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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Color Notation
+       A measured color system, based on the three qualities Hue,
+       Value and Chroma
+
+Author: Albert H. Munsell
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2008 [EBook #26054]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COLOR NOTATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, K.D. Thornton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
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+[This text uses utf-8 (unicode) file encoding. If the apostrophes and
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+
+The Table of Contents, Index, and all cross-references use paragraph
+numbers, shown in (parentheses).
+
+Braces have been added to a few long fractions that were originally
+printed on two lines.
+
+The numbers in expressions such as R2, R3, R4 were printed as
+superscripts.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: A BALANCED COLOR SPHERE
+  PASTEL SKETCH]
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR NOTATION
+
+  _By_
+
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+A MEASURED COLOR SYSTEM, BASED ON THE THREE QUALITIES
+
+  _Hue, Value, and Chroma_
+
+  with
+
+  Illustrative Models, Charts, and
+  a Course of Study Arranged for Teachers
+
+  _2nd Edition
+  Revised &
+  Enlarged_
+
+  GEO. H. ELLIS CO.
+  BOSTON
+  1907
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1905
+  by
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR’S PREFACE.
+
+
+At various times during the past ten years, the gist of these pages has
+been given in the form of lectures to students of the Normal Art School,
+the Art Teachers’ Association, and the Twentieth Century Club. In
+October of last year it was presented before the Society of Arts of the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the suggestion of Professor
+Charles R. Cross.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is due to many whose helpful criticism has aided
+in its development, notably Mr. Benjamin Ives Gilman, Secretary of the
+Museum of Fine Arts, Professor Harry E. Clifford, of the Institute, and
+Mr. Myron T. Pritchard, master of the Everett School, Boston.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1905.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+The new illustrations in this edition are facsimiles of children’s
+studies with measured color, made under ordinary school-room conditions.
+Notes and appendices are introduced to meet the questions most
+frequently asked, stress being laid on the unbalanced nature of colors
+usually given to beginners, and the mischief done by teaching that red,
+yellow, and blue are primary hues.
+
+The need of a scientific basis for color values is also emphasized,
+believing this to be essential in the discipline of the color sense.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1907.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The lack of definiteness which is at present so general in color
+nomenclature, is due in large measure to the failure to appreciate the
+fundamental characteristics on which color differences depend. For the
+physicist, the expression of the wave length of any particular light is
+in most cases sufficient, but in the great majority of instances where
+colors are referred to, something more than this and something easier of
+realization is essential.
+
+The attempt to express color relations by using merely two dimensions,
+or two definite characteristics, can never lead to a successful system.
+For this reason alone the system proposed by Mr. Munsell, with its three
+dimensions of hue, value, and chroma, is a decided step in advance over
+any previous proposition. By means of these three dimensions it is
+possible to completely express any particular color, and to
+differentiate it from colors ordinarily classed as of the same
+general character.
+
+The expression of the essential characteristics of a color is, however,
+not all that is necessary. There must be some accurate and not too
+complicated system for duplicating these characteristics, one which
+shall not alter with time or place, and which shall be susceptible of
+easy and accurate redetermination. From the teaching standpoint also a
+logical and sequential development is absolutely essential. This Mr.
+Munsell seems to have most successfully accomplished.
+
+In the determination of his relationships he has made use of distinctly
+scientific methods, and there seems no reason why his suggestions should
+not lead to an exact and definite system of color essentials. The
+Munsell photometer, which is briefly referred to, is an instrument of
+wide range, high precision, and great sensitiveness, and permits the
+valuations which are necessary in his system to be accurately made. We
+all appreciate the necessity for some improvement in our ideas of color,
+and the natural inference is that the training should be begun in early
+youth. The present system in its modified form possesses elements of
+simplicity and attractiveness which should appeal to children, and give
+them almost unconsciously a power of discrimination which would prove of
+immense value in later life. The possibilities in this system are very
+great, and it has been a privilege to be allowed during the past few
+years to keep in touch with its development. I cannot but feel that we
+have here not only a rational color nomenclature, but also a system of
+scientific importance and of practical value.
+
+    H. E. CLIFFORD.
+
+  MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
+    February, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Introduction By Professor Clifford.
+
+
+  Part I.
+
+Chapter                                                Paragraph
+
+    I. COLOR NAMES: Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple           1
+         Appendix I.--Misnomers for Color.
+
+   II. COLOR QUALITIES: Hue, Value, Chroma                    20
+         Appendix II.--Scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+  III. COLOR MIXTURE: A Tri-Dimensional Balance               54
+         Appendix III.--False Color Balance.
+
+   IV. PRISMATIC COLORS                                       87
+         Appendix IV.--Children’s Color Studies.
+
+    V. THE PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE: TRUE COLOR BALANCE          102
+         Appendix V.--Schemes based on Brewster’s Theory.
+
+   VI. COLOR NOTATION: A Written Color System                132
+
+  VII. COLOR HARMONY: A Measured Relation                    146
+
+
+  Part II.
+
+       A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+       BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+         Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+       GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+         Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+       INDEX
+         (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COLOR NAMES.
+
+
+Writing from Samoa to Sidney Colvin in London, Stevenson[1] says:
+“Perhaps in the same way it might amuse you to send us any pattern of
+wall paper that might strike you as cheap, pretty, and suitable for a
+room in a hot and extremely bright climate. It should be borne in mind
+that our climate can be extremely dark, too. Our sitting-room is to be
+in varnished wood. The room I have particularly in mind is a sort of bed
+and sitting room, pretty large, lit on three sides, and the colour in
+favour of its proprietor at present is a topazy yellow. But then with
+what colour to relieve it? For a little work-room of my own at the back
+I should rather like to see some patterns of unglossy--well, I’ll be
+hanged if I can describe this red. It’s not Turkish, and it’s not Roman,
+and it’s not Indian; but it seems to partake of the last two, and yet it
+can’t be either of them, because it ought to be able to go with
+vermilion. Ah, what a tangled web we weave! Anyway, with what brains you
+have left choose me and send me some--many--patterns of the exact
+shade.”
+
+    [Footnote 1: Vailima Letters, Oct. 8, 1902.]
+
+(1) Where could be found a more delightful cry for some rational way to
+describe color? He wants “a topazy yellow” and a red that is not Turkish
+nor Roman nor Indian, but that “seems to partake of the last two, and
+yet it can’t be either of them.” As a cap to the climax comes his demand
+for “patterns of the exact shade.” Thus one of the clearest and most
+forceful writers of English finds himself unable to describe the color
+he wants. And why? Simply because popular language does not clearly
+state a single one of the three qualities united in every color, and
+which must be known before one may even hope to convey his color
+conceptions to another.
+
+(2) The incongruous and bizarre nature of our present color names must
+appear to any thoughtful person. Baby blue, peacock blue, Nile green,
+apple green, lemon yellow, straw yellow, rose pink, heliotrope, royal
+purple, Magenta, Solferino, plum, and automobile are popular terms,
+conveying different ideas to different persons and utterly failing to
+define colors. The terms used for a single hue, such as pea green, sea
+green, olive green, grass green, sage green, evergreen, invisible green,
+are not to be trusted in ordering a piece of cloth. They invite mistakes
+and disappointment. Not only are they inaccurate: they are
+inappropriate. Can we imagine musical tones called lark, canary,
+cockatoo, crow, cat, dog, or mouse, because they bear some distant
+resemblance to the cries of those animals? See paragraph 131.
+
+
++Color needs a system.+
+
+(3) Music is equipped with a system by which it defines each sound in
+terms of its pitch, intensify, and duration, without dragging in loose
+allusions to the endlessly varying sounds of nature. So should color be
+supplied with an appropriate system, based on the hue, value, and
+chroma[2] of our sensations, and not attempting to describe them by the
+indefinite and varying colors of natural objects. The system now to be
+considered portrays the three dimensions of color, and measures each by
+an appropriate scale. It does not rest upon the whim of an individual,
+but upon physical measurements made possible by special color apparatus.
+The results may be tested by any one who comes to the problem with “a
+clear mind, a good eye, and a fair supply of patience.”
+
+    [Footnote 2: See color variables in Glossary.]
+
+
++Clear mental images make clear speech. Vague thoughts find vague
+utterance.+
+
+(4) The child gathers flowers, hoards colored beads, chases butterflies,
+and begs for the gaudiest painted toys. At first his strong color
+sensations are sufficiently described by the simple terms of red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. But he soon sees that some are light,
+while others are dark, and later comes to perceive that each hue has
+many grayer degrees. Now, if he wants to describe a particular
+red,--such as that of his faded cap,--he is not content to merely call
+it red, since he is aware of other red objects which are very unlike it.
+So he gropes for means to define this particular red; and, having no
+standard of comparison,--no scale by which to estimate,--he hesitatingly
+says it is a “sort of dull red.”
+
+(5) Thus early is he cramped by the poverty of color language. He has
+never been given an appropriate word for this color quality, and has to
+borrow one signifying the opposite of sharp, which belongs to edge tools
+rather than to colors.
+
+
++Most color terms are borrowed from other senses.+
+
+(6) When his older sister refers to the “tone” of her green dress, or
+speaks of the “key of color” in a picture, he is naturally confused,
+because tone and key are terms associated in his mind with music. It may
+not be long before he will hear that “a color note has been pitched too
+high,” or that a certain artist “paints in a minor key.” All these terms
+lead to mixed and indefinite ideas, and leave him unequipped for the
+clear expression of color qualities.
+
+(7) Musical art is not so handicapped. It has an established scale with
+measured intervals and definite terms. Likewise, coloristic art must
+establish a scale, measure its intervals, and name its qualities in
+unmistakable fashion.
+
+
++Color has three dimensions.+
+
+(8) It may sound strange to say that color has three dimensions, but it
+is easily proved by the fact that each of them can be measured. Thus in
+the case of the boy’s faded cap its redness or HUE[3] is determined by
+one instrument; the amount of light in the red, which is its VALUE,[3]
+is found by another instrument; while still a third instrument
+determines the purity or CHROMA[3] of the red.
+
+The omission of any one of these three qualities leaves us in doubt as
+to the character of a color, just as truly as the character of this
+studio would remain undefined if the length were omitted and we
+described it as 22 feet wide by 14 feet high. The imagination would be
+free to ascribe any length it chose, from 25 to 100 feet. This length
+might be differently conceived by every individual who tried to supply
+the missing factor.
+
+(9) To illustrate the tri-dimensional nature of colors. Suppose we peel
+an orange and divide it in five parts, leaving the sections slightly
+connected below (Fig. 4). Then let us say that all the reds we have ever
+seen are gathered in one of the sections, all yellows in another, all
+greens in the third, blues in the fourth, and purples in the fifth. Next
+we will assort these HUES in each section so that the lightest are near
+the top, and grade regularly to the darkest near the bottom. A white
+wafer connects all the sections at the top, and a black wafer may be
+added beneath. See Plate I.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: For definitions of Hue, Value, and Chroma, see
+    paragraphs 20-23.]
+
+(10) The fruit is then filled with assorted colors, graded from white to
+black, according to their VALUES, and disposed by their HUES in the five
+sections. A slice near the top will uncover light values in all hues,
+and a slice near the bottom will find dark values in the same hues.
+A slice across the middle discloses a circuit of hues all of MIDDLE
+VALUE; that is, midway between the extremes of white and black.
+
+(11) Two color dimensions are thus shown in the orange, and it remains
+to exhibit the third, which is called CHROMA, or strength of color. To
+do this, we have only to take each section in turn, and, without
+disturbing the values already assorted, shove the grayest in toward the
+narrow edge, and grade outward to the purest on the surface. Each slice
+across the fruit still shows the circuit of hues in one uniform value;
+but the strong chromas are at the outside, while grayer and grayer
+chromas make a gradation inward to neutral gray at the centre, where all
+trace of color disappears. The thin edges of all sections unite in a
+scale of gray from black to white, no matter what hue each contains.
+
+The curved outside of each section shows its particular hue graded from
+black to white; and, should the section be cut at right angles to the
+thin edge, it would show the third dimension,--chroma,--for the color is
+graded evenly from the surface to neutral gray. A pin stuck in at any
+point traces the third dimension.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+
++A color sphere can be used to unite the three dimensions of hue,
+value, and chroma.+
+
+(12) Having used the familiar structure of the orange as a help in
+classifying colors, let us substitute a geometric solid, like a
+sphere,[4] and make use of geographical terms. The north pole is white.
+The south pole is black. The equator is a circuit of middle reds,
+yellows, greens, blues, and purples. Parallels above the equator
+describe this circuit in lighter values, and parallels below trace it in
+darker values. The vertical axis joining black and white is a neutral
+scale of gray values, while perpendiculars to it (like a pin thrust into
+the orange) are scales of chroma. Thus our color notions may be brought
+into an orderly relation by the color sphere. Any color describes its
+light and strength by its location in the solid or on the surface, and
+is named by its place in the combined scales of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 4: See frontispiece.]
+
++Two dimensions fail to describe a color.+
+
+(13) Much of the popular misunderstanding of color is caused by
+ignorance of these three dimensions or by an attempt to make two
+dimensions do the work of three.
+
+(14) Flat diagrams showing hues and values, but omitting to define
+chromas, are as incomplete as would be a map of Switzerland with the
+mountains left out, or a harbor chart without indications of the depth
+of water. We find by aid of the measuring instruments that pigments are
+very unequal in this third dimension,--chroma,--producing mountains and
+valleys on the color sphere, so that, when the color system is worked
+out in pigments and charted, some colors must be traced well out beyond
+the spherical surface (paragraphs 125-127). Indeed, a COLOR TREE[5] is
+needed to display by the unequal levels and lengths of its branches the
+individuality of pigment colors. But, whatever solid or figure is used
+to illustrate color relations, it must combine the three scales of hue,
+value, and chroma, and these definite scales furnish a name for every
+color based upon its intrinsic qualities, and free from terms purloined
+in other sensations, or caught from the fluctuating colors of natural
+objects.
+
+    [Footnote 5: For description of the Color Tree see paragraphs 33
+    and 34.]
+
+
++How this system describes the spectrum.+
+
+(15) The solar spectrum and rainbow are the most stimulating color
+experiences with which we are acquainted. Can they be described by this
+solid system?
+
+(16) The lightest part of the spectrum is a narrow field of greenish
+yellow, grading into darker red on one side and into darker green upon
+the other, followed by still darker blue and purple. Upon the sphere the
+values of these spectral colors trace a path high up on the yellow
+section, near white, and slanting downward across the red and green
+sections, which are traversed near the level of the equator, it goes on
+to cross the blue and purple well down toward black.
+
+(17) This forms an inclined circuit, crossing the equator at opposite
+points, and suggests the ecliptic or the rings of Saturn (see outside
+cover). A pale rainbow would describe a slanting circuit nearer white,
+and a dimmer one would fall within the sphere, while an intensely
+brilliant spectrum projects far beyond the surface of the sphere, so
+greatly is the chroma of its hues in excess of the common pigments with
+which we work out our problems.
+
+(18) At the outset it is well to recognize the place of the spectrum in
+this system, not only because it is the established basis of scientific
+study, but especially because the invariable order assumed by its hues
+is the only stable hint which Nature affords us in her infinite color
+play.
+
+(19) All our color sensations are included in the color solid. None are
+left out by its scales of hue, value, and chroma. Indeed, the
+imagination is led to conceive and locate still purer colors than any we
+now possess. Such increased degrees of color sensation can be named, and
+clearly conveyed by symbols to another person as soon as the system is
+comprehended.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
+
+
++Misnomers for Color.+
+
+The Century Dictionary helps an intelligent study of color by its clear
+definitions and cross-references to HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA,--leaving no
+excuse for those who would confuse these three qualities or treat a
+degree of any quality as the quality itself.
+
+Obscure statements were frequent in text-books before these new
+definitions appeared. Thus the term “shade” should be applied only to
+darkened values, and not to hues or chromas. Yet one writer says, “This
+yellow shades into green,” which is certainly a change of hue, and then
+speaks of “a brighter shade” in spite of his evident intention to
+suggest a stronger chroma, which is neither a shade nor brighter
+luminosity.
+
+Children gain wrong notions of “tint and shade” from the so-called
+standard colors shown to them, which present “tints” of red and blue
+much darker than the “shades” of yellow. This is bewildering, and, like
+their elders, they soon drop into the loose habit of calling any degree
+of color-strength or color-light a “shade.” _Value_ is a better term to
+describe the light which color reflects to the eye, and all color
+values, light or dark, are measured by the _value-scale_.
+
+“Tone” is used in a confusing way to mean different things. Thus in the
+same sentence we see it refers to a single touch of the brush,--which is
+not a tone, but a paint spot,--and then we read that the “tone of the
+canvas is golden.” This cannot mean that each paint spot is the color of
+gold, but is intended to suggest that the various objects depicted seem
+enveloped in a yellow atmosphere. Tone is, in fact, a musical term
+appropriate to sound, but out of place in color. It seems better to call
+the brush touch a _color-spot_: then the result of an harmonious
+relation between all the spots is _color-envelope_, or, as in Rood, “the
+chromatic composition.”
+
+“Intensity” is a misleading term, if chroma be intended, for it depends
+on the relative light of spectral hues. It is a degree rather than a
+quality, as appears in the expressions, intense heat, light,
+sound,--intensity of stimulus and reaction. Being a degree of many
+qualities, it should not be used to describe the quality itself. The
+word becomes especially unfit when used to describe two very different
+phases of a color,--as its intense illumination, where the chroma is
+greatly weakened, and the strongest chroma which is found in a much
+lower value. “Purity” is also to be avoided in speaking of pigments, for
+not one of our pigments represents a single pure ray of the spectrum.
+
+Examples are constantly found of the mental blur caused by such
+unfortunate terms, and, since misunderstanding becomes impossible with
+measured degrees of hue, value, and chroma, it seems only a question of
+time when they will take the place of tint, tone, shade, purity and
+intensity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COLOR QUALITIES.
+
+
+(20) The three color qualities are hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
++HUE is the name of a color.+
+
+(21) Hue is the quality by which we distinguish one color from another,
+as a red from a yellow, a green, a blue, or a purple. This names the
+hue, but does not tell whether it is light or dark, weak or
+strong,--leaving us in doubt as to its value and its chroma.
+
+Science attributes this quality to difference in the LENGTH of ether
+waves impinging on the retina, which causes the sensation of color. The
+wave length M. 5269 gives a sensation of green, while M. 6867 gives a
+sensation of red.[6]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See Glossary for definitions of Micron, Photometer,
+    Retina, and Red, also for Hue, Tint, Shade, Value, Color
+    Variables, Luminosity, and Chroma.]
+
+
++VALUE is the light of a color.+
+
+(22) Value is the quality by which we distinguish a light color from a
+dark one. Color values are loosely called tints and shades, but the
+terms are frequently misapplied. A tint should be a light value, and a
+shade should be darker; but the word “shade” has become a general term
+for any sort of color, so that a shade of yellow may prove to be lighter
+than a tint of blue. A photometric[7] scale of value places all colors
+in relation to the extremes of white and black, but cannot describe
+their hue or their chroma.
+
+Science describes this quality as due to difference in the HEIGHT or
+amplitude of ether waves impinging on the retina. Small amplitudes of
+the wave lengths given in paragraph 21 produce the sensation of dark
+green and dark red: larger amplitudes give the sensation of lighter
+green and lighter red.
+
+    [Footnote 7: See Photometer in paragraph 65.]
+
+
++CHROMA is the strength of a color.+
+
+(23) Chroma is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a
+weak one. To say that a rug is strong in color gives no hint of its hues
+or values, only its chromas. Loss of chroma is loosely called fading,
+but this word is frequently used to include changes of value and hue.
+Take two autumn leaves, identical in color, and expose one to the
+weather, while the other is waxed and pressed in a book. Soon the
+exposed leaf fades into a neutral gray, while the protected one
+preserves its strong chroma almost intact. If, in fading, the leaf does
+not change its hue or its value, there is only a loss of chroma, but the
+fading process is more likely to induce some change of the other two
+qualities. Fading, however, cannot define these changes.
+
+Science describes chroma as the purity of one wave length separated from
+all others. Other wave lengths, INTERMINGLING, make its chroma less
+pure. A beam of daylight can combine all wave lengths in such balance as
+to give the sensation of whiteness, because no single wave is in
+excess.[8]
+
+    [Footnote 8: See definition of White in Glossary.]
+
+(24) The color sphere (see Fig. 1) is a convenient model to illustrate
+these three qualities,--hue, value, and chroma,--and unite them by
+measured scales.
+
+(25) The north pole of the color sphere is white, and the south pole
+black. Value or luminosity of colors ranges between these two extremes.
+This is the vertical scale, to be memorized as _V_, the initial for both
+value and vertical. Vertical movement through color may thus be thought
+of as a change of value, but not as a change of hue or of chroma. Hues
+of color are spread around the equator of the sphere. This is a
+horizontal scale, memorized as _H_, the initial for both hue and
+horizontal. Horizontal movement around the color solid is thus thought
+of as a change of hue, but not of value or of chroma. A line inward from
+the strong surface hues to the neutral gray axis, traces the graying of
+each color, which is loss of chroma, and conversely a line beginning
+with neutral gray at the vertical axis, and becoming more and more
+colored until it passes outside the sphere, is a scale of chroma, which
+is memorized as _C_, the initial both for chroma and centre. Thus the
+sphere lends its three dimensions to color description, and a color
+applied anywhere within, without, or on its surface is located and named
+by its degree of hue, of value, and of chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+
++HUES first appeal to the child, VALUES next, and CHROMAS last.+
+
+(26) Color education begins with ability to recognize and name certain
+hues, such as red, yellow, green, blue, and purple (see paragraphs 182
+and 183). Nature presents these hues in union with such varieties of
+value and chroma that, unless there be some standard of comparison, it
+is impossible for one person to describe them intelligently to another.
+
+(27) The solar spectrum forms a basis for scientific color analysis,
+taught in technical schools; but it is quite beyond the comprehension of
+a child. He needs something more tangible and constantly in view to
+train his color notions. He needs to handle colors, place them side by
+side for comparison, imitate them with crayons, paints, and colored
+stuffs, so as to test the growth of perception, and learn by simple yet
+accurate terms to describe each by its hue, its value, and its chroma.
+
+(28) Pigments, rather than the solar spectrum, are the practical agents
+of color work. Certain of them, selected and measured by this system
+(see Chapter V.), will be known as MIDDLE COLORS, because they stand
+midway in the scales of value and chroma. These middle colors are
+preserved in imperishable enamels,[9] so that the child may handle and
+fix them in his memory, and thus gain a permanent basis for comparing
+all degrees of color. He learns to grade each middle color to its
+extremes of value and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 9: When recognized for the first time, a middle green,
+    blue, or purple, is accepted by most persons as well within
+    their color habit, but middle red and middle yellow cause
+    somewhat of a shock. “That isn’t red,” they say, “it’s terra
+    cotta.” “Yellow?” “Oh, no, that’s--well, it’s a very peculiar
+    shade.”
+    Yet these are as surely the middle degrees of red and yellow as
+    are the more familiar degrees of green, blue, and purple. This
+    becomes evident as soon as one accepts physical tests of color
+    in place of personal whim. It also opens the mind to a generally
+    ignored fact, that middle reds and yellows, instead of the
+    screaming red and yellow first given a child, are constantly
+    found in examples of rich and beautiful color, such as Persian
+    rugs, Japanese prints, and the masterpieces of painting.]
+
+(29) Experiments with crayons and paints, and efforts to match middle
+colors, train his color sense to finer perceptions. Having learned to
+name colors, he compares them with the enamels of middle value, and can
+describe how light or dark they are. Later he perceives their
+differences of strength, and, comparing them with the enamels of middle
+chroma, can describe how weak or strong they are. Thus the full
+significance of these middle colors as a practical basis for all color
+estimates becomes apparent; and, when at a more advanced stage he
+studies the best examples of decorative color, he will again encounter
+them in the most beautiful products of Oriental art.
+
+
++Is it possible to define the endless varieties of color?+
+
+(30) At first glance it would seem almost hopeless to attempt the naming
+of every kind and degree of color. But, if all these varieties possess
+the same three qualities, only in different degrees, and if each quality
+can be measured by a scale, then there is a clue to this labyrinth.
+
+
++A COLOR SPHERE and COLOR TREE to unite hue, value, and chroma.+
+
+(31) This clue is found in the union of these three qualities by
+measured scales in a _color sphere and color tree_.[10] The equator of
+the sphere[11] may be divided into ten parts, and serve as the scale of
+hue, marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP. Its vertical axis may
+be divided into ten parts to serve as the scale of value, numbered from
+black (0) to white (10). Any perpendicular to the neutral axis is a
+scale of chroma. On the plane of the equator this scale is numbered 1,
+2, 3, 4, 5, from the centre to the surface.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: See Color Tree in paragraph 14.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Unaware that the spherical arrangement had been
+    used years before, I devised a double tetrahedron to classify
+    colors, while a student of painting in 1879. It now appears that
+    the sphere was common property with psychologists, having been
+    described by Runge in 1810. Earlier still, Lambert had suggested
+    a pyramidal form. Both are based on the erroneous assumption
+    that red, yellow, and blue are primary sensations, and also fail
+    to place these hues in a just scale of luminosity. My twirling
+    color solid and its completer development in the present model
+    have always made prominent the artistic feeling for color value.
+    It differs in this and in other ways from previous systems, and
+    is fortunate in possessing new apparatus to measure the degree
+    of hue, value, and chroma.]
+
+(32) This chroma scale may be raised or lowered to any level of value,
+always remaining perpendicular to the axis, and serving to measure the
+chroma of every hue at every level of value. The fact that some colors
+exceed others to such an extent as to carry them out beyond the sphere
+is proved by measuring instruments, but the fact is a new one to many
+persons. (Figs. 2 and 3.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2. (See Fig. 20) The Color Tree]
+
+(33) For this reason the COLOR TREE is a completer model than the
+sphere, although the simplicity of the latter makes it best for a
+child’s comprehension.
+
+(34) The color tree is made by taking the vertical axis of the sphere,
+which carries a scale of value, for the trunk. The branches are at right
+angles to the trunk; and, as in the sphere, they carry the scale of
+chroma. Colored balls on the branches tell their Hue. In order to show
+the MAXIMA of color, each branch is attached to the trunk (or neutral
+axis) at a level demanded by its value,--the yellow nearest white at the
+top, then the green, red, blue, and purple branches, approaching black
+in the order of their lower values. It will be remembered that the
+chroma of the sphere ceased with 5 at the equator. The color tree
+prolongs this through 6, 7, 8, and 9. The branch ends carry colored
+balls, representing the most powerful red, yellow, green, blue, and
+purple pigments which we now possess, and could be lengthened, should
+stronger chromas be discovered.[12]
+
+    [Footnote 12: See Plate I.]
+
+(35) Such models set up a permanent image of color relations. Every
+point is self-described by its place in the united scales of hue, value,
+and chroma. These scales fix each new perception of color in the child’s
+mind by its situation in the color solid. The importance of such a
+definite image can hardly be overestimated, for without it one color
+sensation tends to efface another. When the child looks at a color, and
+has no basis of comparison, it soon leaves a vague memory that cannot be
+described. These models, on the contrary, lead to an intelligent
+estimate of each color in terms of its hue, its value, and its chroma;
+while the permanent enamels correct any personal bias by a definite
+standard.
+
+(36) Thus defined, a color falls into logical relation with all other
+colors in the system, and is easily memorized, so that its image may be
+recalled at any distance of time or place by the notation.
+
+(37) These solid models help to memorize and assemble colors and the
+memory is further strengthened by a simple NOTATION, which records each
+color so that it cannot be mistaken for any other. By these written
+scales a child gains an instinctive estimate of relations, so that, when
+he is delighted with a new color combination, its proportions are noted
+and understood.
+
+(38) Musical art has long enjoyed the advantages of a definite scale and
+notation. Should not the art of coloring gain by similar definition? The
+musical scale is not left to personal whim, nor does it change from day
+to day; and something as clear and stable would be an advantage in
+training the color sense.
+
+(39) Perception of color is crude at first. The child sees only the most
+obvious distinctions, and prefers the strongest stimulation. But
+perception soon becomes refined by exercise, and, when a child tries to
+imitate the subtle colors of nature with paints, he begins to realize
+that the strongest colors are not the most beautiful,--rather the
+tempered ones, which may be compared to the moderate sounds in music. To
+describe these tempered colors, he must estimate their hue, value, and
+chroma, and be able to describe in what degree his copy departs from the
+natural color. And, with this gain in perception and imitation of
+natural color, he finds a strong desire to invent combinations to please
+his fancy. Thus the study divides into three related attitudes, which
+may be called recognition, imitation, and invention. Recognition of
+color is fundamental, but it would be tedious to spend a year or two in
+formal and dry exercises to train recognition of color alone; for each
+step in recognition of color is best tested by exercise in its imitation
+and arrangement. When perception becomes keener, emphasis can be placed
+on imitation of the colors found in art and in nature, resting finally
+on the selection and grouping of colors for design.[13]
+
+    [Footnote 13: See Course of Study, Part II.]
+
+
++Every color can be recognized, named, matched, imitated, and written
+by its HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.+
+
+(40) The notation used in this system places Hue (expressed by an
+initial) at the left; Value (expressed by a number) at the right and
+above a line; and Chroma (also expressed by a number) at the right,
+below the line. Thus R 5/9 means HUE (red), VALUE (5)/CHROMA (9), and
+will be found to represent the qualities of the pigment vermilion.[14]
+
+    [Footnote 14: See Chapter VI.]
+
+Hue, value, and chroma unite in every color sensation, but the child
+cannot grasp them all at once. _Hue-difference appeals to him first_,
+and he gains a permanent idea of five principal hues from the enamels of
+MIDDLE COLORS, learning to name, match, imitate, and finally write them
+by their initials: R (red), Y (yellow), G (green), B (blue), and P
+(purple). Intermediates formed by uniting successive pairs are also
+written by the joined initials, YR (yellow-red), GY (green-yellow), BG
+(blue-green), PB (purple-blue), and RP (red-purple).
+
+(41) Ten differences of hue are as many as a child can render at the
+outset, yet in matching and imitating them he becomes aware of their
+light and dark quality, and learns to separate it from hue as
+_value-difference_. Middle colors, as implied by that name, stand midway
+between white and black,--that is, on the equator of the sphere,--so
+that a middle red will be written R 5/, suggesting the steps 6, 7, 8,
+and 9 which are above the equator, while steps 4, 3, 2, and 1 are below.
+It is well to show only three values of a color at first; for instance,
+the middle value contrasted with a light and a dark one. These are
+written R 3/, R 5/, R 7/. Soon he perceives and can imitate finer
+differences, and the red scale may be written entire, as R 1/, R 2/,
+R 3/, R 4/, R 5/, R 6/, R 7/, R 8/, R 9/, with black as 0 and white
+as 10.
+
+(42) _Chroma-difference is the third_ and most subtle color quality. The
+child is already unconsciously familiar with the middle chroma of red,
+having had the enamels of MIDDLE COLOR always in view, and the red
+enamel is to be contrasted with the strongest and weakest red chromas
+obtainable. These he writes R /1, R /5, R /9, seeing that this describes
+the chromas of red, but leaves out its values. R 5/1, R 5/5, R 5/9, is
+the complete statement, showing that, while both hue and value are
+unchanged, the chroma passes from grayish red to middle red (enamel
+first learned) and out to the strongest red in the chroma scale obtained
+by vermilion.
+
+(43) It may be long before he can imitate the intervening steps of
+chroma, many children finding it difficult to express more than five
+steps of the chroma scale, although easily making ten steps of value and
+from twenty to thirty-five steps of hue. This interesting feature is of
+psychologic value, and has been followed in the color tree and color
+sphere.
+
+
++Does such a scientific scheme leave any outlet for feeling
+and personal expression of beauty?+
+
+(44) Lest this exact attitude in color study should seem inartistic,
+compared with the free and almost chaotic methods in use, let it be said
+that the stage thus far outlined is frankly disciplinary. It is somewhat
+dry and unattractive, just as the early musical training is fatiguing
+without inventive exercises. The child should be encouraged at each step
+to exercise his fancy.
+
+(45) Instead of cramping his outlook upon nature, it widens his grasp of
+color, and stores the memory with finer differences, supplying more
+material by which to express his sense of coloristic beauty.
+
+(46) Color harmony, as now treated, is a purely personal affair,
+difficult to refer to any clear principles or definite laws. The very
+terms by which it seeks expression are borrowed from music, and suggest
+vague analogies that fail when put to the test. Color needs a new set of
+expressive terms, appropriate to its qualities, before we can make an
+analysis as to the harmony or discord of our color sensations.
+
+(47) This need is supplied in the present system by measured CHARTS, and
+a NOTATION. Their very construction preserves the _balance of colors_,
+as will be shown in the next chapter, while the chapter on harmony
+(Chapter VII.) shows how harmonious pairs and triads of color may be
+found by MASKS with measured intervals. In fact, practice in the use of
+the charts supplies the imagination with scales and sequences of color
+quite as definite and quite as easily written as those sound intervals
+by which the musician conveys to others his sense of harmony. And,
+although in neither art can training alone make the artist, yet a
+technical grasp of these formal scales gives acquaintance with the full
+range of the instrument, and is indispensable to artistic expression.
+From these color scales each individual is free to choose combinations
+in accord with his feeling for color harmony.
+
+Let us make an outline of the course of color study traced in the
+preceding pages.[15]
+
+    [Footnote 15: _See_ Part II., A Color System and Course of
+    Study.]
+
+
++PERCEPTION of color.+
+
+(48) _Hue-difference._
+
+    Middle hues (5 principals).
+    Middle hues (5 intermediates).
+    Middle hues (10 placed in sequence as SCALE of HUE).
+
+  _Value-difference._
+
+    Light, middle, and dark values (without change of hue).
+    Light, middle, and dark values (traced with 5 principal hues).
+    10 values traced with each hue. SCALE of VALUE. _The Color Sphere_.
+
+  _Chroma-difference._
+
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (without change of hue).
+    Strong, middle and weak chroma (traced with three values without
+      change of hue).
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (traced with three values and
+      ten hues).
+    Maxima of color and their gradation to white, black, and gray.
+      _The Color Tree._
+
+
++EXPRESSION of color.+
+
+(49) _Matching and imitation_ of hues (using stuffs, crayons, and
+    paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of values and hues (using stuffs, crayons,
+    and paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of chromas, values, and hues (using stuffs,
+    crayons, and paints).
+
+  _Notation of color._
+
+        Value       V
+    Hue ------ ,  H - ,
+        Chroma      C
+
+    Initial for hue, numeral above for value, numeral below for chroma.
+
+  _Sequences of color._
+
+    Two scales united, as hue and value, or chroma and value.
+    Three scales united,--each step a change of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  _Balance of color._
+
+    Opposites of equal value and chroma (R 5/5 and BG 5/5).
+    Opposites of equal value and unequal chroma (R 5/9 and BG 5/3).
+    Opposites unequal both in value and chroma (R 7/3 and BG 3/7).
+    AREA as an element of balance.
+
+
++HARMONY of color.+
+
+(50) _Selection of colors_ that give pleasure.
+
+    Study of butterfly wings and flowers, recorded by the NOTATION.
+    Study of painted ornament, rugs, and mosaics, recorded by
+      the NOTATION.
+    Personal choice of color PAIRS, balanced by H, V, C, and area.
+    Personal choice of color TRIADS, balanced by H, V, C, and area.
+
+  _Grouping of colors_ to suit some practical use: wall papers, rugs,
+    book covers, etc.
+
+    Their analysis by the written notation.
+    Search for principles of harmony, expressed in measured terms.
+
+
++A definite plan of color study, with freedom as to details of
+presentation.[16]+
+
+    [Footnote 16: See Color Study assigned to each grade, in
+    Part II.]
+
+(51) Having memorized these broad divisions of the study, a clever
+teacher will introduce many a detail, to meet the mood of the class, or
+correlate this subject with other studies, without for a moment losing
+the thread of thought or befogging the presentation. But to range at
+random in the immense field of color sensations, without plan or
+definite aim in view, only courts fatigue of the retina and a chaotic
+state of mind.
+
+(52) The same broad principles which govern the presentation of other
+ideas apply with equal force in this study. A little, well apprehended,
+is better than a mass of undigested facts. If the child is led to
+discover, or at least to think he is discovering, new things about
+color, the mind will be kept alert and seek out novel illustrations at
+every step. Now and then a pupil will be found who leads both teacher
+and class by _intuitive_ appreciation of color, and it is a subtle
+question how far such a nature can be helped or hurt by formal
+exercises. But such an exception is rare, and goes to prove that
+systematic discipline of the color sense is necessary for most children.
+
+(53) Outdoor nature and indoor surroundings offer endless color
+illustrations. Birds, flowers, minerals, and the objects in daily use
+take on a new interest when their varied colors are brought into a
+conscious relation, and clearly named. A tri-dimensional perception,
+like this sense of color, requires skilful training, and each lesson
+must be simplified to the last point practicable. It must not be too
+long, and should lead to some definite result which a child can grasp
+and express with tolerable accuracy, while its difficulties should be
+approached by easy stages, so as to avoid failure or discouragement. The
+success of the present effort is the best incentive to further
+achievement.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER II.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+THE COLOR SPHERE, WITH MEASURED SCALES OF HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA.
+
+
+The teacher of elementary grades introduces these scales of tempered
+color as fast as the child’s interest is awakened to their need by the
+exercises shown in Plates II. and III. Thus the Hue scale is learned
+before the end of the second year, the Value scale during the next two
+years, and the Chroma scale in the fifth year. By the time a child is
+ten years old these definite color scales have become part of his mental
+furnishing, so that he can name, write, and memorize any color group.
+
+1. _The Color Sphere in Skeleton._ This diagram shows the middle colors
+on the equator, with strong red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, each
+at its proper level in the value scale, and projecting in accordance
+with its scale of chroma. See the complete description of these scales
+in Chapter II.
+
+2. _The Color Score._ Fifteen typical steps taken from the color sphere
+are here spread out in a flat field. The FIVE MIDDLE COLORS form the
+centre level, with the same hues in a lighter value above and in a
+darker value below. Chapter VI. describes the making of this Score, and
+its use in analyzing colors and preserving a written record of their
+groups.
+
+3. _The Value Scale and Chroma Scale._ Each of the five color maxima is
+thus shown at its proper level in the scale of light, and graded by
+uniform steps from its strongest chroma inward to neutrality at the axis
+of the sphere. Pigment inequalities here become very apparent.
+
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell.]
+
+
+
+
+  FOR PLATES II. & III.,
+
+  SEE APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.,
+  CHILDREN’S COLOR STUDIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COLOR MIXTURE AND BALANCE.
+
+
++All colors grasped in the hand.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+(54) Let us recall the names and order of colors given in the last
+chapter, with their assemblage in a sphere by the three qualities of
+HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA. It will aid the memory to call the thumb of the
+left hand RED, the forefinger YELLOW, the middle finger GREEN, the ring
+finger BLUE, and the little finger PURPLE (Fig. 6). When the finger tips
+are in a circle, they represent a circuit of hues, which has neither
+beginning nor end, for we can start with any finger and trace a sequence
+forward or backward. Now close the tips together for white, and imagine
+that the five strong hues have slipped down to the knuckles, where they
+stand for the equator of the color Sphere. Still lower down at the wrist
+is black.
+
+(55) The hand thus becomes a color holder, with white at the finger
+tips, black at the wrist, strong colors around the outside, and weaker
+colors within the hollow. Each finger is a scale of its own color, with
+white above and black below, while the graying of all the hues is traced
+by imaginary lines which meet in the middle of the hand. Thus a child’s
+hand may be his substitute for the color sphere, and also make him
+realize that it is filled with grayer degrees of the outside colors, all
+of which melt into gray in the centre.
+
+
++Neighborly and opposite hues; and their mixture.+
+
+(56) Let this circle (Fig. 7) stand for the equator of the color sphere
+with the five principal hues (written by their initials R, Y, G, B,
+and P) spaced evenly about it. Some colors are neighbors, as red and
+yellow, while others are opposites. As soon as a child experiments with
+paints, he will notice the different results obtained by mixing them.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+First, the neighbors, that is, any pair which lie next one another, as
+red and yellow, will unite to make a hue which retains a suggestion of
+both. It is _intermediate_ between red and yellow, and we call it
+YELLOW-RED.[17]
+
+(57) Green and yellow unite to form GREEN-YELLOW, blue and green make
+BLUE-GREEN, and so on with each succeeding pair. These intermediates are
+to be written by their initials, and inserted in their proper place
+between the principal hues. It is as if an orange (paragraph 9) were
+split into ten sectors instead of five, with red, yellow, green, blue,
+and purple as alternate sectors, while half of each adjoining color pair
+were united to form the sector between them. The original order of five
+hues is in no wise disturbed, but linked together by five intermediate
+steps.
+
+(58) Here is a table of the intermediates made by mixing each pair:--
+
+  Red and yellow unite to form yellow-red (YR), popularly called
+    orange.[17]
+  Yellow and green unite to form green-yellow (GY), popularly called
+    grass green.
+  Green and blue unite to form blue-green (BG), popularly called
+    peacock blue.
+  Blue and purple unite to form purple-blue (PB), popularly called
+    violet.
+  Purple and red unite to form red-purple (RP), popularly called plum.
+
+Using the left hand again to hold colors, the principal hues remain
+unchanged on the knuckles, but in the hollows between them are placed
+intermediate hues, so that the circle now reads: red, yellow-red,
+yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, and
+red-purple, back to the red with which we started. This circuit is
+easily _memorized_, so that the child may begin with any color point,
+and repeat the series clock wise (that is, from left to right) or in
+reverse order.
+
+    [Footnote 17: Orange is a variable union of yellow and red. See
+    Appendix.]
+
+(59) Each principal hue has thus made two close neighbors by mixing with
+the nearest principal hue on either hand. The neighbors of red are a
+yellow-red on one side and a purple-red on the other. The neighbors of
+green are a green-yellow on one hand and a blue-green on the other. It
+is evident that a still closer neighbor could be made by again mixing
+each consecutive pair in this circle of ten hues; and, if the process
+were continued long enough, the color steps would become so fine that
+the eye could see only a circuit of hues melting imperceptibly one into
+another.
+
+(60) But it is better for the child to gain a fixed idea of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple, with their intermediates, before attempting to
+mix pigments, and these ten steps are sufficient for primary education.
+
+(61) Next comes the question of opposites in this circle. A line drawn
+from red, through the centre, finds its opposite, blue-green.[18] If
+these colors are mixed, they unite to form gray. Indeed, the centre of
+the circle stands for a middle gray, not only because it is the centre
+of the neutral axis between black and white, but also because any pair
+of opposites will unite to form gray.
+
+    [Footnote 18: Green is often wrongly assigned as the opposite of
+    red. See Appendix, on False Color Balance.]
+
+(62) This is a table of five mixtures which make neutral gray:
+
+            { Red &    Blue-green   }
+            { Yellow   Purple-blue  }
+  Opposites { Green    Red-purple   } Each pair of which unites
+            { Blue     Yellow-red   }   in neutral gray.
+            { Purple   Green-yellow }
+
+(63) But if, instead of mixing these opposite hues, we place them side
+by side, the eye is so stimulated by their difference that each seems to
+gain in strength; _i.e._, each _enhances_ the other when separate, but
+_destroys_ the other when mixed. This is a very interesting point to be
+more fully illustrated by the help of a color wheel in Chapter V.,
+paragraph 106. What we need to remember is that the mixture of
+neighborly hues makes them less stimulating to the eye, because they
+resemble each other, while a mixture of opposite hues extinguishes both
+in a neutral gray.
+
+
++Hues once removed, and their mixture.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+(64) There remains the question, What will happen if we mix, not two
+neighbors, nor two opposites, but _a pair of hues once removed in the
+circle_, such as red and green? A line joining this pair does not pass
+through the neutral centre, but to one side nearer yellow, which shows
+that this mixture falls between neutral gray and yellow, partaking
+somewhat of each. In the same way a line joining yellow and blue shows
+that their mixture contains both green and gray. Indeed, a line joining
+any two colors in the circuit may be said to describe their union.
+A radius crossing this line passes to some hue on the circumference, and
+describes by its intersection with the first line the chroma of the
+color made by a mixture of the two original colors.
+
+  Red  &  Green make Yellow-gray }
+  Yellow  Blue       Green-gray  } Each pair unites in a _colored_
+  Green   Purple     Blue-gray   } gray, which is an intermediate hue
+  Blue    Red        Purple-gray } of weak chroma.
+  Purple  Yellow     Red-gray    }
+
+
++Mixture of white and black: a scale of grays.+
+
+(65) So far we have thought only of the plane of the equator, with its
+circle of middle hues in ten steps, and studied their mixture by drawing
+lines to join them. Now let us start at the neutral centre, and think
+upward to white and downward to black (Fig. 9.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+This vertical line is the _neutral axis_ joining the poles of white and
+black, which represent the opposites of light and darkness. Middle gray
+is half-way between. If black is called 0, and white is 10, then the
+middle point is 5, with 6, 7, 8, and 9 above, while 4, 3, 2, and 1 are
+below, thus making a vertical scale of grays from black to white
+(Chapter II., paragraph 25).
+
+If left to personal preference, an estimate of middle value will vary
+with each individual who attempts to make it. This appears in the
+neutral scales already published for schools, and students who depend
+upon them, discover a variation of over 10 per cent. in the selection of
+middle gray. Since this VALUE SCALE underlies all color work, it needs
+accurate adjustment by scientific means, as in scales of sound, of
+length, of weight, or of temperature.
+
+A PHOTOMETER (_photo_, light, and _meter_, a measure)[19] is shown on
+the next page. It measures the relative amount of light which the eye
+receives from any source, and so enables us to make a scale with any
+number of regular steps. The principle on which it acts is very simple.
+
+    [Footnote 19: Adopted in Course on Optical Measurements at the
+    Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Instruments have also
+    been made for the Harvard Medical School, the Treasury
+    Department in Washington, and various private laboratories.]
+
+A rectangular box, divided by a central partition into halves, has
+symmetrical openings in the front walls, which permit the light to reach
+two white fields placed upon the back walls. If one looks in through the
+observation tube, both halves are seen to be exactly alike, and the
+white fields equally illuminated. A valve is then fitted to one of the
+front openings, so that the light in that half of the photometer may be
+gradually diminished. Its white field is thus darkened by measured
+degrees, and becomes black when all light is excluded by the closed
+valve. While this darkening process goes on in one-half of the
+instrument, the white field in the other half does not change, and,
+looking into the eyepiece, the observer sees each step contrasted with
+the original white. One-half is thus said to be _variable_ because of
+its valve, and the other side is said to be _fixed_. A dial connected
+with the valve has a hand moving over it to show how much light is
+admitted to the field in the variable half.
+
+Let us now test one of these personal decisions about middle value.
+A sample replaces the white field in the fixed half, and by means of the
+valve, the white field in the variable half is alternately darkened and
+lightened, until it matches the sample and the eye sees no difference in
+the two. The dial then discloses the fact that this supposedly MIDDLE
+VALUE reflects only 42 per cent. of the light; that is to say, it is
+nearly a whole step too low in a decimal scale. Other samples err nearly
+as far on the light side of middle value, and further tests prove not
+only the varying color sensitiveness of individuals, but detect a
+difference between the left and right eye of the same person.
+
+  [Illustration: PHOTOMETER.
+  Back View. Front View.]
+
+The vagaries of color estimate thus disclosed, lead some to seek shelter
+in “feeling and inspiration”; but feeling and inspiration are
+temperamental, and have nothing to do with the simple facts of vision.
+A measured and unchanging scale is as necessary and valuable in the
+training of the eye as the musical scale in the discipline of the ear.
+
+It will soon be necessary to talk of the values in each color. We may
+distinguish the values on the neutral axis from color values by writing
+them N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10. Such a scale makes it easy
+to foresee the result of mixing light values with dark ones. Any two
+gray values unite to form a gray midway between them. Thus N4 and N6
+being equally above and below the centre, unite to form N5, as will also
+N7 and N3, N8 and N2, or N9 and N1. But N9 and N3 will unite to form N6,
+which is midway between 6 and 9.
+
+  [Illustration: Vertical Section through light openings.
+
+  PARTS.
+
+  _C_, CABINET, with sample-holder (H) and mirror (M), which may be
+  removed and stored to left of dial (D) when instrument is closed
+  for transportation.
+  _D_, DIAL: records color values in terms of standard white (100),
+  the opposite end of the scale being absolute blackness (0).
+  _E_, EYE-PIECE: to shield eye and sample from extraneous light while
+  color determinations are being made. Fatigue of retina should be
+  avoided.
+  _G_, GEAR: actuates cat’s-eye shutter, which controls amount of
+  light admitted to right half of instrument. Its shaft carries
+  index-hand over dial.
+  _H_, FIELD-HOLDER: retains sample and standard white in same plane,
+  and isolates them. Is hinged upon lower edge, and secured by pivot
+  clamp.
+  _M_, MIRROR: permits observation of the isolated halves of the
+  holder, bearing standard white and the color to be measured. Should
+  be clean and free from dust on both sides of central partition.
+  _S_, DIFFUSING SCREEN, placed over front apertures, to evenly
+  distribute the light.]
+
+(66) When this numbered scale of values is familiar, it serves not only
+to describe light and dark grays, but the value of colors which are at
+the same level in the scale. Thus R7 (popularly called a tint of red) is
+neither lighter nor darker than the gray of N7. A numeral written above
+to the right always indicates _value_, whether of a gray or a color, so
+that R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, describes a regular scale of
+red values from black to white, while G1, G2, G3, etc., is a scale of
+green values.
+
+(67) This matter of a notation for colors will be more fully worked out
+in Chapter VI., but the letters and numerals already described greatly
+simplify what we are about to consider in the mixture and balance of
+colors.
+
+
++Mixture of light hues with dark hues.+
+
+(68) Now that we are supplied with a decimal scale of grays, represented
+by divisions of the neutral axis (N1, N2, etc.), and a corresponding
+decimal scale of value for each of the ten hues ranged about the equator
+(R1, R2,-- YR1, YR2,-- Y1, Y2,-- GY1, GY2,-- and so on), traced by ten
+equidistant meridians from black to white, it is not difficult to
+foresee what the mixture of any two colors will produce, whether they
+are of the same level of value, as in the colors of the equator already
+considered, or whether they are of different levels.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+(69) For instance, let us mix a light yellow (Y7) with a dark red (R3).
+They are neighbors in hue, but well removed in value. A line joining
+them centres at YR5. This describes the result of their mixture,--a
+value intermediate between 7 and 3, with a hue intermediate between R
+and Y. It is a yellow-red of middle value, popularly called “dark
+orange.” But, while this term “dark orange” rarely means the same color
+to three different people, these measured scales give to YR5 an
+unmistakable meaning, just as the musical scale gives an unmistakable
+significance to the notes of its score.
+
+(70) Evidently, this way of writing colors by their degrees of value and
+hue gives clearness to what would otherwise be hard to express by the
+color terms in common use.
+
+(71) If Y9 and R5 be chosen for mixture, we know at once that they unite
+in YR7, which is two steps of the value scale above the middle; while Y6
+and R2 make YR4, which is one step below the middle. Charts prepared
+with this system show each of these colors and their mixture with
+exactness.
+
+(72) The foregoing mixtures of dark reds and light yellows are typical
+of the union of light and dark values of any neighboring hues, such as
+yellow and green, green and blue, blue and purple, or purple and red.
+Next let us think of the result of mixing different values in opposite
+hues; as, for instance, YR7 and B3 (Fig. 11). To this combination the
+color sphere gives a ready answer; for the middle of a straight line
+through the sphere, and joining them, coincides with the neutral centre,
+showing that they _balance in neutral gray_. This is also true of any
+opposite pair of surface hues where the values are equally removed from
+the equator.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(73) Suppose we substitute familiar flowers for the notation, then YR7
+becomes the buttercup, and B3 is the wild violet. But, in comparing the
+two, the eye is more stimulated by the buttercup than by the violet, not
+alone because it is lighter, but because it is stronger in chroma; that
+is, farther away from the neutral axis of the sphere, and in fact out
+beyond its surface, as shown in Fig. 11.
+
+The head of a pin stuck in toward the axis on the 7th level of YR may
+represent the 9th step in the scale of chroma, such as the buttercup,
+while the “modest” violet with a chroma of only 4, is shown by its
+position to be nearer the neutral axis than the brilliant buttercup by
+five steps of chroma. This is the third dimension of color, and must be
+included in our notation. So we write the buttercup YR 7/9 and the
+violet B 3/4,--chroma always being written below to the right of hue,
+and value always above. (This is the invariable order: HUE
+{VALUE/CHROMA}.)
+
+(74) A line joining the head of the pin mentioned above with B 3/4 does
+not pass through the centre of the sphere, and its middle point is
+nearer the buttercup than the neutral axis, showing that the hues of the
+buttercup and violet _do not balance in gray_.
+
+
++The neutral centre is a balancing point for colors.+
+
+(75) This raises the question, What is balance of color? Artists
+criticise the color schemes of paintings as being “too light or too
+dark” (unbalanced in value), “too weak or too strong” (unbalanced in
+chroma), and “too hot or too cold” (unbalanced in hue), showing that
+this is a fundamental idea underlying all color arrangements.
+
+(76) Let us assume that the centre of the sphere is the natural
+balancing point for all colors (which will be best shown by Maxwell
+discs in Chapter V., paragraphs 106-112), then color points equally
+removed from the centre must balance one another. Thus white balances
+black. Lighter red balances darker blue-green. Middle red balances
+middle blue-green. In short, every straight line through this centre
+indicates opposite qualities that balance one another. The color points
+so found are said to be “_complementary_,” for each supplies what is
+needed to complement or balance the other in hue, value, and chroma.
+
+(77) The true complement of the buttercup, then, is not the violet,
+which is too weak in chroma to balance its strong opposite. We have no
+blue flower that can equal the chroma of the buttercup. Some other means
+must be found to produce a balance. One way is to use more of the weaker
+color. Thus we can make a bunch of buttercups and violets, using twice
+as many of the latter, so that the eye sees an _area_ of blue twice as
+great as the _area_ of yellow-red. Area as a compensation for
+inequalities of hue, value, and chroma will be further described under
+the harmony of color in Chapter VII.
+
+(78) But, before leaving this illustration of the buttercup and violet,
+it is well to consider another color path connecting them which does not
+pass through the sphere, _but around it_ (Fig. 12). Such a path swinging
+around from yellow-red to blue slants downward in value, and passes
+through yellow, green-yellow, green, and blue-green, tracing a _sequence
+of hue_, of which each step is less chromatic than its predecessor.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+This diminishing sequence is easily written thus,--YR 8/9, Y 7/8,
+GY 6/7, G 5/6, BG 4/5, B 3/4,--and is shown graphically in Fig. 12. Its
+hue sequence is described by the initials YR, Y, GY, G, BG, and B. Its
+value-sequence appears in the upper numerals, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3,
+while the chroma-sequence is included in the lower numerals, 9, 8, 7, 6,
+5, and 4. This gives a complete statement of the sequence, defining its
+peculiarity, that at each change of hue there is a regular decrease of
+value and chroma. Nature seems to be partial to this sequence,
+constantly reiterating it in yellow flowers with their darker green
+leaves and underlying shadows. In spring time she may contract its
+range, making the blue more green and the yellow less red, but in autumn
+she seems to widen the range, presenting strong contrasts of yellow-red
+and purple-blue.
+
+(79) Every day she plays upon the values of this sequence, from the
+strong contrasts of light and shadow at noon to the hardly perceptible
+differences at twilight. The chroma of this sequence expands during the
+summer to strong colors, and contracts in winter to grays. Indeed,
+Nature, who would seem to be the source of our notions of color harmony,
+rarely repeats herself, yet is endlessly balancing inequalities of hue,
+value, and chroma by compensations of quantity.
+
+(80) So subtle is this equilibrium that it is taken for granted and
+forgotten, except when some violent disturbance disarranges it, such as
+an earthquake or a thunder-storm.
+
+
++The triple nature of color balance illustrated.+
+
+(81) The simplest idea of balance is the equilibrium of two halves of a
+stick supported at its middle point. If one end is heavier than the
+other, the support must be moved nearer to that end.
+
+But, since color unites three qualities, we must seek some type of
+_triple balance_. The game of jackstraws illustrates this, when the
+disturbance of one piece involves the displacement of two others. The
+action of three children on a floating plank or the equilibrium of two
+acrobats carried on the shoulders of a third may also serve as examples.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+(82) Triple balance may be graphically shown by three discs in contact.
+Two of them are suspended by their centres, while they remain in touch
+with a third supported on a pivot, as in Fig. 14. Let us call the lowest
+disc Hue (H), and the lateral discs Value (V) and Chroma (C). Any dip or
+rotation of the lower disc H will induce sympathetic action in the two
+lateral discs V and C. When H is inclined, both V and C change their
+relations to it. If H is raised vertically, both V and C dip outward. If
+H is rotated, both V and C rotate, but in opposite directions. Indeed,
+any disturbance of V affects H and C, while H and V respond to any
+movement of C. So we must be prepared to realize that any change of one
+color quality involves readjustment of the other two.
+
+(83) Color balance soon leads to a study of optics in one direction, to
+æsthetics in another, and to mathematical proportions in a third, and
+any attempt at an easy solution of its problems is not likely to
+succeed. It is a very complicated question, whose closest counterpart is
+to be sought in musical rhythms. The fall of musical impulses upon the
+ear can make us gay or sad, and there are color groups which, acting
+through the eye, can convey pleasure or pain to the mind.
+
+(84) A colorist is keenly alive to these feelings of satisfaction or
+annoyance, and consciously or unconsciously he rejects certain
+combinations of color and accepts others. Successful pictures and
+decorative schemes are due to some sort of balance uniting “light and
+shade” (value), “warmth and coolness” (hue), with “brilliancy and
+grayness” (chroma); for, when they fail to please, the mind at once
+begins to search for the unbalanced quality, and complains that the
+color is “too hot,” “too dark,” or “too crude.” This effort to establish
+pleasing proportions may be unconscious in one temperament, while it
+becomes a matter of definite analysis in another. Emerson claimed that
+the unconscious only is complete. We gladly permit those whose color
+instinct is unerring--(and how few they are!)--to neglect all rules and
+set formulas. But education is concerned with the many who have not this
+gift.
+
+(85) Any real progress in color education must come not from a blind
+imitation of past successes, but by a study into the laws which they
+exemplify. To exactly copy fine Japanese prints or Persian rugs or
+Renaissance tapestries, while it cultivates an appreciation of their
+refinements, does not give one the power to create things equally
+beautiful. The masterpieces of music correctly rendered do not of
+necessity make a composer. The musician, besides the study of
+masterpieces, absorbs the science of counterpoint, and records by an
+unmistakable notation the exact character of any new combination of
+musical intervals which he conceives.
+
+(86) So must the art of the colorist be furnished with a scientific
+basis and a clear form of color notation. This will record the successes
+and failures of the past, and aid in a search, by contrast and analysis,
+for the fundamentals of color balance. Without a measured and systematic
+notation, attempts to describe color harmony only produce hazy
+generalities of little value in describing our sensations, and fail to
+express the essential differences between “good” and “bad” color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+FALSE COLOR BALANCE. There is a widely accepted error that red, yellow,
+and blue are “primary,” although Brewster’s theory was long ago dropped
+when the elements of color vision proved to be RED, GREEN, and
+VIOLET-BLUE. The late Professor Rood called attention to this in
+Chapters VIII.-XI. of his book, “Modern Chromatics,” which appeared in
+1879. Yet we find it very generally taught in school. Nor does the harm
+end there, for placing red, yellow, and blue equidistant in a circle,
+with orange, green, and purple as intermediates, the teacher goes on to
+state that opposite hues are complementary.
+
+  Red is thus made the complement of Green,
+  Yellow        „          „         Purple, and
+  Blue          „          „         Orange.
+
+Unfortunately, each of these statements is wrong, and, if tested by the
+mixture of colored lights or with Maxwell’s rotating discs, their
+falsity is evident.
+
+There can be no doubt that green is not the complement of red, nor
+purple of yellow, nor orange of blue, for neither one of these pairs
+unites as it should in a balanced neutrality, and a total test of the
+circle gives great excess of orange, showing that red and yellow usurp
+too great a portion of the circumference. Starting from a false basis,
+the Brewster theory can only lead to unbalanced and inharmonious effects
+of color.
+
+The fundamental color sensations are RED, GREEN, and VIOLET-BLUE.
+
+  RED has for its true complement BLUE-GREEN,
+  GREEN            „        „     RED-PURPLE, and
+  VIOLET-BLUE      „        „     YELLOW,
+
+all of the hues in the right-hand column being compound sensations. The
+sensation of green is not due to a mixture of yellow and blue, as the
+absorptive action of pigments might lead one to think: GREEN IS
+FUNDAMENTAL, and not made by mixing any hues of the spectrum, while
+YELLOW IS NOT FUNDAMENTAL, but caused by the mingled sensations of red
+and green. This is easily proved by a controlled spectrum, for all
+yellow-reds, yellows, and green-yellows can be matched by certain
+proportions of red and green light, all blue-greens, blues, and
+purple-blues can be obtained by the union of green and violet light,
+while purple-blue, purple, and red-purple result from the union of
+violet and red light. But there is no point where a mixture gives red,
+green, or violet-blue. They are the true primaries, whose mixtures
+produce all other hues.
+
+Studio and school-room practice still cling to the discredited theory,
+claiming that, if it fails to describe our color sensations, yet it may
+be called practically true of pigments, because a red, yellow, and blue
+pigment suffice to imitate most natural colors. This discrepancy between
+pigment mixture and retinal mixture becomes clear as soon as one learns
+the physical make-up and behavior of paints.
+
+  [Illustration:
+            { Vermilion
+  Spectra   {
+            { Em. Green
+  P. B. G. Y. R.]
+
+Spectral analysis shows that no pigment is a pure example of the
+dominant hue which it sends to the eye. Take, for example, the very
+chromatic pigments representing red and green, such as vermilion and
+emerald green. If each emitted a single pure hue free from trace of any
+other hue, then their mixture would appear yellow, as when spectral red
+and green unite. But, instead of yellow, their mixture produces a warm
+gray, called brown or “dull salmon,” and this is to be inferred from
+their spectra, where it is seen that vermilion emits some green and
+purple as well as its dominant color, while the green also sends some
+blue and red light to the eye.[20]
+
+    [Footnote 20: See Rood, Chapter VII., on Color by Absorption.]
+
+Thus stray hues from other parts of the spectrum tend to neutralize the
+yellow sensation, which would be strong if each of the pigments were
+pure in the spectral sense. Pigment absorption affects all palette
+mixtures, and, failing to obtain a satisfactory yellow by mixture of red
+and green, painters use original yellow pigments,--such as aureolin,
+cadmium, and lead chromate,--each of them also impure but giving a
+dominant sensation of yellow. Did the eye discriminate, as does the ear
+when it analyzes the separate tones of a chord, then we should recognize
+that yellow pigments emit both red and green rays.
+
+White light dispersed into a colored band by one prism, may have the
+process reversed by a second prism, so that the eye sees again only
+white light. But this would not be so, did not the balance of red,
+green, and violet-blue sensations remain undisturbed. All our ideas of
+color harmony are based upon this fundamental relation, and, if pigments
+are to render harmonious effects, we must learn to control their
+impurities so as to preserve a balance of red, green, and violet-blue.
+
+Otherwise, the excessive chroma and value of red and yellow pigments so
+overwhelm the lesser degrees of green and blue pigments that no balance
+is possible, and the colorist of fine perception must reject not alone
+the theoretical, but also the practical outcome of a “red-yellow-blue”
+theory.
+
+Some of the points raised in this discussion are rather subtle for
+students, and may well be left until they arise in a study of optics,
+but the teacher should grasp them clearly, so as not to be led into
+false statements about primary and complementary hues.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRISMATIC COLOR.
+
+
++Pure color is seen in the spectrum of sunlight.+
+
+(87) The strongest sensation of color is gained in a darkened room, with
+a prism used to split a beam of sunlight into its various wave lengths.
+Through a narrow slit there enters a straight pencil of light which we
+are accustomed to think of as _white_, although it is a bundle of
+variously colored rays (or waves of ether) whose union and balance is so
+perfect that no single ray predominates.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+(88) Cover the narrow slit, and we are plunged in darkness. Admit the
+beam, and the eye feels a powerful contrast between the spot of light on
+the floor and its surrounding darkness. Place a triangular glass prism
+near the slit to intercept the beam of white light, and suddenly there
+appears on the opposite wall a band of brilliant colors. This delightful
+experiment rivets the eye by the beauty and purity of its hues. All
+other colors seem weak by comparison.
+
+Their weakness is due to impurity, for all pigments and dyes reflect
+portions of hues other than their dominant one, which tend to “gray” and
+diminish their chroma.
+
+(89) But prismatic color is pure, or very nearly so, because the shape
+of the glass refracts each hue, and separates it by the length of its
+ether wave. These waves have been measured, and science can name each
+hue by its wave length. Thus a certain red is known as M. 6867, and a
+certain green sensation is M. 5269.[21] Without attempting any
+scientific analysis of color, let it be said that Sir Isaac Newton made
+his series of experiments in 1687, and was privileged to name this color
+sequence by seven steps which he called red, orange, yellow, green,
+blue, violet, and indigo. Later a scientist named Fraunhofer discovered
+fine black lines crossing the solar spectrum, and marked them with
+letters of the alphabet from a to h. These with the wave length serve to
+locate every hue and define every step in the sequence. Since Newton’s
+time it has been proved that only three of the spectral hues are
+_primary_; viz., a red, a green, and a violet-blue, while their mixture
+produces all other gradations. By receiving the spectrum on an opaque
+screen with fine slits that fit the red and green waves, so that they
+alone pass through, these two primary hues can be received on mirrors
+inclined at such an angle as to unite on another screen, where, instead
+of red or green, the eye sees only yellow.[22]
+
+    [Footnote 21: See Micron in Glossary.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: The fact that the spectral union of red and green
+    makes yellow is a matter of surprise to practical workers in
+    color who are familiar with the action of pigments, but
+    unfamiliar with spectrum analysis. Yellow seems to them a
+    primary and indispensable color, because it cannot be made by
+    the union of red and green pigments. Another surprise is
+    awaiting them when they hear that the yellow and blue of the
+    spectrum make _white_, for all their experience with paints goes
+    to prove that yellow and blue unite to form green. Attention is
+    called to this difference between the mixture of colored light
+    and of colored pigments, not with the idea of explaining it
+    here, but to emphasize their difference; for in the next chapter
+    we shall describe the practical making of a color sphere with
+    pigments, which would be quite impractical, could we have only
+    the colors of the spectrum to work with. See Appendix to
+    preceding chapter.]
+
+(90) A similar arrangement of slits and mirrors for the green and
+violet-blue proves that they unite to make blue, while a third
+experiment shows that the red and violet-blue can unite to make purple.
+So yellow, blue-green, and purple are called secondary hues because they
+result from the mixture of the three primaries, red, green, and
+violet-blue.
+
+In comparing these two color lists, we see that the “indigo” and
+“orange” of Sir Isaac Newton have been discarded. Both are indefinite,
+and refer to variable products of the vegetable kingdom. Violet is also
+borrowed from the same kingdom; and, in order to describe a violet, we
+say it is a purple violet or blue violet, as the case may be, just as we
+describe an orange as a red orange or a yellow orange. Their color
+difference is not expressed by the terms “orange” or “violet,” but by
+the words “red,” “yellow,” “blue,” or “purple,” all of which are true
+color names and arouse an unmixed color image.
+
+(91) In the nursery a child learns to use the simple color names red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. When familiarity with the color sphere
+makes him relate them to each other and place them between black and
+white by their degree of light and strength, there will be no occasion
+to revert to vegetables, animals, minerals, or the ever-varying hues of
+sea and sky to express his color sensations.
+
+(92) Another experiment accentuates the difference between spectral and
+pigment color. When the spectrum is spread on the screen by the use of a
+prism, and a second prism is placed inverted beyond the first, it
+regathers the dispersed rays back into their original beam, making a
+white spot on the floor. This proves that all the colored rays of light
+combine to balance each other in whiteness. But if pigments which are
+the closest possible imitation of these hues are united on a painter’s
+palette, either by the brush or the knife, they _make gray, and not
+white_.
+
+(93) This is another illustration of the behavior of pigments, for,
+instead of uniting to form white, they form gray, which is a darkened or
+impure form of white; and, lest this should be attributed to a chemical
+reaction between the various matters that serve as pigments, the
+experiment can be carried out without allowing one pigment to touch
+another by using Maxwell discs, as will be shown in the next chapter.
+
+(94) Before leaving these prismatic colors, let us study them in the
+light of what has already been learned of color dimensions. Not only do
+they present different values, but also different chromas. Their values
+range from darkness at each end, where red and purple become visible, to
+a brightness in the greenish yellow, which is almost white. So on the
+color tree described in Chapter II., paragraph 34, yellow has the
+highest branch, green is lower, red is below the middle, with blue and
+purple lower down, near black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+(95) Then in chroma they range from the powerful stimulation of the red
+to the soothing purple, with green occupying an intermediate step. This
+is also given on the color tree by the length of its branches.
+
+(96) In Fig. 15 the vertical curve describes the values of the spectrum
+as they grade from red through yellow, green, blue, and purple. The
+horizontal curve describes the chromas of the spectrum in the same
+sequence; while the third curve leaning outward is obtained by uniting
+the first two by two planes at right angles to one another, and sums up
+the three qualities by a single descriptive line. Now the red and purple
+ends are far apart, and science forbids their junction because of their
+great difference in wave length. But the mind is prone to unite them in
+order to produce the red-purples which we see in clouds at sunset, in
+flowers and grapes and the amethyst. Indeed, it has been done
+unhesitatingly in most color schemes in order to supply the opposite of
+green.
+
+(97) This gives a slanting circuit joining all the branch ends of the
+color tree, and has been likened to the rings of Saturn in Chapter I.,
+paragraph 17.
+
+
++A prismatic color sphere.+
+
+(98) With a little effort of the imagination we can picture a prismatic
+color sphere, using only the colors of light. In a cylindrical chamber
+is hung a diaphanous ball similar to a huge soap bubble, which can
+display color on its surface without obscuring its interior. Then, at
+the proper points of the surrounding wall, three pure beams of colored
+light are admitted,--one red, another green, and the third violet-blue.
+
+(99) They fall at proper levels on three sides of the sphere, while
+their intermediate gradations encircle the sphere with a complete
+spectrum plus the needed purple. As they penetrate the sphere, they
+unite to balance each other in neutrality. Pure whiteness is at the top,
+and, by some imaginary means their light gradually diminishes until they
+disappear in darkness below.
+
+(100) This ideal color system is impossible in the present state of our
+knowledge and implements. Even were it possible, its immaterial hues
+could not serve to dye materials or paint pictures. Pigments are, and
+will in all probability continue to be, the practical agents of
+coloristic productions, however reluctant the scientist may be to accept
+them as the basis of a color system. It is true that they are chemically
+impure and imperfectly represent the colors of light. Some of them fade
+rapidly and undergo chemical change, as in the notable case of a green
+pigment tested by this measured system, which in a few weeks lost four
+steps of chroma, gained two steps of value, and swung into a bluer hue.
+
+(101) But the color sphere to be next described is worked out with a few
+reliable pigments, mostly natural earths, whose fading is a matter of
+years and so slight as to be almost imperceptible. Besides, its
+principal hues are preserved in safe keeping by imperishable enamels,
+which can be used to correct any tendency of the pigments to distort the
+measured intervals of the color sphere.
+
+This meets the most serious objection to a pigment system. Without it a
+child has nothing tangible which he can keep in constant view to imitate
+and memorize. With it he builds up a mental image of measured relations
+that describe every color in nature, including the fleeting hues of the
+rainbow, although they appear but for a moment at rare intervals.
+Finally, it furnishes a simple notation which records every color
+sensation by a letter and two numerals. With the enlargement of his
+mental power he will unite these in a comprehensive grasp of the larger
+relations of color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.
+
+
++Children’s Color Studies.+
+
+These reproductions of children’s work are given as proof that color
+charm and good taste may be cultivated from the start.
+
+FIVE MIDDLE HUES are first taught by the use of special crayons, and
+later with water colors. They represent the equator of the color sphere
+(see Plate I.),--a circle midway between the extremes of color-light and
+color-strength,--and are known as MIDDLE RED, MIDDLE YELLOW, MIDDLE
+GREEN, MIDDLE BLUE, and MIDDLE PURPLE.
+
+These are starting-points for training the eye to measure regular scales
+of Value and Chroma.[23] Only with such a trained judgment is it safe to
+undertake the use of strong colors.[24]
+
+    [Footnote 23: See Century Dictionary for definition of chroma.
+    Under the word “color” will be found definitions of Primary,
+    Complementary, Constants (chroma, luminosity, and hue), and the
+    Young-Helmholtz theory of color-sensation.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: It must not be assumed because so much stress is
+    laid upon quiet and harmonious color that this system excludes
+    the more powerful degrees. To do so would forfeit its claim to
+    completeness. A Color Atlas in preparation displays all known
+    degrees of pigment color arranged in measured scales of Hue,
+    Value, and Chroma.]
+
+_Beginners should avoid Strong Color._ Extreme red, yellow, and blue are
+discordant. (They “shriek” and “swear.” Mark Twain calls Roxana’s gown
+“a volcanic eruption of infernal splendors.”) Yet there are some who
+claim that the child craves them, and must have them to produce a
+thrill. So also does he crave candies, matches, and the carving-knife.
+He covets the trumpet, fire-gong, and bass-drum for their “thrill”; but
+who would think them necessary to the musical training of the ear? Like
+the blazing bill-board and the circus wagon, they may be suffered
+out-of-doors; but such boisterous sounds and color sprees are unfit for
+the school-room.
+
+_Quiet Color is the Mark of Good Taste._ Refinement in dress and the
+furnishings of the home is attractive, but we shrink from those who are
+“loud” in their speech or their clothing. If we wish our children to
+become well-bred, is it logical to begin by encouraging barbarous
+tastes? Their young minds are very open to suggestion. They quickly
+adopt our standards, and the blame must fall upon us if they acquire
+crude color habits. Yellow journalism and rag-time tunes will not help
+their taste in speech or song, nor will violent hues improve their taste
+in matters of color.
+
+_Balance of Color is to be sought._ Artists and decorators are well
+aware of a fact that slowly dawns upon the student; namely, that color
+harmony is due to the preservation of a subtle balance and impossible by
+the use of extremes. This balance of color resides more _within_ the
+spherical surface of this system than in the excessive chromas which
+project beyond. It is futile to encourage children in efforts to rival
+the poppy or buttercup, even with the strongest pigments obtainable.
+Their sunlit points give pleasure because they are surrounded and
+balanced by blue ether and wide green fields. Were these conditions
+reversed, so that the flowers appeared as little spots of blue or green
+in great fields of blazing red, orange, and yellow, our pained eyes
+would be shut in disgust.
+
+The painter knows that pigments _cannot_ rival the brilliancy of the
+buttercup and poppy, enhanced by their surroundings. What is more, he
+does not care to attempt it. Nor does the musician wish to imitate the
+screech of a siren or the explosion of a gun. These are not subjects for
+art. Harmonious sounds are the study of the musician, and tuned colors
+are the materials of the colorist. Corot in landscape, and Titian,
+Velasquez, and Whistler in figure painting, show us that Nature’s
+richest effects and most beautiful color are enveloped in an atmosphere
+of gray.
+
+_Beauty of Color lies in Tempered Relations._ Music rarely touches the
+extreme range of sound, and harmonious color rarely uses the extremes of
+color-light or color-strength. Regular scales in the middle register are
+first given to train the ear, and so should the eye be first
+familiarized with medium degrees of color.
+
+This system provides measured scales, established by special
+instruments, and is able to select the middle points of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple as a basis for comparing and relating all
+colors. These five middle colors form a Chromatic Tuning Fork. (See page
+70.) It is far better that children should first become familiar with
+these tuned color intervals which are harmonious in themselves rather
+than begin by blundering among unrelated degrees of harsh and violent
+color. Who would think of teaching the musical scale with a piano out
+of tune?
+
+_The Tuning of Color cannot be left to Personal Whim._ The wide
+discrepancies of red, yellow, and blue, which have been falsely taught
+as primary colors, can no more be tuned by a child than the musical
+novice can tune his instrument. Each of these hues has three variable
+factors (see page 14, paragraph 14), and scientific tests are necessary
+to measure and relate their uneven degrees of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+Visual estimates of color, without the help of any standard for
+comparison, are continually distorted by doubt, guess-work, and the
+fatigue of the eye. Hardly two persons can agree in the intelligible
+description of color. Not only do individuals differ, but the same eye
+will vary in its estimates from day to day. A frequent assumption that
+all strong pigments are equal in chroma, is far from the truth, and
+involves beginners in many mishaps. Thus the strongest blue-green,
+chromium sesquioxide, is but half the chroma of its red complement, the
+sulphuret of mercury. Yet ignorance is constantly leading to their
+unbalanced use. Indeed, some are still unaware that they are the
+complements of each other.[25]
+
+    [Footnote 25: See Appendix to Chapter III.]
+
+It is evident that the fundamental scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma must
+be established by scientific measures, not by personal bias. This system
+is unique in the possession of such scales, made possible by the
+devising of special instruments for the measurement of color, and can
+therefore be trusted as a permanent basis for training the color sense.
+
+The examples in Plates II. and III. show how successfully the tuned
+crayons, cards, and water colors of this system lead a child to fine
+appreciations of color harmony.
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED CRAYONS IN THE LOWER GRADES.
+
+Children have made every example on this plate, with no other material
+than the five crayons of middle hue, tempered with gray and black.
+A Color Sphere is always kept in the room for reference, and five color
+balls to match the five middle hues are placed in the hands of the
+youngest pupils. Starting with these middle points in the scales of
+Value and Chroma, they learn to estimate rightly all lighter and darker
+values, all weaker and stronger chromas, and gradually build up a
+disciplined judgment of color.
+
+Each study can be made the basis of many variations by a simple change
+of one color element, as suggested in the text.
+
+  1. Butterfly. Yellow and black crayon. Vary by using any single
+  crayon with black.
+
+  2. Dish. Red crayon, blue and green crayons for back and foreground.
+  Vary by using the two opposites of any color chosen for the dish and
+  omitting the two neighboring colors. See No. 4.
+
+  3. Hiawatha’s canoe. Yellow crayon, with rim and name in green. Vary
+  color of canoe, keeping the rim a neighboring color. See No. 4.
+
+  4. Color-circle. Gray crayon for centre, and five crayons spaced
+  equidistant. This gives the invariable order, red, yellow, green,
+  blue, purple. _Never use all five in a single design._ Either use
+  a color and its two neighbors or a color and its two opposites. By
+  mingling touches of any two neighbors, the intermediates are made
+  and named yellow-red (orange), green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue
+  (violet), and red-purple. Abbreviated, the circle reads R, YR, Y,
+  GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, RP.
+
+  5. Rosette. Red cross in centre, green leaves: blue field, black
+  outline. Vary as in No. 2.
+
+  6. Rosette. Green centre and edge of leaves, purple field and black
+  accents. Vary color of centre, keeping field two colors distant.
+
+  7. Plaid. Use any three crayons with black. Vary the trio.
+
+  8. Folding screen. Yellow field (lightly applied), green and black
+  edge. Make lighter and darker values of each color, and arrange in
+  scales graded from black to white.
+
+  9. Rug. Light red field with solid red centre, border pattern and
+  edges of gray. This is called self-color. Change to each of the
+  crayons.
+
+  10. Rug. Light yellow field and solid centre, with purple and black
+  in border design. Vary by change of ground, keeping design two
+  colors distant and darkened with black.
+
+  11. Lattice. Yellow with black: alternate green and blue lozenges.
+  Vary by keeping the lozenges of two neighboring colors, but one
+  color removed from that of the lattice.
+
+For principles involved in these color groups, see Chapter III.
+
+
+PLATE III.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED WATER COLORS IN THE UPPER GRADES.
+
+Previous work with measured scales, made by the tuned crayons and tested
+by reference to the color sphere, have so trained the color judgment
+that children may now be trusted with more flexible material. They have
+memorized the equable degrees of color on the equator of the sphere, and
+found how lighter colors may balance darker colors, how small areas of
+stronger chroma may be balanced by larger masses of weaker chroma, and
+in general gained a disciplined color sense. Definite impressions and
+clear thinking have taken the place of guess-work and blundering.
+
+Thus, before reaching the secondary school, they are put in possession
+of the color faculty by a system and notation similar to that which was
+devised centuries ago for the musical sense. No system, however logical,
+will produce the artist, but every artist needs some systematic training
+at the outset, and this simple method by measured scales is believed to
+be the best yet devised.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 2.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 3.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+Each example on this plate may be made the basis of many variants, by
+small changes in the color steps, as suggested in the text, and further
+elaborated in Chapter VI. Indeed, the studies reproduced on Plates II.
+and III. are but a handful among hundreds of pleasing results produced
+in a single school.[26]
+
+  1. Pattern. Purple and green: the two united and thinned with water
+  will give the ground. Vary with any other color pair.
+
+  2. Pattern. Figure in middle red, with darker blue-green accent.
