and is a
+most useful tool when used as a knife for delicate edges or curves.
+
+Nos. 14 and 16 are what are known as "bent chisels"; they are used
+principally for leveling the ground (or background), and are therefore
+also called "grounders." These tools are made with various curves or
+bends in their length, but for our present uses one with a bend like
+that shown to tool No. 23, Fig. 2, and at _a_ in Fig. 3, will be best;
+more bend, as at _b_, would only make the tool unfit for leveling
+purposes on a flat ground.
+
+No. 15 is a similar tool, but called a "corner grounder," as it is
+beveled off like a corner-chisel.
+
+No. 17 is an additional gouge of very slow sweep and small size. This is
+a very handy little tool, and serves a variety of purposes when you come
+to finishing the surface.
+
+These seventeen tools will make up a very useful set for the beginner,
+and should serve him for a long time, or at least until he really begins
+to feel the want of others; then he may get the remainder shown on Fig.
+2.
+
+Nos. 18, 19, 20 are deep gouges, having somewhat straight sides; they
+are used where grooves are set deeply, and when they are required to
+change in section from deep and narrow to wide and shallow. This is done
+by turning the tool on its side, which brings the flatter sweep into
+action, thus changing the shape of the hollow. Nos. 21, 22 are gouges,
+but are called "bent gouges"--"front bent" in this case, "back bent"
+when the cutting "sweep" is turned upside down. It is advisable when
+selecting these tools to get them as shown in the illustration, with a
+very easy curve in their bend; they are more generally useful so, as
+quick bends are only good for very deep hollows. These tools are used
+for making grooves in hollow places where an ordinary gouge will not
+work, owing to its meeting the opposing fiber of the wood.
+
+No. 23 is a similar tool, but very "easy" both in its "sweep" and
+bend--the sweep should be little more than recognizable as a curve. This
+tool may be used as a grounder when the wood is slightly hollow, or
+liable to tear up under the flat grounder.
+
+No. 24 is called a "Maccaroni" tool. This is used for clearing out the
+ground close against leaves or other projections; as it has two square
+sides it can be used right and left.
+
+In the illustration, Fig 3, _a_ shows the best form of grounding tool;
+_b_ is little or no use for this purpose, as it curves up too suddenly
+for work on a flat ground. It is a good thing to have the handles of
+tools made of different colored woods, as it assists the carver in
+picking them out quickly from those lying ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+When in use, the tools should be laid out in front of the carver if
+possible, and with their points toward him, in order that he may see the
+shape and choose quickly the one he wants.
+
+The tempering of tools is a very important factor in their efficiency.
+It is only of too common occurrence to find many of the tools
+manufactured of late years unfit for use on account of their softness of
+metal. There is nothing more vexatious to a carver than working with a
+tool which turns over its cutting edge, even in soft wood; such tools
+should be returned to the agent who sold them.
+
+With a selection from the above tools, acquired by degrees in the manner
+described, almost any kind of work may be done. There is no need
+whatever to have a tool for every curve of the design. These can readily
+be made by using straight chisels in combination with such gouges as we
+possess, or by sweeping the curves along their sides with a chisel used
+knife fashion. No really beautiful curves can be made by merely
+following the curves of gouges, however various their sweeps, as they
+are all segments of circles.
+
+Tools generally come from the manufacturer ground, but not sharpened. As
+the student must in any case learn how to sharpen his tools, it will be
+just as well to get them in that way rather than ready for use. As this
+process of sharpening tools is a very important one, it must be reserved
+for another place. Should tools be seriously blunted or broken they must
+be reground. This can be done by the carver, either on a grindstone or a
+piece of gritty York stone, care being taken to repeat the original
+bevel; or they may be sent to a tool shop where they are in the habit
+of grinding carving tools.
+
+Catalogues of tools may be had from good makers; they will be found to
+consist mainly in a large variety of the tools already mentioned. Those
+which are very much bent or curved are intended for special application
+to elaborate and difficult passages in carving, and need not concern the
+student until he comes to find the actual want of such shapes; such, for
+instance, as bent parting tools and back bent gouges.
+
+In addition to the above tools, carvers occasionally use one called a
+"Router." This is a kind of plane with a narrow perpendicular blade. It
+is used for digging or "routing" out the wood in places where it is to
+be sunk to form a ground. It is not a tool to be recommended for the use
+of beginners, who should learn to make sufficiently even backgrounds
+without the aid of mechanical contrivances. Carvers also use the
+"Rifler," which is a bent file. This is useful for very fine work in
+hard wood, and also for roughly approximating to rounded forms before
+finishing with the tools.
+
+A few joiner's tools are very useful to the carver, and should form
+part of his equipment. A wide chisel, say about 1-1/4 in. wide, a small
+iron "bull-nose" plane, and a keyhole saw, will all be helpful, and save
+a lot of unnecessary labor with the carving tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+SHARPENING-STONES--MALLET AND BENCH
+
+
+     Different Stones in use--Case for Stones--Slips--Round Mallet
+     Best--A Home-Made Bench--A Makeshift Bench--Cramps and Clips.
+
+
+The stones which are most generally used for the purpose of sharpening
+carving tools are "Turkey" and "Washita." There are many others, some
+equally good, but "Washita" is easily procured and very serviceable. It
+is to be had in various grades, and it may be just as well to have one
+coarse and one fine, but in any case we must have a fine-grained stone
+to put a keen edge on the tools. A "Turkey" stone is a fine-grained and
+slow-cutting one, and may take the place of the finer "Washita." The
+"India" oilstone is a composition of emery with some kind of stone dust,
+and is a useful stone for quickly rubbing down superfluous steel before
+putting an edge to the tool. It is better to get these stones without
+cases, as they can then be used on both sides, one for flat tools and
+one for gouges, which wear the face of a stone into grooves. A case may
+be made by hollowing out a block of wood so as to take the stone
+loosely; and if at one end a small notch is made in this block, a
+screwdriver may be inserted under the stone when it is necessary to turn
+it. Two brads or pins should be inserted in holes, having their points
+just appearing below the bottom of the block. These prevent it slipping
+about when in use. These stones should be lubricated with a mixture of
+olive oil and paraffin in equal parts. Bicycle lubricating oil is very
+good for this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+For sharpening the insides of tools, "slips" are made with rounded edges
+of different sizes. One slip of "Washita" stone and one of "Arkansas"
+will be enough for the present, as they will fit moderately well most of
+the gouges in the beginner's set of tools; the "Arkansas" being used for
+the smaller tools. The "Arkansas" slip should be what is called
+"knife-edged." This is required for sharpening such tools as the veiner
+and V tool; it is a very fine marble-like stone, and exceedingly
+brittle; care must be taken in handling it, as a fall would in all
+probability be fatal.
+
+
+THE BENCH AND MALLET
+
+_The Mallet._--The carver's mallet is used for driving his tools where
+force is required. The most suitable form is the round one, made of
+beech; one 4 ins. diameter will be heavy enough.
+
+_The Bench._--Every carver should provide himself with a bench. He may
+make one for himself according to the size and construction shown in the
+illustration, Fig. 5. The top should be made of two 11 x 2 in. boards,
+and, as steadiness is the main feature to be aimed at, the joints should
+have some care. Those in illustration are shown to be formed by
+checking one piece of wood over the other, with shoulders to resist
+lateral strain. Proper tenons would be better, but more difficult to
+make. It must have a projecting edge at the front and ends, to receive
+the clamps. The bench should have a joiner's "bench-screw" attached to
+the back leg for holding work which is to be carved on its edges or
+ends. The feet should be secured to the floor by means of iron brackets,
+as considerable force is applied in carving hard wood, which may move
+the bench bodily, unless it is secured, or is very heavy. Professional
+carvers use a bench which is composed of beech planks, three or four
+inches in thickness, and of length according to shop-room.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6]
+
+Should it not be possible to make or procure a bench, then a substitute
+must be used. Fig. 6 gives a suggestion for making such a temporary
+bench. The top is composed of one piece of board, 11 ins. wide and 1-1/2
+in. thick. It should be about 2 ft. 6 ins. long and rest on two blocks
+fixed about 1-1/2 in. from the ends, which must project, as in Fig. 6.
+This may be used on any ordinary table, to which it should be secured by
+means of two 3-1/2-in. clamps. The height from the floor should be 3 ft.
+2 ins. to top of board. This gives a good height for working, as carvers
+invariably stand to their work. The height can be regulated by making
+the blocks, _a_, higher or lower to suit the table which is to be used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Cramps._--Cramps for holding the work in position on the bench are of
+several kinds. For ordinary thicknesses of wood, two 4-1/2-in. screw
+clamps, like the one in Fig. 7, will be sufficient. Wooden blocks may be
+also used to hold one end of the work down while the other is held by a
+clamp. These blocks are notched out to fit over the thickness of the
+board being carved, as in Fig. 7. Carvers use for their heavier work a
+"bench-screw," as it is called; that is, a screw which passes through
+the bench into the back of the work, which may thus be turned about at
+will; also, if the work is very thick, they hold it in position by means
+of a bench "holdfast," a kind of combined lever and screw; but neither
+of these contrivances is likely to be required by the beginner, whose
+work should be kept within manageable dimensions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+WOODS USED FOR CARVING
+
+
+     Hard Wood and Soft Wood--Closeness of Grain Desirable--Advantages
+     of Pine and English Oak.
+
+
+The woods suitable for carving are very various; but we shall confine
+our attention to those in common use. Of the softer woods, those which
+are most easily procured and most adaptable to modern uses are yellow
+pine, Bass wood, Kauri pine, and Lime. These are all good woods for the
+carver; but we need not at present look for any better qualities than
+we shall find in a good piece of yellow pine, free from knots or shakes.
+
+The following woods may be considered as having an intermediate place
+between soft and hard: Sycamore, Beech, and Holly. They are
+light-colored woods, and Very useful for broad shallow work.
+
+_English Oak._--Of the hard woods in common use, the principal kinds are
+Oak, Walnut, and occasionally Mahogany. Of oak, the English variety is
+by far the best for the carver, being close in the grain and very hard.
+It is beyond all others the carvers' wood, and was invariably used by
+them in this country during the robust period of medieval craftsmanship.
+It offers to the carver an invigorating resistance to his tools, and its
+character determines to a great extent that of the work put upon it. It
+takes in finishing a very beautiful surface, when skilfully handled--and
+this tempts the carver to make the most of his opportunities by adapting
+his execution to its virtues. Other oaks, such as Austrian and American,
+are often used, but they do not offer quite the same tempting
+opportunity to the carver. They are, by nature, quicker-growing trees,
+and are, consequently, more open in the grain. They have tough, sinewy
+fibers, alternating with softer material. They rarely take the same
+degree of finish as the English oak, but remain somewhat dull in
+texture. Good pieces for carving may be got, but they must be picked out
+from a quantity of stuff. Chestnut is sometimes used as a substitute for
+oak, but it is better fitted for large-scaled work where fineness of
+detail is not of so much importance.
+
+_Italian Walnut._--This is a very fine-grained wood, of even texture.
+The Italian variety is the best for carving: it cuts with something of
+the firmness of English oak, and is capable of receiving even more
+finish of surface in small details. It is admirably suited for fine work
+in low relief. In choosing this wood for carving, the hardest and
+closest in grain should be picked, as it is by no means all of equal
+quality. It should be free from sap, which may be known by a light
+streak on the edges of the dark brown wood.
+
+English walnut has too much "figure" in the grain to be suitable for
+carving. American walnut is best fitted for sharply cut shallow carving,
+as its fiber is caney. If it is used, the design should be one in which
+no fine modeling or detail is required, as this wood allows of little
+finish to the surface.
+
+_Mahogany_, more especially the kind known as Honduras, is very similar
+to American walnut in quality of grain: it cuts in a sharp caney manner.
+The "Spanish" variety was closer in grain, but is now almost
+unprocurable. Work carved in mahogany should, like that in American
+walnut, be broad and simple in style, without much rounded detail.
+
+It is quite unnecessary to pursue the subject of woods beyond the few
+kinds mentioned. Woods such as ebony, sandalwood, cherry, brier, box,
+pear-tree, lancewood, and many others, are all good for the carver, but
+are better fitted for special purposes and small work. As this book is
+concerned more with the _art_ of carving than its application, it will
+save confusion if we accept yellow pine as our typical soft wood, and
+good close-grained oak as representing hard wood. It may be noted in
+passing that the woods of all flowering and fruit-bearing trees are very
+liable to the attack of worms and rot.
+
+No carving, in whatever wood, should be polished. I shall refer to this
+when we come to "texture" and "finish."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SHARPENING THE TOOLS
+
+
+     The Proper Bevel--Position of Tools on Oilstone--Good and Bad
+     Edge--Stropping--Paste and Leather--Careless Sharpening--Rubbing
+     Out the Inside--Stropping Fine Tools--Importance of Sharp Tools.
+
+
+Having given this brief description of the tools and materials used by
+carvers, we shall suppose a piece of work is about to be started. The
+first thing the carver will require to do is to sharpen his tools. That
+is, if we may assume that they have just come from the manufacturer,
+ground but not yet brought to an edge. It will be seen that each has a
+long bevel ending in a blunt ridge where the cutting edge should be. We
+shall take the chisel No. 10 and sharpen that first, as it is the
+easiest to do, and so get a little practise before we try the gouges.
+The oilstone and oil have already been described. The first thing is to
+well oil the stone and lay it on the bench in a position with its end
+toward the operator.
+
+[Illustration: A. ANGLE FOR SOFTWOOD
+
+B. ANGLE FOR HARDWOOD
+
+FIG. 8.]
+
+Tools which are going to be used in soft wood require rather a longer
+bevel and more acute edge than when they are wanted for hard wood. Both
+angles are shown in Fig. 8. Lay the flat of the tool on the stone at an
+angle of about 15 deg., with the handle in the hollow of the right hand, and
+two fingers of the left pressed upon the blade as near to the stone as
+possible. Then begin rubbing the tool from end to end of the stone,
+taking care not to rock the right hand up and down, but to keep it as
+level as possible throughout the stroke, bearing heavily on the blade
+with the left hand, to keep it well in contact with the stone. Rocking
+produces a rounded edge which is fatal to keenness. C (Fig. 9) gives
+approximately, to an enlarged scale, the sections of a good edge, and D
+that of an imperfect one.
+
+[Illustration: C. GOOD CUTTING EDGE D. BADLY FORMED EDGE. FIG. 9.]
+
+Practise alone will familiarize the muscles of the wrist with the proper
+motion, but it is important to acquire this in order to form the correct
+habit early. It should be practised very slowly at first, until the
+hands get accustomed to the movements. When one side of the tool has
+been rubbed bright as far as the cutting edge, turn it over and treat
+the other in the same way. Carvers' tools, unlike joiners', are rubbed
+on both sides, in the proportion of about two-thirds outside to
+one-third inside. When a keen edge has been formed, which can easily be
+tested by gently applying the finger, it should be stropped on a piece
+of stout leather. It will be found, if the finger is passed down the
+tool and over its edge, that the stoning has turned up a burr. This must
+be removed by stropping on both sides alternately. A paste composed of
+emery and crocus powders mixed with grease is used to smear the leather
+before stropping; this can either be procured at the tool shop, or made
+by the carver. When the tool has been sufficiently stropped, and all
+burr removed, it is ready for use, but it is as well to try it on a
+piece of wood first, and test it for burr, and if necessary strop it
+again.
+
+Before we leave this tool, however, we shall anticipate a little, and
+look at it after it has been used for some time and become blunt. Its
+cutting edge and the bevel above it are now polished to a high degree,
+owing to friction with the wood. We lay it on the stone, taking care to
+preserve the original angle (15 deg.). We find on looking at the tool after
+a little rubbing that this time it presents a bright rim along the edge
+in contrast with the gray steel which has been in contact with the
+stone. This bright rim is part of the polished surface the whole bevel
+had before we began this second sharpening, which proves that the actual
+edge has not yet touched the stone. We are tempted to lift the right
+hand ever so little, and so get rid of this bright rim (sometimes called
+the "candle"); we shall thus get an edge quicker than if we have to rub
+away all the steel behind it. We do this, and soon get our edge; the
+bright rim has disappeared, but we have done an unwise thing, and have
+not saved much time, because we have begun to make a rounded edge,
+which, if carried a little farther, will make the tool useless until it
+is reground. There is no help for it: time must be spent and trouble
+taken in sharpening tools; with method and care there need be very
+little grinding, unless tools are actually broken.
+
+To resume our lesson in tool-sharpening: we can not do much carving with
+one chisel, so we shall now take up gouge No. 2 as being the least
+difficult. This being a rounded tool, we must turn the stone over and
+use the side we have determined to keep for gouges, etc. We commence
+rubbing it up and down the stone in the same manner as described for the
+chisel, but, in addition, we have now another motion. To bring all the
+parts of the edge into contact with the stone the gouge must be rolled
+from side to side as it goes up and down. To accomplish this the wrist
+should be slowly practised until it gets into step with the up and down
+motions; it matters very little whether one turn of the tool is given to
+one passage along the stone, or only one turn to many up and down
+rubbings. The main thing is evenness of rubbing all along the circular
+edge, as if one part gets more than its share the edge becomes wavy,
+which is a thing to be avoided as much as possible. When the outside has
+been cleanly rubbed up to the edge, the inside is to be rubbed out with
+the Washita slip and oil to the extent of about half as much as the
+outside. The handle of the tool should be grasped in the left hand,
+while its blade rests on a block of wood, or on the oilstone. Hold the
+slip between the fingers and thumb, slanting a little over the inner
+edge; and work it in a series of short downward strokes, beginning the
+stroke at one corner of the gouge and leaving off at the other (see Fig.
+10). Strop the outside of the tool, and test for burr, then lay the
+leather over the handle of another tool and strop the inside, repeating
+the operation until all burr has been removed, when probably the tool
+will be ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+The Veiner requires the same kind of treatment, only as this tool is not
+part of a circle in its section (having straight sides), only one-half
+must be done at a time; and it is as well to give the straight sides one
+stroke or so in every half-dozen all to itself to keep it in shape. Care
+must be taken with this tool as it is easily rubbed out of shape. The
+inside must be finished off with the Arkansas knife-edged slip, one side
+at a time, as it is impossible to sweep out the whole section of these
+deep tools at one stroke. Stropping must follow as before, but as this
+tool is so small that the leather will not enter its hollow, the leather
+must be laid down flat and the hollow of the tool drawn along its edge
+until it makes a little ridge for itself which fills the hollow and
+clears off burr (see Fig. 11); if any such adheres outside, a slight rub
+on the Arkansas stone will probably remove it. When the edges of the
+tools begin to get dull, it often happens that they only require to be
+stropped, which should be frequently done. As the treatment of all
+gouges is more or less like what has been described, practise will
+enable the student to adapt it to the shape of the tool which requires
+his attention. There remains only the V tool, the Spoon tools, and the
+Maccaroni, which all require special attention. The point of the V tool
+is so acute that it becomes difficult to clear the inside. A knife-edged
+slip is used for this purpose, and it is well also to cut a slip of wood
+to a thin edge, and after rubbing it with paste and oil, pass it down
+frequently over the point between the sides. Unless a very sharp point
+is obtained, this tool is practically useless; the least speck of burr
+or dullness will stop its progress or tear up the wood. In sharpening
+it, the sides should be pressed firmly on the stone, watching it every
+now and then to see what effect is being produced. If a gap begins to
+appear on one side, as it often does, then rub the other side until it
+disappears, taking care to bear more heavily on the point of the tool
+than elsewhere. If the sides get out of shape, pass the tool along the
+stone, holding it at right angles to the side of the stone, but at the
+proper angle of elevation; in this case the tool is held near its end,
+between fingers and thumb. Spoon tools must be held to the stone at a
+much higher angle until the cutting edge is in the right relation to the
+surface, or they may be drawn sidewise along it, taking care that every
+part of the edge comes in contact and receives an equal amount of
+rubbing. These may be treated half at a time, or all round, according to
+the size and depth of the tool. However it is produced, the one thing
+essential is a long straight-sectioned cutting bevel, not a rounded or
+obtuse one. Strop the inside by folding up the leather into a little
+roll or ball until it fills the hollow of the tool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+For the small set of tools described in Chapter II one flat oilstone and
+two slips will be found sufficient for a beginning, but as a matter of
+fact, it will be advisable, as the number of tools is enlarged, to
+obtain slips of curves corresponding to the hollows of all gouges as
+nearly as possible. Many professional carvers have sets of these slips
+for the insides of tools, varying in curves which exactly fit every
+hollow tool they possess, including a triangular one for the inside of
+the V tool. The same rule sometimes applies to the sweeps of the
+outsides of gouges, for these, corresponding channels are ground out in
+flat stones, a process which is both difficult and laborious. If the
+insides are dealt with on fitting slips, which may be easily adapted to
+the purpose by application to a grindstone, the outsides are not so
+difficult to manage, so that grooved stones may be dispensed with.
+
+Before we leave the subject of sharpening tools it will be well to
+impress upon the beginner the extreme importance of keeping his tools in
+good order. When a tool is really sharp it whistles as it works; a dull
+tool makes dull work, and the carver loses both time and temper. There
+can be no doubt that the great technical skill shown in the works of
+Grinling Gibbons and his followers could not have been arrived at
+without the help of extraordinarily sharp tools. Tools not merely
+sharpened and then used until they became dull, but tools that were
+always sharp, and never allowed to approach dullness. Sharpening tools
+is indeed an art in itself, and like other arts has its votaries, who
+successfully conquer its difficulties with apparent ease, while others
+are baffled at every point. Impatience is the stumbling-block in such
+operations. Those most painstaking people, the Chinese, according to all
+accounts, put magic into their sharpening stones; the keenness of their
+blades being only equaled by that of their wits in all such matters of
+delicate application. To make a good beginning is a great point gained.
+To carefully examine every tool, and at the expense of time correct the
+faults of management, is the only way to become expert in sharpening
+tools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+CHIP CARVING
+
+
+     Its Savage Origin--A Clue to its only Claim to Artistic
+     Importance--Monotony better than Variety--An Exercise in Impatience
+     and Precision--Technical Methods.
