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diff --git a/23635-h/23635-h.htm b/23635-h/23635-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68c098c --- /dev/null +++ b/23635-h/23635-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1748 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + h2,h3 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal;} + + h1 {text-align: center; clear: both; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + + hr {width: 33%; margin: 2em auto; clear: both;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 94%; font-size: smaller; + font-style: normal; text-align: right;} + + .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smcapl {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.25em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .trans1 {border: solid 1px; margin: 3em 15%; padding: .25em 1em; text-align: justify;} + + .trnhd {text-align: center; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;} + + img {border: none} + + a:link {text-decoration:none;} + a:visited {text-decoration:none;} + + ul {list-style-type: none; font-size: small;} + + .signing1 {text-align: left; margin-left: 45%; margin-bottom: 0;} + .signing2 {text-align: left; margin-left: 65%; text-indent: -4em; margin-top: 0;} + + .hd1 {text-align: center; font-size: large; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + .hd2 {text-align: center; font-size: small; margin-top: 1em;} + .hd3 {text-align: center; font-size: small; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + .hd4 {text-align: center; margin-top: 4em;} + .hd5 {text-align: center; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5em;} + .rgt {text-align: right; margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + .p1 {margin-bottom: 0;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Wampum + A Paper Presented to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society + of Philadelphia + +Author: Ashbel Woodward + +Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23635] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + + +<h1><big>WAMPUM,</big></h1> + + +<p class="hd1">A PAPER PRESENTED TO<br /> + +<big><span class="smcap">The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society</span></big><br /> + +OF PHILADELPHIA.</p> + + +<p class="hd2"><span class="smcap">By</span></p> + +<h2><small>ASHBEL WOODWARD, M.D.,</small></h2> + +<p class="hd3">OF FRANKLIN, CONN.,</p> + +<p class="hd2"><b>CORRESPONDING MEMBER.</b></p> + + +<p class="hd4">ALBANY, N. Y.:<br /> +J. MUNSELL, PRINTER.<br /> +1878.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="hd5">Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1878,<br /> +by ASHBEL WOODWARD,<br /> +in the Library of Congress.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p>At a Stated Meeting of the Numismatic and Antiquarian +Society of Philadelphia, held January 2, 1868, the following +resolutions were unanimously adopted:</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That the thanks of this Society are due and are +hereby tendered to Ashbel Woodward, M.D., of Franklin, +Conn., for his very able and interesting research upon "Wampum" +this evening read before the Society.</p> + +<p><i>Resolved</i>, That said paper be referred to the Publication Committee.</p> + + +<p class="signing1">Attest,</p> +<p class="signing2"><span class="smcap">Henry Phillips, Jr.</span>,<br /> +<i>Corresponding Secretary.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>NOTE.</h2> + + +<p>The following pages constitute an Essay read +before the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society +of Philadelphia in January 1868. It was intended +for publication in the second volume of +the Transactions of the Society, but as the appearance +of this volume has been unexpectedly +delayed, it has been thought best to allow the +Essay to appear separately.</p> + +<p><i>Franklin, Conn.</i>, January, 1878.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2><b>WAMPUM.</b></h2> + + +<p>When Columbus, on his second voyage to the +New World, landed upon Cape Cabron, Cuba, +the cacique of the adjacent country meeting him +upon the shore offered him a string of beads made +of the hard parts of shells as an assurance of welcome. +Similar gifts were often made to the +great discoverer, whenever the natives sought to +win his favor or wished to assure him of their +own good will. These shell beads were afterwards +found to be in general use among the +tribes of the Atlantic coast. At the close of the +sixteenth century the English colonists found +them in Virginia, as did the Dutch at the commencement +of the following century in New +York, the English in New England and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +French in Canada. The pre-historic inhabitants +of the Mississippi valley were also evidently +acquainted with their manufacture, as remains of +shell beads have been found in many of the +mounds which survive as the only memorials of +that mysterious people.</p> + +<p>These Indian beads were known under a +variety of names among the early colonists, and +were called, <i>wampum</i>, <i>wampom-peage</i>, or <i>wampeage</i>, +frequently <i>peage</i> or <i>peake</i> only, and in some localities +<i>sewan</i> or <i>zewand</i>. But generally sewan prevailed +among the Dutch, and wampum among +the English. These names were applied without +distinction to all varieties of beads. This confusion +arose naturally enough from the scanty +acquaintance of the whites with the Indian language. +The word wampum [wompam],<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +has since become a general term, was restricted +by the Indians to the white beads. It was derived +from <i>wompi</i>, "white." The other or dark beads +were called <i>suckáuhock</i>, a name compounded of +<i>súcki</i>, "dark colored," and <i>hock</i>, "shell." The +name <i>Mowhakes</i>, compounded of <i>mowi</i>, "black," +and <i>hock</i>, "shell," was also sometimes applied to +the dark beads. It thus appears that the Indians +divided their beads into two general classes, the +<i>wompam</i>, or white beads, and <i>suckáuhock</i>, or dark +beads. Both white and black consisted of highly +polished, testaceous cylinders, about one-eighth of +an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +drilled length-wise and strung upon fibres of hemp +or the tendons of wild beasts. <i>Suckáuhock</i> was +made from the stem of the <i>Venus mercenaria</i>, +or common round clam, popularly known as the +quauhaug; <i>wampum</i> from the column and inner +whorls of the <i>Pyrula carica</i> and <i>Pyrula caniculata</i><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +[Lam.], species known as Winkles or Periwinkles +among fishermen, and the largest convoluted shells<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +of our New England coast.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> These shells were +found in great abundance along the sea shore, +lying either upon the mud, or just beneath the +surface, and were wrought in the following +manner. The desirable portions of the shells +were first broken out into small pieces of the form +of a parallelopiped; these were then drilled and +afterwards ground and polished. Possessing no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +better tools, the Indians made shift to bore them +with stone drills,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> implements which hardly correspond +with the delicacy and exactness exhibited +by the specimens of original wampum that have +come down to us. The process of polishing and +shaping was equally painful and laborious, for +rubbing with the hand over a smooth stony +surface, was the only method which the rudeness +of the Aborigines could devise. Yet the finished +beads, whether attached in thick masses to garments, +or strung in long flexible rows, were very +comely and without a trace of the tawdriness, +which is so characteristic of uncivilized peoples. +The suckáuhock with its varying shades of purple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +was particularly beautiful. Its value was double +that of the white and the darker its color, the +more highly it was prized. But the laborious +method of production imparted no trivial value +to both varieties.