+  Ground of middle yellow, grayed with slight addition of the red and
+  green. Vary with purple in place of blue-green.
+
+  3. Japanese teapot. Middle red, with background of lighter yellow
+  and foreground of grayed middle yellow.
+
+  4. Variant on No. 3. Middle yellow, with slight addition of green.
+  Foreground the same, with more red, and background of middle gray.
+
+  5. Group. Background of yellow-red, lighter vase in yellow-green,
+  and darker vase of green, with slight addition of black. Vary by
+  inversion of the colors in ground and darker vase.
+
+  6. Wall decoration. Frieze pattern made of cat-tails and
+  leaves,--the leaves of blue-green with black, tails of yellow-red
+  with black, and ground of the two colors united and thinned with
+  water. Wall of blue-green, slightly grayed by additions of the two
+  colors in the frieze. Dado could be a match of the cat-tails
+  slightly grayer. _See Fig. 23, page 82._
+
+  7. Group. Foreground in purple-blue, grayed with black. Vase of
+  purple-red, and background in lighter yellow-red, grayed.
+
+For analysis of the groups and means of recording them, see Chapter III.
+
+    [Footnote 26: The Pope School, Somerville, Mass.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE.[27]
+
+
++How to make a color sphere with pigments.+
+
+(102) The preceding chapters have built up an ideal color solid, in
+which every sensation of color finds its place and is clearly named by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It has been shown that the neutral centre of the system is a balancing
+point for all colors, that a line through this centre finds opposite
+colors which balance and complement each other; and we are now ready to
+make a practical application, carrying out these ideal relations of
+color as far as pigments will permit in a color sphere[27] (Fig. 16).
+
+    [Footnote 27: Patented Jan. 9, 1900.]
+
+(103) The materials are quite simple. First a colorless globe, mounted
+so as to spin freely on its axis. Then a measured scale of value,
+specially devised for this purpose, obtained by the daylight
+photometer.[28] Next a set of carefully chosen pigments, whose
+reasonable permanence has been tested by long use, and which are
+prepared so that they will not glisten when spread on the surface of the
+globe, but give a uniformly mat surface. A glass palette, palette knife,
+and some fine brushes complete the list.
+
+    [Footnote 28: See paragraph 65.]
+
+(104) Here is a list of the paints arranged in pairs to represent the
+five sets of opposite hues described in Chapter III., paragraphs
+61-63:--
+
+  _Color Pairs._    _Pigments Used._      _Chemical Nature._
+
+  Red and           Venetian red.         Calcined native earth.
+    Blue-green.     Viridian and Cobalt.  Chromium sesquioxide.
+
+  Yellow and        Raw Sienna.           Native earth.
+    Purple-blue.    Ultramarine.          Artificial product.
+
+  Green and         Emerald green.        Arsenate of copper.
+    Red-purple.     Purple madder.        Extract of the madder plant.
+
+  Blue and          Cobalt.               Oxide of cobalt with alumina.
+    Yellow-red.     Orange cadmium.       Sulphide of cadmium.
+
+  Purple and        Madder and cobalt.    See each pigment above.
+    Green-yellow.   Emerald green         See each pigment above.
+                      and Sienna.
+
+(105) These paints have various degrees of hue, value, and chroma, but
+can be tempered by additions of the neutrals, zinc white and ivory
+black, until each is brought to a middle value and tested on the value
+scale. After each pair has been thus balanced, they are painted in their
+appropriate spaces on the globe, forming an equator of balanced hues.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+(106) The method of proving this balance has already been suggested in
+Chapter IV., paragraph 93. It consists of an ingenious implement devised
+by Clerk-Maxwell, which gives us a result of mixing colors without the
+chemical risks of letting them come in contact, and also measures
+accurately the quantity of each which is used (Fig. 17).
+
+(107) This is called a Maxwell disc, and is nothing more than a circle
+of firm cardboard, pierced with a central hole to fit the spindle of a
+rotary motor, and with a radial slit from rim to centre, so that another
+disc may be slid over the first to cover any desired fraction of its
+surface. Let us paint one of these discs with Venetian red and the other
+with viridian and cobalt, the first pair in the list of pigments to be
+used on the globe.
+
+(108) Having dried these two discs, one is combined with the other on
+the motor shaft so that each color occupies half the circle. As soon as
+the motor starts, the two colors are no longer distinguished, and rapid
+rotation melts them so perfectly that the eye sees a new color, due to
+their mixture on the retina. This new color is a reddish gray, showing
+that the red is more chromatic than the blue-green. But by stopping the
+motor and sliding the green disc to cover more of the red one, there
+comes a point where rotation melts them into a perfectly neutral gray.
+No hint of either hue remains, and the pair is said to balance.
+
+(109) Since this balance has been obtained by _unequal areas_ of the two
+pigments, it must compensate for a lack of equal chroma in the hues (see
+paragraphs 76, 77); and, to measure this inequality, a slightly larger
+disc, with decimal divisions on its rim, is placed back of the two
+painted ones. If this scale shows the red as occupying 3⅓ parts of the
+area, while blue-green occupies 6⅔ parts, then the blue-green must be
+only half as chromatic as the red, since it takes twice as much to
+produce the balance.
+
+(110) The red is then grayed (diminished in chroma by additions of a
+middle gray) until it can occupy half the circle, with blue-green on the
+remaining half, and still produce neutrality when mixed by rotation.
+Each disc now reads 5 on the decimal scale. Lest the graying of red
+should have disturbed its value, it is again tested on the photometric
+scale, and reads 4.7, showing it has been slightly darkened by the
+graying process. A little white is therefore added until its value is
+restored to 5.
+
+(111) The two opposites are now completely balanced, for they are equal
+in value (5), equal in chroma (5), and have proved their equality as
+complements by uniting in equal areas to form a neutral mixture. It only
+remains to apply them in their proper position on the sphere.
+
+(112) A band is traced around the equator, divided in ten equal spaces,
+and lettered R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP (see Fig. 18). This
+balanced red and blue-green are applied with the brush to spaces marked
+R and BG, care being taken to fill, but not to overstep the bounds, and
+the color laid absolutely flat, that no unevenness of value or chroma
+may disturb the balance.
+
+(113) The next pair, represented by Raw Sienna and Ultramarine, is
+similarly brought to middle value, balanced by equal areas on the
+Maxwell discs, and, when correct in each quality, is painted in the
+spaces Y and PB. Emerald Green and Purple Madder, which form the next
+pigment pair, are similarly tempered, proved, and applied, followed by
+the two remaining pairs, until the equator of the globe presents its ten
+equal steps of middle hues.
+
+
++An equator of ten balanced hues.+
+
+(114) Now comes the total test of this circuit of balanced hues by
+rotation of the sphere. As it gains speed, the colors flash less and
+less, and finally melt into a middle gray of perfect neutrality. Had it
+failed to produce this gray and shown a tinge of any hue still
+persisting, we should say that the persistent hue was in excess, or,
+conversely, that its opposite hue was deficient in chroma, and failed to
+preserve its share in the balance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+(115) For instance, had rotation discovered the persistence of reddish
+gray, it would have proved the red too strong, or its opposite,
+blue-green, too weak, and we should have been forced to retrace our
+steps, applying a correction until neutrality was established by the
+rotation test.
+
+(116) This is the practical demonstration of the assertion (Chapter I.,
+paragraph 8) that a _color has three dimensions which can be measured_.
+Each of these ten middle hues has proved its right to a definite place
+on the color globe by its measurements of value and chroma. Being of
+equal chroma, all are equidistant from the neutral centre, and, being
+equal in value, all are equally removed from the poles. If the warm hues
+(red and yellow) or the cool hues (blue and green) were in excess, the
+rotation test of the sphere would fail to produce grayness, and so
+detect its lack of balance.[29]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Such a test would have exposed the excess of warm
+    color in the schemes of Runge and Chevreul, as shown in the
+    Appendix to this chapter.]
+
+
++A chromatic tuning fork.+
+
+(117) The five principal steps in this color equator are made in
+permanent enamel and carefully safeguarded, so that, if the pigments
+painted on the globe should change or become soiled, it could be at once
+detected and set right. These five are middle red (so called because
+midway between white and black, as well as midway between our strongest
+red and the neutral centre), middle yellow, middle green, middle blue,
+and middle purple. They may be called the CHROMATIC TUNING FORK, for
+they serve to establish the pitch of colors, as the musical tuning fork
+preserves the pitch of sounds.
+
+
++Completion of a pigment color sphere.+
+
+(118) When the chromatic tuning fork has thus been obtained, the
+completion of the globe is only a matter of patience, for the same
+method can be applied at any level in the scale of value, and a new
+circuit of balanced hues made to conform with its position between the
+poles of white and black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+(119) The surface above and below the equatorial band is set off by
+parallels to match the photometric scale, making nine bands or value
+zones in all, of which the equator is fifth, the black pole being 0 and
+the white pole 10.
+
+(120) Ten meridians carry the equatorial hues across all these value
+zones and trace the gradation of each hue through a complete scale from
+black to white, marked by their values, as shown in paragraph 68. Thus
+the red scale is R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 (middle red), R6, R7, R8, and R9,
+and similarly with each of the other hues. When the circle of hues
+corresponding to each level has been applied and tested, the entire
+surface of the globe is spread with a logical system of color scales,
+and the eye gratified with regular sequences which move by measured
+steps in each direction.
+
+(121) Each meridian traces a scale of value for the hue in which it
+lies. Each parallel traces a scale of hue for the value at whose level
+it is drawn. Any oblique path across these scales traces a regular
+sequence, each step combining change of hue with a change of value and
+chroma. The more this path approaches the vertical, the less are its
+changes of hue and the more its changes of value and chroma; while, the
+nearer it comes to the horizontal, the less are its changes of value and
+chroma, while the greater become its changes of hue. Of these two
+oblique paths the first may be called that of a Luminist, or painter
+like Rembrandt, whose canvases present great contrasts of light and
+shade, while the second is that of the Colorist, such as Titian, whose
+work shows great fulness of hues without the violent extremes of white
+and black.
+
+
++Total balance of the sphere tested by rotation on any desired axis.+
+
+(122) Not only does the mount of the color sphere permit its rotation on
+the vertical axis (white-black), but it is so hung that it may be spun
+on the ends of any desired axis, as, for instance, that joining our
+first color pair, red and blue-green. With this pair as poles of
+rotation, a new equator is traced through all the values of purple on
+one side and of green-yellow on the other, which the rotation test melts
+in a perfect balance of middle gray, proving the correctness of these
+values. In the same way it may be hung and tested on successive axes,
+until the total balance of the entire spherical series is proved.
+
+(123) But this color system does not cease with the colors spread on the
+surface of a globe.[30] The first illustration of an orange filled with
+color was chosen for the purpose of stimulating the imagination to
+follow a surface color inward to the neutral axis by regular decrease of
+chroma. A slice at any level of the solid, as at value 8 (Fig. 10),
+shows each hue of that level passing by even steps of increasing
+grayness to the neutral gray N8 of the axis. In the case of red at this
+level, it is easily described by the notation R 8/3, R 8/2, R 8/1, of
+which the initial and upper numerals do not change, but the lower
+numeral traces loss of chroma by 3, 2, and 1 to the neutral axis.
+
+    [Footnote 30: No color is excluded from this system, but the
+    excess and inequalities of pigment chroma are traced in the
+    Color Atlas.]
+
+(124) And there are stronger chromas of red outside the surface, which
+can be written R 8/4, R 8/5, R 8/6, etc. Indeed, our color measurements
+discover such differences of chroma in the various pigments used, that
+the color tree referred to in paragraphs 34, 35, is necessary to bring
+before the eye their maximum chromas, most of which are well outside the
+spherical shell and at various levels of value. One way to describe the
+color sphere is to suggest that a color tree, the intervals between
+whose irregular branches are filled with appropriate color, can be
+placed in a turning lathe and turned down until the color maxima are
+removed, thus producing a color solid no larger than the chroma of its
+weakest pigment (Fig. 2).
+
+
++Charts of the color solid.+
+
+(125) Thus it becomes evident that, while the color sphere is a valuable
+help to the child in conceiving color relations, in uniting the three
+scales of color measure, and in furnishing with its mount an excellent
+test of the theory of color balance, yet it is always restricted to the
+chroma of its weakest color, the surplus chromas of all other colors
+being thought of as enormous mountains built out at various levels to
+reach the maxima of our pigments.
+
+(126) The complete color solid is, therefore, of irregular shape, with
+mountains and valleys, corresponding to the inequalities of pigments. To
+display these inequalities to the eye, we must prepare cross sections or
+charts of the solid, some horizontal, some vertical, and others oblique.
+
+(127) Such a set of charts forms an atlas of the color solid, enabling
+one to see any color in its relation to all other colors, and name it by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma. Fig. 20 is a horizontal chart of
+all colors which present middle value (5), and describes by an uneven
+contour the chroma of every hue at this level. The dotted fifth circle
+is the equator of the color sphere, whose principal hues, R 5/5. Y 5/5,
+G 5/5, B 5/5, and P 5/5, form the chromatic tuning fork, paragraph 117.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+
+  Chart of
+  Middle Value
+  - 5 -
+  Showing Unequal Chroma
+  in circle of Hues. (See Fig. 2).]
+
+(128) In this single chart the eye readily distinguishes some three
+hundred different colors, each of which may be written by its hue,
+value, and chroma. And even the slightest variation of one of them can
+be defined. Thus, if the principal red were to fade slightly, so that it
+was a trifle lighter and a trifle weaker than the enamel, it would be
+written R{5.1/4.9}, showing it had lightened by 1 per cent. and weakened
+by 1 per cent. The discrimination made possible by this decimal notation
+is much finer than our present visual limit. Its use will stimulate
+finer perception of color.
+
+(129) Such a very elementary sketch of the Color Solid and Color Atlas,
+which is all that can be given in the confines of this small book, will
+be elsewhere presented on a larger and more complete scale. It should be
+contrasted with the ideal form composed of prismatic colors, suggested
+in the last chapter, paragraphs 98, 99, which was shown to be
+impracticable, but whose ideal conditions it follows as far as the
+limitations of pigments permit.
+
+(130) Besides its value in education as setting all our color notions in
+order, and supplying a simple method for their clear expression, it
+promises to do away with much of the misunderstanding that accompanies
+the every-day use of color.
+
+(131) Popular color names are incongruous, irrational, and often
+ludicrous. One must smile in reading the list of 25 steps in a scale of
+blue, made by Schiffer-Muller in 1772:--
+
+  A. _a._ White pure.
+     _b._ White silvery or pearly.
+     _c._ White milky.
+  B. _a._ Bluish white.
+     _b._ Pearly white.
+     _c._ Watery white.
+  C.      Blue being born.
+  D.      Blue dying or pale.
+  E.      Mignon blue.
+  F.      Celestial blue, or sky-color.
+  G. _a._ Azure, or ultramarine.
+     _b._ Complete or perfect blue.
+     _c._ Fine or queen blue.
+  H.      Covert blue or turquoise.
+  I.      King blue (deep).
+  J.      Light brown blue or indigo.
+  K. _a._ Persian blue or woad flower.
+     _b._ Forge or steel blue.
+     _c._ Livid blue.
+  L. _a._ Blackish blue.
+     _b._ Hellish blue.
+     _c._ Black-blue.
+  M. _a._ Blue-black or charcoal.
+     _b._ Velvet black.
+     _c._ Jet black.
+
+The advantage of spacing these 25 colors in 13 groups, some with three
+and others with but one example, is not apparent; nor why ultramarine
+should be several steps above turquoise, for the reverse is generally
+true. Besides which the hue of turquoise is greenish, while that of
+ultramarine is purplish, but the list cannot show this; and the
+remarkable statement that one kind of blue is “hellish,” while another
+is “celestial,” should rest upon an experience that few can claim.
+Failing to define color-value and color-hue, the list gives no hint of
+color-strength, except at C and D, where one kind of blue is “dying”
+when the next is “being born,” which not inaptly describes the color
+memory of many a person. Finally, it assures us that Queen blue is
+“fine” and King blue is “deep.”
+
+This year the fashionable shades are “burnt onion” and “fresh spinach.”
+The florists talk of a “pink violet” and a “green pink.” A maker of inks
+describes the red as a “true crimson scarlet,” which is a contradiction
+in terms. These and a host of other names borrowed from the most
+heterogeneous sources, become outlawed as soon as the simple color terms
+and measures of this system are adopted.
+
+Color anarchy is replaced by systematic color description.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V.
+
+
++Color schemes based on Brewster’s mistaken theory.+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+Runge, of Hamburg (1810), suggested that red, yellow, and blue be placed
+equidistant around the equator of a sphere, with white and black at
+opposite poles. As the yellow was very light and the blue very dark, any
+coherency in the value scales of red, yellow, and blue was impossible.
+
+Chevreul, of Paris (1861), seeking uniform color scales for his workmen
+at the Gobelins, devised a hollow cylinder built up of ten color
+circles. The upper circle had red, yellow, and blue spaced equidistant,
+and, as in Runge’s solid, yellow was very light and blue very dark. Each
+circle was then made “one-tenth” darker than the next above, until black
+was reached at the base. Although each circle was supposed to lie
+horizontally, only the black lowest circle presents a level of uniform
+values.
+
+Yellow values increase their luminosity thrice as fast as purple values,
+so that each circle should tilt at an increasing angle, and the upper
+circle of strongest colors be inclined at 60° to the black base. Besides
+this fault shared with Runge’s sphere, it falls into another by not
+diminishing the size of the lower circles where added black diminishes
+the chroma.
+
+Desire to make colors fit a chosen contour, and the absence of measuring
+instruments, cause these schemes to ignore the facts of color relation.
+Like ancient maps made to satisfy a conqueror, they amuse by their
+distortion.
+
+Brewster’s mistaken theory underlies these schemes, as is also the case
+with Froebel’s gifts, whose color balls continue to give wrong notions
+at the very threshold of color education. As pointed out in the Appendix
+to Chapter III., the “red-yellow-blue” theory inevitably spreads the
+warm field of yellow-red too far, and contracts the blue field, so that
+balance of color is rendered impossible, as illustrated in the gaudy
+chromo and flaming bill-board.
+
+These schemes are criticised by Rood as “not only in the main arbitrary,
+but also vague”; and, although Chevreul’s charts were published by the
+government in most elaborate form, their usefulness is small. Interest
+in the growth of the present system, because of its measured character,
+led Professor Rood to give assistance in the tests, and at his request a
+color sphere was made for the Physical Cabinet at Columbia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+COLOR NOTATION.
+
+
++Suggestion of a chromatic score.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+(132) The last chapter traced a series of steps leading to the
+construction of a practical color sphere. Each color was tested by
+appropriate instruments to assure its degree of hue, value, and chroma,
+before being placed in position. Then the total sphere was tested to
+detect any lack of balance.
+
+(133) Each color was also _written_ by a letter and two numerals,
+showing its place in the three scales of hue, value, and chroma. This
+naturally suggests, not only a record of each separate color sensation,
+but also a union of these records in series and groups to form a _color
+score_, similar to the musical score by which the measured relations of
+sound are recorded.
+
+(134) A very simple form of color score may be easily imagined as a
+transparent envelope wrapped around the equator of the sphere, and
+forming a vertical cylinder (Fig. 21). On the envelope the equator
+traces a horizontal centre line, which is at 5 of the _value scale_,
+with zones 6, 7, 8, and 9 as parallels above, and the zones 4, 3, 2, and
+1 below. Vertical lines are drawn through ten equidistant points on this
+centre line, corresponding with the divisions of the _hue scale_, and
+marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP.
+
+(135) The transparent envelope is thus divided into one hundred
+compartments, which provide for ten steps of value in each of the ten
+middle colors. Now, if we cut open this envelope along one of the
+verticals,--as, for instance, red-purple (RP), it may be spread out,
+making a flat chart of the color sphere (Fig. 22).
+
+
++Why green is given the centre of the score.+
+
+(136) A cylindrical envelope might be opened on any desired meridian,
+but it is an advantage to have green (G) at the centre of the chart, and
+it is therefore opened at the opposite point, red-purple (RP). To the
+right of the green centre are the meridians of green-yellow (GY), yellow
+(Y), yellow-red (YR), and red (R), all of which are known as _warm
+colors_, because they contain yellow and red. To the left are the
+meridians of blue-green (BG), blue (B), purple-blue (PB), and purple
+(P), all of which are called _cool colors_, because they contain blue.
+Green, being neither warm nor cold of itself, and becoming so only by
+additions of yellow or of blue, thus serves as a balancing point or
+centre in the hue-scale.[31]
+
+    [Footnote 31: To put this in terms of the spectrum wave lengths,
+    long waves at the red end of the spectrum give the sensation of
+    warmth, while short waves at the violet end cause the sensation
+    of coolness. Midway between these extremes is the wave length of
+    green.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+(137) The color score presents four large divisions or color fields made
+by the intersection of the equator with the meridian of green. Above the
+centre are all light colors, and below it are all dark colors. To the
+right of the centre are all warm colors, and to the left are all cool
+colors. Middle green (5G 5/5) is the centre of balance for these
+contrasted qualities, recognized by all practical color workers. The
+chart forms a rectangle whose length equals the equator of the color
+sphere and its height equals the axis (a proportion of 3.14:1),
+representing a union and balance of the scales of hue and of value. This
+provides for two color dimensions; but, to be complete, the chart must
+provide for the third dimension, chroma.
+
+(138) Replacing the chart around the sphere and joining its ends, so
+that it re-forms the transparent envelope, we may thrust a pin through
+at any point until it pierces the surface of the sphere. Indeed, the pin
+can be thrust deeper until it reaches the neutral axis, thus forming a
+scale of chroma for the color point where it enters (see paragraph 12).
+In the same way any colors on the sphere, within the sphere, or without
+it, can have pins thrust into the chart to mark their place, and the
+length by which each pin projects can be taken as a measure of chroma.
+If the chart is now unrolled, it retains the pins, which by their place
+describe the hue and value of a color, while their length describes its
+chroma.
+
+
++Pins stuck into the score represent chroma.+
+
+(139) With this idea of the third color dimension incorporated in the
+score we can discard the pin, and record its length by a numeral. Any
+dot placed on the score marks a certain degree of hue and value, while a
+numeral beside it marks the degree of chroma which it carries, uniting
+with the hue and value of that point to give us a certain color.
+Glancing over a series of such color points, the eye easily grasps their
+individual character, and connects them into an intelligible series.
+
+(140) Thus a flat chart becomes the projection of the color solid, and
+any color in that solid is transferred to the surface of the chart,
+retaining its degrees of hue, value, and chroma. So far the scales have
+been spoken of as divided into ten steps, but they may be subdivided
+much finer, if desired, by use of the decimal point. It is a question of
+convenience whether to make a small score with only the large divisions,
+or a much larger score with a hundred times as many steps. In the
+latter case each hue has ten steps, the middle step of green being
+distinguished as 5G-5/5 to suggest the four steps 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, which
+precede it, and 6G, 7G, 8G, and 9G, which follow it toward blue-green.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+  COLOR SCORE--(or Nº 6 in Plate III)--GIVING AREAS BY H, V AND C.]
+
+
++The score preserves color records in a convenient shape.+
+
+Such a color score, or notation diagram, to be made small or large as
+the case demands, offers a very convenient means for recording color
+combinations, when pigments are not at hand.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+(141) To display its three dimensions, a little model can be made with
+three visiting cards, so placed as to present their mutual intersection
+at right angles (Fig. 24).
+
+5G 5/5 is their centre of mutual balance. A central plane separates all
+colors into two contrasted fields. To the right are all warm colors, to
+the left are all cool colors. Each of these fields is again divided by
+the plane of the equator into lighter colors above and darker colors
+below. These four color fields are again subdivided by a transverse
+plane through 5G 5/5 into strong colors in front and weak colors beyond
+or behind it.
+
+(142) Any color group, whose record must all be written to the right of
+the centre, is warm, because red and yellow are dominant. One to the
+left of the centre must be cool, because it is dominated by blue.
+A group written all above the centre must have light in excess, while
+one written entirely below is dark to excess. Finally, a score written
+all in front of the centre represents only strong chromas, while one
+written behind it contains only weak chromas. From this we gather that a
+balanced composition of color preserves some sort of equilibrium,
+uniting degrees of warm and cool, of light and dark, and of weak and
+strong, which is made at once apparent by the dots on the score.
+
+(143) A single color, like that of a violet, a rose, or a buttercup,
+appears as a dot on the score, with a numeral added for its chroma.
+A parti-colored flower, such as a nasturtium, is shown by two dots with
+their chromas, and a bunch of red and yellow flowers will give by their
+dots a color passage, or “silhouette,” whose warmth and lightness is
+unmistakable.
+
+The chroma of each flower written with the silhouette completes the
+record. The hues of a beautiful Persian rug, with dark red
+predominating, or a verdure tapestry, in which green is dominant, or a
+Japanese print, with blue dominant, will trace upon the score a pattern
+descriptive of its color qualities. These records, with practice, become
+as significant to the eye as the musical score. The general character of
+a color combination is apparent at a glance, while its degrees of chroma
+are readily joined to fill out the mental image.
+
+(144) Such a plan of color notation grows naturally from the spherical
+system of measured colors. It is hardly to be hoped, in devising a color
+score, that it should not seem crude at first. But the measures forming
+the basis of this record can be verified by impartial instruments, and
+have a permanent value in the general study of color. They also afford
+some definite data as to personal bias in color estimates.
+
+(145) This makes it possible to collect in a convenient form two
+contrasting and valuable records, one preserving such effects of color
+as are generally called pleasing, and another of such groups as are
+found unpleasant to the eye. Out of such material something may be
+gained, more reliable than the shifting, personal, and contradictory
+statements about color harmony now prevalent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+COLOR HARMONY.
+
+
++Colors may be grouped to please or to give annoyance.+
+
+(146) Attempts to define the laws of harmonious color have not attained
+marked success, and the cause is not far to seek. The very sensations
+underlying these effects of concord or of discord are themselves
+undefined. The misleading formula of my student days--that three parts
+of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue would combine
+harmoniously--was unable to define the _kind_ of red, yellow, and blue
+intended; that is, the hue, value, and chroma of each of these colors
+was unknown, and the formula meant a different thing to each person who
+tried to use it.
+
+(147) It is true that a certain red, green, and blue can be united in
+such proportions on Maxwell discs as to balance in a neutral gray; but
+the slightest change in either the hue, value, or chroma, of any one of
+them, upsets the balance. A new proportion is then needed to regain the
+neutral mixture. This has already been shown in the discussion of triple
+balance (paragraph 82).
+
+(148) Harmony of color has been still further complicated by the use of
+terms that belong to musical harmony. Now music is a _measured art_, and
+has found a set of intervals which are defined scientifically. The two
+arts have many points of similarity; and the impulses of sound waves on
+the ear, like those of light waves on the eye, are measured vibrations.
+But they are far apart in their scales, and differ so much in important
+particulars that no practical relationship can be set up. The intervals
+of color sensation require fit names and measures, ere their infinite
+variety can be organized into a fixed system.
+
+(149) Any effort to compare certain sounds to certain colors soon leads
+to the wildest vagaries.
+
+
++Harmony of sound is unlike harmony of color.+
+
+(150) The poverty of color language tempts to a borrowing from the
+richer terminology of music. Musical terms, such as “pitch, key, note,
+tone, chord, modulation, nocturne, and symphony,” are frequently used in
+the description of color, serving by association to convey certain vague
+ideas.
+
+(151) In the same way the term _color harmony_, from association with
+musical harmony, presents to the mind an image of color
+arrangement,--varied, yet well proportioned, grouped in orderly fashion,
+and agreeable to the eye. But any attempt to define this image in terms
+of color is disappointing. Here is a beautiful Persian rug: why do we
+call it beautiful? One says “because its colors are _rich_.” Why are
+they rich? “Because they are _deep in tone_.” What does that mean? The
+double-bass and the fog-horn are _deep_ in tone, but not necessarily
+beautiful on that account. “Oh, no,” says another, “it is all in _one
+harmonious key_.” But what is a key of color? Is it made by all the
+values of one color, such as red, or by all the hues of equal value,
+such as the middle hues in our color solid?
+
+(152) Certainly it is neither, for the rug has both light and dark
+colors; and, of the reds, yellows, greens, and blues, some are stronger
+and others weaker. Then what do we mean by a key of color? One must
+either continue to flounder about or frankly confess ignorance.
+
+(153) Musical harmony explains itself in clear language. It is
+illustrated by fixed and definite sound intervals, whose measured
+relations form the basis of musical composition. Each key has an
+unmistakable character, and the written score presents a statement that
+means practically the same thing to every person of musical
+intelligence. But the adequate terms of color harmony are yet to be
+worked out.
+
+Let us leave these musical analogies, retaining only the clue that _a
+measured and orderly relation underlies the idea of harmony_. The color
+solid which has been the subject of these pages is built upon measured
+color relations. It unites measured scales of hue, value, and chroma,
+and gives a definite color name to every sensation from the maxima of
+color-light and color-strength to their disappearance in darkness.
+
+(154) Must not this theoretical color solid, therefore, locate all the
+elements which combine to produce color harmony or color discord?[32]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Professor James says there are three classic
+    stages in the career of a theory: “First, it is attacked as
+    absurd; then admitted to be true, but obvious and insignificant;
+    finally it is seen to be so important that its adversaries claim
+    to be its discoverers.”]
+
+(155) Instead of theorizing, let us experiment. As a child at the piano,
+who first strikes random and widely separated notes, but soon seeks for
+the intervals of a familiar air, so let us, after roaming over the color
+globe and its charts, select one familiar color, and study what others
+will combine with it to please the eye.
+
+(156) Here is a grayish green stuff for a dress, and the little girl who
+is to wear it asks what other colors she may use with it. First let us
+find it on our instrument, so as to realize its relation to other
+degrees of color. Its value is 6,--one step above the equator of middle
+value. Its hue is green, G, and its chroma 5. It is written G 6/5.
+
+(157) Color paths lead out from this point in every direction. Where
+shall we find harmonious colors, where discordant, where those paths
+most frequently travelled? Are there new ones still to be explored?
+
+(158) _There are three typical paths: one vertical_, with rapid change
+of value; _another lateral_, with rapid change of hue; and a _third
+inward_, through the neutral centre to seek the opposite color field.
+All other paths are combinations of two or three of these typical
+directions in the color solid.
+
+
++Three typical color paths.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+(159) 1. The vertical path finds only lighter and darker values of
+gray-green,--“self-colors or shades,” they are generally called,--and
+offers a safe path, even for those deficient in color sensation,
+avoiding all complications of hue, and leaving the eye free to estimate
+different degrees of a single quality,--color-light.
+
+(160) 2. The lateral path passes through neighboring hues on either
+side. In this case it is a sequence from blue, through green into
+yellow. This is simply change of hue, without change of value or chroma
+if the path be level, but, by inclining it, one end of the sequence
+becomes lighter, while the other end darkens. It thus becomes an
+intermediate between the first and second typical paths, combining, at
+each step, a change of hue with a change of value. This is more
+complicated, but also more interesting, showing how the character of the
+gray-green dress will be set off by a _lighter_ hat of Leghorn straw,
+and further improved by a trimming of _darker_ blue-green. The sequence
+can be made still more subtle and attractive by choosing a straw whose
+yellow is _stronger_ than the green of the dress, while a _weaker_
+chroma of blue-green is used in the trimming. This is clearly expressed
+by the notation thus: Y 8/7, G 6/5, BG 4/3, and written on the score by
+three dots and their chromas,--7, 5, and 3 (see Fig. 23).
+
+(161) 3. The inward path which leads by increase of gray to the neutral
+centre, and on to the opposite hue red-purple, RP 4/5, is full of
+pitfalls for the inexpert. It combines great change of hue and chroma,
+with small change of value.
+
+(162) If any other color point be chosen in place of gray-green, the
+same typical paths are just as easily traced, written by the notation,
+and recorded on the color score.
+
+
++These paths trace sequences from any point in the color solid.+
+
+(163) In the construction of the color solid we saw that its scales were
+made of equal steps in hue, value, and chroma, and tested by balance on
+the centre of neutral gray. Any step will serve as a point of departure
+to trace regular sequences of the three types. The vertical type is a
+sequence of value only. It is somewhat tame, lacking the change of hue
+and chroma, but giving a monotonous harmony of regular values. The
+horizontal type traces a sequence of neighboring hues, less tame than
+the vertical type, but monotonous in value and chroma. The inward type
+connects opposite hues by a sequence of chroma balanced on middle gray,
+and is more stimulating to the eyes.
+
+(164) These paths have so far been treated as made up of equal steps in
+each direction, with the accompanying idea of equal quantities of color
+at each step. But by using _unequal quantities of color_, the balance
+may be preserved by compensations to the intervals that separate the
+colors (see paragraphs 109, 110).
+
+
++Unequal color quantities compensated by relations of hue, value,
+and chroma.+
+
+(165) Small bits of powerful color can be used to balance large fields
+of weak chroma. For instance, a spot of strong reddish purple is
+balanced and enhanced by a field of gray-green. So an amethyst pin at
+the neck of the girl’s dress will appear to advantage with the gown, and
+also with the Leghorn straw. But a large field of strong color, such as
+a cloth jacket of reddish purple, would be fatal to the measured harmony
+we seek.
+
+(166) This use of a small point of strong chroma, if repeated at
+intervals, sets up a notion of rhythm; but, in order to be rhythmic,
+there must be recurrent emphasis, “a succession of similar units,
+combining unlike elements.” This quality must not be confused with the
+unaccented succession, seen in a measured scale of hue, value, or
+chroma.
+
+
++Paper masks to isolate color intervals.+
+
+(167) A sheet of paper large enough to hide the color sphere may be
+perforated with three or more openings in a straight line, and applied
+against the surface, so as to isolate the steps of any sequence which we
+wish to study. Thus the sequence given in paragraph 160--Y 8/7, G 6/5,
+BG 4/3--may be changed to bring it on the surface of the sphere, when it
+reads Y 8/3, G 6/5, BG 5/5. A mask with round holes, spaced so as to
+uncover these three spots, relieves the eye from the distraction of
+other colors. Keeping the centre spot on green, the mask may be moved so
+as to study the effect of changing hue or value of the other two steps
+in the sequence.
+
+(168) The sequence is lightened by sliding the whole mask upward, and
+darkened by dropping it lower. Then the result of using the same
+intervals in another field is easily studied by moving the mask to
+another part of the solid.
+
+(169) Change of interval immediately modifies the character of a color
+sequence. This is readily shown by having an under-mask, with a long,
+continuous slit, and an over-mask whose perforations are arranged in
+several rows, each row giving different spaces between the perforations.
+In the case of the girl’s clothing, the same sequence produces quite a
+different effect, if two perforations of the over-mask are brought
+nearer to select a lighter yellow-green dress, while the ends of the
+sequence remain unchanged. To move the middle perforation near the other
+end, selects a darker bluish green dress, on which the trimming will be
+less contrasted, while the hat appears brighter than before, because of
+greater contrast.
+
+(170) The variations of color sequence which can thus be studied out by
+simple masks are almost endless; yet upon a measured system the
+character of each effect is easily described, and, if need be, preserved
+by a written record.
+
+
++Invention of color groups.+
+
+(171) Experiments with variable masks for the selection of color
+intervals, such as have been described, soon stimulate the imagination,
+so that it conceives sequences through any part of the color solid. The
+color image becomes a permanent mental adjunct. Five middle colors,
+tempered with white and black, permit us to devise the greatest variety
+of sequences, some light, others dark, some combining small difference
+of chroma with large difference of hue, others uniting large intervals
+of chroma with small intervals of hue, and so on through a well-nigh
+inexhaustible series.
+
+(172) As this constructive imagination gains power, the solid and its
+charts may be laid aside. _We can now think color consecutively._ Each
+color suggests its place in the system, and may be taken as a point of
+departure for the invention of groups to carry out a desired relation.
+
+(173) This selective mental process is helped by the score described in
+the last chapter; and the quantity of each color chosen for the group is
+easily indicated by a variable circle, drawn round the various points on
+the diagram. Thus, in the case of the child’s clothes, a large circle
+around G 6/5 gives the area of that color as compared with smaller
+circles around Y 8/7 and BG 4/3, representing the area of the straw and
+the trimming.
+
+(174) When the plotting of color groups has become instinctive from long
+practice, it opens a wide field of color study. Take as illustration the
+wings of butterflies or the many varieties of pansies. These fascinating
+color schemes can be written with indications of area that record their
+differences by a simple diagram. In the same way, rugs, tapestries,
+mosaics,--whatever attracts by its beauty and harmony of color,--can be
+recorded and studied in measured terms; and the mental process of
+estimating hues, values, chromas, and areas by established scales must
+lead the color sense to finer and finer perceptions.
+
+The same process serves as well to record the most annoying and
+inharmonious color groups. When sufficient of these records have been
+obtained, they furnish definite material for a contrast of the color
+combinations which please, with those that cause disgust. Such a
+contrast should discover some broad law of color harmony. It will then
+be in measured terms which can be clearly given; not a vague personal
+statement, conveying different meanings to each one who hears it.
+
+
++Constant exercise needed to train the color sense.+
+
+(175) Appreciation of beautiful color grows by exercise and
+discrimination, just as naturally as fine perception of music or
+literature. Each is an outlet for the expression of taste,--a language
+which may be used clumsily or with skill.
+
+(176) As color perception becomes finer, it discards the more crude and
+violent contrasts. A child revels in strong chromas, but the mark of a
+colorist is ability to employ low chroma without impoverishing the color
+effect. As a boy’s shrieks and groans can be tempered to musical
+utterance, so his debauches in violent red, green, and purple must be
+replaced by tempered hues.
+
+(177) Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, Corot, Chavannes, and Whistler are
+masters in the use of gray. Personal bias may lead one colorist a little
+more toward warm colors, and another slightly toward the cool field, in
+each case attaining a sense of harmonious balance by tempered degrees of
+value and chroma.[33]
+
+    [Footnote 33: “Nature’s most lively hues are bathed in lilac
+    grays. Spread all about us, yet visible only to the fine
+    perception of the colorist, is this gray quality by which he
+    appeals. Not he whose pictures abound in ‘_couleurs voyantes_,’
+    but he who preserves in his work all the ‘_gris colorés_’ is the
+    good colorist.”
+
+    Translation from J. F. Rafaelli, in _Annales Politiques &
+    Litteraires_.]
+
+(178) It is not claimed that discipline in the use of subtle colors will
+make another Corot or Velasquez, but it will make for comprehension of
+their skill. It is grotesque to watch gaudily dressed persons going into
+ecstasies over the delicate coloring of a Botticelli, when the internal
+as well as the external evidence is against them.
+
+(179) The colors which we choose, not only in personal apparel, but in
+our rooms and decorations, are mute witnesses to a stage of color
+perception.
+
+If that perception is trained to finer distinctions, the mind can no
+longer be content with coarse expression. It begins to feel an
+incongruity between the “loud” color of the wall paper, bought because
+it was fashionable, and the quiet hues of the rug, which was a gift from
+some artistic friend. It sees that, although the furniture is covered
+with durable and costly materials, their color “swears” at that of the
+curtains and wood-work. In short, the room has been jumbled together at
+various periods, without any plan or sense of color design.
+
+(180) Good taste demands that a room be furnished, not alone for
+convenience and comfort, but also with an eye to the beauty of the
+various objects, so that, instead of confusing and destroying the
+colors, each may enhance the other. And, when this sense of color
+harmony is aroused, it selects and arranges the books, the rugs, the
+lamp shade, the souvenirs of travel and friendship, the wall paper,
+pictures, and hangings, so that they fit into a color scheme, not only
+charming to the eye at first glance, but which continues to please the
+mind as it traces out an intelligent plan, bringing all into general
+harmony.
+
+(181) Nor will this cease when one room has been put to rights. Such a
+coloristic attitude is not satisfied until the vista into the next
+apartment is made attractive. Or should there be a suite of rooms, it
+demands that, with variety in each one, they all be brought into
+harmonious sequence. Thus the study of color finds immediate and
+practical use in daily life. It is a needed discipline of color vision,
+in the sense that geometry is a discipline of the mind, and it also
+enters into the pleasure and refinement of life at every step. Skill or
+awkwardness in its use exerts as positive an influence upon us as do the
+harmonies and discords of sound, and a far more continuous one. It is
+thought a defect to be unmusical. Should it not be considered a mark of
+defective cultivation to be insensitive to color?
+
+(182) In this slight sketch of color education it has been assumed that
+we are to deal with those who have normal perceptions. But there are
+some who inherit or develop various degrees of color-blindness; and a
+word in their behalf may be opportune.
+
+(183) A case of total color-blindness is very rare, but a few are on
+record. When a child shows deficient color perception,[34] a little care
+may save him much discomfort, and patient training may correct it. If he
+mismatches some hues, confuses their names, seems incapable of the finer
+distinctions of color, study to find the hues which he estimates well,
+and then help him to venture a little into that field where his
+perception is at fault. Improvement is pretty sure to follow when this
+is sympathetically done. One student, who never outgrew the habit of
+giving a purplish hue to all his work, despite many expedients and the
+use of various lights and colored objects to correct it, is the single
+exception among hundreds whom it has been my privilege to watch as they
+improved their first crude estimates, and gained skill in expressing
+their sense of Nature’s subtle color.
+
+    [Footnote 34: See Color Blindness in Glossary.]
+
+(184) To sum up, the first chapter suggests a measured color system in
+place of guess-work. The next describes the three color qualities, and
+sketches a child’s growth in color perception. The third tells how
+colors may be mingled in such proportions as to balance. After the
+impracticability of using spectral color has been shown in the fourth
+chapter, the fifth proceeds to build a practical color solid. The sixth
+provides for a written record of color, and the last applies all that
+has preceded to suggestions for the study of color harmony.
+
+(185) Wide gaps appear in this outline. There is much that deserves
+fuller treatment. But, if the search for refined color and a clearer
+outlook upon its relations are stimulated by this fragmentary sketch,
+some of its faults may be overlooked.
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+  REPRODUCTION OF FLOWER STUDIES, PAINTED WITH MUNSELL WATER COLOR
+  Published By
+  WADSWORTH, HOWLAND & CO., INCORPORATED
+  BOSTON, MASS.]
+
+
+
+
+  PART II.
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+
+  Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+
+  Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+
+  INDEX
+
+  (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2 (See Fig. 20)
+  The Color Tree]
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM WITH COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS
+
+
+  _See Chapter II._
+
+  Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS,
+  ADAPTED TO NINE YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE.
+
+  Gr.  Grade
+  Ill. Illustration
+  App. Application
+  Mat. Materials
+
+  ====================================================================
+  Gr. |Subject. |   Colors Studied.   | Ill.      | App.    | Mat.
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  1.  |  HUES   | Red.     R.         | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Yellow.  Y.         | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Green.   G.         | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Blue.    B.         |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Purple.  P.         |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  2.  |  HUES   | Yellow-red.   YR.   | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Green-yellow. GY.   | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Blue-green.   BG.   | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Purple-blue.  PB.   |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Red-purple.   RP.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  3.  | VALUES  | Light, middle,      | Sought in | Design. | Color
+      |   of    |  and dark      R.   | Nature    |         | sphere.
+      |  color. |   „      „     Y.   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         |   „      „     G.   |           |         |
+      |         |   „      „     B.   |           |         |
+      |         |   „      „     P.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  4.  | VALUES  | 5 values of  YR.}   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | „ „      „   GY.}   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | „ „      „   BG.}   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | „ „      „   PB.}   |           |         |
+      |         | „ „      „   RP.}   |           |         |
+      |         | 9/, 7/, 5/, 3/, 1/. |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  5.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of R5/.   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | „ „        „ Y5/.   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | „ „        „ G5/.   | and Art   |         |
+      |         | „ „        „ B5/.   |           |         |
+      |         | „ „        „ P5/.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  6.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of YR5/.  | Sought in | Design  | Color
+      |   of    | „    „    „  GY5/.  | Nature    |         | Tree.
+      |  color. | „    „    „  BG5/.  | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | „    „    „  PB5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | „    „    „  RP5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | „    „    „         |           |         |
+      |         |       R7/ and R3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | „     Y7/  „  Y3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | „     G7/  „  G3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | „     B7/  „  B3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | „     P7/  „  P3/.} |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  7.  |To OBSERVE IMITATE & WRITE
+      |    color by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA     „       „      Paints.
+      |
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  8.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Pairs of equal area and unequal area  „       „      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  9.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Triads of equal area and unequal area „       „      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ====================================================================
+
+Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE HUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_FIRST GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Talk about familiar objects, to bring out color names,
+  2.       as toys, flowers, clothing, birds, insects, etc.
+  3.     Show soap bubbles and prismatic spectrum.
+  4.     Teach term HUE. Hues of flowers, spectrum, plumage of
+           birds, etc.
+  5.     Show MIDDLE[35] RED. Find other reds.
+  6.     Show MIDDLE YELLOW. Find other yellows, and compare
+           with reds.
+  7.     Show MIDDLE GREEN. Find other greens,         „
+           with reds and yellows.
+  8.     Show MIDDLE BLUE. Find other blues,           „
+           with preceding hues.
+  9.     Show MIDDLE PURPLE. Find other purples,       „
+           with preceding hues.
+  10-15. Review FIVE MIDDLE HUES,[35] match with colored papers,
+           and place in circle.
+  16-20. Show COLOR SPHERE. Find sequence of five middle hues.
+           Memorize order.
+  21.    Middle red imitated with crayon, named and written
+           by initial R.
+  22.    Middle yellow   „           „      „          „
+           by initial Y.
+  23.    Middle green    „           „      „          „
+           by initial G.
+  24.    Middle blue     „           „      „          „
+           by initial B.
+  25.    Middle purple   „           „      „          „
+           by initial P.
+  26-30. Review, using middle hues[35] in borders and rosettes
+           for design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of five middle hues. To name, match,
+imitate, write, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SECOND GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1-3.   Review sequence of five middle hues.[35]
+  4.     Show a hue INTERMEDIATE between red and yellow. Find it
+           in objects.
+  5.         Compare with red and yellow.
+  6.     Recognize and name YELLOW-RED. Match, imitate, and write YR.
+  7-8.   Show GREEN-YELLOW between green and yellow. Treat as above,
+           and write GY.
+  9-10.  Show BLUE-GREEN between blue and green.        „       „
+           and write BG.
+  11-12. Show PURPLE-BLUE between purple and blue.      „       „
+           and write PB.
+  13-14. Show RED-PURPLE between red and purple.        „       „
+           and write RP.
+  15-20. Make circle of ten hues. Place Intermediates, and memorize
+           order so as to repeat forward or backward. Match, imitate,
+           and write by initials.
+  21-25. Find sequence of ten hues on COLOR SPHERE. Compare with
+           hues of natural objects.
+  26-30. Review, using any two hues in sequence for borders and
+           rosettes.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of ten hues, made up of five middle[35]
+hues and the five intermediates. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 35: The term MIDDLE, as used in this course of color
+    study, is understood to mean only the five principal hues which
+    stand midway in the scales of VALUE and CHROMA. Strictly
+    speaking, their five intermediates are also midway of the
+    scales; but they are obtained by mixture of the five principal
+    hues, as shown in their names, and are of secondary importance.]
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE VALUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_THIRD GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Review sequence of ten hues.
+  2.         Recognize, name, match, imitate, write, and find them
+  3.           on the COLOR SPHERE. Also in objects.
+  4.     Teach use of term VALUE. Color value recognized apart from
+           color hue.
+  5.     Find values of red, lighter and darker than the middle
+           value already familiar.
+  7.     THREE VALUES of RED. Find on sphere. Name as LIGHT, MIDDLE,
+           and DARK values of red.
+  8.     THREE VALUES of RED. Imitate with crayons, and write them
+           as 3, 5, and 7.
+  9.     THREE VALUES of YELLOW. Compare with above.
+  10.      Recognize, name, match, and imitate with crayons.
+  11.    THREE VALUES of GREEN. Compare, and treat as above.
+  12.      Find on sphere and in objects.
+  13.    THREE VALUES of BLUE.     „                „
+  14.
+  15.    THREE VALUES of PURPLE.   „                „
+  16.
+  17-20. Review, combining two values and a single hue for design.[36]
+
+_Aim._--To recognize a sequence combining three values and five middle
+hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 36: These ten lessons in this and succeeding grades
+    are devoted to color perception only. Their application to
+    design is a part of the general course in drawing, and will be
+    so considered in the succeeding grades. Note that, although thus
+    far nothing has been said about complementary hues, the child
+    has been led to associate them in opposite pairs by the color
+    sphere. (See Chapter III., p. 76.)]  [[Error for “paragraph 76”]]
+
+
+_FOURTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequence of three values in each of the five middle hues.
+  2.      To recognize, name, match, imitate, and
+  3.        find them on sphere and in objects.
+  4.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED. Find them on large color sphere.
+  5.    Number them 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. Match, imitate, and write.
+  6.  Show FIVE VALUES of BLUE-GREEN.  „     „          „
+        Treat as above and review.
+  7.  Show FIVE VALUES of PURPLE-BLUE compared with Yellow.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  8.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED-PURPLE      „         Green.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  9.  Show FIVE VALUES of YELLOW-RED      „         Blue.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  10. Show FIVE VALUES of GREEN-YELLOW    „         Purple.
+        Treat as above and review.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining five values in each of ten
+hues. To name, match, imitate, WRITE, and arrange them.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE CHROMAS AND THEIR SEQUENCES. Two Years.
+
+_FIFTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue and value. Find them on the color sphere.
+        Name, match, imitate, write, and arrange them by hue and value.
+  2.  Teach use of term CHROMA. Compare three chromas with three
+        values of red.
+          Name them WEAK, MIDDLE, and STRONG chromas.
+          Find in nature and art.
+  3.  THREE CHROMAS of RED.  Compare with three of blue-green.
+  4.      Show COLOR TREE. Suggest unequal chroma of hues.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of YELLOW. Compare with three chromas of
+        purple-blue.
+  6.  THREE CHROMAS of GREEN.     „                  „
+        red-purple.
+  7.  THREE CHROMAS of BLUE.      „                  „
+        yellow-red.
+  8.  THREE CHROMAS of PURPLE.    „                  „
+        green-yellow.
+  9.  Arrange five middle hues in circle, described as on the surface
+        of the Color Sphere (middle chroma), with weaker chromas inside,
+        and stronger chromas outside, the sphere.
+  10. Review,--to find these sequences of chroma in nature and art.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining three chromas, middle value,
+and ten hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SIXTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences combining three chromas, five hues, and middle
+        value.
+          Find on Color Tree, name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+  2.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER RED. Compare with middle red.
+  3.  Write    „          „          „     „   as a fraction,
+        chroma under value, using 3, 5, and 7. Thus R 5/7.
+  4.  Find CHROMAS of LIGHTER RED, and compare with darker blue-green.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER YELLOW, with purple-blue.
+  6.     „     „          „           „   GREEN,   „   red-purple.
+  7.     „     „          „           „   BLUE,    „   yellow-red.
+  8.     „     „          „           „   PURPLE,  „   green-yellow.
+  9.  Colors in nature and art, defined by hue, value, and chroma.
+        Named, matched, imitated, written, and arranged by Color Sphere
+        and Tree.
+  10. Review,--to find sequences combining three chromas, five values,
+        and ten hues.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences of chroma, as separate from sequences
+of hue or sequences of value. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange colors in terms of their hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
+COLOR EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF THE HUES, VALUES, AND CHROMAS.
+
+_SEVENTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue (initial), value (upper numeral),
+        & chroma (lower numeral).
+  2.      „      „                „                   „
+  3.  Exercises in expressing colors of natural objects by the NOTATION,
+  4.    and tracing their relation by the spherical solid.
+  5.  REDS in Nature and Art, imitated, written, and traced
+        by the spherical solid.
+  6.  YELLOWS in Nature and Art,       „                „
+        by the spherical solid.
+  7.  GREENS in Nature and Art,        „                „
+        by the spherical solid.
+  8.  BLUES in Nature and Art,         „                „
+        by the spherical solid.
+  9.  PURPLES in Nature and Art,       „                „
+        by the spherical solid.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR selected, defined, and arranged for design.
+        (See note 4th Grade.)
+
+_Aim._--To define any color by its hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write it.
+
+
+_EIGHTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences, and select colors which balance.
+        Illustrate the term.
+  2.  BALANCE of light and dark,--weak and strong,--hot and cold colors.
+  3.  RED and blue-green balanced in hue, value, and chroma,
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  4.  YELLOW and purple-blue          „                „
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  5.  GREEN and red-purple            „                „
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  6.  BLUE and yellow-red             „                „
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  7.  PURPLE and green-yellow         „                „
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  8.  UNEQUAL AREAS of the above pairs, balanced by compensating
+  9.    qualities of hue, value, and chroma. Examples from nature
+        and art.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR of unequal areas selected, defined,
+        and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To BALANCE colors by area, hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write the balance by the notation.
+
+
+_NINTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.    Review balance of color pairs, by area, hue, value, and chroma.
+  2.        To recognize, name, imitate, write, and record them.
+  3.    SELECTION of two colors to balance a given RED.
+  4.        „              „          „        „   YELLOW.
+  5.        „              „          „        „   GREEN.
+  6.        „              „          „        „   BLUE.
+  7.        „              „          „        „   PURPLE.
+  8-10. TRIAD of color, selected, balanced, written, and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize triple balance of color, and express it in terms
+of area, hue, value, and chroma. Also to use it in design.
+
+
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS
+
+  TAKEN FROM
+  THE
+
+  _CENTURY DICTIONARY_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+_The color definitions here employed are taken from the Century
+Dictionary. Special attention is called to the cross references which
+serve to differentiate HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA._
+
+
+AFTER IMAGE.--An image perceived after withdrawing the eye from a
+brilliantly illuminated object. Such images are called positive when
+their colors are the same as that of the object, and negative when they
+are its complementary colors.
+
+BLUE.--Of the color of the clear sky; of the color of the spectrum
+between wave lengths .505 and .415 micron, and more especially .487 and
+.460; or of such light mixed with white; azure, cerulean.
+
+BLACK.--Possessing in the highest degree the property of absorbing
+light; reflecting and transmitting little or no light; of the color of
+soot or coal; of the darkest possible hue; sable. Optically, wholly
+destitute of color, or absolutely dark, whether from the absence or the
+total absorption of light. Opposed to white.
+
+BROWN.--A dark color, inclined to red or yellow, obtained by mixing red,
+black, and yellow.
+
++CHROMA.--The degree of departure of a color sensation from that of
+white or gray; the intensity of distinctive hue; color intensity.+
+
+CHROMATIC.--Relating to or of the nature of color.
+
+COBALT BLUE.--A pure blue tending toward cyan blue and of high
+luminosity; also called Hungary blue, Lethner’s blue, and Paris blue.
+
+COLOR.--Objectively, that quality of a thing or appearance which is
+perceived by the eye alone, independently of the form of the thing;
+subjectively, a sensation peculiar to the organ of vision, and arising
+from the optic nerve.
+
+COLOR BLINDNESS.--Incapacity for perceiving colors, independent of the
+capacity for distinguishing light and shade. The most common form is
+inability to perceive red as a distinct color, red objects being
+confounded with gray or green; and next in frequency is the inability to
+perceive green.
+
+COLOR CONSTANTS.--The numbers which measure the quantities, as well as
+any other system of three numbers for defining colors, are called
+constants of color.
+
+COLOR VARIABLES.--Colors vary in CHROMA, or freedom from admixture of
+white light; in BRIGHTNESS, or luminosity; and in HUE, which roughly
+corresponds to the mean wave length of the light emitted.
+
+COLORS, COMPLEMENTARY.--Those pairs of color which when mixed produce
+white or gray light, such as red and green-blue, yellow and indigo-blue,
+green-yellow and violet.
+
+COLORS, PRIMARY.--The red, green, and violet light of the spectrum, from
+the mixture of which all other colors can be produced. Also called
+fundamental colors.
+
+DYESTUFFS.--In commerce, any dyewood, lichen, or dyecake used in dyeing
+and staining.
+
+ELECTRIC LIGHT.--Light produced by electricity and of two general kinds,
+the arc light and the incandescent light. In the first the voltaic arc
+is employed. In the second a resisting conductor is rendered
+incandescent by the current.
+
+ENAMEL.--In the fine arts a vitreous substance or glass, opaque or
+transparent, and variously colored, applied as a coating on a surface of
+metal or of porcelain.
+
+GRATING, DIFFRACTION.--A series of fine parallel lines on a surface of
+glass, or polished metal, ruled very close together, at the rate of
+10,000 to 20,000 or even 40,000 to the inch; distinctively called a
+diffraction or a diffraction grating, much used in spectroscopic work.
+
+GRAY.--A color having little or no distinctive hue (CHROMA) and only
+moderate luminosity.
+
+GREEN.--The color of ordinary foliage; the color seen in the solar
+spectrum between wave lengths 0.511 and 0.543 micron.
+
+EMERALD GREEN.--A highly chromatic and extraordinarily luminous green of
+the color of the spectrum at wave length 0.524 micron. It recalls the
+emerald by its brilliancy, but not by its tint; applied generally to the
+aceto-arsenate of copper. Usually known as Paris green.
+
+HIGH COLOR.--A hue which excites intensely chromatic color sensations.
+
++HUE.--Specifically and technically, distinctive quality of coloring in
+an object or on a surface; the respect in which red, yellow, green,
+blue, etc., differ one from another; that in which colors of equal
+luminosity and CHROMA may differ.+
+
+INDIGO.--The violet-blue color of the spectrum, extending, according to
+Helmholtz, from G two-thirds of the way to F in the prismatic spectrum.
+The name was introduced by Newton, but has lately been discarded by the
+best writers.
+
+LIGHT.--Adjective applied to colors highly luminous and more or less
+deficient in CHROMA.
+
+LUMINOSITY.--Specifically, the intensity of light in a color, measured
+photometrically; that is to say, a standard light has its intensity, or
+_vis viva_, altered, until it produces the impression of being equally
+bright with the color whose light is to be determined; and the measure
+of the _vis viva_ of the altered light, relatively to its standard
+intensity, is then taken as the luminosity of the color in question.
+
+MAXWELL COLOR DISCS.--Discs having each a single color, and slit
+radially so that one may be made to lap over another to any desired
+extent. By rotating these on a spindle, the effect of combining certain
+colors in varying proportions can be studied.
+
+MICRON.--The millionth part of a metre, or 1/23400 of an English inch.
+The term has been formally adopted by the International Commission of
+Weights and Measures, representing the civilized nations of the world,
+and is adopted by all metrologists.
+
+ORANGE.--A reddish yellow color, of which the orange is the type.
+
+VISION, PERSISTENCE OF.--The continuance of a visual impression upon the
+retina of the eye after the exciting cause is removed. The length of
+time varies with the intensity of the light and the excitability of the
+retina, and ordinarily is brief, though the duration may be for hours,
+or even days. The after image may be either positive or negative, the
+latter when the bright part appears dark and the colored parts in their
+corresponding contrast colors. It is because of this persistence that,
+for example, a firebrand moved very rapidly appears as a band or circle
+of light.
+
+PHOTOMETER.--An instrument used to measure the intensity of light.
+Specifically, to compare the relative intensities of the light emitted
+from various sources.
+
+PIGMENT.--Any substance that is or can be used by painters to impart
+color to bodies.
+
+PINK.--A red color of low chroma, but high luminosity, inclining toward
+purple.
+
+PRIMARY COLORS.--See Colors, primary.
+
+PURE COLOR.--A color produced by homogeneous light. Any very brilliant
+or decided color.
+
+PURPLE.--A color formed by the mixture of blue and red, including the
+violet of the spectrum above wave length 0.417, which is nearly a violet
+blue, and extending to, but not including, crimson.
+
+RAINBOW.--A bow or an arc of a circle, consisting of the prismatic
+colors, formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light
+from drops of rain or vapor, appearing in the part of the heavens
+opposite to the sun.
+
+RED.--A color more or less resembling that of blood, or the lower end of
+the spectrum. Red is one of the most general color names, and embraces
+colors ranging in hue from aniline to scarlet iodide of mercury and red
+lead. A red yellower than vermilion is called scarlet. One much more
+crimson is called crimson red. A very dark red, if pure or crimson, is
+called maroon; if brownish, chestnut or chocolate. A pale red--that is,
+one of low CHROMA and high LUMINOSITY--is called a pink, ranging from
+rose pink or pale crimson to salmon pink or pale scarlet.
+
+VENETIAN RED.--An important pigment used by artists, somewhat darker
+than brick red in color, and very permanent.
+
+RETINA.--The innermost and chiefly nervous coat of the posterior part of
+the eyeball.
+
+SATURATION, OF COLORS.--In optics the degree of admixture with white,
+the saturation diminishing as the amount of white is increased. In other
+words, the highest degree of saturation belongs to a given color when in
+the state of greatest purity.
+
+SCALE.--A graded system, by reference to which the degree, intensity, or
+quality of a sense perception may be estimated.
+
+SHADE.--Degree or gradation of defective luminosity in a color, often
+used vaguely from the fact that paleness, or high luminosity, combined
+with defective CHROMA, is confounded with high luminosity by itself. See
+Color, Hue, and Tint.
+
+SPECTRUM.--In physics the continuous band of light showing the
+successive prismatic colors, or the isolated lines or bands of color,
+observed when the radiation from such a source as the sun or an ignited
+vapor in a gas flame is viewed after having been passed through a prism
+(prismatic spectrum) or reflected from a diffraction grating
+(diffraction or interference spectrum). See Rainbow.
+
+TINT.--A variety of color; especially and properly, a luminous variety
+of low CHROMA; also, abstractly, the respect in which a color may be
+raised by more or less admixture of white, which at once increases the
+luminosity and diminishes the CHROMA.
+
+TONE.--A sound having definiteness and continuity enough so that its
+pitch, force, and quality may be readily estimated by the ear. Musical
+sound opposed to noise. The prevailing effect of a color.
+
+ULTRAMARINE.--A beautiful natural blue pigment, obtained from the
+mineral lapis-lazuli.
+
++VALUE.--In painting and the allied arts, relation of one object, part,
+or atmospheric plane of a picture to the others, with reference to light
+and shade, the idea of HUE being abstracted.+
+
+VERMILION.--The red sulphate of mercury.
+
+VIOLET.--A general class of colors, of which the violet flower is a
+highly chromatic example. The sensation is produced by a pure blue whose
+CHROMA has been diminished while its LUMINOSITY has been increased. Thus
+blue and violet are the same color, though the sensations are different.
+A mere increase of illumination may cause a violet blue to appear
+violet, with a diminution of apparent CHROMA. This color, called violet
+or blue according to the quality of the sensation it excites, is one of
+the three fundamental colors of Young’s theory. A deep blue tinged with
+red.
+
+VIRIDIAN.--Same as Veronese green.
+
+WHITE.--A color transmitting, and so reflecting to the eye, all the rays
+of the spectrum, combined in the same proportion as in the impinging
+light.
+
+YELLOW.--The color of gold and of light, of wave length 0.581 micron.
+The name is restricted to highly chromatic and luminous colors. When
+reduced in CHROMA, it becomes buff; when reduced in LUMINOSITY, a cool
+brown. See Brown.
+
+VERONESE GREEN.--A pigment consisting of hydrated chromium sesquioxide.
+It is a clear bluish green of great permanency. Also called Viridian.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX BY PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+  Balance of color, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86, 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+      136, 142, 147, Appendix III.
+  Black, 12, 16, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 91, 119.
+  Blue, 9, 12, 16, 34, 104, 146, 147.
+  Brewster’s theory, Appendix III.
+
+  Charts of the color sphere, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+  Chevreul, Appendix III., V.
+  Chroma, 3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 21-24, 28, 39, 40, 42, 45, 64, 76, 78, 82,
+      88, 94, 95, 105, 121, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31-35, 42, 133.
+    Strongest, 32, 34, 42.
+  Chromatic tuning fork, 117, 118, 119-127.
+  Circuit, inclined, 16, 17, 97.
+  Color, apparatus, 3, 8, 14, 132.
+    Atlas, 129.
+    Balance, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86 (triple), 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+        136, 142, 147.
+    Blindness, 182, 183.
+    Charts, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+    Circuit, 54, 58, 59.
+    Complementary, 76, 77.
+    Color, dimensions of, 3, 8, 9, 13, 25, 53, 94, 116.
+    Curves, 94.
+    Discs, Maxwell’s, 76, 93, 106-112, 113, 117.
+    Harmony, 47, 77, 86, 145-148, 151-174, 180.
+    Hand as a holder of, 54-58.
+    Key of, 6, 151, 152.
+    Language, poverty of, 5, 175.
+    Lists, 131.
+    Measured, 3, 14, 32.
+    Meridians, 136, 137.
+    Middle, 28, 29, 40-42, 113.
+    Misnomers, Appendix I.
+    Mixture, 56-72.
+    Names, 1, 2, 14, 19, 25, 90, 91, 131.
+    Notation, 36, 37, 40-42, 47, 67, 72, 86, 101, 133.
+    Orange, 9-11, 89, 123.
+    Parallels, 12, 119.
+    Paths, 157, 158, 160-164.
+    Perception, 27, 29, 39, 179.
+    Principal (5), 4, 16, 21, 26, 31, 34, 40, 54, 56, 57.
+    Principal (5) and intermediates (5), 31, 60, 68, 112, 134.
+    Purity, 8, 19, 23, 89, 98, 99.
+    Records 145.
+    Relations, 14, 24, 36, 37, 153.
+    Rhythm, 166.
+    Scale, 3, 7, 24, 30, 55, 120, 140, Appendix II.
+    Score, 133-139, 142, 173.
+    Sensations, 3, 4, 15, 19, 21, 87.
+    Sequences, 47, 78, 79, 120, 156, 169-171, 181.
+    Sir Isaac Newton’s, 89.
+    Schemes, Appendix V.
+    Solid, 14, 19, 102, 126, 129, 140, 153.
+    Spectral, 16, 88, 94, 129.
+    Sphere, 12-17, 24, 25, 31, 43, 55, 72, 91, 101, 102, 111, 122, 132.
+    Standard, 4, 26, 35.
+    System, 3, 8, 28, 123, 130.
+      Need of, 46, 148.
+    Tree, 14, 30-34, 43, 94, 95, 124.
+    Waves, 21, 23, 136.
+    Tones, 134.
+  Children’s color studies, Appendix IV.
+  Colorist, 84, 121, 177.
+  Coloristic art, 7, 38, 45, 177.
+  Combined scales, 12, 14, 36, 37, 47.
+  Complements, 76, 77.
+  Course of color study, 48-50.
+
+  Daylight photometer, 22, 103, 119.
+
+  Enamels, 28, 29, 101, 117.
+
+  Fading, 8, 23.
+  False color balance, Appendix III.
+  Flat diagrams, 14.
+  Fundamental sensations, 28, Appendix III.
+
+  Green, 2, 32, 104, 136, 137, 140, 147, 148.
+
+  Hue, 3, 4, 8, 9-11, 14, 18, 21-26, 34, 39, 40, 43, 54, 59, 76, 82,
+      89, 105.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 35, 120, 133.
+
+  Ideal color system, 100.
+
+  Lambert’s pyramid, note to 31.
+  Luminist, 121.
+
+  Masks, 47, 167-171.
+  Maxwell discs, 93, 107, 113, 117.
+  Measurement of colors, 3, 8, 14, 116, Appendix IV.
+  Middle gray, 61, 65, 72.
+  Middle hues, 10, 28, 65.
+  Mixture of hues, 56-72.
+  Musical terms used for colors, 6, 46, 148-150.
+
+  Neutral axis, 31, 34, 61, 65, 121.
+  Neutral gray, 11, 23, 25, 62, 64, 65, 72, 114, 102.
+  Notation diagram, 140.
+
+  Orange, 9-11, 18, 123.
+
+  Personal bias, 144, 174.
+  Pigments, 14, 27-29, 101-104, 125, 129.
+  Photometer, 65.
+  Primary sensations, 89.
+  Prismatic color sphere, 98.
+  Purple, 5.
+
+  Rainbow, 15, 17.
+  Red, middle, 1, 32, 41, 60, 66, 72, 104, 110, 122, 147, 148.
+  Retina, 21.
+  Rood, modern chromatics, Appendix I.
+  Runge, note to 31, Appendix V.
+
+  Shades and tints, 22.
+  Spectrum, solar, 15-18, 27, 28, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96.
+
+  Tone, 6.
+
+  Value, 3, 8-11, 14, 21-24, 28, 34, 39, 40-43, 54, 76, 78, 82, 94,
+      105, 120, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 34, 35, 64, 102, 120, 133.
+  Vermilion, 42, Appendix III.
+  Vertical (neutral) axis, 12, 25, 31, 34, 65, 68.
+  Violet, 90.
+
+  Warm and cold colors, 72, 123, note to 136, 137, 138.
+  Wave lengths, 21, 22, 23, 89.
+  White, 12, 16, 17, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 87, 91, 92, 99, 119.
+
+  Yellow, 1, 32, 54, 104, 136.
+
+
+
+
+The MUNSELL PHOTOMETER
+
+  Patented November 19, 1901
+
+
+  A portable, daylight instrument, adapted to laboratory work
+    in general, and of especial service in the comparison
+      of color values. Placed in the course
+        of Optical Measurements at the
+          Massachusetts Institute of
+            Technology
+
+  Price, $50
+
+
+  [Decoration]
+
+
+  IN PREPARATION
+
+  A COLOR ATLAS
+
+  Also text-books and models
+      specially designed
+  to serve in the education of
+      the color sense
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COLOR NOTATION ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Color Notation
+       A measured color system, based on the three qualities Hue,
+       Value and Chroma
+
+Author: Albert H. Munsell
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2008 [EBook #26054]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COLOR NOTATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, K.D. Thornton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
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+
+[This text uses utf-8 (unicode) file encoding. If the apostrophes and
+quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, make sure your
+text reader's "character set" or "file encoding" is set to Unicode
+(UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. As a last
+resort, use the ascii-7 version of the file instead.
+
+The Table of Contents, Index, and all cross-references use paragraph
+numbers, shown in (parentheses).
+
+Braces have been added to a few long fractions that were originally
+printed on two lines.
+
+The numbers in expressions such as R2, R3, R4 were printed as
+superscripts.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: A BALANCED COLOR SPHERE
+  PASTEL SKETCH]
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR NOTATION
+
+  _By_
+
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+A MEASURED COLOR SYSTEM, BASED ON THE THREE QUALITIES
+
+  _Hue, Value, and Chroma_
+
+  with
+
+  Illustrative Models, Charts, and
+  a Course of Study Arranged for Teachers
+
+  _2nd Edition
+  Revised &
+  Enlarged_
+
+  GEO. H. ELLIS CO.
+  BOSTON
+  1907
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1905
+  by
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+At various times during the past ten years, the gist of these pages has
+been given in the form of lectures to students of the Normal Art School,
+the Art Teachers' Association, and the Twentieth Century Club. In
+October of last year it was presented before the Society of Arts of the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the suggestion of Professor
+Charles R. Cross.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is due to many whose helpful criticism has aided
+in its development, notably Mr. Benjamin Ives Gilman, Secretary of the
+Museum of Fine Arts, Professor Harry E. Clifford, of the Institute, and
+Mr. Myron T. Pritchard, master of the Everett School, Boston.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1905.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+The new illustrations in this edition are facsimiles of children's
+studies with measured color, made under ordinary school-room conditions.
+Notes and appendices are introduced to meet the questions most
+frequently asked, stress being laid on the unbalanced nature of colors
+usually given to beginners, and the mischief done by teaching that red,
+yellow, and blue are primary hues.
+
+The need of a scientific basis for color values is also emphasized,
+believing this to be essential in the discipline of the color sense.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1907.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The lack of definiteness which is at present so general in color
+nomenclature, is due in large measure to the failure to appreciate the
+fundamental characteristics on which color differences depend. For the
+physicist, the expression of the wave length of any particular light is
+in most cases sufficient, but in the great majority of instances where
+colors are referred to, something more than this and something easier of
+realization is essential.
+
+The attempt to express color relations by using merely two dimensions,
+or two definite characteristics, can never lead to a successful system.
+For this reason alone the system proposed by Mr. Munsell, with its three
+dimensions of hue, value, and chroma, is a decided step in advance over
+any previous proposition. By means of these three dimensions it is
+possible to completely express any particular color, and to
+differentiate it from colors ordinarily classed as of the same
+general character.
+
+The expression of the essential characteristics of a color is, however,
+not all that is necessary. There must be some accurate and not too
+complicated system for duplicating these characteristics, one which
+shall not alter with time or place, and which shall be susceptible of
+easy and accurate redetermination. From the teaching standpoint also a
+logical and sequential development is absolutely essential. This Mr.
+Munsell seems to have most successfully accomplished.
+
+In the determination of his relationships he has made use of distinctly
+scientific methods, and there seems no reason why his suggestions should
+not lead to an exact and definite system of color essentials. The
+Munsell photometer, which is briefly referred to, is an instrument of
+wide range, high precision, and great sensitiveness, and permits the
+valuations which are necessary in his system to be accurately made. We
+all appreciate the necessity for some improvement in our ideas of color,
+and the natural inference is that the training should be begun in early
+youth. The present system in its modified form possesses elements of
+simplicity and attractiveness which should appeal to children, and give
+them almost unconsciously a power of discrimination which would prove of
+immense value in later life. The possibilities in this system are very
+great, and it has been a privilege to be allowed during the past few
+years to keep in touch with its development. I�cannot but feel that we
+have here not only a rational color nomenclature, but also a system of
+scientific importance and of practical value.
+
+    H. E. CLIFFORD.
+
+  MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
+    February, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Introduction By Professor Clifford.
+
+
+  Part I.
+
+Chapter                                                Paragraph
+
+    I. COLOR NAMES: Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple           1
+         Appendix I.--Misnomers for Color.
+
+   II. COLOR QUALITIES: Hue, Value, Chroma                    20
+         Appendix II.--Scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+  III. COLOR MIXTURE: A Tri-Dimensional Balance               54
+         Appendix III.--False Color Balance.
+
+   IV. PRISMATIC COLORS                                       87
+         Appendix IV.--Children's Color Studies.
+
+    V. THE PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE: TRUE COLOR BALANCE          102
+         Appendix V.--Schemes based on Brewster's Theory.
+
+   VI. COLOR NOTATION: A Written Color System                132
+
+  VII. COLOR HARMONY: A Measured Relation                    146
+
+
+  Part II.
+
+       A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+       BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+         Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+       GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+         Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+       INDEX
+         (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COLOR NAMES.
+
+
+Writing from Samoa to Sidney Colvin in London, Stevenson[1] says:
+"Perhaps in the same way it might amuse you to send us any pattern of
+wall paper that might strike you as cheap, pretty, and suitable for a
+room in a hot and extremely bright climate. It should be borne in mind
+that our climate can be extremely dark, too. Our sitting-room is to be
+in varnished wood. The room I have particularly in mind is a sort of bed
+and sitting room, pretty large, lit on three sides, and the colour in
+favour of its proprietor at present is a topazy yellow. But then with
+what colour to relieve it? For a little work-room of my own at the back
+I should rather like to see some patterns of unglossy--well, I'll be
+hanged if I can describe this red. It's not Turkish, and it's not Roman,
+and it's not Indian; but it seems to partake of the last two, and yet it
+can't be either of them, because it ought to be able to go with
+vermilion. Ah, what a tangled web we weave! Anyway, with what brains you
+have left choose me and send me some--many--patterns of the exact
+shade."
+
+    [Footnote 1: Vailima Letters, Oct. 8, 1902.]
+
+(1) Where could be found a more delightful cry for some rational way to
+describe color? He wants "a topazy yellow" and a red that is not Turkish
+nor Roman nor Indian, but that "seems to partake of the last two, and
+yet it can't be either of them." As a cap to the climax comes his demand
+for "patterns of the exact shade." Thus one of the clearest and most
+forceful writers of English finds himself unable to describe the color
+he wants. And why? Simply because popular language does not clearly
+state a single one of the three qualities united in every color, and
+which must be known before one may even hope to convey his color
+conceptions to another.
+
+(2) The incongruous and bizarre nature of our present color names must
+appear to any thoughtful person. Baby blue, peacock blue, Nile green,
+apple green, lemon yellow, straw yellow, rose pink, heliotrope, royal
+purple, Magenta, Solferino, plum, and automobile are popular terms,
+conveying different ideas to different persons and utterly failing to
+define colors. The terms used for a single hue, such as pea green, sea
+green, olive green, grass green, sage green, evergreen, invisible green,
+are not to be trusted in ordering a piece of cloth. They invite mistakes
+and disappointment. Not only are they inaccurate: they are
+inappropriate. Can we imagine musical tones called lark, canary,
+cockatoo, crow, cat, dog, or mouse, because they bear some distant
+resemblance to the cries of those animals? See paragraph 131.
+
+
++Color needs a system.+
+
+(3) Music is equipped with a system by which it defines each sound in
+terms of its pitch, intensify, and duration, without dragging in loose
+allusions to the endlessly varying sounds of nature. So should color be
+supplied with an appropriate system, based on the hue, value, and
+chroma[2] of our sensations, and not attempting to describe them by the
+indefinite and varying colors of natural objects. The system now to be
+considered portrays the three dimensions of color, and measures each by
+an appropriate scale. It does not rest upon the whim of an individual,
+but upon physical measurements made possible by special color apparatus.
+The results may be tested by any one who comes to the problem with "a
+clear mind, a�good eye, and a fair supply of patience."
+
+    [Footnote 2: See color variables in Glossary.]
+
+
++Clear mental images make clear speech. Vague thoughts find vague
+utterance.+
+
+(4) The child gathers flowers, hoards colored beads, chases butterflies,
+and begs for the gaudiest painted toys. At first his strong color
+sensations are sufficiently described by the simple terms of red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. But he soon sees that some are light,
+while others are dark, and later comes to perceive that each hue has
+many grayer degrees. Now, if he wants to describe a particular
+red,--such as that of his faded cap,--he is not content to merely call
+it red, since he is aware of other red objects which are very unlike it.
+So he gropes for means to define this particular red; and, having no
+standard of comparison,--no scale by which to estimate,--he hesitatingly
+says it is a "sort of dull red."
+
+(5) Thus early is he cramped by the poverty of color language. He has
+never been given an appropriate word for this color quality, and has to
+borrow one signifying the opposite of sharp, which belongs to edge tools
+rather than to colors.
+
+
++Most color terms are borrowed from other senses.+
+
+(6) When his older sister refers to the "tone" of her green dress, or
+speaks of the "key of color" in a picture, he is naturally confused,
+because tone and key are terms associated in his mind with music. It may
+not be long before he will hear that "a color note has been pitched too
+high," or that a certain artist "paints in a minor key." All these terms
+lead to mixed and indefinite ideas, and leave him unequipped for the
+clear expression of color qualities.
+
+(7) Musical art is not so handicapped. It has an established scale with
+measured intervals and definite terms. Likewise, coloristic art must
+establish a scale, measure its intervals, and name its qualities in
+unmistakable fashion.
+
+
++Color has three dimensions.+
+
+(8) It may sound strange to say that color has three dimensions, but it
+is easily proved by the fact that each of them can be measured. Thus in
+the case of the boy's faded cap its redness or HUE[3] is determined by
+one instrument; the amount of light in the red, which is its VALUE,[3]
+is found by another instrument; while still a third instrument
+determines the purity or CHROMA[3] of the red.
+
+The omission of any one of these three qualities leaves us in doubt as
+to the character of a color, just as truly as the character of this
+studio would remain undefined if the length were omitted and we
+described it as 22 feet wide by 14 feet high. The imagination would be
+free to ascribe any length it chose, from 25 to 100 feet. This length
+might be differently conceived by every individual who tried to supply
+the missing factor.
+
+(9) To illustrate the tri-dimensional nature of colors. Suppose we peel
+an orange and divide it in five parts, leaving the sections slightly
+connected below (Fig.�4). Then let us say that all the reds we have ever
+seen are gathered in one of the sections, all yellows in another, all
+greens in the third, blues in the fourth, and purples in the fifth. Next
+we will assort these HUES in each section so that the lightest are near
+the top, and grade regularly to the darkest near the bottom. A�white
+wafer connects all the sections at the top, and a black wafer may be
+added beneath. See Plate�I.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: For definitions of Hue, Value, and Chroma, see
+    paragraphs 20-23.]
+
+(10) The fruit is then filled with assorted colors, graded from white to
+black, according to their VALUES, and disposed by their HUES in the five
+sections. A�slice near the top will uncover light values in all hues,
+and a slice near the bottom will find dark values in the same hues.
+A�slice across the middle discloses a circuit of hues all of MIDDLE
+VALUE; that is, midway between the extremes of white and black.
+
+(11) Two color dimensions are thus shown in the orange, and it remains
+to exhibit the third, which is called CHROMA, or strength of color. To
+do this, we have only to take each section in turn, and, without
+disturbing the values already assorted, shove the grayest in toward the
+narrow edge, and grade outward to the purest on the surface. Each slice
+across the fruit still shows the circuit of hues in one uniform value;
+but the strong chromas are at the outside, while grayer and grayer
+chromas make a gradation inward to neutral gray at the centre, where all
+trace of color disappears. The thin edges of all sections unite in a
+scale of gray from black to white, no matter what hue each contains.
