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+Project Gutenberg's Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example, by Peter Morse
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example
+
+Author: Peter Morse
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2008 [EBook #26496]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REMBRANDT'S ETCHING TECHNIQUE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Viv, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++Contributions from
+The Museum of History and Technology:
+Paper 61+
+
++Rembrandt's Etching Technique:
+An Example+
+
+_Peter Morse_
+
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1
+
+_Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep._ Etching by Rembrandt,
+shown in original size.]
+
+
+
+_By Peter Morse_
+
+
+_Rembrandt's Etching Technique:
+An Example_
+
+
+_A Rembrandt print in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution has
+been made the subject of a study of the artist's etching technique. The
+author is associate curator, division of graphic arts, in the
+Smithsonian Institution's Museum of History and Technology._
+
+
+All footnotes appear at the end of this paper.
+
+
+Rembrandt's print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_,[1]
+is a singularly apt example of the variety of etching treatment used by
+the artist in his mature period.[2] The print, in black ink, 83 × 174
+mm. in size (approximately 3-1/2 × 7 inches), is signed and dated
+1650.[3] It shows a peaceful Dutch landscape along the Onderdijk Road on
+the south side of the Saint Anthony's Dike, only a short walk from
+Rembrandt's home in Amsterdam. The picture is, as usual, the mirror
+reversal of the actual scene.[4]
+
+The observer's attention, from his raised position, is first drawn to
+the center of the print, attracted by the bright highlights on the trees
+and barn, then is snapped abruptly to the left side by the figure of the
+woman outlined against the sky. Now the eye moves slowly across the
+bottom, noticing the flock of sheep and the shepherd, and is led further
+by the soft dark line of the creek bank, to pick up the distant town and
+then the cows on the right. Only after completely circling the
+composition does one notice the horse, rolling in the grass and joyfully
+kicking its feet in the air.
+
+Such artistic command seldom comes spontaneously. In Rembrandt's case,
+it is clearly the result of careful preparation, many years of learning
+and experience, and hard work in the creation of each picture. Such a
+process has produced in this print--one of nine landscapes which mark a
+turning point in 1650--a work of stylistic synthesis, which integrates
+Rembrandt's previous knowledge and leads on to his later masterpieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2
+
+Mirror reversal of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_.]
+
+In 1650 Rembrandt was evidently in a tranquil state of mind. He was 44
+years old. Young Hendrickje Stoffels, who had entered his household in
+1645 as a maid, was well settled as housekeeper and mistress. Geertghe
+Dircx--who had been the nurse of Rembrandt's son, Titus, since the death
+of his wife, Saskia, in 1642--had just been taken to an institution
+after a nasty breach of promise suit.[5] Rembrandt's finances were in
+good shape; his insolvency was not to come until 1656, after the
+international economic crisis of 1653.[6] The artist certainly had the
+fullest confidence and experience in his working methods, having already
+done close to 250 prints.[7] This state of well-being is reflected in
+the fact that of the 27 prints Rembrandt did in the three years,
+1650-1652, no fewer than 14 are landscapes of a serene character.[8]
+This is an unusually large proportion of a single subject and surely
+reflects the artist's state of mind, which helped him to produce this
+masterpiece of serenity, humor, and technical virtuosity.
+
+His etching technique can be clearly studied in this print. In summary,
+all the evidence shows that Rembrandt here laid a foundation of lines on
+his plate with a single etching. He then mantled the sketch with rich
+drypoint lines, to give a sensitive chiaroscuro to the finished work.
+The integration of etching and drypoint is striking. There are few areas
+of this print (except the sky) that do not contain both kinds of line.
+
+Rembrandt evidently had an excellent idea of his design before he ever
+touched the needle to the plate. Though he is often admired for his
+spontaneity, particularly in his landscapes,[9] this is a misconception.
+Benesch lists no fewer than 78 landscape drawings by Rembrandt in the
+years 1648-1650,[10] and there were perhaps many more, now lost or
+unidentified. For this etching alone, there are at least five likely
+preparatory drawings, each giving certain essential features of the
+final print. The most interesting is the _Landscape with a Rolling
+Horse_.[11] Here we see that the horse, apparently the happiest of
+impulsive inspirations, is instead a carefully considered part of the
+final design, copied from the drawing previously done on the spot. As
+the horse in the drawing is the mirror image of that in the print, we
+can feel certain that the drawing came first and not the etching. Two
+other drawings[12] (figures 4 and 5) delineate the clump of trees, in
+form and placement very similar to the print. A fourth[13] (figure 6) is
+a sketch of a hay barn of the type shown in the print, evidently quite
+common in the Dutch countryside, and a fifth[14] (figure 7) foreshadows
+the scheme of composition used in the print, principally the
+relationship of the road and the dark central mass. All these drawings
+are the mirror reversal of the print.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3
+
+_Landscape with a rolling horse._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch,
+vol. 6, fig. 1444. (Smithsonian photo 59391, with the permission of
+Phaidon Press, Ltd., and the Groningen Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4
+
+_A clump of trees._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol. 4, fig.
+1001. (Smithsonian photo 59392, with the permission of Phaidon Press,
+Ltd.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5
+
+_Farm building among trees._ Drawing by Rembrandt. (_Photo courtesy of
+the Albertina Museum, Vienna._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 6
+
+_Farmstead with a hay barn._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol.
+6, fig. 1458. (Smithsonian photo 59393, with the permission of Phaidon
+Press, Ltd., and the Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7
+
+_Farm buildings beside a road with distant farmstead._ Drawing by
+Rembrandt. (_Photo courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford._)]
+
+It is very much a modern taste to admire spontaneity more than craft. We
+must understand that Rembrandt's work was anything but spontaneous in
+execution. The existence of so many drawings prior to this print
+certainly suggests that Rembrandt collected his ideas from many sources,
+on the spot, but did his finished work in the quiet of his studio, with
+his notes ready at hand. He used the sketches as the raw material for a
+work of art. Rembrandt said that the only rule that should bind the
+artist is nature,[15] but he was certainly not distracted by nature. The
+individual genius here lies in assembling many observations from nature
+into a work which goes beyond nature and yet appears fresh and natural.
+
+The metal plates he commonly used were of thin, cold-hammered copper, as
+shown by extant examples.[16] The hammering had the effect of making the
+metal harder than today's rolled copper sheets. This enabled more prints
+to be taken from the plate than is possible for a present-day
+printmaker. Today, we tend to consider drypoint a very fugitive medium,
+because the burr perishes so quickly under the pressure of the printing
+press. Rembrandt undoubtedly had fewer inhibitions about drypoint, for
+he could expect his harder copper to hold up longer, perhaps for as many
+as fifty excellent prints from the same plate. Hammered copper, unlike
+the modern rolled variety, is also completely free of grain in the
+metal. This enables a drypoint needle to move freely in any direction
+without encountering the resistance of a grain. Here again, Rembrandt
+had more incentive to use drypoint than a modern artist.
+
+Rembrandt's etching ground has been the subject of considerable
+discussion. A book published in 1660, nine years before the artist's
+death, contains a recipe for "The Ground of Rinebrant of Rine."[17] This
+ground, similar to that described by Bosse as a "soft" ground,[18]
+consists of two parts wax, one part mastic, and one part asphaltum.
+There are countless formulae for such grounds, but virtually all are
+permutations of the same three ingredients, with only slight differences
+in the proportions.[19] The ground given as Rembrandt's is a thoroughly
+conventional one.
+
+A knotty problem, however, is introduced by the last line of this 1660
+description: "... lay your black ground very thin, and the white ground
+upon it. This is the only way of Rinebrant...."[20] No elaboration is
+given. This one line presents a number of problems, not all of which are
+soluble. To take it at face value is to accept the contemporary evidence
+that Rembrandt not only used a white ground but used it exclusively.
+This assertion cannot be taken uncritically.
+
+It will readily be seen that a white ground might be of considerable
+assistance to an artist. His needle penetrates the white to the copper,
+giving the familiar effect of a reddish ink line on white paper. A
+normal ground, without treatment, is virtually transparent, making the
+etcher's lines rather difficult to see.[21] The most usual procedure,
+both in the 17th century and today, is to smoke the ground and
+incorporate the soot with the ground by heating the plate slightly. This
+gives a black ground, against which the lines appear light, the
+negative of the ultimate print. The black ground is favored, both out of
+long-established tradition and because it is very easy to apply.
+Furthermore, artists today explain that they also enjoy the feeling of
+working slightly blind, that one of their greatest rewards is the sense
+of surprise in peeling the first proof print off the plate. For whatever
+reason, the black ground has been preferred by the great majority of
+artists, both past and present.
+
+The description of Rembrandt's ground in 1660 takes knowledge of the
+white ground for granted. Its technique certainly appears to have been
+generally well known among artists in the middle of the 17th century.
+Rubens, in a letter as early as 1622, mentions having received a recipe
+for a white ground, although he could not remember it.[22] The first
+technical explanation of the process appeared in Bosse's pioneer
+treatise in 1645.[23] There is no reason why Rembrandt should not have
+known of the white-ground technique and every reason to suppose that he
+did.
+
+There is one piece of strong evidence that he did use a white ground
+about 1631. One of Rembrandt's drawings exists which, unlike most of his
+sketches is an exact prototype (in reverse) of a specific etching,
+_Diana at the Bath_.[24] The back of this drawing is covered with black
+chalk, and its lines show the indentation of tracing. The only
+reasonable explanation of this evidence is that Rembrandt placed his
+prepared drawing on top of a white-grounded plate and traced the lines,
+depositing the black chalk lines on the ground, where he could then
+trace them with his etching needle. Another similarly indented
+drawing--for the portrait of Cornelis Claesz Anslo--has been held to
+show the same procedure as late as 1641. This drawing, however, is
+backed, not with black chalk as previously cited, but with ocher
+tempera.[25] Although surely used for tracing, this gives perhaps even
+more evidence of his use of a black ground rather than white, although
+ocher lines would show on either. These conclusions are not meant to
+imply in any way that Rembrandt used the tracing of a drawing for his
+_Landscape with a hay barn_.... There is every probability that he did
+not do so. The implication is rather that only where a traced drawing
+with black backing exists do we have circumstantial evidence for the
+use, and possibly a more general use, of white ground. Without the
+published recipe no question would be likely to arise that Rembrandt
+used anything but the standard black ground. With it, we must search for
+corroboration.
+
+Though the case must be left as "not proven," the use of a white etching
+ground is consistent with Rembrandt's practice of using the simplest
+effective means for achieving his artistic aims. The distinctive quality
+of the print under consideration here is the artist's remarkable
+placement and articulation of areas of black against the white paper.
+Rembrandt may have found it far easier to visualize this ultimate effect
+by using a white background for dark lines on his plate, rather than the
+negative.
+
+Rembrandt almost certainly made all the etched lines in this print in a
+single operation. The lines were put on the plate before it went into
+the acid. The plate was then etched by the acid in a single biting,
+without stopping-out. The evidence for these assertions comes from the
+print itself, as we have no direct testimony in the matter.
+
+In the first place, the etched lines must be distinguished from the
+drypoint lines applied at a later stage. The differences between the
+types of line are more easily seen than described. The etched line is
+clear and strong, from the clean biting of the acid. It is freer and
+more autographic because it is drawn through a wax surface, not
+scratched in a resisting metal surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, left center,
+showing light drypoint lines of the horizon and etched lines of figures
+and hillside. Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59384.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, left center,
+showing forceful lines of tree branch in pure drypoint. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59390.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, center,
+showing diagonal lines of light drypoint without burr. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59385.)]
+
+The drypoint line, by its nature, is more abrupt and forceful, showing
+the quality of having been scratched rather than drawn. There are two
+basic drypoint lines, depending upon the position in which the drypoint
+needle is held. When it is vertical or nearly so, the resulting line is
+shallow and prints more weakly and distantly than the etched line. When
+the needle is pulled at an angle of about 30° to 60°, a very perceptible
+furrow of copper burr is thrown up on one or both sides of the line on
+the plate. This burr holds more ink than the clear channel and prints
+with a highly distinctive inky richness. Basically, etching removes
+metal from the plate entirely, whereas drypoint displaces it in furrows
+of burr. The rich fuzzy line produced by the burr is what we most
+typically associate with drypoint work. The first sort, the thin distant
+line, is nevertheless just as truly drypoint as the latter and is
+distinguishable by its forcefulness and clear direction.[26] The same
+line may also be created, with slightly more work, by using a scraper to
+remove the burr from a rich drypoint line.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 11
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, bottom
+right, showing rich drypoint lines with burr. Enlarged 10 times.