</p> + +<p>It seems almost incredible that the Indian +could produce so clever an article with his rude +implements. Some have conjectured that the +specimens produced before the natives obtained +awl blades from the colonists were very inferior +to their later productions. One writer<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> even +goes so far as to suggest, that, before the advent +of Europeans, Indian beads consisted mostly of +small pieces of wood, stained white or black. The +fact is, however, that the manufacture of wampum +dates back at least to the time of the mound +builders, for quantities of beads similar in form +to the more modern article, and proved by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +chemical tests and structural peculiarities to be +similar in material, have been exhumed from the +ancient mounds of the west.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>Other species besides the wampum and suckáuhock +crept into local use among the different +tribes. The Iroquois in their civil and religious +ceremonies employed a variety named <i>otekóa</i>, and +made from spiral fresh water shells of the genus +<i>unio</i>. This as may be inferred from its uses was +held in the highest esteem, and no other could be +employed in the different stages of the ceremonial.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> +In New England and perhaps elsewhere, +an inferior kind made evidently from shells too +small and thin to be wrought into the cylindrical +beads, circulated to a limited extent. The separate +pieces were round and flat, about an eighth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +of an inch broad and a sixteenth of an inch +thick, white and black were strung alternately, +but the strings, though arranged with considerable +nicety, lacked wholly the finish and flexibility +of the regular article. In Virginia <i>roenoke</i> was +current. This consisted of small rough fragments +of cockle shells, which were drilled and +strung. The last two varieties were only used to +a limited extent, even in the region of their +manufacture. Here, as elsewhere, the cylindrical +wampum was the standard, and the dearest to the +Indian of all his treasures. Indeed such was the +value set upon it, that attempts were often made +to counterfeit it, an unallowed shell being fraudulently +used in the manufacture of the white, +while the black was imitated from a kind of +stone. Yet the habitual caution and keenness of +the Indian made it difficult to palm off the spurious +article upon him.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> +<p>As wampum was made from marine shells,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> it +was naturally manufactured by the sea shore +tribes, and in localities determined by the abundance +of raw material. Here the shells were +stored up in some convenient spot during summer, +to be worked out in winter when the rigors +of the season should deter the men from their +ordinary out door pursuits.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Probably but little +was produced north of the Narragansetts [Rhode +Island], as the necessary shells were scarce beyond +Cape Cod. The Narragansetts were themselves +great producers, and tradition claimed for their +tribe the honor of the invention of wampum. +But the Long Island Indians were by far the +greatest producers along our northern coast. Their +sandy flats and marshes teemed with sea life, and, +when the Dutch first came to New Amsterdam,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +their island went by the name of <i>sewan hacky</i>, or +the "land of the sewan shell," so numerous were +the sewan manufactories upon it. Without doubt +production was stimulated beyond its natural limits +by the demand from powerful tribes from the +main land, who found it easier to exact wampum +as tribute from their weak neighbors, than personally +to engage in its laborious coinage. Hazard, +in his collection of state papers, states, that the +Narragansetts frequently compelled large tributes +in wampum from the Long Island Indians. The +Pequots also for many years prior to 1637, exacted +large annual contributions from the same +tribes while they were still further subject to the +levies of the imperious Mohawks. Thus the +mint of wealth at their very doors became to its +possessors the source of untold misery. Constant +fear kept them toiling at the mines, while the +scanty proceeds of their labor only quickened the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +greed of their savage masters. The number and +extent of the sewan manufactories upon Long +Island may be inferred from the frequent and +immense shell heaps left by the Indians in all of +which scarcely a whole shell is to be found. +Occasionally the whole shells were carried over +to the main land and there wrought. From +Sewan-Hacky down the Atlantic coast and along +the gulf, the shaded covers and quiet banks were +doubtless dotted with wampum manufactories, +for there was a great demand constantly to be +met.</p> + +<p>The inland tribes were of course unable to produce +their own wampum, and depended for their +supply upon the coast tribes. A brisk trade thus +arose between the coast and interior. Hides and +furs were brought down to clothe the denser +population of the shore, and wampum carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +back in exchange.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Often, however, the inland +tribes were able to pounce down and wring this +precious material from its carriers in the form of +tribute.</p> + +<p>Wampum is often spoken of as "Indian money." +This expression if referring to colonial times is +perfectly proper, but must be received with caution +in the consideration of ante-colonial days. +The barbarian, dwelling in independent isolation, +satisfies the majority of his wants by direct effort +and not by an interchange of services, nor till +civilization has considerably advanced can we look +for any general system of exchanges with the +mutual dependence and mutual benefits which +such a system involves. So attractive an article +as wampum was doubtless eagerly sought in +barter, and would readily procure for its possessor +whatever else he might desire. Indeed we know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +that it was the means of an extensive trade between +the coast and the interior, the inland +Indians bringing down hides and furs to be exchanged +for the wampum of the shore. All this, +however, was in the way of barter, and we cannot +hence infer that the idea of a medium or money +crept into the limited circle of the redman's wants +and satisfactions. His circumstances did not demand +and would not therefore suggest it. Wampum +was the gold of the aborigine. But he +had yet to learn that the value of gold resides not +alone in its glitter. The ancient Peruvians dwelt +amid mountains of gold, but the idea of a circulating +medium never dawned upon them. In +like manner, the Indian had never learned that +use of his golden wampum which was the first +to suggest itself to the white man. He made +and valued it for other purposes.</p> + +<p>A fondness for personal display and decoration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +are characteristic of uncivilized life, and wampum +was well adapted to satisfy this weakness of the +Indian. It was every where used for adornment +of the person. The humblest proudly wore his +trifle, while the more favored ones were wont to +decorate themselves in countless gay and fantastic +ways. It was oftenest worn about the neck in +strings of the length of a rosary, the number of +strings being determined by the means or social +position of the wearer.