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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Child and the Curriculum, by John Dewey
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Child and the Curriculum
+
+
+Author: John Dewey
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 28, 2009  [eBook #29259]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram, Andrew D. Hwang, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from
+digital material generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries (http://www.archive.org/details/toronto)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/childandcurricul00deweuoft
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM
+
+by
+
+JOHN DEWEY
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Device]
+
+The University of Chicago Press
+Chicago & London
+
+The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London
+
+The University of Toronto Press, Toronto 5, Canada
+
+Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
+Published 1902. Twenty-eighth Impression 1966 Printed in the United
+States of America
+
+
+
+
+_The Child and the Curriculum_
+
+
+Profound differences in theory are never gratuitous or invented. They
+grow out of conflicting elements in a genuine problem--a problem
+which is genuine just because the elements, taken as they stand, are
+conflicting. Any significant problem involves conditions that for the
+moment contradict each other. Solution comes only by getting away from
+the meaning of terms that is already fixed upon and coming to see the
+conditions from another point of view, and hence in a fresh light. But
+this reconstruction means travail of thought. Easier than thinking with
+surrender of already formed ideas and detachment from facts already
+learned is just to stick by what is already said, looking about for
+something with which to buttress it against attack.
+
+Thus sects arise: schools of opinion. Each selects that set of
+conditions that appeals to it; and then erects them into a complete and
+independent truth, instead of treating them as a factor in a problem,
+needing adjustment.
+
+The fundamental factors in the educative process are an immature,
+undeveloped being; and certain social aims, meanings, values incarnate
+in the matured experience of the adult. The educative process is the due
+interaction of these forces. Such a conception of each in relation to
+the other as facilitates completest and freest interaction is the
+essence of educational theory.
+
+But here comes the effort of thought. It is easier to see the conditions
+in their separateness, to insist upon one at the expense of the other,
+to make antagonists of them, than to discover a reality to which each
+belongs. The easy thing is to seize upon something in the nature of the
+child, or upon something in the developed consciousness of the adult,
+and insist upon _that_ as the key to the whole problem. When this
+happens a really serious practical problem--that of interaction--is
+transformed into an unreal, and hence insoluble, theoretic problem.
+Instead of seeing the educative steadily and as a whole, we see
+conflicting terms. We get the case of the child _vs._ the curriculum; of
+the individual nature _vs._ social culture. Below all other divisions in
+pedagogic opinion lies this opposition.
+
+The child lives in a somewhat narrow world of personal contacts. Things
+hardly come within his experience unless they touch, intimately and
+obviously, his own well-being, or that of his family and friends. His
+world is a world of persons with their personal interests, rather than
+a realm of facts and laws. Not truth, in the sense of conformity to
+external fact, but affection and sympathy, is its keynote. As against
+this, the course of study met in the school presents material stretching
+back indefinitely in time, and extending outward indefinitely into
+space. The child is taken out of his familiar physical environment,
+hardly more than a square mile or so in area, into the wide world--yes,
+and even to the bounds of the solar system. His little span of personal
+memory and tradition is overlaid with the long centuries of the history
+of all peoples.
+
+Again, the child's life is an integral, a total one. He passes quickly
+and readily from one topic to another, as from one spot to another,
+but is not conscious of transition or break. There is no conscious
+isolation, hardly conscious distinction. The things that occupy him are
+held together by the unity of the personal and social interests which
+his life carries along. Whatever is uppermost in his mind constitutes
+to him, for the time being, the whole universe. That universe is fluid
+and fluent; its contents dissolve and re-form with amazing rapidity.
+But, after all, it is the child's own world. It has the unity and
+completeness of his own life. He goes to school, and various studies
+divide and fractionize the world for him. Geography selects, it
+abstracts and analyzes one set of facts, and from one particular point
+of view. Arithmetic is another division, grammar another department, and
+so on indefinitely.
+
+Again, in school each of these subjects is classified. Facts are torn
+away from their original place in experience and rearranged with
+reference to some general principle. Classification is not a matter
+of child experience; things do not come to the individual pigeonholed.