+(Smithsonian photo 59386.)]
+
+Another way of making lines in a plate is with a burin--an instrument
+with a sharp triangular point--which is pushed through the copper,
+instead of being pulled, as is the drypoint needle. When used
+conventionally, the burin produces a very characteristic hard,
+controlled printed line, one which does not appear in this print. When
+used lightly, however, its line is virtually indistinguishable from
+that of the vertical drypoint needle. It is quite possible that
+Rembrandt used the burin in some of his work on this and other prints,
+but it seems a somewhat less likely tool than the drypoint. First, the
+non-etched lines in this print seem to have a more freely moving quality
+than could probably be produced with a burin, a rather stiff, if
+extremely precise tool. Second, when Rembrandt was commissioned in 1665
+to engrave a portrait expressly with a burin, he found himself unable to
+do so.[27] His inability, however, may be attributed as easily to
+Rembrandt's artistic independence as to his inexperience with the burin.
+Rembrandt's general use of the burin has been widely accepted. The
+question may not be that simple. These visible differences, then, enable
+us to separate the kinds of line within this print.
+
+The author has attempted, by tracing only the etched lines in the print,
+to recreate the state of the plate after Rembrandt's etching and before
+the application of drypoint (figure 12). It can be seen that Rembrandt's
+etched lines form only a foundation or skeleton for the finished work.
+It is in no sense complete in itself. More important, the picture lacks
+all the rich contrasts of light and shade which distinguish this print
+and most of Rembrandt's finished work.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 12
+
+Traced sketch by the author, showing only the etched lines in
+Rembrandt's print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_.
+(Smithsonian photo 59398.)]
+
+It has been generally assumed that Rembrandt went through a fairly
+normal process of stopping-out and also re-etching in the course of his
+print-making. The visual evidence would indicate that he did not follow
+this procedure here. Stopping-out is, of course, a means of creating
+variations in the printed intensity of etched lines. After a plate has
+etched for a certain time--depending on the artist's inclination--it may
+be removed from the acid and some of its lines covered with a stop-out
+varnish, similar in texture and acid resistance to the basic ground. The
+plate is then put back in the acid and the remaining lines etched more
+deeply. This can be repeated any number of times, giving a wide range of
+intensity to the various etched lines. No such wide range of etched
+lines appears in the finished print. Further, where the edge of applied
+stop-out varnish crosses a single line, the change in depth of acid
+biting at that point is readily visible. Again, no such change of depth
+of a single line is visible here. The inference, unless attributed to
+very long coincidence, seems probable that Rembrandt used only a single
+acid etch on the entire plate, with no stopping-out.
+
+Re-etching also seems unlikely. If the original ground has been removed
+from a plate, the entire plate must be re-grounded, without smoking or
+whitening, so that the previously etched lines show through. Noticeably
+heavier etched lines appear at only a few places on this plate,
+principally in the grass at the lower right. It is probable that
+Rembrandt used a number of etching needles of different widths. We do
+not see the typical changes in the lines produced by stopping-out or
+re-etching. Re-etching of new lines crossing previously etched lines
+often causes a slight penetration of acid under the ground into the old
+lines. This shows in the printing as a dark spot at the point of
+crossing. Such an effect is not found in this print. A similar result in
+the cross-hatching at the lower left is caused instead by drypoint lines
+crossing etched lines.
+
+No direct evidence has been found concerning the acid corrosive used by
+Rembrandt to bite his plate.[28] Only tentative conclusions can be drawn
+from this and other prints. The etched lines in the _Landscape with a
+hay barn_ ... appear to be bitten with a fairly strong acid. The lines
+are relatively broad in relation to their depth, a strong-acid effect.
+Furthermore, illustrations of some of Rembrandt's original plates from
+this period show a similar broad line.[29] In addition, in the
+photograph (figure 14) of at least one of the plates there is seen a
+peculiarly ragged line which is often caused by bubbles formed on the
+plate by acid action.[30] This appearance of bubbles is characteristic
+only of the strong acids. Of the acid formulae suggested by Bosse in
+1645, only one--a distillate of vitriol, saltpeter, and alum--appears to
+be strong enough to produce the observed effects.[31] Generally
+speaking, Rembrandt's later etchings show evidence of stronger acid
+biting than his earlier work, which has more of the characteristics of
+weak mordants.[32] Certainly, a strong acid would produce a much
+speedier biting and bolder etched lines, providing him with a solid
+foundation for his fine drypoint work, and enabling him to work
+continuously, with a minimum of delay.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, lower right, showing lines of pure etching. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59387.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14
+
+Detail of the etched copper plate for Rembrandt's print, _Christ seated
+disputing with the doctors_. After Coppier, p. 117. (Smithsonian photo
+59395.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, far right, showing drypoint drawing of sheep and post.
+Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59388.)]
+
+Rembrandt's use of drypoint is, as Jakob Rosenberg says, "the most
+important innovation in Rembrandt's mature graphic work."[33] After
+etching his skeletal design on the plate, he went to work with his
+drypoint needles--long, stiff, iron instruments--sharpened to a fine
+point. An artist generally has several available, so that he does not
+have to stop and re-sharpen in the course of his work. Rembrandt
+evidently went even further and deliberately used dull needles to obtain
+certain light line effects.
+
+When the finished print is compared with the sketch of the etched lines
+alone, it can be seen how vital the drypoint is to Rembrandt's whole
+conception. The needle held vertically and slightly dulled, for
+instance, produced the light shadings on the central hillock at lower
+left. The sharp needle, held at an angle, threw up the burr which
+printed as the rich blacks on both sides of the hay barn, along the bank
+of the stream, and on the road at left center. The sheep and post at the
+far right were completely drawn with drypoint, as was the shepherd of
+the flock at left center (figure 16). It is interesting to note that the
+flock originally had two shepherds, evidently a man and a woman,
+standing at the center of the road and behind the flock.[34] These
+figures were drawn in the ground and etched in the first stage of the
+print. Rembrandt then must have decided that their proportion was wrong
+for his composition. He reworked the area, using a scraper or burnisher
+to flatten out his etched lines, and covered the remaining ghosts of the
+figures with a mesh of drypoint cross-hatching. He then added the single
+small figure of the shepherd boy entirely in drypoint.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, showing shepherd in drypoint, erased figures behind
+flock, signature, and date. Enlarged 5 times. (Smithsonian photo
+59389.)]
+
+Houbraken, writing in 1718, talked of Rembrandt's technical secrets,
+"which he would not let his pupils see."[35] In truth, there are no
+secrets to this artist's _technique_ in the etching medium. But his
+mastery of the _art_ goes far beyond communicable secrets.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] Hind 241 (+A. M. Hind+, _A Catalogue of Rembrandt's
+Etchings_, 2 vol., rev. ed., London, 1923), Bartsch 224 (+Adam Bartsch+,
+_Catalogue raisonne de toutes les estampes ... de Rembrandt_ ...,
+Vienna, 1797). The particular example studied here is an impression of
+the second state (of two) in the collection of the United States
+National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
+
+The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to Jacob Kainen,
+curator of graphic arts at the Smithsonian Institution, for his acute
+knowledge, unfailing helpfulness, and encouragement in the preparation
+of this paper.
+
+[2] P. G. Hamerton, for one, calls special attention to the
+technical importance of this print: "I recommend the student to
+familiarize himself with the workmanship of this plate...." (_The
+Etchings of Rembrandt_, London, 1894, p. 71.)
+
+[3] The date is unquestionably difficult to read. Bartsch
+misread it as 1636 (op. cit., p. 148). Charles Middleton (_Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Etched Work of Rembrandt van Ryn_, London, 1878, p.
+299) was the first to identify the date as 1650. This has been accepted
+by all modern authorities except George Biörklund (_Rembrandt's
+Etchings: True and False_, Stockholm, 1955, no. 52-A, p. 103) who reads
+it as 1652. This seems unlikely to me, not only on the great stylistic
+affinity of this print to Rembrandt's unquestioned works of 1650, but
+also on the basis of my own reading of the date. The presumed digit "2"
+is quite unlike the "2" in Hind's 257 and 263, Rembrandt's only dated
+prints of 1652. (_See_ figure 16.)
+
+[4] The general location of this scene, as well as many others
+in Rembrandt's oeuvre, has been identified by Frits Lugt (_Mit Rembrandt
+in Amsterdam_, Berlin, 1920, pp. 136-140, revised from the original
+Dutch, _Wandelingen met Rembrandt in en om Amsterdam_, Amsterdam, 1915;
+see also +Lugt+, "Rembrandt's Amsterdam," _Print Collector's Quarterly_,
+April 1915, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 111-169, and the attached map).
+
+[5] +Cornelis Hofstede de Groot+, ed., _Die Urkunden über
+Rembrandt (1575-1721)_, The Hague, 1906. On the lawsuit, see nos. 113,
+117, 118, 120-3, 130, and 165. Geertghe was taken to the institution on
+July 4, 1650.
+
+[6] On the financial troubles, starting in 1653, see ibid.,
+nos. 140 ff.
+
+[7] The exact number is, of course, impossible to determine,
+because of many uncertainties of attribution and dating. A. M. Hind, op.
+cit., lists 236 prints before the year 1650, which seems as accurate a
+count as is possible.
+
+[8] According to Hind, op. cit., the 14 landscapes nos. 237-260
+and 262-264 are attributable to the years 1650-52. Of the 27 prints from
+these three years, 16 are actually signed and dated by Rembrandt. Nine
+of these 16 are landscapes.
+
+[9] E.g., +C. J. Holmes+, "The Development of Rembrandt as an
+Etcher," _Burlington Magazine_ (August 1906), vol. 9, no. 41, p. 313.
+The well-known story of his having drawn "Six's Bridge" (Hind 209) on
+the plate while the servant went for the mustard is also often cited
+(e.g., +Hind+, op. cit., p. 95), but if true appears to be atypical.
+
+[10] +Otto Benesch+, _The Drawings of Rembrandt_, 6 vol.,
+London, 1954-57.
+
+[11] Benesch no. 1225, Groningen (Netherlands) Museum, inv. no.
+210, dated about 1650, the wash added by another hand. This drawing was
+formerly in the personal collection of Cornelis Hofstede de Groot and
+was first reproduced and discussed by Otto Hirschmann in "Die
+Handzeichnungen-Sammlung Dr. Hofstede de Groot im Haag, II," _Der
+Cicerone_ (Leipzig, January 1917), vol. 9, no. 1/2, pp. 21-22.
+
+[12] Benesch 850, _A Clump of Trees_, The Hermitage, Leningrad,
+about 1648-50, and Benesch 1246, _Farm Building Among Trees_, Albertina,
+Vienna, inv. no. 8873, Hofstede de Groot 1497 (_Die Handzeichnungen
+Rembrandts_ ..., Haarlem, 1906), about 1650-51.
+
+[13] Benesch 1236, _Farmstead with a Hay Barn_, Copenhagen,
+about 1650.
+
+[14] Benesch 1226, _Farm Buildings Beside a Road with Distant
+Farmstead_, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Hofstede de Groot 1138, about
+1650, with later additions. Ludwig Münz (_Rembrandt's Etchings_, 2
+vols., London, 1952, no. 159, vol. 2, p. 84) cites two drawings, one in
+the Ashmolean, one in the University Gallery, Oxford. Since the two
+museums are now one and the same, Münz appears to have confused two
+listings of the same drawing. Mr. Hugh Macandrew of the Ashmolean Museum
+has very kindly confirmed, in a letter to the author, that in their
+collection there is only the one drawing which is similar to this print.
+There is yet another drawing, _Farm with Hay Barn_, in the Bonnat
+collection at the Louvre, Paris, Hofstede de Groot 764, which is cited
+by Hind as a study sketch. Though very similar to this print, in
+reverse, it is considered a school piece by both Lugt and Benesch. It is
+quite possible that one of Rembrandt's pupils accompanied him on his
+walks and sketched many of the same subjects as the master. The drawing
+reproduced in +Lugt+, _Mit Rembrandt_ ..., op. cit., fig. 87, is also
+not by Rembrandt.