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Bracelets and necklaces +were other forms in which it was frequently displayed. +With the females, head-dresses, consisting +of bands of wampum twined about the +head and gathering up their abundant tresses, +were an especial delight. A border of beads +greatly enhanced the value of any garment, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +outer clothing was usually thus ornamented. +Indeed the wealthy and powerful wore cloaks, as +also aprons and caps, thickly studded with wampum +wrought into various fantastic forms and +figures. Says that old voyager, John Josselyn, +"Prince Phillip, a little before I came to England +[1671], coming to Boston, had on a coat +and buskins thick set with these beads in pleasant +wild works." The moccasin was also, as at the +present day, the recipient of much taste and skill.</p> + +<p>More of a luxury and confined mostly to +sachems and sagamores was the wampum belt, +alternate white and purple strings attached in rows +to a deerskin base, and worn as a belt about the +waist, or thrown over the shoulders like a scarf. +Ordinary belts consisted of twelve rows of one +hundred and eighty beads each, but they increased +in length and breadth with the social importance +of the wearer. As many as ten thousand beads are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +known to have been wrought into a single war +belt four inches wide. The regular alternation +of white and purple rows was not always adopted, +but birds and beasts and such other rustic fantasies +as suited the owner's taste, were often interwoven +with the different colors. One of King Philip's +belts surrendered by the Sagamore Annawon to +Capt. Church, was nine inches wide, of sufficient +length when placed about Capt. Church's +shoulders to reach to his ancles, and curiously +inwrought with figures of birds, beasts and flowers. +From another belt of no less exquisite workmanship +and designed to be worn about the head, +two flags fell in graceful folds upon the shoulders. +A third and smaller one had a star embroidered +upon its end, and was to be worn upon the breast. +The haughty old chief was wont to adorn his +person with these insignia when he sat in state +among his subjects. They symbolized, by striking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +emblems, his might and prowess, and kindled in +beholders feelings and emotions that royal pomp +and purple could not awake. The idea of gaudiness +is apt to associate itself in our minds with +Indian trappings, but we must confess that the +simple grace and force of these rustic adornments +would put to shame many a glittering article of +more modern wear.</p> + +<p>But wampum strings and belts subserved other +equally important uses. They were among the +Indian race the universal bonds of nations and +individuals, the inviolable and sacred pledges of +word and deed. No promise was binding unless +confirmed by gifts of wampum. The young +warrior declared his passion for his Indian maid, +by presenting wampum chains and belts, and her +acceptance of the proffered present sealed the +marriage compact.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Like tokens accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +every weighty message, and little reliance was put +upon the messenger who brought not with him +such assurances of good faith.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> They cemented +friendships, confirmed alliances, sealed treaties, and +effectually effaced the memory of injuries.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A +curious ceremonial had grown up in their presentation +on state occasions. When ambassadors +set out for another nation, they bore before them +the calumet, or pipe of peace, in evidence of their +pacific purpose and to secure protection for their +journey, and also belts of wampum to be submitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +in confirmation of their proposals, or, if +their people had been worsted in battle to atone +for injuries and purchase peace. In the great +council assembled to receive them, the orator of +the embassy rose and unfolded the object of their +visit, corroborating each important statement and +proposal at its close by laying down wampum +belts. If his words were pleasing, and the presents +taken from the ground in evidence thereof, +similar presents were given in return, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +contract sealed with the smoking of the calumet +and the burial of the hatchet in the midst. Among +the Six Nations, whenever the council failed to +adjust the difficulty or when for any other reason +peace was to be interrupted, war was proclaimed +by striking a tomahawk painted red and ornamented +with black wampum, into the war post +in each village of the league.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>To illustrate what we have said, we subjoin +the following account of an interview between +Sir William Johnson, the noted Indian agent and +the Six Nations, among whom this ceremony +survived even after their decline. "At a meeting +of the Six Nations and their allies at Fort Johnson, +Feb. 18, 1756, Sir William Johnson said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Brethren of the Six Nations</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">I have heard with great concern that a war +party of the Senecas, the most remote nation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +the confederacy, have had a considerable misunderstanding +with their brethren the English to +the southward, which has been fatal to some of +that nation. I am extremely unable to express +my sorrow for that unhappy affair, and as the +hatchet remains fixed in your heads, I do with +the greatest tenderness and affection remove it +thence.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A belt.</p> + + +<p><i>Brethren</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">With this belt I cleanse and purify the beds of +those who fell in that unfortunate affair from the +defilement they have contracted.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A belt.</p> + + +<p><i>Brethren</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">I am informed that on that occasion you lost +three of your powerful warriors. I do with this +belt cover their dead bodies that they may not +offend our sight any more and bury the whole +affair in oblivion.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A belt.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Answer of the Six Nations and their Allies.</span></h3> + +<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">We the sachems and warriors of the Seneca +nation return to you our sincere thanks for your +great affection in drying our tears and driving +sorrow from our hearts, and we in return perform +the same ceremony to you with the like hearty +affection.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A string of wampum.</p> + + +<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">We are sensible of your goodness expressed to +us in removing the cause of our grief and tenderly +taking the axe out of our heads.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A belt.</p> + +<p>After several more speeches and presentations +by the Senecas, the other nations in turn presented +belts. In 1748, the general had given them a +large belt upon which was an emblem of the Six +Nations joined hand in hand with the English. +This the speaker then took and said:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> + + +<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">Look with all attention on this belt and remember +the solemn and mutual engagements +we entered into when you first took upon you +the management of our affairs. Be assured we +look upon them as sound and shall on our part +punctually perform them as long as we remain a +people.