+
+
+One of the simplest forms of wood-carving is that known as "chip"
+carving. This kind of work is by no means of modern origin, as its
+development may be traced to a source in the barbaric instinct for
+decoration common to the ancient inhabitants of New Zealand and other
+South Sea Islands. Technically, and with modern tools, it is a form of
+the art which demands but little skill, save in the matter of precision
+and patient repetition. As practised by its savage masters, the
+perfection of these two qualities elevates their work to the dignity of
+a real art. It is difficult to conceive the contradictory fact, that
+this apparently simple form of art was once the exponent of a struggling
+desire for refinement on the part of fierce and warlike men, and that it
+should, under the influence of polite society, become the all-too-easy
+task of esthetically minded schoolgirls. In the hands of those warrior
+artists, and with the tools at their command, mostly fashioned from
+sharpened fish-bones and such like rude materials, it was an art which
+required the equivalent of many fine artistic qualities, as such are
+understood by more cultivated nations. The marvelous dexterity and
+determined purpose evinced in the laborious decoration of canoe paddles,
+ax-handles, and other weapons, is, under such technical disabilities as
+to tools, really very impressive. This being so, there is no inherent
+reason why such a rudimentary form of the art as "chip" carving should
+not be practised in a way consistent with its true nature and
+limitations. As its elemental distinctions are so few, and its methods
+so simple, it follows that in recognizing such limitations, we shall
+make the most of our design. Instead, then, of trusting to a forced
+variety, let us seek for its strong point in an opposite direction, and
+by the monotonous repetition of basket-like patterns, win the
+not-to-be-despised praise which is due to patience and perseverance. In
+this way only can such a restricted form of artistic expression become
+in the least degree interesting. The designs usually associated with the
+"civilized" practise of this work are, generally speaking, of the kind
+known as "geometric," that is to say, composed of circles and straight
+lines intersecting each other in complicated pattern. Now the "variety"
+obtained in this manner, as contrasted with the dignified monotony of
+the savage's method, is the note which marks a weak desire to attain
+great results with little effort. The "variety," as such, is wholly
+mechanical, the technical difficulties, with modern tools at command,
+are felt at a glance to be very trifling; therefore such designs are
+quite unsuitable to the kind of work, if human sympathies are to be
+excited in a reasonable way.
+
+An important fact in connection with this kind of design is that most of
+these geometric patterns are, apart from their uncomfortable "variety,"
+based on too large a scale as to detail. All the laborious carving on
+paddles and clubs, such as may be seen in our museums, is founded upon
+a scale of detail in which the holes vary in size from 1/16 to something
+under 1/4 in. their longest way, only in special places, such as
+borders, etc., attaining a larger size. Such variety as the artist has
+permitted himself being confined to the _occasional_ introduction of a
+circular form, but mostly obtained by a subtle change in the proportion
+of the holes, or by an alternate emphasis upon perpendicular or
+horizontal lines.
+
+As a test of endurance, and as an experimental effort with carving
+tools, I set you this exercise. In Fig. 12 you will find a pattern taken
+from one of those South Sea carvings which we have been considering.
+Now, take one of the articles so often disfigured with childish and
+hasty efforts to cover a surface with so-called "art work," such as the
+side of a bellows or the surface of a bread-plate, and on it carve this
+pattern, repeating the same-shaped holes until you fill the entire
+space. By the time you have completed it you will begin to understand
+and appreciate one of the fundamental qualities which must go toward the
+making of a carver, namely, patience; and you will have produced a
+thing which may give you pleasant surprises, in the unexpected but very
+natural admiration it elicits from your friends.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+Having drawn the pattern on your wood, ruling the lines to measurement,
+and being careful to keep your lines thin and clear as drawn with a
+somewhat hard pencil, proceed to cut out the holes with the chisel, No.
+11 on our list, 1/4 in. wide. It will serve the purpose much better than
+the knife usually sold for this kind of work, and will be giving you
+useful practise with a very necessary carving tool. The corner of the
+chisel will do most of the work, sloping it to suit the different angles
+at the bottom of the holes. Each chip should come out with a clean cut,
+but to insure this the downward cuts should be done first, forming the
+raised diagonal lines.
+
+When you have successfully performed this piece of discipline, you may,
+if you care to do more of the same kind of work, carry out a design
+based upon the principles we have been discussing, but introducing a
+very moderate amount of variety by using one or more of the patterns
+shown in Fig. 12, all of which are from the same dusky artist's designs
+and can not be improved upon. If you wish for more variety than these
+narrow limits afford, then try some other kind of carving, with perhaps
+leafage as its motive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE GRAIN OF THE WOOD
+
+
+     Obstinacy of the Woody Fiber--First Exercise in
+     Grounding--Description of Method--Cutting the Miters--Handling of
+     Tools, Danger of Carelessness--Importance of Clean Cutting.
+
+
+It is curious to imagine what the inside of a young enthusiast's head
+must be like when he makes his first conscious step toward artistic
+expression. The chaotic jumbles of half-formed ideas, whirling about in
+its recesses, produce kaleidoscopic effects, which to him look like the
+most lovely pictures. If he could only learn to put them down! let him
+but acquire the technical department of his art, and what easier than to
+realize those most marvelous dreams. Later in his progress it begins to
+dawn upon him that this same technical department may not be so very
+obedient to his wishes; it may have laws of its own, which shall change
+his fairy fancies into sober images, not at all unlike something which
+has often been done before by others. But let the young soul continue to
+see visions, the more the better, provided they be of the right sort. We
+shall in the meantime ask him to curb his imagination, and yield his
+faculties for the moment to the apparently simple task of realizing a
+leaf or two from one of the trees in his enchanted valley.
+
+With the student's kind permission we shall, while these lessons
+continue, make believe that teacher and pupil are together in a
+class-room, or, better still, in a country workshop, with chips flying
+in all directions under busy hands.
+
+I must tell you then, that the first surprise which awaits the beginner,
+and one which opens his eyes to a whole series of restraints upon the
+freedom of his operations, lies in the discovery that wood has a decided
+grain or fiber. He will find that it sometimes behaves in a very
+obstinate manner, refusing to cut straight here, chipping off there, and
+altogether seeming to take pleasure in thwarting his every effort. By
+and by he gets to know his piece of wood; where the grain dips and
+where it comes up or wriggles, and with practise he becomes its master.
+He finds in this, his first technical difficulty, a kind of blessing in
+disguise, because it sets bounds to what would otherwise be an
+infinitely vague choice of methods.
+
+We shall now take a piece of yellow pine, free from knots, and planed
+clean all round. The size may be about 12 ins. long by 7 ins. wide. We
+shall fix this to the bench by means of two clamps or one clamp and a
+screwed block at opposite corners. Now we are ready to begin work, but
+up to the present we have not thought of the design we intend executing,
+being so intent upon the tools and impatient for an attack upon the
+silky wood with their sharp edges.
+
+The illustration, Fig. 13, gives a clue to the sort of design to begin
+with; it measures about 11 ins. long by 7 ins. wide, allowing a margin
+all round. The wood should be a little longer than the design, as the
+ends get spoiled by the clamps. This little design need not, and indeed
+should not, be copied. Make one for yourself entirely different, only
+bearing in mind the points which are to be observed in arranging it,
+and which have for their object the avoidance of difficulties likely to
+be too much for a first effort. These points are somewhat to this
+effect: the design should be of leaves, laid out flat on a background,
+with no complication of perspective. They should have no undulations of
+surface. That is to say, the margins of all the features should be as
+nearly as possible the original surface of the wood, which may have just
+the least possible bit of finish in the manner I shall describe later
+on. The articulation of the leaves and flower is represented by simple
+gouge cuts. There should be nothing in the design requiring rounded
+surfaces. The passage for tools in clearing out the ground between the
+features must not be less than 1/4 in.; this will allow the 3/16 in.
+corner grounder to pass freely backward and forward. The ground is
+supposed to be sunk about three-sixteenths of an inch.
+
+As you have not got your design made, I shall, for convenience' sake,
+explain how Fig. 13 should be begun and finished. First having traced
+the full-size design it should be transferred to the wood by means of a
+piece of blue carbon paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+Then with either the Veiner or V tool outline the whole of the leaves,
+etc., about 1/8 in. deep, keeping well on the outside of the drawing.
+Ignore all minor detail for the present, blocking out the design in
+masses. No outline need be grooved for the margin of the panel at
+present, as it should be done with a larger tool. For this purpose take
+gouge No. 6 (1/4 in. wide), and begin at the left-hand bottom corner of
+the panel, cut a groove about 1/16 in. within the blue line, taking care
+not to cut off parts of the leaves in the process; begin a little above
+the corner at the bottom, and leave off a little below that at the top.
+The miters will be formed later on.
+
+In this operation, as in all subsequent ones, the grain of the wood will
+be more or less in evidence. You will by degrees get to know the piece
+of wood you are working upon, and cut in such a way that your tool runs
+_with_ the grain and not _against_ it; that is to say, you will cut as
+much as possible on the up-hill direction of the fiber. This can not
+always be done in deep hollows, but then you will have had some practise
+before you attempt these.
+
+Now take chisel No. 11, and with it stab into the grooved outline,
+pressing the tool down perpendicularly to what you think feels like the
+depth of the ground. The mallet need not be used for this, as the wood
+is soft enough to allow of the tools being pressed by the hand alone,
+but remember that the force must be proportioned to the depth desired,
+and to the direction of the grain; much less pressure is wanted to drive
+a tool into the wood when its edge is parallel with the grain than when
+it lies in a cross direction; small tools penetrate more easily than
+large ones, as a matter of course, but one must think of these things or
+accidents happen.
+
+When you have been all round the design in this way with such gouges as
+may be needed for the slow and quick curves, get the wood out nearly
+down to the ground, leaving a little for finishing. Do this with any
+tool that fits the spaces best; the larger the better. Cut across the
+grain as much as possible, not along it. The flat gouge, No. 1, will be
+found useful for this purpose in the larger spaces, and the grounders
+for the narrow passages. This leaves the ground in a rough state, which
+must be finished later on.
+
+Now take gouges Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and chisels Nos. 10, 11, 12, and
+with them cut down the outline as accurately as possible to the depth of
+the ground, and, if you are lucky, just a hair's breadth deeper. In
+doing this make the sides slope a little outward toward the bottom. If
+the gouges do not entirely adapt themselves to the contours of your
+lines, do not trouble, but leave that bit to be done afterward with a
+sweep of the tool, either a flat gouge, or the corner-chisel used like a
+knife.
+
+Now we have all the outline cut down to the depth of the background, and
+may proceed to clear out the wood hanging about between the design and
+the ground all round it. We shall do this with the "grounders," using
+the largest one when possible, and only taking to the smallest when
+absolutely necessary on account of space. This done, we shall now
+proceed to finish the hollow sides of the panel and make the miters.
+Again, take No. 6 gouge and drive a clear hollow touching the blue line
+at end of panel, and reaching the bottom of the sinking, i.e., the
+actual ground as finished, see _a_, Fig. 15. To form the miter at top of
+left-hand side of panel, carry the hollow on until the tool reaches the
+bottom of the hollow running along the top; as soon as this point is
+gained, turn the tool out and pitch it a little up in the way shown at
+_c_, Fig. 15, in which the tool is shown at an angle which brings the
+edge of the gouge exactly on the line of the miter to be formed.
+Beginning as it does at _b_, this quick turn of the handle to the left
+takes out the little bit of wood shown by dotted lines at _b_, and
+forms one-half of the miter. The cross-grain cut should be done first,
+as in this way there is less risk of splintering. Now repeat the process
+on the long-grain side of the panel, and one miter is in a good way for
+being finished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+A word now about these sides of sunk panels. They always look better if
+they are hollowed with a gouge instead of being cut square down. In the
+first case they carry out the impression that the whole thing is cut out
+of a solid piece of wood, whereas when they are cut sharply down they
+always suggest cabinet-making, as if a piece had been glued on to form a
+margin.
+
+We have now got the work blocked out and the ground fairly level, and we
+are ready to do the little carving we have allowed ourselves. Before we
+begin this I shall take the opportunity of reminding you that you must
+be very careful in handling your tools; it is a matter of the greatest
+importance, if the contingency of cut fingers or damaged work is to be
+avoided. The left hand in carving has nearly as much to do as the right,
+only in a different way. Grasp the chisel or gouge in the left hand
+with the fingers somewhat extended, that is, the little finger will come
+well on to the blade, and the thumb run up toward the top of the handle;
+the wrist meanwhile resting on the work. The right hand is used for
+pushing the tool forward, and for turning it this way and that, in fact
+does most of the guiding. Both hands may be described as opposing each
+other in force, for the pressure on the tool from the right hand should
+be resisted by the left, until almost a balance is struck, and just
+enough force left to cut the wood gently, without danger of slipping
+forward and damaging it or the fingers. The tool is thus in complete
+command, and the slightest change of pressure on either hand may alter
+its direction or stop it altogether. Never drive a tool forward with one
+hand without this counter-resistance, as there is no knowing what may
+happen if it slips. Never wave tools about in the hand, and generally
+remember that they are dangerous implements, both to the user and the
+work. Never put too much force on a tool when in the neighborhood of a
+delicate passage, but take time and eat the bit of wood out mouse-like,
+in small fragments.
+
+Now we are ready to finish our panel. Take the grounders, according to
+the size required, always using the biggest possible. Keep the tool well
+pressed down, and _shave_ away the roughness of the ground, giving the
+tool a slight sideway motion as well as a forward one. Work right up to
+the leaves, etc., which, if cut deep enough, should allow the chips to
+come away freely, leaving a clear line of intersection; if it does not,
+then the upright sides must be cut down until the ground is quite clear
+of chips. Grounder tools are very prone to dig into the surface and make
+work for themselves: sharp tools, practise, and a slight sideway motion
+will prevent this. Tool No. 23 is useful in this respect, its corners
+being slightly lifted above the level of the ground as it passes along.
+Corners that can not be reached with the bent chisels may be finished
+off with the corner-chisel.
+
+Now we come to the surface decorations, for the carving in this design
+consists of little more. This is all done with the gouges. Generally
+speaking, enter the groove at its widest end and leave it at the
+narrowest, lowering the handle of the tool gradually as you go along to
+lift the gouge out of the wood, producing the drawing of the forms at
+the same time. A gouge cut never looks so well as when done at one
+stroke; patching it afterward with amendments always produces a labored
+look. If this has to be done, the tool should be passed finally over the
+whole groove to remove the superfluous tool marks--a sideway gliding
+motion of the edge, combined with its forward motion, often succeeds in
+this operation. To form the circular center of the flower, press down
+gouge Nos. 5 or 6, gently at first and perpendicular to the wood. When a
+cut has been made all round the circle, work the edge of the tool in it,
+circus-like, by turning the handle in the fingers round and round until
+the edge cuts its way down to the proper depth. (See A, Fig. 15.)
+
+Carve the sides of the leaves where necessary with flat gouges on the
+inside curves, and with chisels and corner-chisels on the outside ones.
+These should be used in a sliding or knife-like fashion, and not merely
+pushed forward. Finish the surface in the same manner all over between
+the gouge grooves and the edges of the leaves, producing a very slight
+bevel as in section _a_, Fig. 13, and this panel may be called finished.
+
+Fig. 14 is another suggestion for a design, upon which I hope you will
+base one of your own as an exercise at this stage of your progress.
+
+Before we begin another, though, I shall take this opportunity of
+reading you a short lecture on a most important matter which has a great
+deal to do with the preparation of your mind in making a suitable choice
+of subject for your future work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMITATION OF NATURAL FORMS
+
+
+     Difficulties of Selection and Arrangement--Limits of an Imitative
+     Treatment--Light and Distance Factors in the Arrangement of a
+     Design--Economy of Detail Necessary--The Word "Conventional."
+
+
+Broadly stated, the three most formidable difficulties which confront
+the beginner when he sets out to make what he is pleased to call his
+design for carving in relief, are: Firstly, the choice of a subject;
+secondly, how far he may go in the imitation of its details; thirdly,
+its arrangement as a whole when he has decided the first two points.
+
+Just now we shall deal only with the second difficulty, that is, how far
+may likeness to nature be carried. We shall do this, because until we
+come to some understanding on that point, a right choice of subject
+becomes practically impossible, consequently the consideration of its
+arrangement would be premature.
+
+There is, strictly speaking, only one aim worthy of the artist's
+attention, be he carver or painter; and that is the representation of
+some form of life, or its associations. Luckily, there is a mighty
+consensus of opinion in support of this dictum, both by example and
+precept, so there is no need to discuss it, or question its authority.
+We shall proceed, therefore, to act upon it, and choose for our work
+only such material as in some way indicates life, either directly, as in
+trees, animals, or figures, or by association, and as explanation
+thereof, as in drapery and other accessories--never choosing a subject
+like those known to painters as "still life," such as bowls, fiddles,
+weapons, etc., unless, as I have said, they are associated with the more
+important element.
+
+You have already discovered by practise that wood has a grain which sets
+bounds to the possibilities of technique. You have yet to learn that it
+has also an inordinate capacity for swallowing light. Now, as it is by
+the aid of light that we see the results of our labor, it follows that
+we should do everything in our power to take full advantage of that
+helpful agency. It is obvious that work which can not be seen is only so
+much labor thrown away. There is approximately a right relative distance
+from which to view all manner of carvings, and if from this position the
+work is not both distinct and coherent, its result is valueless.
+
+Then what is the quality which makes all the difference between a
+telling piece of carving, and one which looks, at a moderate distance,
+like crumpled paper or the cork bark which decorates a suburban
+summer-house? The answer is, attention to _strict economy in detail_.
+Without economy there can be no arrangement, and without the latter no
+general effect. We are practically dealing, not with so much mere wood,
+but unconsciously we are directing our efforts to a manipulation of the
+light of day--playing with the lamps of the sky--and if we do not
+understand this, the result must be undoubtedly failure, with a piece of
+wood left on our hands, cut into unintelligible ruts.
+
+But what, you will say, has all this to do with copying the infinite
+variety of nature's detail; surely it can not be wrong to imitate what
+is really beautiful in itself? You will find the best answer to this in
+the technical difficulties of your task. You have the grain of the wood
+to think of, and now you have this other difficulty in managing the
+light which is to display your design. The obstinacy of the wood may be
+to some extent conquered, and indeed has been almost entirely so, by the
+technical resources of Grinling Gibbons, but the treatment demanded by
+the laws of light and vision is quite another question, and if our work
+is to have its due effect, there is no other solution of the problem
+than by finding a way of complying with those laws.
+
+If I want to represent a rose and make it intelligible at a glance from
+such and such a point of view, and I find after taking infinite pains to
+reproduce as many as I can of its numerous petals, and as much as
+possible of its complicated foliage, that I had not reckoned with the
+light which was to illuminate it, and that instead of displaying my work
+to advantage, it has blurred all its delicate forms into dusky and
+chaotic masses, would I not be foolish if I repeated such an experiment?
+Rather, I take the opposite extreme, and produce a rose this time which
+has but five petals, and one or two sprays of rudimentary foliage.
+Somehow the result is better, and it has only taken me a tenth part of
+the time to produce. I now find that I can afford, without offending the
+genius of light, or straining my eyesight, to add a few more petals and
+one or two extra leaves between those I have so sparingly designed, and
+a kind of balance is struck. The same thing happens when I try to
+represent a whole tree--I can not even count the leaves upon it, why
+then attempt to carve them? Let me make one leaf that will stand for
+fifty, and let that leaf be simplified until it is little more than an
+abstract of the form I see in such thousandfold variety. The proof that
+I am right this time is that when I stand at the proper distance to view
+my work, it is all as distinct as I could wish it to be. Not a
+leaf-point is quite lost to sight, except where, in vanishing into a
+shadow, it adds mystery without creating confusion.
+
+We have in this discovery a clue to the meaning of the word
+"Conventional": it means that a particular method has been "agreed upon"
+as the best fitted for its purpose, i.e., as showing the work to most
+advantage with a minimum of labor. Not that experience had really
+anything to do with the invention of the method. Strange to say, the
+earliest efforts in carving were based upon an unquestioning sense that
+no other was possible, certainly no attempts were made to change it
+until in latter days temptations arose in various directions, the
+effects of which have entailed upon ourselves a conscious effort of
+choice in comparing the results of the many subsequent experiments.
+
+Before I continue this subject further, I shall give you another
+exercise, with the object of making a closer resemblance to natural
+forms, bearing in mind the while all that has been said about a sparing
+use of minute detail with reference to its visible effect. We shall in
+this design attempt some shaping on the surface of the leaves and a
+little rounding too, which may add interest to the work. In my next
+lecture to you, I shall have something to say about another important
+element in all designs for wood-carving. I mean the shapes taken by the
+background between the leaves, like the patches of sky seen behind a
+tree.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ROUNDED FORMS
+
+
+     Necessity for Every Carver Making his own Designs--Method of
+     Carving Rounded Forms on a Sunk Ground.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+Fig. 16, our second exercise, like the first one, is only to be taken as
+a suggestion for a design to be made by yourself. It is a fundamental
+principle that both design and execution should be the work of one and
+the same person, and I want you to begin by strictly practising this
+rule. It was indeed one of the main conditions of production in the best
+times of the past, and there is not a shadow of doubt that it must again
+come to be the universal rule if any real progress is to be made in the
+art of wood-carving, or in any other art for that matter. Just think
+for a moment how false must be the position of both parties, when one
+makes a "design" and another carries it out. The "designer" sets his
+head to work (we must not count his hands at present, as they only note
+down the results in a kind of writing), a "design" is produced and
+handed over to the carver to execute. He, the carver, sets his hands and
+eyes to work, to carry out the other man's idea, or at least interpret
+his notes for the same, his head meanwhile having very little to do,
+further than transfer the said notes to his hands. For very good reasons
+such an arrangement as this is bound to come to grief. One is, that no
+piece of carving can properly be said to be "designed" until it is
+finished to the last stroke. A drawing is only a map of its general
+outline, with perhaps contours approximately indicated by shading. In
+any case, even if a full-size model were supplied by the designer, the
+principle involved would suffer just the same degree of violence, for it
+is in the actual carving of the wood that the designer should find both
+his inspiration and the discipline which keeps it within reasonable
+bounds. He must be at full liberty to alter his original intention as
+the work develops under his hand.
+
+Apparently I have been led into giving you another lecture; we must now
+get to work on our exercise.
+
+Draw and trace your outline in the same manner as before, and transfer
+it to the wood. You may make it any convenient size, say on a board 18
+ins. long by 9 ins. wide, or what other shape you like, provided you
+observe one or two conditions which I am going to point out. It shall
+have a fair amount of background between the features, and the design,
+whatever it is, shall form a traceable likeness to a pattern of some
+description; it shall have a rudimentary resemblance to nature, without
+going into much detail; and last, it shall have a few _rounded_ forms in
+it, rounded both in outline and on the surface, as, for instance, plums.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+In setting to work to carve this exercise, follow the same procedure as
+in the first one, up to the point when the surface decorations began. In
+the illustration, there is a suggestion for a variety in the background
+which does not occur in the other. In this case the little branches are
+supposed to lie along the tops of gentle elevations, and the plums to
+lie in the hollows. It produces a section something like this, Fig. 17.