+
+[15] Joachim von Sandrart, a former pupil of Rembrandt, writing
+in 1675, quoted in +Hofstede de Groot+, _Die ... Urkunden_, op. cit.,
+no. 329, p. 392.
+
+[16] The plate for the print under discussion here is not known
+to have survived. There are, however, still some 79 Rembrandt plates
+whose present locations are known. Of these, 75 are in the collection of
+Robert Lee Humber, on deposit at the North Carolina Museum of Art,
+Raleigh, North Carolina. These are discussed at some length by André
+Charles Coppier (_Les eaux-fortes de Rembrandt_, Paris, 1922, pp.
+94-96). He gives the chemical content of the plate for the _Presentation
+in the Temple_ (Hind 162, about 1640), as 95% copper with impurities of
+tin, lead, zinc, arsenic, and silver. This may presumably be taken as
+typical. +Münz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 47, gives a listing of the
+surviving plates, but mistakenly presumes the Humber plates to be in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. As a matter of interest, the plate of the
+print, _The Gold-Weigher_ (Hind 167), said by Münz to be in the
+Rosenwald collection, Philadelphia, is not and never has been in that
+collection. It is completely unknown to Mr. Lessing J. Rosenwald and his
+curator. Its present whereabouts is unknown to the author.
+
+[17] _The Whole Art of Drawing, Painting, Limning, and Etching.
+Collected out of the Choicest Italian and German Authors.... Originally
+invented and written by the famous Italian Painter Odoardo Fialetti,
+Painter of Boloign. Published for the Benefit of all ingenuous Gentlemen
+and Artists by Alexander Brown Practitioner. London, Printed for Peter
+Stint at the Signe of the White Horse in Giltspurre Street, and Simon
+Miller at the Starre in St. Paul's Churchyard, MDCLX._ Page 33. London,
+1660. Quoted by +Münz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 208, who first discovered
+the reference. Since Fialetti died in 1638, the reference to Rembrandt's
+ground is likely to be by Brown or an anonymous contemporary editor.
+
+[18] +Abraham Bosse+, _Traicté des manieres de graver en taille
+douce_ ..., Paris, 1645, p. 41. Bosse's soft-ground formula, for
+comparison's sake, is three parts wax, two parts mastic, and one part
+asphaltum, which is very close to the cited Rembrandt ground.
+
+[19] Numerous similar grounds are given in +E. S. Lumsden+,
+_The Art of Etching_ (London: Seeley Service and Co., 1924); reprint
+(New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962), pp. 35-38.
+
+[20] Loc. cit. (footnote 17).
+
+[21] Some etchers, however, prefer this effect. Cf. +Lumsden+,
+op. cit., p. 42.
+
+[22] +Münz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 13, quotes this letter
+without giving the source. Evidently this is the first written reference
+to white ground.
+
+[23] Op. cit., pp. 46-48. Knowledge of the process seems to
+have disappeared completely during the 18th and 19th centuries. Hubert
+Herkomer, writing in 1892, believed that he had invented the white
+ground for the first time (_Etching and Mezzotint Engraving_, London,
+1892, pp. 4 and 25).
+
+[24] The etching is Hind 42. The drawing (Benesch 21, Hofstede
+de Groot 893) is in the British Museum. The black chalk has been
+confirmed (see footnote 25). It is also clear that the backing is not
+graphite, which would, of course, show up on a black ground as well as a
+white one.
+
+[25] The etching is Hind 187. The drawing (Benesch 758,
+Hofstede de Groot 896) is in the British Museum. Some scholarly
+misinformation has unfortunately been passed on for years. +Münz+, op.
+cit., vol. 2, p. 65, cites Jan Six ("Rembrandt's Vorbereiding ...,"
+_Onze Kunst_, 1908, II, p. 53), who in turn cites the personal
+observation of A. M. Hind of the British Museum, to the effect that this
+drawing of Anslo was backed with black chalk. The two drawings had
+apparently not been lifted from their mounts in something like sixty
+years. In answer to the author's inquiry, Mr. J. K. Rowlands, Assistant
+Keeper, Department of Prints and Drawings, the British Museum, very
+kindly wrote: "I can now tell you about the backs of H. 42 and H. 187
+[that is, the drawings for these two prints], which have now been
+lifted. The reverse of _The Woman Bathing_ [_Diana at the Bath_] has the
+remains of black unrefined chalk upon it and the portrait of Anslo is
+backed with Ochre tempera. I think this news will interest you." I am
+most grateful to Mr. Rowlands and his staff for their trouble and
+kindness.
+
+[26] An excellent example of this type of line is seen in the
+horizon lines on the left, which in this case were added only after
+several proofs had been pulled from the plate. The addition of these
+lines constitutes the difference between the recorded first and second
+states of this print.
+
+[27] The documents on this story were first published by
+Bredius in 1909 ("Rembrandt als Plaatsnijder," _Oud-Holland_, v. 27, pp.
+112 f.) and have been frequently cited since then. The print is the
+portrait of Jan Antonides van der Linden (Hind 268).
+
+[28] Confusion has arisen over a note, clearly in Rembrandt's
+hand, on one of his drawings (Benesch 1351, Hofstede de Groot 763, dated
+about 1654-55). The Dutch text is given in +Benesch+, op. cit., vol. 6,
+p. 374. It reads, "In order to etch ...," and gives a recipe consisting
+of turpentine and turpentine oil. This, of course, could not possibly be
+a mordant. Münz discusses it (op. cit., vol. 2, p. 14) and concludes
+that with the addition of mastic, this could be a kind of stop-out
+varnish. We are not likely to come closer to an answer for this cryptic
+inscription.
+
+[29] +Coppier+, op. cit.
+
+[30] _Ibid._, p. 117. Detail of plate for Hind 277, dated
+1654.
+
+[31] +Bosse+, op. cit., pp. 5 and 11. Vitriol is copper or iron
+sulfate, saltpeter is potassium nitrate, and alum is an aluminum sulfate
+salt. Bosse's other two acids are distilled pure vinegar (acetic acid)
+and a boiled mixture of vinegar and chloride salts. Both are relatively
+weak. My thanks to Dr. Robert P. Multhauf for his advice on 17th-century
+chemistry.
+
+[32] +Felix Brunner+ (_A Handbook of Graphic Reproduction
+Processes_, New York: Hastings House, 1962, p. 124), suggests that
+Rembrandt may have used ferric chloride, a weaker mordant, around 1640.
+
+[33] +Rosenberg+, _Rembrandt: Life and Work_ (London: Phaidon
+Press, rev. ed., 1964), p. 330.
+
+[34] My gratitude to Jacob Kainen for first pointing out the
+existence of these disembodied spirits.
+
+[35] Arnold Houbraken, quoted in +Hofstede de Groot+, _Die
+Urkunden_ ..., op. cit., no. 407, p. 471.
+
+
+
+
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1966
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D. C. 20402 Price 20 cents
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example, by Peter Morse
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example
+
+Author: Peter Morse
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2008 [EBook #26496]
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REMBRANDT'S ETCHING TECHNIQUE ***
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+
+
+<div class="center">
+
+<img alt="Front Cover of Book" src="images/front_cover.jpg" width="336" height="426" />
+<p class="center">Front Cover of the Book</p>
+
+<h1>Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology</h1>
+&nbsp;<h2>Paper 61</h2>
+
+<h3>Rembrandt&#39;s Etching Technique: An Example</h3>
+
+<h4>Peter Morse</h4>
+
+<img alt="Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep. Etching by Rembrandt." src="images/fig01.jpg" width="700" height="410" />
+<p class="center">FIGURE 1</p>
+
+<p class="center"><em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep.</em> Etching by Rembrandt,
+shown in original size.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Rembrandts_Etching_Technique" id="Rembrandts_Etching_Technique"></a>Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example</h2>
+
+<p><em>A Rembrandt print in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution has
+been made the subject of a study of the artist&#39;s etching technique. The author
+is associate curator, division of graphic arts, in the Smithsonian Institution&#39;s
+Museum of History and Technology.</em></p>
+
+<p>All footnotes appear at the end of this paper.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt&#39;s print, <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+is a singularly apt example of the variety of etching treatment used by
+the artist in his mature period.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The print, in black ink, 83 &times; 174
+mm. in size (approximately 3-1/2 &times; 7 inches), is signed and dated
+1650.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> It shows a peaceful Dutch landscape along the Onderdijk Road on
+the south side of the Saint Anthony's Dike, only a short walk from
+Rembrandt's home in Amsterdam. The picture is, as usual, the mirror
+reversal of the actual scene.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The observer's attention, from his raised position, is first drawn to
+the center of the print, attracted by the bright highlights on the trees
+and barn, then is snapped abruptly to the left side by the figure of the
+woman outlined against the sky. Now the eye moves slowly across the
+bottom, noticing the flock of sheep and the shepherd, and is led further
+by the soft dark line of the creek bank, to pick up the distant town and
+then the cows on the right. Only after completely circling the
+composition does one notice the horse, rolling in the grass and joyfully
+kicking its feet in the air.</p>
+
+<p>Such artistic command seldom comes spontaneously. In Rembrandt's case,
+it is clearly the result of careful preparation, many years of learning
+and experience, and hard work in the creation of each picture. Such a
+process has produced in this print&mdash;one of nine landscapes which mark a
+turning point in 1650&mdash;a work of stylistic synthesis, which integrates
+Rembrandt's previous knowledge and leads on to his later masterpieces.</p>
+	<p class="center">
+	<img alt="Mirror reversal of Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep." src="images/fig02.jpg" width="700" height="379" /></p>
+
+<p class="center">FIGURE 2</p>
+
+<p class="center">Mirror reversal of <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1650 Rembrandt was evidently in a tranquil state of mind. He was 44
+years old. Young Hendrickje Stoffels, who had entered his household in
+1645 as a maid, was well settled as housekeeper and mistress. Geertghe
+Dircx&mdash;who had been the nurse of Rembrandt's son, Titus, since the death
+of his wife, Saskia, in 1642&mdash;had just been taken to an institution
+after a nasty breach of promise suit.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Rembrandt's finances were in
+good shape; his insolvency was not to come until 1656, after the
+international economic crisis of 1653.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The artist certainly had the
+fullest confidence and experience in his working methods, having already
+done close to 250 prints.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> This state of well-being is reflected in
+the fact that of the 27 prints Rembrandt did in the three years,
+1650-1652, no fewer than 14 are landscapes of a serene character.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+This is an unusually large proportion of a single subject and surely
+reflects the artist's state of mind, which helped him to produce this
+masterpiece of serenity, humor, and technical virtuosity.</p>
+
+<p>His etching technique can be clearly studied in this print. In summary,
+all the evidence shows that Rembrandt here laid a foundation of lines on
+his plate with a single etching. He then mantled the sketch with rich
+drypoint lines, to give a sensitive chiaroscuro to the finished work.
+The integration of etching and drypoint is striking. There are few areas
+of this print (except the sky) that do not contain both kinds of line.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt evidently had an excellent idea of his design before he ever
+touched the needle to the plate. Though he is often admired for his
+spontaneity, particularly in his landscapes,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> this is a misconception.
+Benesch lists no fewer than 78 landscape drawings by Rembrandt in the
+years 1648-1650,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+and there were perhaps many more, now lost or unidentified. For this etching
+alone, there are at least five likely preparatory drawings, each giving certain
+essential features of the final print. The most interesting is the <em>Landscape with a Rolling
+Horse</em>.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Here we see that the horse, apparently the happiest of
+impulsive inspirations, is instead a carefully considered part of the
+final design, copied from the drawing previously done on the spot. As
+the horse in the drawing is the mirror image of that in the print, we
+can feel certain that the drawing came first and not the etching. Two
+other drawings<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> (figures 4 and 5) delineate the clump of trees, in
+form and placement very similar to the print. A fourth<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> (figure 6) is
+a sketch of a hay barn of the type shown in the print, evidently quite
+common in the Dutch countryside, and a fifth<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> (figure 7) foreshadows
+the scheme of composition used in the print, principally the
+relationship of the road and the dark central mass. All these drawings
+are the mirror reversal of the print.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Landscape with a rolling horse. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol. 6, fig. 1444. (Smithsonian photo 59391, with the permission of Phaidon Press, Ltd., and the Groningen Museum.)" src="images/fig03.jpg" width="700" height="507" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 3</p>
+<p class="center"><em>Landscape with a rolling horse</em>. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch,
+vol. 6, fig. 1444.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59391, with the permission of Phaidon Press, Ltd., and the Groningen Museum.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="A clump of trees. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol. 4, fig." src="images/fig04.jpg" width="650" height="409" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 4</p>
+<p class="center"><em>A clump of trees</em>. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol. 4, fig.