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A prodigious large belt.</p> + +<p>Taking up another large belt formerly given +them by the governor of New York, he said:</p> + + +<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p> + +<p class="p1">We hope our brethren, the English, will +seriously remember the promises made us by this +belt and exactly perform them, and we promise +to do the same though we have no record but +our memories.</p> + +<p class="rgt">A very large belt."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> +<p>The belts received at treaties, councils and other +assemblies were entrusted for presentation to the +care of one individual, usually the sachem, who +was expected to keep in mind the occasion and +purport of each, which he could readily do by +the aid of the devices emblematic of the event it +signalized that were traced upon each.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Thus a +belt presented to Sir Wm. Johnson by the Six +Nations, had wrought upon it the sun, the emblem +of light, and symbols of the Six Nations. It +signified that their minds were now illumined by +the clear bright light of truth and their intention +to abide in the light.<a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> In a belt presented at +Easton, His Majesty King George was figured +taking hold of the king of the Six Nations with +one hand, and the king of the Delawares with +the other. A belt presented by the Indians of +Eastern Maine as a pledge of their friendship and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +fidelity to the United States and the king of +France was explained as follows: The belt was +thirteen rows wide to represent the United States, +and had upon it a cross indicating France, and +several white figures denoting the different Indian +villages.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Indian like other young languages +drew closer to nature than the dusty abstractions +of civilization. It was highly figurative and the +majority of its words referred directly to familiar +external sights. The tribes of each nation of the +Iroquois were known respectively as the Wolf, +Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron and +Hawk. The significant names of chiefs are +known to all, and whoever is familiar with Indian +oratory will readily recollect its garb of bold and +striking metaphors. These features, while imparting +energy to the language, at the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +made it easy to convey its meaning by picture +writing or symbolism, the only mode of writing +which the aborigine possessed.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> Thus, too, it +was easy to put upon a belt a few significant +characters which by the principle of mental association +should clearly depict the salient features +of an event or of a series of events. Such belts +carefully preserved served as the annals of a nation. +They were the only authentic history of the past, +recalling the treaties, councils, triumphs and +domestic celebrations of former generations. At +stated times their custodian, the sachem, was +accustomed to gather the younger warriors about +him, and unfolding to them the secrets locked up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +in these mysterious records, instruct them in the +history and engagements of their tribe. The old +soldier's breast glowed with honest pride, as he +recounted to his young braves the exploits of their +sires, or exhibited the proud tokens of submission +forced from some ancient enemy, and most of all +when he came to dwell upon scenes conspicuous +for his own valor and reddened by his blood. +And as the impetuous youths drank in the glorious +story of their father's might and valor on the war +path, there sprang up within them a patriotism +"that grew by what it fed on." In the extensive +confederation of the Iroquois, Hono Wenato, an +Onondaga sachem, was the hereditary keeper of +the wampum. Whenever the grand council met +to fill a vacancy in the sachemship of a tribe of +any nation, it was his duty publicly to repeat to +the new sachem their ancient laws and usages, and +to unfold to him the structure and principles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +the league, as recorded in the belts committed +to his charge.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>Wampum played an important part in religious +as well as civil ceremonies. On occasions of +great public calamities, it formed the most acceptable +sacrifice that could be offered to the terrible +Hobbamocko, the author of evil, and it entered +largely into the mystic rites of all those weird +assemblies that gathered under the shades of the +forest. When evil threatened or its farther progress +was to be stayed, as also after great triumphs +and abundant harvests, the Indians gathered +from far and near to celebrate their mysteries. +They danced for days, painted and clad in hideous +guise, about a great fire, the throne of the divinity, +and with wild and frantic yells cast from time to +time into the flames furs and weapons, and that +choicest of their treasures the costly wampum.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +Nay it was even whispered in the early time, that +little children gaily adorned with wampum were +led into the midst and thrust into the fiery +embrace of the hissing god.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The practice of the +Iroquois was less fearful, among whom a string +of white wampum was hung around the neck of +a white dog suspended to a pole and offered as a +sacrifice to the mighty Haweuneyn. The wampum +was a pledge of their sincerity, and white an +emblem of purity and of faith. In the same +nation, previous to "giving thanks to the Maple," +and their other stated festivals, the people assembled +for the mutual confession of their sins. "The +meeting was opened by one of the 'keepers of the +faith,' with an address upon the propriety and +importance of acknowledging their evil deeds to +strengthen their minds against future temptations. +He then took a string of white wampum in his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +hand, and set the example by a confession of his +own faults, after which he handed the string to +the one nearest to him, who received it, made his +confession in like manner, and passed it to another. +In this way the wampum went around from hand +to hand, and those who had confessions to make, +stated wherein they had done wrong, and promised +to do better in the future. Old and young, +men, women and even children, all united in this +public acknowledgment of their faults, and joined +in the common resolution of amendment. On +some occasions the string of wampum was placed +in the centre of the room, and each one advanced +in turn to perform the duty as the inclination +seized him. A confession and promise without +holding the wampum would be of no avail. It +was the wampum which recorded their words and +gave their pledge of sincerity. The object of +the confession was future amendment."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p><p>Wampum was the tribute paid by the vanquished +in war, as also the means by which +threatened wars were often averted. The Long +Island Indians for many years paid an annual tribute +to the Pequots, a powerful tribe dwelling in +Eastern Connecticut.