+
+The curved outside of each section shows its particular hue graded from
+black to white; and, should the section be cut at right angles to the
+thin edge, it would show the third dimension,--chroma,--for the color is
+graded evenly from the surface to neutral gray. A�pin stuck in at any
+point traces the third dimension.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+
++A color sphere can be used to unite the three dimensions of hue,
+value, and chroma.+
+
+(12) Having used the familiar structure of the orange as a help in
+classifying colors, let us substitute a geometric solid, like a
+sphere,[4] and make use of geographical terms. The north pole is white.
+The south pole is black. The equator is a circuit of middle reds,
+yellows, greens, blues, and purples. Parallels above the equator
+describe this circuit in lighter values, and parallels below trace it in
+darker values. The vertical axis joining black and white is a neutral
+scale of gray values, while perpendiculars to it (like a pin thrust into
+the orange) are scales of chroma. Thus our color notions may be brought
+into an orderly relation by the color sphere. Any color describes its
+light and strength by its location in the solid or on the surface, and
+is named by its place in the combined scales of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 4: See frontispiece.]
+
++Two dimensions fail to describe a color.+
+
+(13) Much of the popular misunderstanding of color is caused by
+ignorance of these three dimensions or by an attempt to make two
+dimensions do the work of three.
+
+(14) Flat diagrams showing hues and values, but omitting to define
+chromas, are as incomplete as would be a map of Switzerland with the
+mountains left out, or a harbor chart without indications of the depth
+of water. We find by aid of the measuring instruments that pigments are
+very unequal in this third dimension,--chroma,--producing mountains and
+valleys on the color sphere, so that, when the color system is worked
+out in pigments and charted, some colors must be traced well out beyond
+the spherical surface (paragraphs 125-127). Indeed, a�COLOR TREE[5] is
+needed to display by the unequal levels and lengths of its branches the
+individuality of pigment colors. But, whatever solid or figure is used
+to illustrate color relations, it must combine the three scales of hue,
+value, and chroma, and these definite scales furnish a name for every
+color based upon its intrinsic qualities, and free from terms purloined
+in other sensations, or caught from the fluctuating colors of natural
+objects.
+
+    [Footnote 5: For description of the Color Tree see paragraphs 33
+    and�34.]
+
+
++How this system describes the spectrum.+
+
+(15) The solar spectrum and rainbow are the most stimulating color
+experiences with which we are acquainted. Can they be described by this
+solid system?
+
+(16) The lightest part of the spectrum is a narrow field of greenish
+yellow, grading into darker red on one side and into darker green upon
+the other, followed by still darker blue and purple. Upon the sphere the
+values of these spectral colors trace a path high up on the yellow
+section, near white, and slanting downward across the red and green
+sections, which are traversed near the level of the equator, it goes on
+to cross the blue and purple well down toward black.
+
+(17) This forms an inclined circuit, crossing the equator at opposite
+points, and suggests the ecliptic or the rings of Saturn (see outside
+cover). A�pale rainbow would describe a slanting circuit nearer white,
+and a dimmer one would fall within the sphere, while an intensely
+brilliant spectrum projects far beyond the surface of the sphere, so
+greatly is the chroma of its hues in excess of the common pigments with
+which we work out our problems.
+
+(18) At the outset it is well to recognize the place of the spectrum in
+this system, not only because it is the established basis of scientific
+study, but especially because the invariable order assumed by its hues
+is the only stable hint which Nature affords us in her infinite color
+play.
+
+(19) All our color sensations are included in the color solid. None are
+left out by its scales of hue, value, and chroma. Indeed, the
+imagination is led to conceive and locate still purer colors than any we
+now possess. Such increased degrees of color sensation can be named, and
+clearly conveyed by symbols to another person as soon as the system is
+comprehended.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
+
+
++Misnomers for Color.+
+
+The Century Dictionary helps an intelligent study of color by its clear
+definitions and cross-references to HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA,--leaving no
+excuse for those who would confuse these three qualities or treat a
+degree of any quality as the quality itself.
+
+Obscure statements were frequent in text-books before these new
+definitions appeared. Thus the term "shade" should be applied only to
+darkened values, and not to hues or chromas. Yet one writer says, "This
+yellow shades into green," which is certainly a change of hue, and then
+speaks of "a brighter shade" in spite of his evident intention to
+suggest a stronger chroma, which is neither a shade nor brighter
+luminosity.
+
+Children gain wrong notions of "tint and shade" from the so-called
+standard colors shown to them, which present "tints" of red and blue
+much darker than the "shades" of yellow. This is bewildering, and, like
+their elders, they soon drop into the loose habit of calling any degree
+of color-strength or color-light a "shade." _Value_ is a better term to
+describe the light which color reflects to the eye, and all color
+values, light or dark, are measured by the _value-scale_.
+
+"Tone" is used in a confusing way to mean different things. Thus in the
+same sentence we see it refers to a single touch of the brush,--which is
+not a tone, but a paint spot,--and then we read that the "tone of the
+canvas is golden." This cannot mean that each paint spot is the color of
+gold, but is intended to suggest that the various objects depicted seem
+enveloped in a yellow atmosphere. Tone is, in fact, a�musical term
+appropriate to sound, but out of place in color. It seems better to call
+the brush touch a _color-spot_: then the result of an harmonious
+relation between all the spots is _color-envelope_, or, as in Rood, "the
+chromatic composition."
+
+"Intensity" is a misleading term, if chroma be intended, for it depends
+on the relative light of spectral hues. It is a degree rather than a
+quality, as appears in the expressions, intense heat, light,
+sound,--intensity of stimulus and reaction. Being a degree of many
+qualities, it should not be used to describe the quality itself. The
+word becomes especially unfit when used to describe two very different
+phases of a color,--as its intense illumination, where the chroma is
+greatly weakened, and the strongest chroma which is found in a much
+lower value. "Purity" is also to be avoided in speaking of pigments, for
+not one of our pigments represents a single pure ray of the spectrum.
+
+Examples are constantly found of the mental blur caused by such
+unfortunate terms, and, since misunderstanding becomes impossible with
+measured degrees of hue, value, and chroma, it seems only a question of
+time when they will take the place of tint, tone, shade, purity and
+intensity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COLOR QUALITIES.
+
+
+(20) The three color qualities are hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
++HUE is the name of a color.+
+
+(21) Hue is the quality by which we distinguish one color from another,
+as a red from a yellow, a�green, a�blue, or a purple. This names the
+hue, but does not tell whether it is light or dark, weak or
+strong,--leaving us in doubt as to its value and its chroma.
+
+Science attributes this quality to difference in the LENGTH of ether
+waves impinging on the retina, which causes the sensation of color. The
+wave length M. 5269 gives a sensation of green, while M. 6867 gives a
+sensation of red.[6]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See Glossary for definitions of Micron, Photometer,
+    Retina, and Red, also for Hue, Tint, Shade, Value, Color
+    Variables, Luminosity, and Chroma.]
+
+
++VALUE is the light of a color.+
+
+(22) Value is the quality by which we distinguish a light color from a
+dark one. Color values are loosely called tints and shades, but the
+terms are frequently misapplied. A�tint should be a light value, and a
+shade should be darker; but the word "shade" has become a general term
+for any sort of color, so that a shade of yellow may prove to be lighter
+than a tint of blue. A�photometric[7] scale of value places all colors
+in relation to the extremes of white and black, but cannot describe
+their hue or their chroma.
+
+Science describes this quality as due to difference in the HEIGHT or
+amplitude of ether waves impinging on the retina. Small amplitudes of
+the wave lengths given in paragraph 21 produce the sensation of dark
+green and dark red: larger amplitudes give the sensation of lighter
+green and lighter red.
+
+    [Footnote 7: See Photometer in paragraph 65.]
+
+
++CHROMA is the strength of a color.+
+
+(23) Chroma is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a
+weak one. To say that a rug is strong in color gives no hint of its hues
+or values, only its chromas. Loss of chroma is loosely called fading,
+but this word is frequently used to include changes of value and hue.
+Take two autumn leaves, identical in color, and expose one to the
+weather, while the other is waxed and pressed in a book. Soon the
+exposed leaf fades into a neutral gray, while the protected one
+preserves its strong chroma almost intact. If, in fading, the leaf does
+not change its hue or its value, there is only a loss of chroma, but the
+fading process is more likely to induce some change of the other two
+qualities. Fading, however, cannot define these changes.
+
+Science describes chroma as the purity of one wave length separated from
+all others. Other wave lengths, INTERMINGLING, make its chroma less
+pure. A�beam of daylight can combine all wave lengths in such balance as
+to give the sensation of whiteness, because no single wave is in
+excess.[8]
+
+    [Footnote 8: See definition of White in Glossary.]
+
+(24) The color sphere (see Fig. 1) is a convenient model to illustrate
+these three qualities,--hue, value, and chroma,--and unite them by
+measured scales.
+
+(25) The north pole of the color sphere is white, and the south pole
+black. Value or luminosity of colors ranges between these two extremes.
+This is the vertical scale, to be memorized as _V_, the initial for both
+value and vertical. Vertical movement through color may thus be thought
+of as a change of value, but not as a change of hue or of chroma. Hues
+of color are spread around the equator of the sphere. This is a
+horizontal scale, memorized as _H_, the initial for both hue and
+horizontal. Horizontal movement around the color solid is thus thought
+of as a change of hue, but not of value or of chroma. A�line inward from
+the strong surface hues to the neutral gray axis, traces the graying of
+each color, which is loss of chroma, and conversely a line beginning
+with neutral gray at the vertical axis, and becoming more and more
+colored until it passes outside the sphere, is a scale of chroma, which
+is memorized as _C_, the initial both for chroma and centre. Thus the
+sphere lends its three dimensions to color description, and a color
+applied anywhere within, without, or on its surface is located and named
+by its degree of hue, of value, and of chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+
++HUES first appeal to the child, VALUES next, and CHROMAS last.+
+
+(26) Color education begins with ability to recognize and name certain
+hues, such as red, yellow, green, blue, and purple (see paragraphs 182
+and 183). Nature presents these hues in union with such varieties of
+value and chroma that, unless there be some standard of comparison, it
+is impossible for one person to describe them intelligently to another.
+
+(27) The solar spectrum forms a basis for scientific color analysis,
+taught in technical schools; but it is quite beyond the comprehension of
+a child. He needs something more tangible and constantly in view to
+train his color notions. He needs to handle colors, place them side by
+side for comparison, imitate them with crayons, paints, and colored
+stuffs, so as to test the growth of perception, and learn by simple yet
+accurate terms to describe each by its hue, its value, and its chroma.
+
+(28) Pigments, rather than the solar spectrum, are the practical agents
+of color work. Certain of them, selected and measured by this system
+(see Chapter V.), will be known as MIDDLE COLORS, because they stand
+midway in the scales of value and chroma. These middle colors are
+preserved in imperishable enamels,[9] so that the child may handle and
+fix them in his memory, and thus gain a permanent basis for comparing
+all degrees of color. He learns to grade each middle color to its
+extremes of value and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 9: When recognized for the first time, a�middle green,
+    blue, or purple, is accepted by most persons as well within
+    their color habit, but middle red and middle yellow cause
+    somewhat of a shock. "That isn't red," they say, "it's terra
+    cotta." "Yellow?" "Oh, no, that's--well, it's a very peculiar
+    shade."
+    Yet these are as surely the middle degrees of red and yellow as
+    are the more familiar degrees of green, blue, and purple. This
+    becomes evident as soon as one accepts physical tests of color
+    in place of personal whim. It also opens the mind to a generally
+    ignored fact, that middle reds and yellows, instead of the
+    screaming red and yellow first given a child, are constantly
+    found in examples of rich and beautiful color, such as Persian
+    rugs, Japanese prints, and the masterpieces of painting.]
+
+(29) Experiments with crayons and paints, and efforts to match middle
+colors, train his color sense to finer perceptions. Having learned to
+name colors, he compares them with the enamels of middle value, and can
+describe how light or dark they are. Later he perceives their
+differences of strength, and, comparing them with the enamels of middle
+chroma, can describe how weak or strong they are. Thus the full
+significance of these middle colors as a practical basis for all color
+estimates becomes apparent; and, when at a more advanced stage he
+studies the best examples of decorative color, he will again encounter
+them in the most beautiful products of Oriental art.
+
+
++Is it possible to define the endless varieties of color?+
+
+(30) At first glance it would seem almost hopeless to attempt the naming
+of every kind and degree of color. But, if all these varieties possess
+the same three qualities, only in different degrees, and if each quality
+can be measured by a scale, then there is a clue to this labyrinth.
+
+
++A COLOR SPHERE and COLOR TREE to unite hue, value, and chroma.+
+
+(31) This clue is found in the union of these three qualities by
+measured scales in a _color sphere and color tree_.[10] The equator of
+the sphere[11] may be divided into ten parts, and serve as the scale of
+hue, marked�R, YR,�Y, GY,�G, BG,�B, PB, P, and RP. Its vertical axis may
+be divided into ten parts to serve as the scale of value, numbered from
+black (0) to white (10). Any perpendicular to the neutral axis is a
+scale of chroma. On the plane of the equator this scale is numbered 1,
+2, 3, 4, 5, from the centre to the surface.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: See Color Tree in paragraph�14.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Unaware that the spherical arrangement had been
+    used years before, I�devised a double tetrahedron to classify
+    colors, while a student of painting in 1879. It now appears that
+    the sphere was common property with psychologists, having been
+    described by Runge in 1810. Earlier still, Lambert had suggested
+    a pyramidal form. Both are based on the erroneous assumption
+    that red, yellow, and blue are primary sensations, and also fail
+    to place these hues in a just scale of luminosity. My twirling
+    color solid and its completer development in the present model
+    have always made prominent the artistic feeling for color value.
+    It differs in this and in other ways from previous systems, and
+    is fortunate in possessing new apparatus to measure the degree
+    of hue, value, and chroma.]
+
+(32) This chroma scale may be raised or lowered to any level of value,
+always remaining perpendicular to the axis, and serving to measure the
+chroma of every hue at every level of value. The fact that some colors
+exceed others to such an extent as to carry them out beyond the sphere
+is proved by measuring instruments, but the fact is a new one to many
+persons. (Figs. 2 and�3.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2. (See Fig. 20) The Color Tree]
+
+(33) For this reason the COLOR TREE is a completer model than the
+sphere, although the simplicity of the latter makes it best for a
+child's comprehension.
+
+(34) The color tree is made by taking the vertical axis of the sphere,
+which carries a scale of value, for the trunk. The branches are at right
+angles to the trunk; and, as in the sphere, they carry the scale of
+chroma. Colored balls on the branches tell their Hue. In order to show
+the MAXIMA of color, each branch is attached to the trunk (or neutral
+axis) at a level demanded by its value,--the yellow nearest white at the
+top, then the green, red, blue, and purple branches, approaching black
+in the order of their lower values. It will be remembered that the
+chroma of the sphere ceased with 5 at the equator. The color tree
+prolongs this through 6, 7, 8, and�9. The branch ends carry colored
+balls, representing the most powerful red, yellow, green, blue, and
+purple pigments which we now possess, and could be lengthened, should
+stronger chromas be discovered.[12]
+
+    [Footnote 12: See Plate I.]
+
+(35) Such models set up a permanent image of color relations. Every
+point is self-described by its place in the united scales of hue, value,
+and chroma. These scales fix each new perception of color in the child's
+mind by its situation in the color solid. The importance of such a
+definite image can hardly be overestimated, for without it one color
+sensation tends to efface another. When the child looks at a color, and
+has no basis of comparison, it soon leaves a vague memory that cannot be
+described. These models, on the contrary, lead to an intelligent
+estimate of each color in terms of its hue, its value, and its chroma;
+while the permanent enamels correct any personal bias by a definite
+standard.
+
+(36) Thus defined, a color falls into logical relation with all other
+colors in the system, and is easily memorized, so that its image may be
+recalled at any distance of time or place by the notation.
+
+(37) These solid models help to memorize and assemble colors and the
+memory is further strengthened by a simple NOTATION, which records each
+color so that it cannot be mistaken for any other. By these written
+scales a child gains an instinctive estimate of relations, so that, when
+he is delighted with a new color combination, its proportions are noted
+and understood.
+
+(38) Musical art has long enjoyed the advantages of a definite scale and
+notation. Should not the art of coloring gain by similar definition? The
+musical scale is not left to personal whim, nor does it change from day
+to day; and something as clear and stable would be an advantage in
+training the color sense.
+
+(39) Perception of color is crude at first. The child sees only the most
+obvious distinctions, and prefers the strongest stimulation. But
+perception soon becomes refined by exercise, and, when a child tries to
+imitate the subtle colors of nature with paints, he begins to realize
+that the strongest colors are not the most beautiful,--rather the
+tempered ones, which may be compared to the moderate sounds in music. To
+describe these tempered colors, he must estimate their hue, value, and
+chroma, and be able to describe in what degree his copy departs from the
+natural color. And, with this gain in perception and imitation of
+natural color, he finds a strong desire to invent combinations to please
+his fancy. Thus the study divides into three related attitudes, which
+may be called recognition, imitation, and invention. Recognition of
+color is fundamental, but it would be tedious to spend a year or two in
+formal and dry exercises to train recognition of color alone; for each
+step in recognition of color is best tested by exercise in its imitation
+and arrangement. When perception becomes keener, emphasis can be placed
+on imitation of the colors found in art and in nature, resting finally
+on the selection and grouping of colors for design.[13]
+
+    [Footnote 13: See Course of Study, Part II.]
+
+
++Every color can be recognized, named, matched, imitated, and written
+by its HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.+
+
+(40) The notation used in this system places Hue (expressed by an
+initial) at the left; Value (expressed by a number) at the right and
+above a line; and Chroma (also expressed by a number) at the right,
+below the line. Thus R�5/9 means HUE (red), VALUE�(5)/CHROMA�(9), and
+will be found to represent the qualities of the pigment vermilion.[14]
+
+    [Footnote 14: See Chapter VI.]
+
+Hue, value, and chroma unite in every color sensation, but the child
+cannot grasp them all at once. _Hue-difference appeals to him first_,
+and he gains a permanent idea of five principal hues from the enamels of
+MIDDLE COLORS, learning to name, match, imitate, and finally write them
+by their initials: R (red), Y (yellow), G (green), B (blue), and P
+(purple). Intermediates formed by uniting successive pairs are also
+written by the joined initials, YR (yellow-red), GY (green-yellow), BG
+(blue-green), PB (purple-blue), and RP (red-purple).
+
+(41) Ten differences of hue are as many as a child can render at the
+outset, yet in matching and imitating them he becomes aware of their
+light and dark quality, and learns to separate it from hue as
+_value-difference_. Middle colors, as implied by that name, stand midway
+between white and black,--that is, on the equator of the sphere,--so
+that a middle red will be written R�5/, suggesting the steps 6, 7, 8,
+and 9 which are above the equator, while steps 4, 3, 2, and 1 are below.
+It is well to show only three values of a color at first; for instance,
+the middle value contrasted with a light and a dark one. These are
+written R�3/, R�5/, R�7/. Soon he perceives and can imitate finer
+differences, and the red scale may be written entire, as R�1/, R�2/,
+R�3/, R�4/, R�5/, R�6/, R�7/, R�8/, R�9/, with black as 0 and white
+as�10.
+
+(42) _Chroma-difference is the third_ and most subtle color quality. The
+child is already unconsciously familiar with the middle chroma of red,
+having had the enamels of MIDDLE COLOR always in view, and the red
+enamel is to be contrasted with the strongest and weakest red chromas
+obtainable. These he writes R�/1, R�/5, R�/9, seeing that this describes
+the chromas of red, but leaves out its values. R�5/1, R�5/5, R�5/9, is
+the complete statement, showing that, while both hue and value are
+unchanged, the chroma passes from grayish red to middle red (enamel
+first learned) and out to the strongest red in the chroma scale obtained
+by vermilion.
+
+(43) It may be long before he can imitate the intervening steps of
+chroma, many children finding it difficult to express more than five
+steps of the chroma scale, although easily making ten steps of value and
+from twenty to thirty-five steps of hue. This interesting feature is of
+psychologic value, and has been followed in the color tree and color
+sphere.
+
+
++Does such a scientific scheme leave any outlet for feeling
+and personal expression of beauty?+
+
+(44) Lest this exact attitude in color study should seem inartistic,
+compared with the free and almost chaotic methods in use, let it be said
+that the stage thus far outlined is frankly disciplinary. It is somewhat
+dry and unattractive, just as the early musical training is fatiguing
+without inventive exercises. The child should be encouraged at each step
+to exercise his fancy.
+
+(45) Instead of cramping his outlook upon nature, it widens his grasp of
+color, and stores the memory with finer differences, supplying more
+material by which to express his sense of coloristic beauty.
+
+(46) Color harmony, as now treated, is a purely personal affair,
+difficult to refer to any clear principles or definite laws. The very
+terms by which it seeks expression are borrowed from music, and suggest
+vague analogies that fail when put to the test. Color needs a new set of
+expressive terms, appropriate to its qualities, before we can make an
+analysis as to the harmony or discord of our color sensations.
+
+(47) This need is supplied in the present system by measured CHARTS, and
+a NOTATION. Their very construction preserves the _balance of colors_,
+as will be shown in the next chapter, while the chapter on harmony
+(Chapter VII.) shows how harmonious pairs and triads of color may be
+found by MASKS with measured intervals. In fact, practice in the use of
+the charts supplies the imagination with scales and sequences of color
+quite as definite and quite as easily written as those sound intervals
+by which the musician conveys to others his sense of harmony. And,
+although in neither art can training alone make the artist, yet a
+technical grasp of these formal scales gives acquaintance with the full
+range of the instrument, and is indispensable to artistic expression.
+From these color scales each individual is free to choose combinations
+in accord with his feeling for color harmony.
+
+Let us make an outline of the course of color study traced in the
+preceding pages.[15]
+
+    [Footnote 15: _See_ Part II., A Color System and Course of
+    Study.]
+
+
++PERCEPTION of color.+
+
+(48) _Hue-difference._
+
+    Middle hues (5 principals).
+    Middle hues (5 intermediates).
+    Middle hues (10 placed in sequence as SCALE of HUE).
+
+  _Value-difference._
+
+    Light, middle, and dark values (without change of hue).
+    Light, middle, and dark values (traced with 5 principal hues).
+    10 values traced with each hue. SCALE of VALUE. _The Color Sphere_.
+
+  _Chroma-difference._
+
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (without change of hue).
+    Strong, middle and weak chroma (traced with three values without
+      change of hue).
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (traced with three values and
+      ten hues).
+    Maxima of color and their gradation to white, black, and gray.
+      _The Color Tree._
+
+
++EXPRESSION of color.+
+
+(49) _Matching and imitation_ of hues (using stuffs, crayons, and
+    paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of values and hues (using stuffs, crayons,
+    and paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of chromas, values, and hues (using stuffs,
+    crayons, and paints).
+
+  _Notation of color._
+
+        Value       V
+    Hue ------ ,  H - ,
+        Chroma      C
+
+    Initial for hue, numeral above for value, numeral below for chroma.
+
+  _Sequences of color._
+
+    Two scales united, as hue and value, or chroma and value.
+    Three scales united,--each step a change of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  _Balance of color._
+
+    Opposites of equal value and chroma (R 5/5 and BG�5/5).
+    Opposites of equal value and unequal chroma (R�5/9 and BG�5/3).
+    Opposites unequal both in value and chroma (R�7/3 and BG�3/7).
+    AREA as an element of balance.
+
+
++HARMONY of color.+
+
+(50) _Selection of colors_ that give pleasure.
+
+    Study of butterfly wings and flowers, recorded by the NOTATION.
+    Study of painted ornament, rugs, and mosaics, recorded by
+      the NOTATION.
+    Personal choice of color PAIRS, balanced by�H, V, C, and area.
+    Personal choice of color TRIADS, balanced by�H, V, C, and area.
+
+  _Grouping of colors_ to suit some practical use: wall papers, rugs,
+    book covers, etc.
+
+    Their analysis by the written notation.
+    Search for principles of harmony, expressed in measured terms.
+
+
++A definite plan of color study, with freedom as to details of
+presentation.[16]+
+
+    [Footnote 16: See Color Study assigned to each grade, in
+    Part�II.]
+
+(51) Having memorized these broad divisions of the study, a�clever
+teacher will introduce many a detail, to meet the mood of the class, or
+correlate this subject with other studies, without for a moment losing
+the thread of thought or befogging the presentation. But to range at
+random in the immense field of color sensations, without plan or
+definite aim in view, only courts fatigue of the retina and a chaotic
+state of mind.
+
+(52) The same broad principles which govern the presentation of other
+ideas apply with equal force in this study. A�little, well apprehended,
+is better than a mass of undigested facts. If the child is led to
+discover, or at least to think he is discovering, new things about
+color, the mind will be kept alert and seek out novel illustrations at
+every step. Now and then a pupil will be found who leads both teacher
+and class by _intuitive_ appreciation of color, and it is a subtle
+question how far such a nature can be helped or hurt by formal
+exercises. But such an exception is rare, and goes to prove that
+systematic discipline of the color sense is necessary for most children.
+
+(53) Outdoor nature and indoor surroundings offer endless color
+illustrations. Birds, flowers, minerals, and the objects in daily use
+take on a new interest when their varied colors are brought into a
+conscious relation, and clearly named. A�tri-dimensional perception,
+like this sense of color, requires skilful training, and each lesson
+must be simplified to the last point practicable. It must not be too
+long, and should lead to some definite result which a child can grasp
+and express with tolerable accuracy, while its difficulties should be
+approached by easy stages, so as to avoid failure or discouragement. The
+success of the present effort is the best incentive to further
+achievement.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER II.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+THE COLOR SPHERE, WITH MEASURED SCALES OF HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA.
+
+
+The teacher of elementary grades introduces these scales of tempered
+color as fast as the child's interest is awakened to their need by the
+exercises shown in Plates II. and III. Thus the Hue scale is learned
+before the end of the second year, the Value scale during the next two
+years, and the Chroma scale in the fifth year. By the time a child is
+ten years old these definite color scales have become part of his mental
+furnishing, so that he can name, write, and memorize any color group.
+
+1. _The Color Sphere in Skeleton._ This diagram shows the middle colors
+on the equator, with strong red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, each
+at its proper level in the value scale, and projecting in accordance
+with its scale of chroma. See the complete description of these scales
+in Chapter�II.
+
+2. _The Color Score._ Fifteen typical steps taken from the color sphere
+are here spread out in a flat field. The FIVE MIDDLE COLORS form the
+centre level, with the same hues in a lighter value above and in a
+darker value below. Chapter VI. describes the making of this Score, and
+its use in analyzing colors and preserving a written record of their
+groups.
+
+3. _The Value Scale and Chroma Scale._ Each of the five color maxima is
+thus shown at its proper level in the scale of light, and graded by
+uniform steps from its strongest chroma inward to neutrality at the axis
+of the sphere. Pigment inequalities here become very apparent.
+
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell.]
+
+
+
+
+  FOR PLATES II. & III.,
+
+  SEE APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.,
+  CHILDREN'S COLOR STUDIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COLOR MIXTURE AND BALANCE.
+
+
++All colors grasped in the hand.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+(54) Let us recall the names and order of colors given in the last
+chapter, with their assemblage in a sphere by the three qualities of
+HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA. It will aid the memory to call the thumb of the
+left hand RED, the forefinger YELLOW, the middle finger GREEN, the ring
+finger BLUE, and the little finger PURPLE (Fig.�6). When the finger tips
+are in a circle, they represent a circuit of hues, which has neither
+beginning nor end, for we can start with any finger and trace a sequence
+forward or backward. Now close the tips together for white, and imagine
+that the five strong hues have slipped down to the knuckles, where they
+stand for the equator of the color Sphere. Still lower down at the wrist
+is black.
+
+(55) The hand thus becomes a color holder, with white at the finger
+tips, black at the wrist, strong colors around the outside, and weaker
+colors within the hollow. Each finger is a scale of its own color, with
+white above and black below, while the graying of all the hues is traced
+by imaginary lines which meet in the middle of the hand. Thus a child's
+hand may be his substitute for the color sphere, and also make him
+realize that it is filled with grayer degrees of the outside colors, all
+of which melt into gray in the centre.
+
+
++Neighborly and opposite hues; and their mixture.+
+
+(56) Let this circle (Fig. 7) stand for the equator of the color sphere
+with the five principal hues (written by their initials�R, Y,�G, B,
+and�P) spaced evenly about it. Some colors are neighbors, as red and
+yellow, while others are opposites. As soon as a child experiments with
+paints, he will notice the different results obtained by mixing them.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+First, the neighbors, that is, any pair which lie next one another, as
+red and yellow, will unite to make a hue which retains a suggestion of
+both. It is _intermediate_ between red and yellow, and we call it
+YELLOW-RED.[17]
+
+(57) Green and yellow unite to form GREEN-YELLOW, blue and green make
+BLUE-GREEN, and so on with each succeeding pair. These intermediates are
+to be written by their initials, and inserted in their proper place
+between the principal hues. It is as if an orange (paragraph�9) were
+split into ten sectors instead of five, with red, yellow, green, blue,
+and purple as alternate sectors, while half of each adjoining color pair
+were united to form the sector between them. The original order of five
+hues is in no wise disturbed, but linked together by five intermediate
+steps.
+
+(58) Here is a table of the intermediates made by mixing each pair:--
+
+  Red and yellow unite to form yellow-red (YR), popularly called
+    orange.[17]
+  Yellow and green unite to form green-yellow (GY), popularly called
+    grass green.
+  Green and blue unite to form blue-green (BG), popularly called
+    peacock blue.
+  Blue and purple unite to form purple-blue (PB), popularly called
+    violet.
+  Purple and red unite to form red-purple (RP), popularly called plum.
+
+Using the left hand again to hold colors, the principal hues remain
+unchanged on the knuckles, but in the hollows between them are placed
+intermediate hues, so that the circle now reads: red, yellow-red,
+yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, and
+red-purple, back to the red with which we started. This circuit is
+easily _memorized_, so that the child may begin with any color point,
+and repeat the series clock wise (that is, from left to right) or in
+reverse order.
+
+    [Footnote 17: Orange is a variable union of yellow and red. See
+    Appendix.]
+
+(59) Each principal hue has thus made two close neighbors by mixing with
+the nearest principal hue on either hand. The neighbors of red are a
+yellow-red on one side and a purple-red on the other. The neighbors of
+green are a green-yellow on one hand and a blue-green on the other. It
+is evident that a still closer neighbor could be made by again mixing
+each consecutive pair in this circle of ten hues; and, if the process
+were continued long enough, the color steps would become so fine that
+the eye could see only a circuit of hues melting imperceptibly one into
+another.
+
+(60) But it is better for the child to gain a fixed idea of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple, with their intermediates, before attempting to
+mix pigments, and these ten steps are sufficient for primary education.
+
+(61) Next comes the question of opposites in this circle. A�line drawn
+from red, through the centre, finds its opposite, blue-green.[18] If
+these colors are mixed, they unite to form gray. Indeed, the centre of
+the circle stands for a middle gray, not only because it is the centre
+of the neutral axis between black and white, but also because any pair
+of opposites will unite to form gray.
+
+    [Footnote 18: Green is often wrongly assigned as the opposite of
+    red. See Appendix, on False Color Balance.]
+
+(62) This is a table of five mixtures which make neutral gray:
+
+            { Red &    Blue-green   }
+            { Yellow   Purple-blue  }
+  Opposites { Green    Red-purple   } Each pair of which unites
+            { Blue     Yellow-red   }   in neutral gray.
+            { Purple   Green-yellow }
+
+(63) But if, instead of mixing these opposite hues, we place them side
+by side, the eye is so stimulated by their difference that each seems to
+gain in strength; _i.e._, each _enhances_ the other when separate, but
+_destroys_ the other when mixed. This is a very interesting point to be
+more fully illustrated by the help of a color wheel in Chapter V.,
+paragraph 106. What we need to remember is that the mixture of
+neighborly hues makes them less stimulating to the eye, because they
+resemble each other, while a mixture of opposite hues extinguishes both
+in a neutral gray.
+
+
++Hues once removed, and their mixture.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+(64) There remains the question, What will happen if we mix, not two
+neighbors, nor two opposites, but _a pair of hues once removed in the
+circle_, such as red and green? A�line joining this pair does not pass
+through the neutral centre, but to one side nearer yellow, which shows
+that this mixture falls between neutral gray and yellow, partaking
+somewhat of each. In the same way a line joining yellow and blue shows
+that their mixture contains both green and gray. Indeed, a�line joining
+any two colors in the circuit may be said to describe their union.
+A�radius crossing this line passes to some hue on the circumference, and
+describes by its intersection with the first line the chroma of the
+color made by a mixture of the two original colors.
+
+  Red  &  Green make Yellow-gray }
+  Yellow  Blue       Green-gray  } Each pair unites in a _colored_
+  Green   Purple     Blue-gray   } gray, which is an intermediate hue
+  Blue    Red        Purple-gray } of weak chroma.
+  Purple  Yellow     Red-gray    }
+
+
++Mixture of white and black: a�scale of grays.+
+
+(65) So far we have thought only of the plane of the equator, with its
+circle of middle hues in ten steps, and studied their mixture by drawing
+lines to join them. Now let us start at the neutral centre, and think
+upward to white and downward to black (Fig.�9.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+This vertical line is the _neutral axis_ joining the poles of white and
+black, which represent the opposites of light and darkness. Middle gray
+is half-way between. If black is called 0, and white is 10, then the
+middle point is 5, with 6, 7, 8, and 9 above, while 4, 3, 2, and 1 are
+below, thus making a vertical scale of grays from black to white
+(Chapter II., paragraph�25).
+
+If left to personal preference, an estimate of middle value will vary
+with each individual who attempts to make it. This appears in the
+neutral scales already published for schools, and students who depend
+upon them, discover a variation of over 10 per cent. in the selection of
+middle gray. Since this VALUE SCALE underlies all color work, it needs
+accurate adjustment by scientific means, as in scales of sound, of
+length, of weight, or of temperature.
+
+A PHOTOMETER (_photo_, light, and _meter_, a�measure)[19] is shown on
+the next page. It measures the relative amount of light which the eye
+receives from any source, and so enables us to make a scale with any
+number of regular steps. The principle on which it acts is very simple.
+
+    [Footnote 19: Adopted in Course on Optical Measurements at the
+    Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Instruments have also
+    been made for the Harvard Medical School, the Treasury
+    Department in Washington, and various private laboratories.]
+
+A rectangular box, divided by a central partition into halves, has
+symmetrical openings in the front walls, which permit the light to reach
+two white fields placed upon the back walls. If one looks in through the
+observation tube, both halves are seen to be exactly alike, and the
+white fields equally illuminated. A�valve is then fitted to one of the
+front openings, so that the light in that half of the photometer may be
+gradually diminished. Its white field is thus darkened by measured
+degrees, and becomes black when all light is excluded by the closed
+valve. While this darkening process goes on in one-half of the
+instrument, the white field in the other half does not change, and,
+looking into the eyepiece, the observer sees each step contrasted with
+the original white. One-half is thus said to be _variable_ because of
+its valve, and the other side is said to be _fixed_. A�dial connected
+with the valve has a hand moving over it to show how much light is
+admitted to the field in the variable half.
+
+Let us now test one of these personal decisions about middle value.
+A�sample replaces the white field in the fixed half, and by means of the
+valve, the white field in the variable half is alternately darkened and
+lightened, until it matches the sample and the eye sees no difference in
+the two. The dial then discloses the fact that this supposedly MIDDLE
+VALUE reflects only 42 per cent. of the light; that is to say, it is
+nearly a whole step too low in a decimal scale. Other samples err nearly
+as far on the light side of middle value, and further tests prove not
+only the varying color sensitiveness of individuals, but detect a
+difference between the left and right eye of the same person.
+
+  [Illustration: PHOTOMETER.
+  Back View. Front View.]
+
+The vagaries of color estimate thus disclosed, lead some to seek shelter
+in "feeling and inspiration"; but feeling and inspiration are
+temperamental, and have nothing to do with the simple facts of vision.
+A�measured and unchanging scale is as necessary and valuable in the
+training of the eye as the musical scale in the discipline of the ear.
+
+It will soon be necessary to talk of the values in each color. We may
+distinguish the values on the neutral axis from color values by writing
+them N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10. Such a scale makes it easy
+to foresee the result of mixing light values with dark ones. Any two
+gray values unite to form a gray midway between them. Thus N4 and N6
+being equally above and below the centre, unite to form N5, as will also
+N7 and N3, N8 and N2, or N9 and N1. But N9 and N3 will unite to form N6,
+which is midway between 6 and�9.
+
+  [Illustration: Vertical Section through light openings.
+
+  PARTS.
+
+  _C_, CABINET, with sample-holder (H) and mirror (M), which may be
+  removed and stored to left of dial (D) when instrument is closed
+  for transportation.
+  _D_, DIAL: records color values in terms of standard white (100),
+  the opposite end of the scale being absolute blackness (0).
+  _E_, EYE-PIECE: to shield eye and sample from extraneous light while
+  color determinations are being made. Fatigue of retina should be
+  avoided.
+  _G_, GEAR: actuates cat's-eye shutter, which controls amount of
+  light admitted to right half of instrument. Its shaft carries
+  index-hand over dial.
+  _H_, FIELD-HOLDER: retains sample and standard white in same plane,
+  and isolates them. Is hinged upon lower edge, and secured by pivot
+  clamp.
+  _M_, MIRROR: permits observation of the isolated halves of the
+  holder, bearing standard white and the color to be measured. Should
+  be clean and free from dust on both sides of central partition.
+  _S_, DIFFUSING SCREEN, placed over front apertures, to evenly
+  distribute the light.]
+
+(66) When this numbered scale of values is familiar, it serves not only
+to describe light and dark grays, but the value of colors which are at
+the same level in the scale. Thus R7 (popularly called a tint of red) is
+neither lighter nor darker than the gray of N7. A�numeral written above
+to the right always indicates _value_, whether of a gray or a color, so
+that R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, describes a regular scale of
+red values from black to white, while G1, G2, G3, etc., is a scale of
+green values.
+
+(67) This matter of a notation for colors will be more fully worked out
+in Chapter VI., but the letters and numerals already described greatly
+simplify what we are about to consider in the mixture and balance of
+colors.
+
+
++Mixture of light hues with dark hues.+
+
+(68) Now that we are supplied with a decimal scale of grays, represented
+by divisions of the neutral axis (N1, N2, etc.), and a corresponding
+decimal scale of value for each of the ten hues ranged about the equator
+(R1,�R2,-- YR1,�YR2,-- Y1,�Y2,-- GY1,�GY2,-- and so on), traced by ten
+equidistant meridians from black to white, it is not difficult to
+foresee what the mixture of any two colors will produce, whether they
+are of the same level of value, as in the colors of the equator already
+considered, or whether they are of different levels.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+(69) For instance, let us mix a light yellow (Y7) with a dark red (R3).
+They are neighbors in hue, but well removed in value. A�line joining
+them centres at YR5. This describes the result of their mixture,--a
+value intermediate between 7 and 3, with a hue intermediate between R
+and�Y. It is a yellow-red of middle value, popularly called "dark
+orange." But, while this term "dark orange" rarely means the same color
+to three different people, these measured scales give to YR5 an
+unmistakable meaning, just as the musical scale gives an unmistakable
+significance to the notes of its score.
+
+(70) Evidently, this way of writing colors by their degrees of value and
+hue gives clearness to what would otherwise be hard to express by the
+color terms in common use.
+
+(71) If Y9 and R5 be chosen for mixture, we know at once that they unite
+in YR7, which is two steps of the value scale above the middle; while Y6
+and R2 make YR4, which is one step below the middle. Charts prepared
+with this system show each of these colors and their mixture with
+exactness.
+
+(72) The foregoing mixtures of dark reds and light yellows are typical
+of the union of light and dark values of any neighboring hues, such as
+yellow and green, green and blue, blue and purple, or purple and red.
+Next let us think of the result of mixing different values in opposite
+hues; as, for instance, YR7 and B3 (Fig. 11). To this combination the
+color sphere gives a ready answer; for the middle of a straight line
+through the sphere, and joining them, coincides with the neutral centre,
+showing that they _balance in neutral gray_. This is also true of any
+opposite pair of surface hues where the values are equally removed from
+the equator.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(73) Suppose we substitute familiar flowers for the notation, then YR7
+becomes the buttercup, and B3 is the wild violet. But, in comparing the
+two, the eye is more stimulated by the buttercup than by the violet, not
+alone because it is lighter, but because it is stronger in chroma; that
+is, farther away from the neutral axis of the sphere, and in fact out
+beyond its surface, as shown in Fig.�11.
+
+The head of a pin stuck in toward the axis on the 7th level of YR may
+represent the 9th step in the scale of chroma, such as the buttercup,
+while the "modest" violet with a chroma of only 4, is shown by its
+position to be nearer the neutral axis than the brilliant buttercup by
+five steps of chroma. This is the third dimension of color, and must be
+included in our notation. So we write the buttercup YR�7/9 and the
+violet B�3/4,--chroma always being written below to the right of hue,
+and value always above. (This is the invariable order: HUE
+{VALUE/CHROMA}.)
+
+(74) A line joining the head of the pin mentioned above with B�3/4 does
+not pass through the centre of the sphere, and its middle point is
+nearer the buttercup than the neutral axis, showing that the hues of the
+buttercup and violet _do not balance in gray_.
+
+
++The neutral centre is a balancing point for colors.+
+
+(75) This raises the question, What is balance of color? Artists
+criticise the color schemes of paintings as being "too light or too
+dark" (unbalanced in value), "too weak or too strong" (unbalanced in
+chroma), and "too hot or too cold" (unbalanced in hue), showing that
+this is a fundamental idea underlying all color arrangements.
+
+(76) Let us assume that the centre of the sphere is the natural
+balancing point for all colors (which will be best shown by Maxwell
+discs in Chapter V., paragraphs 106-112), then color points equally
+removed from the centre must balance one another. Thus white balances
+black. Lighter red balances darker blue-green. Middle red balances
+middle blue-green. In short, every straight line through this centre
+indicates opposite qualities that balance one another. The color points
+so found are said to be "_complementary_," for each supplies what is
+needed to complement or balance the other in hue, value, and chroma.
+
+(77) The true complement of the buttercup, then, is not the violet,
+which is too weak in chroma to balance its strong opposite. We have no
+blue flower that can equal the chroma of the buttercup. Some other means
+must be found to produce a balance. One way is to use more of the weaker
+color. Thus we can make a bunch of buttercups and violets, using twice
+as many of the latter, so that the eye sees an _area_ of blue twice as
+great as the _area_ of yellow-red. Area as a compensation for
+inequalities of hue, value, and chroma will be further described under
+the harmony of color in Chapter VII.
+
+(78) But, before leaving this illustration of the buttercup and violet,
+it is well to consider another color path connecting them which does not
+pass through the sphere, _but around it_ (Fig. 12). Such a path swinging
+around from yellow-red to blue slants downward in value, and passes
+through yellow, green-yellow, green, and blue-green, tracing a _sequence
+of hue_, of which each step is less chromatic than its predecessor.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+This diminishing sequence is easily written thus,--YR�8/9, Y�7/8,
+GY�6/7, G�5/6, BG�4/5, B�3/4,--and is shown graphically in Fig. 12. Its
+hue sequence is described by the initials YR,�Y, GY,�G, BG, and�B. Its
+value-sequence appears in the upper numerals, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3,
+while the chroma-sequence is included in the lower numerals, 9, 8, 7, 6,
+5, and�4. This gives a complete statement of the sequence, defining its
+peculiarity, that at each change of hue there is a regular decrease of
+value and chroma. Nature seems to be partial to this sequence,
+constantly reiterating it in yellow flowers with their darker green
+leaves and underlying shadows. In spring time she may contract its
+range, making the blue more green and the yellow less red, but in autumn
+she seems to widen the range, presenting strong contrasts of yellow-red
+and purple-blue.
+
+(79) Every day she plays upon the values of this sequence, from the
+strong contrasts of light and shadow at noon to the hardly perceptible
+differences at twilight. The chroma of this sequence expands during the
+summer to strong colors, and contracts in winter to grays. Indeed,
+Nature, who would seem to be the source of our notions of color harmony,
+rarely repeats herself, yet is endlessly balancing inequalities of hue,
+value, and chroma by compensations of quantity.
+
+(80) So subtle is this equilibrium that it is taken for granted and
+forgotten, except when some violent disturbance disarranges it, such as
+an earthquake or a thunder-storm.
+
+
++The triple nature of color balance illustrated.+
+
+(81) The simplest idea of balance is the equilibrium of two halves of a
+stick supported at its middle point. If one end is heavier than the
+other, the support must be moved nearer to that end.
+
+But, since color unites three qualities, we must seek some type of
+_triple balance_. The game of jackstraws illustrates this, when the
+disturbance of one piece involves the displacement of two others. The
+action of three children on a floating plank or the equilibrium of two
+acrobats carried on the shoulders of a third may also serve as examples.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+(82) Triple balance may be graphically shown by three discs in contact.
+Two of them are suspended by their centres, while they remain in touch
+with a third supported on a pivot, as in Fig. 14. Let us call the lowest
+disc Hue (H), and the lateral discs Value (V) and Chroma (C). Any dip or
+rotation of the lower disc H will induce sympathetic action in the two
+lateral discs V and�C. When H is inclined, both V and C change their
+relations to it. If H is raised vertically, both V and C dip outward. If
+H is rotated, both V and C rotate, but in opposite directions. Indeed,
+any disturbance of V affects H and C, while H and V respond to any
+movement of�C. So we must be prepared to realize that any change of one
+color quality involves readjustment of the other two.
+
+(83) Color balance soon leads to a study of optics in one direction, to
+�sthetics in another, and to mathematical proportions in a third, and
+any attempt at an easy solution of its problems is not likely to
+succeed. It is a very complicated question, whose closest counterpart is
+to be sought in musical rhythms. The fall of musical impulses upon the
+ear can make us gay or sad, and there are color groups which, acting
+through the eye, can convey pleasure or pain to the mind.
+
+(84) A colorist is keenly alive to these feelings of satisfaction or
+annoyance, and consciously or unconsciously he rejects certain
+combinations of color and accepts others. Successful pictures and
+decorative schemes are due to some sort of balance uniting "light and
+shade" (value), "warmth and coolness" (hue), with "brilliancy and
+grayness" (chroma); for, when they fail to please, the mind at once
+begins to search for the unbalanced quality, and complains that the
+color is "too hot," "too dark," or "too crude." This effort to establish
+pleasing proportions may be unconscious in one temperament, while it
+becomes a matter of definite analysis in another. Emerson claimed that
+the unconscious only is complete. We gladly permit those whose color
+instinct is unerring--(and how few they are!)--to neglect all rules and
+set formulas. But education is concerned with the many who have not this
+gift.
+
+(85) Any real progress in color education must come not from a blind
+imitation of past successes, but by a study into the laws which they
+exemplify. To exactly copy fine Japanese prints or Persian rugs or
+Renaissance tapestries, while it cultivates an appreciation of their
+refinements, does not give one the power to create things equally
+beautiful. The masterpieces of music correctly rendered do not of
+necessity make a composer. The musician, besides the study of
+masterpieces, absorbs the science of counterpoint, and records by an
+unmistakable notation the exact character of any new combination of
+musical intervals which he conceives.
+
+(86) So must the art of the colorist be furnished with a scientific
+basis and a clear form of color notation. This will record the successes
+and failures of the past, and aid in a search, by contrast and analysis,
+for the fundamentals of color balance. Without a measured and systematic
+notation, attempts to describe color harmony only produce hazy
+generalities of little value in describing our sensations, and fail to
+express the essential differences between "good" and "bad" color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+FALSE COLOR BALANCE. There is a widely accepted error that red, yellow,
+and blue are "primary," although Brewster's theory was long ago dropped
+when the elements of color vision proved to be RED, GREEN, and
+VIOLET-BLUE. The late Professor Rood called attention to this in
+Chapters VIII.-XI. of his book, "Modern Chromatics," which appeared in
+1879. Yet we find it very generally taught in school. Nor does the harm
+end there, for placing red, yellow, and blue equidistant in a circle,
+with orange, green, and purple as intermediates, the teacher goes on to
+state that opposite hues are complementary.
+
+  Red is thus made the complement of Green,
+  Yellow        "          "         Purple, and
+  Blue          "          "         Orange.
+
+Unfortunately, each of these statements is wrong, and, if tested by the
+mixture of colored lights or with Maxwell's rotating discs, their
+falsity is evident.
+
+There can be no doubt that green is not the complement of red, nor
+purple of yellow, nor orange of blue, for neither one of these pairs
+unites as it should in a balanced neutrality, and a total test of the
+circle gives great excess of orange, showing that red and yellow usurp
+too great a portion of the circumference. Starting from a false basis,
+the Brewster theory can only lead to unbalanced and inharmonious effects
+of color.
+
+The fundamental color sensations are RED, GREEN, and VIOLET-BLUE.
+
+  RED has for its true complement BLUE-GREEN,
+  GREEN            "        "     RED-PURPLE, and
+  VIOLET-BLUE      "        "     YELLOW,
+
+all of the hues in the right-hand column being compound sensations. The
+sensation of green is not due to a mixture of yellow and blue, as the
+absorptive action of pigments might lead one to think: GREEN IS
+FUNDAMENTAL, and not made by mixing any hues of the spectrum, while
+YELLOW IS NOT FUNDAMENTAL, but caused by the mingled sensations of red
+and green. This is easily proved by a controlled spectrum, for all
+yellow-reds, yellows, and green-yellows can be matched by certain
+proportions of red and green light, all blue-greens, blues, and
+purple-blues can be obtained by the union of green and violet light,
+while purple-blue, purple, and red-purple result from the union of
+violet and red light. But there is no point where a mixture gives red,
+green, or violet-blue. They are the true primaries, whose mixtures
+produce all other hues.
+
+Studio and school-room practice still cling to the discredited theory,
+claiming that, if it fails to describe our color sensations, yet it may
+be called practically true of pigments, because a red, yellow, and blue
+pigment suffice to imitate most natural colors. This discrepancy between
+pigment mixture and retinal mixture becomes clear as soon as one learns
+the physical make-up and behavior of paints.
+
+  [Illustration:
+            { Vermilion
+  Spectra   {
+            { Em. Green
+  P. B. G. Y. R.]
+
+Spectral analysis shows that no pigment is a pure example of the
+dominant hue which it sends to the eye. Take, for example, the very
+chromatic pigments representing red and green, such as vermilion and
+emerald green. If each emitted a single pure hue free from trace of any
+other hue, then their mixture would appear yellow, as when spectral red
+and green unite. But, instead of yellow, their mixture produces a warm
+gray, called brown or "dull salmon," and this is to be inferred from
+their spectra, where it is seen that vermilion emits some green and
+purple as well as its dominant color, while the green also sends some
+blue and red light to the eye.[20]
+
+    [Footnote 20: See Rood, Chapter VII., on Color by Absorption.]
+
+Thus stray hues from other parts of the spectrum tend to neutralize the
+yellow sensation, which would be strong if each of the pigments were
+pure in the spectral sense. Pigment absorption affects all palette
+mixtures, and, failing to obtain a satisfactory yellow by mixture of red
+and green, painters use original yellow pigments,--such as aureolin,
+cadmium, and lead chromate,--each of them also impure but giving a
+dominant sensation of yellow. Did the eye discriminate, as does the ear
+when it analyzes the separate tones of a chord, then we should recognize
+that yellow pigments emit both red and green rays.
+
+White light dispersed into a colored band by one prism, may have the
+process reversed by a second prism, so that the eye sees again only
+white light. But this would not be so, did not the balance of red,
+green, and violet-blue sensations remain undisturbed. All our ideas of
+color harmony are based upon this fundamental relation, and, if pigments
+are to render harmonious effects, we must learn to control their
+impurities so as to preserve a balance of red, green, and violet-blue.
+
+Otherwise, the excessive chroma and value of red and yellow pigments so
+overwhelm the lesser degrees of green and blue pigments that no balance
+is possible, and the colorist of fine perception must reject not alone
+the theoretical, but also the practical outcome of a "red-yellow-blue"
+theory.
+
+Some of the points raised in this discussion are rather subtle for
+students, and may well be left until they arise in a study of optics,
+but the teacher should grasp them clearly, so as not to be led into
+false statements about primary and complementary hues.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRISMATIC COLOR.
+
+
++Pure color is seen in the spectrum of sunlight.+
+
+(87) The strongest sensation of color is gained in a darkened room, with
+a prism used to split a beam of sunlight into its various wave lengths.
+Through a narrow slit there enters a straight pencil of light which we
+are accustomed to think of as _white_, although it is a bundle of
+variously colored rays (or waves of ether) whose union and balance is so
+perfect that no single ray predominates.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+(88) Cover the narrow slit, and we are plunged in darkness. Admit the
+beam, and the eye feels a powerful contrast between the spot of light on
+the floor and its surrounding darkness. Place a triangular glass prism
+near the slit to intercept the beam of white light, and suddenly there
+appears on the opposite wall a band of brilliant colors. This delightful
+experiment rivets the eye by the beauty and purity of its hues. All
+other colors seem weak by comparison.
+
+Their weakness is due to impurity, for all pigments and dyes reflect
+portions of hues other than their dominant one, which tend to "gray" and
+diminish their chroma.
+
+(89) But prismatic color is pure, or very nearly so, because the shape
+of the glass refracts each hue, and separates it by the length of its
+ether wave. These waves have been measured, and science can name each
+hue by its wave length. Thus a certain red is known as M. 6867, and a
+certain green sensation is M. 5269.[21] Without attempting any
+scientific analysis of color, let it be said that Sir Isaac Newton made
+his series of experiments in 1687, and was privileged to name this color
+sequence by seven steps which he called red, orange, yellow, green,
+blue, violet, and indigo. Later a scientist named Fraunhofer discovered
+fine black lines crossing the solar spectrum, and marked them with
+letters of the alphabet from a to�h. These with the wave length serve to
+locate every hue and define every step in the sequence. Since Newton's
+time it has been proved that only three of the spectral hues are
+_primary_; viz., a�red, a�green, and a violet-blue, while their mixture
+produces all other gradations. By receiving the spectrum on an opaque
+screen with fine slits that fit the red and green waves, so that they
+alone pass through, these two primary hues can be received on mirrors
+inclined at such an angle as to unite on another screen, where, instead
+of red or green, the eye sees only yellow.[22]
+
+    [Footnote 21: See Micron in Glossary.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: The fact that the spectral union of red and green
+    makes yellow is a matter of surprise to practical workers in
+    color who are familiar with the action of pigments, but
+    unfamiliar with spectrum analysis. Yellow seems to them a
+    primary and indispensable color, because it cannot be made by
+    the union of red and green pigments. Another surprise is
+    awaiting them when they hear that the yellow and blue of the
+    spectrum make _white_, for all their experience with paints goes
+    to prove that yellow and blue unite to form green. Attention is
+    called to this difference between the mixture of colored light
+    and of colored pigments, not with the idea of explaining it
+    here, but to emphasize their difference; for in the next chapter
+    we shall describe the practical making of a color sphere with
+    pigments, which would be quite impractical, could we have only
+    the colors of the spectrum to work with. See Appendix to
+    preceding chapter.]
+
+(90) A similar arrangement of slits and mirrors for the green and
+violet-blue proves that they unite to make blue, while a third
+experiment shows that the red and violet-blue can unite to make purple.
+So yellow, blue-green, and purple are called secondary hues because they
+result from the mixture of the three primaries, red, green, and
+violet-blue.
+
+In comparing these two color lists, we see that the "indigo" and
+"orange" of Sir Isaac Newton have been discarded. Both are indefinite,
+and refer to variable products of the vegetable kingdom. Violet is also
+borrowed from the same kingdom; and, in order to describe a violet, we
+say it is a purple violet or blue violet, as the case may be, just as we
+describe an orange as a red orange or a yellow orange. Their color
+difference is not expressed by the terms "orange" or "violet," but by
+the words "red," "yellow," "blue," or "purple," all of which are true
+color names and arouse an unmixed color image.
+
+(91) In the nursery a child learns to use the simple color names red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. When familiarity with the color sphere
+makes him relate them to each other and place them between black and
+white by their degree of light and strength, there will be no occasion
+to revert to vegetables, animals, minerals, or the ever-varying hues of
+sea and sky to express his color sensations.
+
+(92) Another experiment accentuates the difference between spectral and
+pigment color. When the spectrum is spread on the screen by the use of a
+prism, and a second prism is placed inverted beyond the first, it
+regathers the dispersed rays back into their original beam, making a
+white spot on the floor. This proves that all the colored rays of light
+combine to balance each other in whiteness. But if pigments which are
+the closest possible imitation of these hues are united on a painter's
+palette, either by the brush or the knife, they _make gray, and not
+white_.
+
+(93) This is another illustration of the behavior of pigments, for,
+instead of uniting to form white, they form gray, which is a darkened or
+impure form of white; and, lest this should be attributed to a chemical
+reaction between the various matters that serve as pigments, the
+experiment can be carried out without allowing one pigment to touch
+another by using Maxwell discs, as will be shown in the next chapter.
+
+(94) Before leaving these prismatic colors, let us study them in the
+light of what has already been learned of color dimensions. Not only do
+they present different values, but also different chromas. Their values
+range from darkness at each end, where red and purple become visible, to
+a brightness in the greenish yellow, which is almost white. So on the
+color tree described in Chapter II., paragraph 34, yellow has the
+highest branch, green is lower, red is below the middle, with blue and
+purple lower down, near black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+(95) Then in chroma they range from the powerful stimulation of the red
+to the soothing purple, with green occupying an intermediate step. This
+is also given on the color tree by the length of its branches.
+
+(96) In Fig. 15 the vertical curve describes the values of the spectrum
+as they grade from red through yellow, green, blue, and purple. The
+horizontal curve describes the chromas of the spectrum in the same
+sequence; while the third curve leaning outward is obtained by uniting
+the first two by two planes at right angles to one another, and sums up
+the three qualities by a single descriptive line. Now the red and purple
+ends are far apart, and science forbids their junction because of their
+great difference in wave length. But the mind is prone to unite them in
+order to produce the red-purples which we see in clouds at sunset, in
+flowers and grapes and the amethyst. Indeed, it has been done
+unhesitatingly in most color schemes in order to supply the opposite of
+green.
+
+(97) This gives a slanting circuit joining all the branch ends of the
+color tree, and has been likened to the rings of Saturn in Chapter�I.,
+paragraph�17.
+
+
++A prismatic color sphere.+
+
+(98) With a little effort of the imagination we can picture a prismatic
+color sphere, using only the colors of light. In a cylindrical chamber
+is hung a diaphanous ball similar to a huge soap bubble, which can
+display color on its surface without obscuring its interior. Then, at
+the proper points of the surrounding wall, three pure beams of colored
+light are admitted,--one red, another green, and the third violet-blue.
+
+(99) They fall at proper levels on three sides of the sphere, while
+their intermediate gradations encircle the sphere with a complete
+spectrum plus the needed purple. As they penetrate the sphere, they
+unite to balance each other in neutrality. Pure whiteness is at the top,
+and, by some imaginary means their light gradually diminishes until they
+disappear in darkness below.
+
+(100) This ideal color system is impossible in the present state of our
+knowledge and implements. Even were it possible, its immaterial hues
+could not serve to dye materials or paint pictures. Pigments are, and
+will in all probability continue to be, the practical agents of
+coloristic productions, however reluctant the scientist may be to accept
+them as the basis of a color system. It is true that they are chemically
+impure and imperfectly represent the colors of light. Some of them fade
+rapidly and undergo chemical change, as in the notable case of a green
+pigment tested by this measured system, which in a few weeks lost four
+steps of chroma, gained two steps of value, and swung into a bluer hue.
+
+(101) But the color sphere to be next described is worked out with a few
+reliable pigments, mostly natural earths, whose fading is a matter of
+years and so slight as to be almost imperceptible. Besides, its
+principal hues are preserved in safe keeping by imperishable enamels,
+which can be used to correct any tendency of the pigments to distort the
+measured intervals of the color sphere.
+
+This meets the most serious objection to a pigment system. Without it a
+child has nothing tangible which he can keep in constant view to imitate
+and memorize. With it he builds up a mental image of measured relations
+that describe every color in nature, including the fleeting hues of the
+rainbow, although they appear but for a moment at rare intervals.
+Finally, it furnishes a simple notation which records every color
+sensation by a letter and two numerals. With the enlargement of his
+mental power he will unite these in a comprehensive grasp of the larger
+relations of color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.
+
+
++Children's Color Studies.+
+
+These reproductions of children's work are given as proof that color
+charm and good taste may be cultivated from the start.
+
+FIVE MIDDLE HUES are first taught by the use of special crayons, and
+later with water colors. They represent the equator of the color sphere
+(see Plate I.),--a circle midway between the extremes of color-light and
+color-strength,--and are known as MIDDLE RED, MIDDLE YELLOW, MIDDLE
+GREEN, MIDDLE BLUE, and MIDDLE PURPLE.
+
+These are starting-points for training the eye to measure regular scales
+of Value and Chroma.[23] Only with such a trained judgment is it safe to
+undertake the use of strong colors.[24]
+
+    [Footnote 23: See Century Dictionary for definition of chroma.
+    Under the word "color" will be found definitions of Primary,
+    Complementary, Constants (chroma, luminosity, and hue), and the
+    Young-Helmholtz theory of color-sensation.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: It must not be assumed because so much stress is
+    laid upon quiet and harmonious color that this system excludes
+    the more powerful degrees. To do so would forfeit its claim to
+    completeness. A�Color Atlas in preparation displays all known
+    degrees of pigment color arranged in measured scales of Hue,
+    Value, and Chroma.]
+
+_Beginners should avoid Strong Color._ Extreme red, yellow, and blue are
+discordant. (They "shriek" and "swear." Mark Twain calls Roxana's gown
+"a volcanic eruption of infernal splendors.") Yet there are some who
+claim that the child craves them, and must have them to produce a
+thrill. So also does he crave candies, matches, and the carving-knife.
+He covets the trumpet, fire-gong, and bass-drum for their "thrill"; but
+who would think them necessary to the musical training of the ear? Like
+the blazing bill-board and the circus wagon, they may be suffered
+out-of-doors; but such boisterous sounds and color sprees are unfit for
+the school-room.
+
+_Quiet Color is the Mark of Good Taste._ Refinement in dress and the
+furnishings of the home is attractive, but we shrink from those who are
+"loud" in their speech or their clothing. If we wish our children to
+become well-bred, is it logical to begin by encouraging barbarous
+tastes? Their young minds are very open to suggestion. They quickly
+adopt our standards, and the blame must fall upon us if they acquire
+crude color habits. Yellow journalism and rag-time tunes will not help
+their taste in speech or song, nor will violent hues improve their taste
+in matters of color.
+
+_Balance of Color is to be sought._ Artists and decorators are well
+aware of a fact that slowly dawns upon the student; namely, that color
+harmony is due to the preservation of a subtle balance and impossible by
+the use of extremes. This balance of color resides more _within_ the
+spherical surface of this system than in the excessive chromas which
+project beyond. It is futile to encourage children in efforts to rival
+the poppy or buttercup, even with the strongest pigments obtainable.
+Their sunlit points give pleasure because they are surrounded and
+balanced by blue ether and wide green fields. Were these conditions
+reversed, so that the flowers appeared as little spots of blue or green
+in great fields of blazing red, orange, and yellow, our pained eyes
+would be shut in disgust.
+
+The painter knows that pigments _cannot_ rival the brilliancy of the
+buttercup and poppy, enhanced by their surroundings. What is more, he
+does not care to attempt it. Nor does the musician wish to imitate the
+screech of a siren or the explosion of a gun. These are not subjects for
+art. Harmonious sounds are the study of the musician, and tuned colors
+are the materials of the colorist. Corot in landscape, and Titian,
+Velasquez, and Whistler in figure painting, show us that Nature's
+richest effects and most beautiful color are enveloped in an atmosphere
+of gray.
+
+_Beauty of Color lies in Tempered Relations._ Music rarely touches the
+extreme range of sound, and harmonious color rarely uses the extremes of
+color-light or color-strength. Regular scales in the middle register are
+first given to train the ear, and so should the eye be first
+familiarized with medium degrees of color.
+
+This system provides measured scales, established by special
+instruments, and is able to select the middle points of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple as a basis for comparing and relating all
+colors. These five middle colors form a Chromatic Tuning Fork. (See page
+70.) It is far better that children should first become familiar with
+these tuned color intervals which are harmonious in themselves rather
+than begin by blundering among unrelated degrees of harsh and violent
+color. Who would think of teaching the musical scale with a piano out
+of tune?
+
+_The Tuning of Color cannot be left to Personal Whim._ The wide
+discrepancies of red, yellow, and blue, which have been falsely taught
+as primary colors, can no more be tuned by a child than the musical
+novice can tune his instrument. Each of these hues has three variable
+factors (see page 14, paragraph 14), and scientific tests are necessary
+to measure and relate their uneven degrees of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+Visual estimates of color, without the help of any standard for
+comparison, are continually distorted by doubt, guess-work, and the
+fatigue of the eye. Hardly two persons can agree in the intelligible
+description of color. Not only do individuals differ, but the same eye
+will vary in its estimates from day to day. A�frequent assumption that
+all strong pigments are equal in chroma, is far from the truth, and
+involves beginners in many mishaps. Thus the strongest blue-green,
+chromium sesquioxide, is but half the chroma of its red complement, the
+sulphuret of mercury. Yet ignorance is constantly leading to their
+unbalanced use. Indeed, some are still unaware that they are the
+complements of each other.[25]
+
+    [Footnote 25: See Appendix to Chapter III.]
+
+It is evident that the fundamental scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma must
+be established by scientific measures, not by personal bias. This system
+is unique in the possession of such scales, made possible by the
+devising of special instruments for the measurement of color, and can
+therefore be trusted as a permanent basis for training the color sense.
+
+The examples in Plates II. and III. show how successfully the tuned
+crayons, cards, and water colors of this system lead a child to fine
+appreciations of color harmony.
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED CRAYONS IN THE LOWER GRADES.
+
+Children have made every example on this plate, with no other material
+than the five crayons of middle hue, tempered with gray and black.
+A�Color Sphere is always kept in the room for reference, and five color
+balls to match the five middle hues are placed in the hands of the
+youngest pupils. Starting with these middle points in the scales of
+Value and Chroma, they learn to estimate rightly all lighter and darker
+values, all weaker and stronger chromas, and gradually build up a
+disciplined judgment of color.
+
+Each study can be made the basis of many variations by a simple change
+of one color element, as suggested in the text.
+
+  1. Butterfly. Yellow and black crayon. Vary by using any single
+  crayon with black.
+
+  2. Dish. Red crayon, blue and green crayons for back and foreground.
+  Vary by using the two opposites of any color chosen for the dish and
+  omitting the two neighboring colors. See No.�4.
+
+  3. Hiawatha's canoe. Yellow crayon, with rim and name in green. Vary
+  color of canoe, keeping the rim a neighboring color. See No.�4.
+
+  4. Color-circle. Gray crayon for centre, and five crayons spaced
+  equidistant. This gives the invariable order, red, yellow, green,
+  blue, purple. _Never use all five in a single design._ Either use
+  a color and its two neighbors or a color and its two opposites. By
+  mingling touches of any two neighbors, the intermediates are made
+  and named yellow-red (orange), green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue
+  (violet), and red-purple. Abbreviated, the circle reads R, YR, Y,
+  GY, G, BG, B, PB, P,�RP.
+
+  5. Rosette. Red cross in centre, green leaves: blue field, black
+  outline. Vary as in No.�2.
+
+  6. Rosette. Green centre and edge of leaves, purple field and black
+  accents. Vary color of centre, keeping field two colors distant.
+
+  7. Plaid. Use any three crayons with black. Vary the trio.
+
+  8. Folding screen. Yellow field (lightly applied), green and black
+  edge. Make lighter and darker values of each color, and arrange in
+  scales graded from black to white.
+
+  9. Rug. Light red field with solid red centre, border pattern and
+  edges of gray. This is called self-color. Change to each of the
+  crayons.
+
+  10. Rug. Light yellow field and solid centre, with purple and black
+  in border design. Vary by change of ground, keeping design two
+  colors distant and darkened with black.
+
+  11. Lattice. Yellow with black: alternate green and blue lozenges.
+  Vary by keeping the lozenges of two neighboring colors, but one
+  color removed from that of the lattice.
+
+For principles involved in these color groups, see Chapter III.
+
+
+PLATE III.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED WATER COLORS IN THE UPPER GRADES.
+
+Previous work with measured scales, made by the tuned crayons and tested
+by reference to the color sphere, have so trained the color judgment
+that children may now be trusted with more flexible material. They have
+memorized the equable degrees of color on the equator of the sphere, and
+found how lighter colors may balance darker colors, how small areas of
+stronger chroma may be balanced by larger masses of weaker chroma, and
+in general gained a disciplined color sense. Definite impressions and
+clear thinking have taken the place of guess-work and blundering.
+
+Thus, before reaching the secondary school, they are put in possession
+of the color faculty by a system and notation similar to that which was
+devised centuries ago for the musical sense. No system, however logical,
+will produce the artist, but every artist needs some systematic training
+at the outset, and this simple method by measured scales is believed to
+be the best yet devised.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 2.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 3.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+Each example on this plate may be made the basis of many variants, by
+small changes in the color steps, as suggested in the text, and further
+elaborated in Chapter VI. Indeed, the studies reproduced on Plates II.
+and III. are but a handful among hundreds of pleasing results produced
+in a single school.[26]
+
+  1. Pattern. Purple and green: the two united and thinned with water
+  will give the ground. Vary with any other color pair.
+
+  2. Pattern. Figure in middle red, with darker blue-green accent.
+  Ground of middle yellow, grayed with slight addition of the red and
+  green. Vary with purple in place of blue-green.
+
+  3. Japanese teapot. Middle red, with background of lighter yellow
+  and foreground of grayed middle yellow.
+
+  4. Variant on No. 3. Middle yellow, with slight addition of green.
+  Foreground the same, with more red, and background of middle gray.
+
+  5. Group. Background of yellow-red, lighter vase in yellow-green,
+  and darker vase of green, with slight addition of black. Vary by
+  inversion of the colors in ground and darker vase.
+
+  6. Wall decoration. Frieze pattern made of cat-tails and
+  leaves,--the leaves of blue-green with black, tails of yellow-red
+  with black, and ground of the two colors united and thinned with
+  water. Wall of blue-green, slightly grayed by additions of the two
+  colors in the frieze. Dado could be a match of the cat-tails
+  slightly grayer. _See Fig. 23, page 82._
+
+  7. Group. Foreground in purple-blue, grayed with black. Vase of
+  purple-red, and background in lighter yellow-red, grayed.
+
+For analysis of the groups and means of recording them, see Chapter III.
+
+    [Footnote 26: The Pope School, Somerville, Mass.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE.[27]
+
+
++How to make a color sphere with pigments.+
+
+(102) The preceding chapters have built up an ideal color solid, in
+which every sensation of color finds its place and is clearly named by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It has been shown that the neutral centre of the system is a balancing
+point for all colors, that a line through this centre finds opposite
+colors which balance and complement each other; and we are now ready to
+make a practical application, carrying out these ideal relations of
+color as far as pigments will permit in a color sphere[27] (Fig.�16).
+
+    [Footnote 27: Patented Jan. 9, 1900.]
+
+(103) The materials are quite simple. First a colorless globe, mounted
+so as to spin freely on its axis. Then a measured scale of value,
+specially devised for this purpose, obtained by the daylight
+photometer.[28] Next a set of carefully chosen pigments, whose
+reasonable permanence has been tested by long use, and which are
+prepared so that they will not glisten when spread on the surface of the
+globe, but give a uniformly mat surface. A�glass palette, palette knife,
+and some fine brushes complete the list.
+
+    [Footnote 28: See paragraph 65.]
+
+(104) Here is a list of the paints arranged in pairs to represent the
+five sets of opposite hues described in Chapter III., paragraphs
+61-63:--
+
+  _Color Pairs._    _Pigments Used._      _Chemical Nature._
+
+  Red and           Venetian red.         Calcined native earth.
+    Blue-green.     Viridian and Cobalt.  Chromium sesquioxide.
+
+  Yellow and        Raw Sienna.           Native earth.
+    Purple-blue.    Ultramarine.          Artificial product.
+
+  Green and         Emerald green.        Arsenate of copper.
+    Red-purple.     Purple madder.        Extract of the madder plant.
+
+  Blue and          Cobalt.               Oxide of cobalt with alumina.
+    Yellow-red.     Orange cadmium.       Sulphide of cadmium.
+
+  Purple and        Madder and cobalt.    See each pigment above.
+    Green-yellow.   Emerald green         See each pigment above.
+                      and Sienna.
+
+(105) These paints have various degrees of hue, value, and chroma, but
+can be tempered by additions of the neutrals, zinc white and ivory
+black, until each is brought to a middle value and tested on the value
+scale. After each pair has been thus balanced, they are painted in their
+appropriate spaces on the globe, forming an equator of balanced hues.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+(106) The method of proving this balance has already been suggested in
+Chapter IV., paragraph 93. It consists of an ingenious implement devised
+by Clerk-Maxwell, which gives us a result of mixing colors without the
+chemical risks of letting them come in contact, and also measures
+accurately the quantity of each which is used (Fig.�17).
+
+(107) This is called a Maxwell disc, and is nothing more than a circle
+of firm cardboard, pierced with a central hole to fit the spindle of a
+rotary motor, and with a radial slit from rim to centre, so that another
+disc may be slid over the first to cover any desired fraction of its
+surface. Let us paint one of these discs with Venetian red and the other
+with viridian and cobalt, the first pair in the list of pigments to be
+used on the globe.
+
+(108) Having dried these two discs, one is combined with the other on
+the motor shaft so that each color occupies half the circle. As soon as
+the motor starts, the two colors are no longer distinguished, and rapid
+rotation melts them so perfectly that the eye sees a new color, due to
+their mixture on the retina. This new color is a reddish gray, showing
+that the red is more chromatic than the blue-green. But by stopping the
+motor and sliding the green disc to cover more of the red one, there
+comes a point where rotation melts them into a perfectly neutral gray.
+No hint of either hue remains, and the pair is said to balance.
+
+(109) Since this balance has been obtained by _unequal areas_ of the two
+pigments, it must compensate for a lack of equal chroma in the hues (see
+paragraphs 76, 77); and, to measure this inequality, a�slightly larger
+disc, with decimal divisions on its rim, is placed back of the two
+painted ones. If this scale shows the red as occupying 3-1/3 parts of the
+area, while blue-green occupies 6-2/3 parts, then the blue-green must be
+only half as chromatic as the red, since it takes twice as much to
+produce the balance.
+
+(110) The red is then grayed (diminished in chroma by additions of a
+middle gray) until it can occupy half the circle, with blue-green on the
+remaining half, and still produce neutrality when mixed by rotation.
+Each disc now reads 5 on the decimal scale. Lest the graying of red
+should have disturbed its value, it is again tested on the photometric
+scale, and reads 4.7, showing it has been slightly darkened by the
+graying process. A�little white is therefore added until its value is
+restored to�5.
+
+(111) The two opposites are now completely balanced, for they are equal
+in value (5), equal in chroma (5), and have proved their equality as
+complements by uniting in equal areas to form a neutral mixture. It only
+remains to apply them in their proper position on the sphere.
+
+(112) A band is traced around the equator, divided in ten equal spaces,
+and lettered R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP (see Fig. 18). This
+balanced red and blue-green are applied with the brush to spaces marked
+R and BG, care being taken to fill, but not to overstep the bounds, and
+the color laid absolutely flat, that no unevenness of value or chroma
+may disturb the balance.
+
+(113) The next pair, represented by Raw Sienna and Ultramarine, is
+similarly brought to middle value, balanced by equal areas on the
+Maxwell discs, and, when correct in each quality, is painted in the
+spaces Y and PB. Emerald Green and Purple Madder, which form the next
+pigment pair, are similarly tempered, proved, and applied, followed by
+the two remaining pairs, until the equator of the globe presents its ten
+equal steps of middle hues.
+
+
++An equator of ten balanced hues.+
+
+(114) Now comes the total test of this circuit of balanced hues by
+rotation of the sphere. As it gains speed, the colors flash less and
+less, and finally melt into a middle gray of perfect neutrality. Had it
+failed to produce this gray and shown a tinge of any hue still
+persisting, we should say that the persistent hue was in excess, or,
+conversely, that its opposite hue was deficient in chroma, and failed to
+preserve its share in the balance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+(115) For instance, had rotation discovered the persistence of reddish
+gray, it would have proved the red too strong, or its opposite,
+blue-green, too weak, and we should have been forced to retrace our
+steps, applying a correction until neutrality was established by the
+rotation test.
+
+(116) This is the practical demonstration of the assertion (Chapter�I.,
+paragraph�8) that a _color has three dimensions which can be measured_.
+Each of these ten middle hues has proved its right to a definite place
+on the color globe by its measurements of value and chroma. Being of
+equal chroma, all are equidistant from the neutral centre, and, being
+equal in value, all are equally removed from the poles. If the warm hues
+(red and yellow) or the cool hues (blue and green) were in excess, the
+rotation test of the sphere would fail to produce grayness, and so
+detect its lack of balance.[29]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Such a test would have exposed the excess of warm
+    color in the schemes of Runge and Chevreul, as shown in the
+    Appendix to this chapter.]
+
+
++A chromatic tuning fork.+
+
+(117) The five principal steps in this color equator are made in
+permanent enamel and carefully safeguarded, so that, if the pigments
+painted on the globe should change or become soiled, it could be at once
+detected and set right. These five are middle red (so called because
+midway between white and black, as well as midway between our strongest
+red and the neutral centre), middle yellow, middle green, middle blue,
+and middle purple. They may be called the CHROMATIC TUNING FORK, for
+they serve to establish the pitch of colors, as the musical tuning fork
+preserves the pitch of sounds.
+
+
++Completion of a pigment color sphere.+
+
+(118) When the chromatic tuning fork has thus been obtained, the
+completion of the globe is only a matter of patience, for the same
+method can be applied at any level in the scale of value, and a new
+circuit of balanced hues made to conform with its position between the
+poles of white and black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+(119) The surface above and below the equatorial band is set off by
+parallels to match the photometric scale, making nine bands or value
+zones in all, of which the equator is fifth, the black pole being 0 and
+the white pole�10.
+
+(120) Ten meridians carry the equatorial hues across all these value
+zones and trace the gradation of each hue through a complete scale from
+black to white, marked by their values, as shown in paragraph 68. Thus
+the red scale is R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 (middle red), R6, R7, R8, and R9,
+and similarly with each of the other hues. When the circle of hues
+corresponding to each level has been applied and tested, the entire
+surface of the globe is spread with a logical system of color scales,
+and the eye gratified with regular sequences which move by measured
+steps in each direction.
+
+(121) Each meridian traces a scale of value for the hue in which it
+lies. Each parallel traces a scale of hue for the value at whose level
+it is drawn. Any oblique path across these scales traces a regular
+sequence, each step combining change of hue with a change of value and
+chroma. The more this path approaches the vertical, the less are its
+changes of hue and the more its changes of value and chroma; while, the
+nearer it comes to the horizontal, the less are its changes of value and
+chroma, while the greater become its changes of hue. Of these two
+oblique paths the first may be called that of a Luminist, or painter
+like Rembrandt, whose canvases present great contrasts of light and
+shade, while the second is that of the Colorist, such as Titian, whose
+work shows great fulness of hues without the violent extremes of white
+and black.
+
+
++Total balance of the sphere tested by rotation on any desired axis.+
+
+(122) Not only does the mount of the color sphere permit its rotation on
+the vertical axis (white-black), but it is so hung that it may be spun
+on the ends of any desired axis, as, for instance, that joining our
+first color pair, red and blue-green. With this pair as poles of
+rotation, a�new equator is traced through all the values of purple on
+one side and of green-yellow on the other, which the rotation test melts
+in a perfect balance of middle gray, proving the correctness of these
+values. In the same way it may be hung and tested on successive axes,
+until the total balance of the entire spherical series is proved.
+
+(123) But this color system does not cease with the colors spread on the
+surface of a globe.[30] The first illustration of an orange filled with
+color was chosen for the purpose of stimulating the imagination to
+follow a surface color inward to the neutral axis by regular decrease of
+chroma. A�slice at any level of the solid, as at value 8 (Fig. 10),
+shows each hue of that level passing by even steps of increasing
+grayness to the neutral gray N8 of the axis. In the case of red at this
+level, it is easily described by the notation R�8/3, R�8/2, R�8/1, of
+which the initial and upper numerals do not change, but the lower
+numeral traces loss of chroma by 3, 2, and 1 to the neutral axis.
+
+    [Footnote 30: No color is excluded from this system, but the
+    excess and inequalities of pigment chroma are traced in the
+    Color Atlas.]
+
+(124) And there are stronger chromas of red outside the surface, which
+can be written R�8/4, R�8/5, R�8/6, etc. Indeed, our color measurements
+discover such differences of chroma in the various pigments used, that
+the color tree referred to in paragraphs 34, 35, is necessary to bring
+before the eye their maximum chromas, most of which are well outside the
+spherical shell and at various levels of value. One way to describe the
+color sphere is to suggest that a color tree, the intervals between
+whose irregular branches are filled with appropriate color, can be
+placed in a turning lathe and turned down until the color maxima are
+removed, thus producing a color solid no larger than the chroma of its
+weakest pigment (Fig.�2).