+1001.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59392, with the permission of Phaidon Press,
+Ltd.)]</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Farm building among trees. Drawing by Rembrandt. (Photo courtesy of" src="images/fig05.jpg" width="600" height="417" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 5</p>
+<p class="center"><em>Farm building among trees</em>. Drawing by Rembrandt.</p>
+<p class="center">(<em>Photo courtesy of
+the Albertina Museum, Vienna</em>.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Farmstead with a hay barn. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol.6, fig. 1458. (Smithsonian photo 59393, with the permission of Phaidon" src="images/fig06.jpg" width="700" height="291" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 6</p>
+<p class="center"><em>Farmstead with a hay barn</em>. Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol.
+6, fig. 1458.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59393, with the permission of Phaidon Press,
+Ltd., and the Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Farm buildings beside a road with distant farmstead. Drawing by " src="images/fig07.jpg" width="600" height="370" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 7</p>
+<p class="center"><em>Farm buildings beside a road with distant farmstead</em>. Drawing by
+Rembrandt.</p>
+<p class="center">(<em>Photo courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford</em>.)</p>
+
+<p>It is very much a modern taste to admire spontaneity more than craft. We
+must understand that Rembrandt's work was anything but spontaneous in
+execution. The existence of so many drawings prior to this print
+certainly suggests that Rembrandt collected his ideas from many sources,
+on the spot, but did his finished work in the quiet of his studio, with
+his notes ready at hand. He used the sketches as the raw material for a
+work of art. Rembrandt said that the only rule that should bind the
+artist is nature,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> but he was certainly not distracted by nature. The
+individual genius here lies in assembling many observations from nature
+into a work which goes beyond nature and yet appears fresh and natural.</p>
+
+<p>The metal plates he commonly used were of thin, cold-hammered copper, as
+shown by extant examples.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The hammering had the effect of making the
+metal harder than today's rolled copper sheets. This enabled more prints
+to be taken from the plate than is possible for a present-day
+printmaker. Today, we tend to consider drypoint a very fugitive medium,
+because the burr perishes so quickly under the pressure of the printing
+press. Rembrandt undoubtedly had fewer inhibitions about drypoint, for
+he could expect his harder copper to hold up longer, perhaps for as many
+as fifty excellent prints from the same plate. Hammered copper, unlike
+the modern rolled variety, is also completely free of grain in the
+metal. This enables a drypoint needle to move freely in any direction
+without encountering the resistance of a grain. Here again, Rembrandt
+had more incentive to use drypoint than a modern artist.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt's etching ground has been the subject of considerable
+discussion. A book published in 1660, nine years before the artist's
+death, contains a recipe for "The Ground of Rinebrant of Rine."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> This
+ground, similar to that described by Bosse as a "soft" ground,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+consists of two parts wax, one part mastic, and one part asphaltum.
+There are countless formulae for such grounds, but virtually all are
+permutations of the same three ingredients, with only slight differences
+in the proportions.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The ground given as Rembrandt's is a thoroughly
+conventional one.</p>
+
+<p>A knotty problem, however, is introduced by the last line of this 1660
+description: "... lay your black ground very thin, and the white ground
+upon it. This is the only way of Rinebrant...."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> No elaboration is
+given. This one line presents a number of problems, not all of which are
+soluble. To take it at face value is to accept the contemporary evidence
+that Rembrandt not only used a white ground but used it exclusively.
+This assertion cannot be taken uncritically.</p>
+
+<p>It will readily be seen that a white ground might be of considerable
+assistance to an artist. His needle penetrates the white to the copper,
+giving the familiar effect of a reddish ink line on white paper. A
+normal ground, without treatment, is virtually transparent, making the
+etcher's lines rather difficult to see.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The most usual procedure,
+both in the 17th century and today, is to smoke the ground and
+incorporate the soot with the ground by heating the plate slightly. This
+gives a black ground, against which the lines appear light, the
+negative of the ultimate print. The black ground is favored, both out of
+long-established tradition and because it is very easy to apply.
+Furthermore, artists today explain that they also enjoy the feeling of
+working slightly blind, that one of their greatest rewards is the sense
+of surprise in peeling the first proof print off the plate. For whatever
+reason, the black ground has been preferred by the great majority of
+artists, both past and present.</p>
+
+<p>The description of Rembrandt's ground in 1660 takes knowledge of the
+white ground for granted. Its technique certainly appears to have been
+generally well known among artists in the middle of the 17th century.
+Rubens, in a letter as early as 1622, mentions having received a recipe
+for a white ground, although he could not remember it.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The first
+technical explanation of the process appeared in Bosse's pioneer
+treatise in 1645.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> There is no reason why Rembrandt should not have
+known of the white-ground technique and every reason to suppose that he
+did.</p>
+
+<p>There is one piece of strong evidence that he did use a white ground about
+1631. One of Rembrandt&#39;s drawings exists which, unlike most of his sketches is
+an exact prototype (in reverse) of a specific etching, <em>Diana at the Bath</em>.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The back of this drawing is covered with black
+chalk, and its lines show the indentation of tracing. The only
+reasonable explanation of this evidence is that Rembrandt placed his
+prepared drawing on top of a white-grounded plate and traced the lines,
+depositing the black chalk lines on the ground, where he could then
+trace them with his etching needle. Another similarly indented
+drawing&mdash;for the portrait of Cornelis Claesz Anslo&mdash;has been held to
+show the same procedure as late as 1641. This drawing, however, is
+backed, not with black chalk as previously cited, but with ocher
+tempera.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Although surely used for tracing, this gives perhaps even
+more evidence of his use of a black ground rather than white, although
+ocher lines would show on either. These conclusions are not meant to imply in
+any way that Rembrandt used the tracing of a drawing for his <em>Landscape with a hay barn</em>.... There is every probability that he did
+not do so. The implication is rather that only where a traced drawing
+with black backing exists do we have circumstantial evidence for the
+use, and possibly a more general use, of white ground. Without the
+published recipe no question would be likely to arise that Rembrandt
+used anything but the standard black ground. With it, we must search for
+corroboration.</p>
+
+<p>Though the case must be left as "not proven," the use of a white etching
+ground is consistent with Rembrandt's practice of using the simplest
+effective means for achieving his artistic aims. The distinctive quality
+of the print under consideration here is the artist's remarkable
+placement and articulation of areas of black against the white paper.
+Rembrandt may have found it far easier to visualize this ultimate effect
+by using a white background for dark lines on his plate, rather than the
+negative.</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt almost certainly made all the etched lines in this print in a
+single operation. The lines were put on the plate before it went into
+the acid. The plate was then etched by the acid in a single biting,
+without stopping-out. The evidence for these assertions comes from the
+print itself, as we have no direct testimony in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the etched lines must be distinguished from the
+drypoint lines applied at a later stage. The differences between the
+types of line are more easily seen than described. The etched line is
+clear and strong, from the clean biting of the acid. It is freer and
+more autographic because it is drawn through a wax surface, not
+scratched in a resisting metal surface.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep, left center," src="images/fig08.jpg" width="442" height="500" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 8</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>, left center,
+showing light drypoint lines of the horizon and etched lines of figures and
+hillside. Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59384.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep, left center, showing forceful lines of tree branch in pure drypoint. Enlarged 10" src="images/fig09.jpg" width="544" height="446" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 9</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>, left center,
+showing forceful lines of tree branch in pure drypoint. Enlarged 10 times.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59390.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep, center, showing diagonal lines of light drypoint without burr. Enlarged 10" src="images/fig10.jpg" width="434" height="473" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 10</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>, center,
+showing diagonal lines of light drypoint without burr. Enlarged 10 times.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59385.)</p>
+
+<p>The drypoint line, by its nature, is more abrupt and forceful, showing
+the quality of having been scratched rather than drawn. There are two
+basic drypoint lines, depending upon the position in which the drypoint
+needle is held. When it is vertical or nearly so, the resulting line is
+shallow and prints more weakly and distantly than the etched line. When
+the needle is pulled at an angle of about 30&deg; to 60&deg;, a very perceptible
+furrow of copper burr is thrown up on one or both sides of the line on
+the plate. This burr holds more ink than the clear channel and prints
+with a highly distinctive inky richness. Basically, etching removes
+metal from the plate entirely, whereas drypoint displaces it in furrows
+of burr. The rich fuzzy line produced by the burr is what we most
+typically associate with drypoint work. The first sort, the thin distant
+line, is nevertheless just as truly drypoint as the latter and is
+distinguishable by its forcefulness and clear direction.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> The same
+line may also be created, with slightly more work, by using a scraper to
+remove the burr from a rich drypoint line.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep, bottom right, showing rich drypoint lines with burr. Enlarged 10 times." src="images/fig11.jpg" width="420" height="502" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 11</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>, bottom
+right, showing rich drypoint lines with burr. Enlarged 10 times.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59386.)</p>
+
+<p>Another way of making lines in a plate is with a burin&mdash;an instrument
+with a sharp triangular point&mdash;which is pushed through the copper,
+instead of being pulled, as is the drypoint needle. When used
+conventionally, the burin produces a very characteristic hard,
+controlled printed line, one which does not appear in this print. When
+used lightly, however, its line is virtually indistinguishable from
+that of the vertical drypoint needle. It is quite possible that
+Rembrandt used the burin in some of his work on this and other prints,
+but it seems a somewhat less likely tool than the drypoint. First, the
+non-etched lines in this print seem to have a more freely moving quality
+than could probably be produced with a burin, a rather stiff, if
+extremely precise tool. Second, when Rembrandt was commissioned in 1665
+to engrave a portrait expressly with a burin, he found himself unable to
+do so.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> His inability, however, may be attributed as easily to
+Rembrandt's artistic independence as to his inexperience with the burin.
+Rembrandt's general use of the burin has been widely accepted. The
+question may not be that simple. These visible differences, then, enable
+us to separate the kinds of line within this print.</p>
+
+<p>The author has attempted, by tracing only the etched lines in the print,
+to recreate the state of the plate after Rembrandt's etching and before
+the application of drypoint (figure 12). It can be seen that Rembrandt's
+etched lines form only a foundation or skeleton for the finished work.
+It is in no sense complete in itself. More important, the picture lacks
+all the rich contrasts of light and shade which distinguish this print
+and most of Rembrandt's finished work.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Traced sketch by the author, showing only the etched lines in Rembrandt's print, Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep." src="images/fig12.jpg" width="700" height="386" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 12</p>
+
+<p class="center">Traced sketch by the author, showing only the etched lines in Rembrandt&#39;s
+print, <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep</em>.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59398.)</p>
+
+<p>It has been generally assumed that Rembrandt went through a fairly
+normal process of stopping-out and also re-etching in the course of his
+print-making. The visual evidence would indicate that he did not follow
+this procedure here. Stopping-out is, of course, a means of creating
+variations in the printed intensity of etched lines. After a plate has
+etched for a certain time&mdash;depending on the artist's inclination&mdash;it may
+be removed from the acid and some of its lines covered with a stop-out
+varnish, similar in texture and acid resistance to the basic ground. The
+plate is then put back in the acid and the remaining lines etched more
+deeply. This can be repeated any number of times, giving a wide range of
+intensity to the various etched lines. No such wide range of etched
+lines appears in the finished print. Further, where the edge of applied
+stop-out varnish crosses a single line, the change in depth of acid
+biting at that point is readily visible. Again, no such change of depth
+of a single line is visible here. The inference, unless attributed to
+very long coincidence, seems probable that Rembrandt used only a single
+acid etch on the entire plate, with no stopping-out.</p>
+
+<p>Re-etching also seems unlikely. If the original ground has been removed
+from a plate, the entire plate must be re-grounded, without smoking or
+whitening, so that the previously etched lines show through. Noticeably
+heavier etched lines appear at only a few places on this plate,
+principally in the grass at the lower right. It is probable that
+Rembrandt used a number of etching needles of different widths. We do
+not see the typical changes in the lines produced by stopping-out or
+re-etching. Re-etching of new lines crossing previously etched lines
+often causes a slight penetration of acid under the ground into the old
+lines. This shows in the printing as a dark spot at the point of
+crossing. Such an effect is not found in this print. A similar result in
+the cross-hatching at the lower left is caused instead by drypoint lines
+crossing etched lines.</p>
+
+<p>No direct evidence has been found concerning the acid corrosive used by
+Rembrandt to bite his plate.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+Only tentative conclusions can be drawn from this and other prints. The etched
+lines in the <em>Landscape with a
+hay barn</em> ... appear to be bitten with a fairly strong acid. The lines
+are relatively broad in relation to their depth, a strong-acid effect.