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It is commonly supposed +that these tribes were also tributary to the Six +Nations. To the same great power were subject +the clans between the Hudson and the Connecticut, +and every year two aged but haughty Mohawks +might be seen going from village to village to +collect the tribute that was their due. It is asserted +that as late as 1756, a small tribe near Sugar Loaf +Mountain made an annual payment to this nation +of £20 in wampum. Individual as well as national +obligations were similarly satisfied. Like the +early German, the Indian set a marketable value +on human life, and a suitable present of wampum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +on the part of the murderer, if accepted, freed +him from the vengeance of the dead man's friends, +for the wampum belt washed away all traces of +the bloody stain.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Perhaps desire for another's +wampum sometimes prompted him to such foul +deeds, as it did the white man,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> though happily +the Indian seldom stooped to theft.</p> + +<p>Thus in the rude civilization of the aborigine +wampum filled a space accorded to no one article +in our own. Through life it faithfully met all +his varied wants, and when he came to die, his +friends placed it about his dead body,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +might befriend him on his journey to the spirit +land, and on his arrival there gain for him admission +to the realms of the god Kiehtan, the +abode of the blessed.</p> + +<p>The shrewd commercial instinct of the Dutch +colonists was quick to profit by wampum in their +dealings with the aborigines. Happily its most +extensive producers dwelt at their very doors. +They obtained from the Long Island tribes in +return for knives, scissors, hatchets and the like, +great quantities of this novel coinage, and then +exchanged it with the Indians of the mainland +for hides and furs, often plunging far into the +interior and drawing thence products which gold +could never have won from their possessors. Did +common trifles fail, wampum was the unfailing +reserve whose charms the savage was powerless to +resist. With such an adjutant trade became +doubly flourishing and lucrative. Posts sprang up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +along the Hudson, in the valley of the Connecticut +and as far south as the Schuylkill, through all of +which ceaseless revenues poured into the coffers +of the Dutch West India Company. Connecticut, +alone, annually furnished to her traders ten thousand +beaver skins.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> In all this traffic wampum +played a leading part, so much so in fact that fur +trade and wampum trade became synonymous +terms.</p> + +<p>Toward the close of September, 1627, Isaac +de Rasieres was dispatched from New Amsterdam +on an embassy to the English colony at New +Plymouth. Being of a trading turn, he carried +with him in his vessel among other merchandise +about £50 in wampum which he managed to +dispose of there.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Wampum was as yet comparatively +unknown in Massachusetts Bay, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +the colonists were ignorant of its uses. This purchase +made with great reluctance, they sent to +their trading house at Kennebeck, where "when +the inland Indians came to know it, they could +scarce procure enough for many years together." +Everywhere in New England, as in the Dutch +provinces, wampum soon became a leading article +in the Indian trade, and added greatly to its profits. +Seven years after its introduction to Kennebeck, +Mr. Winslow carried thence into England about +twenty hogsheads of beaver, "the greater part +whereof was traded for wampampeage" during +the year. By 1636 this trade had grown to such +proportions in Massachusetts colony that the +standing colony were authorized to farm it out +for the increase of the public revenues, and to +establish the severest penalties for any infringement +of the privileges thus granted. The traders +of New England were now ranging the forests in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +all directions and often plunged into them for +hundreds of miles to the great alarm of the Dutch +who feared that the English would monopolize +all the profits of the trade, and that "they should +be obliged to eat oats out of English hands."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> +From the north the French descended in great +numbers, eager to share in the gains of this traffic, +and often encroached upon the domains of other +nations. The solitudes of the wilderness thus resounded +every where to the tread of the adventurous +white man, who, lured on by the hope of +gain, thought not of the dangers that beset his +path. It doubtless afforded the Indian no little +satisfaction to welcome the haughty foreigner to +his wigwam, and while dictating his own terms, to +receive in payment the honored currency of his +fathers. When he took his pay, he measured it +off after his own fashion, the unit being the distance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +from the elbow to the end of the little +finger. According to one authority it made no +difference whether a short or tall man measured +it.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Adrian Van Tiedhoven, clerk of the court +at the South river, however tells a different story, +complaining bitterly "because the Indians always +take the largest and tallest among them to trade +with us."</p> + +<p>But hides and furs were not the only articles +which wampum purchased from the natives. It +was a frequent consideration in early Indian deeds. +In the records of Windsor, Conn., is preserved a +deed, which conveys territory lying between the +Podunk and Scantic rivers, and extending a day's +march into the country, the price paid for which +was fifteen fathoms of wampum and twenty cloth +coats. Most of the present towns of Warwick +and Coventry in Rhode Island, were purchased of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +Miantinomi, sachem of the Narragansetts, for +one hundred and forty-four fathoms of wampum.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>In New England the limits of the trade were +considerably extended by the quantities of wampum +tribute which poured into the hands of the colonial +authorities. Wampum was the commodity +in which tribute was universally paid, and the +stern justice of our fathers imposed this with no +sparing hand upon their weak and erring neighbors. +In 1634, the Pequots were fined 400 +fathoms of wampum, and two years afterwards +600 fathoms more.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> After 1637, the Long Island +Indians paid a large yearly tribute to the united +commissioners,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> as did also the Block Islanders. +It is often difficult, as in the present case, to see +the justice of such exactions. These Indians had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +been guilty of no unfriendly act, and the utmost +urged in extenuation of the imposition was the +flimsy pretence that but for an alleged protection +the same sums would have gone in fealty to their +red brethren. In 1644, the Narragansetts were +fined 2000 fathoms, and doomed to pay yearly +thereafter a fathom for every Pequot man, half +a fathom for every youth and a hand breadth for +every child in the tribe. As late as 1658,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> the +Pequots were fined ten fathoms a man, and one +of their number imprisoned for offering refuse +wampum in part payment.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> This tribe had +suffered so many and severe exactions that they +were obliged to search in all directions for the +material out of which to manufacture their +wampum, and occasionally crossed over to Long +Island for this purpose. The Montauk sachem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +fearing that his shores would be exhausted of their +shelly wealth, opposed these visits, until the +Pequots succeeded in securing the interposition +of the united commissioners in their behalf.