+
+
++Charts of the color solid.+
+
+(125) Thus it becomes evident that, while the color sphere is a valuable
+help to the child in conceiving color relations, in uniting the three
+scales of color measure, and in furnishing with its mount an excellent
+test of the theory of color balance, yet it is always restricted to the
+chroma of its weakest color, the surplus chromas of all other colors
+being thought of as enormous mountains built out at various levels to
+reach the maxima of our pigments.
+
+(126) The complete color solid is, therefore, of irregular shape, with
+mountains and valleys, corresponding to the inequalities of pigments. To
+display these inequalities to the eye, we must prepare cross sections or
+charts of the solid, some horizontal, some vertical, and others oblique.
+
+(127) Such a set of charts forms an atlas of the color solid, enabling
+one to see any color in its relation to all other colors, and name it by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma. Fig. 20 is a horizontal chart of
+all colors which present middle value (5), and describes by an uneven
+contour the chroma of every hue at this level. The dotted fifth circle
+is the equator of the color sphere, whose principal hues, R�5/5. Y�5/5,
+G�5/5, B�5/5, and P�5/5, form the chromatic tuning fork, paragraph 117.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+
+  Chart of
+  Middle Value
+  - 5 -
+  Showing Unequal Chroma
+  in circle of Hues. (See Fig. 2).]
+
+(128) In this single chart the eye readily distinguishes some three
+hundred different colors, each of which may be written by its hue,
+value, and chroma. And even the slightest variation of one of them can
+be defined. Thus, if the principal red were to fade slightly, so that it
+was a trifle lighter and a trifle weaker than the enamel, it would be
+written R{5.1/4.9}, showing it had lightened by 1 per cent. and weakened
+by 1 per cent. The discrimination made possible by this decimal notation
+is much finer than our present visual limit. Its use will stimulate
+finer perception of color.
+
+(129) Such a very elementary sketch of the Color Solid and Color Atlas,
+which is all that can be given in the confines of this small book, will
+be elsewhere presented on a larger and more complete scale. It should be
+contrasted with the ideal form composed of prismatic colors, suggested
+in the last chapter, paragraphs 98, 99, which was shown to be
+impracticable, but whose ideal conditions it follows as far as the
+limitations of pigments permit.
+
+(130) Besides its value in education as setting all our color notions in
+order, and supplying a simple method for their clear expression, it
+promises to do away with much of the misunderstanding that accompanies
+the every-day use of color.
+
+(131) Popular color names are incongruous, irrational, and often
+ludicrous. One must smile in reading the list of 25 steps in a scale of
+blue, made by Schiffer-Muller in 1772:--
+
+  A. _a._ White pure.
+     _b._ White silvery or pearly.
+     _c._ White milky.
+  B. _a._ Bluish white.
+     _b._ Pearly white.
+     _c._ Watery white.
+  C.      Blue being born.
+  D.      Blue dying or pale.
+  E.      Mignon blue.
+  F.      Celestial blue, or sky-color.
+  G. _a._ Azure, or ultramarine.
+     _b._ Complete or perfect blue.
+     _c._ Fine or queen blue.
+  H.      Covert blue or turquoise.
+  I.      King blue (deep).
+  J.      Light brown blue or indigo.
+  K. _a._ Persian blue or woad flower.
+     _b._ Forge or steel blue.
+     _c._ Livid blue.
+  L. _a._ Blackish blue.
+     _b._ Hellish blue.
+     _c._ Black-blue.
+  M. _a._ Blue-black or charcoal.
+     _b._ Velvet black.
+     _c._ Jet black.
+
+The advantage of spacing these 25 colors in 13 groups, some with three
+and others with but one example, is not apparent; nor why ultramarine
+should be several steps above turquoise, for the reverse is generally
+true. Besides which the hue of turquoise is greenish, while that of
+ultramarine is purplish, but the list cannot show this; and the
+remarkable statement that one kind of blue is "hellish," while another
+is "celestial," should rest upon an experience that few can claim.
+Failing to define color-value and color-hue, the list gives no hint of
+color-strength, except at C and D, where one kind of blue is "dying"
+when the next is "being born," which not inaptly describes the color
+memory of many a person. Finally, it assures us that Queen blue is
+"fine" and King blue is "deep."
+
+This year the fashionable shades are "burnt onion" and "fresh spinach."
+The florists talk of a "pink violet" and a "green pink." A�maker of inks
+describes the red as a "true crimson scarlet," which is a contradiction
+in terms. These and a host of other names borrowed from the most
+heterogeneous sources, become outlawed as soon as the simple color terms
+and measures of this system are adopted.
+
+Color anarchy is replaced by systematic color description.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V.
+
+
++Color schemes based on Brewster's mistaken theory.+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+Runge, of Hamburg (1810), suggested that red, yellow, and blue be placed
+equidistant around the equator of a sphere, with white and black at
+opposite poles. As the yellow was very light and the blue very dark, any
+coherency in the value scales of red, yellow, and blue was impossible.
+
+Chevreul, of Paris (1861), seeking uniform color scales for his workmen
+at the Gobelins, devised a hollow cylinder built up of ten color
+circles. The upper circle had red, yellow, and blue spaced equidistant,
+and, as in Runge's solid, yellow was very light and blue very dark. Each
+circle was then made "one-tenth" darker than the next above, until black
+was reached at the base. Although each circle was supposed to lie
+horizontally, only the black lowest circle presents a level of uniform
+values.
+
+Yellow values increase their luminosity thrice as fast as purple values,
+so that each circle should tilt at an increasing angle, and the upper
+circle of strongest colors be inclined at 60� to the black base. Besides
+this fault shared with Runge's sphere, it falls into another by not
+diminishing the size of the lower circles where added black diminishes
+the chroma.
+
+Desire to make colors fit a chosen contour, and the absence of measuring
+instruments, cause these schemes to ignore the facts of color relation.
+Like ancient maps made to satisfy a conqueror, they amuse by their
+distortion.
+
+Brewster's mistaken theory underlies these schemes, as is also the case
+with Froebel's gifts, whose color balls continue to give wrong notions
+at the very threshold of color education. As pointed out in the Appendix
+to Chapter III., the "red-yellow-blue" theory inevitably spreads the
+warm field of yellow-red too far, and contracts the blue field, so that
+balance of color is rendered impossible, as illustrated in the gaudy
+chromo and flaming bill-board.
+
+These schemes are criticised by Rood as "not only in the main arbitrary,
+but also vague"; and, although Chevreul's charts were published by the
+government in most elaborate form, their usefulness is small. Interest
+in the growth of the present system, because of its measured character,
+led Professor Rood to give assistance in the tests, and at his request a
+color sphere was made for the Physical Cabinet at Columbia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+COLOR NOTATION.
+
+
++Suggestion of a chromatic score.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+(132) The last chapter traced a series of steps leading to the
+construction of a practical color sphere. Each color was tested by
+appropriate instruments to assure its degree of hue, value, and chroma,
+before being placed in position. Then the total sphere was tested to
+detect any lack of balance.
+
+(133) Each color was also _written_ by a letter and two numerals,
+showing its place in the three scales of hue, value, and chroma. This
+naturally suggests, not only a record of each separate color sensation,
+but also a union of these records in series and groups to form a _color
+score_, similar to the musical score by which the measured relations of
+sound are recorded.
+
+(134) A very simple form of color score may be easily imagined as a
+transparent envelope wrapped around the equator of the sphere, and
+forming a vertical cylinder (Fig. 21). On the envelope the equator
+traces a horizontal centre line, which is at 5 of the _value scale_,
+with zones 6, 7, 8, and 9 as parallels above, and the zones 4, 3, 2, and
+1 below. Vertical lines are drawn through ten equidistant points on this
+centre line, corresponding with the divisions of the _hue scale_, and
+marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and�RP.
+
+(135) The transparent envelope is thus divided into one hundred
+compartments, which provide for ten steps of value in each of the ten
+middle colors. Now, if we cut open this envelope along one of the
+verticals,--as, for instance, red-purple (RP), it may be spread out,
+making a flat chart of the color sphere (Fig.�22).
+
+
++Why green is given the centre of the score.+
+
+(136) A cylindrical envelope might be opened on any desired meridian,
+but it is an advantage to have green (G) at the centre of the chart, and
+it is therefore opened at the opposite point, red-purple (RP). To the
+right of the green centre are the meridians of green-yellow (GY), yellow
+(Y), yellow-red (YR), and red (R), all of which are known as _warm
+colors_, because they contain yellow and red. To the left are the
+meridians of blue-green (BG), blue (B), purple-blue (PB), and purple
+(P), all of which are called _cool colors_, because they contain blue.
+Green, being neither warm nor cold of itself, and becoming so only by
+additions of yellow or of blue, thus serves as a balancing point or
+centre in the hue-scale.[31]
+
+    [Footnote 31: To put this in terms of the spectrum wave lengths,
+    long waves at the red end of the spectrum give the sensation of
+    warmth, while short waves at the violet end cause the sensation
+    of coolness. Midway between these extremes is the wave length of
+    green.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+(137) The color score presents four large divisions or color fields made
+by the intersection of the equator with the meridian of green. Above the
+centre are all light colors, and below it are all dark colors. To the
+right of the centre are all warm colors, and to the left are all cool
+colors. Middle green (5G�5/5) is the centre of balance for these
+contrasted qualities, recognized by all practical color workers. The
+chart forms a rectangle whose length equals the equator of the color
+sphere and its height equals the axis (a�proportion of 3.14:1),
+representing a union and balance of the scales of hue and of value. This
+provides for two color dimensions; but, to be complete, the chart must
+provide for the third dimension, chroma.
+
+(138) Replacing the chart around the sphere and joining its ends, so
+that it re-forms the transparent envelope, we may thrust a pin through
+at any point until it pierces the surface of the sphere. Indeed, the pin
+can be thrust deeper until it reaches the neutral axis, thus forming a
+scale of chroma for the color point where it enters (see paragraph 12).
+In the same way any colors on the sphere, within the sphere, or without
+it, can have pins thrust into the chart to mark their place, and the
+length by which each pin projects can be taken as a measure of chroma.
+If the chart is now unrolled, it retains the pins, which by their place
+describe the hue and value of a color, while their length describes its
+chroma.
+
+
++Pins stuck into the score represent chroma.+
+
+(139) With this idea of the third color dimension incorporated in the
+score we can discard the pin, and record its length by a numeral. Any
+dot placed on the score marks a certain degree of hue and value, while a
+numeral beside it marks the degree of chroma which it carries, uniting
+with the hue and value of that point to give us a certain color.
+Glancing over a series of such color points, the eye easily grasps their
+individual character, and connects them into an intelligible series.
+
+(140) Thus a flat chart becomes the projection of the color solid, and
+any color in that solid is transferred to the surface of the chart,
+retaining its degrees of hue, value, and chroma. So far the scales have
+been spoken of as divided into ten steps, but they may be subdivided
+much finer, if desired, by use of the decimal point. It is a question of
+convenience whether to make a small score with only the large divisions,
+or a much larger score with a hundred times as many steps. In the
+latter case each hue has ten steps, the middle step of green being
+distinguished as 5G-5/5 to suggest the four steps 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, which
+precede it, and 6G, 7G, 8G, and 9G, which follow it toward blue-green.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+  COLOR SCORE--(or N� 6 in Plate III)--GIVING AREAS BY�H, V�AND C.]
+
+
++The score preserves color records in a convenient shape.+
+
+Such a color score, or notation diagram, to be made small or large as
+the case demands, offers a very convenient means for recording color
+combinations, when pigments are not at hand.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+(141) To display its three dimensions, a little model can be made with
+three visiting cards, so placed as to present their mutual intersection
+at right angles (Fig.�24).
+
+5G 5/5 is their centre of mutual balance. A�central plane separates all
+colors into two contrasted fields. To the right are all warm colors, to
+the left are all cool colors. Each of these fields is again divided by
+the plane of the equator into lighter colors above and darker colors
+below. These four color fields are again subdivided by a transverse
+plane through 5G 5/5 into strong colors in front and weak colors beyond
+or behind�it.
+
+(142) Any color group, whose record must all be written to the right of
+the centre, is warm, because red and yellow are dominant. One to the
+left of the centre must be cool, because it is dominated by blue.
+A�group written all above the centre must have light in excess, while
+one written entirely below is dark to excess. Finally, a�score written
+all in front of the centre represents only strong chromas, while one
+written behind it contains only weak chromas. From this we gather that a
+balanced composition of color preserves some sort of equilibrium,
+uniting degrees of warm and cool, of light and dark, and of weak and
+strong, which is made at once apparent by the dots on the score.
+
+(143) A single color, like that of a violet, a�rose, or a buttercup,
+appears as a dot on the score, with a numeral added for its chroma.
+A�parti-colored flower, such as a nasturtium, is shown by two dots with
+their chromas, and a bunch of red and yellow flowers will give by their
+dots a color passage, or "silhouette," whose warmth and lightness is
+unmistakable.
+
+The chroma of each flower written with the silhouette completes the
+record. The hues of a beautiful Persian rug, with dark red
+predominating, or a verdure tapestry, in which green is dominant, or a
+Japanese print, with blue dominant, will trace upon the score a pattern
+descriptive of its color qualities. These records, with practice, become
+as significant to the eye as the musical score. The general character of
+a color combination is apparent at a glance, while its degrees of chroma
+are readily joined to fill out the mental image.
+
+(144) Such a plan of color notation grows naturally from the spherical
+system of measured colors. It is hardly to be hoped, in devising a color
+score, that it should not seem crude at first. But the measures forming
+the basis of this record can be verified by impartial instruments, and
+have a permanent value in the general study of color. They also afford
+some definite data as to personal bias in color estimates.
+
+(145) This makes it possible to collect in a convenient form two
+contrasting and valuable records, one preserving such effects of color
+as are generally called pleasing, and another of such groups as are
+found unpleasant to the eye. Out of such material something may be
+gained, more reliable than the shifting, personal, and contradictory
+statements about color harmony now prevalent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+COLOR HARMONY.
+
+
++Colors may be grouped to please or to give annoyance.+
+
+(146) Attempts to define the laws of harmonious color have not attained
+marked success, and the cause is not far to seek. The very sensations
+underlying these effects of concord or of discord are themselves
+undefined. The misleading formula of my student days--that three parts
+of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue would combine
+harmoniously--was unable to define the _kind_ of red, yellow, and blue
+intended; that is, the hue, value, and chroma of each of these colors
+was unknown, and the formula meant a different thing to each person who
+tried to use�it.
+
+(147) It is true that a certain red, green, and blue can be united in
+such proportions on Maxwell discs as to balance in a neutral gray; but
+the slightest change in either the hue, value, or chroma, of any one of
+them, upsets the balance. A�new proportion is then needed to regain the
+neutral mixture. This has already been shown in the discussion of triple
+balance (paragraph�82).
+
+(148) Harmony of color has been still further complicated by the use of
+terms that belong to musical harmony. Now music is a _measured art_, and
+has found a set of intervals which are defined scientifically. The two
+arts have many points of similarity; and the impulses of sound waves on
+the ear, like those of light waves on the eye, are measured vibrations.
+But they are far apart in their scales, and differ so much in important
+particulars that no practical relationship can be set up. The intervals
+of color sensation require fit names and measures, ere their infinite
+variety can be organized into a fixed system.
+
+(149) Any effort to compare certain sounds to certain colors soon leads
+to the wildest vagaries.
+
+
++Harmony of sound is unlike harmony of color.+
+
+(150) The poverty of color language tempts to a borrowing from the
+richer terminology of music. Musical terms, such as "pitch, key, note,
+tone, chord, modulation, nocturne, and symphony," are frequently used in
+the description of color, serving by association to convey certain vague
+ideas.
+
+(151) In the same way the term _color harmony_, from association with
+musical harmony, presents to the mind an image of color
+arrangement,--varied, yet well proportioned, grouped in orderly fashion,
+and agreeable to the eye. But any attempt to define this image in terms
+of color is disappointing. Here is a beautiful Persian rug: why do we
+call it beautiful? One says "because its colors are _rich_." Why are
+they rich? "Because they are _deep in tone_." What does that mean? The
+double-bass and the fog-horn are _deep_ in tone, but not necessarily
+beautiful on that account. "Oh, no," says another, "it is all in _one
+harmonious key_." But what is a key of color? Is it made by all the
+values of one color, such as red, or by all the hues of equal value,
+such as the middle hues in our color solid?
+
+(152) Certainly it is neither, for the rug has both light and dark
+colors; and, of the reds, yellows, greens, and blues, some are stronger
+and others weaker. Then what do we mean by a key of color? One must
+either continue to flounder about or frankly confess ignorance.
+
+(153) Musical harmony explains itself in clear language. It is
+illustrated by fixed and definite sound intervals, whose measured
+relations form the basis of musical composition. Each key has an
+unmistakable character, and the written score presents a statement that
+means practically the same thing to every person of musical
+intelligence. But the adequate terms of color harmony are yet to be
+worked out.
+
+Let us leave these musical analogies, retaining only the clue that _a
+measured and orderly relation underlies the idea of harmony_. The color
+solid which has been the subject of these pages is built upon measured
+color relations. It unites measured scales of hue, value, and chroma,
+and gives a definite color name to every sensation from the maxima of
+color-light and color-strength to their disappearance in darkness.
+
+(154) Must not this theoretical color solid, therefore, locate all the
+elements which combine to produce color harmony or color discord?[32]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Professor James says there are three classic
+    stages in the career of a theory: "First, it is attacked as
+    absurd; then admitted to be true, but obvious and insignificant;
+    finally it is seen to be so important that its adversaries claim
+    to be its discoverers."]
+
+(155) Instead of theorizing, let us experiment. As a child at the piano,
+who first strikes random and widely separated notes, but soon seeks for
+the intervals of a familiar air, so let us, after roaming over the color
+globe and its charts, select one familiar color, and study what others
+will combine with it to please the eye.
+
+(156) Here is a grayish green stuff for a dress, and the little girl who
+is to wear it asks what other colors she may use with it. First let us
+find it on our instrument, so as to realize its relation to other
+degrees of color. Its value is 6,--one step above the equator of middle
+value. Its hue is green, G, and its chroma�5. It is written G�6/5.
+
+(157) Color paths lead out from this point in every direction. Where
+shall we find harmonious colors, where discordant, where those paths
+most frequently travelled? Are there new ones still to be explored?
+
+(158) _There are three typical paths: one vertical_, with rapid change
+of value; _another lateral_, with rapid change of hue; and a _third
+inward_, through the neutral centre to seek the opposite color field.
+All other paths are combinations of two or three of these typical
+directions in the color solid.
+
+
++Three typical color paths.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+(159) 1. The vertical path finds only lighter and darker values of
+gray-green,--"self-colors or shades," they are generally called,--and
+offers a safe path, even for those deficient in color sensation,
+avoiding all complications of hue, and leaving the eye free to estimate
+different degrees of a single quality,--color-light.
+
+(160) 2. The lateral path passes through neighboring hues on either
+side. In this case it is a sequence from blue, through green into
+yellow. This is simply change of hue, without change of value or chroma
+if the path be level, but, by inclining it, one end of the sequence
+becomes lighter, while the other end darkens. It thus becomes an
+intermediate between the first and second typical paths, combining, at
+each step, a�change of hue with a change of value. This is more
+complicated, but also more interesting, showing how the character of the
+gray-green dress will be set off by a _lighter_ hat of Leghorn straw,
+and further improved by a trimming of _darker_ blue-green. The sequence
+can be made still more subtle and attractive by choosing a straw whose
+yellow is _stronger_ than the green of the dress, while a _weaker_
+chroma of blue-green is used in the trimming. This is clearly expressed
+by the notation thus: Y�8/7, G�6/5, BG�4/3, and written on the score by
+three dots and their chromas,--7, 5, and 3 (see Fig.�23).
+
+(161) 3. The inward path which leads by increase of gray to the neutral
+centre, and on to the opposite hue red-purple, RP�4/5, is full of
+pitfalls for the inexpert. It combines great change of hue and chroma,
+with small change of value.
+
+(162) If any other color point be chosen in place of gray-green, the
+same typical paths are just as easily traced, written by the notation,
+and recorded on the color score.
+
+
++These paths trace sequences from any point in the color solid.+
+
+(163) In the construction of the color solid we saw that its scales were
+made of equal steps in hue, value, and chroma, and tested by balance on
+the centre of neutral gray. Any step will serve as a point of departure
+to trace regular sequences of the three types. The vertical type is a
+sequence of value only. It is somewhat tame, lacking the change of hue
+and chroma, but giving a monotonous harmony of regular values. The
+horizontal type traces a sequence of neighboring hues, less tame than
+the vertical type, but monotonous in value and chroma. The inward type
+connects opposite hues by a sequence of chroma balanced on middle gray,
+and is more stimulating to the eyes.
+
+(164) These paths have so far been treated as made up of equal steps in
+each direction, with the accompanying idea of equal quantities of color
+at each step. But by using _unequal quantities of color_, the balance
+may be preserved by compensations to the intervals that separate the
+colors (see paragraphs 109, 110).
+
+
++Unequal color quantities compensated by relations of hue, value,
+and chroma.+
+
+(165) Small bits of powerful color can be used to balance large fields
+of weak chroma. For instance, a�spot of strong reddish purple is
+balanced and enhanced by a field of gray-green. So an amethyst pin at
+the neck of the girl's dress will appear to advantage with the gown, and
+also with the Leghorn straw. But a large field of strong color, such as
+a cloth jacket of reddish purple, would be fatal to the measured harmony
+we seek.
+
+(166) This use of a small point of strong chroma, if repeated at
+intervals, sets up a notion of rhythm; but, in order to be rhythmic,
+there must be recurrent emphasis, "a�succession of similar units,
+combining unlike elements." This quality must not be confused with the
+unaccented succession, seen in a measured scale of hue, value, or
+chroma.
+
+
++Paper masks to isolate color intervals.+
+
+(167) A sheet of paper large enough to hide the color sphere may be
+perforated with three or more openings in a straight line, and applied
+against the surface, so as to isolate the steps of any sequence which we
+wish to study. Thus the sequence given in paragraph 160--Y�8/7, G�6/5,
+BG�4/3--may be changed to bring it on the surface of the sphere, when it
+reads Y�8/3, G�6/5, BG�5/5. A�mask with round holes, spaced so as to
+uncover these three spots, relieves the eye from the distraction of
+other colors. Keeping the centre spot on green, the mask may be moved so
+as to study the effect of changing hue or value of the other two steps
+in the sequence.
+
+(168) The sequence is lightened by sliding the whole mask upward, and
+darkened by dropping it lower. Then the result of using the same
+intervals in another field is easily studied by moving the mask to
+another part of the solid.
+
+(169) Change of interval immediately modifies the character of a color
+sequence. This is readily shown by having an under-mask, with a long,
+continuous slit, and an over-mask whose perforations are arranged in
+several rows, each row giving different spaces between the perforations.
+In the case of the girl's clothing, the same sequence produces quite a
+different effect, if two perforations of the over-mask are brought
+nearer to select a lighter yellow-green dress, while the ends of the
+sequence remain unchanged. To move the middle perforation near the other
+end, selects a darker bluish green dress, on which the trimming will be
+less contrasted, while the hat appears brighter than before, because of
+greater contrast.
+
+(170) The variations of color sequence which can thus be studied out by
+simple masks are almost endless; yet upon a measured system the
+character of each effect is easily described, and, if need be, preserved
+by a written record.
+
+
++Invention of color groups.+
+
+(171) Experiments with variable masks for the selection of color
+intervals, such as have been described, soon stimulate the imagination,
+so that it conceives sequences through any part of the color solid. The
+color image becomes a permanent mental adjunct. Five middle colors,
+tempered with white and black, permit us to devise the greatest variety
+of sequences, some light, others dark, some combining small difference
+of chroma with large difference of hue, others uniting large intervals
+of chroma with small intervals of hue, and so on through a well-nigh
+inexhaustible series.
+
+(172) As this constructive imagination gains power, the solid and its
+charts may be laid aside. _We can now think color consecutively._ Each
+color suggests its place in the system, and may be taken as a point of
+departure for the invention of groups to carry out a desired relation.
+
+(173) This selective mental process is helped by the score described in
+the last chapter; and the quantity of each color chosen for the group is
+easily indicated by a variable circle, drawn round the various points on
+the diagram. Thus, in the case of the child's clothes, a�large circle
+around G�6/5 gives the area of that color as compared with smaller
+circles around Y�8/7 and BG�4/3, representing the area of the straw and
+the trimming.
+
+(174) When the plotting of color groups has become instinctive from long
+practice, it opens a wide field of color study. Take as illustration the
+wings of butterflies or the many varieties of pansies. These fascinating
+color schemes can be written with indications of area that record their
+differences by a simple diagram. In the same way, rugs, tapestries,
+mosaics,--whatever attracts by its beauty and harmony of color,--can be
+recorded and studied in measured terms; and the mental process of
+estimating hues, values, chromas, and areas by established scales must
+lead the color sense to finer and finer perceptions.
+
+The same process serves as well to record the most annoying and
+inharmonious color groups. When sufficient of these records have been
+obtained, they furnish definite material for a contrast of the color
+combinations which please, with those that cause disgust. Such a
+contrast should discover some broad law of color harmony. It will then
+be in measured terms which can be clearly given; not a vague personal
+statement, conveying different meanings to each one who hears�it.
+
+
++Constant exercise needed to train the color sense.+
+
+(175) Appreciation of beautiful color grows by exercise and
+discrimination, just as naturally as fine perception of music or
+literature. Each is an outlet for the expression of taste,--a language
+which may be used clumsily or with skill.
+
+(176) As color perception becomes finer, it discards the more crude and
+violent contrasts. A�child revels in strong chromas, but the mark of a
+colorist is ability to employ low chroma without impoverishing the color
+effect. As a boy's shrieks and groans can be tempered to musical
+utterance, so his debauches in violent red, green, and purple must be
+replaced by tempered hues.
+
+(177) Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, Corot, Chavannes, and Whistler are
+masters in the use of gray. Personal bias may lead one colorist a little
+more toward warm colors, and another slightly toward the cool field, in
+each case attaining a sense of harmonious balance by tempered degrees of
+value and chroma.[33]
+
+    [Footnote 33: "Nature's most lively hues are bathed in lilac
+    grays. Spread all about us, yet visible only to the fine
+    perception of the colorist, is this gray quality by which he
+    appeals. Not he whose pictures abound in '_couleurs voyantes_,'
+    but he who preserves in his work all the '_gris color�s_' is the
+    good colorist."
+
+    Translation from J. F. Rafaelli, in _Annales Politiques &
+    Litteraires_.]
+
+(178) It is not claimed that discipline in the use of subtle colors will
+make another Corot or Velasquez, but it will make for comprehension of
+their skill. It is grotesque to watch gaudily dressed persons going into
+ecstasies over the delicate coloring of a Botticelli, when the internal
+as well as the external evidence is against them.
+
+(179) The colors which we choose, not only in personal apparel, but in
+our rooms and decorations, are mute witnesses to a stage of color
+perception.
+
+If that perception is trained to finer distinctions, the mind can no
+longer be content with coarse expression. It begins to feel an
+incongruity between the "loud" color of the wall paper, bought because
+it was fashionable, and the quiet hues of the rug, which was a gift from
+some artistic friend. It sees that, although the furniture is covered
+with durable and costly materials, their color "swears" at that of the
+curtains and wood-work. In short, the room has been jumbled together at
+various periods, without any plan or sense of color design.
+
+(180) Good taste demands that a room be furnished, not alone for
+convenience and comfort, but also with an eye to the beauty of the
+various objects, so that, instead of confusing and destroying the
+colors, each may enhance the other. And, when this sense of color
+harmony is aroused, it selects and arranges the books, the rugs, the
+lamp shade, the souvenirs of travel and friendship, the wall paper,
+pictures, and hangings, so that they fit into a color scheme, not only
+charming to the eye at first glance, but which continues to please the
+mind as it traces out an intelligent plan, bringing all into general
+harmony.
+
+(181) Nor will this cease when one room has been put to rights. Such a
+coloristic attitude is not satisfied until the vista into the next
+apartment is made attractive. Or should there be a suite of rooms, it
+demands that, with variety in each one, they all be brought into
+harmonious sequence. Thus the study of color finds immediate and
+practical use in daily life. It is a needed discipline of color vision,
+in the sense that geometry is a discipline of the mind, and it also
+enters into the pleasure and refinement of life at every step. Skill or
+awkwardness in its use exerts as positive an influence upon us as do the
+harmonies and discords of sound, and a far more continuous one. It is
+thought a defect to be unmusical. Should it not be considered a mark of
+defective cultivation to be insensitive to color?
+
+(182) In this slight sketch of color education it has been assumed that
+we are to deal with those who have normal perceptions. But there are
+some who inherit or develop various degrees of color-blindness; and a
+word in their behalf may be opportune.
+
+(183) A case of total color-blindness is very rare, but a few are on
+record. When a child shows deficient color perception,[34] a�little care
+may save him much discomfort, and patient training may correct it. If he
+mismatches some hues, confuses their names, seems incapable of the finer
+distinctions of color, study to find the hues which he estimates well,
+and then help him to venture a little into that field where his
+perception is at fault. Improvement is pretty sure to follow when this
+is sympathetically done. One student, who never outgrew the habit of
+giving a purplish hue to all his work, despite many expedients and the
+use of various lights and colored objects to correct it, is the single
+exception among hundreds whom it has been my privilege to watch as they
+improved their first crude estimates, and gained skill in expressing
+their sense of Nature's subtle color.
+
+    [Footnote 34: See Color Blindness in Glossary.]
+
+(184) To sum up, the first chapter suggests a measured color system in
+place of guess-work. The next describes the three color qualities, and
+sketches a child's growth in color perception. The third tells how
+colors may be mingled in such proportions as to balance. After the
+impracticability of using spectral color has been shown in the fourth
+chapter, the fifth proceeds to build a practical color solid. The sixth
+provides for a written record of color, and the last applies all that
+has preceded to suggestions for the study of color harmony.
+
+(185) Wide gaps appear in this outline. There is much that deserves
+fuller treatment. But, if the search for refined color and a clearer
+outlook upon its relations are stimulated by this fragmentary sketch,
+some of its faults may be overlooked.
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+  REPRODUCTION OF FLOWER STUDIES, PAINTED WITH MUNSELL WATER COLOR
+  Published By
+  WADSWORTH, HOWLAND & CO., INCORPORATED
+  BOSTON, MASS.]
+
+
+
+
+  PART II.
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+
+  Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+
+  Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+
+  INDEX
+
+  (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2 (See Fig. 20)
+  The Color Tree]
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM WITH COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS
+
+
+  _See Chapter II._
+
+  Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS,
+  ADAPTED TO NINE YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE.
+
+  Gr.  Grade
+  Ill. Illustration
+  App. Application
+  Mat. Materials
+
+  ====================================================================
+  Gr. |Subject. |   Colors Studied.   | Ill.      | App.    | Mat.
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  1.  |  HUES   | Red.     R.         | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Yellow.  Y.         | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Green.   G.         | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Blue.    B.         |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Purple.  P.         |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  2.  |  HUES   | Yellow-red.   YR.   | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Green-yellow. GY.   | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Blue-green.   BG.   | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Purple-blue.  PB.   |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Red-purple.   RP.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  3.  | VALUES  | Light, middle,      | Sought in | Design. | Color
+      |   of    |  and dark      R.   | Nature    |         | sphere.
+      |  color. |   "      "     Y.   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         |   "      "     G.   |           |         |
+      |         |   "      "     B.   |           |         |
+      |         |   "      "     P.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  4.  | VALUES  | 5 values of  YR.}   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | " "      "   GY.}   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | " "      "   BG.}   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | " "      "   PB.}   |           |         |
+      |         | " "      "   RP.}   |           |         |
+      |         | 9/, 7/, 5/, 3/, 1/. |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  5.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of R5/.   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | " "        " Y5/.   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | " "        " G5/.   | and Art   |         |
+      |         | " "        " B5/.   |           |         |
+      |         | " "        " P5/.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  6.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of YR5/.  | Sought in | Design  | Color
+      |   of    | "    "    "  GY5/.  | Nature    |         | Tree.
+      |  color. | "    "    "  BG5/.  | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | "    "    "  PB5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | "    "    "  RP5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | "    "    "         |           |         |
+      |         |       R7/ and R3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     Y7/  "  Y3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     G7/  "  G3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     B7/  "  B3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     P7/  "  P3/.} |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  7.  |To OBSERVE IMITATE & WRITE
+      |    color by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA     "       "      Paints.
+      |
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  8.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Pairs of equal area and unequal area  "       "      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  9.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Triads of equal area and unequal area "       "      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ====================================================================
+
+Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE HUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_FIRST GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Talk about familiar objects, to bring out color names,
+  2.       as toys, flowers, clothing, birds, insects, etc.
+  3.     Show soap bubbles and prismatic spectrum.
+  4.     Teach term HUE. Hues of flowers, spectrum, plumage of
+           birds, etc.
+  5.     Show MIDDLE[35] RED. Find other reds.
+  6.     Show MIDDLE YELLOW. Find other yellows, and compare
+           with reds.
+  7.     Show MIDDLE GREEN. Find other greens,         "
+           with reds and yellows.
+  8.     Show MIDDLE BLUE. Find other blues,           "
+           with preceding hues.
+  9.     Show MIDDLE PURPLE. Find other purples,       "
+           with preceding hues.
+  10-15. Review FIVE MIDDLE HUES,[35] match with colored papers,
+           and place in circle.
+  16-20. Show COLOR SPHERE. Find sequence of five middle hues.
+           Memorize order.
+  21.    Middle red imitated with crayon, named and written
+           by initial�R.
+  22.    Middle yellow   "           "      "          "
+           by initial�Y.
+  23.    Middle green    "           "      "          "
+           by initial�G.
+  24.    Middle blue     "           "      "          "
+           by initial�B.
+  25.    Middle purple   "           "      "          "
+           by initial�P.
+  26-30. Review, using middle hues[35] in borders and rosettes
+           for design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of five middle hues. To name, match,
+imitate, write, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SECOND GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1-3.   Review sequence of five middle hues.[35]
+  4.     Show a hue INTERMEDIATE between red and yellow. Find it
+           in objects.
+  5.         Compare with red and yellow.
+  6.     Recognize and name YELLOW-RED. Match, imitate, and write�YR.
+  7-8.   Show GREEN-YELLOW between green and yellow. Treat as above,
+           and write�GY.
+  9-10.  Show BLUE-GREEN between blue and green.        "       "
+           and write�BG.
+  11-12. Show PURPLE-BLUE between purple and blue.      "       "
+           and write�PB.
+  13-14. Show RED-PURPLE between red and purple.        "       "
+           and write RP.
+  15-20. Make circle of ten hues. Place Intermediates, and memorize
+           order so as to repeat forward or backward. Match, imitate,
+           and write by initials.
+  21-25. Find sequence of ten hues on COLOR SPHERE. Compare with
+           hues of natural objects.
+  26-30. Review, using any two hues in sequence for borders and
+           rosettes.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of ten hues, made up of five middle[35]
+hues and the five intermediates. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 35: The term MIDDLE, as used in this course of color
+    study, is understood to mean only the five principal hues which
+    stand midway in the scales of VALUE and CHROMA. Strictly
+    speaking, their five intermediates are also midway of the
+    scales; but they are obtained by mixture of the five principal
+    hues, as shown in their names, and are of secondary importance.]
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE VALUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_THIRD GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Review sequence of ten hues.
+  2.         Recognize, name, match, imitate, write, and find them
+  3.           on the COLOR SPHERE. Also in objects.
+  4.     Teach use of term VALUE. Color value recognized apart from
+           color hue.
+  5.     Find values of red, lighter and darker than the middle
+           value already familiar.
+  7.     THREE VALUES of RED. Find on sphere. Name as LIGHT, MIDDLE,
+           and DARK values of red.
+  8.     THREE VALUES of RED. Imitate with crayons, and write them
+           as 3, 5, and�7.
+  9.     THREE VALUES of YELLOW. Compare with above.
+  10.      Recognize, name, match, and imitate with crayons.
+  11.    THREE VALUES of GREEN. Compare, and treat as above.
+  12.      Find on sphere and in objects.
+  13.    THREE VALUES of BLUE.     "                "
+  14.
+  15.    THREE VALUES of PURPLE.   "                "
+  16.
+  17-20. Review, combining two values and a single hue for design.[36]
+
+_Aim._--To recognize a sequence combining three values and five middle
+hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 36: These ten lessons in this and succeeding grades
+    are devoted to color perception only. Their application to
+    design is a part of the general course in drawing, and will be
+    so considered in the succeeding grades. Note that, although thus
+    far nothing has been said about complementary hues, the child
+    has been led to associate them in opposite pairs by the color
+    sphere. (See Chapter III., p.�76.)]  [[Error for "paragraph 76"]]
+
+
+_FOURTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequence of three values in each of the five middle hues.
+  2.      To recognize, name, match, imitate, and
+  3.        find them on sphere and in objects.
+  4.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED. Find them on large color sphere.
+  5.    Number them 1, 3, 5, 7,�9. Match, imitate, and write.
+  6.  Show FIVE VALUES of BLUE-GREEN.  "     "          "
+        Treat as above and review.
+  7.  Show FIVE VALUES of PURPLE-BLUE compared with Yellow.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  8.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED-PURPLE      "         Green.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  9.  Show FIVE VALUES of YELLOW-RED      "         Blue.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  10. Show FIVE VALUES of GREEN-YELLOW    "         Purple.
+        Treat as above and review.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining five values in each of ten
+hues. To name, match, imitate, WRITE, and arrange them.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE CHROMAS AND THEIR SEQUENCES. Two Years.
+
+_FIFTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue and value. Find them on the color sphere.
+        Name, match, imitate, write, and arrange them by hue and value.
+  2.  Teach use of term CHROMA. Compare three chromas with three
+        values of red.
+          Name them WEAK, MIDDLE, and STRONG chromas.
+          Find in nature and art.
+  3.  THREE CHROMAS of RED.  Compare with three of blue-green.
+  4.      Show COLOR TREE. Suggest unequal chroma of hues.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of YELLOW. Compare with three chromas of
+        purple-blue.
+  6.  THREE CHROMAS of GREEN.     "                  "
+        red-purple.
+  7.  THREE CHROMAS of BLUE.      "                  "
+        yellow-red.
+  8.  THREE CHROMAS of PURPLE.    "                  "
+        green-yellow.
+  9.  Arrange five middle hues in circle, described as on the surface
+        of the Color Sphere (middle chroma), with weaker chromas inside,
+        and stronger chromas outside, the sphere.
+  10. Review,--to find these sequences of chroma in nature and art.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining three chromas, middle value,
+and ten hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SIXTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences combining three chromas, five hues, and middle
+        value.
+          Find on Color Tree, name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+  2.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER RED. Compare with middle red.
+  3.  Write    "          "          "     "   as a fraction,
+        chroma under value, using 3, 5, and�7. Thus R�5/7.
+  4.  Find CHROMAS of LIGHTER RED, and compare with darker blue-green.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER YELLOW, with purple-blue.
+  6.     "     "          "           "   GREEN,   "   red-purple.
+  7.     "     "          "           "   BLUE,    "   yellow-red.
+  8.     "     "          "           "   PURPLE,  "   green-yellow.
+  9.  Colors in nature and art, defined by hue, value, and chroma.
+        Named, matched, imitated, written, and arranged by Color Sphere
+        and Tree.
+  10. Review,--to find sequences combining three chromas, five values,
+        and ten hues.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences of chroma, as separate from sequences
+of hue or sequences of value. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange colors in terms of their hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
+COLOR EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF THE HUES, VALUES, AND CHROMAS.
+
+_SEVENTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue (initial), value (upper numeral),
+        & chroma (lower numeral).
+  2.      "      "                "                   "
+  3.  Exercises in expressing colors of natural objects by the NOTATION,
+  4.    and tracing their relation by the spherical solid.
+  5.  REDS in Nature and Art, imitated, written, and traced
+        by the spherical solid.
+  6.  YELLOWS in Nature and Art,       "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  7.  GREENS in Nature and Art,        "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  8.  BLUES in Nature and Art,         "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  9.  PURPLES in Nature and Art,       "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR selected, defined, and arranged for design.
+        (See note 4th Grade.)
+
+_Aim._--To define any color by its hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write�it.
+
+
+_EIGHTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences, and select colors which balance.
+        Illustrate the term.
+  2.  BALANCE of light and dark,--weak and strong,--hot and cold colors.
+  3.  RED and blue-green balanced in hue, value, and chroma,
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  4.  YELLOW and purple-blue          "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  5.  GREEN and red-purple            "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  6.  BLUE and yellow-red             "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  7.  PURPLE and green-yellow         "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  8.  UNEQUAL AREAS of the above pairs, balanced by compensating
+  9.    qualities of hue, value, and chroma. Examples from nature
+        and art.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR of unequal areas selected, defined,
+        and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To BALANCE colors by area, hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write the balance by the notation.
+
+
+_NINTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.    Review balance of color pairs, by area, hue, value, and chroma.
+  2.        To recognize, name, imitate, write, and record them.
+  3.    SELECTION of two colors to balance a given RED.
+  4.        "              "          "        "   YELLOW.
+  5.        "              "          "        "   GREEN.
+  6.        "              "          "        "   BLUE.
+  7.        "              "          "        "   PURPLE.
+  8-10. TRIAD of color, selected, balanced, written, and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize triple balance of color, and express it in terms
+of area, hue, value, and chroma. Also to use it in design.
+
+
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS
+
+  TAKEN FROM
+  THE
+
+  _CENTURY DICTIONARY_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+_The color definitions here employed are taken from the Century
+Dictionary. Special attention is called to the cross references which
+serve to differentiate HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA._
+
+
+AFTER IMAGE.--An image perceived after withdrawing the eye from a
+brilliantly illuminated object. Such images are called positive when
+their colors are the same as that of the object, and negative when they
+are its complementary colors.
+
+BLUE.--Of the color of the clear sky; of the color of the spectrum
+between wave lengths .505 and .415 micron, and more especially .487 and
+.460; or of such light mixed with white; azure, cerulean.
+
+BLACK.--Possessing in the highest degree the property of absorbing
+light; reflecting and transmitting little or no light; of the color of
+soot or coal; of the darkest possible hue; sable. Optically, wholly
+destitute of color, or absolutely dark, whether from the absence or the
+total absorption of light. Opposed to white.
+
+BROWN.--A dark color, inclined to red or yellow, obtained by mixing red,
+black, and yellow.
+
++CHROMA.--The degree of departure of a color sensation from that of
+white or gray; the intensity of distinctive hue; color intensity.+
+
+CHROMATIC.--Relating to or of the nature of color.
+
+COBALT BLUE.--A pure blue tending toward cyan blue and of high
+luminosity; also called Hungary blue, Lethner's blue, and Paris blue.
+
+COLOR.--Objectively, that quality of a thing or appearance which is
+perceived by the eye alone, independently of the form of the thing;
+subjectively, a�sensation peculiar to the organ of vision, and arising
+from the optic nerve.
+
+COLOR BLINDNESS.--Incapacity for perceiving colors, independent of the
+capacity for distinguishing light and shade. The most common form is
+inability to perceive red as a distinct color, red objects being
+confounded with gray or green; and next in frequency is the inability to
+perceive green.
+
+COLOR CONSTANTS.--The numbers which measure the quantities, as well as
+any other system of three numbers for defining colors, are called
+constants of color.
+
+COLOR VARIABLES.--Colors vary in CHROMA, or freedom from admixture of
+white light; in BRIGHTNESS, or luminosity; and in HUE, which roughly
+corresponds to the mean wave length of the light emitted.
+
+COLORS, COMPLEMENTARY.--Those pairs of color which when mixed produce
+white or gray light, such as red and green-blue, yellow and indigo-blue,
+green-yellow and violet.
+
+COLORS, PRIMARY.--The red, green, and violet light of the spectrum, from
+the mixture of which all other colors can be produced. Also called
+fundamental colors.
+
+DYESTUFFS.--In commerce, any dyewood, lichen, or dyecake used in dyeing
+and staining.
+
+ELECTRIC LIGHT.--Light produced by electricity and of two general kinds,
+the arc light and the incandescent light. In the first the voltaic arc
+is employed. In the second a resisting conductor is rendered
+incandescent by the current.
+
+ENAMEL.--In the fine arts a vitreous substance or glass, opaque or
+transparent, and variously colored, applied as a coating on a surface of
+metal or of porcelain.
+
+GRATING, DIFFRACTION.--A series of fine parallel lines on a surface of
+glass, or polished metal, ruled very close together, at the rate of
+10,000 to 20,000 or even 40,000 to the inch; distinctively called a
+diffraction or a diffraction grating, much used in spectroscopic work.
+
+GRAY.--A color having little or no distinctive hue (CHROMA) and only
+moderate luminosity.
+
+GREEN.--The color of ordinary foliage; the color seen in the solar
+spectrum between wave lengths 0.511 and 0.543 micron.
+
+EMERALD GREEN.--A highly chromatic and extraordinarily luminous green of
+the color of the spectrum at wave length 0.524 micron. It recalls the
+emerald by its brilliancy, but not by its tint; applied generally to the
+aceto-arsenate of copper. Usually known as Paris green.
+
+HIGH COLOR.--A hue which excites intensely chromatic color sensations.
+
++HUE.--Specifically and technically, distinctive quality of coloring in
+an object or on a surface; the respect in which red, yellow, green,
+blue, etc., differ one from another; that in which colors of equal
+luminosity and CHROMA may differ.+
+
+INDIGO.--The violet-blue color of the spectrum, extending, according to
+Helmholtz, from G two-thirds of the way to F in the prismatic spectrum.
+The name was introduced by Newton, but has lately been discarded by the
+best writers.
+
+LIGHT.--Adjective applied to colors highly luminous and more or less
+deficient in CHROMA.
+
+LUMINOSITY.--Specifically, the intensity of light in a color, measured
+photometrically; that is to say, a�standard light has its intensity, or
+_vis viva_, altered, until it produces the impression of being equally
+bright with the color whose light is to be determined; and the measure
+of the _vis viva_ of the altered light, relatively to its standard
+intensity, is then taken as the luminosity of the color in question.
+
+MAXWELL COLOR DISCS.--Discs having each a single color, and slit
+radially so that one may be made to lap over another to any desired
+extent. By rotating these on a spindle, the effect of combining certain
+colors in varying proportions can be studied.
+
+MICRON.--The millionth part of a metre, or 1/23400 of an English inch.
+The term has been formally adopted by the International Commission of
+Weights and Measures, representing the civilized nations of the world,
+and is adopted by all metrologists.
+
+ORANGE.--A reddish yellow color, of which the orange is the type.
+
+VISION, PERSISTENCE OF.--The continuance of a visual impression upon the
+retina of the eye after the exciting cause is removed. The length of
+time varies with the intensity of the light and the excitability of the
+retina, and ordinarily is brief, though the duration may be for hours,
+or even days. The after image may be either positive or negative, the
+latter when the bright part appears dark and the colored parts in their
+corresponding contrast colors. It is because of this persistence that,
+for example, a�firebrand moved very rapidly appears as a band or circle
+of light.
+
+PHOTOMETER.--An instrument used to measure the intensity of light.
+Specifically, to compare the relative intensities of the light emitted
+from various sources.
+
+PIGMENT.--Any substance that is or can be used by painters to impart
+color to bodies.
+
+PINK.--A red color of low chroma, but high luminosity, inclining toward
+purple.
+
+PRIMARY COLORS.--See Colors, primary.
+
+PURE COLOR.--A color produced by homogeneous light. Any very brilliant
+or decided color.
+
+PURPLE.--A color formed by the mixture of blue and red, including the
+violet of the spectrum above wave length 0.417, which is nearly a violet
+blue, and extending to, but not including, crimson.
+
+RAINBOW.--A bow or an arc of a circle, consisting of the prismatic
+colors, formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light
+from drops of rain or vapor, appearing in the part of the heavens
+opposite to the sun.
+
+RED.--A color more or less resembling that of blood, or the lower end of
+the spectrum. Red is one of the most general color names, and embraces
+colors ranging in hue from aniline to scarlet iodide of mercury and red
+lead. A�red yellower than vermilion is called scarlet. One much more
+crimson is called crimson red. A�very dark red, if pure or crimson, is
+called maroon; if brownish, chestnut or chocolate. A�pale red--that is,
+one of low CHROMA and high LUMINOSITY--is called a pink, ranging from
+rose pink or pale crimson to salmon pink or pale scarlet.
+
+VENETIAN RED.--An important pigment used by artists, somewhat darker
+than brick red in color, and very permanent.
+
+RETINA.--The innermost and chiefly nervous coat of the posterior part of
+the eyeball.
+
+SATURATION, OF COLORS.--In optics the degree of admixture with white,
+the saturation diminishing as the amount of white is increased. In other
+words, the highest degree of saturation belongs to a given color when in
+the state of greatest purity.
+
+SCALE.--A graded system, by reference to which the degree, intensity, or
+quality of a sense perception may be estimated.
+
+SHADE.--Degree or gradation of defective luminosity in a color, often
+used vaguely from the fact that paleness, or high luminosity, combined
+with defective CHROMA, is confounded with high luminosity by itself. See
+Color, Hue, and Tint.
+
+SPECTRUM.--In physics the continuous band of light showing the
+successive prismatic colors, or the isolated lines or bands of color,
+observed when the radiation from such a source as the sun or an ignited
+vapor in a gas flame is viewed after having been passed through a prism
+(prismatic spectrum) or reflected from a diffraction grating
+(diffraction or interference spectrum). See Rainbow.
+
+TINT.--A variety of color; especially and properly, a�luminous variety
+of low CHROMA; also, abstractly, the respect in which a color may be
+raised by more or less admixture of white, which at once increases the
+luminosity and diminishes the CHROMA.
+
+TONE.--A sound having definiteness and continuity enough so that its
+pitch, force, and quality may be readily estimated by the ear. Musical
+sound opposed to noise. The prevailing effect of a color.
+
+ULTRAMARINE.--A beautiful natural blue pigment, obtained from the
+mineral lapis-lazuli.
+
++VALUE.--In painting and the allied arts, relation of one object, part,
+or atmospheric plane of a picture to the others, with reference to light
+and shade, the idea of HUE being abstracted.+
+
+VERMILION.--The red sulphate of mercury.
+
+VIOLET.--A general class of colors, of which the violet flower is a
+highly chromatic example. The sensation is produced by a pure blue whose
+CHROMA has been diminished while its LUMINOSITY has been increased. Thus
+blue and violet are the same color, though the sensations are different.
+A�mere increase of illumination may cause a violet blue to appear
+violet, with a diminution of apparent CHROMA. This color, called violet
+or blue according to the quality of the sensation it excites, is one of
+the three fundamental colors of Young's theory. A�deep blue tinged with
+red.
+
+VIRIDIAN.--Same as Veronese green.
+
+WHITE.--A color transmitting, and so reflecting to the eye, all the rays
+of the spectrum, combined in the same proportion as in the impinging
+light.
+
+YELLOW.--The color of gold and of light, of wave length 0.581 micron.
+The name is restricted to highly chromatic and luminous colors. When
+reduced in CHROMA, it becomes buff; when reduced in LUMINOSITY, a�cool
+brown. See Brown.
+
+VERONESE GREEN.--A pigment consisting of hydrated chromium sesquioxide.
+It is a clear bluish green of great permanency. Also called Viridian.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX BY PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+  Balance of color, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86, 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+      136, 142, 147, Appendix III.
+  Black, 12, 16, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 91, 119.
+  Blue, 9, 12, 16, 34, 104, 146, 147.
+  Brewster's theory, Appendix III.
+
+  Charts of the color sphere, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+  Chevreul, Appendix III., V.
+  Chroma, 3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 21-24, 28, 39, 40, 42, 45, 64, 76, 78, 82,
+      88, 94, 95, 105, 121, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31-35, 42, 133.
+    Strongest, 32, 34, 42.
+  Chromatic tuning fork, 117, 118, 119-127.
+  Circuit, inclined, 16, 17, 97.
+  Color, apparatus, 3, 8, 14, 132.
+    Atlas, 129.
+    Balance, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86 (triple), 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+        136, 142, 147.
+    Blindness, 182, 183.
+    Charts, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+    Circuit, 54, 58, 59.
+    Complementary, 76, 77.
+    Color, dimensions of, 3, 8, 9, 13, 25, 53, 94, 116.
+    Curves, 94.
+    Discs, Maxwell's, 76, 93, 106-112, 113, 117.
+    Harmony, 47, 77, 86, 145-148, 151-174, 180.
+    Hand as a holder of, 54-58.
+    Key of, 6, 151, 152.
+    Language, poverty of, 5, 175.
+    Lists, 131.
+    Measured, 3, 14, 32.
+    Meridians, 136, 137.
+    Middle, 28, 29, 40-42, 113.
+    Misnomers, Appendix I.
+    Mixture, 56-72.
+    Names, 1, 2, 14, 19, 25, 90, 91, 131.
+    Notation, 36, 37, 40-42, 47, 67, 72, 86, 101, 133.
+    Orange, 9-11, 89, 123.
+    Parallels, 12, 119.
+    Paths, 157, 158, 160-164.
+    Perception, 27, 29, 39, 179.
+    Principal (5), 4, 16, 21, 26, 31, 34, 40, 54, 56,�57.
+    Principal (5) and intermediates (5), 31, 60, 68, 112, 134.
+    Purity, 8, 19, 23, 89, 98, 99.
+    Records 145.
+    Relations, 14, 24, 36, 37, 153.
+    Rhythm, 166.
+    Scale, 3, 7, 24, 30, 55, 120, 140, Appendix�II.
+    Score, 133-139, 142, 173.
+    Sensations, 3, 4, 15, 19, 21, 87.
+    Sequences, 47, 78, 79, 120, 156, 169-171, 181.
+    Sir Isaac Newton's, 89.
+    Schemes, Appendix V.
+    Solid, 14, 19, 102, 126, 129, 140, 153.
+    Spectral, 16, 88, 94, 129.
+    Sphere, 12-17, 24, 25, 31, 43, 55, 72, 91, 101, 102, 111, 122, 132.
+    Standard, 4, 26, 35.
+    System, 3, 8, 28, 123, 130.
+      Need of, 46, 148.
+    Tree, 14, 30-34, 43, 94, 95, 124.
+    Waves, 21, 23, 136.
+    Tones, 134.
+  Children's color studies, Appendix IV.
+  Colorist, 84, 121, 177.
+  Coloristic art, 7, 38, 45, 177.
+  Combined scales, 12, 14, 36, 37, 47.
+  Complements, 76, 77.
+  Course of color study, 48-50.
+
+  Daylight photometer, 22, 103, 119.
+
+  Enamels, 28, 29, 101, 117.
+
+  Fading, 8, 23.
+  False color balance, Appendix III.
+  Flat diagrams, 14.
+  Fundamental sensations, 28, Appendix III.
+
+  Green, 2, 32, 104, 136, 137, 140, 147, 148.
+
+  Hue, 3, 4, 8, 9-11, 14, 18, 21-26, 34, 39, 40, 43, 54, 59, 76, 82,
+      89, 105.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 35, 120, 133.
+
+  Ideal color system, 100.
+
+  Lambert's pyramid, note to 31.
+  Luminist, 121.
+
+  Masks, 47, 167-171.
+  Maxwell discs, 93, 107, 113, 117.
+  Measurement of colors, 3, 8, 14, 116, Appendix�IV.
+  Middle gray, 61, 65, 72.
+  Middle hues, 10, 28, 65.
+  Mixture of hues, 56-72.
+  Musical terms used for colors, 6, 46, 148-150.
+
+  Neutral axis, 31, 34, 61, 65, 121.
+  Neutral gray, 11, 23, 25, 62, 64, 65, 72, 114, 102.
+  Notation diagram, 140.
+
+  Orange, 9-11, 18, 123.
+
+  Personal bias, 144, 174.
+  Pigments, 14, 27-29, 101-104, 125, 129.
+  Photometer, 65.
+  Primary sensations, 89.
+  Prismatic color sphere, 98.
+  Purple, 5.
+
+  Rainbow, 15, 17.
+  Red, middle, 1, 32, 41, 60, 66, 72, 104, 110, 122, 147, 148.
+  Retina, 21.
+  Rood, modern chromatics, Appendix I.
+  Runge, note to 31, Appendix V.
+
+  Shades and tints, 22.
+  Spectrum, solar, 15-18, 27, 28, 87, 88, 92, 95,�96.
+
+  Tone, 6.
+
+  Value, 3, 8-11, 14, 21-24, 28, 34, 39, 40-43, 54, 76, 78, 82, 94,
+      105, 120, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 34, 35, 64, 102, 120, 133.
+  Vermilion, 42, Appendix III.
+  Vertical (neutral) axis, 12, 25, 31, 34, 65,�68.
+  Violet, 90.
+
+  Warm and cold colors, 72, 123, note to 136, 137, 138.
+  Wave lengths, 21, 22, 23, 89.
+  White, 12, 16, 17, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 87, 91, 92, 99, 119.
+
+  Yellow, 1, 32, 54, 104, 136.
+
+
+
+
+The MUNSELL PHOTOMETER
+
+  Patented November 19, 1901
+
+
+  A portable, daylight instrument, adapted to laboratory work
+    in general, and of especial service in the comparison
+      of color values. Placed in the course
+        of Optical Measurements at the
+          Massachusetts Institute of
+            Technology
+
+  Price, $50
+
+
+  [Decoration]
+
+
+  IN PREPARATION
+
+  A COLOR ATLAS
+
+  Also text-books and models
+      specially designed
+  to serve in the education of
+      the color sense
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Color Notation
+       A measured color system, based on the three qualities Hue,
+              Value and Chroma
+
+Author: Albert H. Munsell
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2008 [EBook #26054]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COLOR NOTATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, K.D. Thornton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+This text uses utf-8 (unicode) file encoding. If the apostrophes and
+quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change your browser’s default font.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "frontis" id = "frontis"> </a>
+<img src = "images/frontis.jpg" width = "398" height = "438"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">A BALANCED COLOR SPHERE<br>
+<span class = "smallroman">PASTEL SKETCH</span></p>
+
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<h1>A COLOR NOTATION</h1>
+
+<p class = "center"><i>By</i></p>
+
+<p class = "center extended">A. H. MUNSELL</p>
+
+<div class = "box">
+<p>A MEASURED COLOR<br>
+SYSTEM, BASED ON THE<br>
+THREE QUALITIES<br>
+<i>Hue, Value, and Chroma</i></p>
+
+<p class = "center smallroman">WITH</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">
+Illustrative Models, Charts,<br>
+and a Course of Study<br>
+Arranged for Teachers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">
+<i>2nd Edition<br>
+Revised &amp;<br>
+Enlarged</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<span class = "smallcaps smaller">Geo. H. Ellis Co.<br>
+BOSTON<br>
+1907</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<p class = "center smallcaps">Copyright, 1905<br>
+by<br>
+A. H. Munsell</p>
+
+<hr class = "micro">
+
+<p class = "center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "center smallcaps">Entered at Stationers’ Hall</p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<div class = "intro">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">3</span>
+<h3>AUTHOR’S PREFACE.</h3>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<p>At various times during the past ten years, the gist of these pages
+has been given in the form of lectures to students of the Normal Art
+School, the Art Teachers’ Association, and the Twentieth Century Club.
+In October of last year it was presented before the Society of Arts of
+the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the suggestion of
+Professor Charles R. Cross.</p>
+
+<p>Grateful acknowledgment is due to many whose helpful criticism has
+aided in its development, notably Mr. Benjamin Ives Gilman, Secretary of
+the Museum of Fine Arts, Professor Harry E. Clifford, of the Institute,
+and Mr. Myron T. Pritchard, master of the Everett School, Boston.</p>
+
+<p class = "right smallroman">A. H. M.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps smaller">Chestnut Hill, Mass., 1905.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.</h3>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<p>The new illustrations in this edition are facsimiles of children’s
+studies with measured color, made under ordinary school-room conditions.
+Notes and appendices are introduced to meet the questions most
+frequently asked, stress being laid on the unbalanced nature of colors
+usually given to beginners, and the mischief done by teaching that red,
+yellow, and blue are primary hues.</p>
+
+<p>The need of a scientific basis for color values is also emphasized,
+believing this to be essential in the discipline of the color sense.</p>
+
+<p class = "right smallroman">A. H. M.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps smaller">Chestnut Hill, Mass., 1907.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">4</span>
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<p>The lack of definiteness which is at present so general in color
+nomenclature, is due in large measure to the failure to appreciate the
+fundamental characteristics on which color differences depend. For the
+physicist, the expression of the wave length of any particular light is
+in most cases sufficient, but in the great majority of instances where
+colors are referred to, something more than this and something easier of
+realization is essential.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to express color relations by using merely two
+dimensions, or two definite characteristics, can never lead to a
+successful system. For this reason alone the system proposed by Mr.
+Munsell, with its three dimensions of hue, value, and chroma, is a
+decided step in advance over any previous proposition. By means of these
+three dimensions it is possible to completely express any particular
+color, and to differentiate it from colors ordinarily classed as of the
+same general character.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of the essential characteristics of a color is,
+however, not all that is necessary. There must be some accurate and not
+too complicated system for duplicating these characteristics, one which
+shall not alter with time or place, and which shall be susceptible of
+easy and accurate redetermination. From the teaching standpoint also a
+logical and sequential development is absolutely essential. This Mr.
+Munsell seems to have most successfully accomplished.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">5</span>
+<p>In the determination of his relationships he has made use of
+distinctly scientific methods, and there seems no reason why his
+suggestions should not lead to an exact and definite system of color
+essentials. The Munsell photometer, which is briefly referred to, is an
+instrument of wide range, high precision, and great sensitiveness, and
+permits the valuations which are necessary in his system to be
+accurately made. We all appreciate the necessity for some improvement in
+our ideas of color, and the natural inference is that the training
+should be begun in early youth. The present system in its modified form
+possesses elements of simplicity and attractiveness which should appeal
+to children, and give them almost unconsciously a power of
+discrimination which would prove of immense value in later life. The
+possibilities in this system are very great, and it has been a privilege
+to be allowed during the past few years to keep in touch with its
+development. I&nbsp;cannot but feel that we have here not only a
+rational color nomenclature, but also a system of scientific importance
+and of practical value.</p>
+
+<p class = "right smallcaps">H. E. Clifford.</p>
+
+<p class = "leftside smaller">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Massachusetts Institute of
+Technology</span>,<br>
+February, 1905.</p>
+
+<!-- page 6 blank -->
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">7</span>
+<h3><a name = "contents" id = "contents">CONTENTS.</a></h3>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "table of contents">
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">
+Introduction by Professor Clifford.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">
+Part I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Chapter</span></td>
+<td class = "number" colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Paragraph</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapI">I.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">COLOR NAMES: red, yellow, green,
+blue, purple</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td></td><td width = "15%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td><a href = "#appI">Appendix I.</a>&mdash;Misnomers for Color.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapII">II.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">COLOR QUALITIES: hue, value,
+chroma</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td><a href = "#appII">Appendix II.</a>&mdash;Scales of Hue, Value, and
+Chroma.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapIII">III.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">COLOR MIXTURE: a tri-dimensional
+balance</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td><a href = "#appIII">Appendix III.</a>&mdash;False Color
+Balance.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapIV">IV.</a></td>
+<td colspan = "2">PRISMATIC COLORS</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td><a href = "#appIV">Appendix IV.</a>&mdash;Children’s Color
+Studies.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapV">V.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">THE PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE: true
+color balance</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para102">102</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td><a href = "#appV">Appendix V.</a>&mdash;Schemes based on Brewster’s
+Theory.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapVI">VI.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">COLOR NOTATION: a written color
+system</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para132">132</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#chapVII">VII.</a></td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">COLOR HARMONY: a measured
+relation</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#para146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">
+&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;<br>Part II.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+<a href = "#course">A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY<br>
+BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+Arranged for nine years of school life.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+<a href = "#glossary">GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+Taken from the Century Dictionary.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "main">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+<a href = "#index">INDEX</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "appendix">
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+(by paragraphs).</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<!-- page 8 blank -->
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">9</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapI" id = "chapI">
+Chapter I.</a><br>
+COLOR NAMES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Writing from Samoa to Sidney Colvin in London, Stevenson<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = "#note1">1</a> says: “Perhaps in
+the same way it might amuse you to send us any pattern of wall paper
+that might strike you as cheap, pretty, and suitable for a room in a hot
+and extremely bright climate. It should be borne in mind that our
+climate can be extremely dark, too. Our sitting-room is to be in
+varnished wood. The room I have particularly in mind is a sort of bed
+and sitting room, pretty large, lit on three sides, and the colour in
+favour of its proprietor at present is a topazy yellow. But then with
+what colour to relieve it? For a little work-room of my own at the back
+I should rather like to see some patterns of unglossy&mdash;well, I’ll
+be hanged if I can describe this red. It’s not Turkish, and it’s not
+Roman, and it’s not Indian; but it seems to partake of the last two, and
+yet it can’t be either of them, because it ought to be able to go with
+vermilion. Ah, what a tangled web we weave! Anyway, with what brains you
+have left choose me and send me some&mdash;many&mdash;patterns of the
+exact shade.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para1" id = "para1">(1)</a>
+Where could be found a more delightful cry for some rational way to
+describe color? He wants “a topazy yellow” and a red that is not Turkish
+nor Roman nor Indian, but that “seems to partake of the last two, and
+yet it can’t be either of them.” As a cap to the climax comes his demand
+for “patterns of the exact shade.” Thus one of the clearest and most
+forceful writers of
+<span class = "pagenum">10</span>
+English finds himself unable to describe the color he wants. And why?
+Simply because popular language does not clearly state a single one of
+the three qualities united in every color, and which must be known
+before one may even hope to convey his color conceptions to another.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para2" id = "para2">(2)</a>
+The incongruous and bizarre nature of our present color names must
+appear to any thoughtful person. Baby blue, peacock blue, Nile green,
+apple green, lemon yellow, straw yellow, rose pink, heliotrope, royal
+purple, Magenta, Solferino, plum, and automobile are popular terms,
+conveying different ideas to different persons and utterly failing to
+define colors. The terms used for a single hue, such as pea green, sea
+green, olive green, grass green, sage green, evergreen, invisible green,
+are not to be trusted in ordering a piece of cloth. They invite mistakes
+and disappointment. Not only are they inaccurate: they are
+inappropriate. Can we imagine musical tones called lark, canary,
+cockatoo, crow, cat, dog, or mouse, because they bear some distant
+resemblance to the cries of those animals? See paragraph <a href =
+"#para131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<h5>Color needs a system.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para3" id = "para3">(3)</a>
+Music is equipped with a system by which it defines each sound in terms
+of its pitch, intensify, and duration, without dragging in loose
+allusions to the endlessly varying sounds of nature. So should color be
+supplied with an appropriate system, based on the hue, value, and
+chroma<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = "#note2">2</a>
+of our sensations, and not attempting to describe them by the indefinite
+and varying colors of natural objects. The system now to be considered
+portrays the three dimensions of color, and measures each by an
+appropriate scale. It does not rest upon the whim of an individual, but
+upon physical measurements made possible by special color
+<span class = "pagenum">11</span>
+apparatus. The results may be tested by any one who comes to the problem
+with “a clear mind, a&nbsp;good eye, and a fair supply of patience.”</p>
+
+<h5>Clear mental images make clear speech. Vague thoughts find vague
+utterance.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para4" id = "para4">(4)</a>
+The child gathers flowers, hoards colored beads, chases butterflies, and
+begs for the gaudiest painted toys. At first his strong color sensations
+are sufficiently described by the simple terms of red, yellow, green,
+blue, and purple. But he soon sees that some are light, while others are
+dark, and later comes to perceive that each hue has many grayer degrees.
+Now, if he wants to describe a particular red,&mdash;such as that of his
+faded cap,&mdash;he is not content to merely call it red, since he is
+aware of other red objects which are very unlike it. So he gropes for
+means to define this particular red; and, having no standard of
+comparison,&mdash;no scale by which to estimate,&mdash;he hesitatingly
+says it is a “sort of dull red.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para5" id = "para5">(5)</a>
+Thus early is he cramped by the poverty of color language. He has never
+been given an appropriate word for this color quality, and has to borrow
+one signifying the opposite of sharp, which belongs to edge tools rather
+than to colors.</p>
+
+<h5>Most color terms are borrowed from other senses.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para6" id = "para6">(6)</a>
+When his older sister refers to the “tone” of her green dress, or speaks
+of the “key of color” in a picture, he is naturally confused, because
+tone and key are terms associated in his mind with music. It may not be
+long before he will hear that “a color note has been pitched too high,”
+or that a certain artist “paints in a minor key.” All these terms lead
+to mixed and indefinite ideas, and leave him unequipped for the clear
+expression of color qualities.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para7" id = "para7">(7)</a>
+Musical art is not so handicapped. It has an established
+<span class = "pagenum">12</span>
+scale with measured intervals and definite terms. Likewise, coloristic
+art must establish a scale, measure its intervals, and name its
+qualities in unmistakable fashion.</p>
+
+<h5>Color has three dimensions.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para8" id = "para8">(8)</a>
+It may sound strange to say that color has three dimensions, but it is
+easily proved by the fact that each of them can be measured. Thus in the
+case of the boy’s faded cap its redness or <span class =
+"smallroman">HUE</span><a class = "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href =
+"#note3">3</a> is determined by one instrument; the amount of light in
+the red, which is its <span class = "smallroman">VALUE</span>,<a class =
+"tag" href = "#note3">3</a> is found by another instrument; while still
+a third instrument determines the purity or <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span><a class = "tag" href = "#note3">3</a> of the
+red.</p>
+
+<p>The omission of any one of these three qualities leaves us in doubt
+as to the character of a color, just as truly as the character of this
+studio would remain undefined if the length were omitted and we
+described it as 22 feet wide by 14 feet high. The imagination would be
+free to ascribe any length it chose, from 25 to 100 feet. This length
+might be differently conceived by every individual who tried to supply
+the missing factor.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para9" id = "para9">(9)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4" href = "images/fig4_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig4.png" width = "120" height = "93"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+To illustrate the tri-dimensional nature of colors. Suppose we peel an
+orange and divide it in five parts, leaving the sections slightly
+connected below (Fig.&nbsp;4). Then let us say that all the reds we have
+ever seen are gathered in one of the sections, all yellows in another,
+all greens in the third, blues in the fourth, and purples in the fifth.
+Next we will assort these <span class = "smallroman">HUES</span> in each
+section so that the lightest are near the top, and grade regularly to
+the darkest near the bottom. A&nbsp;white wafer connects all the
+sections at the top, and a black wafer may be added beneath. See <a href
+= "#plateI">Plate&nbsp;I</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">13</span>
+<p><a name = "para10" id = "para10">(10)</a>
+The fruit is then filled with assorted colors, graded from white to
+black, according to their <span class = "smallroman">VALUES</span>, and
+disposed by their <span class = "smallroman">HUES</span> in the five
+sections. A&nbsp;slice near the top will uncover light values in all
+hues, and a slice near the bottom will find dark values in the same
+hues. A&nbsp;slice across the middle discloses a circuit of hues all of
+<span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE VALUE</span>; that is, midway between
+the extremes of white and black.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para11" id = "para11">(11)</a>
+Two color dimensions are thus shown in the orange, and it remains to
+exhibit the third, which is called <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>, or strength of color. To do this, we have
+only to take each section in turn, and, without disturbing the values
+already assorted, shove the grayest in toward the narrow edge, and grade
+outward to the purest on the surface. Each slice across the fruit still
+shows the circuit of hues in one uniform value; but the strong chromas
+are at the outside, while grayer and grayer chromas make a gradation
+inward to neutral gray at the centre, where all trace of color
+disappears. The thin edges of all sections unite in a scale of gray from
+black to white, no matter what hue each contains.</p>
+
+<p>The curved outside of each section shows its particular hue graded
+from black to white; and, should the section be cut at right angles to
+the thin edge, it would show the third
+dimension,&mdash;chroma,&mdash;for the color is graded evenly from the
+surface to neutral gray. A&nbsp;pin stuck in at any point traces the
+third dimension.</p>
+
+
+<h5>A color sphere can be used to unite the three dimensions of hue,
+value, and chroma.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para12" id = "para12">(12)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5" href = "images/fig5_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig5.png" width = "103" height = "104"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Having used the familiar structure of the orange as a help in
+classifying colors, let us substitute a geometric solid, like a
+sphere,<a class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = "tag4" href = "#note4">4</a>
+and make use of geographical terms. The north pole is white. The south
+pole is black.
+<span class = "pagenum">14</span>
+The equator is a circuit of middle reds, yellows, greens, blues, and
+purples. Parallels above the equator describe this circuit in lighter
+values, and parallels below trace it in darker values. The vertical axis
+joining black and white is a neutral scale of gray values, while
+perpendiculars to it (like a pin thrust into the orange) are scales of
+chroma. Thus our color notions may be brought into an orderly relation
+by the color sphere. Any color describes its light and strength by its
+location in the solid or on the surface, and is named by its place in
+the combined scales of hue, value, and chroma.</p>
+
+<h5>Two dimensions fail to describe a color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para13" id = "para13">(13)</a>
+Much of the popular misunderstanding of color is caused by ignorance of
+these three dimensions or by an attempt to make two dimensions do the
+work of three.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para14" id = "para14">(14)</a>
+Flat diagrams showing hues and values, but omitting to define chromas,
+are as incomplete as would be a map of Switzerland with the mountains
+left out, or a harbor chart without indications of the depth of water.
+We find by aid of the measuring instruments that pigments are very
+unequal in this third dimension,&mdash;chroma,&mdash;producing mountains
+and valleys on the color sphere, so that, when the color system is
+worked out in pigments and charted, some colors must be traced well out
+beyond the spherical surface (paragraphs <a href =
+"#para125">125&ndash;127</a>). Indeed, a&nbsp;<span class =
+"smallroman">COLOR TREE</span><a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5"
+href = "#note5">5</a> is needed to display by the unequal levels and
+lengths of its branches the individuality of pigment colors. But,
+whatever solid or figure is used to illustrate color relations, it must
+combine the three scales of hue, value, and chroma, and these definite
+scales furnish a name for every color based upon its intrinsic
+qualities, and free from terms purloined in other sensations, or caught
+from the fluctuating colors of natural objects.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">15</span>
+<h5>How this system describes the spectrum.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para15" id = "para15">(15)</a>
+The solar spectrum and rainbow are the most stimulating color
+experiences with which we are acquainted. Can they be described by this
+solid system?</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para16" id = "para16">(16)</a>
+The lightest part of the spectrum is a narrow field of greenish yellow,
+grading into darker red on one side and into darker green upon the
+other, followed by still darker blue and purple. Upon the sphere the
+values of these spectral colors trace a path high up on the yellow
+section, near white, and slanting downward across the red and green
+sections, which are traversed near the level of the equator, it goes on
+to cross the blue and purple well down toward black.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para17" id = "para17">(17)</a>
+This forms an inclined circuit, crossing the equator at opposite points,
+and suggests the ecliptic or the rings of Saturn (see outside cover).
+A&nbsp;pale rainbow would describe a slanting circuit nearer white, and
+a dimmer one would fall within the sphere, while an intensely brilliant
+spectrum projects far beyond the surface of the sphere, so greatly is
+the chroma of its hues in excess of the common pigments with which we
+work out our problems.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para18" id = "para18">(18)</a>
+At the outset it is well to recognize the place of the spectrum in this
+system, not only because it is the established basis of scientific
+study, but especially because the invariable order assumed by its hues
+is the only stable hint which Nature affords us in her infinite color
+play.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para19" id = "para19">(19)</a>
+All our color sensations are included in the color solid. None are left
+out by its scales of hue, value, and chroma. Indeed, the imagination is
+led to conceive and locate still purer colors than any we now possess.
+Such increased degrees of color sensation can be named, and clearly
+conveyed by symbols to another person as soon as the system is
+comprehended.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a>
+Vailima Letters, Oct. 8, 1902.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a>
+See color variables in Glossary.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a>
+For definitions of Hue, Value, and Chroma, see paragraphs <a href =
+"#para20">20&ndash;23</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a>
+See <a href = "#frontis">frontispiece</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a>
+For description of the Color Tree see paragraphs <a href = "#para33">33
+and&nbsp;34</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">16</span>
+<h4><a name = "appI" id = "appI">
+Appendix to Chapter I.</a></h4>
+
+<h5>Misnomers for Color.</h5>
+
+<p>The Century Dictionary helps an intelligent study of color by its
+clear definitions and cross-references to <span class =
+"smallroman">HUE</span>, <span class = "smallroman">VALUE</span>, and
+<span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span>,&mdash;leaving no excuse for
+those who would confuse these three qualities or treat a degree of any
+quality as the quality itself.</p>
+
+<p>Obscure statements were frequent in text-books before these new
+definitions appeared. Thus the term “shade” should be applied only to
+darkened values, and not to hues or chromas. Yet one writer says, “This
+yellow shades into green,” which is certainly a change of hue, and then
+speaks of “a brighter shade” in spite of his evident intention to
+suggest a stronger chroma, which is neither a shade nor brighter
+luminosity.</p>
+
+<p>Children gain wrong notions of “tint and shade” from the so-called
+standard colors shown to them, which present “tints” of red and blue
+much darker than the “shades” of yellow. This is bewildering, and, like
+their elders, they soon drop into the loose habit of calling any degree
+of color-strength or color-light a “shade.” <i>Value</i> is a better
+term to describe the light which color reflects to the eye, and all
+color values, light or dark, are measured by the <i>value-scale</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“Tone” is used in a confusing way to mean different things. Thus in
+the same sentence we see it refers to a single touch of the
+brush,&mdash;which is not a tone, but a paint spot,&mdash;and then we
+<span class = "pagenum">17</span>
+read that the “tone of the canvas is golden.” This cannot mean that each
+paint spot is the color of gold, but is intended to suggest that the
+various objects depicted seem enveloped in a yellow atmosphere. Tone is,
+in fact, a&nbsp;musical term appropriate to sound, but out of place in
+color. It seems better to call the brush touch a <i>color-spot</i>: then
+the result of an harmonious relation between all the spots is
+<i>color-envelope</i>, or, as in Rood, “the chromatic composition.”</p>
+
+<p>“Intensity” is a misleading term, if chroma be intended, for it
+depends on the relative light of spectral hues. It is a degree rather
+than a quality, as appears in the expressions, intense heat, light,
+sound,&mdash;intensity of stimulus and reaction. Being a degree of many
+qualities, it should not be used to describe the quality itself. The
+word becomes especially unfit when used to describe two very different
+phases of a color,&mdash;as its intense illumination, where the chroma
+is greatly weakened, and the strongest chroma which is found in a much
+lower value. “Purity” is also to be avoided in speaking of pigments, for
+not one of our pigments represents a single pure ray of the
+spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>Examples are constantly found of the mental blur caused by such
+unfortunate terms, and, since misunderstanding becomes impossible with
+measured degrees of hue, value, and chroma, it seems only a question of
+time when they will take the place of tint, tone, shade, purity and
+intensity.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">18</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapII" id = "chapII">
+Chapter II.</a><br>
+COLOR QUALITIES.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name = "para20" id = "para20">(20)</a>
+The three color qualities are hue, value, and chroma.</p>
+
+<h5>HUE is the name of a color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para21" id = "para21">(21)</a>
+Hue is the quality by which we distinguish one color from another, as a
+red from a yellow, a&nbsp;green, a&nbsp;blue, or a purple. This names
+the hue, but does not tell whether it is light or dark, weak or
+strong,&mdash;leaving us in doubt as to its value and its chroma.</p>
+
+<p>Science attributes this quality to difference in the LENGTH of ether
+waves impinging on the retina, which causes the sensation of color. The
+wave length M. 5269 gives a sensation of green, while M. 6867 gives a
+sensation of red.<a class = "tag" name = "tag6" id = "tag6" href =
+"#note6">6</a></p>
+
+<h5>VALUE is the light of a color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para22" id = "para22">(22)</a>
+Value is the quality by which we distinguish a light color from a dark
+one. Color values are loosely called tints and shades, but the terms are
+frequently misapplied. A&nbsp;tint should be a light value, and a shade
+should be darker; but the word “shade” has become a general term for any
+sort of color, so that a shade of yellow may prove to be lighter than a
+tint of blue. A&nbsp;photometric<a class = "tag" name = "tag7" id =
+"tag7" href = "#note7">7</a> scale of value places all colors in
+relation to the extremes of white and black, but cannot describe their
+hue or their chroma.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">19</span>
+<p>Science describes this quality as due to difference in the <span
+class = "smallroman">HEIGHT</span> or amplitude of ether waves impinging
+on the retina. Small amplitudes of the wave lengths given in paragraph
+<a href = "#para21">21</a> produce the sensation of dark green and dark
+red: larger amplitudes give the sensation of lighter green and lighter
+red.</p>
+
+<h5>CHROMA is the strength of a color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para23" id = "para23">(23)</a>
+Chroma is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a weak
+one. To say that a rug is strong in color gives no hint of its hues or
+values, only its chromas. Loss of chroma is loosely called fading, but
+this word is frequently used to include changes of value and hue. Take
+two autumn leaves, identical in color, and expose one to the weather,
+while the other is waxed and pressed in a book. Soon the exposed leaf
+fades into a neutral gray, while the protected one preserves its strong
+chroma almost intact. If, in fading, the leaf does not change its hue or
+its value, there is only a loss of chroma, but the fading process is
+more likely to induce some change of the other two qualities. Fading,
+however, cannot define these changes.</p>
+
+<p>Science describes chroma as the purity of one wave length separated
+from all others. Other wave lengths, <span class =
+"smallroman">INTERMINGLING</span>, make its chroma less pure.