+There is a sufficient excuse for this kind of treatment in the fact that
+the branches do not require much depth, and the plums will look all the
+better for a little more. The depth of the background will thus vary,
+say between 3/16 in. at the branches and 3/8 in. at the plums. The
+branches are supposed to be perfectly level from end to end, that is,
+they lie parallel to the surface of the wood, but of course curve about
+in the other direction. The leaves, on the other hand, are supposed to
+be somewhat rounded and falling away toward their sides and points in
+places. The vein in the center of the leaves may be done with a parting
+tool, as well as the serrations at the edge, or the latter may perhaps
+be more surely nicked out with a chisel, after the leaves have received
+their shapes, the leaves being made to appear as if one side was higher
+than the other, and as though their points, in some cases, touched the
+background, while in others the base may be the lowest part. The twigs
+coming out from the branches to support the plums should be somewhat
+like this in section, and should lie along the curve of the background,
+and be in themselves rounded, as in Fig. 18, see section _a a_. The
+bottom of the panel shows a bevel instead of a hollow border: this will
+serve to distinguish it as a starting-point for the little branches
+which appear to emerge from it like trees out of the ground. The plums
+should be carved by first cutting them down in outline to the
+background, as A, Fig. 19. Then the wood should be removed from the edge
+all round, to form the rounded surface. To do this, first take the large
+gouge, No. 2, and with its hollow side to the wood, cut off the top,
+from about its middle to one end, and reversing the process do the same
+with the other side. Then it will appear something like B (Fig. 19).
+The remainder must be shaped with any tool which will do it best. There
+is no royal road to the production of these rounded forms, but probably
+gouge No. 1 will do the most of it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+Here it may be observed that the fewer tools used the better, as if many
+are used there is always a risk of unpleasant facets at the places where
+the various marks join each other. Before you try the plums, or apples,
+or other rounded fruit which you may have in your design, it would be as
+well to experiment with one on a piece of spare wood in order to decide
+upon the most suitable tools. The stems or branches may be done with
+flat gouge No. 1, or the flat or corner chisel. A very delicate twist or
+spiral tendency in their upward growth will greatly improve their
+appearance, a mere faceting produced by a flat gouge or chisel will do
+this; anything is better than a mere round and bare surface, which has a
+tendency to look doughy. The little circular mark on the end of the plum
+(call it a plum, although that fruit has no such thing) is done by
+pressing gouge No. 7 into the wood first, with the handle rather near
+the surface of the wood, and afterward at a higher inclination, this
+taking out a tiny chip of a circular shape and leaving a V-shaped
+groove.
+
+Now I am going to continue the subject of my last lecture, in order to
+impress upon you the importance of suiting your subject to the
+conditions demanded by the laws of technique and light. Practise with
+the tools must go hand in hand with the education of the head if good
+results are to be expected; nor must it be left wholly to hand and eye
+if you are to avoid the pitfalls which lie in wait for the unwary
+mechanic.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PATTERNED BACKGROUND
+
+
+     Importance of Formal Pattern as an Aid to Visibility--Pattern and
+     Free Rendering Compared--First Impressions Lasting--Medieval Choice
+     of Natural Forms Governed by a Question of Pattern.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+By a comparison of the piece of Byzantine sculpture, Fig. 20, with the
+more elaborate treatment of foliage shown in Fig. 21, from late Gothic
+capitals, in Southwell Minster, it will be seen how an increasing desire
+for imitative resemblance has taken the place of a patterned foundation,
+and how, in consequence, the background is no longer discernible as a
+contrasting form. The Byzantine design is, of course, little more than a
+pattern with sunk holes for a background, and it is in marble; but those
+holes are arranged in a distinct and orderly fashion. The other is a
+highly realistic treatment of foliage, the likeness to nature being so
+fully developed that some of these groups have veins on the _backs_ of
+the leaves. The question for the moment is this, which of the two
+extremes gives the clearest account of itself at a distance? I think
+there can be little doubt that the more formal arrangement bears this
+test better than the other, and this, too, in face of the fact that it
+has cost much less labor to produce. Remember we are only now
+considering the question of _visibility_ in the design. You may like the
+undefined and suggestive masses into which the leaves and shadows of the
+Southwell one group themselves better than the unbending severity of the
+lines in the other, but that is not the point at present. You can not
+_see_ the actual work which produces that mystery, and I may point out
+to you, that what is here romantic and pleasing on account of its
+changeful and informal shadows, is on the verge of becoming mere
+bewildering confusion; a tendency which always accompanies attempts to
+imitate the accidental or informal grouping of leaves, so common to
+their natural state. The further this is carried, the less is it
+possible to govern the forms of the background pattern; they become less
+discernible as contrasting _forms_, although they may be very
+interesting as elements of mystery and suggestive of things not actually
+seen. The consequence is a loss of power in producing that
+instantaneous impression of harmony which is one of the secrets of
+effectiveness in carving. This is greatly owing to the constant change
+of plane demanded by an imitative treatment, as well as the want of
+formality in its background. The lack of restful monotony in this
+respect creates confusion in the lights, making a closer inspection
+necessary in order to discern the beauty of the work. Now the human
+imagination loves surprises, and never wholly forgives the artist who,
+failing to administer a pleasant shock, invites it to come forward and
+examine the details of his work in order to see how well they are
+executed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+These examples, you will say, are from architectural details which have
+nothing to do with wood-carving. On the contrary, the same laws govern
+all manner of sculpturesque composition--scale or material making no
+difference whatever. A sculptured marble frieze or a carved ivory
+snuff-box may be equally censurable as being either so bare that they
+verge on baldness and want of interest, or so elaborate that they look
+like layers of fungus.
+
+Do not imagine that I am urging any preference for a Byzantine treatment
+in your work; to do so would be as foolish as to ask you to don
+medieval costume while at work, or assume the speech and manners of the
+tenth century. It would be just as ridiculous on your part to affect a
+bias which was not natural to you. I am, however, strongly convinced
+that in the choice of natural forms and their arrangement into orderly
+masses (more particularly with regard to their appearance in silhouette
+against the ground), and also in the matter of an economical use of
+detail, we have much to learn from the carvers who preceded the
+fourteenth century. They thoroughly understood and appreciated the value
+of the light which fell upon their work, and in designing it arranged
+every detail with the object of reflecting as much of it as possible. To
+this end, their work was always calculated for its best effects to be
+seen at a fairly distant point of view; and to make sure that it would
+be both visible and coherent, seen from that point, they insisted upon
+some easily understood pattern which gave the key to the whole at a
+glance. To make a pattern of this kind is not such an easy matter as it
+looks. The forms of the background spaces are the complementary parts of
+the design, and are just as important as those of the solid portions;
+it takes them both to make a good design.
+
+Now I believe you must have had enough of this subject for the present,
+more especially as you have not yet begun to feel the extraordinary
+difficulty of making up your mind as to what is and what is not fit for
+the carver's uses among the boundless examples of beauty spread out for
+our choice by Dame Nature.
+
+Meantime, I do not want you to run away with the impression that when
+you have mastered the principles of economy in detail and an orderly
+disposition of background, that you have therefore learned all that is
+necessary in order to go on turning out design after design with the
+ease of a cook making pancakes according to a recipe. You will find by
+experience, I think, that all such principles are good for is to enforce
+clearness of utterance, so to speak, and to remind you that it is light
+you are dealing with, and upon which you must depend for all effects;
+also that the power of vision is limited. Acting upon them is quite
+another matter, and one, I am afraid, in which no one can help you
+much. You may be counseled as to the best and most practical mode of
+expressing your ideas, but those thoughts and inventions must come from
+yourself if they are to be worth having.
+
+In my next lecture I shall have something to say with regard to
+originality of design, but now we must take up our tools again and begin
+work upon another exercise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CONTOURS OF SURFACE
+
+
+     Adaptation of Old Designs to Modern Purposes--"Throwing
+     About"--Critical Inspection of Work from a Distance as it Proceeds.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.]
+
+Here are two fragments of a kind of running ornament. Fig. 22 is a part
+of the jamb molding of a church in Vicenza. If you observe carefully,
+you will find that it has a decidedly classical appearance. The truth is
+that it was carved by a Gothic artist late in the fourteenth century,
+just after the Renaissance influence began to make itself felt. It is an
+adaptation by him of what he remembered having seen in his travels of
+the new style, grafted upon the traditional treatment ready to his hand.
+It suits our purpose all the better on that account, for the reason that
+we are going to re-adapt his design into an exercise, and shall attempt
+to make it suitable to our limited ability in handling the tools, to the
+change in material from stone to wood, and lastly, to our different
+aims and motives in the treatment of architectural ornament. Please do
+all this for yourself in another design, and look upon this suggestion
+merely in the light of helping a lame dog over a stile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+
+In this exercise (Fig. 23) you will repeat all you have already done
+with the others, until you come to the shaping of the leaves, in which
+an undulating or up and down motion has been attempted. This involves a
+kind of double drawing in the curves, one for the flat and one for the
+projections; so that they may appear to glide evenly from one point to
+the other, sweeping up and down, right and left, without losing their
+true contours. Carvers call this process "throwing about," i.e., making
+the leaves, etc., appear to rise from the background and again fall
+toward it in all directions. The phrase is a very meager one, and but
+poorly expresses the necessity for intimate sympathy between each
+surface so "thrown about." It is precisely in the observance of this
+last quality that effects of richness are produced. You can hardly have
+too much monotony of surface, but may easily err by having too much
+variety. Therefore, whatever system of light and shade you may adopt, be
+careful to repeat its motive in some sort of rhythmic order all over
+your work; by no other means can you make it rich and effective at a
+distance.
+
+It is well every now and then to put your work up on a shelf or ledge at
+a distance and view it as a whole; you will thus see which parts tell
+and which do not, and so gain experience on this point. Work should also
+be turned about frequently, sidewise and upside down, in order to find
+how the light affects it in different directions. Of course, you must
+not think that because your work may happen to look well when seen from
+a little way off that it does not matter about the details, whether they
+be well or poorly carved. On the contrary, unless you satisfy the eye at
+both points of view, your work is a partial failure. The one thing is as
+important as the other, only, as the first glance at carved work is
+generally taken at some little distance, it is the more immediately
+necessary to think of that, before we begin to work for a closer
+inspection. First impressions are generally lasting with regard to
+carved work, and, as I have said before, beauty of detail seldom quite
+atones for failure in the arrangement of masses.
+
+The rounded forms in this design may give you a little trouble, but
+practise, and that alone, will enable you to overcome this. Absolute
+smoothness is not desirable. Glass-papered surfaces are extremely ugly,
+because they obtrude themselves on account of their extreme smoothness,
+having lost all signs of handiwork in the tool marks. We shall have
+something to say presently about these tool marks in finishing, as it is
+a very important subject which may make all the difference between
+success or failure in finishing a piece of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+ORIGINALITY
+
+
+     Dangers of Imposing Words--Novelty more Common than Originality--An
+     Unwholesome Kind of "Originality."
+
+
+I told you that I should have something to say about originality. Almost
+every beginner has some vague impression that his first duty should be
+to aim at originality. He hears eulogiums passed upon the individuality
+of some one or other, and tries hard to invent new forms of expression
+or peculiarities of style, only resulting, in most cases, in new forms
+of ugliness, which it seems is the only possibility under such conscious
+efforts after novelty. The fact is that it takes many generations of
+ardent minds to accomplish what at first each thinks himself capable of
+doing alone. True originality has somewhat the quality of good wine,
+which becomes more delightful as time mellows its flavor and imparts to
+it the aroma which comes of long repose; like the new wine, too,
+originality should shyly hide itself in dark places until maturity
+warrants its appearance in the light of day. That kind of originality
+which is strikingly new does not always stand the test of time, and
+should be regarded with cautious skepticism until it has proved itself
+to be more than the passing fashion or novelty of a season. There is a
+kind of sham art very conspicuous at the present time, which was at
+quite a recent date popularly believed to be very original. It seems to
+have arisen out of some such impatient craving for novelty, and it has
+been encouraged by an easy-going kind of suburban _refinement_, which
+neither knows nor cares very much what really goes to the making of a
+work of art. This new art has filled our shops and exhibitions with an
+invertebrate kind of ornament, which certainly has the doubtful merit of
+"never having been seen before." It has evidently taken its inspiration
+from the trailing and supine forms of floating seaweed, and revels in
+the expression of such boneless structure. By way of variety it presents
+us with a kind of symbolic tree, remarkable for more than archaic
+flatness and rigidity. Now, this kind of "originality" is not only
+absolutely valueless, but exceedingly harmful; its only merit is that,
+like its ideal seaweed, it has no backbone of its own, and we may hope
+that it will soon betake itself to its natural home, the slimy bottom of
+the ocean of oblivion.
+
+Meantime, the only thing we are absolutely sure of in connection with
+that much-abused word "originality" is this, that no gift, original or
+otherwise, can be developed without steady and continuous practise with
+the tools of your craft.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+PIERCED PATTERNS
+
+
+     Exercise in Background Pattern--Care as to Stability--Drilling and
+     Sawing out the Spaces--Some Uses for Pierced Patterns.
+
+
+The present exercises may be described as a kind of carved open
+fretwork--that is to say, the ground is entirely cut away, leaving the
+pattern standing free. This will form an excellent piece of discipline
+with regard to the design of background forms, because in such work as
+this, those forms assert themselves in a very marked manner; if they are
+in any way found to be conspicuously unequal in size or are awkwardly
+designed as to shape, the whole effect of the work is spoiled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.]
+
+For your first effort make a design based upon No. 24, and please to
+observe these rules in its construction. The main or leading lines of
+the pattern are to run as much as possible without crossing each other.
+The holes are to be fairly equal in size, or rather in area, as they
+need not be at all like each other in shape. The amount of wood left
+standing to be of a width averaging never less than half the length of
+the average-sized hole. This is necessary for securing sufficient
+strength of material in the cross-grained pieces, which would be liable
+to split if made too long and narrow. The pattern should be formal in
+character, not necessarily symmetrical, but it should be well balanced.
+You may have one part of your design composed of large holes and another
+of small ones, provided the change is part of a definite design, as in
+Fig. 25. You may even leave the wood in some parts forming a solid
+background, or you may treat it as a separate piece of simple carving
+on the solid, as in Fig. 26, being careful to execute it in a
+consistently simple manner, as in this kind of work much change of
+manner in execution is inadvisable, although, at the same time, it is
+open to any amount of variety in design of outline and combination of
+contrasts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+Take a piece of pine about 3 or 4 ft. long and 7 or 9 ins. wide by 3/4
+in. thick. Trace on your pattern and drill circular holes in the middle
+of each space to be cut through. Then take a keyhole saw, and remove the
+wood by sawing round the space close to the blue line, taking care not
+to cut through it in any place. The saw must be held very truly upright
+in order to cut the sides of the spaces at right angles to the face of
+the wood. Now carve the pattern on the surface in whatever manner you
+have designed--in grooves suggesting the articulation of the leaves, in
+short grooves which may pass for additional leaves, or in a dozen ways
+which practise may help you to invent.
+
+The wood should be held tightly down to the bench in all its parts, or,
+at least, in those being operated upon, as it may, if unsupported, crack
+across some of the narrow parts. The sides of all the holes must be
+carved out clean to remove the rough saw marks. This can be done partly
+by gouges, or still better, the wood may be held up on its edge and the
+holes cut round with a sharp penknife where the grain allows it. Now
+turn the work over on its face and carve bevels round each of the holes.
+This reduces the apparent thickness of wood, and adds to the effect of
+delicacy in the pattern.
+
+This work may be used for the cresting of some large piece of furniture,
+or may be adapted to fill screens or partitions, stair newels, and
+balusters, or it may be used as a cornice decoration in the manner
+suggested by No. 26, where the pierced work can be backed by a hollow
+cornice which it fills and enriches.
+
+In our next exercise we shall try our hands upon a piece of hardwood for
+a change--meantime do one or two of these fret patterns by way of
+disciplinary exercise in outline forms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+HARDWOOD CARVING
+
+
+     Carvings can not be Independent Ornaments--Carving Impossible on
+     Commercial Productions--The Amateur Joiner--Corner
+     Cupboards--Introduction of Foliage Definite in Form, and Simple in
+     Character--Methods of Carving Grapes.
+
+
+We now come to the question, what are we going to do with all the pieces
+of carving which we propose to undertake.
+
+There is no more inexorable law relating to the use of wood-carving than
+the one which insists upon some kind of passport for its introduction,
+wherever it appears. It must come in good company, and be properly
+introduced. The slightest and most distant connection with a recognized
+sponsor is often sufficient, but it will not be received alone. We do
+not make carvings to hang on a wall and be admired altogether on their
+own account. They must decorate some object. A church screen, a font, a
+piece of furniture, or even the handle of a knife. It is not always an
+easy matter to find suitable objects upon which to exercise our
+wood-carving talents. Our furniture is all made now in a wholesale
+manner which permits of no interference with its construction, while at
+the same time, if we wish to put any carving upon it, it is absolutely
+essential that both construction and decoration should be considered
+together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+A very modest beginning may be made in adapting ornament to a useful
+article, by carving the surface of a bread plate. These are usually made
+of some hard wood, such as sycamore. They may be made of oak, but
+sycamore has the advantage in its lighter color, which is more likely to
+be kept clean. Two suggestions are given in Figs. 27 and 28 for carving
+appropriate to this purpose. The essentials are, that there should be a
+well-defined _pattern_ simple in construction, and as effective as
+possible with little labor; that there should be little or no rounding
+of surface, the design consisting of gouge cuts and incisions arranged
+to express the pattern. The incisions may form a regular sunk ground,
+but it should not be deep, or it will not be easily kept clean. Then, as
+in cutting bread the knife comes in contact with the surface, no
+delicate work is advisable; a large treatment with broad surfaces, and
+some plain spaces left to protect the carved work, is likely to prove
+satisfactory in every way. A piece of sycamore should be procured, ready
+for carving; this may be got from a wood-turner, but it will be as well
+to give him a drawing, on which is shown the section of edge and the
+position of all turned lines required for confining the carving. If the
+plate is to be of any shape other than circular, then it must be neatly
+made by a joiner, unless you can shape it yourself.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
+
+Many of you are, I have no doubt, handy joiners, and may with a little
+help put together some slight pieces of furniture to serve at least as
+an excuse for the introduction of your carving. Here are some
+suggestions for corner cupboards, chosen as giving the largest area for
+carved surface with the minimum of expense in construction. The material
+should be oak--English if possible, or it may be Italian walnut. The
+doors of Figs. 40 and 41 are in three narrow boards with shallow beads
+at the joints, those of the others are each made of a single board, and
+should be 1/2 in. to 5/8 in. thick, the doors may be about 2 ft. 6 ins.
+high, each having two ledges about 3 ins. wide, screwed on behind top
+and bottom to keep them from twisting. All moldings, beads, etc., are to
+be carved by hand, no planes being used. Having traced the lines of your
+design upon the board, you may begin, if there are moldings as in Fig.
+32, by using a joiner's marking gage to groove out the deepest parts of
+the parallel lines in the moldings along the edges, doing the same to
+the curved ones with a V tool or Veiner. Then form the moldings with
+your chisels or gouges. Keep them very flat in section as in Fig. 29.
+The fret patterns on Figs. 32, 35, and 36, where not pierced, should
+also be done in low relief, not more than 1/8 in. deep, and the sides of
+the bands beveled as in section _a_, Fig 30. The widths of these bands
+ought not to be less than 1/2 in., and look better if they are wider.
+Very narrow bands have a better appearance, if, instead of being cut
+straight down, they are hollowed at sides like _b_ in Fig. 30.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.]
+
+Fig. 31 is a detail of a kind of gouge work which you must all know very
+well. One perpendicular cut of a gouge driven in with the mallet, and
+one side cut, should form one of these crescent or thimble-shaped holes.
+They should not be too deep in proportion to their size. Their
+combinations may be varied to a great extent. Two or three common ones
+are shown in the illustration. This form of ornament was in all
+likelihood invented by some ingenious carpenter with a turn for art and
+a limited stock of carving tools. His humble contribution to the
+resources of the carver's art has received its due share of the flattery
+which is implied by imitation. In all these patterns it is well to
+remember that the flat surface of the board left between the cuts is
+really the important thing to consider, as all variety is obtained by
+disposing the holes in such a way as to produce the pattern required by
+means of their outlines on the plain surface. Thus waved lines are
+produced as in Fig. 31, and little niches like mimic architecture as in
+Fig. 34, by the addition of the triangular-shaped holes at the top, and
+the splayed sills at the bottom. (It is obvious that an arrangement like
+the latter should never be turned upside down.) If this attention to the
+surface pattern is neglected the holes are apt to become mere confused
+and meaningless spots.
+
+In small pieces of furniture like these, which are made of comparatively
+thin wood, the carving need not have much depth, say the ground is sunk
+1/4 in. at the deepest. As oak is more tenacious than pine, you will
+find greater freedom in working it, although it is so much harder to
+cut. You may find it necessary to use the mallet for the greater part of
+the blocking out, but it need not be much used in finishing. A series of
+short strokes driven by gentle taps of the mallet will often make a
+better curve than if the same is attempted without its aid.
+
+It will be well now to procure the remainder of the set of twenty-four
+tools if you have not already got them, as they will be required for the
+foliage we are about to attempt. The deep gouges are especially useful:
+having two different sweeps on each tool, they adapt themselves to
+hollows which change in section as they advance.
+
+Fig. 32 contains very little foliage, such as there is being disposed in
+small diamond-shaped spaces, sunk in the face of the doors, and a small
+piece on the bracket below. All this work should be of a very simple
+character, definite in form and broad in treatment.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. _Half_]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. _Half_]
+
+Fig. 33 is more elaborate, but on much the same lines of design varied
+by having a larger space filled with groups of leaves. Fig. 34 gives the
+carving to a larger scale; in it the oak-leaves are shown with raised
+veins in the center, the others being merely indicated by the gouge
+hollows. There is some attempt in this at a more natural mode of
+treating the foliage. While such work is being carved, it is well to
+look now and then at the natural forms themselves (oak and laurel in
+this case) in order to note their characteristic features, and as a
+wholesome check on the dangers of mannerism.