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> +In 1663, the assessment upon this tribe was fixed +at 80 fathoms. Such are a few of the many instances +to be found in the records, showing the +enormous amount of wampum paid as tribute by +the natives to the early authorities of New England.</p> + +<p>The Dutch supply was augmented in a different +manner. They soon found the native manufactories +inadequate to the demand and erected mints +of their own, and by introducing steel drills and +polishing lathes won a great advantage over the +original wearisome hand processes. The French +sought a still greater advantage by substituting +porcelain for shells, but the Indians were not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +be thus easily imposed upon, and the manufacture +of earthen money was soon given up.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> It is +sometimes asserted that the English engaged in +making wampum, though the statement appeared +to be without foundation. The Dutch, however, +produced it in large quantities, and were thereby +enabled to enlarge the circle of their own posts; +and also to furnish liberal supplies to the traders, +north and south, who ranged over the entire +Atlantic coast from the St. Lawrence to the gulf. +In Virginia, the Carolinas, and later in Georgia, +wampum was the chief medium employed in the +fur trade.</p> + +<p>The poverty of the early settlers, added to that +short sighted and now obsolete policy of Europe +in the seventeenth century, which jealously +sought to keep all specie within her borders, produced +a general dearth of the precious metals in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +the currency of the New World, and all kinds +of shifts were made to eke out the scanty supply. +Corn, wheat, oats, peas, poultry and the like +sufficed to satisfy any obligation. But then, though +answering well in cases of barter, where two +mutual desires met, were far too bulky and unwieldy +for general use. Naturally then recourse +was had to an article in extensive use among the +traders, and possessing in a measure the portability +of gold and silver, and <i>wampum</i> became a +constituent part of the currency. In one feature +at least, the old civilization held its own beside +the new. As early as 1637, wampum was made +a legal tender in Massachusetts for any sum under +12<i>d.</i>, at the rate of six beads for a penny.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The +same year it became a legal tender in Connecticut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +for any amount. The general court declaring +it receivable for taxes "at fousen (4) a penny."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> + +<p>But coin grew scarcer in Massachusetts and +shell money increased in value, till in 1640, the +authorities were compelled to adopt the valuation +of Connecticut, ordering that the white pass at +four and the "bleuse" at two a penny, "and not +above 12<i>d.</i> at a time except the receiver desire +more."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The public needs soon required another +change, and the legality of shell currency rose to +£10.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> This novel coinage, thus regulated from +time to time, answered well for money throughout +the colonies, till after a while trouble arose +from an unexpected source. The enormous demand +at length brought upon the market beads +of stone or unallowed shells, as also many rough,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +ill-strung specimens of the genuine article. The +disorder was aggravated, because the Indians, who +best understood the qualities of their wampum, +would take only the genuine from the traders, +while the refuse was thrown back into the circulation +of the colonies. The commissioners of the +United Colonies being appealed to for a remedy +recommended to the separate governments to +suppress this poor "peage" by law. Accordingly +in 1648, the general courte of Connecticut +ordered "that no peage, white or black, be paid or +received, but what is strung and in some measure +strung suitably, and not small and great, uncomely +and disorderly mixt, as formerly it hath beene."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> +A similar order was passed in Massachusetts, +where it was further enacted to prepare this +Indian money for ready use, that it be "suitably +strung in eight known parcells, 1<i>d.</i> 3<i>s.</i> 12<i>d.</i> 5<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +in white; 2<i>d.</i> 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> and 10<i>s.</i> in blacke."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Another +favorite length was the fathom, containing +360 beads and current at about 10<i>s.</i> Thus during +these years shell money was current throughout +New-England, and constituted, doubtless, the +best and most convenient portion of the currency. +The government received it for taxes, the farmer +for his produce, the merchant for his wares, and +the laborer for his hire. It formed a frequent +item in the inventories of deceased colonists, being +often the only cash mentioned. It even found +its way into the coffers of Harvard college, for +we read that the lease of the wampum trade in +Massachusetts was attended with the obligation +to take from the college the wampum which it +might have on hand from time to time.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> In the +forest, likewise, it now circulated as money, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +the Indian was quick to copy the white man's +use of his beads.</p> + +<p>Toward the middle of the century wampum +reached its highest value in New-England. Thereafter +the increasing prosperity of the colonies, +the domestic coinage of silver, and perhaps the +too extensive manufacture of the shell money, +gradually diminishing its value, drove it from circulation. +In 1650, it was refused in payment of +country rates in Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> This action of +the government naturally created distrust among +the people, to counteract which it was ordered +that "peage" should still "remagne pawable from +man to man, according to the law in force." +Close upon this followed another decree, limiting +it as a legal tender to 40 shillings.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> These laws +continued in force till 1661, when wampum was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +declared to be no longer a legal tender in Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> +Rhode Island passed a similar decree +the next year<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and Connecticut, probably, soon +afterwards. But though wampum now ceased to +be legally current, it lingered among the people +for years and constituted in great part the small +change of the community. As late as 1704, it +was a common mode of payment in country places.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> + +<p>Shell money was used extensively and for a long +time in the Dutch colonies. Here for a while +absolutely no coin was in circulation, and wampum +being the feasible substitute was universally adopted. +So great was the popular demand, that even the +unstrung wampum, prohibited in the eastern +colonies, passed at but a trifling discount.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +many years the easy-going government at New +Amsterdam does not seem to have regulated the +currency by law, as did its more thorough neighbors, +and the amount of wampum requisite to +make a stiver, was left to be determined by the +parties concerned. Such a course was fraught +with inconvenience to the public, and frequent +petitions were made for the establishment of some +uniform rate.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> + +<p>The rate, however, which obtained by common +consent, was four of the strung and six of the +loose beads for a stiver.