+A&nbsp;beam of daylight can combine all wave lengths in such balance as
+to give the sensation of whiteness, because no single wave is in
+excess.<a class = "tag" name = "tag8" id = "tag8" href =
+"#note8">8</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para24" id = "para24">(24)</a>
+The color sphere (see Fig. 1) is a convenient model to illustrate these
+three qualities,&mdash;hue, value, and chroma,&mdash;and unite them by
+measured scales.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para25" id = "para25">(25)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1" href = "images/fig1_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig1.png" width = "109" height = "105"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The north pole of the color sphere is white, and the south pole black.
+Value or luminosity of colors ranges between these two extremes. This is
+the vertical scale, to be memorized as <i>V</i>,
+<span class = "pagenum">20</span>
+the initial for both value and vertical. Vertical movement through color
+may thus be thought of as a change of value, but not as a change of hue
+or of chroma. Hues of color are spread around the equator of the sphere.
+This is a horizontal scale, memorized as <i>H</i>, the initial for both
+hue and horizontal. Horizontal movement around the color solid is thus
+thought of as a change of hue, but not of value or of chroma.
+A&nbsp;line inward from the strong surface hues to the neutral gray
+axis, traces the graying of each color, which is loss of chroma, and
+conversely a line beginning with neutral gray at the vertical axis, and
+becoming more and more colored until it passes outside the sphere, is a
+scale of chroma, which is memorized as <i>C</i>, the initial both for
+chroma and centre. Thus the sphere lends its three dimensions to color
+description, and a color applied anywhere within, without, or on its
+surface is located and named by its degree of hue, of value, and of
+chroma.</p>
+
+
+<h5>HUES first appeal to the child, VALUES next, and CHROMAS last.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para26" id = "para26">(26)</a>
+Color education begins with ability to recognize and name certain hues,
+such as red, yellow, green, blue, and purple (see paragraphs <a href =
+"#para182">182 and 183</a>). Nature presents these hues in union with
+such varieties of value and chroma that, unless there be some standard
+of comparison, it is impossible for one person to describe them
+intelligently to another.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para27" id = "para27">(27)</a>
+The solar spectrum forms a basis for scientific color analysis, taught
+in technical schools; but it is quite beyond the comprehension of a
+child. He needs something more tangible and constantly in view to train
+his color notions. He needs to handle colors, place them side by side
+for comparison, imitate them with
+<span class = "pagenum">21</span>
+crayons, paints, and colored stuffs, so as to test the growth of
+perception, and learn by simple yet accurate terms to describe each by
+its hue, its value, and its chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para28" id = "para28">(28)</a>
+Pigments, rather than the solar spectrum, are the practical agents of
+color work. Certain of them, selected and measured by this system (see
+<a href = "#chapV">Chapter V.</a>), will be known as <span class =
+"smallroman">MIDDLE COLORS</span>, because they stand midway in the
+scales of value and chroma. These middle colors are preserved in
+imperishable enamels,<a class = "tag" name = "tag9" id = "tag9" href =
+"#note9">9</a> so that the child may handle and fix them in his memory,
+and thus gain a permanent basis for comparing all degrees of color. He
+learns to grade each middle color to its extremes of value and
+chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para29" id = "para29">(29)</a>
+Experiments with crayons and paints, and efforts to match middle colors,
+train his color sense to finer perceptions. Having learned to name
+colors, he compares them with the enamels of middle value, and can
+describe how light or dark they are. Later he perceives their
+differences of strength, and, comparing them with the enamels of middle
+chroma, can describe how weak or strong they are. Thus the full
+significance of these middle colors as a practical basis for all color
+estimates becomes apparent; and, when at a more advanced stage he
+studies the best examples of decorative color, he will again encounter
+them in the most beautiful products of Oriental art.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">22</span>
+<h5>Is it possible to define the endless varieties of color?</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para30" id = "para30">(30)</a>
+At first glance it would seem almost hopeless to attempt the naming of
+every kind and degree of color. But, if all these varieties possess the
+same three qualities, only in different degrees, and if each quality can
+be measured by a scale, then there is a clue to this labyrinth.</p>
+
+<h5>A COLOR SPHERE and COLOR TREE to unite hue, value, and chroma.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para31" id = "para31">(31)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3" href = "images/fig3_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig3.png" width = "103" height = "102"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+This clue is found in the union of these three qualities by measured
+scales in a <i>color sphere and color tree</i>.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag10" id = "tag10" href = "#note10">10</a> The equator of the sphere<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag11" id = "tag11" href = "#note11">11</a> may be
+divided into ten parts, and serve as the scale of hue, marked&nbsp;R,
+YR,&nbsp;Y, GY,&nbsp;G, BG,&nbsp;B, PB, P, and RP. Its vertical axis may
+be divided into ten parts to serve as the scale of value, numbered from
+black (0) to white (10). Any perpendicular to the neutral axis is a
+scale of chroma. On the plane of the equator this scale is numbered 1,
+2, 3, 4, 5, from the centre to the surface.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name = "para32" id = "para32">(32)</a>
+This chroma scale may be raised or lowered to any level of value, always
+remaining perpendicular to the axis, and serving to measure the chroma
+of every hue at every level of value. The fact that some colors exceed
+others to such an extent as to carry them out beyond the sphere is
+proved by measuring instruments,
+<span class = "pagenum">23</span>
+but the fact is a new one to many persons. (Figs. 2 and&nbsp;3.)</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2" href = "images/fig2_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig2.png" width = "352" height = "241"
+alt = "Figure 2. (See Figure 20) The Color Tree"
+title = "Figure 2. (See Figure 20) The Color Tree"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para33" id = "para33">(33)</a>
+For this reason the <span class = "smallroman">COLOR TREE</span> is a
+completer model than the sphere, although the simplicity of the latter
+makes it best for a child’s comprehension.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para34" id = "para34">(34)</a>
+The color tree is made by taking the vertical axis of the sphere, which
+carries a scale of value, for the trunk. The branches are at right
+angles to the trunk; and, as in the sphere, they carry the scale of
+chroma. Colored balls on the branches tell their Hue. In order to show
+the <span class = "smallroman">MAXIMA</span> of color, each branch is
+attached to the trunk (or neutral axis) at a level demanded by its
+value,&mdash;the yellow nearest white at the top, then the green, red,
+blue, and purple branches, approaching black in the order of their lower
+values. It will be remembered that the chroma of the sphere ceased with
+5 at the equator. The color tree prolongs
+<span class = "pagenum">24</span>
+this through 6, 7, 8, and&nbsp;9. The branch ends carry colored balls,
+representing the most powerful red, yellow, green, blue, and purple
+pigments which we now possess, and could be lengthened, should stronger
+chromas be discovered.<a class = "tag" name = "tag12" id = "tag12" href
+= "#note12">12</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para35" id = "para35">(35)</a>
+Such models set up a permanent image of color relations. Every point is
+self-described by its place in the united scales of hue, value, and
+chroma. These scales fix each new perception of color in the child’s
+mind by its situation in the color solid. The importance of such a
+definite image can hardly be overestimated, for without it one color
+sensation tends to efface another. When the child looks at a color, and
+has no basis of comparison, it soon leaves a vague memory that cannot be
+described. These models, on the contrary, lead to an intelligent
+estimate of each color in terms of its hue, its value, and its chroma;
+while the permanent enamels correct any personal bias by a definite
+standard.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para36" id = "para36">(36)</a>
+Thus defined, a color falls into logical relation with all other colors
+in the system, and is easily memorized, so that its image may be
+recalled at any distance of time or place by the notation.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para37" id = "para37">(37)</a>
+These solid models help to memorize and assemble colors and the memory
+is further strengthened by a simple <span class =
+"smallroman">NOTATION</span>, which records each color so that it cannot
+be mistaken for any other. By these written scales a child gains an
+instinctive estimate of relations, so that, when he is delighted with a
+new color combination, its proportions are noted and understood.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para38" id = "para38">(38)</a>
+Musical art has long enjoyed the advantages of a definite scale and
+notation. Should not the art of coloring gain by similar definition? The
+musical scale is not left to personal
+<span class = "pagenum">25</span>
+whim, nor does it change from day to day; and something as clear and
+stable would be an advantage in training the color sense.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para39" id = "para39">(39)</a>
+Perception of color is crude at first. The child sees only the most
+obvious distinctions, and prefers the strongest stimulation. But
+perception soon becomes refined by exercise, and, when a child tries to
+imitate the subtle colors of nature with paints, he begins to realize
+that the strongest colors are not the most beautiful,&mdash;rather the
+tempered ones, which may be compared to the moderate sounds in music. To
+describe these tempered colors, he must estimate their hue, value, and
+chroma, and be able to describe in what degree his copy departs from the
+natural color. And, with this gain in perception and imitation of
+natural color, he finds a strong desire to invent combinations to please
+his fancy. Thus the study divides into three related attitudes, which
+may be called recognition, imitation, and invention. Recognition of
+color is fundamental, but it would be tedious to spend a year or two in
+formal and dry exercises to train recognition of color alone; for each
+step in recognition of color is best tested by exercise in its imitation
+and arrangement. When perception becomes keener, emphasis can be placed
+on imitation of the colors found in art and in nature, resting finally
+on the selection and grouping of colors for design.<a class = "tag" name
+= "tag13" id = "tag13" href = "#note13">13</a></p>
+
+<h5>Every color can be recognized, named, matched, imitated, and written
+by its HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para40" id = "para40">(40)</a>
+The notation used in this system places Hue (expressed by an initial) at
+the left; Value (expressed by a number) at the right and above a line;
+and Chroma (also expressed by
+<span class = "pagenum">26</span>
+a number) at the right, below the line. Thus R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>9</sub>
+means</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "formatted text">
+<tr>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>&nbsp;(red),&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "smallroman">VALUE (5)</td>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">
+,&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2">
+and will be found to represent the qualities of the pigment vermilion.<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag14" id = "tag14" href = "#note14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "topline smallroman">CHROMA&nbsp;(9)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Hue, value, and chroma unite in every color sensation, but the child
+cannot grasp them all at once. <i>Hue-difference appeals to him
+first</i>, and he gains a permanent idea of five principal hues from the
+enamels of <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE COLORS</span>, learning to
+name, match, imitate, and finally write them by their initials: R (red),
+Y (yellow), G (green), B (blue), and P (purple). Intermediates formed by
+uniting successive pairs are also written by the joined initials, YR
+(yellow-red), GY (green-yellow), BG (blue-green), PB (purple-blue), and
+RP (red-purple).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para41" id = "para41">(41)</a>
+Ten differences of hue are as many as a child can render at the outset,
+yet in matching and imitating them he becomes aware of their light and
+dark quality, and learns to separate it from hue as
+<i>value-difference</i>. Middle colors, as implied by that name, stand
+midway between white and black,&mdash;that is, on the equator of the
+sphere,&mdash;so that a middle red will be written R<sup>5</sup>/,
+suggesting the steps 6, 7, 8, and 9 which are above the equator, while
+steps 4, 3, 2, and 1 are below. It is well to show only three values of
+a color at first; for instance, the middle value contrasted with a light
+and a dark one. These are written R<sup>3</sup>/, R<sup>5</sup>/,
+R<sup>7</sup>/. Soon he perceives and can imitate finer differences, and
+the red scale may be written entire, as R<sup>1</sup>/, R<sup>2</sup>/,
+R<sup>3</sup>/, R<sup>4</sup>/, R<sup>5</sup>/, R<sup>6</sup>/,
+R<sup>7</sup>/, R<sup>8</sup>/, R<sup>9</sup>/, with black as 0 and
+white as&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para42" id = "para42">(42)</a>
+<i>Chroma-difference is the third</i> and most subtle color quality. The
+child is already unconsciously familiar with the middle chroma of red,
+having had the enamels of <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE COLOR</span>
+always
+<span class = "pagenum">27</span>
+in view, and the red enamel is to be contrasted with the strongest and
+weakest red chromas obtainable. These he writes R&nbsp;/<sub>1</sub>,
+R&nbsp;/5, R&nbsp;/<sub>9</sub>, seeing that this describes the chromas
+of red, but leaves out its values. R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>1</sub>,
+R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>9</sub>, is the complete
+statement, showing that, while both hue and value are unchanged, the
+chroma passes from grayish red to middle red (enamel first learned) and
+out to the strongest red in the chroma scale obtained by vermilion.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para43" id = "para43">(43)</a>
+It may be long before he can imitate the intervening steps of chroma,
+many children finding it difficult to express more than five steps of
+the chroma scale, although easily making ten steps of value and from
+twenty to thirty-five steps of hue. This interesting feature is of
+psychologic value, and has been followed in the color tree and color
+sphere.</p>
+
+<h5>Does such a scientific scheme leave any outlet for feeling and
+personal expression of beauty?</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para44" id = "para44">(44)</a>
+Lest this exact attitude in color study should seem inartistic, compared
+with the free and almost chaotic methods in use, let it be said that the
+stage thus far outlined is frankly disciplinary. It is somewhat dry and
+unattractive, just as the early musical training is fatiguing without
+inventive exercises. The child should be encouraged at each step to
+exercise his fancy.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para45" id = "para45">(45)</a>
+Instead of cramping his outlook upon nature, it widens his grasp of
+color, and stores the memory with finer differences, supplying more
+material by which to express his sense of coloristic beauty.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para46" id = "para46">(46)</a>
+Color harmony, as now treated, is a purely personal affair, difficult to
+refer to any clear principles or definite laws. The very terms by which
+it seeks expression are borrowed from music, and suggest vague analogies
+that fail when put to the test. Color
+<span class = "pagenum">28</span>
+needs a new set of expressive terms, appropriate to its qualities,
+before we can make an analysis as to the harmony or discord of our color
+sensations.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para47" id = "para47">(47)</a>
+This need is supplied in the present system by measured <span class =
+"smallroman">CHARTS</span>, and a <span class =
+"smallroman">NOTATION</span>. Their very construction preserves the
+<i>balance of colors</i>, as will be shown in the next chapter, while
+the chapter on harmony (<a href = "#chapVII">Chapter VII.</a>) shows how
+harmonious pairs and triads of color may be found by <span class =
+"smallroman">MASKS</span> with measured intervals. In fact, practice in
+the use of the charts supplies the imagination with scales and sequences
+of color quite as definite and quite as easily written as those sound
+intervals by which the musician conveys to others his sense of harmony.
+And, although in neither art can training alone make the artist, yet a
+technical grasp of these formal scales gives acquaintance with the full
+range of the instrument, and is indispensable to artistic expression.
+From these color scales each individual is free to choose combinations
+in accord with his feeling for color harmony.</p>
+
+<p>Let us make an outline of the course of color study traced in the
+preceding pages.<a class = "tag" name = "tag15" id = "tag15" href =
+"#note15">15</a></p>
+
+<h5>PERCEPTION of color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para48" id = "para48">(48)</a>
+<i>Hue-difference.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Middle hues (5 principals).</p>
+<p>Middle hues (5 intermediates).</p>
+<p>Middle hues (10 placed in sequence as <span class =
+"smallroman">SCALE </span>of <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Value-difference.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Light, middle, and dark values (without change of hue).</p>
+<p>Light, middle, and dark values (traced with 5 principal hues).</p>
+<p>10 values traced with each hue. <span class =
+"smallroman">SCALE</span> of <span class = "smallroman">VALUE</span>.
+<i>The Color Sphere</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">29</span>
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Chroma-difference.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Strong, middle, and weak chroma (without change of hue).</p>
+<p>Strong, middle and weak chroma (traced with three values without
+change of hue).</p>
+<p>Strong, middle, and weak chroma (traced with three values and ten
+hues).</p>
+<p>Maxima of color and their gradation to white, black, and gray. <i>The
+Color Tree.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>EXPRESSION of color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para49" id = "para49">(49)</a>
+<i>Matching and imitation</i> of hues (using stuffs, crayons, and
+paints).</p>
+
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Matching and imitation</i> of values and hues
+(using stuffs, crayons, and paints).</p>
+
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Matching and imitation</i> of chromas, values,
+and hues (using stuffs, crayons, and paints).</p>
+
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Notation of color.</i></p>
+
+<table class = "inset1 float" summary = "formatted text">
+<tr>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">Hue</td>
+<td>Value</td>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">,&nbsp; H</td>
+<td>V</td>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "topline">Chroma</td>
+<td class = "topline">C</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Initial for hue, numeral above for value, numeral below for
+chroma.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset1 allclear"><i>Sequences of color.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Two scales united, as hue and value, or chroma and value.</p>
+<p>Three scales united,&mdash;each step a change of hue, value, and
+chroma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "inset1"><i>Balance of color.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Opposites of equal value and chroma (R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub> and
+BG<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>).</p>
+<p>Opposites of equal value and unequal chroma
+(R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>9</sub> and BG<sup>5</sup>/<sub>3</sub>).</p>
+<p>Opposites unequal both in value and chroma
+(R<sup>7</sup>/<sub>3</sub> and BG<sup>3</sup>/<sub>7</sub>).</p>
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Area</span> as an element of balance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">30</span>
+<h5>HARMONY of color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para50" id = "para50">(50)</a>
+<i>Selection of colors</i> that give pleasure.</p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Study of butterfly wings and flowers, recorded by the <span class =
+"smallroman">NOTATION.</span></p>
+<p>Study of painted ornament, rugs, and mosaics, recorded by the <span
+class = "smallroman">NOTATION</span>.</p>
+<p>Personal choice of color <span class = "smallroman">PAIRS</span>,
+balanced by H, V, C, and area.</p>
+<p>Personal choice of color <span class = "smallroman">TRIADS</span>,
+balanced by H, V, C, and area.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "inset1">
+<i>Grouping of colors</i> to suit some practical use: wall papers, rugs,
+book covers, etc.</p>
+
+<div class = "inset2">
+<p>Their analysis by the written notation.</p>
+<p>Search for principles of harmony, expressed in measured terms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h5>A definite plan of color study, with freedom as to details of
+presentation.<a class = "tag" name = "tag16" id = "tag16" href =
+"#note16">16</a></h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para51" id = "para51">(51)</a>
+Having memorized these broad divisions of the study, a&nbsp;clever
+teacher will introduce many a detail, to meet the mood of the class, or
+correlate this subject with other studies, without for a moment losing
+the thread of thought or befogging the presentation. But to range at
+random in the immense field of color sensations, without plan or
+definite aim in view, only courts fatigue of the retina and a chaotic
+state of mind.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para52" id = "para52">(52)</a>
+The same broad principles which govern the presentation of other ideas
+apply with equal force in this study. A&nbsp;little, well apprehended,
+is better than a mass of undigested facts. If the child is led to
+discover, or at least to think he is discovering, new things about
+color, the mind will be kept alert and seek out novel illustrations at
+every step. Now and then a pupil will be found
+<span class = "pagenum">31</span>
+who leads both teacher and class by <i>intuitive</i> appreciation of
+color, and it is a subtle question how far such a nature can be helped
+or hurt by formal exercises. But such an exception is rare, and goes to
+prove that systematic discipline of the color sense is necessary for
+most children.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para53" id = "para53">(53)</a>
+Outdoor nature and indoor surroundings offer endless color
+illustrations. Birds, flowers, minerals, and the objects in daily use
+take on a new interest when their varied colors are brought into a
+conscious relation, and clearly named. A&nbsp;tri-dimensional
+perception, like this sense of color, requires skilful training, and
+each lesson must be simplified to the last point practicable. It must
+not be too long, and should lead to some definite result which a child
+can grasp and express with tolerable accuracy, while its difficulties
+should be approached by easy stages, so as to avoid failure or
+discouragement. The success of the present effort is the best incentive
+to further achievement.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note6" id = "note6" href = "#tag6">6.</a>
+See Glossary for definitions of Micron, Photometer, Retina, and Red,
+also for Hue, Tint, Shade, Value, Color Variables, Luminosity, and
+Chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note7" id = "note7" href = "#tag7">7.</a>
+See Photometer in paragraph <a href = "#para65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note8" id = "note8" href = "#tag8">8.</a>
+See definition of White in Glossary.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note9" id = "note9" href = "#tag9">9.</a>
+When recognized for the first time, a&nbsp;middle green, blue, or
+purple, is accepted by most persons as well within their color habit,
+but middle red and middle yellow cause somewhat of a shock. “That isn’t
+red,” they say, “it’s terra cotta.” “Yellow?” “Oh, no,
+that’s&mdash;well, it’s a very peculiar shade.”</p>
+
+<p>Yet these are as surely the middle degrees of red and yellow as are
+the more familiar degrees of green, blue, and purple. This becomes
+evident as soon as one accepts physical tests of color in place of
+personal whim. It also opens the mind to a generally ignored fact, that
+middle reds and yellows, instead of the screaming red and yellow first
+given a child, are constantly found in examples of rich and beautiful
+color, such as Persian rugs, Japanese prints, and the masterpieces of
+painting.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note10" id = "note10" href = "#tag10">10.</a>
+See Color Tree in paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note11" id = "note11" href = "#tag11">11.</a>
+Unaware that the spherical arrangement had been used years before,
+I&nbsp;devised a double tetrahedron to classify colors, while a student
+of painting in 1879. It now appears that the sphere was common property
+with psychologists, having been described by Runge in 1810. Earlier
+still, Lambert had suggested a pyramidal form. Both are based on the
+erroneous assumption that red, yellow, and blue are primary sensations,
+and also fail to place these hues in a just scale of luminosity. My
+twirling color solid and its completer development in the present model
+have always made prominent the artistic feeling for color value. It
+differs in this and in other ways from previous systems, and is
+fortunate in possessing new apparatus to measure the degree of hue,
+value, and chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note12" id = "note12" href = "#tag12">12.</a>
+See <a href = "#plateI">Plate I</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note13" id = "note13" href = "#tag13">13.</a>
+See Course of Study, Part II.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note14" id = "note14" href = "#tag14">14.</a>
+See <a href = "#chapVI">Chapter VI</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note15" id = "note15" href = "#tag15">15.</a>
+<i>See</i> Part II., A Color System and Course of Study.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note16" id = "note16" href = "#tag16">16.</a>
+See Color Study assigned to each grade, in Part&nbsp;II.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">32</span>
+<h4><a name = "appII" id = "appII">
+Appendix to Chapter II.</a><br>
+PLATE I.<br>
+THE COLOR SPHERE, with Measured Scales of<br>
+HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.</h4>
+
+
+<p>The teacher of elementary grades introduces these scales of tempered
+color as fast as the child’s interest is awakened to their need by the
+exercises shown in Plates II. and III. Thus the Hue scale is learned
+before the end of the second year, the Value scale during the next two
+years, and the Chroma scale in the fifth year. By the time a child is
+ten years old these definite color scales have become part of his mental
+furnishing, so that he can name, write, and memorize any color
+group.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Color Sphere in Skeleton.</i> This diagram shows the middle
+colors on the equator, with strong red, yellow, green, blue, and purple,
+each at its proper level in the value scale, and projecting in
+accordance with its scale of chroma. See the complete description of
+these scales in <a href = "#chapII">Chapter&nbsp;II</a>.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Color Score.</i> Fifteen typical steps taken from the color
+sphere are here spread out in a flat field. The <span class =
+"smallcaps">Five Middle Colors</span> form the centre level, with the
+same hues in a lighter value above and in a darker value below. <a href
+= "#chapVI">Chapter VI.</a> describes the making of this Score, and its
+use in analyzing colors and preserving a written record of their
+groups.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Value Scale and Chroma Scale.</i> Each of the five color
+maxima is thus shown at its proper level in the scale of light, and
+graded by uniform steps from its strongest chroma inward to neutrality
+at the axis of the sphere. Pigment inequalities here become very
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration plate">
+<a name = "plateI" id = "plateI"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate1.jpg" width = "398" height = "579"
+alt = "PLATE I. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."
+title = "PLATE I. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."></p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">33</span>
+
+<h4>FOR PLATES II. &amp; III.,<br>
+SEE APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.,<br>
+CHILDREN’S COLOR STUDIES.</h4>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">34</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapIII" id = "chapIII">
+Chapter III.</a><br>
+COLOR MIXTURE AND BALANCE.</h3>
+
+
+<h5>All colors grasped in the hand.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para54" id = "para54">(54)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6" href = "images/fig6_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig6.png" width = "98" height = "101"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Let us recall the names and order of colors given in the last chapter,
+with their assemblage in a sphere by the three qualities of <span class
+= "smallroman">HUE</span>, <span class = "smallroman">VALUE</span>, and
+<span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span>. It will aid the memory to call
+the thumb of the left hand <span class = "smallroman">RED</span>, the
+forefinger <span class = "smallroman">YELLOW</span>, the middle finger
+<span class = "smallroman">GREEN</span>, the ring finger <span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE</span>, and the little finger <span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE</span> (Fig.&nbsp;6). When the finger tips are in a
+circle, they represent a circuit of hues, which has neither beginning
+nor end, for we can start with any finger and trace a sequence forward
+or backward. Now close the tips together for white, and imagine that the
+five strong hues have slipped down to the knuckles, where they stand for
+the equator of the color Sphere. Still lower down at the wrist is
+black.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para55" id = "para55">(55)</a>
+The hand thus becomes a color holder, with white at the finger tips,
+black at the wrist, strong colors around the outside, and weaker colors
+within the hollow. Each finger is a scale of its own color, with white
+above and black below, while the graying of all the hues is traced by
+imaginary lines which meet in the middle of the hand. Thus a child’s
+hand may be his substitute for the color sphere, and also make him
+realize that it is filled with grayer degrees of the outside colors, all
+of which melt into gray in the centre.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">35</span>
+<h5>Neighborly and opposite hues; and their mixture.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para56" id = "para56">(56)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7" href = "images/fig7_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig7.png" width = "114" height = "98"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Let this circle (Fig. 7) stand for the equator of the color sphere with
+the five principal hues (written by their initials&nbsp;R, Y,&nbsp;G, B,
+and&nbsp;P) spaced evenly about it. Some colors are neighbors, as red
+and yellow, while others are opposites. As soon as a child experiments
+with paints, he will notice the different results obtained by mixing
+them.</p>
+
+<p>First, the neighbors, that is, any pair which lie next one another,
+as red and yellow, will unite to make a hue which retains a suggestion
+of both. It is <i>intermediate</i> between red and yellow, and we call
+it <span class = "smallroman">YELLOW-RED</span>.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag17" id = "tag17" href = "#note17">17</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para57" id = "para57">(57)</a>
+Green and yellow unite to form <span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN-YELLOW</span>, blue and green make <span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE-GREEN</span>, and so on with each succeeding pair.
+These intermediates are to be written by their initials, and inserted in
+their proper place between the principal hues. It is as if an orange
+(paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para9">9</a>) were split into ten sectors
+instead of five, with red, yellow, green, blue, and purple as alternate
+sectors, while half of each adjoining color pair were united to form the
+sector between them. The original order of five hues is in no wise
+disturbed, but linked together by five intermediate steps.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para58" id = "para58">(58)</a>
+Here is a table of the intermediates made by mixing each
+pair:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class = "inset1 smaller">
+<p>Red and yellow unite to form yellow-red (YR), popularly called
+orange.<a class = "tag" href = "#note17">17</a></p>
+<p>Yellow and green unite to form green-yellow (GY), popularly called
+grass green.</p>
+<p>Green and blue unite to form blue-green (BG), popularly called
+peacock blue.</p>
+<p>Blue and purple unite to form purple-blue (PB), popularly called
+violet.</p>
+<p>Purple and red unite to form red-purple (RP), popularly called
+plum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">36</span>
+<p>Using the left hand again to hold colors, the principal hues remain
+unchanged on the knuckles, but in the hollows between them are placed
+intermediate hues, so that the circle now reads: red, yellow-red,
+yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, and
+red-purple, back to the red with which we started. This circuit is
+easily <i>memorized</i>, so that the child may begin with any color
+point, and repeat the series clock wise (that is, from left to right) or
+in reverse order.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para59" id = "para59">(59)</a>
+Each principal hue has thus made two close neighbors by mixing with the
+nearest principal hue on either hand. The neighbors of red are a
+yellow-red on one side and a purple-red on the other. The neighbors of
+green are a green-yellow on one hand and a blue-green on the other. It
+is evident that a still closer neighbor could be made by again mixing
+each consecutive pair in this circle of ten hues; and, if the process
+were continued long enough, the color steps would become so fine that
+the eye could see only a circuit of hues melting imperceptibly one into
+another.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para60" id = "para60">(60)</a>
+But it is better for the child to gain a fixed idea of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple, with their intermediates, before attempting to
+mix pigments, and these ten steps are sufficient for primary
+education.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para61" id = "para61">(61)</a>
+Next comes the question of opposites in this circle. A&nbsp;line drawn
+from red, through the centre, finds its opposite, blue-green.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag18" id = "tag18" href = "#note18">18</a> If these
+colors are mixed, they unite to form gray. Indeed, the centre of the
+circle stands for a middle gray, not only because it is the centre of
+the neutral axis between black and white, but also because any pair of
+opposites will unite to form gray.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">37</span>
+<p><a name = "para62" id = "para62">(62)</a>
+This is a table of five mixtures which make neutral gray:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline smaller" summary = "color pairs">
+<tr>
+<td class = "bracket right">
+Opposites</td>
+<td>Red &amp;<br>
+Yellow<br>
+Green<br>
+Blue<br>
+Purple
+</td>
+<td>Blue-green<br>
+Purple-blue<br>
+Red-purple<br>
+Yellow-red<br>
+Green-yellow
+</td>
+<td class = "bracket left">
+<p>Each pair of which unites in neutral gray.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name = "para63" id = "para63">(63)</a>
+But if, instead of mixing these opposite hues, we place them side by
+side, the eye is so stimulated by their difference that each seems to
+gain in strength; <i>i.e.</i>, each <i>enhances</i> the other when
+separate, but <i>destroys</i> the other when mixed. This is a very
+interesting point to be more fully illustrated by the help of a color
+wheel in Chapter V., paragraph <a href = "#para106">106</a>. What we
+need to remember is that the mixture of neighborly hues makes them less
+stimulating to the eye, because they resemble each other, while a
+mixture of opposite hues extinguishes both in a neutral gray.</p>
+
+<h5>Hues once removed, and their mixture.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para64" id = "para64">(64)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8" href = "images/fig8_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig8.png" width = "109" height = "100"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+There remains the question, What will happen if we mix, not two
+neighbors, nor two opposites, but <i>a pair of hues once removed in the
+circle</i>, such as red and green? A&nbsp;line joining this pair does
+not pass through the neutral centre, but to one side nearer yellow,
+which shows that this mixture falls between neutral gray and yellow,
+partaking somewhat of each. In the same way a line joining yellow and
+blue shows that their mixture contains both green and gray. Indeed,
+a&nbsp;line joining any two colors in the circuit may be said to
+describe their union. A&nbsp;radius crossing this line passes to some
+hue on the circumference, and describes by its intersection with the
+first line
+<span class = "pagenum">38</span>
+the chroma of the color made by a mixture of the two original
+colors.</p>
+
+<table class = "inline smaller" summary = "color pairs">
+<tr>
+<td>
+Red&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&amp;<br>
+Yellow<br>
+Green<br>
+Blue<br>
+Purple</td>
+<td>
+Green&nbsp;make<br>
+Blue<br>
+Purple<br>
+Red<br>
+Yellow</td>
+<td>
+Yellow&#x2011;gray<br>
+Green-gray<br>
+Blue-gray<br>
+Purple&#x2011;gray<br>
+Red-gray</td>
+<td class = "bracket left">
+<p>Each pair unites in a <i>colored</i> gray, which is an intermediate
+hue of weak chroma.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5>Mixture of white and black: a&nbsp;scale of grays.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para65" id = "para65">(65)</a>
+So far we have thought only of the plane of the equator, with its circle
+of middle hues in ten steps, and studied their mixture by drawing lines
+to join them. Now let us start at the neutral centre, and think upward
+to white and downward to black (Fig.&nbsp;9.)</p>
+
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9" href = "images/fig9_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig9.png" width = "98" height = "94"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+
+<p>This vertical line is the <i>neutral axis</i> joining the poles of
+white and black, which represent the opposites of light and darkness.
+Middle gray is half-way between. If black is called 0, and white is 10,
+then the middle point is 5, with 6, 7, 8, and 9 above, while 4, 3, 2,
+and 1 are below, thus making a vertical scale of grays from black to
+white (Chapter II., paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para25">25</a>).</p>
+
+<p>If left to personal preference, an estimate of middle value will vary
+with each individual who attempts to make it. This appears in the
+neutral scales already published for schools, and students who depend
+upon them, discover a variation of over 10 per cent. in the selection of
+middle gray. Since this <span class = "smallroman">VALUE SCALE</span>
+underlies all color work, it needs accurate adjustment by scientific
+means, as in scales of sound, of length, of weight, or of
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p>A <span class = "smallroman">PHOTOMETER</span> (<i>photo</i>, light,
+and <i>meter</i>, a&nbsp;measure)<a class = "tag" name = "tag19" id =
+"tag19" href = "#note19">19</a> is shown
+<span class = "pagenum">39</span>
+on the next page. It measures the relative amount of light which the eye
+receives from any source, and so enables us to make a scale with any
+number of regular steps. The principle on which it acts is very
+simple.</p>
+
+<p>A rectangular box, divided by a central partition into halves, has
+symmetrical openings in the front walls, which permit the light to reach
+two white fields placed upon the back walls. If one looks in through the
+observation tube, both halves are seen to be exactly alike, and the
+white fields equally illuminated. A&nbsp;valve is then fitted to one of
+the front openings, so that the light in that half of the photometer may
+be gradually diminished. Its white field is thus darkened by measured
+degrees, and becomes black when all light is excluded by the closed
+valve. While this darkening process goes on in one-half of the
+instrument, the white field in the other half does not change, and,
+looking into the eyepiece, the observer sees each step contrasted with
+the original white. One-half is thus said to be <i>variable</i> because
+of its valve, and the other side is said to be <i>fixed</i>. A&nbsp;dial
+connected with the valve has a hand moving over it to show how much
+light is admitted to the field in the variable half.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now test one of these personal decisions about middle value.
+A&nbsp;sample replaces the white field in the fixed half, and by means
+of the valve, the white field in the variable half is alternately
+darkened and lightened, until it matches the sample and the eye sees no
+difference in the two. The dial then discloses the fact that this
+supposedly <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE VALUE</span> reflects only
+42 per cent. of the light; that is to say, it is nearly a whole step too
+low in a decimal scale. Other samples err nearly as far on the light
+side of middle value, and further tests prove not only the varying color
+sensitiveness of individuals, but detect a difference between the left
+and right eye of the same person.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">40</span>
+<p class = "caption">PHOTOMETER.</p>
+
+<table class = "illustration" summary = "two illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td><a href = "images/photo_back_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/photo_back.png" width = "195" height = "247"
+alt = "see text"></a></td>
+<td><a href = "images/photo_front_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/photo_front.png" width = "194" height = "248"
+alt = "see text"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "center">Back View.</td>
+<td class = "center">Front View.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The vagaries of color estimate thus disclosed, lead some to seek
+shelter in “feeling and inspiration”; but feeling and inspiration are
+temperamental, and have nothing to do with the simple facts of vision.
+A&nbsp;measured and unchanging scale is as necessary and valuable in the
+training of the eye as the musical scale in the discipline of the
+ear.</p>
+
+<p>It will soon be necessary to talk of the values in each color. We may
+distinguish the values on the neutral axis from color values by writing
+them N<sup>1</sup>, N<sup>2</sup>, N<sup>3</sup>, N<sup>4</sup>,
+N<sup>5</sup>, N<sup>6</sup>, N<sup>7</sup>, N<sup>8</sup>,
+N<sup>9</sup>, N<sup>10</sup>. Such a scale makes it easy to foresee the
+result of mixing light values with dark ones. Any two gray values unite
+to form a gray midway between them. Thus N<sup>4</sup> and N<sup>6</sup>
+being equally above and below the centre, unite to form N<sup>5</sup>,
+as will also N<sup>7</sup>
+<span class = "pagenum">41</span>
+and N<sup>3</sup>, N<sup>8</sup> and N<sup>2</sup>, or N<sup>9</sup> and
+N<sup>1</sup>. But N<sup>9</sup> and N<sup>3</sup> will unite to form
+N<sup>6</sup>, which is midway between 6 and&nbsp;9.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/photo_sec_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/photo_sec.png" width = "198" height = "140"
+alt = "see below"></a></p>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">Vertical Section through light openings.</p>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">PARTS.</p>
+
+<div class = "inset1 smaller">
+<p><i>C</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Cabinet</span>, with
+sample-holder (H) and mirror (M), which may be removed and stored to
+left of dial (D) when instrument is closed for transportation.</p>
+
+<p><i>D</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Dial</span>: records color values
+in terms of standard white (100), the opposite end of the scale being
+absolute blackness&nbsp;(0).</p>
+
+<p><i>E</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Eye-piece</span>: to shield eye
+and sample from extraneous light while color determinations are being
+made. Fatigue of retina should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><i>G</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Gear</span>: actuates cat’s-eye
+shutter, which controls amount of light admitted to right half of
+instrument. Its shaft carries index-hand over dial.</p>
+
+<p><i>H</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Field-Holder</span>: retains
+sample and standard white in same plane, and isolates them. Is hinged
+upon lower edge, and secured by pivot clamp.</p>
+
+<p><i>M</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Mirror</span>: permits
+observation of the isolated halves of the holder, bearing standard white
+and the color to be measured. Should be clean and free from dust on both
+sides of central partition.</p>
+
+<p><i>S</i>, <span class = "smallcaps">Diffusing Screen</span>, placed
+over front apertures, to evenly distribute the light.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "space">
+<a name = "para66" id = "para66">(66)</a>
+When this numbered scale of values is familiar, it serves not only to
+describe light and dark grays, but the value of colors which are at the
+same level in the scale. Thus R<sup>7</sup> (popularly called a tint of
+red) is neither lighter nor darker than the gray of N<sup>7</sup>.
+A&nbsp;numeral written above to the right always indicates <i>value</i>,
+whether of a gray or a color, so that R<sup>1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup>,
+R<sup>3</sup>, R<sup>4</sup>, R<sup>5</sup>, R<sup>6</sup>,
+R<sup>7</sup>, R<sup>8</sup>, R<sup>9</sup>, describes a regular scale
+of red values from black to white, while G<sup>1</sup>, G<sup>2</sup>,
+G<sup>3</sup>, etc., is a scale of green values.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">42</span>
+<p><a name = "para67" id = "para67">(67)</a>
+This matter of a notation for colors will be more fully worked out in <a
+href = "#chapVI">Chapter VI.</a>, but the letters and numerals already
+described greatly simplify what we are about to consider in the mixture
+and balance of colors.</p>
+
+<h5>Mixture of light hues with dark hues.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para68" id = "para68">(68)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10" href = "images/fig10_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig10.png" width = "102" height = "102"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Now that we are supplied with a decimal scale of grays, represented by
+divisions of the neutral axis (N<sup>1</sup>, N<sup>2</sup>, etc.), and
+a corresponding decimal scale of value for each of the ten hues ranged
+about the equator (R<sup>1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup>,&mdash;YR<sup>1</sup>,
+YR<sup>2</sup>,&mdash;Y<sup>1</sup>,
+Y<sup>2</sup>,&mdash;GY<sup>1</sup>, GY<sup>2</sup>,&mdash;and so on),
+traced by ten equidistant meridians from black to white, it is not
+difficult to foresee what the mixture of any two colors will produce,
+whether they are of the same level of value, as in the colors of the
+equator already considered, or whether they are of different levels.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name = "para69" id = "para69">(69)</a>
+For instance, let us mix a light yellow (Y<sup>7</sup>) with a dark red
+(R<sup>3</sup>). They are neighbors in hue, but well removed in value.
+A&nbsp;line joining them centres at YR<sup>5</sup>. This describes the
+result of their mixture,&mdash;a value intermediate between 7 and 3,
+with a hue intermediate between R and&nbsp;Y. It is a yellow-red of
+middle value, popularly called “dark orange.” But, while this term “dark
+orange” rarely means the same color to three different people, these
+measured scales give to YR<sup>5</sup> an unmistakable meaning, just as
+the musical scale gives an unmistakable significance to the notes of its
+score.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para70" id = "para70">(70)</a>
+Evidently, this way of writing colors by their degrees of value and hue
+gives clearness to what would otherwise be hard to express by the color
+terms in common use.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para71" id = "para71">(71)</a>
+If Y<sup>9</sup> and R<sup>5</sup> be chosen for mixture, we know at
+once that
+<span class = "pagenum">43</span>
+they unite in YR<sup>7</sup>, which is two steps of the value scale
+above the middle; while Y<sup>6</sup> and R<sup>2</sup> make
+YR<sup>4</sup>, which is one step below the middle. Charts prepared with
+this system show each of these colors and their mixture with
+exactness.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para72" id = "para72">(72)</a>
+The foregoing mixtures of dark reds and light yellows are typical of the
+union of light and dark values of any neighboring hues, such as yellow
+and green, green and blue, blue and purple, or purple and red. Next let
+us think of the result of mixing different values in opposite hues; as,
+for instance, YR<sup>7</sup> and B<sup>3</sup> (Fig. 11). To this
+combination the color sphere gives a ready answer; for the middle of a
+straight line through the sphere, and joining them, coincides with the
+neutral centre, showing that they <i>balance in neutral gray</i>. This
+is also true of any opposite pair of surface hues where the values are
+equally removed from the equator.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para73" id = "para73">(73)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11" href = "images/fig11_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig11.png" width = "120" height = "104"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Suppose we substitute familiar flowers for the notation, then
+YR<sup>7</sup> becomes the buttercup, and B<sup>3</sup> is the wild
+violet. But, in comparing the two, the eye is more stimulated by the
+buttercup than by the violet, not alone because it is lighter, but
+because it is stronger in chroma; that is, farther away from the neutral
+axis of the sphere, and in fact out beyond its surface, as shown in
+Fig.&nbsp;11.</p>
+
+<p>The head of a pin stuck in toward the axis on the 7th level of YR may
+represent the 9th step in the scale of chroma, such as the buttercup,
+while the “modest” violet with a chroma of only 4, is shown by its
+position to be nearer the neutral axis than the brilliant buttercup by
+five steps of chroma. This is the third dimension of color, and must be
+included in our notation.
+<span class = "pagenum">44</span>
+So we write the buttercup YR<sup>7</sup>/<sub>9</sub> and the violet
+B<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub>,&mdash;chroma always being written below to
+the right of hue, and value always above.</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "formatted text">
+<tr>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">(This is the invariable order: <span
+class = "smallroman">HUE</span></td>
+<td class = "smallroman">VALUE</td>
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2">.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "topline smallroman">CHROMA</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name = "para74" id = "para74">(74)</a>
+A line joining the head of the pin mentioned above with
+B<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub> does not pass through the centre of the
+sphere, and its middle point is nearer the buttercup than the neutral
+axis, showing that the hues of the buttercup and violet <i>do not
+balance in gray</i>.</p>
+
+<h5>The neutral centre is a balancing point for colors.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para75" id = "para75">(75)</a>
+This raises the question, What is balance of color? Artists criticise
+the color schemes of paintings as being “too light or too dark”
+(unbalanced in value), “too weak or too strong” (unbalanced in chroma),
+and “too hot or too cold” (unbalanced in hue), showing that this is a
+fundamental idea underlying all color arrangements.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para76" id = "para76">(76)</a>
+Let us assume that the centre of the sphere is the natural balancing
+point for all colors (which will be best shown by Maxwell discs in
+Chapter V., paragraphs <a href = "#para106">106&ndash;112</a>), then
+color points equally removed from the centre must balance one another.
+Thus white balances black. Lighter red balances darker blue-green.
+Middle red balances middle blue-green. In short, every straight line
+through this centre indicates opposite qualities that balance one
+another. The color points so found are said to be
+“<i>complementary</i>,” for each supplies what is needed to complement
+or balance the other in hue, value, and chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para77" id = "para77">(77)</a>
+The true complement of the buttercup, then, is not the violet, which is
+too weak in chroma to balance its strong opposite. We have no blue
+flower that can equal the chroma of the buttercup. Some other means must
+be found to produce a balance. One way is to use more of the weaker
+color. Thus we can make
+<span class = "pagenum">45</span>
+a bunch of buttercups and violets, using twice as many of the latter, so
+that the eye sees an <i>area</i> of blue twice as great as the
+<i>area</i> of yellow-red. Area as a compensation for inequalities of
+hue, value, and chroma will be further described under the harmony of
+color in <a href = "#chapVII">Chapter VII.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para78" id = "para78">(78)</a>
+But, before leaving this illustration of the buttercup and violet, it is
+well to consider another color path connecting them which does not pass
+through the sphere, <i>but around it</i> (Fig. 12). Such a path swinging
+around from yellow-red to blue slants downward in value, and passes
+through yellow, green-yellow, green, and blue-green, tracing a
+<i>sequence of hue</i>, of which each step is less chromatic than its
+predecessor.</p>
+
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12" href = "images/fig12_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig12.png" width = "129" height = "107"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+
+<p>This diminishing sequence is easily written
+thus,&mdash;YR<sup>8</sup>/<sub>9</sub>, Y<sup>7</sup>/<sub>8</sub>,
+GY<sup>6</sup>/<sub>7</sub>, G<sup>5</sup>/<sub>6</sub>,
+BG<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, B<sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub>,&mdash;and is
+shown graphically in Fig. 12. Its hue sequence is described by the
+initials YR,&nbsp;Y, GY,&nbsp;G, BG, and&nbsp;B. Its value-sequence
+appears in the upper numerals, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3, while the
+chroma-sequence is included in the lower numerals, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5,
+and&nbsp;4. This gives a complete statement of the sequence, defining
+its peculiarity, that at each change of hue there is a regular decrease
+of value and chroma. Nature seems to be partial to this sequence,
+constantly reiterating it in yellow flowers with their darker green
+leaves and underlying shadows. In spring time she may contract its
+range, making the blue more green and the yellow less red, but in autumn
+she seems to widen the range, presenting strong contrasts of yellow-red
+and purple-blue.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para79" id = "para79">(79)</a>
+Every day she plays upon the values of this sequence,
+<span class = "pagenum">46</span>
+from the strong contrasts of light and shadow at noon to the hardly
+perceptible differences at twilight. The chroma of this sequence expands
+during the summer to strong colors, and contracts in winter to grays.
+Indeed, Nature, who would seem to be the source of our notions of color
+harmony, rarely repeats herself, yet is endlessly balancing inequalities
+of hue, value, and chroma by compensations of quantity.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para80" id = "para80">(80)</a>
+So subtle is this equilibrium that it is taken for granted and
+forgotten, except when some violent disturbance disarranges it, such as
+an earthquake or a thunder-storm.</p>
+
+<h5>The triple nature of color balance illustrated.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para81" id = "para81">(81)</a>
+The simplest idea of balance is the equilibrium of two halves of a stick
+supported at its middle point. If one end is heavier than the other, the
+support must be moved nearer to that end.</p>
+
+<p>But, since color unites three qualities, we must seek some type of
+<i>triple balance</i>. The game of jackstraws illustrates this, when the
+disturbance of one piece involves the displacement of two others. The
+action of three children on a floating plank or the equilibrium of two
+acrobats carried on the shoulders of a third may also serve as
+examples.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para82" id = "para82">(82)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14" href = "images/fig14_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig14.png" width = "85" height = "106"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Triple balance may be graphically shown by three discs in contact. Two
+of them are suspended by their centres, while they remain in touch with
+a third supported on a pivot, as in Fig. 14. Let us call the lowest disc
+Hue (H), and the lateral discs Value (V) and Chroma (C). Any dip or
+rotation of the lower disc H will induce sympathetic action in the two
+lateral discs V and&nbsp;C. When H is inclined, both V
+<span class = "pagenum">47</span>
+and C change their relations to it. If H is raised vertically, both V
+and C dip outward. If H is rotated, both V and C rotate, but in opposite
+directions. Indeed, any disturbance of V affects H and C, while H and V
+respond to any movement of&nbsp;C. So we must be prepared to realize
+that any change of one color quality involves readjustment of the other
+two.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para83" id = "para83">(83)</a>
+Color balance soon leads to a study of optics in one direction, to
+æsthetics in another, and to mathematical proportions in a third, and
+any attempt at an easy solution of its problems is not likely to
+succeed. It is a very complicated question, whose closest counterpart is
+to be sought in musical rhythms. The fall of musical impulses upon the
+ear can make us gay or sad, and there are color groups which, acting
+through the eye, can convey pleasure or pain to the mind.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para84" id = "para84">(84)</a>
+A colorist is keenly alive to these feelings of satisfaction or
+annoyance, and consciously or unconsciously he rejects certain
+combinations of color and accepts others. Successful pictures and
+decorative schemes are due to some sort of balance uniting “light and
+shade” (value), “warmth and coolness” (hue), with “brilliancy and
+grayness” (chroma); for, when they fail to please, the mind at once
+begins to search for the unbalanced quality, and complains that the
+color is “too hot,” “too dark,” or “too crude.” This effort to establish
+pleasing proportions may be unconscious in one temperament, while it
+becomes a matter of definite analysis in another. Emerson claimed that
+the unconscious only is complete. We gladly permit those whose color
+instinct is unerring&mdash;(and how few they are!)&mdash;to neglect all
+rules and set formulas. But education is concerned with the many who
+have not this gift.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para85" id = "para85">(85)</a>
+Any real progress in color education must come not from a blind
+imitation of past successes, but by a study into the laws
+<span class = "pagenum">48</span>
+which they exemplify. To exactly copy fine Japanese prints or Persian
+rugs or Renaissance tapestries, while it cultivates an appreciation of
+their refinements, does not give one the power to create things equally
+beautiful. The masterpieces of music correctly rendered do not of
+necessity make a composer. The musician, besides the study of
+masterpieces, absorbs the science of counterpoint, and records by an
+unmistakable notation the exact character of any new combination of
+musical intervals which he conceives.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para86" id = "para86">(86)</a>
+So must the art of the colorist be furnished with a scientific basis and
+a clear form of color notation. This will record the successes and
+failures of the past, and aid in a search, by contrast and analysis, for
+the fundamentals of color balance. Without a measured and systematic
+notation, attempts to describe color harmony only produce hazy
+generalities of little value in describing our sensations, and fail to
+express the essential differences between “good” and “bad” color.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note17" id = "note17" href = "#tag17">17.</a>
+Orange is a variable union of yellow and red. See Appendix.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note18" id = "note18" href = "#tag18">18.</a>
+Green is often wrongly assigned as the opposite of red. See Appendix, on
+False Color Balance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note19" id = "note19" href = "#tag19">19.</a>
+Adopted in Course on Optical Measurements at the Massachusetts Institute
+of Technology. Instruments have also been made for the Harvard Medical
+School, the Treasury Department in Washington, and various private
+laboratories.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">49</span>
+<h4><a name = "appIII" id = "appIII">
+Appendix to Chapter III.</a></h4>
+
+
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/balance_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/balance.png" width = "120" height = "185"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">False Color Balance.</span> There is a
+widely accepted error that red, yellow, and blue are “primary,” although
+Brewster’s theory was long ago dropped when the elements of color vision
+proved to be <span class = "smallroman">RED</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN</span>, and <span class =
+"smallroman">VIOLET-BLUE</span>. The late Professor Rood called
+attention to this in Chapters VIII.&ndash;XI. of his book, “Modern
+Chromatics,” which appeared in 1879. Yet we find it very generally
+taught in school. Nor does the harm end there, for placing red, yellow,
+and blue equidistant in a circle, with orange, green, and purple as
+intermediates, the teacher goes on to state that opposite hues are
+complementary.</p>
+
+<table class = "inset1" summary = "formatted text">
+<tr>
+<td>Red is</td>
+<td>thus made the complement of</td>
+<td>Green,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Yellow</td>
+<td class = "center gap2">„ „</td>
+<td>Purple, and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Blue</td>
+<td class = "center gap2">„ „</td>
+<td>Orange.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, each of these statements is wrong, and, if tested by
+the mixture of colored lights or with Maxwell’s rotating discs, their
+falsity is evident.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that green is not the complement of red, nor
+purple of yellow, nor orange of blue, for neither one of these pairs
+unites as it should in a balanced neutrality, and a total test of the
+circle gives great excess of orange, showing that red
+<span class = "pagenum">50</span>
+and yellow usurp too great a portion of the circumference. Starting from
+a false basis, the Brewster theory can only lead to unbalanced and
+inharmonious effects of color.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental color sensations are <span class =
+"smallroman">RED</span>, <span class = "smallroman">GREEN</span>, and
+<span class = "smallroman">VIOLET-BLUE</span>.</p>
+
+<table class = "inset1" summary = "formatted text">
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Red</span> has for its</td>
+<td>true complement</td>
+<td class = "smallroman">BLUE-GREEN,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Green</td>
+<td class = "center gap2">„„</td>
+<td><span class = "smallroman">RED-PURPLE</span>, and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Violet-blue</span></td>
+<td class = "center gap2">„„</td>
+<td class = "smallroman">YELLOW,</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>all of the hues in the right-hand column being compound sensations.
+The sensation of green is not due to a mixture of yellow and blue, as
+the absorptive action of pigments might lead one to think: <span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN IS FUNDAMENTAL</span>, and not made by mixing any
+hues of the spectrum, while <span class = "smallroman">YELLOW IS NOT
+FUNDAMENTAL</span>, but caused by the mingled sensations of red and
+green. This is easily proved by a controlled spectrum, for all
+yellow-reds, yellows, and green-yellows can be matched by certain
+proportions of red and green light, all blue-greens, blues, and
+purple-blues can be obtained by the union of green and violet light,
+while purple-blue, purple, and red-purple result from the union of
+violet and red light. But there is no point where a mixture gives red,
+green, or violet-blue. They are the true primaries, whose mixtures
+produce all other hues.</p>
+
+<p>Studio and school-room practice still cling to the discredited
+theory, claiming that, if it fails to describe our color sensations, yet
+it may be called practically true of pigments, because a red, yellow,
+and blue pigment suffice to imitate most natural colors. This
+discrepancy between pigment mixture and retinal mixture becomes clear as
+soon as one learns the physical make-up and behavior of paints.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">51</span>
+
+<p><span class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/spectra_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/spectra.png" width = "102" height = "168"
+alt = "spectra of vermilion and emerald green"
+title = "spectra of vermilion and emerald green"></a></span>
+Spectral analysis shows that no pigment is a pure example of the
+dominant hue which it sends to the eye. Take, for example, the very
+chromatic pigments representing red and green, such as vermilion and
+emerald green. If each emitted a single pure hue free from trace of any
+other hue, then their mixture would appear yellow, as when spectral red
+and green unite. But, instead of yellow, their mixture produces a warm
+gray, called brown or “dull salmon,” and this is to be inferred from
+their spectra, where it is seen that vermilion emits some green and
+purple as well as its dominant color, while the green also sends some
+blue and red light to the eye.<a class = "tag" name = "tag20" id =
+"tag20" href = "#note20">20</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus stray hues from other parts of the spectrum tend to neutralize
+the yellow sensation, which would be strong if each of the pigments were
+pure in the spectral sense. Pigment absorption affects all palette
+mixtures, and, failing to obtain a satisfactory yellow by mixture of red
+and green, painters use original yellow pigments,&mdash;such as
+aureolin, cadmium, and lead chromate,&mdash;each of them also impure but
+giving a dominant sensation of yellow. Did the eye discriminate, as does
+the ear when it analyzes the separate tones of a chord, then we should
+recognize that yellow pigments emit both red and green rays.</p>
+
+<p>White light dispersed into a colored band by one prism, may have the
+process reversed by a second prism, so that the eye sees again only
+white light. But this would not be so, did not the balance of red,
+green, and violet-blue sensations remain undisturbed. All our ideas of
+color harmony are based upon this fundamental relation, and, if pigments
+are to render harmonious effects,
+<span class = "pagenum">52</span>
+we must learn to control their impurities so as to preserve a balance of
+red, green, and violet-blue.</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise, the excessive chroma and value of red and yellow pigments
+so overwhelm the lesser degrees of green and blue pigments that no
+balance is possible, and the colorist of fine perception must reject not
+alone the theoretical, but also the practical outcome of a
+“red-yellow-blue” theory.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the points raised in this discussion are rather subtle for
+students, and may well be left until they arise in a study of optics,
+but the teacher should grasp them clearly, so as not to be led into
+false statements about primary and complementary hues.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">53</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapIV" id = "chapIV">
+Chapter IV.</a><br>
+PRISMATIC COLOR.</h3>
+
+
+<h5>Pure color is seen in the spectrum of sunlight.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para87" id = "para87">(87)</a>
+The strongest sensation of color is gained in a darkened room, with a
+prism used to split a beam of sunlight into its various wave lengths.
+Through a narrow slit there enters a straight pencil of light which we
+are accustomed to think of as <i>white</i>, although it is a bundle of
+variously colored rays (or waves of ether) whose union and balance is so
+perfect that no single ray predominates.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para88" id = "para88">(88)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13" href = "images/fig13_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig13.png" width = "130" height = "111"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+Cover the narrow slit, and we are plunged in darkness. Admit the beam,
+and the eye feels a powerful contrast between the spot of light on the
+floor and its surrounding darkness. Place a triangular glass prism near
+the slit to intercept the beam of white light, and suddenly there
+appears on the opposite wall a band of brilliant colors. This delightful
+experiment rivets the eye by the beauty and purity of its hues. All
+other colors seem weak by comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Their weakness is due to impurity, for all pigments and dyes reflect
+portions of hues other than their dominant one, which tend to “gray” and
+diminish their chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para89" id = "para89">(89)</a>
+But prismatic color is pure, or very nearly so, because the shape of the
+glass refracts each hue, and separates it by the length
+<span class = "pagenum">54</span>
+of its ether wave. These waves have been measured, and science can name
+each hue by its wave length. Thus a certain red is known as M. 6867, and
+a certain green sensation is M. 5269.<a class = "tag" name = "tag21" id
+= "tag21" href = "#note21">21</a> Without attempting any scientific
+analysis of color, let it be said that Sir Isaac Newton made his series
+of experiments in 1687, and was privileged to name this color sequence
+by seven steps which he called red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet,
+and indigo. Later a scientist named Fraunhofer discovered fine black
+lines crossing the solar spectrum, and marked them with letters of the
+alphabet from a to&nbsp;h. These with the wave length serve to locate
+every hue and define every step in the sequence. Since Newton’s time it
+has been proved that only three of the spectral hues are <i>primary</i>;
+viz., a&nbsp;red, a&nbsp;green, and a violet-blue, while their mixture
+produces all other gradations. By receiving the spectrum on an opaque
+screen with fine slits that fit the red and green waves, so that they
+alone pass through, these two primary hues can be received on mirrors
+inclined at such an angle as to unite on another screen, where, instead
+of red or green, the eye sees only yellow.<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag22" id = "tag22" href = "#note22">22</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para90" id = "para90">(90)</a>
+A similar arrangement of slits and mirrors for the green and violet-blue
+proves that they unite to make blue, while a third experiment shows that
+the red and violet-blue can unite to make purple. So yellow, blue-green,
+and purple are called secondary
+<span class = "pagenum">55</span>
+hues because they result from the mixture of the three primaries, red,
+green, and violet-blue.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing these two color lists, we see that the “indigo” and
+“orange” of Sir Isaac Newton have been discarded. Both are indefinite,
+and refer to variable products of the vegetable kingdom. Violet is also
+borrowed from the same kingdom; and, in order to describe a violet, we
+say it is a purple violet or blue violet, as the case may be, just as we
+describe an orange as a red orange or a yellow orange. Their color
+difference is not expressed by the terms “orange” or “violet,” but by
+the words “red,” “yellow,” “blue,” or “purple,” all of which are true
+color names and arouse an unmixed color image.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para91" id = "para91">(91)</a>
+In the nursery a child learns to use the simple color names red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple. When familiarity with the color sphere makes
+him relate them to each other and place them between black and white by
+their degree of light and strength, there will be no occasion to revert
+to vegetables, animals, minerals, or the ever-varying hues of sea and
+sky to express his color sensations.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para92" id = "para92">(92)</a>
+Another experiment accentuates the difference between spectral and
+pigment color. When the spectrum is spread on the screen by the use of a
+prism, and a second prism is placed inverted beyond the first, it
+regathers the dispersed rays back into their original beam, making a
+white spot on the floor. This proves that all the colored rays of light
+combine to balance each other in whiteness. But if pigments which are
+the closest possible imitation of these hues are united on a painter’s
+palette, either by the brush or the knife, they <i>make gray, and not
+white</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para93" id = "para93">(93)</a>
+This is another illustration of the behavior of pigments, for, instead
+of uniting to form white, they form gray, which is a
+<span class = "pagenum">56</span>
+darkened or impure form of white; and, lest this should be attributed to
+a chemical reaction between the various matters that serve as pigments,
+the experiment can be carried out without allowing one pigment to touch
+another by using Maxwell discs, as will be shown in the next
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para94" id = "para94">(94)</a>
+Before leaving these prismatic colors, let us study them in the light of
+what has already been learned of color dimensions. Not only do they
+present different values, but also different chromas. Their values range
+from darkness at each end, where red and purple become visible, to a
+brightness in the greenish yellow, which is almost white. So on the
+color tree described in Chapter II., paragraph <a href =
+"#para34">34</a>, yellow has the highest branch, green is lower, red is
+below the middle, with blue and purple lower down, near black.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name = "para95" id = "para95">(95)</a>
+Then in chroma they range from the powerful stimulation of the red to
+the soothing purple, with green occupying an intermediate step. This is
+also given on the color tree by the length of its branches.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para96" id = "para96">(96)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15" href = "images/fig15_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig15.png" width = "111" height = "114"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+In Fig. 15 the vertical curve describes the values of the spectrum as
+they grade from red through yellow, green, blue, and purple. The
+horizontal curve describes the chromas of the spectrum in the same
+sequence; while the third curve leaning outward is obtained by uniting
+the first two by two planes at right angles to one another, and sums up
+the three qualities by a single descriptive line. Now the red and purple
+ends are far apart, and science forbids their junction because of their
+great difference in wave length. But the mind is prone to unite them in
+order to produce the red-purples which we see in clouds at sunset, in
+flowers and
+<span class = "pagenum">57</span>
+grapes and the amethyst. Indeed, it has been done unhesitatingly in most
+color schemes in order to supply the opposite of green.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para97" id = "para97">(97)</a>
+This gives a slanting circuit joining all the branch ends of the color
+tree, and has been likened to the rings of Saturn in Chapter&nbsp;I.,
+paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<h5>A prismatic color sphere.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para98" id = "para98">(98)</a>
+With a little effort of the imagination we can picture a prismatic color
+sphere, using only the colors of light. In a cylindrical chamber is hung
+a diaphanous ball similar to a huge soap bubble, which can display color
+on its surface without obscuring its interior. Then, at the proper
+points of the surrounding wall, three pure beams of colored light are
+admitted,&mdash;one red, another green, and the third violet-blue.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para99" id = "para99">(99)</a>
+They fall at proper levels on three sides of the sphere, while their
+intermediate gradations encircle the sphere with a complete spectrum
+plus the needed purple. As they penetrate the sphere, they unite to
+balance each other in neutrality. Pure whiteness is at the top, and, by
+some imaginary means their light gradually diminishes until they
+disappear in darkness below.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para100" id = "para100">(100)</a>
+This ideal color system is impossible in the present state of our
+knowledge and implements. Even were it possible, its immaterial hues
+could not serve to dye materials or paint pictures. Pigments are, and
+will in all probability continue to be, the practical agents of
+coloristic productions, however reluctant the scientist may be to accept
+them as the basis of a color system. It is true that they are chemically
+impure and imperfectly represent the colors of light. Some of them fade
+rapidly and undergo chemical change, as in the notable case of a green
+pigment tested
+<span class = "pagenum">58</span>
+by this measured system, which in a few weeks lost four steps of chroma,
+gained two steps of value, and swung into a bluer hue.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para101" id = "para101">(101)</a>
+But the color sphere to be next described is worked out with a few
+reliable pigments, mostly natural earths, whose fading is a matter of
+years and so slight as to be almost imperceptible. Besides, its
+principal hues are preserved in safe keeping by imperishable enamels,
+which can be used to correct any tendency of the pigments to distort the
+measured intervals of the color sphere.</p>
+
+<p>This meets the most serious objection to a pigment system. Without it
+a child has nothing tangible which he can keep in constant view to
+imitate and memorize. With it he builds up a mental image of measured
+relations that describe every color in nature, including the fleeting
+hues of the rainbow, although they appear but for a moment at rare
+intervals. Finally, it furnishes a simple notation which records every
+color sensation by a letter and two numerals. With the enlargement of
+his mental power he will unite these in a comprehensive grasp of the
+larger relations of color.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note20" id = "note20" href = "#tag20">20.</a>
+See Rood, Chapter VII., on Color by Absorption.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note21" id = "note21" href = "#tag21">21.</a>
+See Micron in Glossary.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note22" id = "note22" href = "#tag22">22.</a>
+The fact that the spectral union of red and green makes yellow is a
+matter of surprise to practical workers in color who are familiar with
+the action of pigments, but unfamiliar with spectrum analysis. Yellow
+seems to them a primary and indispensable color, because it cannot be
+made by the union of red and green pigments. Another surprise is
+awaiting them when they hear that the yellow and blue of the spectrum
+make <i>white</i>, for all their experience with paints goes to prove
+that yellow and blue unite to form green. Attention is called to this
+difference between the mixture of colored light and of colored pigments,
+not with the idea of explaining it here, but to emphasize their
+difference; for in the next chapter we shall describe the practical
+making of a color sphere with pigments, which would be quite
+impractical, could we have only the colors of the spectrum to work with.
+See Appendix to preceding chapter.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">59</span>
+<h4><a name = "appIV" id = "appIV">
+Appendix to Chapter IV.</a></h4>
+
+
+<h5>Children’s Color Studies.</h5>
+
+<p>These reproductions of children’s work are given as proof that color
+charm and good taste may be cultivated from the start.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Five Middle Hues</span> are first taught by
+the use of special crayons, and later with water colors. They represent
+the equator of the color sphere (see <a href = "#plateI">Plate
+I.</a>),&mdash;a circle midway between the extremes of color-light and
+color-strength,&mdash;and are known as <span class = "smallcaps">Middle
+Red</span>, <span class = "smallcaps">Middle Yellow</span>, <span class
+= "smallcaps">Middle Green</span>, <span class = "smallcaps">Middle
+Blue</span>, and <span class = "smallcaps">Middle Purple</span>.</p>
+
+<p>These are starting-points for training the eye to measure regular
+scales of Value and Chroma.<a class = "tag" name = "tag23" id = "tag23"
+href = "#note23">23</a> Only with such a trained judgment is it safe to
+undertake the use of strong colors.<a class = "tag" name = "tag24" id =
+"tag24" href = "#note24">24</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Beginners should avoid Strong Color.</i> Extreme red, yellow, and
+blue are discordant. (They “shriek” and “swear.” Mark Twain calls
+Roxana’s gown “a volcanic eruption of infernal splendors.”) Yet there
+are some who claim that the child craves them, and must have them to
+produce a thrill. So also does he crave candies, matches, and the
+carving-knife. He covets the trumpet, fire-gong, and bass-drum for their
+“thrill”; but who would think them necessary
+<span class = "pagenum">60</span>
+to the musical training of the ear? Like the blazing bill-board and the
+circus wagon, they may be suffered out-of-doors; but such boisterous
+sounds and color sprees are unfit for the school-room.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quiet Color is the Mark of Good Taste.</i> Refinement in dress and
+the furnishings of the home is attractive, but we shrink from those who
+are “loud” in their speech or their clothing. If we wish our children to
+become well-bred, is it logical to begin by encouraging barbarous
+tastes? Their young minds are very open to suggestion. They quickly
+adopt our standards, and the blame must fall upon us if they acquire
+crude color habits. Yellow journalism and rag-time tunes will not help
+their taste in speech or song, nor will violent hues improve their taste
+in matters of color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Balance of Color is to be sought.</i> Artists and decorators are
+well aware of a fact that slowly dawns upon the student; namely, that
+color harmony is due to the preservation of a subtle balance and
+impossible by the use of extremes. This balance of color resides more
+<i>within</i> the spherical surface of this system than in the excessive
+chromas which project beyond. It is futile to encourage children in
+efforts to rival the poppy or buttercup, even with the strongest
+pigments obtainable. Their sunlit points give pleasure because they are
+surrounded and balanced by blue ether and wide green fields. Were these
+conditions reversed, so that the flowers appeared as little spots of
+blue or green in great fields of blazing red, orange, and yellow, our
+pained eyes would be shut in disgust.</p>
+
+<p>The painter knows that pigments <i>cannot</i> rival the brilliancy of
+the buttercup and poppy, enhanced by their surroundings. What is more,
+he does not care to attempt it. Nor does the musician wish to imitate
+the screech of a siren or the explosion of a gun. These are not subjects
+for art. Harmonious sounds are the study of the musician, and tuned
+colors are the materials of the colorist. Corot
+<span class = "pagenum">61</span>
+in landscape, and Titian, Velasquez, and Whistler in figure painting,
+show us that Nature’s richest effects and most beautiful color are
+enveloped in an atmosphere of gray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beauty of Color lies in Tempered Relations.</i> Music rarely
+touches the extreme range of sound, and harmonious color rarely uses the
+extremes of color-light or color-strength. Regular scales in the middle
+register are first given to train the ear, and so should the eye be
+first familiarized with medium degrees of color.</p>
+
+<p>This system provides measured scales, established by special
+instruments, and is able to select the middle points of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple as a basis for comparing and relating all
+colors. These five middle colors form a Chromatic Tuning Fork. (See page
+70.) It is far better that children should first become familiar with
+these tuned color intervals which are harmonious in themselves rather
+than begin by blundering among unrelated degrees of harsh and violent
+color. Who would think of teaching the musical scale with a piano out of
+tune?</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tuning of Color cannot be left to Personal Whim.</i> The wide
+discrepancies of red, yellow, and blue, which have been falsely taught
+as primary colors, can no more be tuned by a child than the musical
+novice can tune his instrument. Each of these hues has three variable
+factors (see page 14, paragraph <a href = "#para14">14</a>), and
+scientific tests are necessary to measure and relate their uneven
+degrees of Hue, Value, and Chroma.</p>
+
+<p>Visual estimates of color, without the help of any standard for
+comparison, are continually distorted by doubt, guess-work, and the
+fatigue of the eye. Hardly two persons can agree in the intelligible
+description of color. Not only do individuals differ, but the same eye
+will vary in its estimates from day to day. A&nbsp;frequent assumption
+that all strong pigments are equal in chroma, is
+<span class = "pagenum">62</span>
+far from the truth, and involves beginners in many mishaps. Thus the
+strongest blue-green, chromium sesquioxide, is but half the chroma of
+its red complement, the sulphuret of mercury. Yet ignorance is
+constantly leading to their unbalanced use. Indeed, some are still
+unaware that they are the complements of each other.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag25" id = "tag25" href = "#note25">25</a></p>
+
+<p>It is evident that the fundamental scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma
+must be established by scientific measures, not by personal bias. This
+system is unique in the possession of such scales, made possible by the
+devising of special instruments for the measurement of color, and can
+therefore be trusted as a permanent basis for training the color
+sense.</p>
+
+<p>The examples in Plates II. and III. show how successfully the tuned
+crayons, cards, and water colors of this system lead a child to fine
+appreciations of color harmony.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illustration plate">
+<a name = "plateII" id = "plateII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate2.jpg" width = "401" height = "578"
+alt = "PLATE 2. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."
+title = "PLATE 2. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."></p>
+
+<h4>PLATE II.<br>
+Color Studies with TUNED CRAYONS<br>
+in the Lower Grades.</h4>
+
+<p>Children have made every example on this plate, with no other
+material than the five crayons of middle hue, tempered with gray and
+black. A&nbsp;Color Sphere is always kept in the room for reference, and
+five color balls to match the five middle hues are placed in the hands
+of the youngest pupils. Starting with these middle points in the scales
+of Value and Chroma, they learn to estimate rightly all lighter and
+darker values, all weaker and stronger chromas, and gradually build up a
+disciplined judgment of color.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">63</span>
+<p>Each study can be made the basis of many variations by a simple
+change of one color element, as suggested in the text.</p>
+
+<div class = "inset1">
+<p>1. Butterfly. Yellow and black crayon. Vary by using any single
+crayon with black.</p>
+
+<p>2. Dish. Red crayon, blue and green crayons for back and foreground.
+Vary by using the two opposites of any color chosen for the dish and
+omitting the two neighboring colors. See No.&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p>3. Hiawatha’s canoe. Yellow crayon, with rim and name in green. Vary
+color of canoe, keeping the rim a neighboring color. See No.&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p>4. Color-circle. Gray crayon for centre, and five crayons spaced
+equidistant. This gives the invariable order, red, yellow, green, blue,
+purple. <i>Never use all five in a single design.</i> Either use a color
+and its two neighbors or a color and its two opposites. By mingling
+touches of any two neighbors, the intermediates are made and named
+yellow-red (orange), green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue (violet), and
+red-purple. Abbreviated, the circle reads R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB,
+P,&nbsp;RP.</p>
+
+<p>5. Rosette. Red cross in centre, green leaves: blue field, black
+outline. Vary as in No.&nbsp;2.</p>
+
+<p>6. Rosette. Green centre and edge of leaves, purple field and black
+accents. Vary color of centre, keeping field two colors distant.</p>
+
+<p>7. Plaid. Use any three crayons with black. Vary the trio.</p>
+
+<p>8. Folding screen. Yellow field (lightly applied), green and black
+edge. Make lighter and darker values of each color, and arrange in
+scales graded from black to white.</p>
+
+<p>9. Rug. Light red field with solid red centre, border pattern and
+edges of gray. This is called self-color. Change to each of the
+crayons.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">64</span>
+<p>10. Rug. Light yellow field and solid centre, with purple and black
+in border design. Vary by change of ground, keeping design two colors
+distant and darkened with black.</p>
+
+<p>11. Lattice. Yellow with black: alternate green and blue lozenges.
+Vary by keeping the lozenges of two neighboring colors, but one color
+removed from that of the lattice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For principles involved in these color groups, see <a href =
+"#chapIII">Chapter III</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illustration plate">
+<a name = "plateIII" id = "plateIII"> </a>
+<img src = "images/plate3.jpg" width = "407" height = "582"
+alt = "PLATE 3. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."
+title = "PLATE 3. / Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell."></p>
+
+<h4>PLATE III.<br>
+Color Studies with TUNED WATER COLORS<br>
+in the Upper Grades.</h4>
+
+<p>Previous work with measured scales, made by the tuned crayons and
+tested by reference to the color sphere, have so trained the color
+judgment that children may now be trusted with more flexible material.
+They have memorized the equable degrees of color on the equator of the
+sphere, and found how lighter colors may balance darker colors, how
+small areas of stronger chroma may be balanced by larger masses of
+weaker chroma, and in general gained a disciplined color sense. Definite
+impressions and clear thinking have taken the place of guess-work and
+blundering.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, before reaching the secondary school, they are put in
+possession of the color faculty by a system and notation similar to that
+which was devised centuries ago for the musical sense. No system,
+however logical, will produce the artist, but every artist needs some
+systematic training at the outset, and this simple method by measured
+scales is believed to be the best yet devised.</p>
+
+<p>Each example on this plate may be made the basis of many variants, by
+small changes in the color steps, as suggested in the
+<span class = "pagenum">65</span>
+text, and further elaborated in <a href = "#chapVI">Chapter VI</a>.
+Indeed, the studies reproduced on Plates II. and III. are but a handful
+among hundreds of pleasing results produced in a single school.<a class
+= "tag" name = "tag26" id = "tag26" href = "#note26">26</a>
+
+<div class = "inset1">
+<p>1. Pattern. Purple and green: the two united and thinned with water
+will give the ground. Vary with any other color pair.</p>
+
+<p>2. Pattern. Figure in middle red, with darker blue-green accent.
+Ground of middle yellow, grayed with slight addition of the red and
+green. Vary with purple in place of blue-green.</p>
+
+<p>3. Japanese teapot. Middle red, with background of lighter yellow and
+foreground of grayed middle yellow.</p>
+
+<p>4. Variant on No. 3. Middle yellow, with slight addition of green.
+Foreground the same, with more red, and background of middle gray.</p>
+
+<p>5. Group. Background of yellow-red, lighter vase in yellow-green, and
+darker vase of green, with slight addition of black. Vary by inversion
+of the colors in ground and darker vase.</p>
+
+<p>6. Wall decoration. Frieze pattern made of cat-tails and
+leaves,&mdash;the leaves of blue-green with black, tails of yellow-red
+with black, and ground of the two colors united and thinned with water.
+Wall of blue-green, slightly grayed by additions of the two colors in
+the frieze. Dado could be a match of the cat-tails slightly grayer.
+<i>See <a href = "#fig23">Fig. 23</a>, page 82.</i></p>
+
+<p>7. Group. Foreground in purple-blue, grayed with black. Vase of
+purple-red, and background in lighter yellow-red, grayed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>For analysis of the groups and means of recording them, see <a href =
+"#chapIII">Chapter III</a>.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note23" id = "note23" href = "#tag23">23.</a>
+See Century Dictionary for definition of chroma. Under the word “color”
+will be found definitions of Primary, Complementary, Constants (chroma,
+luminosity, and hue), and the Young-Helmholtz theory of
+color-sensation.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note24" id = "note24" href = "#tag24">24.</a>
+It must not be assumed because so much stress is laid upon quiet and
+harmonious color that this system excludes the more powerful degrees. To
+do so would forfeit its claim to completeness. A&nbsp;Color Atlas in
+preparation displays all known degrees of pigment color arranged in
+measured scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note25" id = "note25" href = "#tag25">25.</a>
+See <a href = "#appIII">Appendix to Chapter III.</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "note26" id = "note26" href = "#tag26">26.</a>
+The Pope School, Somerville, Mass.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">66</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapV" id = "chapV">
+Chapter V.</a><br>
+A PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE.<a class = "tag" name = "tag27" id = "tag27" href
+= "#note27">27</a></h3>
+
+
+<h5>How to make a color sphere with pigments.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para102" id = "para102">(102)</a>
+The preceding chapters have built up an ideal color solid, in which
+every sensation of color finds its place and is clearly named by its
+degree of hue, value, and chroma.</p>
+
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16" href = "images/fig16_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig16.png" width = "106" height = "113"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+
+<p>It has been shown that the neutral centre of the system is a
+balancing point for all colors, that a line through this centre finds
+opposite colors which balance and complement each other; and we are now
+ready to make a practical application, carrying out these ideal
+relations of color as far as pigments will permit in a color sphere<a
+class = "tag" href = "#note27">27</a> (Fig.&nbsp;16).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para103" id = "para103">(103)</a>
+The materials are quite simple. First a colorless globe, mounted so as
+to spin freely on its axis. Then a measured scale of value, specially
+devised for this purpose, obtained by the daylight photometer.<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag28" id = "tag28" href = "#note28">28</a> Next a set of
+carefully chosen pigments, whose reasonable permanence has been tested
+by long use, and which are prepared so that they will not glisten when
+spread on the surface of the globe, but give a uniformly mat surface.