+The vital ties of affection, the connecting bonds of activity, hold
+together the variety of his personal experiences. The adult mind is so
+familiar with the notion of logically ordered facts that it does not
+recognize--it cannot realize--the amount of separating and reformulating
+which the facts of direct experience have to undergo before they can
+appear as a "study," or branch of learning. A principle, for the
+intellect, has had to be distinguished and defined; facts have had
+to be interpreted in relation to this principle, not as they are in
+themselves. They have had to be regathered about a new center which is
+wholly abstract and ideal. All this means a development of a special
+intellectual interest. It means ability to view facts impartially and
+objectively; that is, without reference to their place and meaning in
+one's own experience. It means capacity to analyze and to synthesize. It
+means highly matured intellectual habits and the command of a definite
+technique and apparatus of scientific inquiry. The studies as classified
+are the product, in a word, of the science of the ages, not of the
+experience of the child.
+
+These apparent deviations and differences between child and curriculum
+might be almost indefinitely widened. But we have here sufficiently
+fundamental divergences: first, the narrow but personal world of the
+child against the impersonal but infinitely extended world of space and
+time; second, the unity, the single wholeheartedness of the child's
+life, and the specializations and divisions of the curriculum; third, an
+abstract principle of logical classification and arrangement, and the
+practical and emotional bonds of child life.
+
+From these elements of conflict grow up different educational sects.
+One school fixes its attention upon the importance of the subject-matter
+of the curriculum as compared with the contents of the child's own
+experience. It is as if they said: Is life petty, narrow, and crude?
+Then studies reveal the great, wide universe with all its fulness and
+complexity of meaning. Is the life of the child egoistic, self-centered,
+impulsive? Then in these studies is found an objective universe of
+truth, law, and order. Is his experience confused, vague, uncertain,
+at the mercy of the moment's caprice and circumstance? Then studies
+introduce a world arranged on the basis of eternal and general truth; a
+world where all is measured and defined. Hence the moral: ignore and
+minimize the child's individual peculiarities, whims, and experiences.
+They are what we need to get away from. They are to be obscured or
+eliminated. As educators our work is precisely to substitute for these
+superficial and casual affairs stable and well-ordered realities; and
+these are found in studies and lessons.
+
+Subdivide each topic into studies; each study into lessons; each lesson
+into specific facts and formulae. Let the child proceed step by step to
+master each one of these separate parts, and at last he will have
+covered the entire ground. The road which looks so long when viewed in
+its entirety is easily traveled, considered as a series of particular
+steps. Thus emphasis is put upon the logical subdivisions and
+consecutions of the subject-matter. Problems of instruction are problems
+of procuring texts giving logical parts and sequences, and of presenting
+these portions in class in a similar definite and graded way.
+Subject-matter furnishes the end, and it determines method. The child is
+simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial
+being who is to be deepened; his is narrow experience which is to be
+widened. It is his to receive, to accept. His part is fulfilled when he
+is ductile and docile.
+
+Not so, says the other sect. The child is the starting-point, the
+center, and the end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It
+alone furnishes the standard. To the growth of the child all studies
+are subservient; they are instruments valued as they serve the needs
+of growth. Personality, character, is more than subject-matter. Not
+knowledge or information, but self-realization, is the goal. To possess
+all the world of knowledge and lose one's own self is as awful a fate in
+education as in religion. Moreover, subject-matter never can be got into
+the child from without. Learning is active. It involves reaching out
+of the mind. It involves organic assimilation starting from within.
+Literally, we must take our stand with the child and our departure from
+him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality
+and quantity of learning.
+
+The only significant method is the method of the mind as it reaches
+out and assimilates. Subject-matter is but spiritual food, possible
+nutritive material. It cannot digest itself; it cannot of its own
+accord turn into bone and muscle and blood. The source of whatever
+is dead, mechanical, and formal in schools is found precisely in the
+subordination of the life and experience of the child to the curriculum.
+It is because of this that "study" has become a synonym for what is
+irksome, and a lesson identical with a task.
+
+This fundamental opposition of child and curriculum set up by these
+two modes of doctrine can be duplicated in a series of other terms.