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> But in 1641, there +came from foreign parts an inundation of "nasty, +rough" sewan, which drove the better sort out +of circulation, "nay," so runs the record, "threatened +the ruin of the country," and legislation was +imperatively demanded. This inferior article was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +therefore condemned to pass five for a stiver during +the following month, and afterwards six, at +which rate the loose, unstringed wampum, which +served the community as change, subsequently +circulated.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The importance of wampum during +these years is well illustrated by the fact that the +opulent West India Company in 1664, sought +to negotiate a loan of five or six thousand guilders +in it, wherewith to pay the laboring people, the +obligation to be satisfied with <i>good negroes</i> or other +goods.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The Dutch succumbed to superior force, +but wampum still held its own. It continued to +be the chief currency not only in New York, but +in the many settlements to the west and south, +which were then under the control of the authorities +at New York. In 1672, the inhabitants of +Hoanskill and New Castle on the Delaware,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +having been plundered by Dutch privateers were +permitted by the government at New York to +lay an impost of four guilders, in wampum, upon +each anker of strong rum imported or sold there.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> +A guilder, which was about six pence currency +or four pence sterling, consisted of twenty stivers, +and eight beads were reckoned equal to one stiver. +As heretofore there was little or no certain coin +in circulation and wampum passed for current +payment in all cases. Indeed the country was so +drained of even this currency by the Indian trade, +that there was difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency. +To remedy this state of affairs, the governor and +council of New York were in 1673 constrained +to issue their proclamation which was published +at Albany, Esopus, Delaware, Long Island and the +adjacent parts, commanding that "instead of +eight white and four black (beads), six white and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +three black should pass for a stiver; and three +times so much the value of silver."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<p>The contributions in the churches were for +many years made in wampum, and the first church +on the Jersey shore was built with funds contributed +in this way from Sabbath to Sabbath. As +late as 1683, "the schoolmaster in Flatbush was +paid his salary in wheat, wampum value: He +was bound to provide a basin of water for the +purpose of baptism, for which he received from +the parents or sponsors twelve stivers in wampum."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> +Nor ten years later had the money of +the aborigines become wholly supplanted by gold +and silver, for we learn that "in 1693, the ferriage +of each single person from New York to +Brooklyn was eight stivers in wampum, or a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +silver two-pence."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Further than this we are +unable to trace, though we have good reason to +believe that it circulated, to a limited extent, for +some time thereafter.</p> + +<p>Thus while the Indian declined in power his +simple coinage passed from hand to hand, among +his conquerors, in the haunts where unnumbered +generations of his ancestors had trafficked it in +rude barter, or offered it with solemn ceremonial, +their costliest offering, to their country's gods. +It was for about a quarter of a century a legal +tender in New England, while among the Dutch +it was during half a century often the only circulating +medium, and among both Dutch and +English it filled a more or less important part +in the currency for nearly an entire century.</p> + +<p>When at length the increasing wealth of the +people drove wampum out of common use, it still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +remained an important article in commerce. It +was manufactured at New York until the commencement +of the present century to be used in +traffic with the Indians, for whom it had lost +none of its charms, and to be carried by our +whalers into the northern seas.</p> + +<p>Treaties and compacts between the different +tribes and the states, and later the general government, +continued to be ratified by the interchange +of wampum belts. The records of the eighteenth +century abound with instances of this character. +The last occasion of the kind is believed to have +been at Prairie du Chien in 1825.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p> + +<p>Among the Indians of the present day wampum +is unknown. The name still remains, but the +trifles to which it is applied bear no resemblance +to the ancient article. The glass beads now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +current as wampum and the original wampum +are not less unlike, than the squalid Blackfoot of +our western plains, and the proud and imperious +Mohawk, beside his native stream.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Trumbull in his notes in the Narragansett Club Reprint +of Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, says: "<i>Wom pam</i> was the name of +the white beads collectively; when strung or wrought in girdles +they constituted <i>wanôm-peg</i> [Roger Williams], the <i>wampon-peage</i> +of Wood and other early writers." +</p><p> +<i>Peage</i> or <i>peake</i> signified simply "strung beads," and <i>wampom-peage</i> +accordingly signified "strings of white beads." +</p><p> +The English were doubtless led to consider <i>wampum</i> a +generic word, because they heard it oftenest used, <i>wampum</i> +being much more abundant than <i>suckáuhock</i>. Their error has +however long since received the sanction of usage. But as far +as our own knowledge extends there was no comprehensive +word for all shell beads in use among the Indians. <i>Sewan</i> had +perhaps very nearly such a use in certain localities, but the real +meaning of the word <i>sewan</i> appears from the following note in +the Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>:—"<i>Seahwhóog</i>, +'they are scattered' [Elliot]. From this word +the Dutch traders gave the name of <i>sewared</i> or <i>zeewand</i> [the +participle, <i>seahwhóun</i>, 'scattered,' 'loose'], to <i>all</i> shell money +just as the English called all <i>peage</i>, or string beads, by the name +of the white or <i>wampom</i>."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Sometimes from the <i>Buccinum undulatum</i> [Möll], found +from Nantucket to Labrador, and occasionally perhaps from the +<i>Natica heros</i> [Say] found from New York to Labrador, and the +<i>Natica duplicata</i> found from Florida to Massachusetts Bay. +</p><p> +In this connection the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness +to Hon. J. Hammond Trumbull, a gentleman who has +given much time and talent to the investigation of matters of +Indian history.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Many writers have asserted that wampum was worked out +of the inside of the Great Conque shell. This view is evidently +erroneous, as the Great Conque, <i>Strombus gigas</i> [Linn.], is not +found on the Atlantic coast, north of Florida and the West +Indies, except in the fossil state. +</p><p> +The assertion that wampum is an Iroquois word, meaning a +"muscle," is doubtless equally unfounded. +</p><p> +Roger Williams [<i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv], who certainly had +fine opportunities for observation, and our other most trustworthy +authorities, state that the <i>Suckáuhock</i> was made from the +clam shell, and the <i>wampum</i> from the shells of the Periwinkle, +and such was unquestionably the case.