+
+It is a general axiom founded upon the evidence of past work, and a
+respect for the laws of construction in the carpenter's department, that
+when foliage appears in panels divided by plain spaces, it should never
+be made to look as if it grew _from one panel into the other_, with the
+suggestion of boughs passing behind the solid parts. This is a
+characteristic of Japanese work, and may, perhaps, be admirable when
+used in delicate painted decorations on a screen or other light
+furniture, but in carvings it disturbs the effect of solidity in the
+material, and serves no purpose which can not be attained in a much
+better way.
+
+[Illustration: CARVING IN PANELS OF FIG 33 FIG. 34.]
+
+Expedients have been invented to overcome the difficulty of making a
+fresh start in each panel, one of which is shown in Fig. 34, where the
+beginning of the bough is hidden under a leaf. It is presumable that the
+bough _may_ go on behind the uncarved portions of the board to reappear
+in another place, but we need not insist upon the fancy, which loses all
+its power when attention is called to it, like riddles when the answer
+is known.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.]
+
+In Fig. 35, like the last, the treatment is somewhat realistic. This is
+shown to a larger scale in Fig. 38. Nevertheless, it has all been
+"arranged" to fit its allotted space, and all accidental elements
+eliminated; such, for instance, as leaves disappearing in violent
+perspective, or even turned sidewise, and all minute details which would
+not be likely to show conspicuously if carved in wood. In Fig. 39, (_a_)
+is an outline of a group of vine-leaves taken from nature, as it
+appeared, and in which state it is quite unfitted for carving, on
+account of its complicated perspective and want of definite outline;
+Fig. 39 (_b_) is a detail also copied from nature, but which might stand
+without alteration provided it formed part of a work delicate enough
+to note such close elaboration in so small a space. This, of course,
+would entirely depend upon the purpose for which the carving was
+intended, and whether it was meant for distant view or close inspection.
+As there is arrangement necessary in forming the outline, so there is
+just as much required in designing the articulation of the surfaces of
+the leaves, which should be so treated that their hollows fall into a
+semblance of some kind of pattern. Fig. 36 is a more formal design, or,
+to use a very much abused word, more "conventional," in which such
+leafage as there is only serves the purpose of ornamental points,
+marking the divisions of the general design. The gouge work upon the
+leaves should be of the simplest description, but strict attention is
+necessary in drawing the grooves, so that their forms may be clear and
+emphatic, leaving no doubt as to the pattern intended. Designs of this
+kind have no interest whatever except as pieces of patterned work, to
+which end every other consideration should be sacrificed. It must not be
+cut too deep--say 1/4 in. at the deepest--and the sides of the panels
+should be very gently hollowed out with a flattish sweep (see section on
+Fig. 37) in order to avoid any appearance of actual construction in
+what more or less imitates the stiles and rails of a door. Fig. 37 shows
+a portion of the leafage to a larger scale, and also a plan explaining
+the construction of all these cupboards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_a_).]
+
+Fig. 40 is designed upon the barest suggestion of natural foliage, the
+wavy stem being quite flat, and running out flush into the flat margins
+at the sides, connecting them together. The leaves in this case should
+be carved, leaving the veins standing solid; grooved veins would have a
+meager look upon such rudimentary leaves. Of course a more natural
+treatment may be given to this kind of design, but in that case it would
+require to be carried all over the door, and replace the formally
+ornamental center panel. The pierced pattern in cresting should be done
+as already described for Fig. 24.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39 (_b_).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41]
+
+Fig. 41 is a variant on the last design. In this case a little more play
+of surface is attempted, making a point of carving the side lobes of
+the leaves into little rounded masses which will reflect points of
+light. This is shown better on Fig. 42.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+In carving foliage like that of the vine, where small dark holes or eyes
+occur, enough wood should be left round them to form deep dark little
+pits. They are very valuable as points of shadow. In doing this, cut the
+rim all round with a very slight bevel as in section, Fig. 43. Whenever
+leaves run out to a fine edge they also should have a small bevel like
+this in order to avoid an appearance of weakness which acute edges
+always present. As a general rule leave as much wood as possible about
+the edges of leaves as you want shadow from them--dipping them only
+where you are sure the variety will be effective. In the execution of
+bunches of rounded forms like grapes there is no special mechanical
+expedient for doing them quickly and easily; each must be cut out
+separately, and carved with whatever tools come handiest to their shape
+and size. It is a good way to begin by cutting triangular holes between
+the grapes with the point of a small chisel (see Fig. 44), after which
+the rough shapes left may gradually be formed into ovals. When the work
+is very simple in character, and does not require a realistic treatment,
+the grapes may be done in a more methodical way, as in Fig. 45. First
+cut grooves across both ways with a V tool, dividing the grapes as at _a
+a_, then with a gouge turned hollow down round each line of grapes into
+rolls as at _b b_. Do this both ways, and afterward finish the form as
+best you can.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE SKETCH-BOOK
+
+
+     Old Work Best Seen in its Original Place--Museums to be Approached
+     with Caution--Methodical Memoranda--Some Examples--Assimilation of
+     Ideas Better than Making Exact Copies.
+
+
+In holiday time, and as other opportunity arises, be sure to visit some
+old building, be it church or mansion. In this way you will make
+acquaintance with many a fine specimen of old work which will set your
+fancy moving. In the one there may be a carved choir-screen or bench
+ends, in the other a fireplace or table. The first sight of such things
+in the places and among the surroundings for which they were designed,
+is always an eventful moment in the training of a carver, because the
+element of surprise acts like a tonic to the mind by arousing its
+emulative instincts. It is by seeing such things in their proper home
+and associations that the best lessons are learned. One sees in that
+way, for instance, _why_ the tool marks left by the old carvers on their
+work look more effective than smoothly perfect surfaces, when associated
+with the rough timbers of the roof, or the uneven surface of the
+plastered wall. One sees, too, the effect of time and friction in the
+polished surfaces of bench ends, rubbed and dusted by countless hands
+until they have become smooth to the eye and touch, and a mental note is
+made to avoid sharp or spiky work in anything that is likely to be
+within reach of the fingers. In this way a certain balance is given to
+the judgment in proportioning to each piece of work its due share of
+labor, and we come away with a fixed determination to pay more attention
+in future to breadth of design and economy of actual carving, a problem
+which no carver finds easy, but which must be faced if wasted work is
+not to be his only reward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+In museums, too, we shall find many useful lessons, although there we
+see things huddled together in a distracting fashion which demands great
+wariness of selection. The great point to be observed in making our
+notes for future reference is, that each sketch should contain some
+memorandum of a special quality, the one which attracted us at the time
+of making it. One may be made for sake of a general arrangement, another
+to remind us of some striking piece of detail or peculiarity of
+execution. The drawings need not be elaborate or labored, provided they
+make clear the points they were intended to record. Thus Fig. 46 is a
+sketch which is meant as a memorandum of a lively representation of
+birds, taken from an old Miserere seat. Fig. 47 was done for sake of the
+rich effect of an inscription on the plain side of a beam, and also for
+the peculiar and interesting section to which the beam had been cut.
+Fig. 48, again, for sake of the arrangement of the little panels on a
+plain surface, and the sense of fitness and proportion which prompted
+the carver to dispose his work in that fashion, by which he has enriched
+the whole surface at little cost of labor, and by contrast enhanced the
+value of the little strips and diamonds of carved work, otherwise of no
+particular interest. Figs. 49 and 50 are two sketches of Icelandic
+carved boxes. Fig. 49 was drawn as an example of the rich effect which
+that kind of engraved work may have, and of the use which it makes of
+closely packed letters in the inscription. The pattern is, of course, a
+traditional Norse one, although the carving is comparatively modern. The
+points to be noted in the other box were its quaint and simple
+construction, the use of the letters as decoration, more especially the
+unpremeditated manner in which they have been grouped, the four letters
+below making a short line which is eked out by a rude bit of ornament.
+The letters are cut right through the wood, and are surrounded with an
+engraved line. Fig. 51 was noted on account of the way in which a very
+simple pierced ornament is made much of by repetition. The ornament is
+on a Portuguese bed, and this is only a detail of a small portion. The
+effect greatly depends upon the quantity, but in this case that is a
+point which is easily remembered without drawing more of it than is
+shown. The fact that this work is associated with richly turned
+balusters is, however, noticed in the sketch, as that might easily be
+forgotten. Figs. 47 to 51 are from South Kensington Museum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+Then we come to the sketch of a chair (Fig. 52), or combined table and
+chair. The richly carved back is pivoted, and forms the table top when
+lowered over the arms, upon which it rests. The points to be noted in
+this are, the general richness of effect, the contrast of wavy and rigid
+lines, and the happy way in which the architectural suggestion of arch
+and pillars has been translated into ornament. As this sketch was not
+made so much for the chair itself as for its enriched back, no
+measurements have been taken; otherwise chairs, as such, depend very
+much upon exact dimensions for their proportions. This chair is at
+Exning in Suffolk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+Now we shall suppose that you are going to make many such sketches
+both in museums and in country churches or houses. You will find some
+too elaborate for drawings in the time at your disposal, in which case
+you should obtain a photograph, if possible, making notes of any detail
+which you wish particularly to remember--such, for instance, as the
+carved chest shown in Plate I. The subject, St. George and the Dragon,
+is given with various incidents all in the one picture. This is a
+valuable and suggestive piece of work to have before you, as the manner
+in which the pictorial element has been managed is strikingly
+characteristic of the carver's methods, and well adapted to the
+conditions of a technique which has no other legitimate means of dealing
+with distant objects. The king and queen, looking out of the palace
+windows, are _almost_ on the same scale as the figures in the
+foreground; the walls of the houses, roofs, etc., have apparently quite
+as much projection as the foreground rocks--distance is inferred rather
+than expressed. The very simple construction, too, is worth noting. It
+is practically composed of three boards, a wide one for the picture, and
+two narrower ones for ends and feet.
+
+The object in making these sketches should be mainly to collect a
+variety of ideas which may brighten the mind when there is occasion to
+use its inventive faculties. Suggestive hints are wanted; rarely will it
+be possible, or wise, to repeat anything exactly as you see it. These
+sketches, if made with care, and from what Constable used to call
+"breeding subjects," will give your fancy a very necessary point of
+vantage, from which it may hazard flights of its own.
+
+As much of our knowledge must necessarily be gained from museums, and as
+they now form such an important feature of educational machinery, I
+think it will be well to devote a word or two of special notice to the
+drawbacks which accompany their many advantages. This I propose to do in
+the following chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+
+     False Impressions Fostered by Fragmentary Exhibits--Environment as
+     Important as Handicraft--Works Viewed as Records of
+     Character--Carvers the Historians of their Time.
+
+
+A new world of commerce and machinery, having slain and forgotten a past
+race of artist craftsmen, makes clumsy atonement by sweeping together
+the fragments of their work and calling the collection a museum. From
+the four corners of the earth these relics have been gathered. Our
+hungry minds are bidden to make choice according to fancy, for here is
+variety of food! Here are opportunities, never before enjoyed by mortal,
+for an intellectual feast!--and of a kind which might be considered
+god-like, were it not for the suspicion of some gigantic joke. That out
+of all this huge mass of chaotic material we have not as yet been able
+to make for ourselves some living form of art, must indeed be to the
+gods a continual subject of merriment.
+
+Museums of art are in no respect the unmixed blessings which they appear
+to be. They have, to be sure, all the advantages of handy reference;
+but at the same time, on account of the great diversity in the character
+of their exhibits, they tend to encourage the spread of a patchy kind of
+knowledge, far from being helpful to the arts in the interests of which
+they are established. It must be remembered that, in these collections,
+all specimens of architecture and architectural carving are invariably
+seen in false positions. All have been wrenched from their proper
+settings, and placed, more or less at random, in lights and
+relationships never contemplated by their designers. To the environment
+of a piece of architecture, and the position and surroundings of carved
+decorations, are due quite half of their interest as works of art.
+Deprive them of these associations, and little is left but fragmentary
+specimens of handicraft, more or less unintelligible in their lonely
+detachment, misleading to the eye, and dangerous as objects of
+imitation, in proportion to the dependence they once had upon those
+absent and unknown associations.
+
+The educational purpose which these collections are intended to serve is
+liable to be construed into an unreasoning assumption that every
+specimen exhibited is equally worthy of admiration. How often the
+plodding student is to be seen carefully drawing and measuring work of
+the dullest imaginable quality, with no other apparent reason for his
+pathetically wasted industry!
+
+It would be strange, indeed, if all in this vast record of past activity
+was of equal value; if merely to belong to the past was a sure warrant
+that such work was the best of its kind. Far from this being the case,
+it requires the constant use of a more or less trained and critical
+judgment to separate what is good from the indifferent or really bad in
+these collections, for all are usually present. There is inequality in
+artistic powers, in technical skill, and a distinction of yet greater
+importance, which lies in the significance the works bear as records of
+the inner life of their creators. Artists, carvers in particular, are
+the true scribes and historians of their times. Their works are, as it
+were, books--written in words of unconscious but fateful meaning. Some
+are filled with the noblest ideals, expressed in beautiful and serious
+language, while others contain nothing but sorry jests and stupidities.
+
+As all the works of the past, whether good or bad, are the achievements
+of men differing but little from ourselves, save in the direction of
+their energies and in their outward surroundings, there is surely some
+clue to the secret of their success or failure, some light to be thrown
+by their experience upon our own dubious and questioning spirit.
+
+What better could we look for in this respect than a little knowledge of
+the lives led by the carvers themselves, a mental picture of their
+environment, an acquired sense of the influence which this, that, or the
+other set of conditions must have imposed upon their work. With a little
+aid from history in forming our judgments, their works themselves will
+assist us--so faithful is the transcript of their witness--for, with
+more certainty than applies to handwriting, a fair guess may be made by
+inference from the work itself as to the general status and ideals of
+the workman. The striking analogy between its salient characteristics
+and the prevailing mood of that ever-changing spirit which seeks
+expression in the arts, is nowhere more marked than in the work of the
+carver.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--FOLIAGE
+
+
+     Medieval and Modern Choice of Form Compared--A Compromise
+     Adopted--A List of Plant Forms of Adaptable Character.
+
+
+It is high time now that we had some talk about the studies from nature
+which are to furnish you with subjects for your work. I shall at present
+deal only with studies of foliage, as that is what you have been
+practising, and I wish you to carry on your work and studies as much as
+possible on the same lines.
+
+Between the few abstract forms, representing a general type of foliage,
+so dear to the heart of the medieval carver, and the unstinted variety
+of choice displayed in the works of Grinling Gibbons and his time, there
+is such a wide difference that surely it points to a corresponding
+disparity of aim. Although there is no doubt whatever that such a
+striking change of views must have had its origin in some deeper cause
+than that which is to be explained by artistic and technical
+development, yet I think that for our immediate purpose we shall find a
+sufficiently good lesson in comparing the visible results of the two
+methods. Broadly speaking, then, the medieval carver cared more for
+general effect than for possibilities of technique. He therefore chose
+only such natural forms as were amenable to his preconceived
+determination to make his work telling at a distance. He had no
+botanical leanings, and rejected as unfit every form which would not
+bend to his one purpose--that of decoration on a large scale--and which
+he aimed at making comprehensive at a glance, rather than calling for
+attention to its details. He invented patterns which he knew would
+assist in producing this result, and here he further handicapped his
+choice by limiting it to such forms as would repeat or vanish at
+regulated intervals, reflecting light or producing shadow just where it
+was wanted to emphasize his pattern.
+
+The more modern carver, on the contrary, offered an all-embracing
+welcome to every form which presented itself to his notice. He rejected
+nothing which could by any possibility be carved. Nothing was too small,
+too thin, or too difficult for his wonderful dexterity with the carving
+tools. His chief end was elaboration of detail, and it was often
+carried to a point which ignored the fact that nearly all of it would
+become invisible when in position, or, if seen at all, would only appear
+in confused lumps and unintelligible masses.
+
+Now, for many reasons, I think we had better take the medieval method as
+our model up to a point, and make a certain selection of material for
+our studies, based upon some relation to general effect, but not
+necessarily imitating a medieval austerity of rejection, which would be
+the merest affectation on our part. Upon these principles, and taking
+somewhat of a middle course, I shall here note a few types of foliage
+which I think may be useful to you in the work upon which you are
+engaged.
+
+Leaf forms, with their appropriate flowers or fruit, afford the carver a
+very large proportion of his subject material. They serve him as
+principal subject, as bordering or background to figures of men or
+animals; they occur as mere detached spots, to break the monotony of
+spaces or lines; and in a thousand other ways give exercise to his
+invention.
+
+As a general rule, those leaves with serrated, or deeply cleft and
+indented edges, lend themselves most readily to decorative treatment.
+Large, broad leaves, with unbroken surfaces, and triangular or rounded
+outlines, are less manageable. Those most commonly taken as models are:
+
+_The Vine, with its Grapes._--This was freely used by medieval carvers,
+at first for its symbolic significance, but afterward even more on
+account of its rare beauty of form. The play of light and shade on its
+vigorous foliage, the variety of its drawing in leaf, vine, and tendril,
+and the contrast afforded by its bunches of oval fruit, caused it to be
+accepted as a favorite subject for imitation in all kinds of carving. It
+lends itself kindly to all sorts of relief, either high or low, in
+almost any material. It is so recognizable, even in the rudest attempts
+at imitation, that its popularity is well deserved.
+
+The hop-vine shares some of these qualities, though much less strongly
+marked in character.
+
+_The Acanthus._--This leaf was first adapted for the purpose of ornament
+by the workmen of classical Greece. The inspiration was one of the few
+which they took directly from nature's models. It was also freely used
+by medieval carvers, but with an insistence upon the flowing and
+rounded character of its surface forms; and again by the Renaissance
+artists, with a return to its classical character of fluted and formal
+strength of line. The graceful drawing of its elaborately articulated
+surface, and the extraordinary accentuation of its outline, provide an
+endless source of suggestion. It has been adapted in all manners,
+according to the fancy of the carver--sometimes long and drawn out, at
+others wide and spreading. Altogether it has been more thoroughly
+"generalized" than any other natural form.
+
+_The Oak, with its Acorns_, appears in early medieval work, but without
+much attempt to represent its form with anything like individual
+character. In later work it has more justice done to its undoubted
+merits as a decorative feature by a clearer recognition of its beauty in
+clumps and masses. Fruit, other than the grape and a nondescript kind of
+berry, was seldom represented by medieval craftsmen; it formed, however,
+a marked feature in Renaissance ornament, where pomegranate, apple, fig,
+and melon were in constant requisition.
+
+_Flowers_ in general were very little used in early times, and then only
+in a highly abstract form corresponding to that of the foliage. The rose
+and lily were the two most frequently seen, but they seldom had more
+individuality about them than was sufficient to make them recognizable.
+During the Renaissance flowers were treated with much more regard to
+their inherent beauties, and were represented with great skill and power
+of imitation, although often carried beyond legitimate limits in this
+direction. When dealt with as ornaments, rather than botanical details,
+they form a rich source of suggestion to the carver, and offer a ready
+means of contrast with masses of foliage. The rose and lily are such
+conspicuous flowers that they should, in modern times, be used in a way
+consistent with our demands for individual character and likeness. They
+should be fairly well defined and easily recognizable. It is quite
+possible to treat these flowers in a very realistic way, without
+endangering their effect as decorative details: they have both such
+distinguished forms in flower and foliage.
+
+Flowers should be chosen for their _forms_; color should not be allowed
+to deceive the eye in this respect, unless the color itself is
+suggestive of lines and contours.
+
+_Foliage_ should always be studied at its prime, never when it is dried
+and contorted in its forms.
+
+Here is a short list of subjects, including those I have mentioned, all
+having a sufficiently pronounced character to make them valuable as
+stock in trade. Many more might be named, but these are chosen as being
+commonly familiar, and as being representative types of various forms.
+
+_For their Leaves and Fruit._--The grapevine, hop-vine, globe artichoke,
+tomato, apple, plum, pear, bramble, and strawberry.
+
+_For Fruit and Vine-like Growths (leafage too massive and smooth to be
+of much value without adaptation)._--The melon, vegetable-marrow,
+pumpkins, and cucumber.
+
+_For Leafage, Flowers, or Seed Vessels._--The acanthus, oak, thistles,
+teazle, giant hemlock, cow-parsley, buttercup.
+
+_Of Garden Flowers._--The rose, lily, larkspur, peony, poppies,
+columbine, chrysanthemum, tulip, Christmas rose, Japanese anemone.
+
+_For Close and Intricate Designs._--Periwinkle, winter aconite,
+trefoils of various kinds.
+
+Many valuable hints on this subject may be gleaned by a study of
+Gerrard's Herbal, which is full of well-drawn illustrations, done in a
+way which is very suggestive to the designer.
+
+A careful study of the outline forms of leaves is a schooling in itself,
+so much may be learned from it. It teaches the relation between form and
+growth in a way which makes it possible to use the greatest freedom of
+generalization without violating structural laws. The same causes which
+govern the shaping of a tree are present in the leaf, settling its final
+outline, so that, however wandering and fantastic it may appear, there
+is not the smallest curve or serration which does not bear witness to a
+methodical development, and to every accidental circumstance which
+helped or hindered its fulfilment.
+
+You could not do better than make a collection of suitable leaves, press
+them flat and trace them very carefully, keeping the tracings together
+in a book for reference. Accompanying this you should have in each case
+a drawing of the leaf as it appears in its natural state, always being
+careful to do this from a point of view which will accommodate itself to
+carving the leaf if you should have occasion to use it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+CARVING ON FURNITURE
+
+
+     Furniture Constructed with a View to Carving--Reciprocal Aims of
+     Joiner and Carver--Smoothness Desirable where Carving is
+     Handled--The Introduction of Animals or Figures.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+You will find in the illustrations, Figs. 53 to 62, certain suggestions
+for various pieces of furniture. They are given with the intention of
+impressing upon you the fact that very little carving can be done at all
+without some practical motive as a backbone to your fancies. To be
+always carving inapplicable panels is very dull work, and only good for
+a few preliminary exercises. It is much better to consider the matter
+well, and resolve upon some "opus," which will spread your efforts over
+a considerable period. When you have decided upon the piece of furniture
+which is most likely to be useful to you, and which lies within your
+powers of design and execution, then make a drawing for it, and have it
+made by a joiner (unless you can make it entirely yourself), to be put
+together in loose pieces for convenience of carving, and glued up when
+that is finished. You should certainly design the piece yourself, as you
+should make all your own designs for the carving. The two departments
+must be carried on in the closest relation to each other while the work
+is in progress, otherwise their association will not be complete when it
+is finished. Take, for instance, the head of the bed in the
+illustration. Why should it stand up so high, like the gable of a house?