+Furthermore, illustrations of some of Rembrandt's original plates from
+this period show a similar broad line.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> In addition, in the
+photograph (figure 14) of at least one of the plates there is seen a
+peculiarly ragged line which is often caused by bubbles formed on the
+plate by acid action.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> This appearance of bubbles is characteristic
+only of the strong acids. Of the acid formulae suggested by Bosse in
+1645, only one&mdash;a distillate of vitriol, saltpeter, and alum&mdash;appears to
+be strong enough to produce the observed effects.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Generally
+speaking, Rembrandt's later etchings show evidence of stronger acid
+biting than his earlier work, which has more of the characteristics of
+weak mordants.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Certainly, a strong acid would produce a much
+speedier biting and bolder etched lines, providing him with a solid
+foundation for his fine drypoint work, and enabling him to work
+continuously, with a minimum of delay.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, Landscape with a hay barn and a" src="images/fig13.jpg" width="570" height="623" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 13</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of Rembrandt&#39;s finished print, <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep</em>, lower right, showing lines of pure etching. Enlarged 10
+times.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59387.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of the etched copper plate for Rembrandt's print, Christ seated disputing with the doctors. After Coppier, p. 117. (Smithsonian photo" src="images/fig14.jpg" width="380" height="500" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 14</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of the etched copper plate for Rembrandt&#39;s print, <em>Christ seated
+disputing with the doctors</em>. After Coppier, p. 117. </p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59395.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep, far right, showing drypoint drawing of sheep and post." src="images/fig15.jpg" width="500" height="537" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 15</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of Rembrandt&#39;s finished print, <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep</em>, far right, showing drypoint drawing of sheep and post.
+Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59388.)</p>
+
+<p>Rembrandt's use of drypoint is, as Jakob Rosenberg says, "the most
+important innovation in Rembrandt's mature graphic work."<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> After
+etching his skeletal design on the plate, he went to work with his
+drypoint needles&mdash;long, stiff, iron instruments&mdash;sharpened to a fine
+point. An artist generally has several available, so that he does not
+have to stop and re-sharpen in the course of his work. Rembrandt
+evidently went even further and deliberately used dull needles to obtain
+certain light line effects.</p>
+
+<p>When the finished print is compared with the sketch of the etched lines
+alone, it can be seen how vital the drypoint is to Rembrandt's whole
+conception. The needle held vertically and slightly dulled, for
+instance, produced the light shadings on the central hillock at lower
+left. The sharp needle, held at an angle, threw up the burr which
+printed as the rich blacks on both sides of the hay barn, along the bank
+of the stream, and on the road at left center. The sheep and post at the
+far right were completely drawn</p>
+
+<p>with drypoint, as was the shepherd of the flock at left center (figure
+16). It is interesting to note that the flock originally had two
+shepherds, evidently a man and a woman, standing at the center of the
+road and behind the flock.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> These figures were drawn in the ground
+and etched in the first stage of the print. Rembrandt then must have
+decided that their proportion was wrong for his composition. He reworked
+the area, using a scraper or burnisher to flatten out his etched lines,
+and covered the remaining ghosts of the figures with a mesh of drypoint
+cross-hatching. He then added the single small figure of the shepherd
+boy entirely in drypoint.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center">
+<img alt="Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, Landscape with a hay barn and a" src="images/fig16.jpg" width="500" height="419" /></p>
+<p class="center">FIGURE 16</p>
+
+<p class="center">Detail of Rembrandt&#39;s finished print, <em>Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep</em>, showing shepherd in drypoint, erased figures behind flock,
+signature, and date. Enlarged 5 times.</p>
+<p class="center">(Smithsonian photo 59389.)</p>
+
+<p>Houbraken, writing in 1718, talked of Rembrandt's technical secrets,
+"which he would not let his pupils see."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>
+In truth, there are no secrets to this artist&#39;s <em>technique</em> in the
+etching medium. But his mastery of the <em>art</em> goes far beyond communicable secrets.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+	Hind 241 (<strong>A. M. Hind</strong>, <em>A Catalogue of Rembrandt's
+Etchings</em>, 2 vol., rev. ed., London, 1923), Bartsch 224 (<strong>Adam Bartsch</strong>, <em>Catalogue raisonne de toutes les estampes ... de Rembrandt</em> ...,
+Vienna, 1797). The particular example studied here is an impression of
+the second state (of two) in the collection of the United States
+National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
+</p><p>
+The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to Jacob ainen,
+curator of graphic arts at the Smithsonian Institution, for his acute
+knowledge, unfailing helpfulness, and encouragement in the preparation
+of this paper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>  P. G. Hamerton,
+	for one, calls special attention to the technical importance of this print:
+	&quot;I recommend the student to familiarize himself with the workmanship of this
+	plate....&quot; (<em>The
+Etchings of Rembrandt</em>, London, 1894, p. 71.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>  The date is unquestionably difficult to read. Bartsch
+	misread it as 1636 (op. cit., p. 148). Charles Middleton (<em>Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Etched Work of Rembrandt van Ryn</em>, London, 1878, p.
+299) was the first to identify the date as 1650. This has been accepted
+by all modern authorities except George Bi&ouml;rklund (<em>Rembrandt's
+Etchings: True and False</em>, Stockholm, 1955, no. 52-A, p. 103) who reads it
+	as 1652. This seems unlikely to me, not only on the great stylistic affinity
+	of this print to Rembrandt&#39;s unquestioned works of 1650, but also on the
+	basis of my own reading of the date. The presumed digit &quot;2&quot; is quite unlike
+	the &quot;2&quot; in Hind&#39;s 257 and 263, Rembrandt&#39;s only dated prints of 1652. (<em>See</em> figure 16.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>  The general location of this scene, as well as many others
+in Rembrandt's oeuvre, has been identified by Frits Lugt (<em>Mit Rembrandt
+in Amsterdam</em>, Berlin, 1920, pp. 136-140, revised from the original Dutch,
+	<em>Wandelingen met Rembrandt in en om Amsterdam</em>, Amsterdam, 1915;
+see also <strong>Lugt</strong>, &quot;Rembrandt&#39;s Amsterdam,&quot; <em>Print Collector's Quarterly</em>,
+April 1915, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 111-169, and the attached map).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>  <strong>Cornelis Hofstede de Groot</strong>,
+	ed., <em>Die Urkunden &uuml;ber
+Rembrandt (1575-1721)</em>, The Hague, 1906. On the lawsuit, see nos. 113,
+117, 118, 120-3, 130, and 165. Geertghe was taken to the institution on
+July 4, 1650.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> On the financial troubles, starting in 1653, see ibid.,
+nos. 140 ff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The exact number is, of course, impossible to determine,
+because of many uncertainties of attribution and dating. A. M. Hind, op.
+cit., lists 236 prints before the year 1650, which seems as accurate a
+count as is possible.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> According to Hind, op. cit., the 14 landscapes nos. 237-260
+and 262-264 are attributable to the years 1650-52. Of the 27 prints from
+these three years, 16 are actually signed and dated by Rembrandt. Nine
+of these 16 are landscapes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+	E.g., <strong>C. J. Holmes</strong>, &quot;The Development of Rembrandt as an Etcher,&quot; <em>Burlington Magazine</em> (August 1906), vol. 9, no. 41, p. 313.
+The well-known story of his having drawn "Six's Bridge" (Hind 209) on
+the plate while the servant went for the mustard is also often cited
+(e.g., <strong>Hind</strong>, op. cit., p. 95), but if true appears to be atypical.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>  <strong>Otto Benesch</strong>,
+	<em>The Drawings of Rembrandt</em>, 6 vol.,
+London, 1954-57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>  Benesch no. 1225, Groningen (Netherlands) Museum, inv. no.
+210, dated about 1650, the wash added by another hand. This drawing was
+formerly in the personal collection of Cornelis Hofstede de Groot and
+was first reproduced and discussed by Otto Hirschmann in "Die
+Handzeichnungen-Sammlung Dr. Hofstede de Groot im Haag, II,&quot; <em>Der
+Cicerone</em> (Leipzig, January 1917), vol. 9, no. 1/2, pp. 21-22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> B Benesch
+	850, <em>A Clump of Trees</em>, The Hermitage, Leningrad,
+about 1648-50, and Benesch 1246, <em>Farm Building Among Trees</em>, Albertina,
+Vienna, inv. no. 8873, Hofstede de Groot 1497 (<em>Die Handzeichnungen
+Rembrandts</em> ..., Haarlem, 1906), about 1650-51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> B Benesch
+	1236, <em>Farmstead with a Hay Barn</em>, Copenhagen,
+about 1650.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> B Benesch
+	1226, <em>Farm Buildings Beside a Road with Distant
+Farmstead</em>, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Hofstede de Groot 1138, about
+1650, with later additions. Ludwig M&uuml;nz (<em>Rembrandt's Etchings</em>, 2
+vols., London, 1952, no. 159, vol. 2, p. 84) cites two drawings, one in
+the Ashmolean, one in the University Gallery, Oxford. Since the two
+museums are now one and the same, M&uuml;nz appears to have confused two
+listings of the same drawing. Mr. Hugh Macandrew of the Ashmolean Museum has
+	very kindly confirmed, in a letter to the author, that in their collection
+	there is only the one drawing which is similar to this print. There is yet
+	another drawing, <em>Farm with Hay Barn</em>, in the Bonnat
+collection at the Louvre, Paris, Hofstede de Groot 764, which is cited
+by Hind as a study sketch. Though very similar to this print, in
+reverse, it is considered a school piece by both Lugt and Benesch. It is
+quite possible that one of Rembrandt's pupils accompanied him on his
+walks and sketched many of the same subjects as the master. The drawing
+reproduced in <strong>Lugt</strong>, <em>Mit Rembrandt</em> ..., op. cit., fig. 87, is also
+not by Rembrandt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> J Joachim von Sandrart, a former pupil of Rembrandt, writing
+in 1675, quoted in <strong>Hofstede de Groot</strong>, <em>Die ... Urkunden</em>, op. cit.,
+no. 329, p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> T The plate for the print under discussion here is not known
+to have survived. There are, however, still some 79 Rembrandt plates
+whose present locations are known. Of these, 75 are in the collection of
+Robert Lee Humber, on deposit at the North Carolina Museum of Art,
+Raleigh, North Carolina. These are discussed at some length by Andr&eacute;
+Charles Coppier (<em>Les eaux-fortes de Rembrandt</em>, Paris, 1922, pp. 94-96).
+	He gives the chemical content of the plate for the <em>Presentation
+in the Temple</em> (Hind 162, about 1640), as 95% copper with impurities of
+tin, lead, zinc, arsenic, and silver. This may presumably be taken as
+typical. <strong>M&uuml;nz</strong>, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 47, gives a listing of the
+surviving plates, but mistakenly presumes the Humber plates to be in the
+Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale, Paris. As a matter of interest, the plate of the
+	print, <em>The Gold-Weigher</em> (Hind 167), said by M&uuml;nz to be in the
+Rosenwald collection, Philadelphia, is not and never has been in that
+collection. It is completely unknown to Mr. Lessing J. Rosenwald and his
+curator. Its present whereabouts is unknown to the author.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+	<em>TThe Whole Art of Drawing, Painting, Limning, and Etching.