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Gordon, <i>Hist. of Penn.</i>, Appendix F.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See Schoolcraft's report on the Grove Creek Mound in vol. +<span class="smcapl">I</span>, of <i>Transactions of the Am. Ethnological Soc.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The otekóa of the Iroquois was the only exception of which +we know.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> For an excellent illustration of the different modes of +wearing wampum, see the plates in that admirable work, +<i>Harriot's Virginia</i>, written in 1586, and published in 1590, in +the first volume of De Bry's <i>Voyages</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Trumbull's <i>Hist. of Connecticut</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, p. 50.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with +Indian affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of +what consequence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings +or belts of wampum, which they look upon as we our letters +or rather bonds."—<i>Letter of Sir Wm. Johnson</i>, 1753. <i>Doc. +Hist. of N. Y.</i>, vol. <span class="smcapl">II</span>, p. 624.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> As late as 1720, a belt was brought into Connecticut from +some place at the south called Towattowan, and circulated very +generally among the Indians, to the alarm of the colony, "the +assembly caused some inquiries to be made into the mystery, +and an Indian, named Tapanranawko, testified that the belt +was in token that at each place where it was accepted, captive +Indians would be received and sold. He said that it would be +sent back to Towattowan, which was a great way to the south, +and was inhabited by a large tribe of Indians. The assembly +resolved that the Indians should be directed to send it back +whence it came, and should be charged not to receive such +presents in future without giving notice to the magistrates."—DeForest's +<i>Hist. of Indians of Conn.</i>, p. 349.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 339.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Documents relating to the <i>Colonial History of New York</i>, +vol. <span class="smcapl">VII</span>, p. 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 120.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia in the Revolution</i>, Kidder, +p. 286.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> It is interesting in this connection to notice the manner in +which the chiefs affixed their names to early deeds. In the +deed of New Haven given by the Quinnipiacs [see Appendix +<span class="smcapl">IV</span>, DeForest's Indians of Conn.], may be seen as autographs, +an arrow, a bow, a drawn bow, a war club, a tobacco pipe, a +snake, a wolf (apparently), a wild fowl, etc., etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 119.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> President Stiles's <i>Itinerary</i>, unpublished.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, page 188.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Thomson's <i>Long Island</i>, p. 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 331.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It is stated in <i>Winthrop's Journal</i> [p. 147 and after], that +four servants of Plymouth were condemned and hung upon their +own confession of having murdered an Indian to obtain his +wampum.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> In the tomb, apparently of a chief, in the Grove Creek +Mound, 1700 beads were found around the remains of a skeleton, +and such deposits are frequently found in opening old graves.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Winthrop, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 113.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Bradford's <i>Letters</i>, <i>Mass. Hist. Collections</i>, <span class="smcapl">III</span>, 54.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Doc. Rel. to Colonial History of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 459.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Lawson's <i>History of North Carolina</i>, ed. of 1714, page 315.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Rhode Island <i>Colonial Records</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 130.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Winthrop</i>, pages 147, 149 and 192.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Thompson's <i>Long Island</i>, page 62.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, page 413.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">III</span>, page 44.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, pages 387 and 388.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Thompson's <i>Long Island</i>, page 60.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 238. Where only one rate is mentioned, +as here, we are probably to understand the white, and deduct +one-half for the black or blue.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Colonial Records of Conn.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 12.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, p. 302.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 329.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Col. Records of Conn.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 179.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, 261.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 323.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, 279.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <span class="smcapl">IV</span>, p. 36.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">IV</span>, part 2, pages 4, 5.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>R. Island Colonial Records</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, page 474.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Madam Knight's <i>Journal</i>, written in 1704, page 43.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Doc. Relating to the Colonial Hist. of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 474.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 336.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 425.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 230.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Doc. Col. Hist. of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, p. 371.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Proud's <i>Hist. of Pennsylvania</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, page 133.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Hazzard's <i>Annals of Pennsylvania</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 61.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, <i>ibid.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Schoolcraft's <i>Notes on the Iroquois</i>.</p></div> +</div> + + + +<div class="trans1"><p class="trnhd">Transcriber's Note</p> + +<p>Archaic spellings have been retained. +Abbreviations have been normalised. +Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst more significant amendments +are listed below:</p> + +<ul><li><a href="#Page_10">P. 10</a>, "Pyrula canicalata" to <i>Pyrula caniculata</i>.</li></ul> + +<ul><li><a href="#Footnote_3_3">P. 11n</a>, "Great Congue" to <i>Great Conque</i>, could be amended to <i>Great Conch</i> +however the former seems more in keeping with the original intent.</li></ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM *** + +***** This file should be named 23635-h.htm or 23635-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/6/3/23635/ + +Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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