+"Discipline" is the watchword of those who magnify the course of study;
+"interest" that of those who blazon "The Child" upon their banner. The
+standpoint of the former is logical; that of the latter psychological.
+The first emphasizes the necessity of adequate training and scholarship
+on the part of the teacher; the latter that of need of sympathy with the
+child, and knowledge of his natural instincts. "Guidance and control"
+are the catchwords of one school; "freedom and initiative" of the other.
+Law is asserted here; spontaneity proclaimed there. The old, the
+conservation of what has been achieved in the pain and toil of the ages,
+is dear to the one; the new, change, progress, wins the affection of the
+other. Inertness and routine, chaos and anarchism, are accusations
+bandied back and forth. Neglect of the sacred authority of duty is
+charged by one side, only to be met by counter-charges of suppression
+of individuality through tyrannical despotism.
+
+Such oppositions are rarely carried to their logical conclusion.
+Common-sense recoils at the extreme character of these results. They
+are left to theorists, while common-sense vibrates back and forward
+in a maze of inconsistent compromise. The need of getting theory and
+practical common-sense into closer connection suggests a return to our
+original thesis: that we have here conditions which are necessarily
+related to each other in the educative process, since this is precisely
+one of interaction and adjustment.
+
+What, then, is the problem? It is just to get rid of the prejudicial
+notion that there is some gap in kind (as distinct from degree) between
+the child's experience and the various forms of subject-matter that make
+up the course of study. From the side of the child, it is a question of
+seeing how his experience already contains within itself elements--facts
+and truths--of just the same sort as those entering into the formulated
+study; and, what is of more importance, of how it contains within itself
+the attitudes, the motives, and the interests which have operated in
+developing and organizing the subject-matter to the plane which it now
+occupies. From the side of the studies, it is a question of interpreting
+them as outgrowths of forces operating in the child's life, and of
+discovering the steps that intervene between the child's present
+experience and their richer maturity.
+
+Abandon the notion of subject-matter as something fixed and ready-made
+in itself, outside the child's experience; cease thinking of the child's
+experience as also something hard and fast; see it as something fluent,
+embryonic, vital; and we realize that the child and the curriculum are
+simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points
+define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the
+facts and truths of studies define instruction. It is continuous
+reconstruction, moving from the child's present experience out into that
+represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies.
+
+On the face of it, the various studies, arithmetic, geography, language,
+botany, etc., are themselves experience--they are that of the race. They
+embody the cumulative outcome of the efforts, the strivings, and the
+successes of the human race generation after generation. They present
+this, not as a mere accumulation, not as a miscellaneous heap of
+separate bits of experience, but in some organized and systematized
+way--that is, as reflectively formulated.
+
+Hence, the facts and truths that enter into the child's present
+experience, and those contained in the subject-matter of studies, are
+the initial and final terms of one reality. To oppose one to the other
+is to oppose the infancy and maturity of the same growing life; it is to
+set the moving tendency and the final result of the same process over
+against each other; it is to hold that the nature and the destiny of the
+child war with each other.
+
+If such be the case, the problem of the relation of the child and the
+curriculum presents itself in this guise: Of what use, educationally
+speaking, is it to be able to see the end in the beginning? How does
+it assist us in dealing with the early stages of growth to be able to
+anticipate its later phases? The studies, as we have agreed, represent
+the possibilities of development inherent in the child's immediate crude
+experience. But, after all, they are not parts of that present and
+immediate life. Why, then, or how, make account of them?
+
+Asking such a question suggests its own answer. To see the outcome is
+to know in what direction the present experience is moving, provided
+it move normally and soundly. The far-away point, which is of no
+significance to us simply as far away, becomes of huge importance the
+moment we take it as defining a present direction of movement. Taken
+in this way it is no remote and distant result to be achieved, but a
+guiding method in dealing with the present. The systematized and defined
+experience of the adult mind, in other words, is of value to us in
+interpreting the child's life as it immediately shows itself, and in
+passing on to guidance or direction.
+
+Let us look for a moment at these two ideas: interpretation and
+guidance. The child's present experience is in no way self-explanatory.