+Collected out of the Choicest Italian and German Authors.... Originally
+invented and written by the famous Italian Painter Odoardo Fialetti,
+Painter of Boloign. Published for the Benefit of all ingenuous Gentlemen
+and Artists by Alexander Brown Practitioner. London, Printed for Peter
+Stint at the Signe of the White Horse in Giltspurre Street, and Simon
+Miller at the Starre in St. Paul's Churchyard, MDCLX.</em> Page 33. London,
+1660. Quoted by <strong>M&uuml;nz</strong>, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 208, who first discovered
+the reference. Since Fialetti died in 1638, the reference to Rembrandt's
+ground is likely to be by Brown or an anonymous contemporary editor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+	<strong>Abraham Bosse</strong>,
+	<em>Traict&eacute; des manieres de graver en taille
+douce</em> ..., Paris, 1645, p. 41. Bosse's soft-ground formula, for
+comparison's sake, is three parts wax, two parts mastic, and one part
+asphaltum, which is very close to the cited Rembrandt ground.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+	N Numerous similar grounds are given in <strong>E. S. Lumsden</strong>, 	<em>The Art of Etching</em> (London: Seeley Service and Co., 1924); reprint
+(New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962), pp. 35-38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Loc. cit. (footnote 17).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+	Some etchers, however, prefer this effect. Cf. <strong>Lumsden</strong>,
+op. cit., p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+	<strong>M&uuml;nz</strong>, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 13, quotes this letter
+without giving the source. Evidently this is the first written reference
+to white ground.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> O Op. cit., pp. 46-48. Knowledge of the process seems to
+have disappeared completely during the 18th and 19th centuries. Hubert
+Herkomer, writing in 1892, believed that he had invented the white ground for
+	the first time (<em>Etching and Mezzotint Engraving</em>, London,
+1892, pp. 4 and 25).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> The etching is Hind 42. The drawing (Benesch 21, Hofstede
+de Groot 893) is in the British Museum. The black chalk has been
+confirmed (see footnote 25). It is also clear that the backing is not
+graphite, which would, of course, show up on a black ground as well as a
+white one.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> T The etching is Hind 187. The drawing (Benesch 758,
+Hofstede de Groot 896) is in the British Museum. Some scholarly
+misinformation has unfortunately been passed on for years. <strong>M&uuml;nz</strong>, op.
+cit., vol. 2, p. 65, cites Jan Six ("Rembrandt's Vorbereiding ...,&quot; <em>Onze Kunst</em>, 1908, II, p. 53), who in turn cites the personal
+observation of A. M. Hind of the British Museum, to the effect that this
+drawing of Anslo was backed with black chalk. The two drawings had
+apparently not been lifted from their mounts in something like sixty
+years. In answer to the author's inquiry, Mr. J. K. Rowlands, Assistant Keeper,
+	Department of Prints and Drawings, the British Museum, very kindly wrote: &quot;I
+	can now tell you about the backs of H. 42 and H. 187 [that is, the drawings
+	for these two prints], which have now been lifted. The reverse of <em>The Woman Bathing</em>
+	[<em>Diana at the Bath</em>] has the
+remains of black unrefined chalk upon it and the portrait of Anslo is
+backed with Ochre tempera. I think this news will interest you." I am
+most grateful to Mr. Rowlands and his staff for their trouble and
+kindness.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> An excellent example of this type of line is seen in the
+horizon lines on the left, which in this case were added only after
+several proofs had been pulled from the plate. The addition of these
+lines constitutes the difference between the recorded first and second
+states of this print.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> T The documents on this story were first published by
+Bredius in 1909 ("Rembrandt als Plaatsnijder,&quot; <em>Oud-Holland</em>, v. 27, pp.
+112 f.) and have been frequently cited since then. The print is the
+portrait of Jan Antonides van der Linden (Hind 268).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Confusion has arisen over a note, clearly in Rembrandt's
+hand, on one of his drawings (Benesch 1351, Hofstede de Groot 763, dated
+about 1654-55). The Dutch text is given in <strong>Benesch</strong>, op. cit., vol. 6,
+p. 374. It reads, "In order to etch ...," and gives a recipe consisting
+of turpentine and turpentine oil. This, of course, could not possibly be
+a mordant. M&uuml;nz discusses it (op. cit., vol. 2, p. 14) and concludes
+that with the addition of mastic, this could be a kind of stop-out
+varnish. We are not likely to come closer to an answer for this cryptic
+inscription.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+	<strong>Coppier</strong>, op. cit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+	<em>Ibid</em>., p. 117. Detail of plate for Hind 277, dated
+1654.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
+	<strong>Bosse</strong>, op. cit., pp. 5 and 11. Vitriol is copper or iron sulfate, saltpeter is potassium nitrate, and alum is an aluminum sulfate
+salt. Bosse's other two acids are distilled pure vinegar (acetic acid)
+and a boiled mixture of vinegar and chloride salts. Both are relatively
+weak. My thanks to Dr. Robert P. Multhauf for his advice on 17th-century
+chemistry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+	<strong>Felix Brunner</strong> (<em>A Handbook of Graphic Reproduction
+Processes</em>, New York: Hastings House, 1962, p. 124), suggests that
+Rembrandt may have used ferric chloride, a weaker mordant, around 1640.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
+	<strong>Rosenberg</strong>, <em>Rembrandt: Life and Work</em> (London: Phaidon
+Press, rev. ed., 1964), p. 330.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> My gratitude to Jacob Kainen for first pointing out the
+existence of these disembodied spirits.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> A Arnold Houbraken, quoted in <strong>Hofstede de Groot</strong>,
+	<em>Die Urkunden</em> ..., op. cit., no. 407, p. 471.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1966</h4>
+
+<p>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D. C. 20402 Price 20 cents</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example, by Peter Morse
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+
+Title: Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An Example
+
+Author: Peter Morse
+
+Release Date: August 31, 2008 [EBook #26496]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REMBRANDT'S ETCHING TECHNIQUE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Viv, Joseph Cooper and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
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+
+
+
+
++Contributions from
+The Museum of History and Technology:
+Paper 61+
+
++Rembrandt's Etching Technique:
+An Example+
+
+_Peter Morse_
+
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 1
+
+_Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep._ Etching by Rembrandt,
+shown in original size.]
+
+
+
+_By Peter Morse_
+
+
+_Rembrandt's Etching Technique:
+An Example_
+
+
+_A Rembrandt print in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution has
+been made the subject of a study of the artist's etching technique. The
+author is associate curator, division of graphic arts, in the
+Smithsonian Institution's Museum of History and Technology._
+
+
+All footnotes appear at the end of this paper.
+
+
+Rembrandt's print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_,[1]
+is a singularly apt example of the variety of etching treatment used by
+the artist in his mature period.[2] The print, in black ink, 83 x 174
+mm. in size (approximately 3-1/2 x 7 inches), is signed and dated
+1650.[3] It shows a peaceful Dutch landscape along the Onderdijk Road on
+the south side of the Saint Anthony's Dike, only a short walk from
+Rembrandt's home in Amsterdam. The picture is, as usual, the mirror
+reversal of the actual scene.[4]
+
+The observer's attention, from his raised position, is first drawn to
+the center of the print, attracted by the bright highlights on the trees
+and barn, then is snapped abruptly to the left side by the figure of the
+woman outlined against the sky. Now the eye moves slowly across the
+bottom, noticing the flock of sheep and the shepherd, and is led further
+by the soft dark line of the creek bank, to pick up the distant town and
+then the cows on the right. Only after completely circling the
+composition does one notice the horse, rolling in the grass and joyfully
+kicking its feet in the air.
+
+Such artistic command seldom comes spontaneously. In Rembrandt's case,
+it is clearly the result of careful preparation, many years of learning
+and experience, and hard work in the creation of each picture. Such a
+process has produced in this print--one of nine landscapes which mark a
+turning point in 1650--a work of stylistic synthesis, which integrates
+Rembrandt's previous knowledge and leads on to his later masterpieces.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 2
+
+Mirror reversal of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_.]
+
+In 1650 Rembrandt was evidently in a tranquil state of mind. He was 44
+years old. Young Hendrickje Stoffels, who had entered his household in
+1645 as a maid, was well settled as housekeeper and mistress. Geertghe
+Dircx--who had been the nurse of Rembrandt's son, Titus, since the death
+of his wife, Saskia, in 1642--had just been taken to an institution
+after a nasty breach of promise suit.[5] Rembrandt's finances were in
+good shape; his insolvency was not to come until 1656, after the
+international economic crisis of 1653.[6] The artist certainly had the
+fullest confidence and experience in his working methods, having already
+done close to 250 prints.[7] This state of well-being is reflected in
+the fact that of the 27 prints Rembrandt did in the three years,
+1650-1652, no fewer than 14 are landscapes of a serene character.[8]
+This is an unusually large proportion of a single subject and surely
+reflects the artist's state of mind, which helped him to produce this
+masterpiece of serenity, humor, and technical virtuosity.
+
+His etching technique can be clearly studied in this print. In summary,
+all the evidence shows that Rembrandt here laid a foundation of lines on
+his plate with a single etching. He then mantled the sketch with rich
+drypoint lines, to give a sensitive chiaroscuro to the finished work.
+The integration of etching and drypoint is striking. There are few areas
+of this print (except the sky) that do not contain both kinds of line.
+
+Rembrandt evidently had an excellent idea of his design before he ever
+touched the needle to the plate. Though he is often admired for his
+spontaneity, particularly in his landscapes,[9] this is a misconception.
+Benesch lists no fewer than 78 landscape drawings by Rembrandt in the
+years 1648-1650,[10] and there were perhaps many more, now lost or
+unidentified. For this etching alone, there are at least five likely
+preparatory drawings, each giving certain essential features of the
+final print. The most interesting is the _Landscape with a Rolling
+Horse_.[11] Here we see that the horse, apparently the happiest of
+impulsive inspirations, is instead a carefully considered part of the
+final design, copied from the drawing previously done on the spot. As
+the horse in the drawing is the mirror image of that in the print, we
+can feel certain that the drawing came first and not the etching. Two
+other drawings[12] (figures 4 and 5) delineate the clump of trees, in
+form and placement very similar to the print. A fourth[13] (figure 6) is
+a sketch of a hay barn of the type shown in the print, evidently quite
+common in the Dutch countryside, and a fifth[14] (figure 7) foreshadows
+the scheme of composition used in the print, principally the
+relationship of the road and the dark central mass. All these drawings
+are the mirror reversal of the print.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 3
+
+_Landscape with a rolling horse._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch,
+vol. 6, fig. 1444. (Smithsonian photo 59391, with the permission of
+Phaidon Press, Ltd., and the Groningen Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 4
+
+_A clump of trees._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol. 4, fig.
+1001. (Smithsonian photo 59392, with the permission of Phaidon Press,
+Ltd.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 5
+
+_Farm building among trees._ Drawing by Rembrandt. (_Photo courtesy of
+the Albertina Museum, Vienna._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 6
+
+_Farmstead with a hay barn._ Drawing by Rembrandt. After Benesch, vol.
+6, fig. 1458. (Smithsonian photo 59393, with the permission of Phaidon
+Press, Ltd., and the Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Copenhagen.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 7
+
+_Farm buildings beside a road with distant farmstead._ Drawing by
+Rembrandt. (_Photo courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford._)]
+
+It is very much a modern taste to admire spontaneity more than craft. We
+must understand that Rembrandt's work was anything but spontaneous in
+execution. The existence of so many drawings prior to this print
+certainly suggests that Rembrandt collected his ideas from many sources,
+on the spot, but did his finished work in the quiet of his studio, with
+his notes ready at hand. He used the sketches as the raw material for a
+work of art. Rembrandt said that the only rule that should bind the
+artist is nature,[15] but he was certainly not distracted by nature. The
+individual genius here lies in assembling many observations from nature
+into a work which goes beyond nature and yet appears fresh and natural.
+
+The metal plates he commonly used were of thin, cold-hammered copper, as
+shown by extant examples.[16] The hammering had the effect of making the
+metal harder than today's rolled copper sheets. This enabled more prints
+to be taken from the plate than is possible for a present-day
+printmaker. Today, we tend to consider drypoint a very fugitive medium,
+because the burr perishes so quickly under the pressure of the printing
+press. Rembrandt undoubtedly had fewer inhibitions about drypoint, for
+he could expect his harder copper to hold up longer, perhaps for as many
+as fifty excellent prints from the same plate. Hammered copper, unlike
+the modern rolled variety, is also completely free of grain in the
+metal. This enables a drypoint needle to move freely in any direction
+without encountering the resistance of a grain. Here again, Rembrandt
+had more incentive to use drypoint than a modern artist.
+
+Rembrandt's etching ground has been the subject of considerable
+discussion. A book published in 1660, nine years before the artist's
+death, contains a recipe for "The Ground of Rinebrant of Rine."[17] This
+ground, similar to that described by Bosse as a "soft" ground,[18]
+consists of two parts wax, one part mastic, and one part asphaltum.