+It is for no other reason than to give an opportunity for carving. A
+plain board of half the height would have been just as effective as a
+protection to the sleeper. Useless as carving may be from this practical
+point of view, it must nevertheless be amenable to utilitarian laws. It
+must be smooth where it is likely to be handled, as in the case of the
+knobs on top of the posts; and even where it is not likely to be
+handled, but may be merely touched occasionally, it should still have an
+inviting smoothness of surface. As a matter of fact, all carving on a
+bed should be of this kind, with no deep nooks or corners to hold dust.
+Here, then, are a number of conditions, which, instead of being a
+hindrance, are really useful incentives to fresh invention. Just as the
+construction of joiner's work entails concessions on the part of the
+carver, so the carver may ask the joiner to go a little out of his way
+in order to give opportunities for his carving. A little knowledge of
+this subject will make a reasonable compromise possible.
+
+You will find a further advantage in undertaking a fairly large piece of
+work. As it is almost certain to be in several parts, each may thus
+receive a different treatment, by which means you not only obtain
+contrast, but get some idea of the extraordinary power with which one
+piece of carving affects another when placed in juxtaposition. Whatever
+designs you may decide upon, should you undertake to carve the panels
+for a bed, let them be in decidedly low relief. The surface must be
+smoothly wrought, doing away with as much of the tool marking as you
+can, but this smoothing to be done entirely with the tools, not by any
+means with glass paper. Great attention must be paid to the drawing of
+the forms, as it is by this that the impression of modeling and
+projection will be expressed. A very pleasant treatment of such low
+relief when a smooth and even appearance is wanted, is to carve the
+ground to the full depth, say 1/8 in., only along the outlines of the
+design, and form the remainder into a kind of raised cushion, almost
+level in the middle with the original surface of the wood. The whole
+design need thus be little more than a kind of deepish engraving,
+depending for its effect upon broad lights defined by the engraved
+shadows. See Fig. 54 for an example of this treatment applied to
+letters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.]
+
+Now I expect you to make a fresh design. The illustrations in all such
+cases are purposely drawn in a somewhat indefinite way, in order that
+they may suggest, without making it possible to copy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.]
+
+Now we come to the mirror frame, Fig. 55. I should suggest that this be
+done in some light-colored wood like pear-tree, which has an agreeably
+warm tone, or if a hard piece of cedar can be found, it would look well,
+but in no case should polish be added except that which comes from the
+tool. The construction need not be complicated. Take two 3/4-in. boards,
+glue them together to form the width, shape out the frame in the rough.
+Put behind this another frame of 3/4-in. thick stuff, and make the
+cornice out of wood about 1-1/2 in. thick. The parts to be kept separate
+until the carving is finished, and afterward glued or screwed together.
+The carving on the body of the frame, that is, in the gable above and
+the front of bracket below, should be in very low relief, the lower
+part being like the last, a kind of engraving. The fret above may be
+sunk about 1/16 in. and the ground slightly cushioned. The carving on
+sides and cornice is of a stronger character, and may be cut as deeply
+as the wood will allow, while the cornice is actually pierced through in
+places, showing the flat board behind. The design for this cornice
+should have some repeating object, such as the kind of pineapple-looking
+thing in the illustration, and its foliage should be formed with plenty
+of well-rounded surfaces, that may suggest some rather fat and juicy
+plant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.]
+
+In Fig. 56 you have a suggestion for carving a bench or settle, the
+proportions of which have been taken from one found at a Yorkshire
+village inn. The actual measurements are given in order that these
+proportions may be followed. It is a well-known fact, that chairs, or
+seats of any kind, can not be successfully designed on paper with any
+hope of meeting the essential requirements of comfort, lightness, and
+stability. Making seats is a practical art, and the development of the
+design is a matter of many years of successive improvements. A good
+model should therefore be selected and copied, with such slight
+changes as are necessary where carving is to be introduced. The main
+lines should not be interfered with on any account, nor should the
+thickness of the wood be altered if possible. The carving on this settle
+is intended to be in separate panels, about two inches apart. These
+panels will look all the better if no two are quite alike; a good way to
+give them more variety will be to make every alternate one of some kind
+of open pattern, like a fret. These piercings need not extend all over
+the design in the panel in every case: some may have only a few shapely
+holes mixed up with the lines, others again may be formed into complete
+frets with as much open as solid. (See Fig. 57.)
+
+The carving should be shallow, and not too fine in detail, as it will
+get a great deal of rubbing. The material should be, if possible, oak;
+but beech may be used with very good effect--in neither case should it
+be stained or polished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.]
+
+Fig. 58 is a clock case. Something of this kind would make an excellent
+"opus" such as I have alluded to, and give plenty of scope for
+invention. As clocks of this kind are generally hung on a wall, the
+brackets, from a practical point of view, are of course unnecessary, but
+as it is important that they should _look_ as if they were supported and
+to satisfy the eye, something in the way of a bracket or brackets is
+generally added. A bracket like the one in the illustration, not being a
+real support constructively speaking, but only put there to give
+assurance that such has not been overlooked or neglected, becomes a kind
+of toy, and may be treated as such by adding some little fancy to make
+it amusing, and give an excuse for making a feature of it. This will be
+a good place to try your hand at some modest attempt at figure work. In
+designing your bracket, should you wish to introduce a little figure of
+man or beast, I think you will find it more satisfactory if the figure
+is separated from the structural part by a slight suggestion of solid
+surroundings of its own. Thus the little roof over, and the solid bit of
+wood under, the figure in the illustration serve this purpose, lending
+an appearance of steadiness which would be wanting in a bracket formed
+of a detached figure. At any rate, never make your figures, whether of
+man or beast, seem to carry the clock; you may hunch them up into any
+shape you like, but no weight should be supposed to rest upon them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.]
+
+For sake of the carving, oak will be the best wood to employ in making
+this clock, or one like it, but Italian walnut will do equally well. The
+size should be fairly large, say about three feet over all in height.
+This will give a face of about ten inches in diameter, which face will
+look best if made of copper gilt, and not much of it, perhaps a mere
+ring, with the figures either raised or cut out, leaving nothing but
+themselves and two rings surrounding. This should project from the wood,
+leaving a space of about one inch.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.]
+
+If you are inclined to try a heavier piece of work, the bench or
+settle-end in Fig. 59 may give you a suggestion. In this there is a bird
+introduced in the shape of a cock roosting on the branch of a tree. It
+would require to be done in a thick piece of wood, say 3 ins. thick, and
+would be best in English oak. The idea will be, to cut away the wood
+from the outer lower portion, leaving only about 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 in.
+thickness, but at the top retaining the full thickness; in which the
+bird must be carved, the outer edges being kept full thickness in order
+to give the structural form and enclose the carving. The inside of this
+upper part, toward the seat, should also be carved, but with a smooth
+and shallow pattern of some kind, as both may be seen together, and in
+contrast to each other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.]
+
+The introduction of figures leads me to a subject which it will be
+better to discuss in the next chapter, i.e., the question as to how far
+it is possible or consistent with present conditions to attempt
+anything that may bear the character of humor. But in the meantime here
+are three more subjects upon which fancy and ingenuity may be expended
+with profit. In Fig. 60 you have a heraldic subject. In all such cases
+the heraldry should be true, and not of the "bogus" kind. This shield
+represents a real coat of arms, and was done from a design by Philip
+Webb, being finally covered with gesso, silvered and painted in
+transparent colors.
+
+Figs. 61 and 62 are suggestions for wooden crosses, oak being the best
+material to use for such a purpose. The carving should be so arranged as
+to form some kind of pattern on the cross. In Fig. 62 the black trefoils
+are supposed to be cut right through the thin pieces of wood forming the
+center portion, and the carving on that part is very shallow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE GROTESQUE IN CARVING
+
+
+     Misproportion not Essential to the Expression of Humor--The Sham
+     Grotesque Contemptible--A True Sense of Humor Helpful to the
+     Carver.
+
+
+The dullness which comes of "all work and no play" may be said to affect
+the carver at times. He tires of carving leaves and ornaments: what more
+natural than to seek change and amusement in the invention of droll
+figures of men or animals? The enjoyment which we all feel in
+contemplating the outcome of this spirit in ancient work, leads us to
+the imitation of both subject and manner, hoping thereby that the same
+results may be obtained; but somehow the repetition is seldom attended
+with much success, while of original fancies of the same sort we are
+obliged to confess ourselves almost destitute. Who can behold the
+fantastic humors of Gothic carvings without being both amused and
+interested? Those grotesque heads with gaping mouths recall the stories
+of childhood, peopled with goblins and gnomes. It is all so natural, and
+so much in keeping with the architecture which surrounds it, the carving
+is so rude and simple, that it seems absurd when some authority on such
+matters makes a statement to the effect that all such expression of
+humor has become forever impossible to ourselves.
+
+This important part of the question must be left to your own meditation,
+to settle according to your lights; experience will probably lead you
+ultimately to the same opinion. Meantime, the point I wish to impress
+upon you is this, that until you feel yourself secure, and something of
+a master of various branches of your craft, you should not attempt any
+subject which aims at being decidedly grotesque. There are very good and
+practical reasons for this; one is, that while you are studying your
+art, you must do nothing that may tend to obscure what faculties you
+have for judging proportion. Now, as all grotesque work is based more or
+less on exaggeration, it forms a very dangerous kind of exercise to the
+beginner, therefore I should never allow a pupil of mine to so much as
+attempt it. Do not think that I wish to discourage every effort which
+has not an ultra-serious aim. On the contrary, I am but taking a rather
+roundabout way to an admission that the humorous element has, and must
+have at all times, a powerful attraction for the wood-carver; and to the
+statement of an opinion that it should not be allowed to take a
+prominent place in the work of a student; moreover, that it is quite
+possible to find in nature a varied and unfailing source of suggestion
+in this respect (more, in fact, than we are ever likely to account for),
+and which requires no artificial exaggeration to aid its expression.
+Some tincture of the faculty is absolutely necessary to the carver who
+takes his subjects from birds or beasts, in order that he may perceive
+and seize the salient lines and characteristic forms, of which the
+key-note is often to be found in a faint touch of humor, and which, like
+the scent of a flower, adds charm by appealing to another sense.
+
+The same argument applies to the treatment of the human figure. Let no
+student (and I may include, also, master-carver) think that a grotesque
+treatment will raise the smile or excite the interest which is
+anticipated. The "grotesque" is a vehicle for grim and often terrible
+ideas, lightly veiled by a cloak of humorous exaggeration; a sort of
+Viking horse-play--it is, in fact, a language which expresses the mixed
+feelings of sportive contempt and real fear in about equal proportions.
+When these feelings are not behind the expression, it becomes a language
+which is in itself only contemptible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.]
+
+If, carried away by fancy, you must find vent for its impulses, and
+carve images of unearthly beings, at least make them cheerful looking;
+one can imagine such demons and goblins as being rather nice fellows
+than otherwise. A grim jest that fails is generally a foolish one--at
+least its perpetrator neither deserves nor receives sympathy for his
+discomfiture. Now, I shall show you one or two examples which may make
+this matter a little clearer to you, if you are at all inclined to argue
+the position. I think, at any rate, they will prove that the expression
+of humor does not always depend upon exaggeration, and may exist in a
+work which is, one may say, almost copied from nature. Fig. 63 is an
+example to this effect. The little jester just emerging from a flower,
+one of the side-pieces to a Miserere seat carving, is undoubtedly a true
+portrait, carved without the slightest attempt at exaggeration. The
+quiet humor which it evinces required only sympathy to perceive and
+skill to portray on the part of its carver. He had nothing to invent in
+the common acceptation of the word. The carving of the mendicant, which
+comes on the other side, is equally vivid in its truth to nature. It is
+so lifelike that we do not notice the humorous enjoyment of the artist
+in depicting the whining lips and closed eyes of the professional
+beggar. Observe the good manners of it all--the natural refinement of
+the artist who leaves his characters to make all the fun, without
+intrusion from himself other than to give the aid of his skill in
+representation. Now, subjects of this class will, in all probability,
+present themselves until the end of the world; but artists like this
+Gothic one are not so likely to be common. Great technical skill, a
+large fund of vitality, and many other controlling qualities are
+necessary to the production of such an artist; but he gives a clue to
+the right action, which we may with safety accept, even if we can not
+hope to equal his performance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.]
+
+The center-piece, Fig. 64, tells a little story of Samson. It is
+noticeable in these medieval picture subjects, how, when a story has to
+be told, the details are treated in a broad and distinct fashion, as if
+the story could take care of itself, and only required to be stated
+clearly as to facts. The detached ornamental parts, on the contrary,
+receive a degree of careful attention not given to the picture,
+seemingly with the object of making their loneliness attractive.
+
+The broad-humor characteristic of the companion picture of medieval
+life, in the little domestic scene, Fig. 65, is equally free from forced
+exaggeration or intentional misproportion. Scale and anatomy, to be
+sure, have had little consideration from the carver, but we readily
+forgive the inaccuracies in this respect, on account of his quick wit in
+devising means to an end.
+
+Before we leave this subject, look at Plate II, in which you will see a
+curious use of misproportion--intentional, too, in this case--and used
+for quite other than humorous purposes. This is a little ornamental
+figure from the tomb of Henry IV, in Canterbury Cathedral. You will see
+that the body is out of all proportion; too small for the head which
+surmounts it, or too big for the feet upon which it stands. Now, what
+could have induced the carver to treat a dainty little lady thus? It
+certainly was not that he considered it an improvement upon nature, nor
+was it a joke on his part. It could only be done for some practical
+reason such as this: that the little figure does part duty as a bracket,
+hence, more appearance of solidity is required at the top, and less at
+the foot, than true proportions would admit. It is all done so
+unostentatiously that one might look for hours at the figure without
+noticing the license. Not that I should advise you to imitate this
+naive way out of a difficulty. The childlike simplicity of its treatment
+succeeds where conscious effort would only end in affectation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.]
+
+In Fig. 66 you will see another little figure doing duty in connection
+with a stall division in the Lady Chapel at Winchester Cathedral. Its
+smooth roundness of form is very appropriate to the position it
+occupies; while its polished surface bears ample testimony that it has
+given no offense to the touch of the many hands which have rested upon
+it.
+
+Fig. 67 shows another example of the same sort, but perched on a lower
+part of the division. This one is from the cathedral at Berne, each
+division of the stalls having a different figure, of which this is a
+type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+STUDIES FROM NATURE--BIRDS AND BEASTS
+
+
+     The Introduction of Animal Forms--Rude Vitality Better than Dull
+     "Natural History"--"Action"--Difficulties of the Study for
+     Town-Bred Students--The Aid of Books and Photographs--Outline
+     Drawing and Suggestion of Main Masses--Sketch-Book Studies,
+     Sections, and Notes--Swiss Animal Carving--The Clay Model: its Use
+     and Abuse.
+
+
+Nothing enlivens or gives more variety of interest to wood-carving than
+the introduction of animal forms. They make agreeable halting-places on
+which the eye may rest with pleasure. They are, in general, both
+beautiful in their shapes and associated with ideas which appeal
+strongly to the imagination, thus affording in masses of abstract
+ornament the pleasantest kind of relief by adding to it points of
+definite lineament and meaning.
+
+To carve animals as they ought to be carved, one must have something
+more than a passing interest in their forms; there must be included also
+an understanding of their natures, and some acquaintance with their
+habits. A cattle-drover is likely to know the salient points of a
+bullock, a horse-breeder all those connected with a horse, and so on. We
+students, however, not having the advantage of such accurate and
+personal knowledge, must make shift in the best way we can to discover
+and note the points so familiar to trained eyes. To see animals in this
+way, and, with knowledge of their forms and habits, treat their
+sculptured images according to the laws of our craft, is no light task.
+If choice were to be made between a rude manner of carving--but which
+familiarity with the subject invested with lively recognition of
+character--and a more cultured and elaborate, but lifeless study in
+natural history, there should be no hesitation in making choice of the
+former method, because animal forms, without some indication of
+vitality, are the dullest of all dull ornaments.
+
+It is quite impossible to describe in words the kind of "action" which
+is most appropriate to sculpture, it being much more a question of
+treatment, and the guiding spirit of the moment, than a subject which
+can be formulated. As a broad and general principle which may be taken
+for guidance, you will always find yourself on surer ground in the
+attempt to indicate the _capacity_ for energy and the suggestion of
+_movement_, than you will if your aim is the extremity of action in any
+direction. You may, with some justice, point to the illustration given
+in Fig. 65, and which appears to contradict this statement, as being an
+example in which violent action is the key-note. You must notice,
+however, that the two figures, although struggling, are for the moment
+still, or may be supposed so. There is enough suggestion of this
+pause to excuse the attitudes and save the composition from
+restlessness--even the raised hands may be supposed to remain in the
+same position for a second or two. This imaginary pause, however
+infinitesimal, is essential to the dignity of the sculptor's art, as
+nothing is more irritating to the mind than being forced to recognize
+the contradiction between a motionless image and its suggestion of
+restless action. It is necessary to observe the same rule in the
+expression of actual repose, as some clue must be given, some completed
+action be suggested, in order to distinguish dormant energy from
+downright inertia. I should like to impress upon you the importance of
+making a special study of the characteristic movements of animals. You
+will in time become so far familiar with them that certain standards of
+comparison and contrast will be established in your mind as aids to
+memory. Thus you will be all the better able to carve with significance
+the measured and stately action of a horse, if you have in your mind's
+eye at the same time a picture of the more cumbrous and slower movements
+of a cow; and you will be helped in the same way when you are carving a
+dog, by remembering that the movements of a cat afford a striking
+contrast, in being stealthy where the other is nervous and quick.
+
+For the unfortunate town-bred student or artist, who has had few
+opportunities to study birds and beasts familiar to the country
+schoolboy, there is no other way but to make the best of stuffed birds,
+photographs, etc. Much may be done with these aids if a little personal
+acquaintance with their habits and associations is added like salt, to
+keep the second-hand knowledge sweet and wholesome.
+
+In the absence of opportunity for study from the life, no pictures of
+animals can compare in their usefulness to the carver with those by
+Bewick. They are so completely developed in essential details, so full
+of character and expressive of life, that even when personal
+acquaintance has been made with their various qualities, a glance at one
+of his engravings of birds or beasts conveys new meaning, either of
+gesture or attitude, to what we have previously learned. Every student
+who wishes to make a lively representation in carving of familiar beast
+or bird should study Bewick's engravings of "Quadrupeds" and "Birds."
+
+Drawings made for the purpose of study need not be elaborate: indeed,
+such drawings are only embarrassing to work from. The most practical
+plan is to make a drawing in which the main masses are given correctly,
+and in about the same relative position that they will occupy in the
+carving. I give you in Plate VII an example of this in a drawing made by
+Philip Webb, who, by the study of a lifetime, has amassed a valuable
+store of knowledge concerning animals, and acquired that extraordinary
+skill in their delineation and the expression of character which is only
+to be attained by close observation and great sympathy with the subject.
+The drawing in question was made for myself at the time I was carving a
+lion for the cover of a book (given in Plate VIII). It was made, in his
+good-natured way, to "help a lame dog over a stile," as I had got into
+difficulties with the form. This drawing is all that a carver's first
+diagram should be, and gives what is always the first necessity in such
+preliminary outlines--that is, the right relationship of the main
+masses, and the merest hint of what is to come in the way of detail; all
+of which must be studied separately, but which would be entirely
+useless if a wrong start had been made. In Fig. 68 I give you tracings
+from some notes I made myself while carving the sheep in Plates V and
+VI. The object was to gain some definite knowledge of form by noting the
+relation of planes, sections of parts, projections, etc., etc. The
+section lines and side-notes are the most valuable part of the
+memoranda. In the same manner the illustration, Fig. 69, shows diagrams
+made from a heron, giving section lines of beak, etc.
+
+The side-notes about the colors are valuable, as, although not
+translatable into carving, they do to some extent influence the manner
+of interpreting forms.
+
+Photographs must not be despised, but they are only of use if read by
+the light of previous knowledge. For this reason you can not make too
+many notes of sectional structure through heads, necks, and legs, which
+will help to explain the mystery common to all photographs.
+
+The bear shown in the frontispiece is traced from a photographic
+illustration which appeared in the Westminster Budget some time ago. By
+the merest accident it is suggestive of a subject almost ready for the
+carver's hand.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.]
+
+
+Until tourists began to explore the beauties of Switzerland, there were
+no better carvers of animals than the serious but genial craftsmen of
+that noble country, more especially of such animals as were familiar to
+their eyes. This preeminence shows distinct signs of soon becoming a
+thing of the past in the endeavors to meet the demands created by
+thoughtless visitors. Still, it is possible to obtain a little of the
+traditional work, uninfluenced by that fatal impetus originating in
+modern commerce. A piece of this kind is shown in Fig. 70, bought by a
+friend only a year or two ago in the Grindelwald, and which, although
+forming part of the usual stock of such things made for tourist
+consumption, was picked out with judicious discrimination from a number
+of stupid and trivial objects which displayed neither interest of design
+nor other than mechanical skill of carving. This little bear, a few
+inches in size, is carved in a way which shows long experience of the
+subject, and great familiarity with the animal's ways. The tooling of
+the hair is done with the most extraordinary skill, and without the
+waste of a single touch. Now, a word or two more on studies from the
+life before we leave this subject. I have given you examples of
+diagrams made for this purpose, but much may be done without any
+drawings, further than a preliminary map of the general masses. In the
+case of such an animal as the horse, which can be seen in every street,
+I have myself found it useful to follow them in my walks, taking mental
+note of such details as I happened to be engaged upon, such as its legs
+and joints, its head or neck; another day I would confine my attention
+to eyes, ears, mane, etc., always with reference to the work
+immediately in hand, as that is the time to get the best results from
+life study; because the difficulties have presented themselves, and one
+knows exactly what to look for. Five minutes spent thus after the work
+has been started (provided the start has been right and involves no
+mistake in the general masses) is more valuable than hours of labor in
+making preliminary drawings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+The use of experimental models in clay or wax has, of course, its
+advantages, but it will be well to know just how far such an aid is
+valuable, and at what point its use becomes hurtful to one's work. It is
+a common practise in large carving shops for one man to design the
+figure or animal subjects in clay, while another carves them in stone or
+wood. Now, apart from the difference in material and the unnatural
+"division of labor," which we have discussed before, it is beyond
+question that a model of this kind has even a more paralyzing effect on
+the actual carver than a drawing would have. Of course, the work is more
+certain to reach a recognized standard, and the risk of total failure is
+reduced to a minimum, but there is literally nothing left for the
+carver to invent; who, if he is a man with a turn for that kind of
+thing, and of a nervous temperament, must suffer untold irritation in
+its execution. The good and bad results of the use of a modeled pattern
+attend in a modified degree even where both are done by the same hand,
+but for all that it is a useful and convenient way of making experiments
+in doubtful passages of the work. The "how far" a model is to be carried
+must be regulated by the amount of confidence the carver has in his own
+foresight, but in any case it is always well to remember the difference
+of treatment required in plaster, clay, and hard wood, which lead to
+such different results that often fresh difficulty arises in having to
+translate the one manner into the other. For the purpose of roughing out
+the general scheme, the clay, if it must be resorted to, should be used
+in soft masses, then a drawing in outline made from this; but all
+doubtful detailed work should be carved, not modeled, and for this
+purpose the clay should be allowed to harden until it is nearly dry.