+It is not final, but transitional. It is nothing complete in itself, but
+just a sign or index of certain growth-tendencies. As long as we confine
+our gaze to what the child here and now puts forth, we are confused and
+misled. We cannot read its meaning. Extreme depreciations of the child
+morally and intellectually, and sentimental idealizations of him, have
+their root in a common fallacy. Both spring from taking stages of a
+growth or movement as something cut off and fixed. The first fails
+to see the promise contained in feelings and deeds which, taken by
+themselves, are uncompromising and repellent; the second fails to see
+that even the most pleasing and beautiful exhibitions are but signs,
+and that they begin to spoil and rot the moment they are treated as
+achievements.
+
+What we need is something which will enable us to interpret, to
+appraise, the elements in the child's present puttings forth and
+fallings away, his exhibitions of power and weakness, in the light of
+some larger growth-process in which they have their place. Only in this
+way can we discriminate. If we isolate the child's present inclinations,
+purposes, and experiences from the place they occupy and the part they
+have to perform in a developing experience, all stand upon the same
+level; all alike are equally good and equally bad. But in the movement
+of life different elements stand upon different planes of value. Some of
+the child's deeds are symptoms of a waning tendency; they are survivals
+in functioning of an organ which has done its part and is passing out of
+vital use. To give positive attention to such qualities is to arrest
+development upon a lower level. It is systematically to maintain a
+rudimentary phase of growth. Other activities are signs of a culminating
+power and interest; to them applies the maxim of striking while the
+iron is hot. As regards them, it is perhaps a matter of now or never.
+Selected, utilized, emphasized, they may mark a turning-point for good
+in the child's whole career; neglected, an opportunity goes, never to
+be recalled. Other acts and feelings are prophetic; they represent the
+dawning of flickering light that will shine steadily only in the far
+future. As regards them there is little at present to do but give them
+fair and full chance, waiting for the future for definite direction.
+
+Just as, upon the whole, it was the weakness of the "old education" that
+it made invidious comparisons between the immaturity of the child and
+the maturity of the adult, regarding the former as something to be got
+away from as soon as possible and as much as possible; so it is the
+danger of the "new education" that it regard the child's present powers
+and interests as something finally significant in themselves. In truth,
+his learnings and achievements are fluid and moving. They change from
+day to day and from hour to hour.
+
+It will do harm if child-study leave in the popular mind the impression
+that a child of a given age has a positive equipment of purposes and
+interests to be cultivated just as they stand. Interests in reality are
+but attitudes toward possible experiences; they are not achievements;
+their worth is in the leverage they afford, not in the accomplishment
+they represent. To take the phenomena presented at a given age as
+in any way self-explanatory or self-contained is inevitably to result
+in indulgence and spoiling. Any power, whether of child or adult,
+is indulged when it is taken on its given and present level in
+consciousness. Its genuine meaning is in the propulsion it affords
+toward a higher level. It is just something to do with. Appealing to the
+interest upon the present plane means excitation; it means playing with
+a power so as continually to stir it up without directing it toward
+definite achievement. Continuous initiation, continuous starting of
+activities that do not arrive, is, for all practical purposes, as bad
+as the continual repression of initiative in conformity with supposed
+interests of some more perfect thought or will. It is as if the child
+were forever tasting and never eating; always having his palate tickled
+upon the emotional side, but never getting the organic satisfaction that
+comes only with digestion of food and transformation of it into working
+power.
+
+As against such a view, the subject-matter of science and history and
+art serves to reveal the real child to us. We do not know the meaning
+either of his tendencies or of his performances excepting as we take
+them as germinating seed, or opening bud, of some fruit to be borne. The
+whole world of visual nature is all too small an answer to the problem
+of the meaning of the child's instinct for light and form. The entire
+science of physics is none too much to interpret adequately to us what
+is involved in some simple demand of the child for explanation of some
+casual change that has attracted his attention. The art of Raphael or of
+Corot is none too much to enable us to value the impulses stirring in
+the child when he draws and daubs.