+There are countless formulae for such grounds, but virtually all are
+permutations of the same three ingredients, with only slight differences
+in the proportions.[19] The ground given as Rembrandt's is a thoroughly
+conventional one.
+
+A knotty problem, however, is introduced by the last line of this 1660
+description: "... lay your black ground very thin, and the white ground
+upon it. This is the only way of Rinebrant...."[20] No elaboration is
+given. This one line presents a number of problems, not all of which are
+soluble. To take it at face value is to accept the contemporary evidence
+that Rembrandt not only used a white ground but used it exclusively.
+This assertion cannot be taken uncritically.
+
+It will readily be seen that a white ground might be of considerable
+assistance to an artist. His needle penetrates the white to the copper,
+giving the familiar effect of a reddish ink line on white paper. A
+normal ground, without treatment, is virtually transparent, making the
+etcher's lines rather difficult to see.[21] The most usual procedure,
+both in the 17th century and today, is to smoke the ground and
+incorporate the soot with the ground by heating the plate slightly. This
+gives a black ground, against which the lines appear light, the
+negative of the ultimate print. The black ground is favored, both out of
+long-established tradition and because it is very easy to apply.
+Furthermore, artists today explain that they also enjoy the feeling of
+working slightly blind, that one of their greatest rewards is the sense
+of surprise in peeling the first proof print off the plate. For whatever
+reason, the black ground has been preferred by the great majority of
+artists, both past and present.
+
+The description of Rembrandt's ground in 1660 takes knowledge of the
+white ground for granted. Its technique certainly appears to have been
+generally well known among artists in the middle of the 17th century.
+Rubens, in a letter as early as 1622, mentions having received a recipe
+for a white ground, although he could not remember it.[22] The first
+technical explanation of the process appeared in Bosse's pioneer
+treatise in 1645.[23] There is no reason why Rembrandt should not have
+known of the white-ground technique and every reason to suppose that he
+did.
+
+There is one piece of strong evidence that he did use a white ground
+about 1631. One of Rembrandt's drawings exists which, unlike most of his
+sketches is an exact prototype (in reverse) of a specific etching,
+_Diana at the Bath_.[24] The back of this drawing is covered with black
+chalk, and its lines show the indentation of tracing. The only
+reasonable explanation of this evidence is that Rembrandt placed his
+prepared drawing on top of a white-grounded plate and traced the lines,
+depositing the black chalk lines on the ground, where he could then
+trace them with his etching needle. Another similarly indented
+drawing--for the portrait of Cornelis Claesz Anslo--has been held to
+show the same procedure as late as 1641. This drawing, however, is
+backed, not with black chalk as previously cited, but with ocher
+tempera.[25] Although surely used for tracing, this gives perhaps even
+more evidence of his use of a black ground rather than white, although
+ocher lines would show on either. These conclusions are not meant to
+imply in any way that Rembrandt used the tracing of a drawing for his
+_Landscape with a hay barn_.... There is every probability that he did
+not do so. The implication is rather that only where a traced drawing
+with black backing exists do we have circumstantial evidence for the
+use, and possibly a more general use, of white ground. Without the
+published recipe no question would be likely to arise that Rembrandt
+used anything but the standard black ground. With it, we must search for
+corroboration.
+
+Though the case must be left as "not proven," the use of a white etching
+ground is consistent with Rembrandt's practice of using the simplest
+effective means for achieving his artistic aims. The distinctive quality
+of the print under consideration here is the artist's remarkable
+placement and articulation of areas of black against the white paper.
+Rembrandt may have found it far easier to visualize this ultimate effect
+by using a white background for dark lines on his plate, rather than the
+negative.
+
+Rembrandt almost certainly made all the etched lines in this print in a
+single operation. The lines were put on the plate before it went into
+the acid. The plate was then etched by the acid in a single biting,
+without stopping-out. The evidence for these assertions comes from the
+print itself, as we have no direct testimony in the matter.
+
+In the first place, the etched lines must be distinguished from the
+drypoint lines applied at a later stage. The differences between the
+types of line are more easily seen than described. The etched line is
+clear and strong, from the clean biting of the acid. It is freer and
+more autographic because it is drawn through a wax surface, not
+scratched in a resisting metal surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 8
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, left center,
+showing light drypoint lines of the horizon and etched lines of figures
+and hillside. Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59384.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 9
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, left center,
+showing forceful lines of tree branch in pure drypoint. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59390.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 10
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, center,
+showing diagonal lines of light drypoint without burr. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59385.)]
+
+The drypoint line, by its nature, is more abrupt and forceful, showing
+the quality of having been scratched rather than drawn. There are two
+basic drypoint lines, depending upon the position in which the drypoint
+needle is held. When it is vertical or nearly so, the resulting line is
+shallow and prints more weakly and distantly than the etched line. When
+the needle is pulled at an angle of about 30 deg. to 60 deg., a very
+perceptible furrow of copper burr is thrown up on one or both sides of
+the line on the plate. This burr holds more ink than the clear channel
+and prints with a highly distinctive inky richness. Basically, etching
+removes metal from the plate entirely, whereas drypoint displaces it in
+furrows of burr. The rich fuzzy line produced by the burr is what we most
+typically associate with drypoint work. The first sort, the thin distant
+line, is nevertheless just as truly drypoint as the latter and is
+distinguishable by its forcefulness and clear direction.[26] The same
+line may also be created, with slightly more work, by using a scraper to
+remove the burr from a rich drypoint line.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 11
+
+Detail of _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_, bottom
+right, showing rich drypoint lines with burr. Enlarged 10 times.
+(Smithsonian photo 59386.)]
+
+Another way of making lines in a plate is with a burin--an instrument
+with a sharp triangular point--which is pushed through the copper,
+instead of being pulled, as is the drypoint needle. When used
+conventionally, the burin produces a very characteristic hard,
+controlled printed line, one which does not appear in this print. When
+used lightly, however, its line is virtually indistinguishable from
+that of the vertical drypoint needle. It is quite possible that
+Rembrandt used the burin in some of his work on this and other prints,
+but it seems a somewhat less likely tool than the drypoint. First, the
+non-etched lines in this print seem to have a more freely moving quality
+than could probably be produced with a burin, a rather stiff, if
+extremely precise tool. Second, when Rembrandt was commissioned in 1665
+to engrave a portrait expressly with a burin, he found himself unable to
+do so.[27] His inability, however, may be attributed as easily to
+Rembrandt's artistic independence as to his inexperience with the burin.
+Rembrandt's general use of the burin has been widely accepted. The
+question may not be that simple. These visible differences, then, enable
+us to separate the kinds of line within this print.
+
+The author has attempted, by tracing only the etched lines in the print,
+to recreate the state of the plate after Rembrandt's etching and before
+the application of drypoint (figure 12). It can be seen that Rembrandt's
+etched lines form only a foundation or skeleton for the finished work.
+It is in no sense complete in itself. More important, the picture lacks
+all the rich contrasts of light and shade which distinguish this print
+and most of Rembrandt's finished work.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 12
+
+Traced sketch by the author, showing only the etched lines in
+Rembrandt's print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a flock of sheep_.
+(Smithsonian photo 59398.)]
+
+It has been generally assumed that Rembrandt went through a fairly
+normal process of stopping-out and also re-etching in the course of his
+print-making. The visual evidence would indicate that he did not follow
+this procedure here. Stopping-out is, of course, a means of creating
+variations in the printed intensity of etched lines. After a plate has
+etched for a certain time--depending on the artist's inclination--it may
+be removed from the acid and some of its lines covered with a stop-out
+varnish, similar in texture and acid resistance to the basic ground. The
+plate is then put back in the acid and the remaining lines etched more
+deeply. This can be repeated any number of times, giving a wide range of
+intensity to the various etched lines. No such wide range of etched
+lines appears in the finished print. Further, where the edge of applied
+stop-out varnish crosses a single line, the change in depth of acid
+biting at that point is readily visible. Again, no such change of depth
+of a single line is visible here. The inference, unless attributed to
+very long coincidence, seems probable that Rembrandt used only a single
+acid etch on the entire plate, with no stopping-out.
+
+Re-etching also seems unlikely. If the original ground has been removed
+from a plate, the entire plate must be re-grounded, without smoking or
+whitening, so that the previously etched lines show through. Noticeably
+heavier etched lines appear at only a few places on this plate,
+principally in the grass at the lower right. It is probable that
+Rembrandt used a number of etching needles of different widths. We do
+not see the typical changes in the lines produced by stopping-out or
+re-etching. Re-etching of new lines crossing previously etched lines
+often causes a slight penetration of acid under the ground into the old
+lines. This shows in the printing as a dark spot at the point of
+crossing. Such an effect is not found in this print. A similar result in
+the cross-hatching at the lower left is caused instead by drypoint lines
+crossing etched lines.
+
+No direct evidence has been found concerning the acid corrosive used by
+Rembrandt to bite his plate.[28] Only tentative conclusions can be drawn
+from this and other prints. The etched lines in the _Landscape with a
+hay barn_ ... appear to be bitten with a fairly strong acid. The lines
+are relatively broad in relation to their depth, a strong-acid effect.
+Furthermore, illustrations of some of Rembrandt's original plates from
+this period show a similar broad line.[29] In addition, in the
+photograph (figure 14) of at least one of the plates there is seen a
+peculiarly ragged line which is often caused by bubbles formed on the
+plate by acid action.[30] This appearance of bubbles is characteristic
+only of the strong acids. Of the acid formulae suggested by Bosse in
+1645, only one--a distillate of vitriol, saltpeter, and alum--appears to
+be strong enough to produce the observed effects.[31] Generally
+speaking, Rembrandt's later etchings show evidence of stronger acid
+biting than his earlier work, which has more of the characteristics of
+weak mordants.[32] Certainly, a strong acid would produce a much
+speedier biting and bolder etched lines, providing him with a solid
+foundation for his fine drypoint work, and enabling him to work
+continuously, with a minimum of delay.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 13
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, lower right, showing lines of pure etching. Enlarged 10
+times. (Smithsonian photo 59387.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 14
+
+Detail of the etched copper plate for Rembrandt's print, _Christ seated
+disputing with the doctors_. After Coppier, p. 117. (Smithsonian photo
+59395.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 15
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, far right, showing drypoint drawing of sheep and post.
+Enlarged 10 times. (Smithsonian photo 59388.)]
+
+Rembrandt's use of drypoint is, as Jakob Rosenberg says, "the most
+important innovation in Rembrandt's mature graphic work."[33] After
+etching his skeletal design on the plate, he went to work with his
+drypoint needles--long, stiff, iron instruments--sharpened to a fine
+point. An artist generally has several available, so that he does not
+have to stop and re-sharpen in the course of his work. Rembrandt
+evidently went even further and deliberately used dull needles to obtain
+certain light line effects.
+
+When the finished print is compared with the sketch of the etched lines
+alone, it can be seen how vital the drypoint is to Rembrandt's whole
+conception. The needle held vertically and slightly dulled, for
+instance, produced the light shadings on the central hillock at lower
+left. The sharp needle, held at an angle, threw up the burr which
+printed as the rich blacks on both sides of the hay barn, along the bank
+of the stream, and on the road at left center. The sheep and post at the
+far right were completely drawn with drypoint, as was the shepherd of
+the flock at left center (figure 16). It is interesting to note that the
+flock originally had two shepherds, evidently a man and a woman,
+standing at the center of the road and behind the flock.[34] These
+figures were drawn in the ground and etched in the first stage of the
+print. Rembrandt then must have decided that their proportion was wrong
+for his composition. He reworked the area, using a scraper or burnisher
+to flatten out his etched lines, and covered the remaining ghosts of the
+figures with a mesh of drypoint cross-hatching. He then added the single
+small figure of the shepherd boy entirely in drypoint.
+
+[Illustration: FIGURE 16
+
+Detail of Rembrandt's finished print, _Landscape with a hay barn and a
+flock of sheep_, showing shepherd in drypoint, erased figures behind
+flock, signature, and date. Enlarged 5 times. (Smithsonian photo
+59389.)]