+
+The opinions of the well-known wood-carver, Mr. W. Aumonier, on this
+subject, will be of value to you; he says with regard to the best
+method of going to work: "A fresh piece of wood-carving executed without
+a model is distinctly a created work," and that much good work may come
+by "chopping boldly at a block without any preconceived design, but
+designing as you go on." But he thinks it is best to work from drawings;
+"rough, full-size charcoal cartoons, which give the effect wanted by
+their light and shade." He also says that he "strongly protests against
+the too frequent use of clay or plaster models, because they are often
+worse than useless, and not infrequently absolutely immoral in their
+tendency, because they absorb time and money, which ought more
+legitimately to be spent on the carving itself."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+FORESHORTENING AS APPLIED TO WORK IN RELIEF
+
+
+     Intelligible Background Outline Better than Confused
+     Foreshortening--Superposition of Masses.
+
+
+I have spoken of the necessity for careful balance between the outlines
+of subject and background: that both should be agreeable in shape. This
+becomes complicated and more difficult to arrange when we admit into our
+design anything resembling what painters call foreshortening, and the
+awkwardness is felt even in the placing of such a small thing as an
+apple-leaf, which may be treated in such a way that the intention of the
+drawing is entirely lost in the confusion which arises between the
+inferred and the actual projection.
+
+In designing such subjects it will be good to bear in mind as a guiding
+principle that no matter what excuse there may be in the nature of the
+inferred position of the leaf or limb, the outline against the
+background must be at once agreeable and explanatory.
+
+Every kind of work in relief develops a species of compromise in the
+expression of form, lying somewhere between the representation of an
+object on a perfectly flat ground, as in a painting, and the complete
+realization of the same form, copied from nature in some solid material,
+without any background whatever. In proportion to the amount of actual
+projection from the background, of course the necessity diminishes for
+that kind of foreshortening which is obtained by delineation. It might
+be inferred, therefore, that in very low relief--which is more nearly
+akin to the nature of a picture--more liberty may be taken in this
+direction. It is not so, however, for where actual depth or projection
+exists, as in carving, be it only so much as the depth of a line, it
+makes foreshortening well-nigh impossible, except to a very limited
+extent. There must be, of course, _some_ appearance of this quality, so
+a certain conventional standard has been set up, beyond which one only
+ventures at one's own risk. Thus, care is taken that every object
+composing the subject lies with its _longest lines_ parallel to the
+background. In this way the least possible violence is done to the
+imagination in completing the picture. As an example, no single leaf
+should be represented in relief as turning or coming forward more than
+it would do if plucked from the tree and laid loosely down upon a sheet
+of paper. A, Fig. 71, is an outline of an apple-leaf pressed out flat. B
+is an attempt to present it in violent foreshortening, showing its back
+to the spectator, while its point is supposed to be buried in the
+background. C is the same leaf turned the other way, and supposed to be
+projecting forward; both are exceedingly awkward and unintelligible as
+mere outlines, and if expressed in relief would not be any more
+convincing as portraits of the thing intended--rather less so, in fact,
+than the diagram, which has no projection to interfere with the drawing.
+So we must turn our leaf until it presents its long side more or less to
+the spectator, as in D; but even here part of the edge is so thin at _a_
+that it will be better to turn it a little farther, as in E, showing
+more of its surface, as at _b_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.]
+
+Again, if we take as another example two apples, one partly covering the
+other, as in _a_, Fig. 72, where one apple is supposed to be behind the
+other, and so implies distance. There is no means of expressing this
+distance in carving. Lowering the surface of the hindmost apple would
+merely throw out the balance of masses without giving a satisfactory
+explanation of its position, while to cut a deep groove between the two
+would be an equally unsightly expedient. The difficulty should, whenever
+it is possible, be avoided by partially separating the two forms, as in
+_b_, where the center of the hindmost apple clears the outline of the
+other; thus making it possible to get a division without awkwardness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.]
+
+A good expedient, where leaf or scroll forms are to be carved, and when
+very truthful drawing is necessary to explain their convolutions, is
+that adopted by Professor Lethaby at the Royal College of Art. It
+consists in cutting the leaf out of a piece of stiffish paper, and with
+a knife or pen-handle curling it into the required form. The main lines
+will thus be seen in true relation to one another, and all the
+distortion avoided which arises from disconnection of parts; not only
+that, but it is a useful aid to the invention, as much variety can be
+hinted at by a skilful manipulation in curling its lobes. Fig. 73 was
+drawn from a paper model of this kind. Of course, it is quite without
+the necessary veins or minor articulations, but is useful as a
+suggestion of main lines. With regard to subjects containing figures of
+men or animals, the same principle governs the placing of the whole body
+in the first instance, then of the different members, so that heads,
+arms, and legs take up a position as nearly as may be with a piece of
+background all to themselves. Thus, no two bodies should be
+super-imposed if it can be in any way avoided. (I am speaking now of
+moderate and low relief, although even in high relief the best masters
+have always respected the principle.) The temptation to imitate effects
+of foreshortening for its own sake is not without some excuse, as it is
+quite possible to make presentable pictures in this way. A horse, for
+instance, may be carved in low relief, presenting either its head or
+hindquarters to the spectator, and yet not look absolutely absurd.
+Again, a front face may be carved in the same way, notwithstanding the
+difficulty presented by the projection of the nose. Neither of these
+experiments can ever be said to prove entirely successful. It is not so
+much that they are either difficult or impossible, as that a more
+suitable method, one more natural to the technique of the carver, is
+being neglected, and its many good qualities sacrificed for sake of an
+effect which can never be fully realized in sculpture. To so dispose the
+various masses, great and small, that they fall easily into groups, each
+having some relation to, and share of the background, is a true carver's
+artifice. A skilful use of this arrangement makes it quite unnecessary
+to encroach upon the domain of another art in the imitation of an
+effect which may be successfully rendered with the pencil, but only so
+to a very limited extent with the carving tools.
+
+You have all seen the actors, when called before the curtain at the
+close of the play, how they pass before it one by one, and perhaps
+joining hands make their bows _in line_, to all appearance, on a very
+narrow platform. The curtain is your background, while the footlights
+may stand for the surface of your wood. In illustration of this
+principle, let me call your attention to the arrangement of the animals
+in Plate VI, where economy of space, and a desire to display each detail
+to advantage, are the leading motives. I give it as the readiest example
+to hand, and because it fairly illustrates the principle in question.
+You must excuse the apparent vanity in making choice of one of my own
+works to exemplify a canon of art. The sheep at the top is supposed to
+be scampering over rocks; the ram below may be any distance from the
+sheep that you choose to imagine--the only indication of relative
+position is _separation_, by means of a ridge that may pass for a rock.
+The head of the ram is somewhat foreshortened, but there was enough
+thickness of wood contained in the big mass of the body to allow of
+this being done in the smaller mass of the head, without leaving too
+much to be supposed. The heads of the sheep in the fold have been as
+closely packed as was consistent with showing as much of each as
+possible, as it was considered better to give the whole head and no body
+than to show only a part of both: most of the bodies, therefore, are
+supposed to be hidden behind the wall, only one showing in part.
+
+It is a general axiom of the craft, that every mass (be it body or leaf)
+must be made as complete in itself as the circumstances will allow; but,
+if partly hidden, the concealment should be wilful, and without
+ambiguity. Thus, a dog's head may be rightly carved as being partly
+hidden in a bucket, but ought not to be covered by another head if it is
+possible to avoid it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+UNDERCUTTING AND "BUILT-UP" WORK
+
+
+     Undercutting as a Means and as an End; its Use and
+     Abuse--"Built-up" Work--"Planted" Work--"Pierced" Work.
+
+
+By undercutting is meant the cutting away of the solid portions of
+projections in such a manner as to make them invisible, thus throwing
+the carved surface work into more complete relief by detaching it from
+the background. This device has often been carried so far, where the
+projection was sufficient, that entire groups of figures and foliage
+have been practically detached from the background, like pieces of
+separate sculpture carved all round. This desire for completeness of
+relief was more or less a departure from the orthodox aims of the
+carvers' craft, and led ultimately to what is known as "built-up"
+work--that is to say, work in which the projecting parts were composed
+of many different pieces of wood, each carved separately, and afterward
+glued or pinned together to form the composition. Many of the most
+elaborate carvings by Grinling Gibbons are of this kind; they have a
+charm of their own, but it is one of quite separate interest, and
+belongs to a category entirely removed from the art of carving objects
+in a solid piece of wood. Apart from this distinction, the difficulty of
+the method requires the most accomplished mechanical skill and a highly
+trained eye to either carve or compose such work in a way to command
+respect. I shall therefore dismiss this branch of the subject as being
+outside of our present limits.
+
+Undercutting, on the other hand, is an expedient distinctly
+characteristic of solid wood-carving, and some experiments ought to be
+made by you in designing work in which it can be used. It may be either
+partial or complete--complete, of course, only up to a point; that is to
+say, the connection with the background must in every case be not only
+maintained but visibly demonstrated. Partial undercutting applies to
+such portions as the sides of leaves, the receding parts of heads,
+wings, etc., where the wood between the object and its background is cut
+away on an inward bend, either completing the projecting form, as in
+the case of a head, or merely to hide the superfluous wood in the case
+of a leaf. All this presupposes a certain amount of elevation in the
+relief; indeed, it is only in such cases that the process is necessary
+or can be carried out. The use of undercutting of this kind is like
+every other technical process, liable to abuse through too much being
+made of its effects. Fortunately the time it consumes is a safeguard
+against any tendency to run riot in this direction. The point at which
+it should in all cases stop, and that relentlessly, is where it begins
+to cause a separation between any entire mass of ornament and its
+background. If _portions_ are thus relieved almost to complete
+detachment, but visibly reconnect themselves in another place, a certain
+piquancy is gained which adds charm without destroying character. A
+curious use is made of undercutting in the bunch of leaves given in
+Plate XI from a Miserere seat in Winchester Cathedral; it may be said to
+be completely undercut in so far that the whole bunch is hollowed out
+under the surface, leaving from 1/4 to 1/2 in. thickness of wood, in
+which the leaves are carved, so that you may put your finger in at one
+hole and see it at the bottom of another. The only end all this extra
+labor seems to have attained is that of changefulness in the shadows of
+the holes between the leaves, in which one sees dark rims with light at
+the bottom, a condition which certainly adds a mysterious lightness to
+the whole mass. It is a very refined and appropriate use of
+undercutting, but would only be possible where time could be spent to
+secure a variant of such epicurean delicacy, as all the superfluous wood
+must be taken out through the spaces between the leaves, and in this
+case they are not overlarge for that purpose.
+
+Work which has its background entirely cut away, and which is afterward
+glued or "planted" on a fresh background to save labor, can not be
+called "undercut"; this method has generally a cheap look, as it is used
+with the object of saving time and expense. Carving which is treated in
+this way, but instead of being "planted" close to the background, is
+fixed at a little distance from it (as is the case with the lace-like
+designs fitted into the hollow moldings of fifteenth-century
+choir-screens), is of quite a different order, although even in this
+case it can not be strictly described as undercut: it is more nearly
+akin to pierced fretwork. It has, however, all the general effect of
+undercut work, and is the only possible way of obtaining this effect in
+wood where a large quantity of such ornament is required. The face of
+such carving is generally a little convex, while the back is hollowed
+out to give an equal thickness of section. The ornaments in Figs. 75,
+76, and 77 are of this description, and are calculated to give great
+play of light and shade, and be seen well at a considerable distance.
+
+Undercutting in the strict and more laborious sense must be reserved for
+occasions where the labor is repaid by the additional charm. It must be
+considered in the light of a _tour de force_, which, on account of its
+cost in the matter of time, should only be used under exceptional
+circumstances, care being taken to make it clear that it is _an
+exception_ to the general rule of solid carving on a solid background.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+PICTURE SUBJECTS AND PERSPECTIVE
+
+
+     The Limitations of an Art not Safely Transgressed--Aerial
+     Perspective Impossible in Relief--Linear Perspective only Possible
+     in a Limited Way.
+
+
+Those vague and shadowy boundaries which separate the domains of the
+different arts are being perpetually called in question. By what
+landmarks such indefinite frontiers may be distinguished, and how far
+they may be extended or transgressed, will always be a matter of
+dispute. Excursions of conquest are continually being made, and
+conspicuous among these, one which animates the hopes of many sculptors
+and modelers. Its aim is the appropriation of those charms which are the
+peculiar property of the graphic arts, more especially their power of
+expressing the effects of distance by means of linear and aerial
+perspective.
+
+The background of a piece of carving is so obviously solid and
+impenetrable that any attempt to imitate an appearance of distance is
+sure to defeat its own ends, the loss being greater than the gain. If
+there are limits to be observed in the foreshortening of a single leaf,
+how much more must they apply to the representation of whole landscapes?
+Properly speaking, there is no _distance_ available in the carver's art;
+its whole interest lies near the surface, and in the direct rays of the
+light which illuminates it. There is even a distinct pleasure to be
+derived from the sense that it is all carved out of a block of such and
+such thickness, pointing to the reasonable conclusion that this
+thickness should never be lost sight of, the carving ever and anon
+returning to the surface as a measure of music does to its key-note.
+This is exemplified in all the great works of antiquity, among which the
+Parthenon frieze may be quoted as evidence. On the other hand, all
+pictorial sculpture, such as carved landscapes with figures diminishing
+both in scale and projection, necessarily fail to uphold this sense of
+solidity, as there must occur large spaces which are hollowed out far
+below the surface to give another plane on which to carve the more
+distant objects in low relief, in the vain hope of making them appear to
+recede. Work in which perspective of this kind is used must be viewed
+as nearly as possible from the point of vision produced by its
+vanishing-lines; this point is intelligible enough in the case of a
+painting, but when it comes to be carved into relief, if it happens to
+be seen from any other point of view, it necessarily looks all wrong,
+because every part is thrown into false relationship.
+
+All this, of course, forms no argument against the use of explanatory
+landscapes with trees, buildings, etc. It only means that all such
+features must be treated in a way entirely different to that adopted by
+the painter--that is to say, in detached groups, each having some due
+relation to the original surface of the wood, and only very little to
+their perspective positions. In Fig. 74 are two diagrams of a landscape
+composition. The one is appropriate to a painted picture and the other
+to carving; both have pretty nearly the same number of features, except
+that in the carving there is no _effect_ of distance attempted, whereas
+in the painting everything leads to this one particular distinction. The
+road goes _into_ the picture, the bridge is seen end on, the house and
+mill are diminished in size, and the horizon is strongly enforced by a
+shadow echoed in the sky. The carving looks ridiculous beside the
+painting, but it is a severe test, as it is not a subject which should
+be carved at all in that condensed way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+ARCHITECTURAL CARVING
+
+
+     The Necessity for Variety in Study--A Carver's View of the Study of
+     Architecture; Inseparable from a Study of his own Craft--Importance
+     of the Carpenter's Stimulating Influence upon the
+     Carver--Carpenter's Imitation of Stone Construction Carried too
+     Far.
+
+
+That the study of wood-carving should be confined to the narrow field of
+its own performances would be the surest way to bring contempt upon an
+art which already offers too many temptations for the easy embodiment of
+puerile motives. Such a limited range would exclude all the stimulating
+lessons to be derived from the many other kinds of carving and
+sculpture; forgetful that they are, after all, but different forms of
+the same art, differing only in technique and application. It would take
+no note of the stately sculptures of Greece--the fountain-head of all
+that is technically and artistically perfect in expression of form--or
+of the splendor of imagination displayed in the ivories of Italy. Many
+another source of inspiring impetus would be neglected, including the
+greatest of all, the influence of architecture, and through it, the
+dignified association or the carver's art with all that is noble in the
+life of mankind.
+
+The dry and uninviting aspect which a serious study of architecture
+presents to some minds is such that it is too often avoided as both
+useless and wearisome. Much of this diffidence is due to a misconception
+of the aims which should govern the student of decorative design in
+making an acquaintance with its principles. The study should not be
+looked upon as pertaining exclusively to the functions of an architect,
+nor as having only an accidental connection with particular crafts. It
+must be remembered that in the old days mason and carpenter were both
+craftsmen and architects, and the sculptor and wood-carver had an equal
+share in creating every feature which gives any distinction of style to
+the buildings that were the outcome of their united efforts. So,
+instead of looking upon the subject as only a study of dates for the
+antiquary, and rules of construction for the architect, the carver
+should take his own view, and regard architecture for the time being as
+what in some sense it really is: a very large kind of carving, which
+includes and gives reason for his own particular branch. The importance
+of the subject is proved by the experience of centuries; history showing
+plainly how the two arts grew in strength and beauty only when closely
+associated, and shared each other's fate in proportion to their
+estrangement.
+
+In this place I can say but very little upon such a vast subject; all I
+can do is to call your attention to one or two examples of carved work
+combined with structural carpentry, in order that you may see for
+yourselves what a power of effect lies in that union, and how by
+contrast it enhances the value and interest of both. I do this in the
+hope that it may possibly lead you to a more complete study of
+architecture, for which there is no lack of opportunity in books and
+museums, but more especially in what remains of the old buildings
+themselves, with which a familiar and personal acquaintance will be
+much better than a theoretical or second-hand one.
+
+No carver with a healthy ambition can long continue to make designs and
+produce them in wood without feeling intensely the want of some
+architectural occasion for his efforts. Had he only a barge-board to
+carve, or the canopy of a porch, it would be such a relief to turn to
+its large and general treatment after a course of the panels and
+ornaments peculiar to domestic furniture. Look, for instance, at the
+carved beams of the aisle roof in Mildenhall Church given in Plate III,
+and think what a fund of powerful suggestion lay in the bare timbers
+before they were embellished by the carver with lion, dragon, and
+knight. Even the carpenter became inspired with a desire to make
+something ornamental of his own department, and has shaped and carved
+(literally carved) his timbers into graceful moldings. Then, again, in
+the roof of Sall Church, Norfolk, shown in Plate IV, you have a noble
+piece of carpentry which is as much the work of an artist as the carved
+figures and tracery which adorn it--indeed it is all just as truly
+carved work as those figures, being chopped out of the solid oak with
+larger tools, ax and adze, so that one knows not which to admire most,
+carved angels or carved carpentry.
+
+Plates XI and XII are details of the carvings which fill the spandrels
+of arch and gable in the choir stalls and screen at Winchester
+Cathedral. There are a great many of these panels similar in character
+but differing in design, some having figures, birds, or dragons worked
+among the foliage. They are comparatively shallow in relief, and this
+appears less than it really is owing to the fact that many parts of the
+carving dip down almost to the background, giving definite but not deep
+shadows. The main intention seems to have been to allow only enough
+shadow to secure the pattern, and then to emphasize this by means of a
+multitude of little _illuminated_ masses. The leading lines run through
+the pattern as continuously as possible, but the surface of the leafage
+is divided up into numbers of little hills and hollows. The sides of
+these prominences catch and reflect light more readily than they produce
+shadow, so that it is possible to trace the pattern at a considerable
+distance by means of the lights alone. Unfortunately for all believers
+in the historical evidence of ancient handicrafts, this work was
+overhauled some half century ago, and in parts "_restored_." The old
+work has been imitated in the new with surprising cleverness, but for
+that, no one who has a clear sense of the true function of the carver's
+art, or of the historical value of its witness to past modes of life,
+will thank those who carried out the "restoration," so confusing is it
+to be unable to distinguish at a glance the old from the new, so
+depressing to find such laborious efforts wasted in pleasing a childish
+desire for uniformity of treatment when it could only be achieved at the
+cost of deception, and, I may add, so irritating to find oneself for a
+moment deceived into accepting one of the "restored" parts as genuine
+old work. To add to the deception, the whole of the old woodwork, as
+well as the new, was smeared over with a black stain in order the better
+to hide the difference of color in old and new wood, thus forever
+destroying its soft and natural color, as well as the texture of its
+surface, so dear to the wood-carver.
+
+The fifteenth century in England was a period of great activity among
+wood-carvers, and many beautiful choir-screens were added about this
+time to the existing churches, all in the traditional Gothic manner, as
+the Renaissance influence was a full century at work in other countries
+before its power began seriously to affect the national style. The West
+of England (Somerset and Devon in particular) is rich in the remains of
+this late Gothic carving, some details of which are shown in the
+accompanying illustrations, Figs. 75, 76, 77.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.]
+
+As a general rule the supporting carpentry of these screens bears a
+strong resemblance to stonework; so imitative is it in treatment, that
+it is only by the texture of the wood and its lightness of construction
+that the distinction is made evident. Now a certain degree of modified
+imitation, where one craft models its forms of design upon those of
+another, using a different material, as in the case of woodwork
+imitations of arches, tracery, etc., is not only legitimate, but very
+pleasing in its results. To attain this end, the carpenter need only be
+true to his own ideals--there is no occasion to abandon the methods of
+his own craft in order to copy the construction which is peculiar to
+another. The resources of carpentry offer an infinite field for the
+invention of new and characteristic forms, and these may be made all the
+more attractive if they show, to some extent, the influence of an
+associated craft, but never fail to become wearisome if essential
+character has been sacrificed for the sake of an ingenious imitation.
+The structural parts of some of these screens are composed of elaborate
+imitations of stone vaulting and tracery, so closely copied as to be
+almost deceiving, therefore they can not be taken as good examples of
+suggestive opportunity for the wood-carver.