+A&nbsp;glass palette, palette knife, and some fine brushes complete the
+list.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para104" id = "para104">(104)</a>
+Here is a list of the paints arranged in pairs to represent
+<span class = "pagenum">67</span>
+the five sets of opposite hues described in Chapter III., paragraphs <a
+href = "#para61">61&ndash;63</a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class = "inline smaller" summary = "color pairs">
+<tr>
+<th abbr = "pairs"><i>Color Pairs.</i></th>
+<th abbr = "pigments"><i>Pigments Used.</i></th>
+<th abbr = "chemicals"><i>Chemical Nature.</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>Red<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp;and</td>
+<td>Venetian red.</td>
+<td>Calcined native earth.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Blue-green.</td>
+<td>Viridian and Cobalt.</td>
+<td>Chromium sesquioxide.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Yellow<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp;and</td>
+<td>Raw Sienna.</td>
+<td>Native earth.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Purple-blue.</td>
+<td>Ultramarine.</td>
+<td>Artificial product.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Green<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp;and</td>
+<td>Emerald green.</td>
+<td>Arsenate of copper.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Red-purple.</td>
+<td>Purple madder.</td>
+<td>Extract of the madder plant.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Blue<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp;and</td>
+<td>Cobalt.</td>
+<td>Oxide of cobalt with alumina.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Yellow-red.</td>
+<td>Orange cadmium.</td>
+<td>Sulphide of cadmium.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Purple<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp;and</td>
+<td>Madder and cobalt.</td>
+<td>See each pigment above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Green-yellow.</td>
+<td>Emerald green and Sienna.</td>
+<td>See each pigment above.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name = "para105" id = "para105">(105)</a>
+These paints have various degrees of hue, value, and chroma, but can be
+tempered by additions of the neutrals, zinc white and ivory black, until
+each is brought to a middle value and tested on the value scale. After
+each pair has been thus balanced, they are painted in their appropriate
+spaces on the globe, forming an equator of balanced hues.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para106" id = "para106">(106)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17" href = "images/fig17_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig17.png" width = "104" height = "95"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The method of proving this balance has already been suggested in Chapter
+IV., paragraph <a href = "#para93">93</a>. It consists of an ingenious
+implement devised by Clerk-Maxwell, which gives us a result of mixing
+colors without the chemical risks of letting them come in contact, and
+also measures accurately the quantity of each which is used
+(Fig.&nbsp;17).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para107" id = "para107">(107)</a>
+This is called a Maxwell disc, and is nothing more than
+<span class = "pagenum">68</span>
+a circle of firm cardboard, pierced with a central hole to fit the
+spindle of a rotary motor, and with a radial slit from rim to centre, so
+that another disc may be slid over the first to cover any desired
+fraction of its surface. Let us paint one of these discs with Venetian
+red and the other with viridian and cobalt, the first pair in the list
+of pigments to be used on the globe.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para108" id = "para108">(108)</a>
+Having dried these two discs, one is combined with the other on the
+motor shaft so that each color occupies half the circle. As soon as the
+motor starts, the two colors are no longer distinguished, and rapid
+rotation melts them so perfectly that the eye sees a new color, due to
+their mixture on the retina. This new color is a reddish gray, showing
+that the red is more chromatic than the blue-green. But by stopping the
+motor and sliding the green disc to cover more of the red one, there
+comes a point where rotation melts them into a perfectly neutral gray.
+No hint of either hue remains, and the pair is said to balance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para109" id = "para109">(109)</a>
+Since this balance has been obtained by <i>unequal areas</i> of the two
+pigments, it must compensate for a lack of equal chroma in the hues (see
+paragraphs <a href = "#para76">76, 77</a>); and, to measure this
+inequality, a&nbsp;slightly larger disc, with decimal divisions on its
+rim, is placed back of the two painted ones. If this scale shows the red
+as occupying 3⅓ parts of the area, while blue-green occupies 6⅔ parts,
+then the blue-green must be only half as chromatic as the red, since it
+takes twice as much to produce the balance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para110" id = "para110">(110)</a>
+The red is then grayed (diminished in chroma by additions of a middle
+gray) until it can occupy half the circle, with blue-green on the
+remaining half, and still produce neutrality when mixed by rotation.
+Each disc now reads 5 on the decimal scale. Lest the graying of red
+should have disturbed its value, it is again tested on the photometric
+scale, and reads 4.7, showing it has been
+<span class = "pagenum">69</span>
+slightly darkened by the graying process. A&nbsp;little white is
+therefore added until its value is restored to&nbsp;5.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para111" id = "para111">(111)</a>
+The two opposites are now completely balanced, for they are equal in
+value (5), equal in chroma (5), and have proved their equality as
+complements by uniting in equal areas to form a neutral mixture. It only
+remains to apply them in their proper position on the sphere.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para112" id = "para112">(112)</a>
+A band is traced around the equator, divided in ten equal spaces, and
+lettered R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP (see Fig. 18). This
+balanced red and blue-green are applied with the brush to spaces marked
+R and BG, care being taken to fill, but not to overstep the bounds, and
+the color laid absolutely flat, that no unevenness of value or chroma
+may disturb the balance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para113" id = "para113">(113)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18" href = "images/fig18_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig18.png" width = "101" height = "103"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The next pair, represented by Raw Sienna and Ultramarine, is similarly
+brought to middle value, balanced by equal areas on the Maxwell discs,
+and, when correct in each quality, is painted in the spaces Y and PB.
+Emerald Green and Purple Madder, which form the next pigment pair, are
+similarly tempered, proved, and applied, followed by the two remaining
+pairs, until the equator of the globe presents its ten equal steps of
+middle hues.</p>
+
+<h5>An equator of ten balanced hues.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para114" id = "para114">(114)</a>
+Now comes the total test of this circuit of balanced hues by rotation of
+the sphere. As it gains speed, the colors flash less and less, and
+finally melt into a middle gray of perfect neutrality. Had it failed to
+produce this gray and shown a tinge of any hue still persisting, we
+should say that the persistent hue was in excess, or, conversely, that
+its opposite hue was deficient in chroma, and failed to preserve its
+share in the balance.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">70</span>
+<p><a name = "para115" id = "para115">(115)</a>
+For instance, had rotation discovered the persistence of reddish gray,
+it would have proved the red too strong, or its opposite, blue-green,
+too weak, and we should have been forced to retrace our steps, applying
+a correction until neutrality was established by the rotation test.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para116" id = "para116">(116)</a>
+This is the practical demonstration of the assertion (Chapter&nbsp;I.,
+paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para8">8</a>) that a <i>color has three
+dimensions which can be measured</i>. Each of these ten middle hues has
+proved its right to a definite place on the color globe by its
+measurements of value and chroma. Being of equal chroma, all are
+equidistant from the neutral centre, and, being equal in value, all are
+equally removed from the poles. If the warm hues (red and yellow) or the
+cool hues (blue and green) were in excess, the rotation test of the
+sphere would fail to produce grayness, and so detect its lack of
+balance.<a class = "tag" name = "tag29" id = "tag29" href =
+"#note29">29</a></p>
+
+<h5>A chromatic tuning fork.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para117" id = "para117">(117)</a>
+The five principal steps in this color equator are made in permanent
+enamel and carefully safeguarded, so that, if the pigments painted on
+the globe should change or become soiled, it could be at once detected
+and set right. These five are middle red (so called because midway
+between white and black, as well as midway between our strongest red and
+the neutral centre), middle yellow, middle green, middle blue, and
+middle purple. They may be called the <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMATIC TUNING FORK</span>, for they serve to establish
+the pitch of colors, as the musical tuning fork preserves the pitch of
+sounds.</p>
+
+<h5>Completion of a pigment color sphere.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para118" id = "para118">(118)</a>
+When the chromatic tuning fork has thus been obtained,
+<span class = "pagenum">71</span>
+the completion of the globe is only a matter of patience, for the same
+method can be applied at any level in the scale of value, and a new
+circuit of balanced hues made to conform with its position between the
+poles of white and black.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para119" id = "para119">(119)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19" href = "images/fig19_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig19.png" width = "108" height = "94"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+The surface above and below the equatorial band is set off by parallels
+to match the photometric scale, making nine bands or value zones in all,
+of which the equator is fifth, the black pole being 0 and the white
+pole&nbsp;10.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para120" id = "para120">(120)</a>
+Ten meridians carry the equatorial hues across all these value zones and
+trace the gradation of each hue through a complete scale from black to
+white, marked by their values, as shown in paragraph <a href =
+"#para68">68</a>. Thus the red scale is R<sup>1</sup>, R<sup>2</sup>,
+R<sup>3</sup>, R<sup>4</sup>, R<sup>5</sup> (middle red), R<sup>6</sup>,
+R<sup>7</sup>, R<sup>8</sup>, and R<sup>9</sup>, and similarly with each
+of the other hues. When the circle of hues corresponding to each level
+has been applied and tested, the entire surface of the globe is spread
+with a logical system of color scales, and the eye gratified with
+regular sequences which move by measured steps in each direction.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para121" id = "para121">(121)</a>
+Each meridian traces a scale of value for the hue in which it lies. Each
+parallel traces a scale of hue for the value at whose level it is drawn.
+Any oblique path across these scales traces a regular sequence, each
+step combining change of hue with a change of value and chroma. The more
+this path approaches the vertical, the less are its changes of hue and
+the more its changes of value and chroma; while, the nearer it comes to
+the horizontal, the less are its changes of value and chroma, while the
+greater become its changes of hue. Of these two oblique paths the first
+may be called that of a Luminist, or painter like Rembrandt, whose
+canvases present great contrasts of light and shade, while the second
+<span class = "pagenum">72</span>
+is that of the Colorist, such as Titian, whose work shows great fulness
+of hues without the violent extremes of white and black.</p>
+
+<h5>Total balance of the sphere tested by rotation on any desired
+axis.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para122" id = "para122">(122)</a>
+Not only does the mount of the color sphere permit its rotation on the
+vertical axis (white-black), but it is so hung that it may be spun on
+the ends of any desired axis, as, for instance, that joining our first
+color pair, red and blue-green. With this pair as poles of rotation,
+a&nbsp;new equator is traced through all the values of purple on one
+side and of green-yellow on the other, which the rotation test melts in
+a perfect balance of middle gray, proving the correctness of these
+values. In the same way it may be hung and tested on successive axes,
+until the total balance of the entire spherical series is proved.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para123" id = "para123">(123)</a>
+But this color system does not cease with the colors spread on the
+surface of a globe.<a class = "tag" name = "tag30" id = "tag30" href =
+"#note30">30</a> The first illustration of an orange filled with color
+was chosen for the purpose of stimulating the imagination to follow a
+surface color inward to the neutral axis by regular decrease of chroma.
+A&nbsp;slice at any level of the solid, as at value 8 (<a href =
+"#fig10">Fig. 10</a>), shows each hue of that level passing by even
+steps of increasing grayness to the neutral gray N<sup>8</sup> of the
+axis. In the case of red at this level, it is easily described by the
+notation R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>3</sub>, R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>2</sub>,
+R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>1</sub>, of which the initial and upper numerals do
+not change, but the lower numeral traces loss of chroma by 3, 2, and 1
+to the neutral axis.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para124" id = "para124">(124)</a>
+And there are stronger chromas of red outside the surface, which can be
+written R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>4</sub>, R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>5</sub>,
+R<sup>8</sup>/<sub>6</sub>, etc. Indeed, our color measurements discover
+such differences of chroma in the various pigments used, that the color
+tree referred to in paragraphs <a href = "#para34">34, 35</a>, is
+necessary
+<span class = "pagenum">73</span>
+to bring before the eye their maximum chromas, most of which are well
+outside the spherical shell and at various levels of value. One way to
+describe the color sphere is to suggest that a color tree, the intervals
+between whose irregular branches are filled with appropriate color, can
+be placed in a turning lathe and turned down until the color maxima are
+removed, thus producing a color solid no larger than the chroma of its
+weakest pigment (<a href = "#fig2">Fig.&nbsp;2</a>).</p>
+
+<h5>Charts of the color solid.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para125" id = "para125">(125)</a>
+Thus it becomes evident that, while the color sphere is a valuable help
+to the child in conceiving color relations, in uniting the three scales
+of color measure, and in furnishing with its mount an excellent test of
+the theory of color balance, yet it is always restricted to the chroma
+of its weakest color, the surplus chromas of all other colors being
+thought of as enormous mountains built out at various levels to reach
+the maxima of our pigments.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para126" id = "para126">(126)</a>
+The complete color solid is, therefore, of irregular shape, with
+mountains and valleys, corresponding to the inequalities of pigments. To
+display these inequalities to the eye, we must prepare cross sections or
+charts of the solid, some horizontal, some vertical, and others
+oblique.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para127" id = "para127">(127)</a>
+Such a set of charts forms an atlas of the color solid, enabling one to
+see any color in its relation to all other colors, and name it by its
+degree of hue, value, and chroma. Fig. 20 is a horizontal chart of all
+colors which present middle value (5), and describes by an uneven
+contour the chroma of every hue at this level. The dotted fifth circle
+is the equator of the color sphere, whose principal hues,
+R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>. Y<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>,
+G<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, B<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, and
+P<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, form the chromatic tuning fork, paragraph <a
+href = "#para117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">74</span>
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/fig20_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig20.png" width = "359" height = "248"
+alt = "Chart of Middle Value 5 / Showing Unequal Chroma in circle of Hues"
+title = "Chart of Middle Value 5 / Showing Unequal Chroma in circle of Hues"></a>
+
+<p><a name = "para128" id = "para128">(128)</a>
+In this single chart the eye readily distinguishes some three hundred
+different colors, each of which may be written by its hue, value, and
+chroma. And even the slightest variation of one of them can be defined.
+Thus, if the principal red were to fade slightly, so that it was a
+trifle lighter and a trifle weaker than the enamel, it would be written
+R<sup>5.1</sup>/<sub>4.9</sub>, showing it had lightened by 1 per cent.
+and weakened by 1 per cent. The discrimination made possible by this
+decimal notation is much finer than our present visual limit. Its use
+will stimulate finer perception of color.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para129" id = "para129">(129)</a>
+Such a very elementary sketch of the Color Solid and Color Atlas, which
+is all that can be given in the confines of this small book, will be
+elsewhere presented on a larger and more complete scale. It should be
+contrasted with the ideal form composed of prismatic colors, suggested
+in the last chapter, paragraphs
+<span class = "pagenum">75</span>
+<a href = "#para98">98, 99</a>, which was shown to be impracticable, but
+whose ideal conditions it follows as far as the limitations of pigments
+permit.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para130" id = "para130">(130)</a>
+Besides its value in education as setting all our color notions in
+order, and supplying a simple method for their clear expression, it
+promises to do away with much of the misunderstanding that accompanies
+the every-day use of color.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para131" id = "para131">(131)</a>
+Popular color names are incongruous, irrational, and often ludicrous.
+One must smile in reading the list of 25 steps in a scale of blue, made
+by Schiffer-Muller in 1772:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class = "inline smaller" summary = "shades of blue">
+<tr>
+<td>A.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>White pure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>White silvery or pearly.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>White milky.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>B.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>Bluish white.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>Pearly white.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>Watery white.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>C.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Blue being born.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>D.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Blue dying or pale.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>E.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Mignon blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>F.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Celestial blue, or sky-color.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>G.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>Azure, or ultramarine.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>Complete or perfect blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>Fine or queen blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>H.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Covert blue or turquoise.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>King blue (deep).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>J.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Light brown blue or indigo.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>K.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>Persian blue or woad flower.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>Forge or steel blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>Livid blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>L.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>Blackish blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>Hellish blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>Black-blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>M.</td>
+<td><i>a.</i></td>
+<td>Blue-black or charcoal.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>b.</i></td>
+<td>Velvet black.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><i>c.</i></td>
+<td>Jet black.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The advantage of spacing these 25 colors in 13 groups, some with
+three and others with but one example, is not apparent; nor why
+ultramarine should be several steps above turquoise, for the reverse is
+generally true. Besides which the hue of turquoise is greenish, while
+that of ultramarine is purplish, but the list cannot show this; and the
+remarkable statement that one kind of blue is “hellish,” while another
+is “celestial,” should rest upon an experience that few can claim.
+Failing to define color-value and color-hue, the list gives no hint of
+color-strength, except at
+<span class = "pagenum">76</span>
+C and D, where one kind of blue is “dying” when the next is “being
+born,” which not inaptly describes the color memory of many a person.
+Finally, it assures us that Queen blue is “fine” and King blue is
+“deep.”</p>
+
+<p>This year the fashionable shades are “burnt onion” and “fresh
+spinach.” The florists talk of a “pink violet” and a “green pink.”
+A&nbsp;maker of inks describes the red as a “true crimson scarlet,”
+which is a contradiction in terms. These and a host of other names
+borrowed from the most heterogeneous sources, become outlawed as soon as
+the simple color terms and measures of this system are adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Color anarchy is replaced by systematic color description.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note27" id = "note27" href = "#tag27">27.</a>
+Patented Jan. 9, 1900.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note28" id = "note28" href = "#tag28">28.</a>
+See paragraph <a href = "#para65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note29" id = "note29" href = "#tag29">29.</a>
+Such a test would have exposed the excess of warm color in the schemes
+of Runge and Chevreul, as shown in the Appendix to this chapter.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note30" id = "note30" href = "#tag30">30.</a>
+No color is excluded from this system, but the excess and inequalities
+of pigment chroma are traced in the Color Atlas.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">77</span>
+<h4><a name = "appV" id = "appV">
+Appendix to Chapter V.</a></h4>
+
+
+<h5>Color schemes based on Brewster’s mistaken theory.</h5>
+
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/cylinder_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/cylinder.png" width = "98" height = "186"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+
+<p>Runge, of Hamburg (1810), suggested that red, yellow, and blue be
+placed equidistant around the equator of a sphere, with white and black
+at opposite poles. As the yellow was very light and the blue very dark,
+any coherency in the value scales of red, yellow, and blue was
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Chevreul, of Paris (1861), seeking uniform color scales for his
+workmen at the Gobelins, devised a hollow cylinder built up of ten color
+circles. The upper circle had red, yellow, and blue spaced equidistant,
+and, as in Runge’s solid, yellow was very light and blue very dark. Each
+circle was then made “one-tenth” darker than the next above, until black
+was reached at the base. Although each circle was supposed to lie
+horizontally, only the black lowest circle presents a level of uniform
+values.</p>
+
+<p>Yellow values increase their luminosity thrice as fast as purple
+values, so that each circle should tilt at an increasing angle, and the
+upper circle of strongest colors be inclined at 60° to the black base.
+Besides this fault shared with Runge’s sphere, it falls into another by
+not diminishing the size of the lower circles where added black
+diminishes the chroma.</p>
+
+<p>Desire to make colors fit a chosen contour, and the absence of
+<span class = "pagenum">78</span>
+measuring instruments, cause these schemes to ignore the facts of color
+relation. Like ancient maps made to satisfy a conqueror, they amuse by
+their distortion.</p>
+
+<p>Brewster’s mistaken theory underlies these schemes, as is also the
+case with Froebel’s gifts, whose color balls continue to give wrong
+notions at the very threshold of color education. As pointed out in the
+<a href = "#appIII">Appendix to Chapter III.</a>, the “red-yellow-blue”
+theory inevitably spreads the warm field of yellow-red too far, and
+contracts the blue field, so that balance of color is rendered
+impossible, as illustrated in the gaudy chromo and flaming
+bill-board.</p>
+
+<p>These schemes are criticised by Rood as “not only in the main
+arbitrary, but also vague”; and, although Chevreul’s charts were
+published by the government in most elaborate form, their usefulness is
+small. Interest in the growth of the present system, because of its
+measured character, led Professor Rood to give assistance in the tests,
+and at his request a color sphere was made for the Physical Cabinet at
+Columbia.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">79</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapVI" id = "chapVI">
+Chapter VI.</a><br>
+COLOR NOTATION.</h3>
+
+
+<h5>Suggestion of a chromatic score.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para132" id = "para132">(132)</a>
+The last chapter traced a series of steps leading to the construction of
+a practical color sphere. Each color was tested by appropriate
+instruments to assure its degree of hue, value, and chroma, before being
+placed in position. Then the total sphere was tested to detect any lack
+of balance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para133" id = "para133">(133)</a>
+Each color was also <i>written</i> by a letter and two numerals, showing
+its place in the three scales of hue, value, and chroma. This naturally
+suggests, not only a record of each separate color sensation, but also a
+union of these records in series and groups to form a <i>color
+score</i>, similar to the musical score by which the measured relations
+of sound are recorded.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para134" id = "para134">(134)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21" href = "images/fig21_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig21.png" width = "103" height = "104"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+A very simple form of color score may be easily imagined as a
+transparent envelope wrapped around the equator of the sphere, and
+forming a vertical cylinder (Fig. 21). On the envelope the equator
+traces a horizontal centre line, which is at 5 of the <i>value
+scale</i>, with zones 6, 7, 8, and 9 as parallels above, and the zones
+4, 3, 2, and 1 below. Vertical lines are drawn through ten equidistant
+points on this centre line, corresponding with the divisions of the
+<i>hue scale</i>, and marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P,
+and&nbsp;RP.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">80</span>
+<p><a name = "para135" id = "para135">(135)</a>
+The transparent envelope is thus divided into one hundred compartments,
+which provide for ten steps of value in each of the ten middle colors.
+Now, if we cut open this envelope along one of the verticals,&mdash;as,
+for instance, red-purple (RP), it may be spread out, making a flat chart
+of the color sphere (Fig.&nbsp;22).</p>
+
+<h5>Why green is given the centre of the score.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para136" id = "para136">(136)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22" href = "images/fig22_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig22.png" width = "212" height = "90"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+A cylindrical envelope might be opened on any desired meridian, but it
+is an advantage to have green (G) at the centre of the chart, and it is
+therefore opened at the opposite point, red-purple (RP). To the right of
+the green centre are the meridians of green-yellow (GY), yellow (Y),
+yellow-red (YR), and red (R), all of which are known as <i>warm
+colors</i>, because they contain yellow and red. To the left are the
+meridians of blue-green (BG), blue (B), purple-blue (PB), and purple
+(P), all of which are called <i>cool colors</i>, because they contain
+blue. Green, being neither warm nor cold of itself, and becoming so only
+by additions of yellow or of blue, thus serves as a balancing point or
+centre in the hue-scale.<a class = "tag" name = "tag31" id = "tag31"
+href = "#note31">31</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para137" id = "para137">(137)</a>
+The color score presents four large divisions or color fields made by
+the intersection of the equator with the meridian of green. Above the
+centre are all light colors, and below it are all dark colors. To the
+right of the centre are all warm colors, and to the left are all cool
+colors. Middle green (5G<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>) is the centre of
+balance for these contrasted qualities, recognized by all
+<span class = "pagenum">81</span>
+practical color workers. The chart forms a rectangle whose length equals
+the equator of the color sphere and its height equals the axis
+(a&nbsp;proportion of 3.14:1), representing a union and balance of the
+scales of hue and of value. This provides for two color dimensions; but,
+to be complete, the chart must provide for the third dimension,
+chroma.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para138" id = "para138">(138)</a>
+Replacing the chart around the sphere and joining its ends, so that it
+re-forms the transparent envelope, we may thrust a pin through at any
+point until it pierces the surface of the sphere. Indeed, the pin can be
+thrust deeper until it reaches the neutral axis, thus forming a scale of
+chroma for the color point where it enters (see paragraph <a href =
+"#para12">12</a>). In the same way any colors on the sphere, within the
+sphere, or without it, can have pins thrust into the chart to mark their
+place, and the length by which each pin projects can be taken as a
+measure of chroma. If the chart is now unrolled, it retains the pins,
+which by their place describe the hue and value of a color, while their
+length describes its chroma.</p>
+
+<h5>Pins stuck into the score represent chroma.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para139" id = "para139">(139)</a>
+With this idea of the third color dimension incorporated in the score we
+can discard the pin, and record its length by a numeral. Any dot placed
+on the score marks a certain degree of hue and value, while a numeral
+beside it marks the degree of chroma which it carries, uniting with the
+hue and value of that point to give us a certain color. Glancing over a
+series of such color points, the eye easily grasps their individual
+character, and connects them into an intelligible series.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para140" id = "para140">(140)</a>
+Thus a flat chart becomes the projection of the color solid, and any
+color in that solid is transferred to the surface of the chart,
+retaining its degrees of hue, value, and chroma. So far the scales have
+been spoken of as divided into ten steps, but
+<span class = "pagenum">82</span>
+they may be subdivided much finer, if desired, by use of the decimal
+point. It is a question of convenience whether to make a small score
+with only the large divisions, or a much larger score with a hundred
+times as many steps. In the latter case each hue has ten steps, the
+middle step of green being distinguished as 5G<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>
+to suggest the four steps 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, which precede it, and 6G, 7G,
+8G, and 9G, which follow it toward blue-green.</p>
+
+<p class ="illustration">
+<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23" href = "images/fig23_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig23.png" width = "374" height = "149"
+alt = "Figure 23. / Color Score--(or nº 6 in plate iii)--Giving Areas by H, V and C."
+title = "Figure 23. / Color Score--(or nº 6 in plate iii)--Giving Areas by H, V and C."></a></p>
+
+<h5>The score preserves color records in a convenient shape.</h5>
+
+<p>Such a color score, or notation diagram, to be made small or large as
+the case demands, offers a very convenient means for recording color
+combinations, when pigments are not at hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para141" id = "para141">(141)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24" href = "images/fig24_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig24.png" width = "122" height = "93"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+To display its three dimensions, a little model can be made with three
+visiting cards, so placed as to present their mutual intersection at
+right angles (Fig.&nbsp;24).</p>
+
+<p>5G <sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub> is their centre of mutual balance.
+A&nbsp;central plane separates all colors into two contrasted fields. To
+the right are all warm colors, to the left are all cool colors. Each of
+these
+<span class = "pagenum">83</span>
+fields is again divided by the plane of the equator into lighter colors
+above and darker colors below. These four color fields are again
+subdivided by a transverse plane through 5G<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>
+into strong colors in front and weak colors beyond or
+behind&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para142" id = "para142">(142)</a>
+Any color group, whose record must all be written to the right of the
+centre, is warm, because red and yellow are dominant. One to the left of
+the centre must be cool, because it is dominated by blue. A&nbsp;group
+written all above the centre must have light in excess, while one
+written entirely below is dark to excess. Finally, a&nbsp;score written
+all in front of the centre represents only strong chromas, while one
+written behind it contains only weak chromas. From this we gather that a
+balanced composition of color preserves some sort of equilibrium,
+uniting degrees of warm and cool, of light and dark, and of weak and
+strong, which is made at once apparent by the dots on the score.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para143" id = "para143">(143)</a>
+A single color, like that of a violet, a&nbsp;rose, or a buttercup,
+appears as a dot on the score, with a numeral added for its chroma.
+A&nbsp;parti-colored flower, such as a nasturtium, is shown by two dots
+with their chromas, and a bunch of red and yellow flowers will give by
+their dots a color passage, or “silhouette,” whose warmth and lightness
+is unmistakable.</p>
+
+<p>The chroma of each flower written with the silhouette completes the
+record. The hues of a beautiful Persian rug, with dark red
+predominating, or a verdure tapestry, in which green is dominant, or a
+Japanese print, with blue dominant, will trace upon the score a pattern
+descriptive of its color qualities. These records, with practice, become
+as significant to the eye as the musical score. The general character of
+a color combination is apparent at a glance, while its degrees of chroma
+are readily joined to fill out the mental image.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">84</span>
+<p><a name = "para144" id = "para144">(144)</a>
+Such a plan of color notation grows naturally from the spherical system
+of measured colors. It is hardly to be hoped, in devising a color score,
+that it should not seem crude at first. But the measures forming the
+basis of this record can be verified by impartial instruments, and have
+a permanent value in the general study of color. They also afford some
+definite data as to personal bias in color estimates.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para145" id = "para145">(145)</a>
+This makes it possible to collect in a convenient form two contrasting
+and valuable records, one preserving such effects of color as are
+generally called pleasing, and another of such groups as are found
+unpleasant to the eye. Out of such material something may be gained,
+more reliable than the shifting, personal, and contradictory statements
+about color harmony now prevalent.</p>
+
+<p class = "footnote">
+<a name = "note31" id = "note31" href = "#tag31">31.</a>
+To put this in terms of the spectrum wave lengths, long waves at the red
+end of the spectrum give the sensation of warmth, while short waves at
+the violet end cause the sensation of coolness. Midway between these
+extremes is the wave length of green.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">85</span>
+<h3><a name = "chapVII" id = "chapVII">
+Chapter VII.</a><br>
+COLOR HARMONY.</h3>
+
+
+<h5>Colors may be grouped to please or to give annoyance.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para146" id = "para146">(146)</a>
+Attempts to define the laws of harmonious color have not attained marked
+success, and the cause is not far to seek. The very sensations
+underlying these effects of concord or of discord are themselves
+undefined. The misleading formula of my student days&mdash;that three
+parts of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue would
+combine harmoniously&mdash;was unable to define the <i>kind</i> of red,
+yellow, and blue intended; that is, the hue, value, and chroma of each
+of these colors was unknown, and the formula meant a different thing to
+each person who tried to use&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para147" id = "para147">(147)</a>
+It is true that a certain red, green, and blue can be united in such
+proportions on Maxwell discs as to balance in a neutral gray; but the
+slightest change in either the hue, value, or chroma, of any one of
+them, upsets the balance. A&nbsp;new proportion is then needed to regain
+the neutral mixture. This has already been shown in the discussion of
+triple balance (paragraph&nbsp;<a href = "#para82">82</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para148" id = "para148">(148)</a>
+Harmony of color has been still further complicated by the use of terms
+that belong to musical harmony. Now music is a <i>measured art</i>, and
+has found a set of intervals which are defined scientifically. The two
+arts have many points of similarity; and the impulses of sound waves on
+the ear, like those of light waves on the eye, are measured vibrations.
+But they are far apart in their scales, and differ so much in important
+<span class = "pagenum">86</span>
+particulars that no practical relationship can be set up. The intervals
+of color sensation require fit names and measures, ere their infinite
+variety can be organized into a fixed system.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para149" id = "para149">(149)</a>
+Any effort to compare certain sounds to certain colors soon leads to the
+wildest vagaries.</p>
+
+<h5>Harmony of sound is unlike harmony of color.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para150" id = "para150">(150)</a>
+The poverty of color language tempts to a borrowing from the richer
+terminology of music. Musical terms, such as “pitch, key, note, tone,
+chord, modulation, nocturne, and symphony,” are frequently used in the
+description of color, serving by association to convey certain vague
+ideas.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para151" id = "para151">(151)</a>
+In the same way the term <i>color harmony</i>, from association with
+musical harmony, presents to the mind an image of color
+arrangement,&mdash;varied, yet well proportioned, grouped in orderly
+fashion, and agreeable to the eye. But any attempt to define this image
+in terms of color is disappointing. Here is a beautiful Persian rug: why
+do we call it beautiful? One says “because its colors are <i>rich</i>.”
+Why are they rich? “Because they are <i>deep in tone</i>.” What does
+that mean? The double-bass and the fog-horn are <i>deep</i> in tone, but
+not necessarily beautiful on that account. “Oh, no,” says another, “it
+is all in <i>one harmonious key</i>.” But what is a key of color? Is it
+made by all the values of one color, such as red, or by all the hues of
+equal value, such as the middle hues in our color solid?</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para152" id = "para152">(152)</a>
+Certainly it is neither, for the rug has both light and dark colors;
+and, of the reds, yellows, greens, and blues, some are stronger and
+others weaker. Then what do we mean by a key of color? One must either
+continue to flounder about or frankly confess ignorance.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para153" id = "para153">(153)</a>
+Musical harmony explains itself in clear language. It
+<span class = "pagenum">87</span>
+is illustrated by fixed and definite sound intervals, whose measured
+relations form the basis of musical composition. Each key has an
+unmistakable character, and the written score presents a statement that
+means practically the same thing to every person of musical
+intelligence. But the adequate terms of color harmony are yet to be
+worked out.</p>
+
+<p>Let us leave these musical analogies, retaining only the clue that
+<i>a measured and orderly relation underlies the idea of harmony</i>.
+The color solid which has been the subject of these pages is built upon
+measured color relations. It unites measured scales of hue, value, and
+chroma, and gives a definite color name to every sensation from the
+maxima of color-light and color-strength to their disappearance in
+darkness.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para154" id = "para154">(154)</a>
+Must not this theoretical color solid, therefore, locate all the
+elements which combine to produce color harmony or color discord?<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag32" id = "tag32" href = "#note32">32</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para155" id = "para155">(155)</a>
+Instead of theorizing, let us experiment. As a child at the piano, who
+first strikes random and widely separated notes, but soon seeks for the
+intervals of a familiar air, so let us, after roaming over the color
+globe and its charts, select one familiar color, and study what others
+will combine with it to please the eye.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para156" id = "para156">(156)</a>
+Here is a grayish green stuff for a dress, and the little girl who is to
+wear it asks what other colors she may use with it. First let us find it
+on our instrument, so as to realize its relation to other degrees of
+color. Its value is 6,&mdash;one step above the equator of middle value.
+Its hue is green, G, and its chroma&nbsp;5. It is written
+G<sup>6</sup>/<sub>5</sub>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para157" id = "para157">(157)</a>
+Color paths lead out from this point in every direction.
+<span class = "pagenum">88</span>
+Where shall we find harmonious colors, where discordant, where those
+paths most frequently travelled? Are there new ones still to be
+explored?</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para158" id = "para158">(158)</a>
+<i>There are three typical paths: one vertical</i>, with rapid change of
+value; <i>another lateral</i>, with rapid change of hue; and a <i>third
+inward</i>, through the neutral centre to seek the opposite color field.
+All other paths are combinations of two or three of these typical
+directions in the color solid.</p>
+
+<h5>Three typical color paths.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para159" id = "para159">(159)</a>
+<span class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25" href = "images/fig25_large.png"
+target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig25.png" width = "104" height = "105"
+alt = "see text"></a></span>
+1. The vertical path finds only lighter and darker values of
+gray-green,&mdash;“self-colors or shades,” they are generally
+called,&mdash;and offers a safe path, even for those deficient in color
+sensation, avoiding all complications of hue, and leaving the eye free
+to estimate different degrees of a single
+quality,&mdash;color-light.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para160" id = "para160">(160)</a>
+2. The lateral path passes through neighboring hues on either side. In
+this case it is a sequence from blue, through green into yellow. This is
+simply change of hue, without change of value or chroma if the path be
+level, but, by inclining it, one end of the sequence becomes lighter,
+while the other end darkens. It thus becomes an intermediate between the
+first and second typical paths, combining, at each step, a&nbsp;change
+of hue with a change of value. This is more complicated, but also more
+interesting, showing how the character of the gray-green dress will be
+set off by a <i>lighter</i> hat of Leghorn straw, and further improved
+by a trimming of <i>darker</i> blue-green. The sequence can be made
+still more subtle and attractive by choosing a straw whose yellow is
+<i>stronger</i> than the green of the dress, while a <i>weaker</i>
+<span class = "pagenum">89</span>
+chroma of blue-green is used in the trimming. This is clearly expressed
+by the notation thus: Y<sup>8</sup>/<sub>7</sub>,
+G<sup>6</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, BG<sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub>, and written on
+the score by three dots and their chromas,&mdash;7, 5, and 3 (see <a
+href = "#fig23">Fig.&nbsp;23</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para161" id = "para161">(161)</a>
+3. The inward path which leads by increase of gray to the neutral
+centre, and on to the opposite hue red-purple,
+RP<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, is full of pitfalls for the inexpert. It
+combines great change of hue and chroma, with small change of value.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para162" id = "para162">(162)</a>
+If any other color point be chosen in place of gray-green, the same
+typical paths are just as easily traced, written by the notation, and
+recorded on the color score.</p>
+
+<h5>These paths trace sequences from any point in the color solid.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para163" id = "para163">(163)</a>
+In the construction of the color solid we saw that its scales were made
+of equal steps in hue, value, and chroma, and tested by balance on the
+centre of neutral gray. Any step will serve as a point of departure to
+trace regular sequences of the three types. The vertical type is a
+sequence of value only. It is somewhat tame, lacking the change of hue
+and chroma, but giving a monotonous harmony of regular values. The
+horizontal type traces a sequence of neighboring hues, less tame than
+the vertical type, but monotonous in value and chroma. The inward type
+connects opposite hues by a sequence of chroma balanced on middle gray,
+and is more stimulating to the eyes.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para164" id = "para164">(164)</a>
+These paths have so far been treated as made up of equal steps in each
+direction, with the accompanying idea of equal quantities of color at
+each step. But by using <i>unequal quantities of color</i>, the balance
+may be preserved by compensations to the intervals that separate the
+colors (see paragraphs <a href = "#para109">109, 110</a>).</p>
+
+<h5>Unequal color quantities compensated by relations of hue, value, and
+chroma.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para165" id = "para165">(165)</a>
+Small bits of powerful color can be used to balance large
+<span class = "pagenum">90</span>
+fields of weak chroma. For instance, a&nbsp;spot of strong reddish
+purple is balanced and enhanced by a field of gray-green. So an amethyst
+pin at the neck of the girl’s dress will appear to advantage with the
+gown, and also with the Leghorn straw. But a large field of strong
+color, such as a cloth jacket of reddish purple, would be fatal to the
+measured harmony we seek.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para166" id = "para166">(166)</a>
+This use of a small point of strong chroma, if repeated at intervals,
+sets up a notion of rhythm; but, in order to be rhythmic, there must be
+recurrent emphasis, “a&nbsp;succession of similar units, combining
+unlike elements.” This quality must not be confused with the unaccented
+succession, seen in a measured scale of hue, value, or chroma.</p>
+
+<h5>Paper masks to isolate color intervals.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para167" id = "para167">(167)</a>
+A sheet of paper large enough to hide the color sphere may be perforated
+with three or more openings in a straight line, and applied against the
+surface, so as to isolate the steps of any sequence which we wish to
+study. Thus the sequence given in paragraph <a href =
+"#para160">160</a>&mdash;Y<sup>8</sup>/<sub>7</sub>,
+G<sup>6</sup>/<sub>5</sub>, BG<sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub>&mdash;may be
+changed to bring it on the surface of the sphere, when it reads
+Y<sup>8</sup>/<sub>3</sub>, G<sup>6</sup>/<sub>5</sub>,
+BG<sup>5</sup>/<sub>5</sub>. A&nbsp;mask with round holes, spaced so as
+to uncover these three spots, relieves the eye from the distraction of
+other colors. Keeping the centre spot on green, the mask may be moved so
+as to study the effect of changing hue or value of the other two steps
+in the sequence.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para168" id = "para168">(168)</a>
+The sequence is lightened by sliding the whole mask upward, and darkened
+by dropping it lower. Then the result of using the same intervals in
+another field is easily studied by moving the mask to another part of
+the solid.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para169" id = "para169">(169)</a>
+Change of interval immediately modifies the character of a color
+sequence. This is readily shown by having an under-mask, with a long,
+continuous slit, and an over-mask whose perforations
+<span class = "pagenum">91</span>
+are arranged in several rows, each row giving different spaces between
+the perforations. In the case of the girl’s clothing, the same sequence
+produces quite a different effect, if two perforations of the over-mask
+are brought nearer to select a lighter yellow-green dress, while the
+ends of the sequence remain unchanged. To move the middle perforation
+near the other end, selects a darker bluish green dress, on which the
+trimming will be less contrasted, while the hat appears brighter than
+before, because of greater contrast.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para170" id = "para170">(170)</a>
+The variations of color sequence which can thus be studied out by simple
+masks are almost endless; yet upon a measured system the character of
+each effect is easily described, and, if need be, preserved by a written
+record.</p>
+
+<h5>Invention of color groups.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para171" id = "para171">(171)</a>
+Experiments with variable masks for the selection of color intervals,
+such as have been described, soon stimulate the imagination, so that it
+conceives sequences through any part of the color solid. The color image
+becomes a permanent mental adjunct. Five middle colors, tempered with
+white and black, permit us to devise the greatest variety of sequences,
+some light, others dark, some combining small difference of chroma with
+large difference of hue, others uniting large intervals of chroma with
+small intervals of hue, and so on through a well-nigh inexhaustible
+series.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para172" id = "para172">(172)</a>
+As this constructive imagination gains power, the solid and its charts
+may be laid aside. <i>We can now think color consecutively.</i> Each
+color suggests its place in the system, and may be taken as a point of
+departure for the invention of groups to carry out a desired
+relation.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para173" id = "para173">(173)</a>
+This selective mental process is helped by the score described
+<span class = "pagenum">92</span>
+in the last chapter; and the quantity of each color chosen for the group
+is easily indicated by a variable circle, drawn round the various points
+on the diagram. Thus, in the case of the child’s clothes, a&nbsp;large
+circle around G<sup>6</sup>/<sub>5</sub> gives the area of that color as
+compared with smaller circles around Y<sup>8</sup>/<sub>7</sub> and
+BG<sup>4</sup>/<sub>3</sub>, representing the area of the straw and the
+trimming.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para174" id = "para174">(174)</a>
+When the plotting of color groups has become instinctive from long
+practice, it opens a wide field of color study. Take as illustration the
+wings of butterflies or the many varieties of pansies. These fascinating
+color schemes can be written with indications of area that record their
+differences by a simple diagram. In the same way, rugs, tapestries,
+mosaics,&mdash;whatever attracts by its beauty and harmony of
+color,&mdash;can be recorded and studied in measured terms; and the
+mental process of estimating hues, values, chromas, and areas by
+established scales must lead the color sense to finer and finer
+perceptions.</p>
+
+<p>The same process serves as well to record the most annoying and
+inharmonious color groups. When sufficient of these records have been
+obtained, they furnish definite material for a contrast of the color
+combinations which please, with those that cause disgust. Such a
+contrast should discover some broad law of color harmony. It will then
+be in measured terms which can be clearly given; not a vague personal
+statement, conveying different meanings to each one who
+hears&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<h5>Constant exercise needed to train the color sense.</h5>
+
+<p><a name = "para175" id = "para175">(175)</a>
+Appreciation of beautiful color grows by exercise and discrimination,
+just as naturally as fine perception of music or literature. Each is an
+outlet for the expression of taste,&mdash;a language which may be used
+clumsily or with skill.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para176" id = "para176">(176)</a>
+As color perception becomes finer, it discards the more
+<span class = "pagenum">93</span>
+crude and violent contrasts. A&nbsp;child revels in strong chromas, but
+the mark of a colorist is ability to employ low chroma without
+impoverishing the color effect. As a boy’s shrieks and groans can be
+tempered to musical utterance, so his debauches in violent red, green,
+and purple must be replaced by tempered hues.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para177" id = "para177">(177)</a>
+Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, Corot, Chavannes, and Whistler are masters
+in the use of gray. Personal bias may lead one colorist a little more
+toward warm colors, and another slightly toward the cool field, in each
+case attaining a sense of harmonious balance by tempered degrees of
+value and chroma.<a class = "tag" name = "tag33" id = "tag33" href =
+"#note33">33</a></p>
+
+<p><a name = "para178" id = "para178">(178)</a>
+It is not claimed that discipline in the use of subtle colors will make
+another Corot or Velasquez, but it will make for comprehension of their
+skill. It is grotesque to watch gaudily dressed persons going into
+ecstasies over the delicate coloring of a Botticelli, when the internal
+as well as the external evidence is against them.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para179" id = "para179">(179)</a>
+The colors which we choose, not only in personal apparel, but in our
+rooms and decorations, are mute witnesses to a stage of color
+perception.</p>
+
+<p>If that perception is trained to finer distinctions, the mind can no
+longer be content with coarse expression. It begins to feel an
+incongruity between the “loud” color of the wall paper, bought because
+it was fashionable, and the quiet hues of the rug, which was a gift from
+some artistic friend. It sees that, although the furniture is covered
+with durable and costly materials, their color “swears” at that of the
+curtains and wood-work. In short, the
+<span class = "pagenum">94</span>
+room has been jumbled together at various periods, without any plan or
+sense of color design.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para180" id = "para180">(180)</a>
+Good taste demands that a room be furnished, not alone for convenience
+and comfort, but also with an eye to the beauty of the various objects,
+so that, instead of confusing and destroying the colors, each may
+enhance the other. And, when this sense of color harmony is aroused, it
+selects and arranges the books, the rugs, the lamp shade, the souvenirs
+of travel and friendship, the wall paper, pictures, and hangings, so
+that they fit into a color scheme, not only charming to the eye at first
+glance, but which continues to please the mind as it traces out an
+intelligent plan, bringing all into general harmony.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para181" id = "para181">(181)</a>
+Nor will this cease when one room has been put to rights. Such a
+coloristic attitude is not satisfied until the vista into the next
+apartment is made attractive. Or should there be a suite of rooms, it
+demands that, with variety in each one, they all be brought into
+harmonious sequence. Thus the study of color finds immediate and
+practical use in daily life. It is a needed discipline of color vision,
+in the sense that geometry is a discipline of the mind, and it also
+enters into the pleasure and refinement of life at every step. Skill or
+awkwardness in its use exerts as positive an influence upon us as do the
+harmonies and discords of sound, and a far more continuous one. It is
+thought a defect to be unmusical. Should it not be considered a mark of
+defective cultivation to be insensitive to color?</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para182" id = "para182">(182)</a>
+In this slight sketch of color education it has been assumed that we are
+to deal with those who have normal perceptions. But there are some who
+inherit or develop various degrees of color-blindness; and a word in
+their behalf may be opportune.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para183" id = "para183">(183)</a>
+A case of total color-blindness is very rare, but a few
+<span class = "pagenum">95</span>
+are on record. When a child shows deficient color perception,<a class =
+"tag" name = "tag34" id = "tag34" href = "#note34">34</a> a&nbsp;little
+care may save him much discomfort, and patient training may correct it.
+If he mismatches some hues, confuses their names, seems incapable of the
+finer distinctions of color, study to find the hues which he estimates
+well, and then help him to venture a little into that field where his
+perception is at fault. Improvement is pretty sure to follow when this
+is sympathetically done. One student, who never outgrew the habit of
+giving a purplish hue to all his work, despite many expedients and the
+use of various lights and colored objects to correct it, is the single
+exception among hundreds whom it has been my privilege to watch as they
+improved their first crude estimates, and gained skill in expressing
+their sense of Nature’s subtle color.</p>
+
+<p class = "space">
+<a name = "para184" id = "para184">(184)</a>
+To sum up, the first chapter suggests a measured color system in place
+of guess-work. The next describes the three color qualities, and
+sketches a child’s growth in color perception. The third tells how
+colors may be mingled in such proportions as to balance. After the
+impracticability of using spectral color has been shown in the fourth
+chapter, the fifth proceeds to build a practical color solid. The sixth
+provides for a written record of color, and the last applies all that
+has preceded to suggestions for the study of color harmony.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "para185" id = "para185">(185)</a>
+Wide gaps appear in this outline. There is much that deserves fuller
+treatment. But, if the search for refined color and a clearer outlook
+upon its relations are stimulated by this fragmentary sketch, some of
+its faults may be overlooked.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note32" id = "note32" href = "#tag32">32.</a>
+Professor James says there are three classic stages in the career of a
+theory: “First, it is attacked as absurd; then admitted to be true, but
+obvious and insignificant; finally it is seen to be so important that
+its adversaries claim to be its discoverers.”</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note33" id = "note33" href = "#tag33">33.</a>
+“Nature’s most lively hues are bathed in lilac grays. Spread all about
+us, yet visible only to the fine perception of the colorist, is this
+gray quality by which he appeals. Not he whose pictures abound in
+‘<i>couleurs voyantes</i>,’ but he who preserves in his work all the
+‘<i>gris colorés</i>’ is the good colorist.”</p>
+
+<p>Translation from J. F. Rafaelli, in <i>Annales Politiques &amp;
+Litteraires</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note34" id = "note34" href = "#tag34">34.</a>
+See Color Blindness in Glossary.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class = "illustration plate">
+<img src = "images/plate_flowers.jpg" width = "449" height = "624"
+alt = "see caption"><br>
+&nbsp;<br>
+REPRODUCTION OF FLOWER STUDIES,<br>
+PAINTED WITH MUNSELL WATER COLOR<br>
+<span class = "smallcaps">Published by<br>
+Wadsworth, Howland &amp; Co., Incorporated, Boston, Mass.</span></p>
+
+</div> <!-- end div maintext -->
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">97</span>
+<h3>PART II.</h3>
+
+<h4>A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY<br>
+BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.</h4>
+
+<p class = "center">Arranged for nine years of school life.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.</h4>
+
+<p class = "center">Taken from the Century Dictionary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INDEX</h4>
+
+<p class = "center">(by paragraphs).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+<!-- page 98 blank -->
+
+<div class = "titlepage">
+<span class = "pagenum">99</span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a href = "images/fig2_large.png" target = "_blank">
+<img src = "images/fig2.png" width = "352" height = "241"
+alt = "Figure 2. (See Figure 20) The Color Tree"
+title = "Figure 2. (See Figure 20) The Color Tree"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name = "course" id = "course">
+A COLOR SYSTEM WITH COURSE OF STUDY</a> BASED<br>
+ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS</h3>
+
+
+<p class = "center"><i>See <a href = "#chapII">Chapter II</a>.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "center">Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "course">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">100</span>
+
+<table class = "box" summary = "course of study">
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "6" style = "border-bottom: 3px double #000;">
+<p class = "center larger">
+A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS,<br>
+ADAPTED TO NINE YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<th>Grade.</th>
+<th>Subject.</th>
+<th>Colors Studied.</th>
+<th>Illustration.</th>
+<th>Application.</th>
+<th>Materials.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Hues</span> of color.</td>
+<td>Red. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;R.<br>
+Yellow. Y.<br>
+Green. &nbsp; G.<br>
+Blue. &nbsp; &nbsp; B.<br>
+Purple. &nbsp;P.
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Borders and Rosettes.</td>
+<td>Colored<br>
+crayons<br>
+and papers.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Hues</span> of color.</td>
+<td>Yellow-red. &nbsp; &nbsp; YR.<br>
+Green-yellow. GY.<br>
+Blue-green. &nbsp; &nbsp;BG. <br>
+Purple-blue. &nbsp; &nbsp;PB. <br>
+Red-purple. &nbsp; &nbsp; RP.
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Borders and Rosettes.</td>
+<td>Colored<br>
+crayons<br>
+and papers.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Values</span> of color.</td>
+<td class = "nobreak">Light, middle, and dark R.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„ „ „ </span>&nbsp;Y.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„ „ „ </span>&nbsp;G.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„ „ „ </span>&nbsp;B.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„ „ „ </span>&nbsp;P.
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Design.</td>
+<td>Color<br>
+sphere.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Values</span> of color.</td>
+<td>
+<table class = "inner" summary = ""> <!-- begin inner table -->
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;5 values of YR.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„„„</span>GY.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„„„</span>BG.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„„„</span>PB.<br>
+<span class = "gap1">„„„</span>RP.</td>
+<td class = "bracket left">
+<sup>9</sup>/, <sup>7</sup>/, <sup>5</sup>/,
+<sup>3</sup>/,<sup>1</sup>/.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table> <!-- end inner table -->
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Design.</td>
+<td>Charts.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Chromas</span><br>
+of color.</td>
+<td>3 chromas of R<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>Y<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>G<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>B<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>P<sup>5</sup>/.
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Design.</td>
+<td>Charts.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Chromas</span><br>
+of color.</td>
+<td>
+<table class = "inner" summary = ""> <!-- begin inner table -->
+<tr>
+<td class = "left" colspan = "2">
+3 chromas of YR<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>GY<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>BG<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>PB<sup>5</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>RP<sup>5</sup>/.
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "left nobreak">
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>R<sup>7</sup>/ and R<sup>3</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>Y<sup>7</sup>/ &nbsp; „
+&nbsp;Y<sup>3</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>G<sup>7</sup>/ &nbsp; „
+&nbsp;G<sup>3</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>B<sup>7</sup>/ &nbsp; „
+&nbsp;B<sup>3</sup>/.<br>
+„<span class = "gap1">„ „</span>P<sup>7</sup>/ &nbsp; „
+&nbsp;P<sup>3</sup>/.
+</td>
+<td class = "bracket left">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table> <!-- end inner table -->
+</td>
+<td>Sought in Nature<br>
+and Art.</td>
+<td>Design.</td>
+<td>Color<br>
+Tree.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td class = "left" colspan = "3">
+<table class = "inner" summary = ""> <!-- inner table -->
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p>To <span class = "smallroman">OBSERVE<br>
+IMITATE<br>
+&amp; WRITE</span></p></td>
+<td>
+color by <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">VALUE</span>,
+and <span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span></td>
+<td class = "center gap1">„</td>
+</tr>
+</table> <!-- end inner table -->
+</td>
+<td class = "nosides">„</td>
+<td>Paints.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td class = "left" colspan = "3">
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Quantity</span> of color.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; Pairs of equal area and unequal area
+Balanced by <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">VALUE</span>, and <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>.</p>
+<td class = "nosides">„</td>
+<td>Paints.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td class = "left" colspan = "3">
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Quantity</span> of color.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; Triads of equal area and unequal area
+Balanced by <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">VALUE</span>, and <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "nosides">„</td>
+<td>Paints.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">101</span>
+<h4>STUDY OF SINGLE HUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.</h4>
+
+<h5><a name = "course1" id = "course1">
+FIRST GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Talk about familiar objects, to bring out color names,
+as toys, flowers,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td class = "inset" colspan = "2">clothing, birds, insects, etc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Show soap bubbles and prismatic spectrum.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Teach term <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>. Hues
+of flowers, spectrum, plumage of birds, etc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td>Show <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE<a class = "tag" name =
+"tag35" id = "tag35" href = "#note35">35</a> RED</span>.</td>
+<td>Find other reds.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ </span><span class =
+"smallroman">YELLOW</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„</span>yellows, and compare with reds.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><p><span class = "gap2">„ </span><span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„</span>greens,<span class = "gap2"> „
+„</span>and yellows.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ </span><span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„</span>blues,<span class = "gap2">
+„</span>preceding hues.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ </span><span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„</span>purples,<span class = "gap2"> „
+„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10&ndash;15.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Review <span class = "smallroman">FIVE MIDDLE
+HUES</span>,<a class = "tag" href = "#note35">35</a> match with colored
+papers, and place in circle.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>16&ndash;20.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Show <span class = "smallroman">COLOR SPHERE</span>.
+Find sequence of five middle hues. Memorize order.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>21.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Middle red imitated with crayon, named and written by
+initial&nbsp;R.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>22.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">&nbsp;<span class = "gap1">„</span> yellow<span class
+= "gap1">„ &nbsp; „ „ &nbsp; „&nbsp; „</span>Y.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>23.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">&nbsp;<span class = "gap1">„</span> green &nbsp;<span
+class = "gap1">„ &nbsp; „ „ &nbsp; „&nbsp; „</span>G.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>24.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">&nbsp;<span class = "gap1">„</span> blue &nbsp;
+&nbsp;<span class = "gap1">„ &nbsp; „ „ &nbsp; „&nbsp; „</span>B.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>25.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">&nbsp;<span class = "gap1">„</span> purple <span class
+= "gap1">„ &nbsp; „ „ &nbsp; „&nbsp; „</span>P.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>26&ndash;30.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Review, using middle hues<a class = "tag" href =
+"#note35">35</a> in borders and rosettes for design.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize sequence of five middle hues.<br>
+To name, match, imitate, write, and arrange them.</p>
+
+
+<h5><a name = "course2" id = "course2">
+SECOND GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1&ndash;3.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Review sequence of five middle hues.<a class = "tag" href =
+"#note35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Show a hue <span class = "smallroman">INTERMEDIATE</span> between red
+and yellow. Find it in objects.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "gap2">&nbsp; &nbsp;</span>Compare with red and
+yellow.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Recognize and name <span class =
+"smallroman">YELLOW-RED</span>. Match, imitate, and write&nbsp;YR.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7&ndash;8.</td>
+<td>Show <span class = "smallroman">GREEN-YELLOW</span> between green
+and yellow.</td>
+<td>Treat as above, and write&nbsp;GY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9&ndash;10.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE-GREEN</span>&nbsp; <span class = "gap2">„</span>blue
+and green.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„ „ &nbsp; „</span>BG.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>11&ndash;12.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE-BLUE</span> &nbsp;<span class =
+"gap2">„</span>purple and blue.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„ „ &nbsp; „</span>PB.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>13&ndash;14.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">RED-PURPLE</span>&nbsp; &nbsp;<span class =
+"gap2">„</span>red and purple.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">„ „ &nbsp; „</span>RP.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>15&ndash;20.</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Make circle of ten hues. Place Intermediates, and
+memorize order so as to repeat forward or backward. Match, imitate, and
+write by initials.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>21&ndash;25.</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Find sequence of ten hues on <span class =
+"smallroman">COLOR SPHERE</span>. Compare with hues of natural
+objects.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>26&#x2011;30.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Review, using any two hues in sequence for borders and
+rosettes.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize sequence of ten hues, made up of five
+middle<a class = "tag" href = "#note35">35</a> hues and the five
+intermediates. To name, match, write, imitate, and arrange them.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">102</span>
+
+<h4>STUDY OF SINGLE VALUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.</h4>
+
+<h5><a name = "course3" id = "course3">
+THIRD GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Review sequence of ten hues.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td rowspan = "2">
+<p>Recognize, name, match, imitate, write, and find them on the <span
+class = "smallroman">COLOR SPHERE.</span> Also in objects.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Teach use of term <span class =
+"smallroman">VALUE</span>. Color value recognized apart from color
+hue.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td rowspan = "2">
+<p>Find values of red, lighter and darker than the middle value already
+familiar.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><ins class = "correction" title = "6 is missing">&nbsp;
+&nbsp;</ins></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><p><span class = "smallcaps">Three values</span> of <span class =
+"smallroman">RED</span>.</p></td>
+<td><p>Find on sphere. Name as <span class = "smallroman">LIGHT</span>,
+<span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE</span>, and <span class =
+"smallroman">DARK</span> values of red.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td>Imitate with crayons, and write them as 3, 5, and&nbsp;7.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">YELLOW</span>.</td>
+<td>Compare with above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Recognize, name, match, and imitate with crayons.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>11.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN</span>.</td>
+<td>Compare, and treat as above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>12.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>Find on sphere and in objects.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>13.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>14.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>15.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span><span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>16.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>17&#x2011;20.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Review, combining two values and a single hue for
+design.<a class = "tag" name = "tag36" id = "tag36" href =
+"#note36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize a sequence combining three values and
+five middle hues.<br>
+To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.</p>
+
+
+<h5><a name = "course4" id = "course4">
+FOURTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "3">Review sequence of three values in each of the five
+middle hues.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "2"><p>
+To recognize, name, match, imitate, and find them on sphere and in
+objects.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td class = "nobreak">Show <span class = "smallroman">FIVE VALUES</span>
+of</td>
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "2">
+<p><span class = "smallroman">RED</span>. Find them on large color
+sphere. Number them 1, 3, 5, 7,&nbsp;9. Match, imitate, and
+write.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td colspan = "2"><span class = "smallroman">BLUE-GREEN</span>.<span
+class = "gap2">&nbsp;„ „ „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td><span class = "smallroman">PURPLE-BLUE</span> &nbsp; compared with
+Yellow.</td>
+<td class = "bracket left" rowspan = "4">Treat as above and review.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td><span class = "smallroman">RED-PURPLE</span><span class = "gap1">
+&nbsp;„&nbsp; </span>Green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td><span class = "smallroman">YELLOW-RED</span> &nbsp; <span class =
+"gap1">&nbsp;„ &nbsp;</span>Blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+<td><span class = "smallroman">GREEN-YELLOW</span><span class = "gap1">
+„&nbsp; </span>Purple.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize sequences combining five values in each
+of ten hues.<br>
+To name, match, imitate, <span class = "smallroman">WRITE</span>, and
+arrange them.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">103</span>
+
+<h4>STUDY OF SINGLE CHROMAS AND THEIR SEQUENCES. Two Years.</h4>
+
+<h5><a name = "course5" id = "course5">
+FIFTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Review sequences of hue and value. Find them on the color sphere.
+Name, match, imitate, write, and arrange them by hue and value.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td><p>Teach use of term <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>.</p></td>
+<td><p>Compare three chromas with three values of red.</p>
+<p>Name them <span class = "smallroman">WEAK</span>, <span class =
+"smallroman">MIDDLE</span>, and <span class = "smallroman">STRONG</span>
+chromas.</p>
+<p>Find in nature and art.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Three chromas</span> of <span class =
+"smallroman">RED</span>.</td>
+<td>Compare with three of blue-green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Show <span class = "smallroman">COLOR TREE</span>. Suggest
+unequal chroma of hues.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp; „ &nbsp;</span><span class =
+"smallroman"> YELLOW</span>.</td>
+<td>Compare with three chromas of purple-blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp; „ &nbsp;</span><span class =
+"smallroman"> GREEN</span></td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp;</span>
+red-purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp; „ &nbsp;</span><span class =
+"smallroman"> BLUE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp;</span>
+yellow-red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp; „ &nbsp;</span><span class =
+"smallroman"> PURPLE</span>.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap1">&nbsp;„ &nbsp; &nbsp;„ &nbsp;</span>
+green-yellow.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Arrange five middle hues in circle, described as on the surface of
+the Color Sphere (middle chroma), with weaker chromas inside, and
+stronger chromas outside, the sphere.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Review,&mdash;to find these sequences of chroma in nature and art.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize sequences combining three chromas, middle
+value, and ten hues.<br>
+To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.</p>
+
+
+<h5><a name = "course6" id = "course6">
+SIXTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Review sequences combining three chromas, five hues, and middle
+value.</p>
+<p>Find on Color Tree, name, match, imitate, and arrange them.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td class = "nobreak">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Three chromas</span> of <span class =
+"smallroman">LIGHTER</span> and <span class = "smallroman">DARKER
+RED</span>.</td>
+<td>Compare with middle red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td>Write<span class = "gap1"> „&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „ </span>„</td>
+<td>as a fraction, chroma under value, using 3, 5, and&nbsp;7. Thus
+R<sup>5</sup>/<sub>7</sub>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Find <span class = "gap1">&nbsp;„&nbsp; „ &nbsp; </span><span class =
+"smallroman">RED</span>, and compare with darker blue-green.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Three chromas</span> of <span class =
+"smallroman">LIGHTER</span> and <span class = "smallroman">DARKER
+YELLOW</span>, with purple-blue.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "gap1">„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „</span> <span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN</span>, &nbsp;<span class =
+"gap1">„</span>red-purple.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "gap1">„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „</span> <span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE</span>,<span class = "gap1"> „</span>yellow-red.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "gap1">„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „ &nbsp; „</span> <span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE</span>, &nbsp;<span class =
+"gap1">„</span>green-yellow.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Colors in nature and art, defined by hue, value, and chroma. Named,
+matched, imitated, written, and arranged by Color Sphere and
+Tree.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Review,&mdash;to find sequences combining three chromas, five values,
+and ten hues.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize sequences of chroma, as separate from
+sequences of hue or sequences of value.<br>
+To name, match, write, imitate, and arrange colors in terms of their
+hue, value, and chroma.</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">104</span>
+
+<h4>COLOR EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF THE HUES, VALUES,<br>
+AND CHROMAS.</h4>
+
+<h5><a name = "course7" id = "course7">
+SEVENTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td><p>Review sequences of hue (initial), value (upper numeral), &amp;
+chroma (lower numeral).</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp;„<span class = "gap2"> &nbsp;„ &nbsp; „&nbsp;
+&nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td rowspan = "2">
+<p>Exercises in expressing colors of natural objects by the <span class
+= "smallroman">NOTATION</span>, and<br>
+<span class = "gap2">&nbsp; &nbsp; </span>tracing their relation by the
+spherical solid.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<!-- <td></td> -->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Reds</span> in Nature and Art, imitated,
+written, and traced &nbsp;<span class = "gap2">&nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Yellows</span><span class = "gap2">„
+&nbsp;„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Greens</span> <span class = "gap2">„
+&nbsp;„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Blues</span> &nbsp; <span class = "gap2">„
+&nbsp;„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Purples</span> <span class = "gap2">„
+&nbsp;„ &nbsp;„&nbsp; „</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">One color pair</span> selected, defined,
+and arranged for design. (See note 4th Grade.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To define any color by its hue, value, and chroma.<br>
+To imitate with pigments and write&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+
+<h5><a name = "course8" id = "course8">
+EIGHTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Review sequences, and select colors which balance. Illustrate the
+term.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Balance</span> of light and dark,&mdash;weak
+and strong,&mdash;hot and cold colors.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Red</span></td>
+<td>and blue-green balanced in hue, value, and chroma, with <span class
+= "smallroman">EQUAL AREAS</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Yellow</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp; „ &nbsp; purple-blue &nbsp;<span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „
+&nbsp; &nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Green</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp; „ &nbsp; red-purple &nbsp; <span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „
+&nbsp; &nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Blue</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp; „ &nbsp; yellow-red &nbsp; <span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „
+&nbsp; &nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Purple</span></td>
+<td>&nbsp; „ &nbsp; green-yellow<span class = "gap2">&nbsp; „ &nbsp;
+&nbsp;„</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8.</td>
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "2">
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Unequal areas</span> of the above pairs,
+balanced by compensating qualities of hue, value, and chroma. Examples
+from nature and art.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>9.</td>
+<!-- <td></td> -->
+<!-- <td></td> -->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>10.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<span class = "smallcaps">One color pair</span> of unequal areas
+selected, defined, and used in design.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To <span class = "smallroman">BALANCE</span> colors by
+area, hue, value, and chroma.<br>
+To imitate with pigments and write the balance by the notation.</p>
+
+
+<h5><a name = "course9" id = "course9">
+NINTH GRADE LESSONS.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "course" summary = "year's course plan">
+<tr>
+<td>1.</td>
+<td>Review balance of color pairs, by area, hue, value, and chroma.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>2.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">&nbsp; </span>To recognize, name, imitate,
+write, and record them.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>3.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Selection</span> of two colors to balance
+a given <span class = "smallroman">RED</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>4.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ „ &nbsp;„</span>„ &nbsp; <span class =
+"smallroman">YELLOW</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>5.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ „ &nbsp;„</span>„ &nbsp; <span class =
+"smallroman">GREEN</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>6.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ „ &nbsp;„</span>„ &nbsp; <span class =
+"smallroman">BLUE</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>7.</td>
+<td><span class = "gap2">„ „ &nbsp;„</span>„ &nbsp; <span class =
+"smallroman">PURPLE</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>8&ndash;10.</td>
+<td><span class = "smallcaps">Triad</span> of color, selected, balanced,
+written, and used in design.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To recognize triple balance of color, and express it
+in terms of area, hue, value, and chroma. Also to use it in design.</p>
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<p><a name = "note35" id = "note35" href = "#tag35">35.</a>
+The term <span class = "smallroman">MIDDLE</span>, as used in this
+course of color study, is understood to mean only the five principal
+hues which stand midway in the scales of <span class =
+"smallroman">VALUE</span> and <span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span>.
+Strictly speaking, their five intermediates are also midway of the
+scales; but they are obtained by mixture of the five principal hues, as
+shown in their names, and are of secondary importance.</p>
+
+<p class = "mynote">Footnote 35 is referenced five times in the first
+two years’ lessons.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note36" id = "note36" href = "#tag36">36.</a>
+These ten lessons in this and succeeding grades are devoted to color
+perception only. Their application to design is a part of the general
+course in drawing, and will be so considered in the succeeding grades.
+Note that, although thus far nothing has been said about complementary
+hues, the child has been led to associate them in opposite pairs by the
+color sphere. (See Chapter III., <ins class = "correction" title =
+"error for ‘paragraph’"><a href = "#para76">p.&nbsp;76</a></ins>.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div> <!-- end div course -->
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">105</span>
+<h3>GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS</h3>
+
+<p class = "center smaller">
+TAKEN FROM<br>
+THE</p>
+
+<p class = "center"><i>CENTURY DICTIONARY</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<!-- page 106 blank -->
+
+<span class = "pagenum">107</span>
+<h4><a name = "glossary" id = "glossary">GLOSSARY</a></h4>
+
+<p><i>The color definitions here employed are taken from the Century
+Dictionary. Special attention is called to the cross references which
+serve to differentiate HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "glossary">
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">After Image.</span>&mdash;An image
+perceived after withdrawing the eye from a brilliantly illuminated
+object. Such images are called positive when their colors are the same
+as that of the object, and negative when they are its complementary
+colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Blue.</span>&mdash;Of the color of the
+clear sky; of the color of the spectrum between wave lengths .505 and
+.415 micron, and more especially .487 and .460; or of such light mixed
+with white; azure, cerulean.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Black.</span>&mdash;Possessing in the
+highest degree the property of absorbing light; reflecting and
+transmitting little or no light; of the color of soot or coal; of the
+darkest possible hue; sable. Optically, wholly destitute of color, or
+absolutely dark, whether from the absence or the total absorption of
+light. Opposed to white.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Brown.</span>&mdash;A dark color, inclined
+to red or yellow, obtained by mixing red, black, and yellow.</p>
+
+<p><b>CHROMA.&mdash;The degree of departure of a color sensation from
+that of white or gray; the intensity of distinctive hue; color
+intensity.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Chromatic.</span>&mdash;Relating to or of
+the nature of color.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Cobalt Blue.</span>&mdash;A pure blue
+tending toward cyan blue and of high luminosity; also called Hungary
+blue, Lethner’s blue, and Paris blue.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">108</span>
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Color.</span>&mdash;Objectively, that
+quality of a thing or appearance which is perceived by the eye alone,
+independently of the form of the thing; subjectively, a&nbsp;sensation
+peculiar to the organ of vision, and arising from the optic nerve.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Color Blindness.</span>&mdash;Incapacity
+for perceiving colors, independent of the capacity for distinguishing
+light and shade. The most common form is inability to perceive red as a
+distinct color, red objects being confounded with gray or green; and
+next in frequency is the inability to perceive green.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Color Constants.</span>&mdash;The numbers
+which measure the quantities, as well as any other system of three
+numbers for defining colors, are called constants of color.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Color Variables.</span>&mdash;Colors vary
+in <span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span>, or freedom from admixture
+of white light; in <span class = "smallroman">BRIGHTNESS</span>, or
+luminosity; and in <span class = "smallroman">HUE</span>, which roughly
+corresponds to the mean wave length of the light emitted.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Colors, Complementary.</span>&mdash;Those
+pairs of color which when mixed produce white or gray light, such as red
+and green-blue, yellow and indigo-blue, green-yellow and violet.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Colors, Primary.</span>&mdash;The red,
+green, and violet light of the spectrum, from the mixture of which all
+other colors can be produced. Also called fundamental colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Dyestuffs.</span>&mdash;In commerce, any
+dyewood, lichen, or dyecake used in dyeing and staining.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Electric Light.</span>&mdash;Light produced
+by electricity and of two general kinds, the arc light and the
+incandescent light. In the first the voltaic arc is employed. In the
+second a resisting conductor is rendered incandescent by the
+current.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Enamel.</span>&mdash;In the fine arts a
+vitreous substance or glass, opaque or transparent, and variously
+colored, applied as a coating on a surface of metal or of porcelain.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">109</span>
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Grating, Diffraction.</span>&mdash;A series
+of fine parallel lines on a surface of glass, or polished metal, ruled
+very close together, at the rate of 10,000 to 20,000 or even 40,000 to
+the inch; distinctively called a diffraction or a diffraction grating,
+much used in spectroscopic work.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Gray.</span>&mdash;A color having little or
+no distinctive hue (<span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span>) and only
+moderate luminosity.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Green.</span>&mdash;The color of ordinary
+foliage; the color seen in the solar spectrum between wave lengths 0.511
+and 0.543 micron.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Emerald Green.</span>&mdash;A highly
+chromatic and extraordinarily luminous green of the color of the
+spectrum at wave length 0.524 micron. It recalls the emerald by its
+brilliancy, but not by its tint; applied generally to the aceto-arsenate
+of copper. Usually known as Paris green.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">High Color.</span>&mdash;A hue which
+excites intensely chromatic color sensations.</p>
+
+<p><b>HUE.&mdash;Specifically and technically, distinctive quality of
+coloring in an object or on a surface; the respect in which red, yellow,
+green, blue, etc., differ one from another; that in which colors of
+equal luminosity and CHROMA may differ.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Indigo.</span>&mdash;The violet-blue color
+of the spectrum, extending, according to Helmholtz, from G two-thirds of
+the way to F in the prismatic spectrum. The name was introduced by
+Newton, but has lately been discarded by the best writers.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Light.</span>&mdash;Adjective applied to
+colors highly luminous and more or less deficient in <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Luminosity.</span>&mdash;Specifically, the
+intensity of light in a color, measured photometrically; that is to say,
+a&nbsp;standard light has its intensity, or <i>vis viva</i>, altered,
+until it produces the impression of being equally bright with the color
+whose light is to be
+<span class = "pagenum">110</span>
+determined; and the measure of the <i>vis viva</i> of the altered light,
+relatively to its standard intensity, is then taken as the luminosity of
+the color in question.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Maxwell Color Discs.</span>&mdash;Discs
+having each a single color, and slit radially so that one may be made to
+lap over another to any desired extent. By rotating these on a spindle,
+the effect of combining certain colors in varying proportions can be
+studied.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Micron.</span>&mdash;The millionth part of
+a metre, or 1/23400 of an English inch. The term has been formally
+adopted by the International Commission of Weights and Measures,
+representing the civilized nations of the world, and is adopted by all
+metrologists.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Orange.</span>&mdash;A reddish yellow
+color, of which the orange is the type.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Vision, Persistence of.</span>&mdash;The
+continuance of a visual impression upon the retina of the eye after the
+exciting cause is removed. The length of time varies with the intensity
+of the light and the excitability of the retina, and ordinarily is
+brief, though the duration may be for hours, or even days. The after
+image may be either positive or negative, the latter when the bright
+part appears dark and the colored parts in their corresponding contrast
+colors. It is because of this persistence that, for example,
+a&nbsp;firebrand moved very rapidly appears as a band or circle of
+light.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Photometer.</span>&mdash;An instrument used
+to measure the intensity of light. Specifically, to compare the relative
+intensities of the light emitted from various sources.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Pigment.</span>&mdash;Any substance that is
+or can be used by painters to impart color to bodies.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Pink.</span>&mdash;A red color of low
+chroma, but high luminosity, inclining toward purple.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">111</span>
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Primary Colors.</span>&mdash;See Colors,
+primary.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Pure Color.</span>&mdash;A color produced
+by homogeneous light. Any very brilliant or decided color.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Purple.</span>&mdash;A color formed by the
+mixture of blue and red, including the violet of the spectrum above wave
+length 0.417, which is nearly a violet blue, and extending to, but not
+including, crimson.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Rainbow.</span>&mdash;A bow or an arc of a
+circle, consisting of the prismatic colors, formed by the refraction and
+the reflection of rays of light from drops of rain or vapor, appearing
+in the part of the heavens opposite to the sun.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Red.</span>&mdash;A color more or less
+resembling that of blood, or the lower end of the spectrum. Red is one
+of the most general color names, and embraces colors ranging in hue from
+aniline to scarlet iodide of mercury and red lead. A&nbsp;red yellower
+than vermilion is called scarlet. One much more crimson is called
+crimson red. A&nbsp;very dark red, if pure or crimson, is called maroon;
+if brownish, chestnut or chocolate. A&nbsp;pale red&mdash;that is, one
+of low <span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span> and high <span class =
+"smallroman">LUMINOSITY</span>&mdash;is called a pink, ranging from rose
+pink or pale crimson to salmon pink or pale scarlet.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Venetian Red.</span>&mdash;An important
+pigment used by artists, somewhat darker than brick red in color, and
+very permanent.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Retina.</span>&mdash;The innermost and
+chiefly nervous coat of the posterior part of the eyeball.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Saturation, of Colors.</span>&mdash;In
+optics the degree of admixture with white, the saturation diminishing as
+the amount of white is increased. In other words, the highest degree of
+saturation belongs to a given color when in the state of greatest
+purity.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">112</span>
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Scale.</span>&mdash;A graded system, by
+reference to which the degree, intensity, or quality of a sense
+perception may be estimated.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Shade.</span>&mdash;Degree or gradation of
+defective luminosity in a color, often used vaguely from the fact that
+paleness, or high luminosity, combined with defective <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>, is confounded with high luminosity by
+itself. See Color, Hue, and Tint.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Spectrum.</span>&mdash;In physics the
+continuous band of light showing the successive prismatic colors, or the
+isolated lines or bands of color, observed when the radiation from such
+a source as the sun or an ignited vapor in a gas flame is viewed after
+having been passed through a prism (prismatic spectrum) or reflected
+from a diffraction grating (diffraction or interference spectrum). See
+Rainbow.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Tint.</span>&mdash;A variety of color;
+especially and properly, a&nbsp;luminous variety of low <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>; also, abstractly, the respect in which a
+color may be raised by more or less admixture of white, which at once
+increases the luminosity and diminishes the <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Tone.</span>&mdash;A sound having
+definiteness and continuity enough so that its pitch, force, and quality
+may be readily estimated by the ear. Musical sound opposed to noise. The
+prevailing effect of a color.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Ultramarine.</span>&mdash;A beautiful
+natural blue pigment, obtained from the mineral lapis-lazuli.</p>
+
+<p><b>VALUE.&mdash;In painting and the allied arts, relation of one
+object, part, or atmospheric plane of a picture to the others, with
+reference to light and shade, the idea of HUE being abstracted.</b></p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Vermilion.</span>&mdash;The red sulphate of
+mercury.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Violet.</span>&mdash;A general class of
+colors, of which the violet flower is a
+<span class = "pagenum">113</span>
+highly chromatic example. The sensation is produced by a pure blue whose
+<span class = "smallroman">CHROMA</span> has been diminished while its
+<span class = "smallroman">LUMINOSITY</span> has been increased. Thus
+blue and violet are the same color, though the sensations are different.