+
+Houbraken, writing in 1718, talked of Rembrandt's technical secrets,
+"which he would not let his pupils see."[35] In truth, there are no
+secrets to this artist's _technique_ in the etching medium. But his
+mastery of the _art_ goes far beyond communicable secrets.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] Hind 241 (+A. M. Hind+, _A Catalogue of Rembrandt's
+Etchings_, 2 vol., rev. ed., London, 1923), Bartsch 224 (+Adam Bartsch+,
+_Catalogue raisonne de toutes les estampes ... de Rembrandt_ ...,
+Vienna, 1797). The particular example studied here is an impression of
+the second state (of two) in the collection of the United States
+National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
+
+The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to Jacob Kainen,
+curator of graphic arts at the Smithsonian Institution, for his acute
+knowledge, unfailing helpfulness, and encouragement in the preparation
+of this paper.
+
+[2] P. G. Hamerton, for one, calls special attention to the
+technical importance of this print: "I recommend the student to
+familiarize himself with the workmanship of this plate...." (_The
+Etchings of Rembrandt_, London, 1894, p. 71.)
+
+[3] The date is unquestionably difficult to read. Bartsch
+misread it as 1636 (op. cit., p. 148). Charles Middleton (_Descriptive
+Catalogue of the Etched Work of Rembrandt van Ryn_, London, 1878, p.
+299) was the first to identify the date as 1650. This has been accepted
+by all modern authorities except George Bioerklund (_Rembrandt's
+Etchings: True and False_, Stockholm, 1955, no. 52-A, p. 103) who reads
+it as 1652. This seems unlikely to me, not only on the great stylistic
+affinity of this print to Rembrandt's unquestioned works of 1650, but
+also on the basis of my own reading of the date. The presumed digit "2"
+is quite unlike the "2" in Hind's 257 and 263, Rembrandt's only dated
+prints of 1652. (_See_ figure 16.)
+
+[4] The general location of this scene, as well as many others
+in Rembrandt's oeuvre, has been identified by Frits Lugt (_Mit Rembrandt
+in Amsterdam_, Berlin, 1920, pp. 136-140, revised from the original
+Dutch, _Wandelingen met Rembrandt in en om Amsterdam_, Amsterdam, 1915;
+see also +Lugt+, "Rembrandt's Amsterdam," _Print Collector's Quarterly_,
+April 1915, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 111-169, and the attached map).
+
+[5] +Cornelis Hofstede de Groot+, ed., _Die Urkunden ueber
+Rembrandt (1575-1721)_, The Hague, 1906. On the lawsuit, see nos. 113,
+117, 118, 120-3, 130, and 165. Geertghe was taken to the institution on
+July 4, 1650.
+
+[6] On the financial troubles, starting in 1653, see ibid.,
+nos. 140 ff.
+
+[7] The exact number is, of course, impossible to determine,
+because of many uncertainties of attribution and dating. A. M. Hind, op.
+cit., lists 236 prints before the year 1650, which seems as accurate a
+count as is possible.
+
+[8] According to Hind, op. cit., the 14 landscapes nos. 237-260
+and 262-264 are attributable to the years 1650-52. Of the 27 prints from
+these three years, 16 are actually signed and dated by Rembrandt. Nine
+of these 16 are landscapes.
+
+[9] E.g., +C. J. Holmes+, "The Development of Rembrandt as an
+Etcher," _Burlington Magazine_ (August 1906), vol. 9, no. 41, p. 313.
+The well-known story of his having drawn "Six's Bridge" (Hind 209) on
+the plate while the servant went for the mustard is also often cited
+(e.g., +Hind+, op. cit., p. 95), but if true appears to be atypical.
+
+[10] +Otto Benesch+, _The Drawings of Rembrandt_, 6 vol.,
+London, 1954-57.
+
+[11] Benesch no. 1225, Groningen (Netherlands) Museum, inv. no.
+210, dated about 1650, the wash added by another hand. This drawing was
+formerly in the personal collection of Cornelis Hofstede de Groot and
+was first reproduced and discussed by Otto Hirschmann in "Die
+Handzeichnungen-Sammlung Dr. Hofstede de Groot im Haag, II," _Der
+Cicerone_ (Leipzig, January 1917), vol. 9, no. 1/2, pp. 21-22.
+
+[12] Benesch 850, _A Clump of Trees_, The Hermitage, Leningrad,
+about 1648-50, and Benesch 1246, _Farm Building Among Trees_, Albertina,
+Vienna, inv. no. 8873, Hofstede de Groot 1497 (_Die Handzeichnungen
+Rembrandts_ ..., Haarlem, 1906), about 1650-51.
+
+[13] Benesch 1236, _Farmstead with a Hay Barn_, Copenhagen,
+about 1650.
+
+[14] Benesch 1226, _Farm Buildings Beside a Road with Distant
+Farmstead_, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Hofstede de Groot 1138, about
+1650, with later additions. Ludwig Muenz (_Rembrandt's Etchings_, 2
+vols., London, 1952, no. 159, vol. 2, p. 84) cites two drawings, one in
+the Ashmolean, one in the University Gallery, Oxford. Since the two
+museums are now one and the same, Muenz appears to have confused two
+listings of the same drawing. Mr. Hugh Macandrew of the Ashmolean Museum
+has very kindly confirmed, in a letter to the author, that in their
+collection there is only the one drawing which is similar to this print.
+There is yet another drawing, _Farm with Hay Barn_, in the Bonnat
+collection at the Louvre, Paris, Hofstede de Groot 764, which is cited
+by Hind as a study sketch. Though very similar to this print, in
+reverse, it is considered a school piece by both Lugt and Benesch. It is
+quite possible that one of Rembrandt's pupils accompanied him on his
+walks and sketched many of the same subjects as the master. The drawing
+reproduced in +Lugt+, _Mit Rembrandt_ ..., op. cit., fig. 87, is also
+not by Rembrandt.
+
+[15] Joachim von Sandrart, a former pupil of Rembrandt, writing
+in 1675, quoted in +Hofstede de Groot+, _Die ... Urkunden_, op. cit.,
+no. 329, p. 392.
+
+[16] The plate for the print under discussion here is not known
+to have survived. There are, however, still some 79 Rembrandt plates
+whose present locations are known. Of these, 75 are in the collection of
+Robert Lee Humber, on deposit at the North Carolina Museum of Art,
+Raleigh, North Carolina. These are discussed at some length by Andre
+Charles Coppier (_Les eaux-fortes de Rembrandt_, Paris, 1922, pp.
+94-96). He gives the chemical content of the plate for the _Presentation
+in the Temple_ (Hind 162, about 1640), as 95% copper with impurities of
+tin, lead, zinc, arsenic, and silver. This may presumably be taken as
+typical. +Muenz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 47, gives a listing of the
+surviving plates, but mistakenly presumes the Humber plates to be in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. As a matter of interest, the plate of the
+print, _The Gold-Weigher_ (Hind 167), said by Muenz to be in the
+Rosenwald collection, Philadelphia, is not and never has been in that
+collection. It is completely unknown to Mr. Lessing J. Rosenwald and his
+curator. Its present whereabouts is unknown to the author.
+
+[17] _The Whole Art of Drawing, Painting, Limning, and Etching.
+Collected out of the Choicest Italian and German Authors.... Originally
+invented and written by the famous Italian Painter Odoardo Fialetti,
+Painter of Boloign. Published for the Benefit of all ingenuous Gentlemen
+and Artists by Alexander Brown Practitioner. London, Printed for Peter
+Stint at the Signe of the White Horse in Giltspurre Street, and Simon
+Miller at the Starre in St. Paul's Churchyard, MDCLX._ Page 33. London,
+1660. Quoted by +Muenz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 208, who first discovered
+the reference. Since Fialetti died in 1638, the reference to Rembrandt's
+ground is likely to be by Brown or an anonymous contemporary editor.
+
+[18] +Abraham Bosse+, _Traicte des manieres de graver en taille
+douce_ ..., Paris, 1645, p. 41. Bosse's soft-ground formula, for
+comparison's sake, is three parts wax, two parts mastic, and one part
+asphaltum, which is very close to the cited Rembrandt ground.
+
+[19] Numerous similar grounds are given in +E. S. Lumsden+,
+_The Art of Etching_ (London: Seeley Service and Co., 1924); reprint
+(New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962), pp. 35-38.
+
+[20] Loc. cit. (footnote 17).
+
+[21] Some etchers, however, prefer this effect. Cf. +Lumsden+,
+op. cit., p. 42.
+
+[22] +Muenz+, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 13, quotes this letter
+without giving the source. Evidently this is the first written reference
+to white ground.
+
+[23] Op. cit., pp. 46-48. Knowledge of the process seems to
+have disappeared completely during the 18th and 19th centuries. Hubert
+Herkomer, writing in 1892, believed that he had invented the white
+ground for the first time (_Etching and Mezzotint Engraving_, London,
+1892, pp. 4 and 25).
+
+[24] The etching is Hind 42. The drawing (Benesch 21, Hofstede
+de Groot 893) is in the British Museum. The black chalk has been
+confirmed (see footnote 25). It is also clear that the backing is not
+graphite, which would, of course, show up on a black ground as well as a
+white one.
+
+[25] The etching is Hind 187. The drawing (Benesch 758,
+Hofstede de Groot 896) is in the British Museum. Some scholarly
+misinformation has unfortunately been passed on for years. +Muenz+, op.
+cit., vol. 2, p. 65, cites Jan Six ("Rembrandt's Vorbereiding ...,"
+_Onze Kunst_, 1908, II, p. 53), who in turn cites the personal
+observation of A. M. Hind of the British Museum, to the effect that this
+drawing of Anslo was backed with black chalk. The two drawings had
+apparently not been lifted from their mounts in something like sixty
+years. In answer to the author's inquiry, Mr. J. K. Rowlands, Assistant
+Keeper, Department of Prints and Drawings, the British Museum, very
+kindly wrote: "I can now tell you about the backs of H. 42 and H. 187
+[that is, the drawings for these two prints], which have now been
+lifted. The reverse of _The Woman Bathing_ [_Diana at the Bath_] has the
+remains of black unrefined chalk upon it and the portrait of Anslo is
+backed with Ochre tempera. I think this news will interest you." I am
+most grateful to Mr. Rowlands and his staff for their trouble and
+kindness.
+
+[26] An excellent example of this type of line is seen in the
+horizon lines on the left, which in this case were added only after
+several proofs had been pulled from the plate. The addition of these
+lines constitutes the difference between the recorded first and second
+states of this print.
+
+[27] The documents on this story were first published by
+Bredius in 1909 ("Rembrandt als Plaatsnijder," _Oud-Holland_, v. 27, pp.
+112 f.) and have been frequently cited since then. The print is the
+portrait of Jan Antonides van der Linden (Hind 268).
+
+[28] Confusion has arisen over a note, clearly in Rembrandt's
+hand, on one of his drawings (Benesch 1351, Hofstede de Groot 763, dated
+about 1654-55). The Dutch text is given in +Benesch+, op. cit., vol. 6,
+p. 374. It reads, "In order to etch ...," and gives a recipe consisting
+of turpentine and turpentine oil. This, of course, could not possibly be
+a mordant. Muenz discusses it (op. cit., vol. 2, p. 14) and concludes
+that with the addition of mastic, this could be a kind of stop-out
+varnish. We are not likely to come closer to an answer for this cryptic
+inscription.
+
+[29] +Coppier+, op. cit.
+
+[30] _Ibid._, p. 117. Detail of plate for Hind 277, dated
+1654.
+
+[31] +Bosse+, op. cit., pp. 5 and 11. Vitriol is copper or iron
+sulfate, saltpeter is potassium nitrate, and alum is an aluminum sulfate
+salt. Bosse's other two acids are distilled pure vinegar (acetic acid)
+and a boiled mixture of vinegar and chloride salts. Both are relatively
+weak. My thanks to Dr. Robert P. Multhauf for his advice on 17th-century
+chemistry.
+
+[32] +Felix Brunner+ (_A Handbook of Graphic Reproduction
+Processes_, New York: Hastings House, 1962, p. 124), suggests that
+Rembrandt may have used ferric chloride, a weaker mordant, around 1640.
+
+[33] +Rosenberg+, _Rembrandt: Life and Work_ (London: Phaidon
+Press, rev. ed., 1964), p. 330.
+
+[34] My gratitude to Jacob Kainen for first pointing out the
+existence of these disembodied spirits.
+
+[35] Arnold Houbraken, quoted in +Hofstede de Groot+, _Die
+Urkunden_ ..., op. cit., no. 407, p. 471.
+
+
+
+
+U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1966
+
+For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+Office Washington, D. C. 20402 Price 20 cents
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rembrandt's Etching Technique: An
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