+
+The carved work, on the other hand, is marked by a strong craft
+character, essentially _woody_ both in design and execution. The
+illustrations referred to are typical examples of this kind of work,
+and, although the execution can not be indicated, they at least give the
+disposition of parts, and some idea of the contrast obtained by the use
+of alternate bands of ornament differing in scale, or, as in some cases,
+the agreeable monotony produced by a repetition of almost similar
+designs, varied slightly in execution.
+
+Another prominent feature of church woodwork, which developed about this
+time into magnificent proportions, was the font cover and canopy. Many
+of these were, however, more like glorifications of the carpenter's
+genius for construction than examples of the carver's art, as they were
+composed of a multitude of tiny pinnacles and niches, the carver's work
+being confined to a repetition of endless crockets, tracery, and
+separate figures or groups. However, in Plate XIII an example is given
+of what they could do when working together on a more equal footing;
+although much mutilated, enough remains to show how the one craft gains
+by being associated with the other in a wholesome spirit of rivalry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SURFACE FINISH--TEXTURE
+
+
+     Tool Marks, the Importance of their Direction--The Woody Texture
+     Dependent upon Clearness of Cutting and Sympathetic Handling.
+
+
+The term "texture" is sometimes applied to the quality of finish which
+is characteristic of good carving; it has a somewhat misleading sound,
+which seems to suggest that the final treatment of the surface is the
+work of a separate operation. However, it is a right enough word, as the
+texture which wood-carvers aim at is that of the wood in which they are
+carving. One might naturally think that this texture must necessarily
+appear when the work was finished, but that is not the case, as it is
+only rescued by the most skilful use of the tools, and easily disappears
+under the mismanagement of clumsy or unsympathetic hands.
+
+Texture in carving is in some respects on a parallel with tone in
+painting--it depends upon a right relation of many qualities. As in the
+painting good tone is the outcome of the combined effects of truth in
+color and a right balance of what are called the "values," together with
+decision in the handling of the brush, so in carving, texture depends
+upon, first, having a clear idea of what is being carved, and making it
+clear to others; that if it be round, hollow, or flat, it must be so
+indeed; that edges and sharpnesses be really where they were intended to
+be, and not lost in woolly confusion. Then again, as with the painter's
+brush, the tool must be moved by a hand which adapts itself to every
+changing plane, to all manner of curves and contours, with touches
+sometimes delicate and deliberate, at others broad and sweeping, or
+even, at times, brought down with the weight and force of an ax-blow.
+
+A good quality of finish may exist in the most divergent kinds of work,
+each having its own characteristic texture. Thus a broad treatment on a
+large scale will make much of the natural texture of the wood, enforcing
+it by crisp edges and subtle little ridges which catch the light and
+recall the momentary passage of the sharp tool, while elaborate work in
+low relief may have a delicate texture which partly imitates that of the
+details of its subject, and partly displays the nature of the wood. In
+either case, the texture must be consciously aimed at by the carver as
+the last but by no means least quality which is to give vitality to the
+work of his hands. A sense of the capabilities of his wood in this
+respect is one of the best aids to the carver, as it reacts on his sense
+of form and compels him to precision.
+
+Manual dexterity alone may succeed in making its work clearly
+intelligible, but that is all, and it generally leaves a surface in
+which there is little indication of any feeling for the material in
+which the work is carved, nothing, in fact, that marks it specially as
+carving in wood, or distinguishes it from a casting in metal.
+
+The technical operation which is most immediately answerable for the
+making or marring of texture is the disposition and nature of the final
+tool marks. These should be so managed that they help the eye to
+understand the forms. They should explain rather than confuse the
+contours of the surface. Just as in a good chalk drawing the strokes and
+cross-hatchings are put in with method, and if well done produce the
+effect of something solid, so in carving, the tool marks should
+emphasize the drawing without in any way calling attention to
+themselves.
+
+It is quite impossible to explain in words that will not be open to
+misconstruction the subtle commingling of qualities which make all the
+difference between good and bad texture. We may succeed better by
+describing those conditions which are unfavorable to it. Thus work which
+is very much cut up into minute detail, and which lacks a proper
+contrast of surface, or, for the same reason, work which is too
+generally bald and smooth, rarely exhibit a good surface texture. Again,
+work which is overlabored, or where delicate details have been attempted
+on a coarse-grained wood, or finally, work which, although done with
+success in the matter of mechanical dexterity, is deficient in feeling
+for its woody possibilities, are all likely to fail in the matter of
+texture.
+
+Punch-marked backgrounds have undoubtedly a legitimate place among the
+expedients of the carver for obtaining contrast, but on the whole, as
+such, they are of a somewhat meretricious order, and in almost every
+case their use is fatal to the charm of fine texture, as this always
+depends on an appreciation of the homogeneous connection of carving and
+background. If they are used at all they should be made to form patterns
+on the background, and not put down promiscuously. Little gouge marks
+are still better, as they are not so mechanical.
+
+I shall conclude this part of my subject with a quotation from the words
+of Mr. W. Aumonier, in a lecture delivered at the Royal Institute of
+British Architects.
+
+"_All carving to be treated according to the position it is to occupy._
+Not only the design, but the actual carving itself, should be considered
+with a view to the position it is to take and the light it will receive.
+Thus, even if quite close to the eye, where, of course, its position
+warrants or demands a certain amount of finish, it must be remembered
+that real finish rather means perfection of form than smoothness of
+surface, so that even there it should still show its cuts and its tool
+marks fearlessly, and be deepened in parts to make it tell its proper
+tale in the combined scheme of decoration; while if it is going a great
+height or distance from the eye it should be left as rough as ever you
+can leave it. The only points that have to be regarded are the outlines,
+varieties of planes, and depths, and if these be properly considered
+everything else will take care of itself, and then the whole work can
+not be left too rough. Its very roughness and choppy cuts will give it a
+softness and quality when in its place that no amount of smoothing or
+high finish can possibly attain to."
+
+Beware of putting a wrong interpretation upon the word "rough"--refer to
+what he says of the points to be regarded, i.e., the "varieties of
+planes, and depths." If they are right the "roughness" is not likely to
+be of the offensive kind.
+
+Nothing so effectually destroys the quality of texture as polish applied
+to carving. If furniture _must_ be polished it should not be carved. The
+only polish that improves carving is that which comes of use. On hard
+woods, such as oak or Italian walnut, the pressure of the tools leaves a
+pleasant polish, which is all that is necessary; the _most_ that should
+be allowed may be given by a little burnishing with the handle of the
+tool.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+CRAFT SCHOOLS, PAST AND PRESENT
+
+
+     The Country Craftsman of Old Times--A Colony of Craftsmen in Busy
+     Intercourse--The Modern Craftsman's Difficulties: Embarrassing
+     Variety of Choice.
+
+
+The present revival of interest in the arts, especially with regard to
+those of a decorative kind, is based on the recently awakened esthetic
+desires of a small section of the general public, who owe their activity
+in this direction to the influence of men like John Ruskin and William
+Morris. The first of these, by his magic insight, discerned the true
+source of vitality which lay in the traditions of medieval workmanship,
+i.e., their intensely _human_ character and origin. His fiery words
+compelled attention, and awakened a new enthusiasm for all that betokens
+the direct and inspiring influence of nature. They raised the hope that
+this passion might in some way provide a clue to the recovery of a
+fitting form of expression.
+
+William Morris, with no less power as a craftsman, was the first to
+give practical embodiment to this newly awakened impulse by a modified
+return to the older methods of production. His rare knowledge of
+medieval history, and manly sympathy with all that is generous in modern
+life, made it impossible for him to become a superficial imitator. His
+work is an example of what may be achieved by a union of high artistic
+instincts with a clear understanding of the conditions of modern life.
+
+Cheering as is the present activity in its encouragement of endeavor,
+the difficulties of establishing anything like an efficient system of
+education for the artist, more especially the sculptor, or carver
+artist, is only being gradually realized. The difficulties are not so
+much academic as practical. It is less a question of where to study than
+one of knowing what direction those studies should take. Before any
+genuine development in the art can be looked for, continuity of effort
+must be established, and that in a single direction, undisturbed as it
+is at present by differences of public taste.
+
+Opportunities for study are now afforded to an extent never before
+dreamed of: in books and schools, and in museums; but division of
+opinion mars the authority of the two first, while the last is
+confessedly but a kind of catalogue, which may only be read with profit
+by the light of considerable experience.
+
+A certain amount of success has undoubtedly attended the progress of the
+new system, but it must always be more or less at a disadvantage;
+firstly, by reason of its divided aims; secondly, because the system is
+more theoretic than practical, and is often based on the false
+assumption that "design" may be learned without attaining a mastery over
+technique, and _vice versa_.
+
+Until students become disillusioned on this latter point, and are at the
+same time permitted to follow their natural bent with as little
+interference as possible from the exigencies of public taste, uniformity
+of aim will be impossible, and consequently the system must remain
+artificial. It can never, under any circumstances, entirely replace that
+more natural one adopted by our ancestors. How can its methods compare
+for a moment with the spontaneous and hearty interest that guided the
+tools of those more happily placed craftsmen, whose subjects lay around
+them, of daily familiarity; whose artistic language was ready to hand
+and without confusion, affording an endless variety of expression to
+every new and individual fancy. Many of these craftsmen were, owing to
+their invigorating surroundings, gifted with a high poetic feeling for
+their art--a quality which gives to their work a transcendent value that
+no learning or manual cleverness could supply. They acquired their
+technical knowledge in genial connection with equally gifted members of
+other crafts, and in consequence expressed themselves with corresponding
+and justly proportioned skill in execution.
+
+Conditions that can not be altered must be endured while they last, but
+the first step toward their improvement must be made in gaining a
+knowledge of the facts as they are. This will be the surest foundation
+upon which to build all individual effort in the future.
+
+Who that has felt the embarrassing doubts and contradictory impulses,
+peculiar to modern study, can have failed to look disconsolately away
+from his own surroundings to those far-off times when craft knowledge
+was acquired under circumstances calculated to awaken the brightest
+instincts of the artist? The imaginary picture calls up the ancient
+carver at his bench, cheerfully blocking out images of leaves and
+animals in his busy workshop, surrounded with the sights and sounds of
+country life. His open door frames a picture of the village street,
+alive with scenes of neighborly interest. From the mill-wheel comes a
+monotonous music making pleasant cadence to his own woody notes, or the
+blacksmith's hammer rings his cheery counterpart in their companionable
+duet.
+
+Short as is the distance between workshop and home, it provides a world
+of beauty and incident; suggesting to his inventive mind the subjects
+suitable for his work. Birds, beasts, and flowers are as familiar to him
+as the tools with which he works, or the scent and touch of the solid
+oak he handles daily. There, among the aromatic chips, he spends the
+long working hours of a summer day; varied by the occasional visits of a
+rather exacting Father from the neighboring monastery; or perhaps some
+idle and gossiping acquaintance who looks in to hold a long parley with
+his hand upon the latch. Or it may be that the mind turns to another
+carver, at work in one of the many large colonies of craftsmen which
+sprang up amid the forest of scaffolding surrounding the slow and
+mysterious growth of some noble cathedral. Here all is organized
+activity--the best men to be found in the country have been banded
+together and commissioned to do their best, for what seems, in modern
+eyes, a ridiculously small rate of pay. Some are well known and
+recommended; others, as traveling artists, are seeking change of
+experience and daily bread. Foreigners are here, from France, Italy, and
+the East. All have been placed under the direction of competent masters
+of their craft; men who have long since served their apprenticeship to
+its mysteries, and earned an honorable position in its gilds.
+
+Here the carver works in an atmosphere of exhilarating emulation.
+Stone-carver and wood-carver vie with each other in producing work that
+will do credit to their respective brotherhoods. Painter and decorator
+are busy giving to the work of their hands what must have appeared to
+those concerned an aspect of heavenly beauty; the most precious
+materials not being considered too costly for use in its adornment.
+
+What an interchange of artistic experience!--interchange between those
+of similar craft from different countries, and the stimulating or
+refining influence of one craft upon another--sculptors, goldsmiths,
+wood-carvers, and painters, all uniting in a sympathetic agreement to do
+their utmost for the high authorities who brought them together; with a
+common feeling of reverence, alike for the religious traditions which
+formed the motives of their work and the representatives of that
+religion in the persons of their employers.
+
+What an endless variety of interruptions must have been common! all of a
+kind eminently calculated to stimulate the imagination. Municipal
+functions, religious festivals with their splendid gatherings and
+processions, the exciting events of political contest, often carried to
+the point of actual combat, to say nothing of the frequent Saint's day
+holidays, enjoyed by the craftsman in jovial social intercourse. All and
+every scene clothed in an outward dress of beauty, ranging from the
+picturesque roughness of the village inn to the magnificent pageantry of
+a nobleman's display, or the majestic surroundings of an archi-episcopal
+reception.
+
+From dreams of the past with its many-sided life and background of
+serious beauty, we turn with feelings almost bordering on despair to the
+possibilities of the present. Not only has the modern craftsman to
+master the technicalities of his business, but he must become student as
+well. No universally accepted form of his art offers him a ready-made
+language; he is left fatally free to choose style, period, or
+nationality, from examples of every conceivable kind of carving, in
+museums, photographs, and buildings. As proud but distracted heir to
+all, he may cultivate any one of them, from Chinese to the latest style
+of exhibition art. For his studies he must travel half a dozen miles
+before he can reach fields, trees, and animals in anything like
+inspiring conditions. He must find in books and photographs the
+botanical lineaments of foliage and flowers, of which he mainly seeks to
+know the wild life and free growth. With but one short life allowed him
+in which to make his poor effort in a single direction, he must yet
+study the history of his craft, compare styles, and endeavor with all
+the help he can get to shape some course for himself. Can he be assured
+of selecting the right one, or out of the multitude of counselors and
+contradictory views, is there not a danger of taking a false step? No
+wonder, if in the cloudy obscurity of his doubts, he sometimes feels a
+tired desire to abandon the problem as too intricate to be resolved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+ON THE IMPORTANCE OF COOPERATION BETWEEN BUILDER AND CARVER
+
+
+     The Infinite Multiplicity of Styles--The "Gothic" Influence:
+     Sculpture an Integral Element in its Designs--The Approach of the
+     so-called "Renaissance" Period--Disturbed Convictions--The Revival
+     of the Classical Style--The Two Styles in Conflict for a Time;
+     their Respective Characteristics Reviewed--Carvers Become Dependent
+     upon Architects and Painters--The "Revival" Separates "Designer"
+     and "Executant."
+
+
+The prevailing architectural fashion of a time or country, known as its
+style, has generally been determined by the influence of more advanced
+nations on those of a ruder constitution; each modifying the imported
+style to suit its own climatic and social conditions, and imbuing it
+with its own individual temperament. The foreign idea was thus developed
+into a distinct and national style, which in its turn bore fruit, and
+was passed on as an initiative for other nations and new styles. The
+current of this influence, generally speaking, trended from east to west
+as though following the course of the sun, upon whose light it depended
+for the illumination of its beauties.
+
+There are so many styles of architecture, and consequently of carving,
+both in wood and other materials, that a history of such a subject would
+be a life study in itself, and be quite barren of results except those
+of a professional kind. It would include the characteristics of carvings
+from every country under the sun, from the earliest times known.
+Engravings on boars' tusks found in prehistoric caves, carvings on South
+Sea Island canoe paddles, Peruvian monstrosities of terror, the refined
+barbarity of India and China, the enduring and monumental efforts of
+Egyptian art, and a hundred others, down to times and countries more
+within reach. In fact, it would only be another name for a history of
+mankind from the beginning of the world.
+
+Nothing could be better for the student's purpose than to begin his
+studies of history at that point where the first indication of the
+Gothic or medieval period of architecture makes its appearance. For it
+was from this great and revolutionary change in the manner of building
+that all the subsequent variety of style in carving as well as building
+in medieval Europe took its origin. The first rudiments of the great
+school of art, which has been broadly classified as having a "Gothic"
+origin, began to make their appearance in Byzantium some three or four
+centuries after the birth of Christ. This city, said to have been
+founded by a colony of Greek emigrants, became the seat of Roman
+government in their eastern empire, and is now known as Constantinople:
+it contains a noted example of ancient art in the great church of St.
+Sophia. From the date of the building of this church in the sixth
+century A. D. to the beginning of the fifteenth century in Italy, and
+about a hundred years later, more or less, according to distance from
+that center, we have roughly the period during which the "medieval"
+spirit ruled the arts of Europe.
+
+The work of this long period is distinguished beyond all others by the
+varied beauty and interest of its carvings, a preeminence it owes in
+part to the strong bias in this direction which was given by its early
+founders, but still more to the unbroken alliance maintained between
+builders and carvers throughout the entire period. An inherited talent
+for sculpture, handed down, no doubt, from their classical forefathers,
+distinctly marks the commencement of the era; but from that time until
+the appearance of the "Renaissance" influence, builder and carver are no
+longer conceivable as being independent of each other. Sculpture of one
+kind or another not only played an important part in the decoration of
+its buildings, but became a necessary and integral element in every
+architectural conception, be its importance little or great. The masons
+designed their structural features with a view to the embellishments to
+follow from the hand of the carver; they were in full sympathy with the
+artistic intention of the decoration, therefore their own ideas were in
+complete conformity with those of the sculptor, while even in some cases
+they did this part of the work themselves. The sculptors, restrained by
+the severe laws of structural design, never transgressed the due limits
+of their craft, or became insistent upon the individuality of their own
+work. Hence, throughout all the successive changes of style brought
+about by time and difference of country, climate, or material, the art
+of carving steadily progressed hand in hand with the art of building.
+The changes were so very gradual, and grew so naturally from the
+conditions and requirements of social life, that ample time was allowed
+for the education of public feeling, which became in this way identified
+with the inventive progress of the craftsmen. As a happy result, one aim
+and desire governed alike builders, carvers, and people, and one style
+at a time, enjoyed and understood by all, was the wholesome regimen by
+which the architectural appetite of the period was sustained. Cathedral
+and cottage differed only in their relative grades of importance; each
+shared in due proportion the advantages of an architectural style common
+to all forms of building, and adaptable in the highest degree to every
+varying purpose of design, from the simplest piece of walling, with the
+barest indication of style, to the most elaborate arrangement of masonry
+and carving which could be devised to distinguish a stately and
+important structure.
+
+Time was, however, preparing a revolution which was destined to sweep
+away many old beliefs and established institutions, and with them those
+familiar motives and habits of thought, which had long formed the
+bountiful source of medieval inspiration and invention. The period
+between the beginning of the fifteenth century and the Reformation was
+like a fiery furnace, in which the materials for a new world were being
+prepared; it was no time for the leisurely enjoyment of the pleasures of
+art, which presupposes settled convictions and imperceptible
+developments.
+
+About this time many new forms of intellectual activity began to engage
+the minds of the more gifted. Speculative philosophy, the opening fields
+of science, the imaginative literature of the ancients; these were among
+the subjects which, while they enlarged the sphere of individual
+thought, destroyed that social ideal which had its roots in a common
+belief, and with it, the secret source of all past development in
+architecture. With the deep-lying causes and far-reaching effects of the
+unrest which disturbed this period, we are not here concerned, beyond
+the point where it touches our interest in architecture and sculpture.
+That drastic changes were in progress affecting the popular regard for
+these arts is undeniable. Educated and illiterate minds became alike
+indifferent to the authority of established religion--either they
+succumbed to the tyranny of its powerful but corrupt ministers, or stood
+out in open rebellion against its disputed dogmas. In either case, that
+architecture which had formerly been regarded as the chief symbol of
+united faith, shared the neglect of one section or the abhorrence of the
+other. That strong sense of beauty, once the common possession of
+builders, sculptors, and people, was now between the upper and nether
+millstones of fate, being ground into the fine dust which has served for
+centuries as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of an endless
+succession of moral puddings and pies, known in modern times as "art
+criticism."
+
+To earnest minds in all classes at that time, any enthusiasm for
+architectural styles, old or new, must have appeared as futile as an
+anxiety about appearances while one's house was burning.
+
+To the art of this period the title "Renaissance" has been foolishly
+applied. When used in association with the arts of architecture and
+sculpture, it is essentially a misnomer. For these arts it was merely a
+time of revival, not in any sense one of rebirth, as the word implies.
+In no way can this period claim to have conferred vitality along with
+the resuscitation of outward form. The revival of a classical style in
+architectural design, which began in the early years of the fifteenth
+century, was the sequel to a similar "revival" in the study of Greek and
+Roman literature, then occupying the interests of cultivated scholars.
+It was but a step further to desire also the realization of those
+architectural splendors which were associated with these studies. Such
+dilettante dreams can not be supposed to have deeply interested the
+general public, with whose concerns they had but a remote connection; so
+under these circumstances, probably the classical style was as suitable
+as any other, chosen on such narrow and exclusive grounds. There was
+even a certain fitness in it, a capability of much expansion on
+theatrical and grandiose lines. Its unbending demeanor toward craft
+talent of the humbler kind at once flattered the vanity of the cultured,
+and cowed uneducated minds.
+
+The Duomo at Florence was finished early in that century, and was one of
+the first buildings in which the new style was adopted. In this case it
+was used mainly in the completion of a building already well advanced on
+lines based upon the older traditions. The character of its design,
+although not of a strictly imitative kind, was distinctly based on a
+classical ideal. Imitations followed, mingling, as in the case of the
+Duomo, Gothic and classic elements, often with fine effect. It is quite
+possible to believe that, had this intermarriage of the two schools
+continued to bear fruit, some vertebrate style might have resulted from
+the union, partaking of the nature of both parents; but the hope was of
+short duration. Its architects, becoming enamored by the quality of
+scientific precision, which is the fundamental principle of classical
+design, soon abandoned all pretense of attempting to amalgamate the
+native and imported styles. They gave themselves up wholly to the
+congenial task of elaborating a scholarly system of imitation; so that,
+by the middle of the sixteenth century, no trace whatever remained of
+native feeling in the architecture of its important buildings.
+
+During the progress of this revolution in style, the old medieval habits
+of cooperation between master mason and sculptor were slowly being
+exchanged for a complete dependence upon a special architect, who was
+not necessarily a craftsman himself; but whose designs must be carried
+out line for line with the most rigid adherence to measurements.
+
+For a moment in history, the rival spirits of the two great schools of
+architecture stand face to face like opposing ideals. The classical one,
+recalled from the region of things past and forgotten, again to play a
+part on earth with at least the semblance of life; the Gothic spirit,
+under notice to quit and betake itself to that oblivion from which its
+rival is reemerging.