+A&nbsp;mere increase of illumination may cause a violet blue to appear
+violet, with a diminution of apparent <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>. This color, called violet or blue according
+to the quality of the sensation it excites, is one of the three
+fundamental colors of Young’s theory. A&nbsp;deep blue tinged with
+red.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Viridian.</span>&mdash;Same as Veronese
+green.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">White.</span>&mdash;A color transmitting,
+and so reflecting to the eye, all the rays of the spectrum, combined in
+the same proportion as in the impinging light.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Yellow.</span>&mdash;The color of gold and
+of light, of wave length 0.581 micron. The name is restricted to highly
+chromatic and luminous colors. When reduced in <span class =
+"smallroman">CHROMA</span>, it becomes buff; when reduced in <span class
+= "smallroman">LUMINOSITY</span>, a&nbsp;cool brown. See Brown.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Veronese Green.</span>&mdash;A pigment
+consisting of hydrated chromium sesquioxide. It is a clear bluish green
+of great permanency. Also called Viridian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "index">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">114</span>
+
+<h4><a name = "index" id = "index">
+INDEX BY PARAGRAPHS.</a></h4>
+
+
+<p>Balance of color, <a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para67">67</a>,
+<a href = "#para75">75</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para77">77</a>,
+<a href = "#para81">81</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#para106">106</a>,
+<a href = "#para108">108</a>,
+<a href = "#para111">111</a>,
+<a href = "#para114">114</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para142">142</a>,
+<a href = "#para147">147</a>,
+<a href = "#appIII">Appendix III</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Black, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para22">22</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para55">55</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,
+<a href = "#para91">91</a>,
+<a href = "#para119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blue, <a href = "#para9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#para146">146</a>,
+<a href = "#para147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brewster’s theory, <a href = "#appIII">Appendix III</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Charts of the color sphere, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#para126">126</a>,
+<a href = "#para127">127</a>,
+<a href = "#para135">135</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chevreul, <a href = "#appIII">Appendix III.</a>, <a href =
+"#appV">V</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chroma, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para4">4</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para21">21</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para39">39</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#para42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#para45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#para64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#para82">82</a>,
+<a href = "#para88">88</a>,
+<a href = "#para94">94</a>,
+<a href = "#para95">95</a>,
+<a href = "#para105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#para121">121</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Scale of, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para35">35</a>,
+<a href = "#para42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#para133">133</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Strongest, <a href = "#para32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chromatic tuning fork, <a href = "#para117">117</a>,
+<a href = "#para118">118</a>,
+<a href = "#para119">119</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Circuit, inclined, <a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#para97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Color, apparatus, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Atlas, <a href = "#para129">129</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Balance, <a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para67">67</a>,
+<a href = "#para75">75</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para77">77</a>,
+<a href = "#para81">81</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para86">86</a> (triple), <a
+href = "#para106">106</a>,
+<a href = "#para108">108</a>,
+<a href = "#para111">111</a>,
+<a href = "#para114">114</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para142">142</a>,
+<a href = "#para147">147</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Blindness, <a href = "#para182">182</a>,
+<a href = "#para183">183</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Charts, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#para126">126</a>,
+<a href = "#para127">127</a>,
+<a href = "#para135">135</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para140">140</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Circuit, <a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#para59">59</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Complementary, <a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para77">77</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Color, dimensions of, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#para13">13</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para53">53</a>,
+<a href = "#para94">94</a>,
+<a href = "#para116">116</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Curves, <a href = "#para94">94</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Discs, Maxwell’s, <a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para93">93</a>,
+<a href = "#para106">106</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para112">112</a>,
+<a href = "#para113">113</a>,
+<a href = "#para117">117</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Harmony, <a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para77">77</a>,
+<a href = "#para86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#para145">145</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para148">148</a>,
+<a href = "#para151">151</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para174">174</a>,
+<a href = "#para180">180</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Hand as a holder of, <a href = "#para54">54</a>&ndash;<a href =
+"#para58">58</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Key of, <a href = "#para6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#para151">151</a>,
+<a href = "#para152">152</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Language, poverty of, <a href = "#para5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#para175">175</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Lists, <a href = "#para131">131</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Measured, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para32">32</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Meridians, <a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para137">137</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Middle, <a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#para113">113</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Misnomers, <a href = "#appI">Appendix I</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Mixture, <a href = "#para56">56</a>&ndash;<a href =
+"#para72">72</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Names, <a href = "#para1">1</a>,
+<a href = "#para2">2</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para90">90</a>,
+<a href = "#para91">91</a>,
+<a href = "#para131">131</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Notation, <a href = "#para36">36</a>,
+<a href = "#para37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para67">67</a>,
+<a href = "#para72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#para86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#para101">101</a>,
+<a href = "#para133">133</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Orange, <a href = "#para9">9</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para89">89</a>,
+<a href = "#para123">123</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Parallels, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para119">119</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Paths, <a href = "#para157">157</a>,
+<a href = "#para158">158</a>,
+<a href = "#para160">160</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para164">164</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Perception, <a href = "#para27">27</a>,
+<a href = "#para29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#para39">39</a>,
+<a href = "#para179">179</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Principal (5), <a href = "#para4">4</a>,
+<a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para21">21</a>,
+<a href = "#para26">26</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para56">56</a>,&nbsp;<a href = "#para57">57</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Principal (5) and intermediates (5), <a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#para68">68</a>,
+<a href = "#para112">112</a>,
+<a href = "#para134">134</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Purity, <a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para89">89</a>,
+<a href = "#para98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#para99">99</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Records <a href = "#para145">145</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Relations, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#para36">36</a>,
+<a href = "#para37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#para153">153</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Rhythm, <a href = "#para166">166</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Scale, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#para24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#para30">30</a>,
+<a href = "#para55">55</a>,
+<a href = "#para120">120</a>,
+<a href = "#para140">140</a>,
+<a href = "#appII">Appendix II</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Score, <a href = "#para133">133</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para139">139</a>,
+<a href = "#para142">142</a>,
+<a href = "#para173">173</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Sensations, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para4">4</a>,
+<a href = "#para15">15</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para21">21</a>,
+<a href = "#para87">87</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Sequences, <a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#para79">79</a>,
+<a href = "#para120">120</a>,
+<a href = "#para156">156</a>,
+<a href = "#para169">169</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para171">171</a>,
+<a href = "#para181">181</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Sir Isaac Newton’s, <a href = "#para89">89</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Schemes, <a href = "#appV">Appendix V</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Solid, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#para126">126</a>,
+<a href = "#para129">129</a>,
+<a href = "#para140">140</a>,
+<a href = "#para153">153</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Spectral, <a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para88">88</a>,
+<a href = "#para94">94</a>,
+<a href = "#para129">129</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Sphere, <a href = "#para12">12</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#para24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#para55">55</a>,
+<a href = "#para72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#para91">91</a>,
+<a href = "#para101">101</a>,
+<a href = "#para102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#para111">111</a>,
+<a href = "#para122">122</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Standard, <a href = "#para4">4</a>,
+<a href = "#para26">26</a>,
+<a href = "#para35">35</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+System, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para123">123</a>,
+<a href = "#para130">130</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset2">
+Need of, <a href = "#para46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#para148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Tree, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para30">30</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#para94">94</a>,
+<a href = "#para95">95</a>,
+<a href = "#para124">124</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Waves, <a href = "#para21">21</a>,
+<a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>.</p>
+<p class = "inset">
+Tones, <a href = "#para134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Children’s color studies, <a href = "#appIV">Appendix IV</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colorist, <a href = "#para84">84</a>,
+<a href = "#para121">121</a>,
+<a href = "#para177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coloristic art, <a href = "#para7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#para38">38</a>,
+<a href = "#para45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#para177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Combined scales, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para36">36</a>,
+<a href = "#para37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#para47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Complements, <a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Course of color study, <a href = "#para48">48</a>&ndash;<a href =
+"#para50">50</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Daylight photometer, <a href = "#para22">22</a>,
+<a href = "#para103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#para119">119</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Enamels, <a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#para101">101</a>,
+<a href = "#para117">117</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Fading, <a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p>False color balance, <a href = "#appIII">Appendix III</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flat diagrams, <a href = "#para14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fundamental sensations, <a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#appIII">Appendix III</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Green, <a href = "#para2">2</a>,
+<a href = "#para32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#para104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para137">137</a>,
+<a href = "#para140">140</a>,
+<a href = "#para147">147</a>,
+<a href = "#para148">148</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Hue, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para4">4</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para9">9</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para18">18</a>,
+<a href = "#para21">21</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para26">26</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para39">39</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#para43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para59">59</a>,
+<a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para82">82</a>,
+<a href = "#para89">89</a>,
+<a href = "#para105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Scale of, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para35">35</a>,
+<a href = "#para120">120</a>,
+<a href = "#para133">133</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Ideal color system, <a href = "#para100">100</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Lambert’s pyramid, note to <a href = "#para31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Luminist, <a href = "#para121">121</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Masks, <a href = "#para47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#para167">167</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Maxwell discs, <a href = "#para93">93</a>,
+<a href = "#para107">107</a>,
+<a href = "#para113">113</a>,
+<a href = "#para117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Measurement of colors, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para116">116</a>,
+<a href = "#appIV">Appendix IV</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Middle gray, <a href = "#para61">61</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,
+<a href = "#para72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Middle hues, <a href = "#para10">10</a>,
+<a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mixture of hues, <a href = "#para56">56</a>&ndash;<a href =
+"#para72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Musical terms used for colors, <a href = "#para6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#para46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#para148">148</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para150">150</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Neutral axis, <a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para61">61</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,
+<a href = "#para121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Neutral gray, <a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para62">62</a>,
+<a href = "#para64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,
+<a href = "#para72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#para114">114</a>,
+<a href = "#para102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Notation diagram, <a href = "#para140">140</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Orange, <a href = "#para9">9</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para18">18</a>,
+<a href = "#para123">123</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Personal bias, <a href = "#para144">144</a>,
+<a href = "#para174">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pigments, <a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para27">27</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#para101">101</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#para125">125</a>,
+<a href = "#para129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Photometer, <a href = "#para65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Primary sensations, <a href = "#para89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Prismatic color sphere, <a href = "#para98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Purple, <a href = "#para5">5</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Rainbow, <a href = "#para15">15</a>,
+<a href = "#para17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Red, middle, <a href = "#para1">1</a>,
+<a href = "#para32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#para41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#para60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#para66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#para72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#para104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#para110">110</a>,
+<a href = "#para122">122</a>,
+<a href = "#para147">147</a>,
+<a href = "#para148">148</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Retina, <a href = "#para21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rood, modern chromatics, <a href = "#appI">Appendix I</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Runge, note to <a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#appV">Appendix V</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Shades and tints, <a href = "#para22">22</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spectrum, solar, <a href = "#para15">15</a>&ndash;<a href =
+"#para18">18</a>,
+<a href = "#para27">27</a>,
+<a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para87">87</a>,
+<a href = "#para88">88</a>,
+<a href = "#para92">92</a>,
+<a href = "#para95">95</a>,&nbsp;<a href = "#para96">96</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Tone, <a href = "#para6">6</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Value, <a href = "#para3">3</a>,
+<a href = "#para8">8</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#para14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#para21">21</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#para28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para39">39</a>,
+<a href = "#para40">40</a>&ndash;<a href = "#para43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#para78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#para82">82</a>,
+<a href = "#para94">94</a>,
+<a href = "#para105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#para120">120</a>,
+<a href = "#para132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Scale of, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para35">35</a>,
+<a href = "#para64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#para102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#para120">120</a>,
+<a href = "#para133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vermilion, <a href = "#para42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#appIII">Appendix III</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vertical (neutral) axis, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para34">34</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,&nbsp;<a href = "#para68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Violet, <a href = "#para90">90</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Warm and cold colors, <a href = "#para72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#para123">123</a>,
+note to <a href = "#para136">136</a>,
+<a href = "#para137">137</a>,
+<a href = "#para138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wave lengths, <a href = "#para21">21</a>,
+<a href = "#para22">22</a>,
+<a href = "#para23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#para89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p>White, <a href = "#para12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#para16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#para17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#para22">22</a>,
+<a href = "#para31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#para41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para55">55</a>,
+<a href = "#para65">65</a>,
+<a href = "#para87">87</a>,
+<a href = "#para91">91</a>,
+<a href = "#para92">92</a>,
+<a href = "#para99">99</a>,
+<a href = "#para119">119</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Yellow, <a href = "#para1">1</a>,
+<a href = "#para32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#para54">54</a>,
+<a href = "#para104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#para136">136</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "advert">
+
+<h2 class = "fancy">
+<img src = "images/The.png" width = "34" height = "20"
+alt = "The">
+&nbsp;MUNSELL &nbsp; PHOTOMETER</h2>
+
+<p class = "smaller">
+Patented November 19, 1901</p>
+
+
+<p>A portable, daylight instrument, adapted to laboratory work<br>
+in general, and of especial service in the comparison<br>
+of color values. Placed in the course<br>
+of Optical Measurements at the<br>
+Massachusetts Institute of<br>
+Technology</p>
+
+<p class = "larger"><b>Price, $50</b></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/dec.png" width = "22" height = "27"
+alt = "decoration"></p>
+
+<p><b>IN PREPARATION</b></p>
+
+<hr class = "micro">
+
+<h2 class = "fancy">A &nbsp; COLOR &nbsp; ATLAS</h2>
+
+<p>Also text-books and models<br>
+specially designed<br>
+to serve in the education of<br>
+the color sense</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "endnote">
+
+<p>For comparison purposes, here is the Color Balance illustration
+(Appendix III) using the colors of your computer monitor (red, green,
+blue):</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/comp_balance.png" width = "118" height = "91"
+alt = "color balance"></p>
+
+<p>The three “secondary” colors each combine two of the three colors in
+equal amounts. These are the colors used by your printer: yellow, cyan
+(blue + green) and magenta (red + blue).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Color Notation
+       A measured color system, based on the three qualities Hue,
+       Value and Chroma
+
+Author: Albert H. Munsell
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2008 [EBook #26054]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A COLOR NOTATION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, K.D. Thornton and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[This text is intended for readers who cannot use the "real" (unicode,
+utf-8) version of the file. A few characters such as "ae" have been
+unpacked; fractions are written out as "1-1/2", and symbols such as
+degree signs have been expanded.
+
+The Table of Contents, Index, and all cross-references use paragraph
+numbers, shown in (parentheses).
+
+Braces have been added to a few long fractions that were originally
+printed on two lines.
+
+The numbers in expressions such as R2, R3, R4 were printed as
+superscripts.]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: A BALANCED COLOR SPHERE
+  PASTEL SKETCH]
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR NOTATION
+
+  _By_
+
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+A MEASURED COLOR SYSTEM, BASED ON THE THREE QUALITIES
+
+  _Hue, Value, and Chroma_
+
+  with
+
+  Illustrative Models, Charts, and
+  a Course of Study Arranged for Teachers
+
+  _2nd Edition
+  Revised &
+  Enlarged_
+
+  GEO. H. ELLIS CO.
+  BOSTON
+  1907
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1905
+  by
+  A. H. MUNSELL
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+  ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+At various times during the past ten years, the gist of these pages has
+been given in the form of lectures to students of the Normal Art School,
+the Art Teachers' Association, and the Twentieth Century Club. In
+October of last year it was presented before the Society of Arts of the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at the suggestion of Professor
+Charles R. Cross.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is due to many whose helpful criticism has aided
+in its development, notably Mr. Benjamin Ives Gilman, Secretary of the
+Museum of Fine Arts, Professor Harry E. Clifford, of the Institute, and
+Mr. Myron T. Pritchard, master of the Everett School, Boston.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1905.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
+
+
+The new illustrations in this edition are facsimiles of children's
+studies with measured color, made under ordinary school-room conditions.
+Notes and appendices are introduced to meet the questions most
+frequently asked, stress being laid on the unbalanced nature of colors
+usually given to beginners, and the mischief done by teaching that red,
+yellow, and blue are primary hues.
+
+The need of a scientific basis for color values is also emphasized,
+believing this to be essential in the discipline of the color sense.
+
+    A. H. M.
+
+  CHESTNUT HILL, MASS., 1907.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The lack of definiteness which is at present so general in color
+nomenclature, is due in large measure to the failure to appreciate the
+fundamental characteristics on which color differences depend. For the
+physicist, the expression of the wave length of any particular light is
+in most cases sufficient, but in the great majority of instances where
+colors are referred to, something more than this and something easier of
+realization is essential.
+
+The attempt to express color relations by using merely two dimensions,
+or two definite characteristics, can never lead to a successful system.
+For this reason alone the system proposed by Mr. Munsell, with its three
+dimensions of hue, value, and chroma, is a decided step in advance over
+any previous proposition. By means of these three dimensions it is
+possible to completely express any particular color, and to
+differentiate it from colors ordinarily classed as of the same
+general character.
+
+The expression of the essential characteristics of a color is, however,
+not all that is necessary. There must be some accurate and not too
+complicated system for duplicating these characteristics, one which
+shall not alter with time or place, and which shall be susceptible of
+easy and accurate redetermination. From the teaching standpoint also a
+logical and sequential development is absolutely essential. This Mr.
+Munsell seems to have most successfully accomplished.
+
+In the determination of his relationships he has made use of distinctly
+scientific methods, and there seems no reason why his suggestions should
+not lead to an exact and definite system of color essentials. The
+Munsell photometer, which is briefly referred to, is an instrument of
+wide range, high precision, and great sensitiveness, and permits the
+valuations which are necessary in his system to be accurately made. We
+all appreciate the necessity for some improvement in our ideas of color,
+and the natural inference is that the training should be begun in early
+youth. The present system in its modified form possesses elements of
+simplicity and attractiveness which should appeal to children, and give
+them almost unconsciously a power of discrimination which would prove of
+immense value in later life. The possibilities in this system are very
+great, and it has been a privilege to be allowed during the past few
+years to keep in touch with its development. I cannot but feel that we
+have here not only a rational color nomenclature, but also a system of
+scientific importance and of practical value.
+
+    H. E. CLIFFORD.
+
+  MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
+    February, 1905.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Introduction By Professor Clifford.
+
+
+  Part I.
+
+Chapter                                                Paragraph
+
+    I. COLOR NAMES: Red, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple           1
+         Appendix I.--Misnomers for Color.
+
+   II. COLOR QUALITIES: Hue, Value, Chroma                    20
+         Appendix II.--Scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+  III. COLOR MIXTURE: A Tri-Dimensional Balance               54
+         Appendix III.--False Color Balance.
+
+   IV. PRISMATIC COLORS                                       87
+         Appendix IV.--Children's Color Studies.
+
+    V. THE PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE: TRUE COLOR BALANCE          102
+         Appendix V.--Schemes based on Brewster's Theory.
+
+   VI. COLOR NOTATION: A Written Color System                132
+
+  VII. COLOR HARMONY: A Measured Relation                    146
+
+
+  Part II.
+
+       A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+       BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+         Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+       GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+         Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+       INDEX
+         (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+COLOR NAMES.
+
+
+Writing from Samoa to Sidney Colvin in London, Stevenson[1] says:
+"Perhaps in the same way it might amuse you to send us any pattern of
+wall paper that might strike you as cheap, pretty, and suitable for a
+room in a hot and extremely bright climate. It should be borne in mind
+that our climate can be extremely dark, too. Our sitting-room is to be
+in varnished wood. The room I have particularly in mind is a sort of bed
+and sitting room, pretty large, lit on three sides, and the colour in
+favour of its proprietor at present is a topazy yellow. But then with
+what colour to relieve it? For a little work-room of my own at the back
+I should rather like to see some patterns of unglossy--well, I'll be
+hanged if I can describe this red. It's not Turkish, and it's not Roman,
+and it's not Indian; but it seems to partake of the last two, and yet it
+can't be either of them, because it ought to be able to go with
+vermilion. Ah, what a tangled web we weave! Anyway, with what brains you
+have left choose me and send me some--many--patterns of the exact
+shade."
+
+    [Footnote 1: Vailima Letters, Oct. 8, 1902.]
+
+(1) Where could be found a more delightful cry for some rational way to
+describe color? He wants "a topazy yellow" and a red that is not Turkish
+nor Roman nor Indian, but that "seems to partake of the last two, and
+yet it can't be either of them." As a cap to the climax comes his demand
+for "patterns of the exact shade." Thus one of the clearest and most
+forceful writers of English finds himself unable to describe the color
+he wants. And why? Simply because popular language does not clearly
+state a single one of the three qualities united in every color, and
+which must be known before one may even hope to convey his color
+conceptions to another.
+
+(2) The incongruous and bizarre nature of our present color names must
+appear to any thoughtful person. Baby blue, peacock blue, Nile green,
+apple green, lemon yellow, straw yellow, rose pink, heliotrope, royal
+purple, Magenta, Solferino, plum, and automobile are popular terms,
+conveying different ideas to different persons and utterly failing to
+define colors. The terms used for a single hue, such as pea green, sea
+green, olive green, grass green, sage green, evergreen, invisible green,
+are not to be trusted in ordering a piece of cloth. They invite mistakes
+and disappointment. Not only are they inaccurate: they are
+inappropriate. Can we imagine musical tones called lark, canary,
+cockatoo, crow, cat, dog, or mouse, because they bear some distant
+resemblance to the cries of those animals? See paragraph 131.
+
+
++Color needs a system.+
+
+(3) Music is equipped with a system by which it defines each sound in
+terms of its pitch, intensify, and duration, without dragging in loose
+allusions to the endlessly varying sounds of nature. So should color be
+supplied with an appropriate system, based on the hue, value, and
+chroma[2] of our sensations, and not attempting to describe them by the
+indefinite and varying colors of natural objects. The system now to be
+considered portrays the three dimensions of color, and measures each by
+an appropriate scale. It does not rest upon the whim of an individual,
+but upon physical measurements made possible by special color apparatus.
+The results may be tested by any one who comes to the problem with "a
+clear mind, a good eye, and a fair supply of patience."
+
+    [Footnote 2: See color variables in Glossary.]
+
+
++Clear mental images make clear speech. Vague thoughts find vague
+utterance.+
+
+(4) The child gathers flowers, hoards colored beads, chases butterflies,
+and begs for the gaudiest painted toys. At first his strong color
+sensations are sufficiently described by the simple terms of red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. But he soon sees that some are light,
+while others are dark, and later comes to perceive that each hue has
+many grayer degrees. Now, if he wants to describe a particular
+red,--such as that of his faded cap,--he is not content to merely call
+it red, since he is aware of other red objects which are very unlike it.
+So he gropes for means to define this particular red; and, having no
+standard of comparison,--no scale by which to estimate,--he hesitatingly
+says it is a "sort of dull red."
+
+(5) Thus early is he cramped by the poverty of color language. He has
+never been given an appropriate word for this color quality, and has to
+borrow one signifying the opposite of sharp, which belongs to edge tools
+rather than to colors.
+
+
++Most color terms are borrowed from other senses.+
+
+(6) When his older sister refers to the "tone" of her green dress, or
+speaks of the "key of color" in a picture, he is naturally confused,
+because tone and key are terms associated in his mind with music. It may
+not be long before he will hear that "a color note has been pitched too
+high," or that a certain artist "paints in a minor key." All these terms
+lead to mixed and indefinite ideas, and leave him unequipped for the
+clear expression of color qualities.
+
+(7) Musical art is not so handicapped. It has an established scale with
+measured intervals and definite terms. Likewise, coloristic art must
+establish a scale, measure its intervals, and name its qualities in
+unmistakable fashion.
+
+
++Color has three dimensions.+
+
+(8) It may sound strange to say that color has three dimensions, but it
+is easily proved by the fact that each of them can be measured. Thus in
+the case of the boy's faded cap its redness or HUE[3] is determined by
+one instrument; the amount of light in the red, which is its VALUE,[3]
+is found by another instrument; while still a third instrument
+determines the purity or CHROMA[3] of the red.
+
+The omission of any one of these three qualities leaves us in doubt as
+to the character of a color, just as truly as the character of this
+studio would remain undefined if the length were omitted and we
+described it as 22 feet wide by 14 feet high. The imagination would be
+free to ascribe any length it chose, from 25 to 100 feet. This length
+might be differently conceived by every individual who tried to supply
+the missing factor.
+
+(9) To illustrate the tri-dimensional nature of colors. Suppose we peel
+an orange and divide it in five parts, leaving the sections slightly
+connected below (Fig. 4). Then let us say that all the reds we have ever
+seen are gathered in one of the sections, all yellows in another, all
+greens in the third, blues in the fourth, and purples in the fifth. Next
+we will assort these HUES in each section so that the lightest are near
+the top, and grade regularly to the darkest near the bottom. A white
+wafer connects all the sections at the top, and a black wafer may be
+added beneath. See Plate I.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.]
+
+    [Footnote 3: For definitions of Hue, Value, and Chroma, see
+    paragraphs 20-23.]
+
+(10) The fruit is then filled with assorted colors, graded from white to
+black, according to their VALUES, and disposed by their HUES in the five
+sections. A slice near the top will uncover light values in all hues,
+and a slice near the bottom will find dark values in the same hues.
+A slice across the middle discloses a circuit of hues all of MIDDLE
+VALUE; that is, midway between the extremes of white and black.
+
+(11) Two color dimensions are thus shown in the orange, and it remains
+to exhibit the third, which is called CHROMA, or strength of color. To
+do this, we have only to take each section in turn, and, without
+disturbing the values already assorted, shove the grayest in toward the
+narrow edge, and grade outward to the purest on the surface. Each slice
+across the fruit still shows the circuit of hues in one uniform value;
+but the strong chromas are at the outside, while grayer and grayer
+chromas make a gradation inward to neutral gray at the centre, where all
+trace of color disappears. The thin edges of all sections unite in a
+scale of gray from black to white, no matter what hue each contains.
+
+The curved outside of each section shows its particular hue graded from
+black to white; and, should the section be cut at right angles to the
+thin edge, it would show the third dimension,--chroma,--for the color is
+graded evenly from the surface to neutral gray. A pin stuck in at any
+point traces the third dimension.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.]
+
+
++A color sphere can be used to unite the three dimensions of hue,
+value, and chroma.+
+
+(12) Having used the familiar structure of the orange as a help in
+classifying colors, let us substitute a geometric solid, like a
+sphere,[4] and make use of geographical terms. The north pole is white.
+The south pole is black. The equator is a circuit of middle reds,
+yellows, greens, blues, and purples. Parallels above the equator
+describe this circuit in lighter values, and parallels below trace it in
+darker values. The vertical axis joining black and white is a neutral
+scale of gray values, while perpendiculars to it (like a pin thrust into
+the orange) are scales of chroma. Thus our color notions may be brought
+into an orderly relation by the color sphere. Any color describes its
+light and strength by its location in the solid or on the surface, and
+is named by its place in the combined scales of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 4: See frontispiece.]
+
++Two dimensions fail to describe a color.+
+
+(13) Much of the popular misunderstanding of color is caused by
+ignorance of these three dimensions or by an attempt to make two
+dimensions do the work of three.
+
+(14) Flat diagrams showing hues and values, but omitting to define
+chromas, are as incomplete as would be a map of Switzerland with the
+mountains left out, or a harbor chart without indications of the depth
+of water. We find by aid of the measuring instruments that pigments are
+very unequal in this third dimension,--chroma,--producing mountains and
+valleys on the color sphere, so that, when the color system is worked
+out in pigments and charted, some colors must be traced well out beyond
+the spherical surface (paragraphs 125-127). Indeed, a COLOR TREE[5] is
+needed to display by the unequal levels and lengths of its branches the
+individuality of pigment colors. But, whatever solid or figure is used
+to illustrate color relations, it must combine the three scales of hue,
+value, and chroma, and these definite scales furnish a name for every
+color based upon its intrinsic qualities, and free from terms purloined
+in other sensations, or caught from the fluctuating colors of natural
+objects.
+
+    [Footnote 5: For description of the Color Tree see paragraphs 33
+    and 34.]
+
+
++How this system describes the spectrum.+
+
+(15) The solar spectrum and rainbow are the most stimulating color
+experiences with which we are acquainted. Can they be described by this
+solid system?
+
+(16) The lightest part of the spectrum is a narrow field of greenish
+yellow, grading into darker red on one side and into darker green upon
+the other, followed by still darker blue and purple. Upon the sphere the
+values of these spectral colors trace a path high up on the yellow
+section, near white, and slanting downward across the red and green
+sections, which are traversed near the level of the equator, it goes on
+to cross the blue and purple well down toward black.
+
+(17) This forms an inclined circuit, crossing the equator at opposite
+points, and suggests the ecliptic or the rings of Saturn (see outside
+cover). A pale rainbow would describe a slanting circuit nearer white,
+and a dimmer one would fall within the sphere, while an intensely
+brilliant spectrum projects far beyond the surface of the sphere, so
+greatly is the chroma of its hues in excess of the common pigments with
+which we work out our problems.
+
+(18) At the outset it is well to recognize the place of the spectrum in
+this system, not only because it is the established basis of scientific
+study, but especially because the invariable order assumed by its hues
+is the only stable hint which Nature affords us in her infinite color
+play.
+
+(19) All our color sensations are included in the color solid. None are
+left out by its scales of hue, value, and chroma. Indeed, the
+imagination is led to conceive and locate still purer colors than any we
+now possess. Such increased degrees of color sensation can be named, and
+clearly conveyed by symbols to another person as soon as the system is
+comprehended.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I.
+
+
++Misnomers for Color.+
+
+The Century Dictionary helps an intelligent study of color by its clear
+definitions and cross-references to HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA,--leaving no
+excuse for those who would confuse these three qualities or treat a
+degree of any quality as the quality itself.
+
+Obscure statements were frequent in text-books before these new
+definitions appeared. Thus the term "shade" should be applied only to
+darkened values, and not to hues or chromas. Yet one writer says, "This
+yellow shades into green," which is certainly a change of hue, and then
+speaks of "a brighter shade" in spite of his evident intention to
+suggest a stronger chroma, which is neither a shade nor brighter
+luminosity.
+
+Children gain wrong notions of "tint and shade" from the so-called
+standard colors shown to them, which present "tints" of red and blue
+much darker than the "shades" of yellow. This is bewildering, and, like
+their elders, they soon drop into the loose habit of calling any degree
+of color-strength or color-light a "shade." _Value_ is a better term to
+describe the light which color reflects to the eye, and all color
+values, light or dark, are measured by the _value-scale_.
+
+"Tone" is used in a confusing way to mean different things. Thus in the
+same sentence we see it refers to a single touch of the brush,--which is
+not a tone, but a paint spot,--and then we read that the "tone of the
+canvas is golden." This cannot mean that each paint spot is the color of
+gold, but is intended to suggest that the various objects depicted seem
+enveloped in a yellow atmosphere. Tone is, in fact, a musical term
+appropriate to sound, but out of place in color. It seems better to call
+the brush touch a _color-spot_: then the result of an harmonious
+relation between all the spots is _color-envelope_, or, as in Rood, "the
+chromatic composition."
+
+"Intensity" is a misleading term, if chroma be intended, for it depends
+on the relative light of spectral hues. It is a degree rather than a
+quality, as appears in the expressions, intense heat, light,
+sound,--intensity of stimulus and reaction. Being a degree of many
+qualities, it should not be used to describe the quality itself. The
+word becomes especially unfit when used to describe two very different
+phases of a color,--as its intense illumination, where the chroma is
+greatly weakened, and the strongest chroma which is found in a much
+lower value. "Purity" is also to be avoided in speaking of pigments, for
+not one of our pigments represents a single pure ray of the spectrum.
+
+Examples are constantly found of the mental blur caused by such
+unfortunate terms, and, since misunderstanding becomes impossible with
+measured degrees of hue, value, and chroma, it seems only a question of
+time when they will take the place of tint, tone, shade, purity and
+intensity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COLOR QUALITIES.
+
+
+(20) The three color qualities are hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
++HUE is the name of a color.+
+
+(21) Hue is the quality by which we distinguish one color from another,
+as a red from a yellow, a green, a blue, or a purple. This names the
+hue, but does not tell whether it is light or dark, weak or
+strong,--leaving us in doubt as to its value and its chroma.
+
+Science attributes this quality to difference in the LENGTH of ether
+waves impinging on the retina, which causes the sensation of color. The
+wave length M. 5269 gives a sensation of green, while M. 6867 gives a
+sensation of red.[6]
+
+    [Footnote 6: See Glossary for definitions of Micron, Photometer,
+    Retina, and Red, also for Hue, Tint, Shade, Value, Color
+    Variables, Luminosity, and Chroma.]
+
+
++VALUE is the light of a color.+
+
+(22) Value is the quality by which we distinguish a light color from a
+dark one. Color values are loosely called tints and shades, but the
+terms are frequently misapplied. A tint should be a light value, and a
+shade should be darker; but the word "shade" has become a general term
+for any sort of color, so that a shade of yellow may prove to be lighter
+than a tint of blue. A photometric[7] scale of value places all colors
+in relation to the extremes of white and black, but cannot describe
+their hue or their chroma.
+
+Science describes this quality as due to difference in the HEIGHT or
+amplitude of ether waves impinging on the retina. Small amplitudes of
+the wave lengths given in paragraph 21 produce the sensation of dark
+green and dark red: larger amplitudes give the sensation of lighter
+green and lighter red.
+
+    [Footnote 7: See Photometer in paragraph 65.]
+
+
++CHROMA is the strength of a color.+
+
+(23) Chroma is the quality by which we distinguish a strong color from a
+weak one. To say that a rug is strong in color gives no hint of its hues
+or values, only its chromas. Loss of chroma is loosely called fading,
+but this word is frequently used to include changes of value and hue.
+Take two autumn leaves, identical in color, and expose one to the
+weather, while the other is waxed and pressed in a book. Soon the
+exposed leaf fades into a neutral gray, while the protected one
+preserves its strong chroma almost intact. If, in fading, the leaf does
+not change its hue or its value, there is only a loss of chroma, but the
+fading process is more likely to induce some change of the other two
+qualities. Fading, however, cannot define these changes.
+
+Science describes chroma as the purity of one wave length separated from
+all others. Other wave lengths, INTERMINGLING, make its chroma less
+pure. A beam of daylight can combine all wave lengths in such balance as
+to give the sensation of whiteness, because no single wave is in
+excess.[8]
+
+    [Footnote 8: See definition of White in Glossary.]
+
+(24) The color sphere (see Fig. 1) is a convenient model to illustrate
+these three qualities,--hue, value, and chroma,--and unite them by
+measured scales.
+
+(25) The north pole of the color sphere is white, and the south pole
+black. Value or luminosity of colors ranges between these two extremes.
+This is the vertical scale, to be memorized as _V_, the initial for both
+value and vertical. Vertical movement through color may thus be thought
+of as a change of value, but not as a change of hue or of chroma. Hues
+of color are spread around the equator of the sphere. This is a
+horizontal scale, memorized as _H_, the initial for both hue and
+horizontal. Horizontal movement around the color solid is thus thought
+of as a change of hue, but not of value or of chroma. A line inward from
+the strong surface hues to the neutral gray axis, traces the graying of
+each color, which is loss of chroma, and conversely a line beginning
+with neutral gray at the vertical axis, and becoming more and more
+colored until it passes outside the sphere, is a scale of chroma, which
+is memorized as _C_, the initial both for chroma and centre. Thus the
+sphere lends its three dimensions to color description, and a color
+applied anywhere within, without, or on its surface is located and named
+by its degree of hue, of value, and of chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+
++HUES first appeal to the child, VALUES next, and CHROMAS last.+
+
+(26) Color education begins with ability to recognize and name certain
+hues, such as red, yellow, green, blue, and purple (see paragraphs 182
+and 183). Nature presents these hues in union with such varieties of
+value and chroma that, unless there be some standard of comparison, it
+is impossible for one person to describe them intelligently to another.
+
+(27) The solar spectrum forms a basis for scientific color analysis,
+taught in technical schools; but it is quite beyond the comprehension of
+a child. He needs something more tangible and constantly in view to
+train his color notions. He needs to handle colors, place them side by
+side for comparison, imitate them with crayons, paints, and colored
+stuffs, so as to test the growth of perception, and learn by simple yet
+accurate terms to describe each by its hue, its value, and its chroma.
+
+(28) Pigments, rather than the solar spectrum, are the practical agents
+of color work. Certain of them, selected and measured by this system
+(see Chapter V.), will be known as MIDDLE COLORS, because they stand
+midway in the scales of value and chroma. These middle colors are
+preserved in imperishable enamels,[9] so that the child may handle and
+fix them in his memory, and thus gain a permanent basis for comparing
+all degrees of color. He learns to grade each middle color to its
+extremes of value and chroma.
+
+    [Footnote 9: When recognized for the first time, a middle green,
+    blue, or purple, is accepted by most persons as well within
+    their color habit, but middle red and middle yellow cause
+    somewhat of a shock. "That isn't red," they say, "it's terra
+    cotta." "Yellow?" "Oh, no, that's--well, it's a very peculiar
+    shade."
+    Yet these are as surely the middle degrees of red and yellow as
+    are the more familiar degrees of green, blue, and purple. This
+    becomes evident as soon as one accepts physical tests of color
+    in place of personal whim. It also opens the mind to a generally
+    ignored fact, that middle reds and yellows, instead of the
+    screaming red and yellow first given a child, are constantly
+    found in examples of rich and beautiful color, such as Persian
+    rugs, Japanese prints, and the masterpieces of painting.]
+
+(29) Experiments with crayons and paints, and efforts to match middle
+colors, train his color sense to finer perceptions. Having learned to
+name colors, he compares them with the enamels of middle value, and can
+describe how light or dark they are. Later he perceives their
+differences of strength, and, comparing them with the enamels of middle
+chroma, can describe how weak or strong they are. Thus the full
+significance of these middle colors as a practical basis for all color
+estimates becomes apparent; and, when at a more advanced stage he
+studies the best examples of decorative color, he will again encounter
+them in the most beautiful products of Oriental art.
+
+
++Is it possible to define the endless varieties of color?+
+
+(30) At first glance it would seem almost hopeless to attempt the naming
+of every kind and degree of color. But, if all these varieties possess
+the same three qualities, only in different degrees, and if each quality
+can be measured by a scale, then there is a clue to this labyrinth.
+
+
++A COLOR SPHERE and COLOR TREE to unite hue, value, and chroma.+
+
+(31) This clue is found in the union of these three qualities by
+measured scales in a _color sphere and color tree_.[10] The equator of
+the sphere[11] may be divided into ten parts, and serve as the scale of
+hue, marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP. Its vertical axis may
+be divided into ten parts to serve as the scale of value, numbered from
+black (0) to white (10). Any perpendicular to the neutral axis is a
+scale of chroma. On the plane of the equator this scale is numbered 1,
+2, 3, 4, 5, from the centre to the surface.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+    [Footnote 10: See Color Tree in paragraph 14.]
+
+    [Footnote 11: Unaware that the spherical arrangement had been
+    used years before, I devised a double tetrahedron to classify
+    colors, while a student of painting in 1879. It now appears that
+    the sphere was common property with psychologists, having been
+    described by Runge in 1810. Earlier still, Lambert had suggested
+    a pyramidal form. Both are based on the erroneous assumption
+    that red, yellow, and blue are primary sensations, and also fail
+    to place these hues in a just scale of luminosity. My twirling
+    color solid and its completer development in the present model
+    have always made prominent the artistic feeling for color value.
+    It differs in this and in other ways from previous systems, and
+    is fortunate in possessing new apparatus to measure the degree
+    of hue, value, and chroma.]
+
+(32) This chroma scale may be raised or lowered to any level of value,
+always remaining perpendicular to the axis, and serving to measure the
+chroma of every hue at every level of value. The fact that some colors
+exceed others to such an extent as to carry them out beyond the sphere
+is proved by measuring instruments, but the fact is a new one to many
+persons. (Figs. 2 and 3.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2. (See Fig. 20) The Color Tree]
+
+(33) For this reason the COLOR TREE is a completer model than the
+sphere, although the simplicity of the latter makes it best for a
+child's comprehension.
+
+(34) The color tree is made by taking the vertical axis of the sphere,
+which carries a scale of value, for the trunk. The branches are at right
+angles to the trunk; and, as in the sphere, they carry the scale of
+chroma. Colored balls on the branches tell their Hue. In order to show
+the MAXIMA of color, each branch is attached to the trunk (or neutral
+axis) at a level demanded by its value,--the yellow nearest white at the
+top, then the green, red, blue, and purple branches, approaching black
+in the order of their lower values. It will be remembered that the
+chroma of the sphere ceased with 5 at the equator. The color tree
+prolongs this through 6, 7, 8, and 9. The branch ends carry colored
+balls, representing the most powerful red, yellow, green, blue, and
+purple pigments which we now possess, and could be lengthened, should
+stronger chromas be discovered.[12]
+
+    [Footnote 12: See Plate I.]
+
+(35) Such models set up a permanent image of color relations. Every
+point is self-described by its place in the united scales of hue, value,
+and chroma. These scales fix each new perception of color in the child's
+mind by its situation in the color solid. The importance of such a
+definite image can hardly be overestimated, for without it one color
+sensation tends to efface another. When the child looks at a color, and
+has no basis of comparison, it soon leaves a vague memory that cannot be
+described. These models, on the contrary, lead to an intelligent
+estimate of each color in terms of its hue, its value, and its chroma;
+while the permanent enamels correct any personal bias by a definite
+standard.
+
+(36) Thus defined, a color falls into logical relation with all other
+colors in the system, and is easily memorized, so that its image may be
+recalled at any distance of time or place by the notation.
+
+(37) These solid models help to memorize and assemble colors and the
+memory is further strengthened by a simple NOTATION, which records each
+color so that it cannot be mistaken for any other. By these written
+scales a child gains an instinctive estimate of relations, so that, when
+he is delighted with a new color combination, its proportions are noted
+and understood.
+
+(38) Musical art has long enjoyed the advantages of a definite scale and
+notation. Should not the art of coloring gain by similar definition? The
+musical scale is not left to personal whim, nor does it change from day
+to day; and something as clear and stable would be an advantage in
+training the color sense.
+
+(39) Perception of color is crude at first. The child sees only the most
+obvious distinctions, and prefers the strongest stimulation. But
+perception soon becomes refined by exercise, and, when a child tries to
+imitate the subtle colors of nature with paints, he begins to realize
+that the strongest colors are not the most beautiful,--rather the
+tempered ones, which may be compared to the moderate sounds in music. To
+describe these tempered colors, he must estimate their hue, value, and
+chroma, and be able to describe in what degree his copy departs from the
+natural color. And, with this gain in perception and imitation of
+natural color, he finds a strong desire to invent combinations to please
+his fancy. Thus the study divides into three related attitudes, which
+may be called recognition, imitation, and invention. Recognition of
+color is fundamental, but it would be tedious to spend a year or two in
+formal and dry exercises to train recognition of color alone; for each
+step in recognition of color is best tested by exercise in its imitation
+and arrangement. When perception becomes keener, emphasis can be placed
+on imitation of the colors found in art and in nature, resting finally
+on the selection and grouping of colors for design.[13]
+
+    [Footnote 13: See Course of Study, Part II.]
+
+
++Every color can be recognized, named, matched, imitated, and written
+by its HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.+
+
+(40) The notation used in this system places Hue (expressed by an
+initial) at the left; Value (expressed by a number) at the right and
+above a line; and Chroma (also expressed by a number) at the right,
+below the line. Thus R 5/9 means HUE (red), VALUE (5)/CHROMA (9), and
+will be found to represent the qualities of the pigment vermilion.[14]
+
+    [Footnote 14: See Chapter VI.]
+
+Hue, value, and chroma unite in every color sensation, but the child
+cannot grasp them all at once. _Hue-difference appeals to him first_,
+and he gains a permanent idea of five principal hues from the enamels of
+MIDDLE COLORS, learning to name, match, imitate, and finally write them
+by their initials: R (red), Y (yellow), G (green), B (blue), and P
+(purple). Intermediates formed by uniting successive pairs are also
+written by the joined initials, YR (yellow-red), GY (green-yellow), BG
+(blue-green), PB (purple-blue), and RP (red-purple).
+
+(41) Ten differences of hue are as many as a child can render at the
+outset, yet in matching and imitating them he becomes aware of their
+light and dark quality, and learns to separate it from hue as
+_value-difference_. Middle colors, as implied by that name, stand midway
+between white and black,--that is, on the equator of the sphere,--so
+that a middle red will be written R 5/, suggesting the steps 6, 7, 8,
+and 9 which are above the equator, while steps 4, 3, 2, and 1 are below.
+It is well to show only three values of a color at first; for instance,
+the middle value contrasted with a light and a dark one. These are
+written R 3/, R 5/, R 7/. Soon he perceives and can imitate finer
+differences, and the red scale may be written entire, as R 1/, R 2/,
+R 3/, R 4/, R 5/, R 6/, R 7/, R 8/, R 9/, with black as 0 and white
+as 10.
+
+(42) _Chroma-difference is the third_ and most subtle color quality. The
+child is already unconsciously familiar with the middle chroma of red,
+having had the enamels of MIDDLE COLOR always in view, and the red
+enamel is to be contrasted with the strongest and weakest red chromas
+obtainable. These he writes R /1, R /5, R /9, seeing that this describes
+the chromas of red, but leaves out its values. R 5/1, R 5/5, R 5/9, is
+the complete statement, showing that, while both hue and value are
+unchanged, the chroma passes from grayish red to middle red (enamel
+first learned) and out to the strongest red in the chroma scale obtained
+by vermilion.
+
+(43) It may be long before he can imitate the intervening steps of
+chroma, many children finding it difficult to express more than five
+steps of the chroma scale, although easily making ten steps of value and
+from twenty to thirty-five steps of hue. This interesting feature is of
+psychologic value, and has been followed in the color tree and color
+sphere.
+
+
++Does such a scientific scheme leave any outlet for feeling
+and personal expression of beauty?+
+
+(44) Lest this exact attitude in color study should seem inartistic,
+compared with the free and almost chaotic methods in use, let it be said
+that the stage thus far outlined is frankly disciplinary. It is somewhat
+dry and unattractive, just as the early musical training is fatiguing
+without inventive exercises. The child should be encouraged at each step
+to exercise his fancy.
+
+(45) Instead of cramping his outlook upon nature, it widens his grasp of
+color, and stores the memory with finer differences, supplying more
+material by which to express his sense of coloristic beauty.
+
+(46) Color harmony, as now treated, is a purely personal affair,
+difficult to refer to any clear principles or definite laws. The very
+terms by which it seeks expression are borrowed from music, and suggest
+vague analogies that fail when put to the test. Color needs a new set of
+expressive terms, appropriate to its qualities, before we can make an
+analysis as to the harmony or discord of our color sensations.
+
+(47) This need is supplied in the present system by measured CHARTS, and
+a NOTATION. Their very construction preserves the _balance of colors_,
+as will be shown in the next chapter, while the chapter on harmony
+(Chapter VII.) shows how harmonious pairs and triads of color may be
+found by MASKS with measured intervals. In fact, practice in the use of
+the charts supplies the imagination with scales and sequences of color
+quite as definite and quite as easily written as those sound intervals
+by which the musician conveys to others his sense of harmony. And,
+although in neither art can training alone make the artist, yet a
+technical grasp of these formal scales gives acquaintance with the full
+range of the instrument, and is indispensable to artistic expression.
+From these color scales each individual is free to choose combinations
+in accord with his feeling for color harmony.
+
+Let us make an outline of the course of color study traced in the
+preceding pages.[15]
+
+    [Footnote 15: _See_ Part II., A Color System and Course of
+    Study.]
+
+
++PERCEPTION of color.+
+
+(48) _Hue-difference._
+
+    Middle hues (5 principals).
+    Middle hues (5 intermediates).
+    Middle hues (10 placed in sequence as SCALE of HUE).
+
+  _Value-difference._
+
+    Light, middle, and dark values (without change of hue).
+    Light, middle, and dark values (traced with 5 principal hues).
+    10 values traced with each hue. SCALE of VALUE. _The Color Sphere_.
+
+  _Chroma-difference._
+
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (without change of hue).
+    Strong, middle and weak chroma (traced with three values without
+      change of hue).
+    Strong, middle, and weak chroma (traced with three values and
+      ten hues).
+    Maxima of color and their gradation to white, black, and gray.
+      _The Color Tree._
+
+
++EXPRESSION of color.+
+
+(49) _Matching and imitation_ of hues (using stuffs, crayons, and
+    paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of values and hues (using stuffs, crayons,
+    and paints).
+
+  _Matching and imitation_ of chromas, values, and hues (using stuffs,
+    crayons, and paints).
+
+  _Notation of color._
+
+        Value       V
+    Hue ------ ,  H - ,
+        Chroma      C
+
+    Initial for hue, numeral above for value, numeral below for chroma.
+
+  _Sequences of color._
+
+    Two scales united, as hue and value, or chroma and value.
+    Three scales united,--each step a change of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  _Balance of color._
+
+    Opposites of equal value and chroma (R 5/5 and BG 5/5).
+    Opposites of equal value and unequal chroma (R 5/9 and BG 5/3).
+    Opposites unequal both in value and chroma (R 7/3 and BG 3/7).
+    AREA as an element of balance.
+
+
++HARMONY of color.+
+
+(50) _Selection of colors_ that give pleasure.
+
+    Study of butterfly wings and flowers, recorded by the NOTATION.
+    Study of painted ornament, rugs, and mosaics, recorded by
+      the NOTATION.
+    Personal choice of color PAIRS, balanced by H, V, C, and area.
+    Personal choice of color TRIADS, balanced by H, V, C, and area.
+
+  _Grouping of colors_ to suit some practical use: wall papers, rugs,
+    book covers, etc.
+
+    Their analysis by the written notation.
+    Search for principles of harmony, expressed in measured terms.
+
+
++A definite plan of color study, with freedom as to details of
+presentation.[16]+
+
+    [Footnote 16: See Color Study assigned to each grade, in
+    Part II.]
+
+(51) Having memorized these broad divisions of the study, a clever
+teacher will introduce many a detail, to meet the mood of the class, or
+correlate this subject with other studies, without for a moment losing
+the thread of thought or befogging the presentation. But to range at
+random in the immense field of color sensations, without plan or
+definite aim in view, only courts fatigue of the retina and a chaotic
+state of mind.
+
+(52) The same broad principles which govern the presentation of other
+ideas apply with equal force in this study. A little, well apprehended,
+is better than a mass of undigested facts. If the child is led to
+discover, or at least to think he is discovering, new things about
+color, the mind will be kept alert and seek out novel illustrations at
+every step. Now and then a pupil will be found who leads both teacher
+and class by _intuitive_ appreciation of color, and it is a subtle
+question how far such a nature can be helped or hurt by formal
+exercises. But such an exception is rare, and goes to prove that
+systematic discipline of the color sense is necessary for most children.
+
+(53) Outdoor nature and indoor surroundings offer endless color
+illustrations. Birds, flowers, minerals, and the objects in daily use
+take on a new interest when their varied colors are brought into a
+conscious relation, and clearly named. A tri-dimensional perception,
+like this sense of color, requires skilful training, and each lesson
+must be simplified to the last point practicable. It must not be too
+long, and should lead to some definite result which a child can grasp
+and express with tolerable accuracy, while its difficulties should be
+approached by easy stages, so as to avoid failure or discouragement. The
+success of the present effort is the best incentive to further
+achievement.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER II.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+THE COLOR SPHERE, WITH MEASURED SCALES OF HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA.
+
+
+The teacher of elementary grades introduces these scales of tempered
+color as fast as the child's interest is awakened to their need by the
+exercises shown in Plates II. and III. Thus the Hue scale is learned
+before the end of the second year, the Value scale during the next two
+years, and the Chroma scale in the fifth year. By the time a child is
+ten years old these definite color scales have become part of his mental
+furnishing, so that he can name, write, and memorize any color group.
+
+1. _The Color Sphere in Skeleton._ This diagram shows the middle colors
+on the equator, with strong red, yellow, green, blue, and purple, each
+at its proper level in the value scale, and projecting in accordance
+with its scale of chroma. See the complete description of these scales
+in Chapter II.
+
+2. _The Color Score._ Fifteen typical steps taken from the color sphere
+are here spread out in a flat field. The FIVE MIDDLE COLORS form the
+centre level, with the same hues in a lighter value above and in a
+darker value below. Chapter VI. describes the making of this Score, and
+its use in analyzing colors and preserving a written record of their
+groups.
+
+3. _The Value Scale and Chroma Scale._ Each of the five color maxima is
+thus shown at its proper level in the scale of light, and graded by
+uniform steps from its strongest chroma inward to neutrality at the axis
+of the sphere. Pigment inequalities here become very apparent.
+
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell.]
+
+
+
+
+  FOR PLATES II. & III.,
+
+  SEE APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.,
+  CHILDREN'S COLOR STUDIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COLOR MIXTURE AND BALANCE.
+
+
++All colors grasped in the hand.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+(54) Let us recall the names and order of colors given in the last
+chapter, with their assemblage in a sphere by the three qualities of
+HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA. It will aid the memory to call the thumb of the
+left hand RED, the forefinger YELLOW, the middle finger GREEN, the ring
+finger BLUE, and the little finger PURPLE (Fig. 6). When the finger tips
+are in a circle, they represent a circuit of hues, which has neither
+beginning nor end, for we can start with any finger and trace a sequence
+forward or backward. Now close the tips together for white, and imagine
+that the five strong hues have slipped down to the knuckles, where they
+stand for the equator of the color Sphere. Still lower down at the wrist
+is black.
+
+(55) The hand thus becomes a color holder, with white at the finger
+tips, black at the wrist, strong colors around the outside, and weaker
+colors within the hollow. Each finger is a scale of its own color, with
+white above and black below, while the graying of all the hues is traced
+by imaginary lines which meet in the middle of the hand. Thus a child's
+hand may be his substitute for the color sphere, and also make him
+realize that it is filled with grayer degrees of the outside colors, all
+of which melt into gray in the centre.
+
+
++Neighborly and opposite hues; and their mixture.+
+
+(56) Let this circle (Fig. 7) stand for the equator of the color sphere
+with the five principal hues (written by their initials R, Y, G, B,
+and P) spaced evenly about it. Some colors are neighbors, as red and
+yellow, while others are opposites. As soon as a child experiments with
+paints, he will notice the different results obtained by mixing them.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+First, the neighbors, that is, any pair which lie next one another, as
+red and yellow, will unite to make a hue which retains a suggestion of
+both. It is _intermediate_ between red and yellow, and we call it
+YELLOW-RED.[17]
+
+(57) Green and yellow unite to form GREEN-YELLOW, blue and green make
+BLUE-GREEN, and so on with each succeeding pair. These intermediates are
+to be written by their initials, and inserted in their proper place
+between the principal hues. It is as if an orange (paragraph 9) were
+split into ten sectors instead of five, with red, yellow, green, blue,
+and purple as alternate sectors, while half of each adjoining color pair
+were united to form the sector between them. The original order of five
+hues is in no wise disturbed, but linked together by five intermediate
+steps.
+
+(58) Here is a table of the intermediates made by mixing each pair:--
+
+  Red and yellow unite to form yellow-red (YR), popularly called
+    orange.[17]
+  Yellow and green unite to form green-yellow (GY), popularly called
+    grass green.
+  Green and blue unite to form blue-green (BG), popularly called
+    peacock blue.
+  Blue and purple unite to form purple-blue (PB), popularly called
+    violet.
+  Purple and red unite to form red-purple (RP), popularly called plum.
+
+Using the left hand again to hold colors, the principal hues remain
+unchanged on the knuckles, but in the hollows between them are placed
+intermediate hues, so that the circle now reads: red, yellow-red,
+yellow, green-yellow, green, blue-green, blue, purple-blue, purple, and
+red-purple, back to the red with which we started. This circuit is
+easily _memorized_, so that the child may begin with any color point,
+and repeat the series clock wise (that is, from left to right) or in
+reverse order.
+
+    [Footnote 17: Orange is a variable union of yellow and red. See
+    Appendix.]
+
+(59) Each principal hue has thus made two close neighbors by mixing with
+the nearest principal hue on either hand. The neighbors of red are a
+yellow-red on one side and a purple-red on the other. The neighbors of
+green are a green-yellow on one hand and a blue-green on the other. It
+is evident that a still closer neighbor could be made by again mixing
+each consecutive pair in this circle of ten hues; and, if the process
+were continued long enough, the color steps would become so fine that
+the eye could see only a circuit of hues melting imperceptibly one into
+another.
+
+(60) But it is better for the child to gain a fixed idea of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple, with their intermediates, before attempting to
+mix pigments, and these ten steps are sufficient for primary education.
+
+(61) Next comes the question of opposites in this circle. A line drawn
+from red, through the centre, finds its opposite, blue-green.[18] If
+these colors are mixed, they unite to form gray. Indeed, the centre of
+the circle stands for a middle gray, not only because it is the centre
+of the neutral axis between black and white, but also because any pair
+of opposites will unite to form gray.
+
+    [Footnote 18: Green is often wrongly assigned as the opposite of
+    red. See Appendix, on False Color Balance.]
+
+(62) This is a table of five mixtures which make neutral gray:
+
+            { Red &    Blue-green   }
+            { Yellow   Purple-blue  }
+  Opposites { Green    Red-purple   } Each pair of which unites
+            { Blue     Yellow-red   }   in neutral gray.
+            { Purple   Green-yellow }
+
+(63) But if, instead of mixing these opposite hues, we place them side
+by side, the eye is so stimulated by their difference that each seems to
+gain in strength; _i.e._, each _enhances_ the other when separate, but
+_destroys_ the other when mixed. This is a very interesting point to be
+more fully illustrated by the help of a color wheel in Chapter V.,
+paragraph 106. What we need to remember is that the mixture of
+neighborly hues makes them less stimulating to the eye, because they
+resemble each other, while a mixture of opposite hues extinguishes both
+in a neutral gray.
+
+
++Hues once removed, and their mixture.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+(64) There remains the question, What will happen if we mix, not two
+neighbors, nor two opposites, but _a pair of hues once removed in the
+circle_, such as red and green? A line joining this pair does not pass
+through the neutral centre, but to one side nearer yellow, which shows
+that this mixture falls between neutral gray and yellow, partaking
+somewhat of each. In the same way a line joining yellow and blue shows
+that their mixture contains both green and gray. Indeed, a line joining
+any two colors in the circuit may be said to describe their union.
+A radius crossing this line passes to some hue on the circumference, and
+describes by its intersection with the first line the chroma of the
+color made by a mixture of the two original colors.
+
+  Red  &  Green make Yellow-gray }
+  Yellow  Blue       Green-gray  } Each pair unites in a _colored_
+  Green   Purple     Blue-gray   } gray, which is an intermediate hue
+  Blue    Red        Purple-gray } of weak chroma.
+  Purple  Yellow     Red-gray    }
+
+
++Mixture of white and black: a scale of grays.+
+
+(65) So far we have thought only of the plane of the equator, with its
+circle of middle hues in ten steps, and studied their mixture by drawing
+lines to join them. Now let us start at the neutral centre, and think
+upward to white and downward to black (Fig. 9.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+This vertical line is the _neutral axis_ joining the poles of white and
+black, which represent the opposites of light and darkness. Middle gray
+is half-way between. If black is called 0, and white is 10, then the
+middle point is 5, with 6, 7, 8, and 9 above, while 4, 3, 2, and 1 are
+below, thus making a vertical scale of grays from black to white
+(Chapter II., paragraph 25).
+
+If left to personal preference, an estimate of middle value will vary
+with each individual who attempts to make it. This appears in the
+neutral scales already published for schools, and students who depend
+upon them, discover a variation of over 10 per cent. in the selection of
+middle gray. Since this VALUE SCALE underlies all color work, it needs
+accurate adjustment by scientific means, as in scales of sound, of
+length, of weight, or of temperature.
+
+A PHOTOMETER (_photo_, light, and _meter_, a measure)[19] is shown on
+the next page. It measures the relative amount of light which the eye
+receives from any source, and so enables us to make a scale with any
+number of regular steps. The principle on which it acts is very simple.
+
+    [Footnote 19: Adopted in Course on Optical Measurements at the
+    Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Instruments have also
+    been made for the Harvard Medical School, the Treasury
+    Department in Washington, and various private laboratories.]
+
+A rectangular box, divided by a central partition into halves, has
+symmetrical openings in the front walls, which permit the light to reach
+two white fields placed upon the back walls. If one looks in through the
+observation tube, both halves are seen to be exactly alike, and the
+white fields equally illuminated. A valve is then fitted to one of the
+front openings, so that the light in that half of the photometer may be
+gradually diminished. Its white field is thus darkened by measured
+degrees, and becomes black when all light is excluded by the closed
+valve. While this darkening process goes on in one-half of the
+instrument, the white field in the other half does not change, and,
+looking into the eyepiece, the observer sees each step contrasted with
+the original white. One-half is thus said to be _variable_ because of
+its valve, and the other side is said to be _fixed_. A dial connected
+with the valve has a hand moving over it to show how much light is
+admitted to the field in the variable half.
+
+Let us now test one of these personal decisions about middle value.
+A sample replaces the white field in the fixed half, and by means of the
+valve, the white field in the variable half is alternately darkened and
+lightened, until it matches the sample and the eye sees no difference in
+the two. The dial then discloses the fact that this supposedly MIDDLE
+VALUE reflects only 42 per cent. of the light; that is to say, it is
+nearly a whole step too low in a decimal scale. Other samples err nearly
+as far on the light side of middle value, and further tests prove not
+only the varying color sensitiveness of individuals, but detect a
+difference between the left and right eye of the same person.
+
+  [Illustration: PHOTOMETER.
+  Back View. Front View.]
+
+The vagaries of color estimate thus disclosed, lead some to seek shelter
+in "feeling and inspiration"; but feeling and inspiration are
+temperamental, and have nothing to do with the simple facts of vision.
+A measured and unchanging scale is as necessary and valuable in the
+training of the eye as the musical scale in the discipline of the ear.
+
+It will soon be necessary to talk of the values in each color. We may
+distinguish the values on the neutral axis from color values by writing
+them N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10. Such a scale makes it easy
+to foresee the result of mixing light values with dark ones. Any two
+gray values unite to form a gray midway between them. Thus N4 and N6
+being equally above and below the centre, unite to form N5, as will also
+N7 and N3, N8 and N2, or N9 and N1. But N9 and N3 will unite to form N6,
+which is midway between 6 and 9.
+
+  [Illustration: Vertical Section through light openings.
+
+  PARTS.
+
+  _C_, CABINET, with sample-holder (H) and mirror (M), which may be
+  removed and stored to left of dial (D) when instrument is closed
+  for transportation.
+  _D_, DIAL: records color values in terms of standard white (100),
+  the opposite end of the scale being absolute blackness (0).
+  _E_, EYE-PIECE: to shield eye and sample from extraneous light while
+  color determinations are being made. Fatigue of retina should be
+  avoided.
+  _G_, GEAR: actuates cat's-eye shutter, which controls amount of
+  light admitted to right half of instrument. Its shaft carries
+  index-hand over dial.
+  _H_, FIELD-HOLDER: retains sample and standard white in same plane,
+  and isolates them. Is hinged upon lower edge, and secured by pivot
+  clamp.
+  _M_, MIRROR: permits observation of the isolated halves of the
+  holder, bearing standard white and the color to be measured. Should
+  be clean and free from dust on both sides of central partition.
+  _S_, DIFFUSING SCREEN, placed over front apertures, to evenly
+  distribute the light.]
+
+(66) When this numbered scale of values is familiar, it serves not only
+to describe light and dark grays, but the value of colors which are at
+the same level in the scale. Thus R7 (popularly called a tint of red) is
+neither lighter nor darker than the gray of N7. A numeral written above
+to the right always indicates _value_, whether of a gray or a color, so
+that R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, describes a regular scale of
+red values from black to white, while G1, G2, G3, etc., is a scale of
+green values.
+
+(67) This matter of a notation for colors will be more fully worked out
+in Chapter VI., but the letters and numerals already described greatly
+simplify what we are about to consider in the mixture and balance of
+colors.
+
+
++Mixture of light hues with dark hues.+
+
+(68) Now that we are supplied with a decimal scale of grays, represented
+by divisions of the neutral axis (N1, N2, etc.), and a corresponding
+decimal scale of value for each of the ten hues ranged about the equator
+(R1, R2,-- YR1, YR2,-- Y1, Y2,-- GY1, GY2,-- and so on), traced by ten
+equidistant meridians from black to white, it is not difficult to
+foresee what the mixture of any two colors will produce, whether they
+are of the same level of value, as in the colors of the equator already
+considered, or whether they are of different levels.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+(69) For instance, let us mix a light yellow (Y7) with a dark red (R3).
+They are neighbors in hue, but well removed in value. A line joining
+them centres at YR5. This describes the result of their mixture,--a
+value intermediate between 7 and 3, with a hue intermediate between R
+and Y. It is a yellow-red of middle value, popularly called "dark
+orange." But, while this term "dark orange" rarely means the same color
+to three different people, these measured scales give to YR5 an
+unmistakable meaning, just as the musical scale gives an unmistakable
+significance to the notes of its score.
+
+(70) Evidently, this way of writing colors by their degrees of value and
+hue gives clearness to what would otherwise be hard to express by the
+color terms in common use.
+
+(71) If Y9 and R5 be chosen for mixture, we know at once that they unite
+in YR7, which is two steps of the value scale above the middle; while Y6
+and R2 make YR4, which is one step below the middle. Charts prepared
+with this system show each of these colors and their mixture with
+exactness.
+
+(72) The foregoing mixtures of dark reds and light yellows are typical
+of the union of light and dark values of any neighboring hues, such as
+yellow and green, green and blue, blue and purple, or purple and red.
+Next let us think of the result of mixing different values in opposite
+hues; as, for instance, YR7 and B3 (Fig. 11). To this combination the
+color sphere gives a ready answer; for the middle of a straight line
+through the sphere, and joining them, coincides with the neutral centre,
+showing that they _balance in neutral gray_. This is also true of any
+opposite pair of surface hues where the values are equally removed from
+the equator.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+(73) Suppose we substitute familiar flowers for the notation, then YR7
+becomes the buttercup, and B3 is the wild violet. But, in comparing the
+two, the eye is more stimulated by the buttercup than by the violet, not
+alone because it is lighter, but because it is stronger in chroma; that
+is, farther away from the neutral axis of the sphere, and in fact out
+beyond its surface, as shown in Fig. 11.
+
+The head of a pin stuck in toward the axis on the 7th level of YR may
+represent the 9th step in the scale of chroma, such as the buttercup,
+while the "modest" violet with a chroma of only 4, is shown by its
+position to be nearer the neutral axis than the brilliant buttercup by
+five steps of chroma. This is the third dimension of color, and must be
+included in our notation. So we write the buttercup YR 7/9 and the
+violet B 3/4,--chroma always being written below to the right of hue,
+and value always above. (This is the invariable order: HUE
+{VALUE/CHROMA}.)
+
+(74) A line joining the head of the pin mentioned above with B 3/4 does
+not pass through the centre of the sphere, and its middle point is
+nearer the buttercup than the neutral axis, showing that the hues of the
+buttercup and violet _do not balance in gray_.
+
+
++The neutral centre is a balancing point for colors.+
+
+(75) This raises the question, What is balance of color? Artists
+criticise the color schemes of paintings as being "too light or too
+dark" (unbalanced in value), "too weak or too strong" (unbalanced in
+chroma), and "too hot or too cold" (unbalanced in hue), showing that
+this is a fundamental idea underlying all color arrangements.
+
+(76) Let us assume that the centre of the sphere is the natural
+balancing point for all colors (which will be best shown by Maxwell
+discs in Chapter V., paragraphs 106-112), then color points equally
+removed from the centre must balance one another. Thus white balances
+black. Lighter red balances darker blue-green. Middle red balances
+middle blue-green. In short, every straight line through this centre
+indicates opposite qualities that balance one another. The color points
+so found are said to be "_complementary_," for each supplies what is
+needed to complement or balance the other in hue, value, and chroma.
+
+(77) The true complement of the buttercup, then, is not the violet,
+which is too weak in chroma to balance its strong opposite. We have no
+blue flower that can equal the chroma of the buttercup. Some other means
+must be found to produce a balance. One way is to use more of the weaker
+color. Thus we can make a bunch of buttercups and violets, using twice
+as many of the latter, so that the eye sees an _area_ of blue twice as
+great as the _area_ of yellow-red. Area as a compensation for
+inequalities of hue, value, and chroma will be further described under
+the harmony of color in Chapter VII.
+
+(78) But, before leaving this illustration of the buttercup and violet,
+it is well to consider another color path connecting them which does not
+pass through the sphere, _but around it_ (Fig. 12). Such a path swinging
+around from yellow-red to blue slants downward in value, and passes
+through yellow, green-yellow, green, and blue-green, tracing a _sequence
+of hue_, of which each step is less chromatic than its predecessor.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+This diminishing sequence is easily written thus,--YR 8/9, Y 7/8,
+GY 6/7, G 5/6, BG 4/5, B 3/4,--and is shown graphically in Fig. 12. Its
+hue sequence is described by the initials YR, Y, GY, G, BG, and B. Its
+value-sequence appears in the upper numerals, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3,
+while the chroma-sequence is included in the lower numerals, 9, 8, 7, 6,
+5, and 4. This gives a complete statement of the sequence, defining its
+peculiarity, that at each change of hue there is a regular decrease of
+value and chroma. Nature seems to be partial to this sequence,
+constantly reiterating it in yellow flowers with their darker green
+leaves and underlying shadows. In spring time she may contract its
+range, making the blue more green and the yellow less red, but in autumn
+she seems to widen the range, presenting strong contrasts of yellow-red
+and purple-blue.
+
+(79) Every day she plays upon the values of this sequence, from the
+strong contrasts of light and shadow at noon to the hardly perceptible
+differences at twilight. The chroma of this sequence expands during the
+summer to strong colors, and contracts in winter to grays. Indeed,
+Nature, who would seem to be the source of our notions of color harmony,
+rarely repeats herself, yet is endlessly balancing inequalities of hue,
+value, and chroma by compensations of quantity.
+
+(80) So subtle is this equilibrium that it is taken for granted and
+forgotten, except when some violent disturbance disarranges it, such as
+an earthquake or a thunder-storm.
+
+
++The triple nature of color balance illustrated.+
+
+(81) The simplest idea of balance is the equilibrium of two halves of a
+stick supported at its middle point. If one end is heavier than the
+other, the support must be moved nearer to that end.
+
+But, since color unites three qualities, we must seek some type of
+_triple balance_. The game of jackstraws illustrates this, when the
+disturbance of one piece involves the displacement of two others. The
+action of three children on a floating plank or the equilibrium of two
+acrobats carried on the shoulders of a third may also serve as examples.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+(82) Triple balance may be graphically shown by three discs in contact.
+Two of them are suspended by their centres, while they remain in touch
+with a third supported on a pivot, as in Fig. 14. Let us call the lowest
+disc Hue (H), and the lateral discs Value (V) and Chroma (C). Any dip or
+rotation of the lower disc H will induce sympathetic action in the two
+lateral discs V and C. When H is inclined, both V and C change their
+relations to it. If H is raised vertically, both V and C dip outward. If
+H is rotated, both V and C rotate, but in opposite directions. Indeed,
+any disturbance of V affects H and C, while H and V respond to any
+movement of C. So we must be prepared to realize that any change of one
+color quality involves readjustment of the other two.
+
+(83) Color balance soon leads to a study of optics in one direction, to
+aesthetics in another, and to mathematical proportions in a third, and
+any attempt at an easy solution of its problems is not likely to
+succeed. It is a very complicated question, whose closest counterpart is
+to be sought in musical rhythms. The fall of musical impulses upon the
+ear can make us gay or sad, and there are color groups which, acting
+through the eye, can convey pleasure or pain to the mind.
+
+(84) A colorist is keenly alive to these feelings of satisfaction or
+annoyance, and consciously or unconsciously he rejects certain
+combinations of color and accepts others. Successful pictures and
+decorative schemes are due to some sort of balance uniting "light and
+shade" (value), "warmth and coolness" (hue), with "brilliancy and
+grayness" (chroma); for, when they fail to please, the mind at once
+begins to search for the unbalanced quality, and complains that the
+color is "too hot," "too dark," or "too crude." This effort to establish
+pleasing proportions may be unconscious in one temperament, while it
+becomes a matter of definite analysis in another. Emerson claimed that
+the unconscious only is complete. We gladly permit those whose color
+instinct is unerring--(and how few they are!)--to neglect all rules and
+set formulas. But education is concerned with the many who have not this
+gift.
+
+(85) Any real progress in color education must come not from a blind
+imitation of past successes, but by a study into the laws which they
+exemplify. To exactly copy fine Japanese prints or Persian rugs or
+Renaissance tapestries, while it cultivates an appreciation of their
+refinements, does not give one the power to create things equally
+beautiful. The masterpieces of music correctly rendered do not of
+necessity make a composer. The musician, besides the study of
+masterpieces, absorbs the science of counterpoint, and records by an
+unmistakable notation the exact character of any new combination of
+musical intervals which he conceives.
+
+(86) So must the art of the colorist be furnished with a scientific
+basis and a clear form of color notation. This will record the successes
+and failures of the past, and aid in a search, by contrast and analysis,
+for the fundamentals of color balance. Without a measured and systematic
+notation, attempts to describe color harmony only produce hazy
+generalities of little value in describing our sensations, and fail to
+express the essential differences between "good" and "bad" color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+FALSE COLOR BALANCE. There is a widely accepted error that red, yellow,
+and blue are "primary," although Brewster's theory was long ago dropped
+when the elements of color vision proved to be RED, GREEN, and
+VIOLET-BLUE. The late Professor Rood called attention to this in
+Chapters VIII.-XI. of his book, "Modern Chromatics," which appeared in
+1879. Yet we find it very generally taught in school. Nor does the harm
+end there, for placing red, yellow, and blue equidistant in a circle,
+with orange, green, and purple as intermediates, the teacher goes on to
+state that opposite hues are complementary.
+
+  Red is thus made the complement of Green,
+  Yellow        "          "         Purple, and
+  Blue          "          "         Orange.
+
+Unfortunately, each of these statements is wrong, and, if tested by the
+mixture of colored lights or with Maxwell's rotating discs, their
+falsity is evident.
+
+There can be no doubt that green is not the complement of red, nor
+purple of yellow, nor orange of blue, for neither one of these pairs
+unites as it should in a balanced neutrality, and a total test of the
+circle gives great excess of orange, showing that red and yellow usurp
+too great a portion of the circumference. Starting from a false basis,
+the Brewster theory can only lead to unbalanced and inharmonious effects
+of color.
+
+The fundamental color sensations are RED, GREEN, and VIOLET-BLUE.
+
+  RED has for its true complement BLUE-GREEN,
+  GREEN            "        "     RED-PURPLE, and
+  VIOLET-BLUE      "        "     YELLOW,
+
+all of the hues in the right-hand column being compound sensations. The
+sensation of green is not due to a mixture of yellow and blue, as the
+absorptive action of pigments might lead one to think: GREEN IS
+FUNDAMENTAL, and not made by mixing any hues of the spectrum, while
+YELLOW IS NOT FUNDAMENTAL, but caused by the mingled sensations of red
+and green. This is easily proved by a controlled spectrum, for all
+yellow-reds, yellows, and green-yellows can be matched by certain
+proportions of red and green light, all blue-greens, blues, and
+purple-blues can be obtained by the union of green and violet light,
+while purple-blue, purple, and red-purple result from the union of
+violet and red light. But there is no point where a mixture gives red,
+green, or violet-blue. They are the true primaries, whose mixtures
+produce all other hues.
+
+Studio and school-room practice still cling to the discredited theory,
+claiming that, if it fails to describe our color sensations, yet it may
+be called practically true of pigments, because a red, yellow, and blue
+pigment suffice to imitate most natural colors. This discrepancy between
+pigment mixture and retinal mixture becomes clear as soon as one learns
+the physical make-up and behavior of paints.
+
+  [Illustration:
+            { Vermilion
+  Spectra   {
+            { Em. Green
+  P. B. G. Y. R.]
+
+Spectral analysis shows that no pigment is a pure example of the
+dominant hue which it sends to the eye. Take, for example, the very
+chromatic pigments representing red and green, such as vermilion and
+emerald green. If each emitted a single pure hue free from trace of any
+other hue, then their mixture would appear yellow, as when spectral red
+and green unite. But, instead of yellow, their mixture produces a warm
+gray, called brown or "dull salmon," and this is to be inferred from
+their spectra, where it is seen that vermilion emits some green and
+purple as well as its dominant color, while the green also sends some
+blue and red light to the eye.[20]
+
+    [Footnote 20: See Rood, Chapter VII., on Color by Absorption.]
+
+Thus stray hues from other parts of the spectrum tend to neutralize the
+yellow sensation, which would be strong if each of the pigments were
+pure in the spectral sense. Pigment absorption affects all palette
+mixtures, and, failing to obtain a satisfactory yellow by mixture of red
+and green, painters use original yellow pigments,--such as aureolin,
+cadmium, and lead chromate,--each of them also impure but giving a
+dominant sensation of yellow. Did the eye discriminate, as does the ear
+when it analyzes the separate tones of a chord, then we should recognize
+that yellow pigments emit both red and green rays.
+
+White light dispersed into a colored band by one prism, may have the
+process reversed by a second prism, so that the eye sees again only
+white light. But this would not be so, did not the balance of red,
+green, and violet-blue sensations remain undisturbed. All our ideas of
+color harmony are based upon this fundamental relation, and, if pigments
+are to render harmonious effects, we must learn to control their
+impurities so as to preserve a balance of red, green, and violet-blue.
+
+Otherwise, the excessive chroma and value of red and yellow pigments so
+overwhelm the lesser degrees of green and blue pigments that no balance
+is possible, and the colorist of fine perception must reject not alone
+the theoretical, but also the practical outcome of a "red-yellow-blue"
+theory.
+
+Some of the points raised in this discussion are rather subtle for
+students, and may well be left until they arise in a study of optics,
+but the teacher should grasp them clearly, so as not to be led into
+false statements about primary and complementary hues.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PRISMATIC COLOR.
+
+
++Pure color is seen in the spectrum of sunlight.+
+
+(87) The strongest sensation of color is gained in a darkened room, with
+a prism used to split a beam of sunlight into its various wave lengths.
+Through a narrow slit there enters a straight pencil of light which we
+are accustomed to think of as _white_, although it is a bundle of
+variously colored rays (or waves of ether) whose union and balance is so
+perfect that no single ray predominates.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+(88) Cover the narrow slit, and we are plunged in darkness. Admit the
+beam, and the eye feels a powerful contrast between the spot of light on
+the floor and its surrounding darkness. Place a triangular glass prism
+near the slit to intercept the beam of white light, and suddenly there
+appears on the opposite wall a band of brilliant colors. This delightful
+experiment rivets the eye by the beauty and purity of its hues. All
+other colors seem weak by comparison.
+
+Their weakness is due to impurity, for all pigments and dyes reflect
+portions of hues other than their dominant one, which tend to "gray" and
+diminish their chroma.
+
+(89) But prismatic color is pure, or very nearly so, because the shape
+of the glass refracts each hue, and separates it by the length of its
+ether wave. These waves have been measured, and science can name each
+hue by its wave length. Thus a certain red is known as M. 6867, and a
+certain green sensation is M. 5269.[21] Without attempting any
+scientific analysis of color, let it be said that Sir Isaac Newton made
+his series of experiments in 1687, and was privileged to name this color
+sequence by seven steps which he called red, orange, yellow, green,
+blue, violet, and indigo. Later a scientist named Fraunhofer discovered
+fine black lines crossing the solar spectrum, and marked them with
+letters of the alphabet from a to h. These with the wave length serve to
+locate every hue and define every step in the sequence. Since Newton's
+time it has been proved that only three of the spectral hues are
+_primary_; viz., a red, a green, and a violet-blue, while their mixture
+produces all other gradations. By receiving the spectrum on an opaque
+screen with fine slits that fit the red and green waves, so that they
+alone pass through, these two primary hues can be received on mirrors
+inclined at such an angle as to unite on another screen, where, instead
+of red or green, the eye sees only yellow.[22]
+
+    [Footnote 21: See Micron in Glossary.]
+
+    [Footnote 22: The fact that the spectral union of red and green
+    makes yellow is a matter of surprise to practical workers in
+    color who are familiar with the action of pigments, but
+    unfamiliar with spectrum analysis. Yellow seems to them a
+    primary and indispensable color, because it cannot be made by
+    the union of red and green pigments. Another surprise is
+    awaiting them when they hear that the yellow and blue of the
+    spectrum make _white_, for all their experience with paints goes
+    to prove that yellow and blue unite to form green. Attention is
+    called to this difference between the mixture of colored light
+    and of colored pigments, not with the idea of explaining it
+    here, but to emphasize their difference; for in the next chapter
+    we shall describe the practical making of a color sphere with
+    pigments, which would be quite impractical, could we have only
+    the colors of the spectrum to work with. See Appendix to
+    preceding chapter.]
+
+(90) A similar arrangement of slits and mirrors for the green and
+violet-blue proves that they unite to make blue, while a third
+experiment shows that the red and violet-blue can unite to make purple.
+So yellow, blue-green, and purple are called secondary hues because they
+result from the mixture of the three primaries, red, green, and
+violet-blue.
+
+In comparing these two color lists, we see that the "indigo" and
+"orange" of Sir Isaac Newton have been discarded. Both are indefinite,
+and refer to variable products of the vegetable kingdom. Violet is also
+borrowed from the same kingdom; and, in order to describe a violet, we
+say it is a purple violet or blue violet, as the case may be, just as we
+describe an orange as a red orange or a yellow orange. Their color
+difference is not expressed by the terms "orange" or "violet," but by
+the words "red," "yellow," "blue," or "purple," all of which are true
+color names and arouse an unmixed color image.
+
+(91) In the nursery a child learns to use the simple color names red,
+yellow, green, blue, and purple. When familiarity with the color sphere
+makes him relate them to each other and place them between black and
+white by their degree of light and strength, there will be no occasion
+to revert to vegetables, animals, minerals, or the ever-varying hues of
+sea and sky to express his color sensations.
+
+(92) Another experiment accentuates the difference between spectral and
+pigment color. When the spectrum is spread on the screen by the use of a
+prism, and a second prism is placed inverted beyond the first, it
+regathers the dispersed rays back into their original beam, making a
+white spot on the floor. This proves that all the colored rays of light
+combine to balance each other in whiteness. But if pigments which are
+the closest possible imitation of these hues are united on a painter's
+palette, either by the brush or the knife, they _make gray, and not
+white_.
+
+(93) This is another illustration of the behavior of pigments, for,
+instead of uniting to form white, they form gray, which is a darkened or
+impure form of white; and, lest this should be attributed to a chemical
+reaction between the various matters that serve as pigments, the
+experiment can be carried out without allowing one pigment to touch
+another by using Maxwell discs, as will be shown in the next chapter.
+
+(94) Before leaving these prismatic colors, let us study them in the
+light of what has already been learned of color dimensions. Not only do
+they present different values, but also different chromas. Their values
+range from darkness at each end, where red and purple become visible, to
+a brightness in the greenish yellow, which is almost white. So on the
+color tree described in Chapter II., paragraph 34, yellow has the
+highest branch, green is lower, red is below the middle, with blue and
+purple lower down, near black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+(95) Then in chroma they range from the powerful stimulation of the red
+to the soothing purple, with green occupying an intermediate step. This
+is also given on the color tree by the length of its branches.
+
+(96) In Fig. 15 the vertical curve describes the values of the spectrum
+as they grade from red through yellow, green, blue, and purple. The
+horizontal curve describes the chromas of the spectrum in the same
+sequence; while the third curve leaning outward is obtained by uniting
+the first two by two planes at right angles to one another, and sums up
+the three qualities by a single descriptive line. Now the red and purple
+ends are far apart, and science forbids their junction because of their
+great difference in wave length. But the mind is prone to unite them in
+order to produce the red-purples which we see in clouds at sunset, in
+flowers and grapes and the amethyst. Indeed, it has been done
+unhesitatingly in most color schemes in order to supply the opposite of
+green.
+
+(97) This gives a slanting circuit joining all the branch ends of the
+color tree, and has been likened to the rings of Saturn in Chapter I.,
+paragraph 17.
+
+
++A prismatic color sphere.+
+
+(98) With a little effort of the imagination we can picture a prismatic
+color sphere, using only the colors of light. In a cylindrical chamber
+is hung a diaphanous ball similar to a huge soap bubble, which can
+display color on its surface without obscuring its interior. Then, at
+the proper points of the surrounding wall, three pure beams of colored
+light are admitted,--one red, another green, and the third violet-blue.
+
+(99) They fall at proper levels on three sides of the sphere, while
+their intermediate gradations encircle the sphere with a complete
+spectrum plus the needed purple. As they penetrate the sphere, they
+unite to balance each other in neutrality. Pure whiteness is at the top,
+and, by some imaginary means their light gradually diminishes until they
+disappear in darkness below.
+
+(100) This ideal color system is impossible in the present state of our
+knowledge and implements. Even were it possible, its immaterial hues
+could not serve to dye materials or paint pictures. Pigments are, and
+will in all probability continue to be, the practical agents of
+coloristic productions, however reluctant the scientist may be to accept
+them as the basis of a color system. It is true that they are chemically
+impure and imperfectly represent the colors of light. Some of them fade
+rapidly and undergo chemical change, as in the notable case of a green
+pigment tested by this measured system, which in a few weeks lost four
+steps of chroma, gained two steps of value, and swung into a bluer hue.
+
+(101) But the color sphere to be next described is worked out with a few
+reliable pigments, mostly natural earths, whose fading is a matter of
+years and so slight as to be almost imperceptible. Besides, its
+principal hues are preserved in safe keeping by imperishable enamels,
+which can be used to correct any tendency of the pigments to distort the
+measured intervals of the color sphere.