+
+In the heyday of their power, the first had shown a distinctly
+autocratic bearing toward its workmen; offering to its sculptors of
+genius opportunities for the exercise of highly trained powers, and to
+the subordinate workmen only the more or less mechanical task of
+repeating a limited number of prescribed forms. The other, a more genial
+spirit, had possessed the largest toleration for rude or untrained
+workmanship, provided that in its expression the carver had a meaning
+which would be generally understood and appreciated. If skill could be
+commanded, either of design or technique, it was welcomed; but it gave
+no encouragement to work which was either so distinctive as to be
+independent of its surroundings, or of a kind which could have no other
+than a mechanical interest in its execution. The abrupt contrasts, the
+variety and mystery, characteristic of Gothic architecture, had been a
+direct and irresistible invitation to the carver, and the freest
+playground for his fancy. The formality of the classical design, on the
+other hand, necessarily confined such carving as it permitted to
+particular lines and spaces, following a recognized rule; and except in
+the case of bas-relief figure subjects and detached statues, demanded no
+separate interest in the carvings themselves, further than the esthetic
+one of relieving such lines and spaces as were otherwise uncomfortably
+bare.
+
+Some modification of this extreme arrogance toward the decorative carver
+was only to be expected in the revived style, but the freedom allowed to
+the individual carver turned out to be more apparent than real. A new
+race of carvers sprang up, imbued with the principles of classical
+design; but being no longer in touch with natural and popular interests,
+nor stimulated by mutual cooperation with their brother craftsmen, the
+mason builders, they adopted the fashionable mode of expression invented
+by the new architects and the painters of the time. Elaborate
+"arabesque" and other formal designs gave employment to the carvers, in
+making an infinite repetition of fiddles, festoons, and ribbons, in the
+execution of which they became so proficient, that their work is more
+often admired for its exquisite finish than for any intrinsic interest
+in the subject or design.
+
+Judged by its effects upon the art of carving, without the aid of which
+a national style of architecture is impossible, the revival of classical
+architecture never had a real and enduring life in it. Strictly
+speaking, no organic style ever grew out of its ambitious promises; the
+nearest approach to such a thing is to be found in those uncouth
+minglings of Gothic tradition with fragments of classical detail which
+distinguish much of the domestic architecture during the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries. Amusing in their quaint and often rich and
+effective combinations, humanly interesting in proportion to the
+predominance of the Gothic element, association has grown up around
+these homely records of a mixed influence, until they have come to be
+regarded with affection, if not with the highest admiration.
+
+The "revival" brought nothing but harm to the carver himself--that is,
+to the carver who found it impossible to reach the elevation of a
+sculptor of genius. He sacrificed his own small but precious talent as a
+creator of pleasant images for the attainment of a finesse in the
+execution of other people's ideas. To the "Renaissance" must be
+attributed that fatal separation of the craftsman's function into the
+hands of designer and executant which has so completely paralyzed the
+living spirit of individual invention. It has taken close upon four
+centuries to open the eyes of our craftsmen to this inconsistency, and
+"revive" the medieval truth that invention and execution are strictly
+but one and the same thing. Let us hope that the present awakening to
+the importance of this fact may yet lead to what will be truly worthy of
+being called a "Renaissance"; not merely of outward forms, but of that
+creative energy which alone justifies the true meaning of the word.
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+
+PLATE I.--_Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral._ The front of a chest of
+almost similar design, only reversed, is to be seen in South Kensington
+Museum, which looks from its resemblance both in design and technique to
+be the work of the same carver, or at least to have been done about the
+same time. Note the absence of any attempt at elaborate perspective, and
+the "decorative" aspect of houses, rocks, trees, etc., also the
+distinctive treatment of the Knight and Princess who appear in the
+picture several times, representing various incidents of the story.
+
+PLATE II.--_Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV in Canterbury Cathedral._
+This figure is one of the corner ornaments on the canopy. The whole of
+the upper structure is of wood, painted in colors with parts picked out
+in gold.
+
+PLATE III.--_Aisle Roof, Mildenhall Church, Suffolk._ This is one of the
+many beautiful carved roofs which abound in Norfolk and Suffolk. The
+nave roof is enriched with carvings of angels with wings outspread.
+
+PLATE IV.--_Nave Roof, Sall Church, Norfolk._ This is another very
+beautiful timber roof showing the union of practical carpentry with
+carving to perfection.
+
+PLATE V.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ The other part
+is shown in Plate VI, as, owing to the proportion of this panel and the
+necessity for keeping the scale of the plates as large as possible, it
+has been divided and shown in two portions. It was begun without any
+premeditated intention as to use, the sloping end being the shape of the
+board as it came into the author's hands, the other end being sloped off
+to match it.
+
+PLATE VI.--_Portion of a Carved Oak Panel. The Sheepfold._ See
+description of Plate V.
+
+PLATE VII.--_Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving._ This plate is,
+as explained in the text, from a drawing by Philip Webb, the well-known
+architect. It was done by him to explain certain facts about the pose of
+a lion when the author was engaged in carving the book covers which are
+shown in Plates VIII and IX.
+
+PLATES VIII and IX.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were
+done by the author for one of the "Kelmscott Press" books, Tale of Troy,
+at the instance of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson. The relief is very slight, and
+is rather exaggerated by the light and shade of the photograph. The
+carved portion only of these covers is shown, the size of which is
+11-1/2 x 5-3/4 ins.
+
+PLATE X.--_Book-Covers carved in English Oak._ These were done by the
+author for Mr. F. S. Ellis's translation of Reynard the Fox. The size of
+the carved part is 8-3/4 x 5-1/4 ins.
+
+PLATE XI.--_Carvings from Winchester Cathedral._ This plate is from
+sketches made by the author at Winchester Cathedral. The upper one is a
+spandrel piece from the traceried arcading of the stalls. The lower one
+is a part of one of the carved Miserere seats. The spandrel carving is
+pierced; that is, has the ground cut right through. The other piece is
+elaborately undercut.
+
+PLATE XII.--_Carving from Choir-Screen, Winchester Cathedral._ This
+plate is from a sketch done for the purpose of noting the general effect
+of a large mass of carved foliage with particular reference to the
+distribution of lighted surfaces in the design.
+
+PLATE XIII.--_Font Canopy, Trunch Church, Norfolk._ The plate gives the
+upper portion only of this beautiful canopy; it is supported upon six
+posts richly carved on all sides, of which there are five to each post.
+The height of the whole canopy is about fifteen or sixteen feet--it
+presumably dates somewhere toward the end of the fourteenth century or
+beginning of the fifteenth.
+
+PLATE XIV.--_Designs for Carving, by_
+
+_Philip Webb._ This plate gives two examples of designs for carving by
+Philip Webb. The upper one is part of a richly carved cornice which was
+done for a chimney-piece; the carving was executed by Mr. Laurence
+Turner, from whom the author got his first lesson in wood-carving. The
+other example is a design on paper for carving to be done in oak. This
+was carried out in the paneling of the dining-room at Clouds House,
+Salisbury, and looked exceedingly effective. Much of the articulation on
+the surface of the leaves, it will be noticed, is got by sharp facets
+produced by the intersection of gouge cuts.
+
+PLATE XV.--_Leg of a Settle carved in English Oak._ This was begun by
+the author as forming part of a large oak seat or "settle," but has
+never been completed. The wood out of which it is carved came out of an
+old house at Tewkesbury and was full of cracks which were filled up with
+slips of oak glued in and carved over.
+
+PLATE XVI.--_Pew Ends in Carved Oak, Brent Church, Somersetshire._ The
+three bench ends shown in this plate are from Brent Church,
+Somersetshire. Although rude in execution, they are extremely effective
+in design. The bounding form of the molded edges and gracefully shaped
+top are worth noticing; the whole evidently the outcome of a nice and
+inherited sense of design, without any particular technical knowledge or
+experience. The termination of the finials was unfortunately omitted in
+the photograph, hence the abrupt line at the top.
+
+
+
+
+THE COLLOTYPE PLATES
+
+[Illustration: I. Old Carved Chest in York Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: II.--Figure from the Tomb of Henry IV. in Canterbury
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: III.--Aisle Roof--Mildenhall Church, Suffolk.]
+
+[Illustration: IV.--Nave Roof--Sall Church, Norfolk.]
+
+[Illustration: V.--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.]
+
+[Illustration: VI--Portion of a Carved Oak Panel--The Sheepfold.]
+
+[Illustration: VII.--Preliminary Drawing of a Lion for Carving. By
+Phillip Webb.]
+
+[Illustration: VIII.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: IX.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Tale of Troy."
+(only carved portion shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: X.--Book Cover Carved in English Oak--"Reynard the Fox."
+(only carved portions shown.)]
+
+[Illustration: XI.--Carving from Choir Stalls in Winchester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: XII.--Carving from Choir Screen--Winchester
+Cathedral.]
+
+[Illustration: XIII.--Font Canopy--Trunch Church, Norfolk.]
+
+[Illustration: XIV.--Two designs for Carving, by Philip Webb. One
+executed, one in drawing.]
+
+[Illustration: XV.--Leg of a Settle, carved in English Oak.]
+
+[Illustration: XVI.--Pew Ends in Carved Oak--Brent Church,
+Somersetshire.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acanthus, the, 156
+
+Aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+American woods, 48
+
+Animal carving, 161, 191
+
+Animal carving, Swiss, 191
+
+Animals, or figures, in carving, 161, 191
+
+Apprentice and student, their aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+Architectural carving, 223
+
+"Arkansas" slips, 44, 58
+
+Arms, coats of, 177
+
+Aumonier, W., 204, 238
+
+
+Background, patterned, 96
+
+Bas wood, 48
+
+Beads and moldings to be carved, 119
+
+Beam, carved, in South Kensington Museum, 140, 142
+
+Bear, drawing of (frontispiece), 197, 200
+
+Beast and bird studies, 191
+
+Bed, design and carving for a, 163
+
+Beech wood, 49
+
+Bench or settle, design and carving for, 168, 174, 269, 302
+
+Benches, 44
+
+Bench screw, 48
+
+Berne Cathedral, carved figure from, 191
+
+Bevels, tool, 52
+
+Bewick, studies from, 195
+
+Bird and beast studies, 191
+
+Book-covers in oak, 267, 288, 289, 291
+
+Books, aid of, 191
+
+Boxwood, 51
+
+Brackets, 172
+
+Bread plates, 116
+
+Brent Church, pew ends in, 269, 304
+
+Brier-wood, 51
+
+Builder and carver, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249
+
+"Built-up" work, 214
+
+Byzantine design, 96
+
+
+"Candle," 56
+
+Canopy, Font, 233, 268, 298
+
+Canterbury Cathedral, carved figure from, 188, 275
+
+Carpenter's imitation of stone construction, 223
+
+Carpenter's influence on carver, 223
+
+Cartoons, charcoal, 204
+
+Carver and builder, notes on the importance of cooperation between, 249
+
+Carver and joiner, reciprocal aims of, 161
+
+Carving and sculpture, 249
+
+Carving, architectural, 223
+
+Carving, "chip," 63
+
+Carving, heraldic, 176
+
+Carving, Icelandic, 143
+
+Carving, New Zealand, 63
+
+Carving, Norse, 143
+
+Carving, South Sea, 63
+
+Carving, stone, 96, 223
+
+Carving, Swiss, 191
+
+Cedar wood, 166
+
+Chair, sketch of, etc., 145
+
+Character, works viewed as records of, 149
+
+Charcoal cartoons, 204
+
+Cherry wood, 51
+
+Chest, carved, from York Cathedral, 147, 265, 273
+
+Chestnut wood, 50
+
+"Chip" carving, 63
+
+Chisels, 31, 34, 35
+
+Choir-screens, 227, 229, 267, 295
+
+Choir-stalls at Winchester Cathedral, 227, 267, 293
+
+Classical style, revival of, 249
+
+Clay models, 191
+
+Clips, 47
+
+Clock, suggestion of design and carving for, 174
+
+Clock case, suggestion of design and carving for, 170
+
+Coats of arms, 176
+
+Cock, suggestion for carving a, 174
+
+Collotype plates, 273-304
+
+Collotype plates, notes on the, 265
+
+Colors noted on diagrams, 197, 199
+
+Colors of woods, 48
+
+Contours of surface, 103
+
+Corner cupboards, 119
+
+Cornice, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300
+
+Craft schools, past and present, 240
+
+Craftsmen, old-time and modern, 240
+
+Cramps, 42, 47
+
+Cross, design for, 177
+
+Cupboards, corner, 119
+
+Cutting, clearness of, 52, 69, 235
+
+
+Design, 71, 88
+
+Design, application of, 72
+
+Design, Byzantine, 96
+
+Design, factors in the arrangement of, 82
+
+Design, outline, and suggestion of main masses, 191
+
+"Designer" and "Executant," 88, 249
+
+Designs, adaptation of old, to modern purposes, 103
+
+Designs, humor in, 180
+
+Designs, list of fruit, flower, and vegetable subjects, 159
+
+Designs, necessity for every carver making his own, 88
+
+Designs, transferring, 72
+
+Detail, economy in, 84
+
+Diagrams, colors noted on, 197, 199
+
+Distance and light in design, 82
+
+Drilling and sawing, 110
+
+Duomo, the, at Florence, 257
+
+
+Ebony wood, 51
+
+Economy in detail, 84
+
+Edges of tools, 52
+
+Environment as important as handicraft, 149
+
+Execution and design, 88, 249
+
+Exning, chair at, 145
+
+
+Figures, or animals, in carving, 161, 191
+
+Finish, surface--texture, 234
+
+Florence, the Duomo at, 257
+
+Flowers as subjects, 158
+
+Foliage, 115, 153, 159
+
+Font canopy, 233, 268, 298
+
+Foreshortening as applied to work in relief, 205
+
+Forms, imitation of natural, 82
+
+Forms, plant, list of, 153
+
+Forms, rounded, 88
+
+Free rendering, 96
+
+Fruit subjects, 94, 157, 159
+
+Furniture, carving on, 161
+
+
+Gerrard's "Herbal," a source of design, 160
+
+Gibbons, Grinling, 62, 85, 153, 215
+
+Glass paper, 107, 164
+
+Gothic capital in Southwell Minster, 96
+
+Gothic carvings, 96, 180, 229, 249
+
+Gothic influence, 249
+
+Gouges, 31, 34, 35
+
+Gouges, sharpening, 56
+
+Grain of the wood, 48, 69
+
+Grapes, 115, 156, 159
+
+Grindelwald, carved bear from, 200
+
+Grotesque in carving, 180
+
+"Grounders," 34, 37
+
+Grounding, 69
+
+
+Handling tools, 27, 52, 78
+
+"Hard" wood, 48, 51
+
+Hardwood carving, 115
+
+Henry IV, figure from tomb of 188, 265, 275
+
+Heraldic carving, 176
+
+"Herbal," Gerrard's, a source of design, 160
+
+Heron, drawing of a, 197
+
+Holdfasts, 48
+
+Hollywood, 49
+
+Hop-vine, the, 156
+
+Humor in designs, 180
+
+
+Icelandic carving, 143
+
+Imitation of natural forms, 82
+
+"India" oilstone, 42
+
+
+Japanese work, a characteristic of, 125
+
+Joiner and carver, reciprocal aims of, 161
+
+Joiner, the amateur, 115
+
+Joiner's tools, 41
+
+
+Kauri pine wood, 48
+
+"Kelmscott Press," carved oak covers for, 267, 288, 289
+
+
+Lance-wood, 51
+
+Landscape in carving, 221
+
+Leather for stropping, 55
+
+Leaves, expedient for explaining convolutions, 209
+
+Leaves, list of, 159
+
+Letters, carved, 165
+
+Light and distance in design, 82
+
+Lime wood, 48
+
+Lion, preliminary drawing for carving a, 196, 267, 286
+
+
+"Maccaroni" tool, 35, 38, 59
+
+Mahogany wood, 48
+
+Mallets, 44
+
+Masses, right relationship of, 196
+
+Masses, suggestion of main, 191
+
+Masses, superposition of, 205
+
+Medieval and modern choice of form compared, 153
+
+Memoranda, methodical, 137
+
+Memoranda, sketch-book, 137
+
+Method, 137
+
+Mildenhall Church, aisle roof, 226, 266, 277
+
+Mirror frame, suggestion of design and carving for, 166
+
+Miserere seats, 139, 142, 185, 186, 187, 216, 293
+
+Miters, 77
+
+Models, clay, 202
+
+Morris, William, 240
+
+Moldings, to be carved, 119
+
+Museums, 137, 140, 145, 149
+
+
+Natural forms, imitation of, 82
+
+Nature, studies from, 153, 191
+
+New Zealand carving, 63
+
+Norse patterns, 143
+
+Notes on cooperation, 249
+
+
+Oak, 48, 157
+
+Oilstones, 42, 52
+
+Old work, 137
+
+Originality, 108
+
+Outline drawing, 191
+
+
+Panel, carved, "The Sheepfold," 197, 212, 266, 282, 284
+
+Paneling, design for, by Philip Webb, 268, 300
+
+Panels, 72, 125, 170, 197
+
+"Parting" tool, 34, 36
+
+Paste for stropping, 52
+
+Pattern and free rendering compared, 96
+
+Pattern, background, 110
+
+Pattern, importance of formal, 96
+
+Pattern, medieval choice of natural forms governed by a question of, 96
+
+Pattern, Portuguese, 145
+
+Patterned background, 96
+
+Patterns, 121
+
+Patterns, Icelandic, 143
+
+Patterns, New Zealand, 63
+
+Patterns, Norse, 143
+
+Patterns, pierced, 110, 145
+
+Patterns, South Sea, 63
+
+Pear-tree wood, 51
+
+Period "Renaissance," revival of the classical style, 249
+
+Perspective, 127, 205, 219
+
+Pew ends, 269, 304
+
+Photographs, aid of, 191
+
+Picture subjects and perspective, 219
+
+Pierced patterns, 110, 145
+
+"Pierced" work, 214
+
+Pine wood, 48, 71
+
+Pine wood, yellow, 48, 71
+
+Plant forms, list of, 153
+
+"Planted" work, 214
+
+Plums, 91
+
+Polish, 138, 164
+
+Portuguese pattern, 145
+
+Position of tools, 27, 52
+
+Practise and theory, 25
+
+Preamble, 25
+
+
+Relief, work in, 205
+
+"Renaissance," the, 249
+
+"Reynard, the Fox," carved oak book-cover, 267, 291
+
+"Rifler," 41
+
+Rounded forms, 88
+
+"Router," 41
+
+Ruskin, John, 240
+
+
+"S," pattern, 121
+
+St. Sophia, church of, 251
+
+Sall Church, nave roof, 226, 266, 279
+
+Sandalwood, 51
+
+Sawing and drilling, 110
+
+Schools, craft, past and present, 240
+
+Screens, choir, 227, 229, 268, 295
+
+Sculpture and carving, 249
+
+Settle or bench, design and carving for, 168, 174
+
+Settle, carved leg of, 269, 302
+
+Sharpening stones, 42
+
+Sharpening tools, 52
+
+Sheep, drawing of, 197, 212, 266, 282, 284
+
+Sheepfold, the, collotype plate, 266, 282, 284
+
+Sketch-book, use of the, 137, 191
+
+Slips, 43, 58, 61
+
+"Soft" wood, 51
+
+South Kensington Museum, carvings from, 140, 141, 142
+
+South Sea carving, 63
+
+Southwell Minster, Gothic capital in, 96
+
+Spoon tools, 59
+
+Stalls, choir, 227, 267, 293
+
+Stone carving, 96, 223
+
+Stones, sharpening, 42
+
+Stones (sharpening), case for, 42
+
+Stropping, 54
+
+Student and apprentice, their aims and conditions of work, 25
+
+Students, the, opportunity lies on the side of design, 25
+
+Studies, beast and bird, 191
+
+Studies from nature, 153, 191
+
+Study, necessity for variety in, 249
+
+Style, 249
+
+Subjects, animal, 161, 191
+
+Subjects, choice of, 82
+
+Subjects, flower, 158
+
+Subjects, foliage, 159
+
+Subjects, fruit, 159
+
+Subjects, in perspective, 219
+
+Subjects, picture, 219
+
+Subjects, still life, 83
+
+Subjects, vegetable, 159
+
+Surface contours, 103
+
+Surface finish, 234
+
+Swiss carving, 191
+
+Sycamore wood, 49
+
+
+"Tale of Troy," carved oak book-cover for, 267, 288, 289
+
+Tempering tools, 39
+
+Texture and surface finish, 234
+
+Theory and practise, 25
+
+Thimble pattern, 121
+
+"Throwing about," 106
+
+Time, carvers the historians of their, 149
+
+Tool marks, the importance of their direction, 234
+
+Tools, 31
+
+Tools, average number, 31
+
+Tools, blunted or broken, 40
+
+Tools, description of, 27
+
+Tools, handling, 27, 52, 78
+
+Tools, joiner's, 41
+
+Tools, position on oilstone, 52
+
+Tools, position when in use, 27
+
+Tools, sharpening, 52
+
+Tools, spoon, 59
+
+Tools, stropping, 54
+
+Tools, tempering, 39
+
+Tracing, 72
+
+Trunch Church, font canopy at, 233, 268, 298
+
+"Turkey," oilstone, 42
+
+Turner, Laurence, 269
+
+
+Undercutting and "built-up" work, 214
+
+
+"V" tool, 31, 34, 36, 59
+
+Vegetable designs, 159
+
+"Veiner," 31, 34, 36, 58
+
+Vines, the, 115, 156, 159
+
+
+Walnut wood, 48, 50
+
+"Washita" oilstone, 42
+
+Wave pattern, 121
+
+Webb, Philip, drawings and designs by, 177, 196, 268, 286, 300
+
+Winchester Cathedral, carvings from, 190, 216, 227, 267, 293, 295
+
+Wood, hard, 48, 51
+
+Wood, soft, 48, 51
+
+Woods, 48
+
+Woods, American, 48
+
+Woods, colors of, 48
+
+Woods, grain of, 48, 69
+
+Woods, list of, 48
+
+Woods, "soft" and "hard," 48, 51
+
+Work, critical inspection of, from a distance, as it proceeds, 103
+
+
+Yellow pine wood, 48, 71
+
+York Cathedral, old chest in, 265, 273
+
+Yorkshire settle, 168
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: Minor corrections were made to normalize spelling
+and punctuation. Small caps were replaced with all-caps.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wood-Carving, by George Jack
+
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