+
+This meets the most serious objection to a pigment system. Without it a
+child has nothing tangible which he can keep in constant view to imitate
+and memorize. With it he builds up a mental image of measured relations
+that describe every color in nature, including the fleeting hues of the
+rainbow, although they appear but for a moment at rare intervals.
+Finally, it furnishes a simple notation which records every color
+sensation by a letter and two numerals. With the enlargement of his
+mental power he will unite these in a comprehensive grasp of the larger
+relations of color.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV.
+
+
++Children's Color Studies.+
+
+These reproductions of children's work are given as proof that color
+charm and good taste may be cultivated from the start.
+
+FIVE MIDDLE HUES are first taught by the use of special crayons, and
+later with water colors. They represent the equator of the color sphere
+(see Plate I.),--a circle midway between the extremes of color-light and
+color-strength,--and are known as MIDDLE RED, MIDDLE YELLOW, MIDDLE
+GREEN, MIDDLE BLUE, and MIDDLE PURPLE.
+
+These are starting-points for training the eye to measure regular scales
+of Value and Chroma.[23] Only with such a trained judgment is it safe to
+undertake the use of strong colors.[24]
+
+    [Footnote 23: See Century Dictionary for definition of chroma.
+    Under the word "color" will be found definitions of Primary,
+    Complementary, Constants (chroma, luminosity, and hue), and the
+    Young-Helmholtz theory of color-sensation.]
+
+    [Footnote 24: It must not be assumed because so much stress is
+    laid upon quiet and harmonious color that this system excludes
+    the more powerful degrees. To do so would forfeit its claim to
+    completeness. A Color Atlas in preparation displays all known
+    degrees of pigment color arranged in measured scales of Hue,
+    Value, and Chroma.]
+
+_Beginners should avoid Strong Color._ Extreme red, yellow, and blue are
+discordant. (They "shriek" and "swear." Mark Twain calls Roxana's gown
+"a volcanic eruption of infernal splendors.") Yet there are some who
+claim that the child craves them, and must have them to produce a
+thrill. So also does he crave candies, matches, and the carving-knife.
+He covets the trumpet, fire-gong, and bass-drum for their "thrill"; but
+who would think them necessary to the musical training of the ear? Like
+the blazing bill-board and the circus wagon, they may be suffered
+out-of-doors; but such boisterous sounds and color sprees are unfit for
+the school-room.
+
+_Quiet Color is the Mark of Good Taste._ Refinement in dress and the
+furnishings of the home is attractive, but we shrink from those who are
+"loud" in their speech or their clothing. If we wish our children to
+become well-bred, is it logical to begin by encouraging barbarous
+tastes? Their young minds are very open to suggestion. They quickly
+adopt our standards, and the blame must fall upon us if they acquire
+crude color habits. Yellow journalism and rag-time tunes will not help
+their taste in speech or song, nor will violent hues improve their taste
+in matters of color.
+
+_Balance of Color is to be sought._ Artists and decorators are well
+aware of a fact that slowly dawns upon the student; namely, that color
+harmony is due to the preservation of a subtle balance and impossible by
+the use of extremes. This balance of color resides more _within_ the
+spherical surface of this system than in the excessive chromas which
+project beyond. It is futile to encourage children in efforts to rival
+the poppy or buttercup, even with the strongest pigments obtainable.
+Their sunlit points give pleasure because they are surrounded and
+balanced by blue ether and wide green fields. Were these conditions
+reversed, so that the flowers appeared as little spots of blue or green
+in great fields of blazing red, orange, and yellow, our pained eyes
+would be shut in disgust.
+
+The painter knows that pigments _cannot_ rival the brilliancy of the
+buttercup and poppy, enhanced by their surroundings. What is more, he
+does not care to attempt it. Nor does the musician wish to imitate the
+screech of a siren or the explosion of a gun. These are not subjects for
+art. Harmonious sounds are the study of the musician, and tuned colors
+are the materials of the colorist. Corot in landscape, and Titian,
+Velasquez, and Whistler in figure painting, show us that Nature's
+richest effects and most beautiful color are enveloped in an atmosphere
+of gray.
+
+_Beauty of Color lies in Tempered Relations._ Music rarely touches the
+extreme range of sound, and harmonious color rarely uses the extremes of
+color-light or color-strength. Regular scales in the middle register are
+first given to train the ear, and so should the eye be first
+familiarized with medium degrees of color.
+
+This system provides measured scales, established by special
+instruments, and is able to select the middle points of red, yellow,
+green, blue, and purple as a basis for comparing and relating all
+colors. These five middle colors form a Chromatic Tuning Fork. (See page
+70.) It is far better that children should first become familiar with
+these tuned color intervals which are harmonious in themselves rather
+than begin by blundering among unrelated degrees of harsh and violent
+color. Who would think of teaching the musical scale with a piano out
+of tune?
+
+_The Tuning of Color cannot be left to Personal Whim._ The wide
+discrepancies of red, yellow, and blue, which have been falsely taught
+as primary colors, can no more be tuned by a child than the musical
+novice can tune his instrument. Each of these hues has three variable
+factors (see page 14, paragraph 14), and scientific tests are necessary
+to measure and relate their uneven degrees of Hue, Value, and Chroma.
+
+Visual estimates of color, without the help of any standard for
+comparison, are continually distorted by doubt, guess-work, and the
+fatigue of the eye. Hardly two persons can agree in the intelligible
+description of color. Not only do individuals differ, but the same eye
+will vary in its estimates from day to day. A frequent assumption that
+all strong pigments are equal in chroma, is far from the truth, and
+involves beginners in many mishaps. Thus the strongest blue-green,
+chromium sesquioxide, is but half the chroma of its red complement, the
+sulphuret of mercury. Yet ignorance is constantly leading to their
+unbalanced use. Indeed, some are still unaware that they are the
+complements of each other.[25]
+
+    [Footnote 25: See Appendix to Chapter III.]
+
+It is evident that the fundamental scales of Hue, Value, and Chroma must
+be established by scientific measures, not by personal bias. This system
+is unique in the possession of such scales, made possible by the
+devising of special instruments for the measurement of color, and can
+therefore be trusted as a permanent basis for training the color sense.
+
+The examples in Plates II. and III. show how successfully the tuned
+crayons, cards, and water colors of this system lead a child to fine
+appreciations of color harmony.
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED CRAYONS IN THE LOWER GRADES.
+
+Children have made every example on this plate, with no other material
+than the five crayons of middle hue, tempered with gray and black.
+A Color Sphere is always kept in the room for reference, and five color
+balls to match the five middle hues are placed in the hands of the
+youngest pupils. Starting with these middle points in the scales of
+Value and Chroma, they learn to estimate rightly all lighter and darker
+values, all weaker and stronger chromas, and gradually build up a
+disciplined judgment of color.
+
+Each study can be made the basis of many variations by a simple change
+of one color element, as suggested in the text.
+
+  1. Butterfly. Yellow and black crayon. Vary by using any single
+  crayon with black.
+
+  2. Dish. Red crayon, blue and green crayons for back and foreground.
+  Vary by using the two opposites of any color chosen for the dish and
+  omitting the two neighboring colors. See No. 4.
+
+  3. Hiawatha's canoe. Yellow crayon, with rim and name in green. Vary
+  color of canoe, keeping the rim a neighboring color. See No. 4.
+
+  4. Color-circle. Gray crayon for centre, and five crayons spaced
+  equidistant. This gives the invariable order, red, yellow, green,
+  blue, purple. _Never use all five in a single design._ Either use
+  a color and its two neighbors or a color and its two opposites. By
+  mingling touches of any two neighbors, the intermediates are made
+  and named yellow-red (orange), green-yellow, blue-green, purple-blue
+  (violet), and red-purple. Abbreviated, the circle reads R, YR, Y,
+  GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, RP.
+
+  5. Rosette. Red cross in centre, green leaves: blue field, black
+  outline. Vary as in No. 2.
+
+  6. Rosette. Green centre and edge of leaves, purple field and black
+  accents. Vary color of centre, keeping field two colors distant.
+
+  7. Plaid. Use any three crayons with black. Vary the trio.
+
+  8. Folding screen. Yellow field (lightly applied), green and black
+  edge. Make lighter and darker values of each color, and arrange in
+  scales graded from black to white.
+
+  9. Rug. Light red field with solid red centre, border pattern and
+  edges of gray. This is called self-color. Change to each of the
+  crayons.
+
+  10. Rug. Light yellow field and solid centre, with purple and black
+  in border design. Vary by change of ground, keeping design two
+  colors distant and darkened with black.
+
+  11. Lattice. Yellow with black: alternate green and blue lozenges.
+  Vary by keeping the lozenges of two neighboring colors, but one
+  color removed from that of the lattice.
+
+For principles involved in these color groups, see Chapter III.
+
+
+PLATE III.
+
+COLOR STUDIES WITH TUNED WATER COLORS IN THE UPPER GRADES.
+
+Previous work with measured scales, made by the tuned crayons and tested
+by reference to the color sphere, have so trained the color judgment
+that children may now be trusted with more flexible material. They have
+memorized the equable degrees of color on the equator of the sphere, and
+found how lighter colors may balance darker colors, how small areas of
+stronger chroma may be balanced by larger masses of weaker chroma, and
+in general gained a disciplined color sense. Definite impressions and
+clear thinking have taken the place of guess-work and blundering.
+
+Thus, before reaching the secondary school, they are put in possession
+of the color faculty by a system and notation similar to that which was
+devised centuries ago for the musical sense. No system, however logical,
+will produce the artist, but every artist needs some systematic training
+at the outset, and this simple method by measured scales is believed to
+be the best yet devised.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 2.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE 3.
+  Copyright 1907 by A. H. Munsell]
+
+Each example on this plate may be made the basis of many variants, by
+small changes in the color steps, as suggested in the text, and further
+elaborated in Chapter VI. Indeed, the studies reproduced on Plates II.
+and III. are but a handful among hundreds of pleasing results produced
+in a single school.[26]
+
+  1. Pattern. Purple and green: the two united and thinned with water
+  will give the ground. Vary with any other color pair.
+
+  2. Pattern. Figure in middle red, with darker blue-green accent.
+  Ground of middle yellow, grayed with slight addition of the red and
+  green. Vary with purple in place of blue-green.
+
+  3. Japanese teapot. Middle red, with background of lighter yellow
+  and foreground of grayed middle yellow.
+
+  4. Variant on No. 3. Middle yellow, with slight addition of green.
+  Foreground the same, with more red, and background of middle gray.
+
+  5. Group. Background of yellow-red, lighter vase in yellow-green,
+  and darker vase of green, with slight addition of black. Vary by
+  inversion of the colors in ground and darker vase.
+
+  6. Wall decoration. Frieze pattern made of cat-tails and
+  leaves,--the leaves of blue-green with black, tails of yellow-red
+  with black, and ground of the two colors united and thinned with
+  water. Wall of blue-green, slightly grayed by additions of the two
+  colors in the frieze. Dado could be a match of the cat-tails
+  slightly grayer. _See Fig. 23, page 82._
+
+  7. Group. Foreground in purple-blue, grayed with black. Vase of
+  purple-red, and background in lighter yellow-red, grayed.
+
+For analysis of the groups and means of recording them, see Chapter III.
+
+    [Footnote 26: The Pope School, Somerville, Mass.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A PIGMENT COLOR SPHERE.[27]
+
+
++How to make a color sphere with pigments.+
+
+(102) The preceding chapters have built up an ideal color solid, in
+which every sensation of color finds its place and is clearly named by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It has been shown that the neutral centre of the system is a balancing
+point for all colors, that a line through this centre finds opposite
+colors which balance and complement each other; and we are now ready to
+make a practical application, carrying out these ideal relations of
+color as far as pigments will permit in a color sphere[27] (Fig. 16).
+
+    [Footnote 27: Patented Jan. 9, 1900.]
+
+(103) The materials are quite simple. First a colorless globe, mounted
+so as to spin freely on its axis. Then a measured scale of value,
+specially devised for this purpose, obtained by the daylight
+photometer.[28] Next a set of carefully chosen pigments, whose
+reasonable permanence has been tested by long use, and which are
+prepared so that they will not glisten when spread on the surface of the
+globe, but give a uniformly mat surface. A glass palette, palette knife,
+and some fine brushes complete the list.
+
+    [Footnote 28: See paragraph 65.]
+
+(104) Here is a list of the paints arranged in pairs to represent the
+five sets of opposite hues described in Chapter III., paragraphs
+61-63:--
+
+  _Color Pairs._    _Pigments Used._      _Chemical Nature._
+
+  Red and           Venetian red.         Calcined native earth.
+    Blue-green.     Viridian and Cobalt.  Chromium sesquioxide.
+
+  Yellow and        Raw Sienna.           Native earth.
+    Purple-blue.    Ultramarine.          Artificial product.
+
+  Green and         Emerald green.        Arsenate of copper.
+    Red-purple.     Purple madder.        Extract of the madder plant.
+
+  Blue and          Cobalt.               Oxide of cobalt with alumina.
+    Yellow-red.     Orange cadmium.       Sulphide of cadmium.
+
+  Purple and        Madder and cobalt.    See each pigment above.
+    Green-yellow.   Emerald green         See each pigment above.
+                      and Sienna.
+
+(105) These paints have various degrees of hue, value, and chroma, but
+can be tempered by additions of the neutrals, zinc white and ivory
+black, until each is brought to a middle value and tested on the value
+scale. After each pair has been thus balanced, they are painted in their
+appropriate spaces on the globe, forming an equator of balanced hues.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+(106) The method of proving this balance has already been suggested in
+Chapter IV., paragraph 93. It consists of an ingenious implement devised
+by Clerk-Maxwell, which gives us a result of mixing colors without the
+chemical risks of letting them come in contact, and also measures
+accurately the quantity of each which is used (Fig. 17).
+
+(107) This is called a Maxwell disc, and is nothing more than a circle
+of firm cardboard, pierced with a central hole to fit the spindle of a
+rotary motor, and with a radial slit from rim to centre, so that another
+disc may be slid over the first to cover any desired fraction of its
+surface. Let us paint one of these discs with Venetian red and the other
+with viridian and cobalt, the first pair in the list of pigments to be
+used on the globe.
+
+(108) Having dried these two discs, one is combined with the other on
+the motor shaft so that each color occupies half the circle. As soon as
+the motor starts, the two colors are no longer distinguished, and rapid
+rotation melts them so perfectly that the eye sees a new color, due to
+their mixture on the retina. This new color is a reddish gray, showing
+that the red is more chromatic than the blue-green. But by stopping the
+motor and sliding the green disc to cover more of the red one, there
+comes a point where rotation melts them into a perfectly neutral gray.
+No hint of either hue remains, and the pair is said to balance.
+
+(109) Since this balance has been obtained by _unequal areas_ of the two
+pigments, it must compensate for a lack of equal chroma in the hues (see
+paragraphs 76, 77); and, to measure this inequality, a slightly larger
+disc, with decimal divisions on its rim, is placed back of the two
+painted ones. If this scale shows the red as occupying 3-1/3 parts of
+the area, while blue-green occupies 6-2/3 parts, then the blue-green
+must be only half as chromatic as the red, since it takes twice as much
+to produce the balance.
+
+(110) The red is then grayed (diminished in chroma by additions of a
+middle gray) until it can occupy half the circle, with blue-green on the
+remaining half, and still produce neutrality when mixed by rotation.
+Each disc now reads 5 on the decimal scale. Lest the graying of red
+should have disturbed its value, it is again tested on the photometric
+scale, and reads 4.7, showing it has been slightly darkened by the
+graying process. A little white is therefore added until its value is
+restored to 5.
+
+(111) The two opposites are now completely balanced, for they are equal
+in value (5), equal in chroma (5), and have proved their equality as
+complements by uniting in equal areas to form a neutral mixture. It only
+remains to apply them in their proper position on the sphere.
+
+(112) A band is traced around the equator, divided in ten equal spaces,
+and lettered R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP (see Fig. 18). This
+balanced red and blue-green are applied with the brush to spaces marked
+R and BG, care being taken to fill, but not to overstep the bounds, and
+the color laid absolutely flat, that no unevenness of value or chroma
+may disturb the balance.
+
+(113) The next pair, represented by Raw Sienna and Ultramarine, is
+similarly brought to middle value, balanced by equal areas on the
+Maxwell discs, and, when correct in each quality, is painted in the
+spaces Y and PB. Emerald Green and Purple Madder, which form the next
+pigment pair, are similarly tempered, proved, and applied, followed by
+the two remaining pairs, until the equator of the globe presents its ten
+equal steps of middle hues.
+
+
++An equator of ten balanced hues.+
+
+(114) Now comes the total test of this circuit of balanced hues by
+rotation of the sphere. As it gains speed, the colors flash less and
+less, and finally melt into a middle gray of perfect neutrality. Had it
+failed to produce this gray and shown a tinge of any hue still
+persisting, we should say that the persistent hue was in excess, or,
+conversely, that its opposite hue was deficient in chroma, and failed to
+preserve its share in the balance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.]
+
+(115) For instance, had rotation discovered the persistence of reddish
+gray, it would have proved the red too strong, or its opposite,
+blue-green, too weak, and we should have been forced to retrace our
+steps, applying a correction until neutrality was established by the
+rotation test.
+
+(116) This is the practical demonstration of the assertion (Chapter I.,
+paragraph 8) that a _color has three dimensions which can be measured_.
+Each of these ten middle hues has proved its right to a definite place
+on the color globe by its measurements of value and chroma. Being of
+equal chroma, all are equidistant from the neutral centre, and, being
+equal in value, all are equally removed from the poles. If the warm hues
+(red and yellow) or the cool hues (blue and green) were in excess, the
+rotation test of the sphere would fail to produce grayness, and so
+detect its lack of balance.[29]
+
+    [Footnote 29: Such a test would have exposed the excess of warm
+    color in the schemes of Runge and Chevreul, as shown in the
+    Appendix to this chapter.]
+
+
++A chromatic tuning fork.+
+
+(117) The five principal steps in this color equator are made in
+permanent enamel and carefully safeguarded, so that, if the pigments
+painted on the globe should change or become soiled, it could be at once
+detected and set right. These five are middle red (so called because
+midway between white and black, as well as midway between our strongest
+red and the neutral centre), middle yellow, middle green, middle blue,
+and middle purple. They may be called the CHROMATIC TUNING FORK, for
+they serve to establish the pitch of colors, as the musical tuning fork
+preserves the pitch of sounds.
+
+
++Completion of a pigment color sphere.+
+
+(118) When the chromatic tuning fork has thus been obtained, the
+completion of the globe is only a matter of patience, for the same
+method can be applied at any level in the scale of value, and a new
+circuit of balanced hues made to conform with its position between the
+poles of white and black.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.]
+
+(119) The surface above and below the equatorial band is set off by
+parallels to match the photometric scale, making nine bands or value
+zones in all, of which the equator is fifth, the black pole being 0 and
+the white pole 10.
+
+(120) Ten meridians carry the equatorial hues across all these value
+zones and trace the gradation of each hue through a complete scale from
+black to white, marked by their values, as shown in paragraph 68. Thus
+the red scale is R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 (middle red), R6, R7, R8, and R9,
+and similarly with each of the other hues. When the circle of hues
+corresponding to each level has been applied and tested, the entire
+surface of the globe is spread with a logical system of color scales,
+and the eye gratified with regular sequences which move by measured
+steps in each direction.
+
+(121) Each meridian traces a scale of value for the hue in which it
+lies. Each parallel traces a scale of hue for the value at whose level
+it is drawn. Any oblique path across these scales traces a regular
+sequence, each step combining change of hue with a change of value and
+chroma. The more this path approaches the vertical, the less are its
+changes of hue and the more its changes of value and chroma; while, the
+nearer it comes to the horizontal, the less are its changes of value and
+chroma, while the greater become its changes of hue. Of these two
+oblique paths the first may be called that of a Luminist, or painter
+like Rembrandt, whose canvases present great contrasts of light and
+shade, while the second is that of the Colorist, such as Titian, whose
+work shows great fulness of hues without the violent extremes of white
+and black.
+
+
++Total balance of the sphere tested by rotation on any desired axis.+
+
+(122) Not only does the mount of the color sphere permit its rotation on
+the vertical axis (white-black), but it is so hung that it may be spun
+on the ends of any desired axis, as, for instance, that joining our
+first color pair, red and blue-green. With this pair as poles of
+rotation, a new equator is traced through all the values of purple on
+one side and of green-yellow on the other, which the rotation test melts
+in a perfect balance of middle gray, proving the correctness of these
+values. In the same way it may be hung and tested on successive axes,
+until the total balance of the entire spherical series is proved.
+
+(123) But this color system does not cease with the colors spread on the
+surface of a globe.[30] The first illustration of an orange filled with
+color was chosen for the purpose of stimulating the imagination to
+follow a surface color inward to the neutral axis by regular decrease of
+chroma. A slice at any level of the solid, as at value 8 (Fig. 10),
+shows each hue of that level passing by even steps of increasing
+grayness to the neutral gray N8 of the axis. In the case of red at this
+level, it is easily described by the notation R 8/3, R 8/2, R 8/1, of
+which the initial and upper numerals do not change, but the lower
+numeral traces loss of chroma by 3, 2, and 1 to the neutral axis.
+
+    [Footnote 30: No color is excluded from this system, but the
+    excess and inequalities of pigment chroma are traced in the
+    Color Atlas.]
+
+(124) And there are stronger chromas of red outside the surface, which
+can be written R 8/4, R 8/5, R 8/6, etc. Indeed, our color measurements
+discover such differences of chroma in the various pigments used, that
+the color tree referred to in paragraphs 34, 35, is necessary to bring
+before the eye their maximum chromas, most of which are well outside the
+spherical shell and at various levels of value. One way to describe the
+color sphere is to suggest that a color tree, the intervals between
+whose irregular branches are filled with appropriate color, can be
+placed in a turning lathe and turned down until the color maxima are
+removed, thus producing a color solid no larger than the chroma of its
+weakest pigment (Fig. 2).
+
+
++Charts of the color solid.+
+
+(125) Thus it becomes evident that, while the color sphere is a valuable
+help to the child in conceiving color relations, in uniting the three
+scales of color measure, and in furnishing with its mount an excellent
+test of the theory of color balance, yet it is always restricted to the
+chroma of its weakest color, the surplus chromas of all other colors
+being thought of as enormous mountains built out at various levels to
+reach the maxima of our pigments.
+
+(126) The complete color solid is, therefore, of irregular shape, with
+mountains and valleys, corresponding to the inequalities of pigments. To
+display these inequalities to the eye, we must prepare cross sections or
+charts of the solid, some horizontal, some vertical, and others oblique.
+
+(127) Such a set of charts forms an atlas of the color solid, enabling
+one to see any color in its relation to all other colors, and name it by
+its degree of hue, value, and chroma. Fig. 20 is a horizontal chart of
+all colors which present middle value (5), and describes by an uneven
+contour the chroma of every hue at this level. The dotted fifth circle
+is the equator of the color sphere, whose principal hues, R 5/5. Y 5/5,
+G 5/5, B 5/5, and P 5/5, form the chromatic tuning fork, paragraph 117.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+
+  Chart of
+  Middle Value
+  - 5 -
+  Showing Unequal Chroma
+  in circle of Hues. (See Fig. 2).]
+
+(128) In this single chart the eye readily distinguishes some three
+hundred different colors, each of which may be written by its hue,
+value, and chroma. And even the slightest variation of one of them can
+be defined. Thus, if the principal red were to fade slightly, so that it
+was a trifle lighter and a trifle weaker than the enamel, it would be
+written R{5.1/4.9}, showing it had lightened by 1 per cent. and weakened
+by 1 per cent. The discrimination made possible by this decimal notation
+is much finer than our present visual limit. Its use will stimulate
+finer perception of color.
+
+(129) Such a very elementary sketch of the Color Solid and Color Atlas,
+which is all that can be given in the confines of this small book, will
+be elsewhere presented on a larger and more complete scale. It should be
+contrasted with the ideal form composed of prismatic colors, suggested
+in the last chapter, paragraphs 98, 99, which was shown to be
+impracticable, but whose ideal conditions it follows as far as the
+limitations of pigments permit.
+
+(130) Besides its value in education as setting all our color notions in
+order, and supplying a simple method for their clear expression, it
+promises to do away with much of the misunderstanding that accompanies
+the every-day use of color.
+
+(131) Popular color names are incongruous, irrational, and often
+ludicrous. One must smile in reading the list of 25 steps in a scale of
+blue, made by Schiffer-Muller in 1772:--
+
+  A. _a._ White pure.
+     _b._ White silvery or pearly.
+     _c._ White milky.
+  B. _a._ Bluish white.
+     _b._ Pearly white.
+     _c._ Watery white.
+  C.      Blue being born.
+  D.      Blue dying or pale.
+  E.      Mignon blue.
+  F.      Celestial blue, or sky-color.
+  G. _a._ Azure, or ultramarine.
+     _b._ Complete or perfect blue.
+     _c._ Fine or queen blue.
+  H.      Covert blue or turquoise.
+  I.      King blue (deep).
+  J.      Light brown blue or indigo.
+  K. _a._ Persian blue or woad flower.
+     _b._ Forge or steel blue.
+     _c._ Livid blue.
+  L. _a._ Blackish blue.
+     _b._ Hellish blue.
+     _c._ Black-blue.
+  M. _a._ Blue-black or charcoal.
+     _b._ Velvet black.
+     _c._ Jet black.
+
+The advantage of spacing these 25 colors in 13 groups, some with three
+and others with but one example, is not apparent; nor why ultramarine
+should be several steps above turquoise, for the reverse is generally
+true. Besides which the hue of turquoise is greenish, while that of
+ultramarine is purplish, but the list cannot show this; and the
+remarkable statement that one kind of blue is "hellish," while another
+is "celestial," should rest upon an experience that few can claim.
+Failing to define color-value and color-hue, the list gives no hint of
+color-strength, except at C and D, where one kind of blue is "dying"
+when the next is "being born," which not inaptly describes the color
+memory of many a person. Finally, it assures us that Queen blue is
+"fine" and King blue is "deep."
+
+This year the fashionable shades are "burnt onion" and "fresh spinach."
+The florists talk of a "pink violet" and a "green pink." A maker of inks
+describes the red as a "true crimson scarlet," which is a contradiction
+in terms. These and a host of other names borrowed from the most
+heterogeneous sources, become outlawed as soon as the simple color terms
+and measures of this system are adopted.
+
+Color anarchy is replaced by systematic color description.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V.
+
+
++Color schemes based on Brewster's mistaken theory.+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+Runge, of Hamburg (1810), suggested that red, yellow, and blue be placed
+equidistant around the equator of a sphere, with white and black at
+opposite poles. As the yellow was very light and the blue very dark, any
+coherency in the value scales of red, yellow, and blue was impossible.
+
+Chevreul, of Paris (1861), seeking uniform color scales for his workmen
+at the Gobelins, devised a hollow cylinder built up of ten color
+circles. The upper circle had red, yellow, and blue spaced equidistant,
+and, as in Runge's solid, yellow was very light and blue very dark. Each
+circle was then made "one-tenth" darker than the next above, until black
+was reached at the base. Although each circle was supposed to lie
+horizontally, only the black lowest circle presents a level of uniform
+values.
+
+Yellow values increase their luminosity thrice as fast as purple values,
+so that each circle should tilt at an increasing angle, and the upper
+circle of strongest colors be inclined at 60deg. to the black base.
+Besides this fault shared with Runge's sphere, it falls into another
+by not diminishing the size of the lower circles where added black
+diminishes the chroma.
+
+Desire to make colors fit a chosen contour, and the absence of measuring
+instruments, cause these schemes to ignore the facts of color relation.
+Like ancient maps made to satisfy a conqueror, they amuse by their
+distortion.
+
+Brewster's mistaken theory underlies these schemes, as is also the case
+with Froebel's gifts, whose color balls continue to give wrong notions
+at the very threshold of color education. As pointed out in the Appendix
+to Chapter III., the "red-yellow-blue" theory inevitably spreads the
+warm field of yellow-red too far, and contracts the blue field, so that
+balance of color is rendered impossible, as illustrated in the gaudy
+chromo and flaming bill-board.
+
+These schemes are criticised by Rood as "not only in the main arbitrary,
+but also vague"; and, although Chevreul's charts were published by the
+government in most elaborate form, their usefulness is small. Interest
+in the growth of the present system, because of its measured character,
+led Professor Rood to give assistance in the tests, and at his request a
+color sphere was made for the Physical Cabinet at Columbia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+COLOR NOTATION.
+
+
++Suggestion of a chromatic score.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.]
+
+(132) The last chapter traced a series of steps leading to the
+construction of a practical color sphere. Each color was tested by
+appropriate instruments to assure its degree of hue, value, and chroma,
+before being placed in position. Then the total sphere was tested to
+detect any lack of balance.
+
+(133) Each color was also _written_ by a letter and two numerals,
+showing its place in the three scales of hue, value, and chroma. This
+naturally suggests, not only a record of each separate color sensation,
+but also a union of these records in series and groups to form a _color
+score_, similar to the musical score by which the measured relations of
+sound are recorded.
+
+(134) A very simple form of color score may be easily imagined as a
+transparent envelope wrapped around the equator of the sphere, and
+forming a vertical cylinder (Fig. 21). On the envelope the equator
+traces a horizontal centre line, which is at 5 of the _value scale_,
+with zones 6, 7, 8, and 9 as parallels above, and the zones 4, 3, 2, and
+1 below. Vertical lines are drawn through ten equidistant points on this
+centre line, corresponding with the divisions of the _hue scale_, and
+marked R, YR, Y, GY, G, BG, B, PB, P, and RP.
+
+(135) The transparent envelope is thus divided into one hundred
+compartments, which provide for ten steps of value in each of the ten
+middle colors. Now, if we cut open this envelope along one of the
+verticals,--as, for instance, red-purple (RP), it may be spread out,
+making a flat chart of the color sphere (Fig. 22).
+
+
++Why green is given the centre of the score.+
+
+(136) A cylindrical envelope might be opened on any desired meridian,
+but it is an advantage to have green (G) at the centre of the chart, and
+it is therefore opened at the opposite point, red-purple (RP). To the
+right of the green centre are the meridians of green-yellow (GY), yellow
+(Y), yellow-red (YR), and red (R), all of which are known as _warm
+colors_, because they contain yellow and red. To the left are the
+meridians of blue-green (BG), blue (B), purple-blue (PB), and purple
+(P), all of which are called _cool colors_, because they contain blue.
+Green, being neither warm nor cold of itself, and becoming so only by
+additions of yellow or of blue, thus serves as a balancing point or
+centre in the hue-scale.[31]
+
+    [Footnote 31: To put this in terms of the spectrum wave lengths,
+    long waves at the red end of the spectrum give the sensation of
+    warmth, while short waves at the violet end cause the sensation
+    of coolness. Midway between these extremes is the wave length of
+    green.]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.]
+
+(137) The color score presents four large divisions or color fields made
+by the intersection of the equator with the meridian of green. Above the
+centre are all light colors, and below it are all dark colors. To the
+right of the centre are all warm colors, and to the left are all cool
+colors. Middle green (5G 5/5) is the centre of balance for these
+contrasted qualities, recognized by all practical color workers. The
+chart forms a rectangle whose length equals the equator of the color
+sphere and its height equals the axis (a proportion of 3.14:1),
+representing a union and balance of the scales of hue and of value. This
+provides for two color dimensions; but, to be complete, the chart must
+provide for the third dimension, chroma.
+
+(138) Replacing the chart around the sphere and joining its ends, so
+that it re-forms the transparent envelope, we may thrust a pin through
+at any point until it pierces the surface of the sphere. Indeed, the pin
+can be thrust deeper until it reaches the neutral axis, thus forming a
+scale of chroma for the color point where it enters (see paragraph 12).
+In the same way any colors on the sphere, within the sphere, or without
+it, can have pins thrust into the chart to mark their place, and the
+length by which each pin projects can be taken as a measure of chroma.
+If the chart is now unrolled, it retains the pins, which by their place
+describe the hue and value of a color, while their length describes its
+chroma.
+
+
++Pins stuck into the score represent chroma.+
+
+(139) With this idea of the third color dimension incorporated in the
+score we can discard the pin, and record its length by a numeral. Any
+dot placed on the score marks a certain degree of hue and value, while a
+numeral beside it marks the degree of chroma which it carries, uniting
+with the hue and value of that point to give us a certain color.
+Glancing over a series of such color points, the eye easily grasps their
+individual character, and connects them into an intelligible series.
+
+(140) Thus a flat chart becomes the projection of the color solid, and
+any color in that solid is transferred to the surface of the chart,
+retaining its degrees of hue, value, and chroma. So far the scales have
+been spoken of as divided into ten steps, but they may be subdivided
+much finer, if desired, by use of the decimal point. It is a question of
+convenience whether to make a small score with only the large divisions,
+or a much larger score with a hundred times as many steps. In the
+latter case each hue has ten steps, the middle step of green being
+distinguished as 5G-5/5 to suggest the four steps 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, which
+precede it, and 6G, 7G, 8G, and 9G, which follow it toward blue-green.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+  COLOR SCORE--(or No. 6 in Plate III)--GIVING AREAS BY H, V AND C.]
+
+
++The score preserves color records in a convenient shape.+
+
+Such a color score, or notation diagram, to be made small or large as
+the case demands, offers a very convenient means for recording color
+combinations, when pigments are not at hand.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+(141) To display its three dimensions, a little model can be made with
+three visiting cards, so placed as to present their mutual intersection
+at right angles (Fig. 24).
+
+5G 5/5 is their centre of mutual balance. A central plane separates all
+colors into two contrasted fields. To the right are all warm colors, to
+the left are all cool colors. Each of these fields is again divided by
+the plane of the equator into lighter colors above and darker colors
+below. These four color fields are again subdivided by a transverse
+plane through 5G 5/5 into strong colors in front and weak colors beyond
+or behind it.
+
+(142) Any color group, whose record must all be written to the right of
+the centre, is warm, because red and yellow are dominant. One to the
+left of the centre must be cool, because it is dominated by blue.
+A group written all above the centre must have light in excess, while
+one written entirely below is dark to excess. Finally, a score written
+all in front of the centre represents only strong chromas, while one
+written behind it contains only weak chromas. From this we gather that a
+balanced composition of color preserves some sort of equilibrium,
+uniting degrees of warm and cool, of light and dark, and of weak and
+strong, which is made at once apparent by the dots on the score.
+
+(143) A single color, like that of a violet, a rose, or a buttercup,
+appears as a dot on the score, with a numeral added for its chroma.
+A parti-colored flower, such as a nasturtium, is shown by two dots with
+their chromas, and a bunch of red and yellow flowers will give by their
+dots a color passage, or "silhouette," whose warmth and lightness is
+unmistakable.
+
+The chroma of each flower written with the silhouette completes the
+record. The hues of a beautiful Persian rug, with dark red
+predominating, or a verdure tapestry, in which green is dominant, or a
+Japanese print, with blue dominant, will trace upon the score a pattern
+descriptive of its color qualities. These records, with practice, become
+as significant to the eye as the musical score. The general character of
+a color combination is apparent at a glance, while its degrees of chroma
+are readily joined to fill out the mental image.
+
+(144) Such a plan of color notation grows naturally from the spherical
+system of measured colors. It is hardly to be hoped, in devising a color
+score, that it should not seem crude at first. But the measures forming
+the basis of this record can be verified by impartial instruments, and
+have a permanent value in the general study of color. They also afford
+some definite data as to personal bias in color estimates.
+
+(145) This makes it possible to collect in a convenient form two
+contrasting and valuable records, one preserving such effects of color
+as are generally called pleasing, and another of such groups as are
+found unpleasant to the eye. Out of such material something may be
+gained, more reliable than the shifting, personal, and contradictory
+statements about color harmony now prevalent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+COLOR HARMONY.
+
+
++Colors may be grouped to please or to give annoyance.+
+
+(146) Attempts to define the laws of harmonious color have not attained
+marked success, and the cause is not far to seek. The very sensations
+underlying these effects of concord or of discord are themselves
+undefined. The misleading formula of my student days--that three parts
+of yellow, five parts of red, and eight parts of blue would combine
+harmoniously--was unable to define the _kind_ of red, yellow, and blue
+intended; that is, the hue, value, and chroma of each of these colors
+was unknown, and the formula meant a different thing to each person who
+tried to use it.
+
+(147) It is true that a certain red, green, and blue can be united in
+such proportions on Maxwell discs as to balance in a neutral gray; but
+the slightest change in either the hue, value, or chroma, of any one of
+them, upsets the balance. A new proportion is then needed to regain the
+neutral mixture. This has already been shown in the discussion of triple
+balance (paragraph 82).
+
+(148) Harmony of color has been still further complicated by the use of
+terms that belong to musical harmony. Now music is a _measured art_, and
+has found a set of intervals which are defined scientifically. The two
+arts have many points of similarity; and the impulses of sound waves on
+the ear, like those of light waves on the eye, are measured vibrations.
+But they are far apart in their scales, and differ so much in important
+particulars that no practical relationship can be set up. The intervals
+of color sensation require fit names and measures, ere their infinite
+variety can be organized into a fixed system.
+
+(149) Any effort to compare certain sounds to certain colors soon leads
+to the wildest vagaries.
+
+
++Harmony of sound is unlike harmony of color.+
+
+(150) The poverty of color language tempts to a borrowing from the
+richer terminology of music. Musical terms, such as "pitch, key, note,
+tone, chord, modulation, nocturne, and symphony," are frequently used in
+the description of color, serving by association to convey certain vague
+ideas.
+
+(151) In the same way the term _color harmony_, from association with
+musical harmony, presents to the mind an image of color
+arrangement,--varied, yet well proportioned, grouped in orderly fashion,
+and agreeable to the eye. But any attempt to define this image in terms
+of color is disappointing. Here is a beautiful Persian rug: why do we
+call it beautiful? One says "because its colors are _rich_." Why are
+they rich? "Because they are _deep in tone_." What does that mean? The
+double-bass and the fog-horn are _deep_ in tone, but not necessarily
+beautiful on that account. "Oh, no," says another, "it is all in _one
+harmonious key_." But what is a key of color? Is it made by all the
+values of one color, such as red, or by all the hues of equal value,
+such as the middle hues in our color solid?
+
+(152) Certainly it is neither, for the rug has both light and dark
+colors; and, of the reds, yellows, greens, and blues, some are stronger
+and others weaker. Then what do we mean by a key of color? One must
+either continue to flounder about or frankly confess ignorance.
+
+(153) Musical harmony explains itself in clear language. It is
+illustrated by fixed and definite sound intervals, whose measured
+relations form the basis of musical composition. Each key has an
+unmistakable character, and the written score presents a statement that
+means practically the same thing to every person of musical
+intelligence. But the adequate terms of color harmony are yet to be
+worked out.
+
+Let us leave these musical analogies, retaining only the clue that _a
+measured and orderly relation underlies the idea of harmony_. The color
+solid which has been the subject of these pages is built upon measured
+color relations. It unites measured scales of hue, value, and chroma,
+and gives a definite color name to every sensation from the maxima of
+color-light and color-strength to their disappearance in darkness.
+
+(154) Must not this theoretical color solid, therefore, locate all the
+elements which combine to produce color harmony or color discord?[32]
+
+    [Footnote 32: Professor James says there are three classic
+    stages in the career of a theory: "First, it is attacked as
+    absurd; then admitted to be true, but obvious and insignificant;
+    finally it is seen to be so important that its adversaries claim
+    to be its discoverers."]
+
+(155) Instead of theorizing, let us experiment. As a child at the piano,
+who first strikes random and widely separated notes, but soon seeks for
+the intervals of a familiar air, so let us, after roaming over the color
+globe and its charts, select one familiar color, and study what others
+will combine with it to please the eye.
+
+(156) Here is a grayish green stuff for a dress, and the little girl who
+is to wear it asks what other colors she may use with it. First let us
+find it on our instrument, so as to realize its relation to other
+degrees of color. Its value is 6,--one step above the equator of middle
+value. Its hue is green, G, and its chroma 5. It is written G 6/5.
+
+(157) Color paths lead out from this point in every direction. Where
+shall we find harmonious colors, where discordant, where those paths
+most frequently travelled? Are there new ones still to be explored?
+
+(158) _There are three typical paths: one vertical_, with rapid change
+of value; _another lateral_, with rapid change of hue; and a _third
+inward_, through the neutral centre to seek the opposite color field.
+All other paths are combinations of two or three of these typical
+directions in the color solid.
+
+
++Three typical color paths.+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+(159) 1. The vertical path finds only lighter and darker values of
+gray-green,--"self-colors or shades," they are generally called,--and
+offers a safe path, even for those deficient in color sensation,
+avoiding all complications of hue, and leaving the eye free to estimate
+different degrees of a single quality,--color-light.
+
+(160) 2. The lateral path passes through neighboring hues on either
+side. In this case it is a sequence from blue, through green into
+yellow. This is simply change of hue, without change of value or chroma
+if the path be level, but, by inclining it, one end of the sequence
+becomes lighter, while the other end darkens. It thus becomes an
+intermediate between the first and second typical paths, combining, at
+each step, a change of hue with a change of value. This is more
+complicated, but also more interesting, showing how the character of the
+gray-green dress will be set off by a _lighter_ hat of Leghorn straw,
+and further improved by a trimming of _darker_ blue-green. The sequence
+can be made still more subtle and attractive by choosing a straw whose
+yellow is _stronger_ than the green of the dress, while a _weaker_
+chroma of blue-green is used in the trimming. This is clearly expressed
+by the notation thus: Y 8/7, G 6/5, BG 4/3, and written on the score by
+three dots and their chromas,--7, 5, and 3 (see Fig. 23).
+
+(161) 3. The inward path which leads by increase of gray to the neutral
+centre, and on to the opposite hue red-purple, RP 4/5, is full of
+pitfalls for the inexpert. It combines great change of hue and chroma,
+with small change of value.
+
+(162) If any other color point be chosen in place of gray-green, the
+same typical paths are just as easily traced, written by the notation,
+and recorded on the color score.
+
+
++These paths trace sequences from any point in the color solid.+
+
+(163) In the construction of the color solid we saw that its scales were
+made of equal steps in hue, value, and chroma, and tested by balance on
+the centre of neutral gray. Any step will serve as a point of departure
+to trace regular sequences of the three types. The vertical type is a
+sequence of value only. It is somewhat tame, lacking the change of hue
+and chroma, but giving a monotonous harmony of regular values. The
+horizontal type traces a sequence of neighboring hues, less tame than
+the vertical type, but monotonous in value and chroma. The inward type
+connects opposite hues by a sequence of chroma balanced on middle gray,
+and is more stimulating to the eyes.
+
+(164) These paths have so far been treated as made up of equal steps in
+each direction, with the accompanying idea of equal quantities of color
+at each step. But by using _unequal quantities of color_, the balance
+may be preserved by compensations to the intervals that separate the
+colors (see paragraphs 109, 110).
+
+
++Unequal color quantities compensated by relations of hue, value,
+and chroma.+
+
+(165) Small bits of powerful color can be used to balance large fields
+of weak chroma. For instance, a spot of strong reddish purple is
+balanced and enhanced by a field of gray-green. So an amethyst pin at
+the neck of the girl's dress will appear to advantage with the gown, and
+also with the Leghorn straw. But a large field of strong color, such as
+a cloth jacket of reddish purple, would be fatal to the measured harmony
+we seek.
+
+(166) This use of a small point of strong chroma, if repeated at
+intervals, sets up a notion of rhythm; but, in order to be rhythmic,
+there must be recurrent emphasis, "a succession of similar units,
+combining unlike elements." This quality must not be confused with the
+unaccented succession, seen in a measured scale of hue, value, or
+chroma.
+
+
++Paper masks to isolate color intervals.+
+
+(167) A sheet of paper large enough to hide the color sphere may be
+perforated with three or more openings in a straight line, and applied
+against the surface, so as to isolate the steps of any sequence which we
+wish to study. Thus the sequence given in paragraph 160--Y 8/7, G 6/5,
+BG 4/3--may be changed to bring it on the surface of the sphere, when it
+reads Y 8/3, G 6/5, BG 5/5. A mask with round holes, spaced so as to
+uncover these three spots, relieves the eye from the distraction of
+other colors. Keeping the centre spot on green, the mask may be moved so
+as to study the effect of changing hue or value of the other two steps
+in the sequence.
+
+(168) The sequence is lightened by sliding the whole mask upward, and
+darkened by dropping it lower. Then the result of using the same
+intervals in another field is easily studied by moving the mask to
+another part of the solid.
+
+(169) Change of interval immediately modifies the character of a color
+sequence. This is readily shown by having an under-mask, with a long,
+continuous slit, and an over-mask whose perforations are arranged in
+several rows, each row giving different spaces between the perforations.
+In the case of the girl's clothing, the same sequence produces quite a
+different effect, if two perforations of the over-mask are brought
+nearer to select a lighter yellow-green dress, while the ends of the
+sequence remain unchanged. To move the middle perforation near the other
+end, selects a darker bluish green dress, on which the trimming will be
+less contrasted, while the hat appears brighter than before, because of
+greater contrast.
+
+(170) The variations of color sequence which can thus be studied out by
+simple masks are almost endless; yet upon a measured system the
+character of each effect is easily described, and, if need be, preserved
+by a written record.
+
+
++Invention of color groups.+
+
+(171) Experiments with variable masks for the selection of color
+intervals, such as have been described, soon stimulate the imagination,
+so that it conceives sequences through any part of the color solid. The
+color image becomes a permanent mental adjunct. Five middle colors,
+tempered with white and black, permit us to devise the greatest variety
+of sequences, some light, others dark, some combining small difference
+of chroma with large difference of hue, others uniting large intervals
+of chroma with small intervals of hue, and so on through a well-nigh
+inexhaustible series.
+
+(172) As this constructive imagination gains power, the solid and its
+charts may be laid aside. _We can now think color consecutively._ Each
+color suggests its place in the system, and may be taken as a point of
+departure for the invention of groups to carry out a desired relation.
+
+(173) This selective mental process is helped by the score described in
+the last chapter; and the quantity of each color chosen for the group is
+easily indicated by a variable circle, drawn round the various points on
+the diagram. Thus, in the case of the child's clothes, a large circle
+around G 6/5 gives the area of that color as compared with smaller
+circles around Y 8/7 and BG 4/3, representing the area of the straw and
+the trimming.
+
+(174) When the plotting of color groups has become instinctive from long
+practice, it opens a wide field of color study. Take as illustration the
+wings of butterflies or the many varieties of pansies. These fascinating
+color schemes can be written with indications of area that record their
+differences by a simple diagram. In the same way, rugs, tapestries,
+mosaics,--whatever attracts by its beauty and harmony of color,--can be
+recorded and studied in measured terms; and the mental process of
+estimating hues, values, chromas, and areas by established scales must
+lead the color sense to finer and finer perceptions.
+
+The same process serves as well to record the most annoying and
+inharmonious color groups. When sufficient of these records have been
+obtained, they furnish definite material for a contrast of the color
+combinations which please, with those that cause disgust. Such a
+contrast should discover some broad law of color harmony. It will then
+be in measured terms which can be clearly given; not a vague personal
+statement, conveying different meanings to each one who hears it.
+
+
++Constant exercise needed to train the color sense.+
+
+(175) Appreciation of beautiful color grows by exercise and
+discrimination, just as naturally as fine perception of music or
+literature. Each is an outlet for the expression of taste,--a language
+which may be used clumsily or with skill.
+
+(176) As color perception becomes finer, it discards the more crude and
+violent contrasts. A child revels in strong chromas, but the mark of a
+colorist is ability to employ low chroma without impoverishing the color
+effect. As a boy's shrieks and groans can be tempered to musical
+utterance, so his debauches in violent red, green, and purple must be
+replaced by tempered hues.
+
+(177) Raphael, Titian, Velasquez, Corot, Chavannes, and Whistler are
+masters in the use of gray. Personal bias may lead one colorist a little
+more toward warm colors, and another slightly toward the cool field, in
+each case attaining a sense of harmonious balance by tempered degrees of
+value and chroma.[33]
+
+    [Footnote 33: "Nature's most lively hues are bathed in lilac
+    grays. Spread all about us, yet visible only to the fine
+    perception of the colorist, is this gray quality by which he
+    appeals. Not he whose pictures abound in '_couleurs voyantes_,'
+    but he who preserves in his work all the '_gris colores_' is the
+    good colorist."
+
+    Translation from J. F. Rafaelli, in _Annales Politiques &
+    Litteraires_.]
+
+(178) It is not claimed that discipline in the use of subtle colors will
+make another Corot or Velasquez, but it will make for comprehension of
+their skill. It is grotesque to watch gaudily dressed persons going into
+ecstasies over the delicate coloring of a Botticelli, when the internal
+as well as the external evidence is against them.
+
+(179) The colors which we choose, not only in personal apparel, but in
+our rooms and decorations, are mute witnesses to a stage of color
+perception.
+
+If that perception is trained to finer distinctions, the mind can no
+longer be content with coarse expression. It begins to feel an
+incongruity between the "loud" color of the wall paper, bought because
+it was fashionable, and the quiet hues of the rug, which was a gift from
+some artistic friend. It sees that, although the furniture is covered
+with durable and costly materials, their color "swears" at that of the
+curtains and wood-work. In short, the room has been jumbled together at
+various periods, without any plan or sense of color design.
+
+(180) Good taste demands that a room be furnished, not alone for
+convenience and comfort, but also with an eye to the beauty of the
+various objects, so that, instead of confusing and destroying the
+colors, each may enhance the other. And, when this sense of color
+harmony is aroused, it selects and arranges the books, the rugs, the
+lamp shade, the souvenirs of travel and friendship, the wall paper,
+pictures, and hangings, so that they fit into a color scheme, not only
+charming to the eye at first glance, but which continues to please the
+mind as it traces out an intelligent plan, bringing all into general
+harmony.
+
+(181) Nor will this cease when one room has been put to rights. Such a
+coloristic attitude is not satisfied until the vista into the next
+apartment is made attractive. Or should there be a suite of rooms, it
+demands that, with variety in each one, they all be brought into
+harmonious sequence. Thus the study of color finds immediate and
+practical use in daily life. It is a needed discipline of color vision,
+in the sense that geometry is a discipline of the mind, and it also
+enters into the pleasure and refinement of life at every step. Skill or
+awkwardness in its use exerts as positive an influence upon us as do the
+harmonies and discords of sound, and a far more continuous one. It is
+thought a defect to be unmusical. Should it not be considered a mark of
+defective cultivation to be insensitive to color?
+
+(182) In this slight sketch of color education it has been assumed that
+we are to deal with those who have normal perceptions. But there are
+some who inherit or develop various degrees of color-blindness; and a
+word in their behalf may be opportune.
+
+(183) A case of total color-blindness is very rare, but a few are on
+record. When a child shows deficient color perception,[34] a little care
+may save him much discomfort, and patient training may correct it. If he
+mismatches some hues, confuses their names, seems incapable of the finer
+distinctions of color, study to find the hues which he estimates well,
+and then help him to venture a little into that field where his
+perception is at fault. Improvement is pretty sure to follow when this
+is sympathetically done. One student, who never outgrew the habit of
+giving a purplish hue to all his work, despite many expedients and the
+use of various lights and colored objects to correct it, is the single
+exception among hundreds whom it has been my privilege to watch as they
+improved their first crude estimates, and gained skill in expressing
+their sense of Nature's subtle color.
+
+    [Footnote 34: See Color Blindness in Glossary.]
+
+(184) To sum up, the first chapter suggests a measured color system in
+place of guess-work. The next describes the three color qualities, and
+sketches a child's growth in color perception. The third tells how
+colors may be mingled in such proportions as to balance. After the
+impracticability of using spectral color has been shown in the fourth
+chapter, the fifth proceeds to build a practical color solid. The sixth
+provides for a written record of color, and the last applies all that
+has preceded to suggestions for the study of color harmony.
+
+(185) Wide gaps appear in this outline. There is much that deserves
+fuller treatment. But, if the search for refined color and a clearer
+outlook upon its relations are stimulated by this fragmentary sketch,
+some of its faults may be overlooked.
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+  REPRODUCTION OF FLOWER STUDIES, PAINTED WITH MUNSELL WATER COLOR
+  Published By
+  WADSWORTH, HOWLAND & CO., INCORPORATED
+  BOSTON, MASS.]
+
+
+
+
+  PART II.
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS.
+
+  Arranged for nine years of school life.
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS.
+
+  Taken from the Century Dictionary.
+
+
+  INDEX
+
+  (by paragraphs).
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2 (See Fig. 20)
+  The Color Tree]
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM WITH COURSE OF STUDY
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS
+
+
+  _See Chapter II._
+
+  Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+
+
+  A COLOR SYSTEM AND COURSE OF STUDY
+
+  BASED ON THE COLOR SOLID AND ITS CHARTS,
+  ADAPTED TO NINE YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE.
+
+  Gr.  Grade
+  Ill. Illustration
+  App. Application
+  Mat. Materials
+
+  ====================================================================
+  Gr. |Subject. |   Colors Studied.   | Ill.      | App.    | Mat.
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  1.  |  HUES   | Red.     R.         | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Yellow.  Y.         | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Green.   G.         | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Blue.    B.         |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Purple.  P.         |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  2.  |  HUES   | Yellow-red.   YR.   | Sought in | Borders | Colored
+      |   of    | Green-yellow. GY.   | Nature    | and     | crayons
+      |  color. | Blue-green.   BG.   | and Art.  |Rosettes.| and
+      |         | Purple-blue.  PB.   |           |         | papers.
+      |         | Red-purple.   RP.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  3.  | VALUES  | Light, middle,      | Sought in | Design. | Color
+      |   of    |  and dark      R.   | Nature    |         | sphere.
+      |  color. |   "      "     Y.   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         |   "      "     G.   |           |         |
+      |         |   "      "     B.   |           |         |
+      |         |   "      "     P.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  4.  | VALUES  | 5 values of  YR.}   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | " "      "   GY.}   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | " "      "   BG.}   | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | " "      "   PB.}   |           |         |
+      |         | " "      "   RP.}   |           |         |
+      |         | 9/, 7/, 5/, 3/, 1/. |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  5.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of R5/.   | Sought in | Design. | Charts.
+      |   of    | " "        " Y5/.   | Nature    |         |
+      |  color. | " "        " G5/.   | and Art   |         |
+      |         | " "        " B5/.   |           |         |
+      |         | " "        " P5/.   |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  6.  | CHROMAS | 3 chromas of YR5/.  | Sought in | Design  | Color
+      |   of    | "    "    "  GY5/.  | Nature    |         | Tree.
+      |  color. | "    "    "  BG5/.  | and Art.  |         |
+      |         | "    "    "  PB5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | "    "    "  RP5/.  |           |         |
+      |         | "    "    "         |           |         |
+      |         |       R7/ and R3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     Y7/  "  Y3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     G7/  "  G3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     B7/  "  B3/.} |           |         |
+      |         | "     P7/  "  P3/.} |           |         |
+  ----+---------+---------------------+-----------+---------+---------
+  7.  |To OBSERVE IMITATE & WRITE
+      |    color by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA     "       "      Paints.
+      |
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  8.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Pairs of equal area and unequal area  "       "      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ----+---------------------------------------------------------------
+  9.  |QUANTITY of color.
+      |  Triads of equal area and unequal area "       "      Paints.
+      |    Balanced by HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA.
+  ====================================================================
+
+Copyright, 1904, by A. H. Munsell.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE HUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_FIRST GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Talk about familiar objects, to bring out color names,
+  2.       as toys, flowers, clothing, birds, insects, etc.
+  3.     Show soap bubbles and prismatic spectrum.
+  4.     Teach term HUE. Hues of flowers, spectrum, plumage of
+           birds, etc.
+  5.     Show MIDDLE[35] RED. Find other reds.
+  6.     Show MIDDLE YELLOW. Find other yellows, and compare
+           with reds.
+  7.     Show MIDDLE GREEN. Find other greens,         "
+           with reds and yellows.
+  8.     Show MIDDLE BLUE. Find other blues,           "
+           with preceding hues.
+  9.     Show MIDDLE PURPLE. Find other purples,       "
+           with preceding hues.
+  10-15. Review FIVE MIDDLE HUES,[35] match with colored papers,
+           and place in circle.
+  16-20. Show COLOR SPHERE. Find sequence of five middle hues.
+           Memorize order.
+  21.    Middle red imitated with crayon, named and written
+           by initial R.
+  22.    Middle yellow   "           "      "          "
+           by initial Y.
+  23.    Middle green    "           "      "          "
+           by initial G.
+  24.    Middle blue     "           "      "          "
+           by initial B.
+  25.    Middle purple   "           "      "          "
+           by initial P.
+  26-30. Review, using middle hues[35] in borders and rosettes
+           for design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of five middle hues. To name, match,
+imitate, write, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SECOND GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1-3.   Review sequence of five middle hues.[35]
+  4.     Show a hue INTERMEDIATE between red and yellow. Find it
+           in objects.
+  5.         Compare with red and yellow.
+  6.     Recognize and name YELLOW-RED. Match, imitate, and write YR.
+  7-8.   Show GREEN-YELLOW between green and yellow. Treat as above,
+           and write GY.
+  9-10.  Show BLUE-GREEN between blue and green.        "       "
+           and write BG.
+  11-12. Show PURPLE-BLUE between purple and blue.      "       "
+           and write PB.
+  13-14. Show RED-PURPLE between red and purple.        "       "
+           and write RP.
+  15-20. Make circle of ten hues. Place Intermediates, and memorize
+           order so as to repeat forward or backward. Match, imitate,
+           and write by initials.
+  21-25. Find sequence of ten hues on COLOR SPHERE. Compare with
+           hues of natural objects.
+  26-30. Review, using any two hues in sequence for borders and
+           rosettes.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequence of ten hues, made up of five middle[35]
+hues and the five intermediates. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 35: The term MIDDLE, as used in this course of color
+    study, is understood to mean only the five principal hues which
+    stand midway in the scales of VALUE and CHROMA. Strictly
+    speaking, their five intermediates are also midway of the
+    scales; but they are obtained by mixture of the five principal
+    hues, as shown in their names, and are of secondary importance.]
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE VALUES AND THEIR SEQUENCE. Two Years.
+
+_THIRD GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.     Review sequence of ten hues.
+  2.         Recognize, name, match, imitate, write, and find them
+  3.           on the COLOR SPHERE. Also in objects.
+  4.     Teach use of term VALUE. Color value recognized apart from
+           color hue.
+  5.     Find values of red, lighter and darker than the middle
+           value already familiar.
+  7.     THREE VALUES of RED. Find on sphere. Name as LIGHT, MIDDLE,
+           and DARK values of red.
+  8.     THREE VALUES of RED. Imitate with crayons, and write them
+           as 3, 5, and 7.
+  9.     THREE VALUES of YELLOW. Compare with above.
+  10.      Recognize, name, match, and imitate with crayons.
+  11.    THREE VALUES of GREEN. Compare, and treat as above.
+  12.      Find on sphere and in objects.
+  13.    THREE VALUES of BLUE.     "                "
+  14.
+  15.    THREE VALUES of PURPLE.   "                "
+  16.
+  17-20. Review, combining two values and a single hue for design.[36]
+
+_Aim._--To recognize a sequence combining three values and five middle
+hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+    [Footnote 36: These ten lessons in this and succeeding grades
+    are devoted to color perception only. Their application to
+    design is a part of the general course in drawing, and will be
+    so considered in the succeeding grades. Note that, although thus
+    far nothing has been said about complementary hues, the child
+    has been led to associate them in opposite pairs by the color
+    sphere. (See Chapter III., p. 76.)]  [[Error for "paragraph 76"]]
+
+
+_FOURTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequence of three values in each of the five middle hues.
+  2.      To recognize, name, match, imitate, and
+  3.        find them on sphere and in objects.
+  4.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED. Find them on large color sphere.
+  5.    Number them 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. Match, imitate, and write.
+  6.  Show FIVE VALUES of BLUE-GREEN.  "     "          "
+        Treat as above and review.
+  7.  Show FIVE VALUES of PURPLE-BLUE compared with Yellow.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  8.  Show FIVE VALUES of RED-PURPLE      "         Green.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  9.  Show FIVE VALUES of YELLOW-RED      "         Blue.
+        Treat as above and review.
+  10. Show FIVE VALUES of GREEN-YELLOW    "         Purple.
+        Treat as above and review.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining five values in each of ten
+hues. To name, match, imitate, WRITE, and arrange them.
+
+
+STUDY OF SINGLE CHROMAS AND THEIR SEQUENCES. Two Years.
+
+_FIFTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue and value. Find them on the color sphere.
+        Name, match, imitate, write, and arrange them by hue and value.
+  2.  Teach use of term CHROMA. Compare three chromas with three
+        values of red.
+          Name them WEAK, MIDDLE, and STRONG chromas.
+          Find in nature and art.
+  3.  THREE CHROMAS of RED.  Compare with three of blue-green.
+  4.      Show COLOR TREE. Suggest unequal chroma of hues.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of YELLOW. Compare with three chromas of
+        purple-blue.
+  6.  THREE CHROMAS of GREEN.     "                  "
+        red-purple.
+  7.  THREE CHROMAS of BLUE.      "                  "
+        yellow-red.
+  8.  THREE CHROMAS of PURPLE.    "                  "
+        green-yellow.
+  9.  Arrange five middle hues in circle, described as on the surface
+        of the Color Sphere (middle chroma), with weaker chromas inside,
+        and stronger chromas outside, the sphere.
+  10. Review,--to find these sequences of chroma in nature and art.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences combining three chromas, middle value,
+and ten hues. To name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+
+
+_SIXTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences combining three chromas, five hues, and middle
+        value.
+          Find on Color Tree, name, match, imitate, and arrange them.
+  2.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER RED. Compare with middle red.
+  3.  Write    "          "          "     "   as a fraction,
+        chroma under value, using 3, 5, and 7. Thus R 5/7.
+  4.  Find CHROMAS of LIGHTER RED, and compare with darker blue-green.
+  5.  THREE CHROMAS of LIGHTER and DARKER YELLOW, with purple-blue.
+  6.     "     "          "           "   GREEN,   "   red-purple.
+  7.     "     "          "           "   BLUE,    "   yellow-red.
+  8.     "     "          "           "   PURPLE,  "   green-yellow.
+  9.  Colors in nature and art, defined by hue, value, and chroma.
+        Named, matched, imitated, written, and arranged by Color Sphere
+        and Tree.
+  10. Review,--to find sequences combining three chromas, five values,
+        and ten hues.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize sequences of chroma, as separate from sequences
+of hue or sequences of value. To name, match, write, imitate, and
+arrange colors in terms of their hue, value, and chroma.
+
+
+COLOR EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF THE HUES, VALUES, AND CHROMAS.
+
+_SEVENTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences of hue (initial), value (upper numeral),
+        & chroma (lower numeral).
+  2.      "      "                "                   "
+  3.  Exercises in expressing colors of natural objects by the NOTATION,
+  4.    and tracing their relation by the spherical solid.
+  5.  REDS in Nature and Art, imitated, written, and traced
+        by the spherical solid.
+  6.  YELLOWS in Nature and Art,       "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  7.  GREENS in Nature and Art,        "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  8.  BLUES in Nature and Art,         "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  9.  PURPLES in Nature and Art,       "                "
+        by the spherical solid.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR selected, defined, and arranged for design.
+        (See note 4th Grade.)
+
+_Aim._--To define any color by its hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write it.
+
+
+_EIGHTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.  Review sequences, and select colors which balance.
+        Illustrate the term.
+  2.  BALANCE of light and dark,--weak and strong,--hot and cold colors.
+  3.  RED and blue-green balanced in hue, value, and chroma,
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  4.  YELLOW and purple-blue          "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  5.  GREEN and red-purple            "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  6.  BLUE and yellow-red             "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  7.  PURPLE and green-yellow         "                "
+        with EQUAL AREAS.
+  8.  UNEQUAL AREAS of the above pairs, balanced by compensating
+  9.    qualities of hue, value, and chroma. Examples from nature
+        and art.
+  10. ONE COLOR PAIR of unequal areas selected, defined,
+        and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To BALANCE colors by area, hue, value, and chroma. To imitate
+with pigments and write the balance by the notation.
+
+
+_NINTH GRADE LESSONS._
+
+  1.    Review balance of color pairs, by area, hue, value, and chroma.
+  2.        To recognize, name, imitate, write, and record them.
+  3.    SELECTION of two colors to balance a given RED.
+  4.        "              "          "        "   YELLOW.
+  5.        "              "          "        "   GREEN.
+  6.        "              "          "        "   BLUE.
+  7.        "              "          "        "   PURPLE.
+  8-10. TRIAD of color, selected, balanced, written, and used in design.
+
+_Aim._--To recognize triple balance of color, and express it in terms
+of area, hue, value, and chroma. Also to use it in design.
+
+
+
+
+  GLOSSARY OF COLOR TERMS
+
+  TAKEN FROM
+  THE
+
+  _CENTURY DICTIONARY_.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY
+
+_The color definitions here employed are taken from the Century
+Dictionary. Special attention is called to the cross references which
+serve to differentiate HUE, VALUE, and CHROMA._
+
+
+AFTER IMAGE.--An image perceived after withdrawing the eye from a
+brilliantly illuminated object. Such images are called positive when
+their colors are the same as that of the object, and negative when they
+are its complementary colors.
+
+BLUE.--Of the color of the clear sky; of the color of the spectrum
+between wave lengths .505 and .415 micron, and more especially .487 and
+.460; or of such light mixed with white; azure, cerulean.
+
+BLACK.--Possessing in the highest degree the property of absorbing
+light; reflecting and transmitting little or no light; of the color of
+soot or coal; of the darkest possible hue; sable. Optically, wholly
+destitute of color, or absolutely dark, whether from the absence or the
+total absorption of light. Opposed to white.
+
+BROWN.--A dark color, inclined to red or yellow, obtained by mixing red,
+black, and yellow.
+
++CHROMA.--The degree of departure of a color sensation from that of
+white or gray; the intensity of distinctive hue; color intensity.+
+
+CHROMATIC.--Relating to or of the nature of color.
+
+COBALT BLUE.--A pure blue tending toward cyan blue and of high
+luminosity; also called Hungary blue, Lethner's blue, and Paris blue.
+
+COLOR.--Objectively, that quality of a thing or appearance which is
+perceived by the eye alone, independently of the form of the thing;
+subjectively, a sensation peculiar to the organ of vision, and arising
+from the optic nerve.
+
+COLOR BLINDNESS.--Incapacity for perceiving colors, independent of the
+capacity for distinguishing light and shade. The most common form is
+inability to perceive red as a distinct color, red objects being
+confounded with gray or green; and next in frequency is the inability to
+perceive green.
+
+COLOR CONSTANTS.--The numbers which measure the quantities, as well as
+any other system of three numbers for defining colors, are called
+constants of color.
+
+COLOR VARIABLES.--Colors vary in CHROMA, or freedom from admixture of
+white light; in BRIGHTNESS, or luminosity; and in HUE, which roughly
+corresponds to the mean wave length of the light emitted.
+
+COLORS, COMPLEMENTARY.--Those pairs of color which when mixed produce
+white or gray light, such as red and green-blue, yellow and indigo-blue,
+green-yellow and violet.
+
+COLORS, PRIMARY.--The red, green, and violet light of the spectrum, from
+the mixture of which all other colors can be produced. Also called
+fundamental colors.
+
+DYESTUFFS.--In commerce, any dyewood, lichen, or dyecake used in dyeing
+and staining.
+
+ELECTRIC LIGHT.--Light produced by electricity and of two general kinds,
+the arc light and the incandescent light. In the first the voltaic arc
+is employed. In the second a resisting conductor is rendered
+incandescent by the current.
+
+ENAMEL.--In the fine arts a vitreous substance or glass, opaque or
+transparent, and variously colored, applied as a coating on a surface of
+metal or of porcelain.
+
+GRATING, DIFFRACTION.--A series of fine parallel lines on a surface of
+glass, or polished metal, ruled very close together, at the rate of
+10,000 to 20,000 or even 40,000 to the inch; distinctively called a
+diffraction or a diffraction grating, much used in spectroscopic work.
+
+GRAY.--A color having little or no distinctive hue (CHROMA) and only
+moderate luminosity.
+
+GREEN.--The color of ordinary foliage; the color seen in the solar
+spectrum between wave lengths 0.511 and 0.543 micron.
+
+EMERALD GREEN.--A highly chromatic and extraordinarily luminous green of
+the color of the spectrum at wave length 0.524 micron. It recalls the
+emerald by its brilliancy, but not by its tint; applied generally to the
+aceto-arsenate of copper. Usually known as Paris green.
+
+HIGH COLOR.--A hue which excites intensely chromatic color sensations.
+
++HUE.--Specifically and technically, distinctive quality of coloring in
+an object or on a surface; the respect in which red, yellow, green,
+blue, etc., differ one from another; that in which colors of equal
+luminosity and CHROMA may differ.+
+
+INDIGO.--The violet-blue color of the spectrum, extending, according to
+Helmholtz, from G two-thirds of the way to F in the prismatic spectrum.
+The name was introduced by Newton, but has lately been discarded by the
+best writers.
+
+LIGHT.--Adjective applied to colors highly luminous and more or less
+deficient in CHROMA.
+
+LUMINOSITY.--Specifically, the intensity of light in a color, measured
+photometrically; that is to say, a standard light has its intensity, or
+_vis viva_, altered, until it produces the impression of being equally
+bright with the color whose light is to be determined; and the measure
+of the _vis viva_ of the altered light, relatively to its standard
+intensity, is then taken as the luminosity of the color in question.
+
+MAXWELL COLOR DISCS.--Discs having each a single color, and slit
+radially so that one may be made to lap over another to any desired
+extent. By rotating these on a spindle, the effect of combining certain
+colors in varying proportions can be studied.
+
+MICRON.--The millionth part of a metre, or 1/23400 of an English inch.
+The term has been formally adopted by the International Commission of
+Weights and Measures, representing the civilized nations of the world,
+and is adopted by all metrologists.
+
+ORANGE.--A reddish yellow color, of which the orange is the type.
+
+VISION, PERSISTENCE OF.--The continuance of a visual impression upon the
+retina of the eye after the exciting cause is removed. The length of
+time varies with the intensity of the light and the excitability of the
+retina, and ordinarily is brief, though the duration may be for hours,
+or even days. The after image may be either positive or negative, the
+latter when the bright part appears dark and the colored parts in their
+corresponding contrast colors. It is because of this persistence that,
+for example, a firebrand moved very rapidly appears as a band or circle
+of light.
+
+PHOTOMETER.--An instrument used to measure the intensity of light.
+Specifically, to compare the relative intensities of the light emitted
+from various sources.
+
+PIGMENT.--Any substance that is or can be used by painters to impart
+color to bodies.
+
+PINK.--A red color of low chroma, but high luminosity, inclining toward
+purple.
+
+PRIMARY COLORS.--See Colors, primary.
+
+PURE COLOR.--A color produced by homogeneous light. Any very brilliant
+or decided color.
+
+PURPLE.--A color formed by the mixture of blue and red, including the
+violet of the spectrum above wave length 0.417, which is nearly a violet
+blue, and extending to, but not including, crimson.
+
+RAINBOW.--A bow or an arc of a circle, consisting of the prismatic
+colors, formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light
+from drops of rain or vapor, appearing in the part of the heavens
+opposite to the sun.
+
+RED.--A color more or less resembling that of blood, or the lower end of
+the spectrum. Red is one of the most general color names, and embraces
+colors ranging in hue from aniline to scarlet iodide of mercury and red
+lead. A red yellower than vermilion is called scarlet. One much more
+crimson is called crimson red. A very dark red, if pure or crimson, is
+called maroon; if brownish, chestnut or chocolate. A pale red--that is,
+one of low CHROMA and high LUMINOSITY--is called a pink, ranging from
+rose pink or pale crimson to salmon pink or pale scarlet.
+
+VENETIAN RED.--An important pigment used by artists, somewhat darker
+than brick red in color, and very permanent.
+
+RETINA.--The innermost and chiefly nervous coat of the posterior part of
+the eyeball.
+
+SATURATION, OF COLORS.--In optics the degree of admixture with white,
+the saturation diminishing as the amount of white is increased. In other
+words, the highest degree of saturation belongs to a given color when in
+the state of greatest purity.
+
+SCALE.--A graded system, by reference to which the degree, intensity, or
+quality of a sense perception may be estimated.
+
+SHADE.--Degree or gradation of defective luminosity in a color, often
+used vaguely from the fact that paleness, or high luminosity, combined
+with defective CHROMA, is confounded with high luminosity by itself. See
+Color, Hue, and Tint.
+
+SPECTRUM.--In physics the continuous band of light showing the
+successive prismatic colors, or the isolated lines or bands of color,
+observed when the radiation from such a source as the sun or an ignited
+vapor in a gas flame is viewed after having been passed through a prism
+(prismatic spectrum) or reflected from a diffraction grating
+(diffraction or interference spectrum). See Rainbow.
+
+TINT.--A variety of color; especially and properly, a luminous variety
+of low CHROMA; also, abstractly, the respect in which a color may be
+raised by more or less admixture of white, which at once increases the
+luminosity and diminishes the CHROMA.
+
+TONE.--A sound having definiteness and continuity enough so that its
+pitch, force, and quality may be readily estimated by the ear. Musical
+sound opposed to noise. The prevailing effect of a color.
+
+ULTRAMARINE.--A beautiful natural blue pigment, obtained from the
+mineral lapis-lazuli.
+
++VALUE.--In painting and the allied arts, relation of one object, part,
+or atmospheric plane of a picture to the others, with reference to light
+and shade, the idea of HUE being abstracted.+
+
+VERMILION.--The red sulphate of mercury.
+
+VIOLET.--A general class of colors, of which the violet flower is a
+highly chromatic example. The sensation is produced by a pure blue whose
+CHROMA has been diminished while its LUMINOSITY has been increased. Thus
+blue and violet are the same color, though the sensations are different.
+A mere increase of illumination may cause a violet blue to appear
+violet, with a diminution of apparent CHROMA. This color, called violet
+or blue according to the quality of the sensation it excites, is one of
+the three fundamental colors of Young's theory. A deep blue tinged with
+red.
+
+VIRIDIAN.--Same as Veronese green.
+
+WHITE.--A color transmitting, and so reflecting to the eye, all the rays
+of the spectrum, combined in the same proportion as in the impinging
+light.
+
+YELLOW.--The color of gold and of light, of wave length 0.581 micron.
+The name is restricted to highly chromatic and luminous colors. When
+reduced in CHROMA, it becomes buff; when reduced in LUMINOSITY, a cool
+brown. See Brown.
+
+VERONESE GREEN.--A pigment consisting of hydrated chromium sesquioxide.
+It is a clear bluish green of great permanency. Also called Viridian.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX BY PARAGRAPHS.
+
+
+  Balance of color, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86, 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+      136, 142, 147, Appendix III.
+  Black, 12, 16, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 91, 119.
+  Blue, 9, 12, 16, 34, 104, 146, 147.
+  Brewster's theory, Appendix III.
+
+  Charts of the color sphere, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+  Chevreul, Appendix III., V.
+  Chroma, 3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 21-24, 28, 39, 40, 42, 45, 64, 76, 78, 82,
+      88, 94, 95, 105, 121, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31-35, 42, 133.
+    Strongest, 32, 34, 42.
+  Chromatic tuning fork, 117, 118, 119-127.
+  Circuit, inclined, 16, 17, 97.
+  Color, apparatus, 3, 8, 14, 132.
+    Atlas, 129.
+    Balance, 23, 47, 67, 75-77, 81-86 (triple), 106, 108, 111, 114, 132,
+        136, 142, 147.
+    Blindness, 182, 183.
+    Charts, 14, 17, 126, 127, 135, 136, 140.
+    Circuit, 54, 58, 59.
+    Complementary, 76, 77.
+    Color, dimensions of, 3, 8, 9, 13, 25, 53, 94, 116.
+    Curves, 94.
+    Discs, Maxwell's, 76, 93, 106-112, 113, 117.
+    Harmony, 47, 77, 86, 145-148, 151-174, 180.
+    Hand as a holder of, 54-58.
+    Key of, 6, 151, 152.
+    Language, poverty of, 5, 175.
+    Lists, 131.
+    Measured, 3, 14, 32.
+    Meridians, 136, 137.
+    Middle, 28, 29, 40-42, 113.
+    Misnomers, Appendix I.
+    Mixture, 56-72.
+    Names, 1, 2, 14, 19, 25, 90, 91, 131.
+    Notation, 36, 37, 40-42, 47, 67, 72, 86, 101, 133.
+    Orange, 9-11, 89, 123.
+    Parallels, 12, 119.
+    Paths, 157, 158, 160-164.
+    Perception, 27, 29, 39, 179.
+    Principal (5), 4, 16, 21, 26, 31, 34, 40, 54, 56, 57.
+    Principal (5) and intermediates (5), 31, 60, 68, 112, 134.
+    Purity, 8, 19, 23, 89, 98, 99.
+    Records 145.
+    Relations, 14, 24, 36, 37, 153.
+    Rhythm, 166.
+    Scale, 3, 7, 24, 30, 55, 120, 140, Appendix II.
+    Score, 133-139, 142, 173.
+    Sensations, 3, 4, 15, 19, 21, 87.
+    Sequences, 47, 78, 79, 120, 156, 169-171, 181.
+    Sir Isaac Newton's, 89.
+    Schemes, Appendix V.
+    Solid, 14, 19, 102, 126, 129, 140, 153.
+    Spectral, 16, 88, 94, 129.
+    Sphere, 12-17, 24, 25, 31, 43, 55, 72, 91, 101, 102, 111, 122, 132.
+    Standard, 4, 26, 35.
+    System, 3, 8, 28, 123, 130.
+      Need of, 46, 148.
+    Tree, 14, 30-34, 43, 94, 95, 124.
+    Waves, 21, 23, 136.
+    Tones, 134.
+  Children's color studies, Appendix IV.
+  Colorist, 84, 121, 177.
+  Coloristic art, 7, 38, 45, 177.
+  Combined scales, 12, 14, 36, 37, 47.
+  Complements, 76, 77.
+  Course of color study, 48-50.
+
+  Daylight photometer, 22, 103, 119.
+
+  Enamels, 28, 29, 101, 117.
+
+  Fading, 8, 23.
+  False color balance, Appendix III.
+  Flat diagrams, 14.
+  Fundamental sensations, 28, Appendix III.
+
+  Green, 2, 32, 104, 136, 137, 140, 147, 148.
+
+  Hue, 3, 4, 8, 9-11, 14, 18, 21-26, 34, 39, 40, 43, 54, 59, 76, 82,
+      89, 105.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 35, 120, 133.
+
+  Ideal color system, 100.
+
+  Lambert's pyramid, note to 31.
+  Luminist, 121.
+
+  Masks, 47, 167-171.
+  Maxwell discs, 93, 107, 113, 117.
+  Measurement of colors, 3, 8, 14, 116, Appendix IV.
+  Middle gray, 61, 65, 72.
+  Middle hues, 10, 28, 65.
+  Mixture of hues, 56-72.
+  Musical terms used for colors, 6, 46, 148-150.
+
+  Neutral axis, 31, 34, 61, 65, 121.
+  Neutral gray, 11, 23, 25, 62, 64, 65, 72, 114, 102.
+  Notation diagram, 140.
+
+  Orange, 9-11, 18, 123.
+
+  Personal bias, 144, 174.
+  Pigments, 14, 27-29, 101-104, 125, 129.
+  Photometer, 65.
+  Primary sensations, 89.
+  Prismatic color sphere, 98.
+  Purple, 5.
+
+  Rainbow, 15, 17.
+  Red, middle, 1, 32, 41, 60, 66, 72, 104, 110, 122, 147, 148.
+  Retina, 21.
+  Rood, modern chromatics, Appendix I.
+  Runge, note to 31, Appendix V.
+
+  Shades and tints, 22.
+  Spectrum, solar, 15-18, 27, 28, 87, 88, 92, 95, 96.
+
+  Tone, 6.
+
+  Value, 3, 8-11, 14, 21-24, 28, 34, 39, 40-43, 54, 76, 78, 82, 94,
+      105, 120, 132.
+    Scale of, 12, 19, 25, 31, 34, 35, 64, 102, 120, 133.
+  Vermilion, 42, Appendix III.
+  Vertical (neutral) axis, 12, 25, 31, 34, 65, 68.
+  Violet, 90.
+
+  Warm and cold colors, 72, 123, note to 136, 137, 138.
+  Wave lengths, 21, 22, 23, 89.
+  White, 12, 16, 17, 22, 31, 41, 54, 55, 65, 87, 91, 92, 99, 119.
+
+  Yellow, 1, 32, 54, 104, 136.
+
+
+
+
+The MUNSELL PHOTOMETER
+
+  Patented November 19, 1901
+
+
+  A portable, daylight instrument, adapted to laboratory work
+    in general, and of especial service in the comparison
+      of color values. Placed in the course
+        of Optical Measurements at the
+          Massachusetts Institute of
+            Technology
+
+  Price, $50
+
+
+  [Decoration]
+
+
+  IN PREPARATION
+
+  A COLOR ATLAS
+
+  Also text-books and models
+      specially designed
+  to serve in the education of
+      the color sense
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Color Notation, by Albert H. Munsell
+
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