+
+So much for the use of the subject-matter in interpretation. Its further
+employment in direction or guidance is but an expansion of the same
+thought. To interpret the fact is to see it in its vital movement, to
+see it in its relation to growth. But to view it as a part of a normal
+growth is to secure the basis for guiding it. Guidance is not external
+imposition. _It is freeing the life-process for its own most adequate
+fulfilment._ What was said about disregard of the child's present
+experience because of its remoteness from mature experience; and of the
+sentimental idealization of the child's naïve caprices and performances,
+may be repeated here with slightly altered phrase. There are those who
+see no alternative between forcing the child from without, or leaving
+him entirely alone. Seeing no alternative, some choose one mode, some
+another. Both fall into the same fundamental error. Both fail to see
+that development is a definite process, having its own law which can be
+fulfilled only when adequate and normal conditions are provided. Really
+to interpret the child's present crude impulses in counting, measuring,
+and arranging things in rhythmic series involves mathematical
+scholarship--a knowledge of the mathematical formulae and relations
+which have, in the history of the race, grown out of just such crude
+beginnings. To see the whole history of development which intervenes
+between these two terms is simply to see what step the child needs to
+take just here and now; to what use he needs to put his blind impulse in
+order that it may get clarity and gain force.
+
+If, once more, the "old education" tended to ignore the dynamic quality,
+the developing force inherent in the child's present experience, and
+therefore to assume that direction and control were just matters of
+arbitrarily putting the child in a given path and compelling him to
+walk there, the "new education" is in danger of taking the idea of
+development in altogether too formal and empty a way. The child is
+expected to "develop" this or that fact or truth out of his own mind. He
+is told to think things out, or work things out for himself, without
+being supplied any of the environing conditions which are requisite to
+start and guide thought. Nothing can be developed from nothing; nothing
+but the crude can be developed out of the crude--and this is what surely
+happens when we throw the child back upon his achieved self as a
+finality, and invite him to spin new truths of nature or of conduct
+out of that. It is certainly as futile to expect a child to evolve a
+universe out of his own mere mind as it is for a philosopher to attempt
+that task. Development does not mean just getting something out of the
+mind. It is a development of experience and into experience that is
+really wanted. And this is impossible save as just that educative medium
+is provided which will enable the powers and interests that have been
+selected as valuable to function. They must operate, and how they
+operate will depend almost entirely upon the stimuli which surround
+them and the material upon which they exercise themselves. The problem
+of direction is thus the problem of selecting appropriate stimuli for
+instincts and impulses which it is desired to employ in the gaining
+of new experience. What new experiences are desirable, and thus what
+stimuli are needed, it is impossible to tell except as there is some
+comprehension of the development which is aimed at; except, in a word,
+as the adult knowledge is drawn upon as revealing the possible career
+open to the child.
+
+It may be of use to distinguish and to relate to each other the logical
+and the psychological aspects of experience--the former standing for
+subject-matter in itself, the latter for it in relation to the child. A
+psychological statement of experience follows its actual growth; it is
+historic; it notes steps actually taken, the uncertain and tortuous, as
+well as the efficient and successful. The logical point of view, on the
+other hand, assumes that the development has reached a certain positive
+stage of fulfilment. It neglects the process and considers the outcome.
+It summarizes and arranges, and thus separates the achieved results from
+the actual steps by which they were forthcoming in the first instance.
+We may compare the difference between the logical and the psychological
+to the difference between the notes which an explorer makes in a new
+country, blazing a trail and finding his way along as best he may,
+and the finished map that is constructed after the country has been
+thoroughly explored. The two are mutually dependent. Without the more
+or less accidental and devious paths traced by the explorer there would
+be no facts which could be utilized in the making of the complete and
+related chart. But no one would get the benefit of the explorer's trip
+if it was not compared and checked up with similar wanderings undertaken
+by others; unless the new geographical facts learned, the streams
+crossed, the mountains climbed, etc., were viewed, not as mere incidents
+in the journey of the particular traveler, but (quite apart from the
+individual explorer's life) in relation to other similar facts already
+known. The map orders individual experiences, connecting them with one
+another irrespective of the local and temporal circumstances and
+accidents of their original discovery.
+
+Of what use is this formulated statement of experience? Of what use is
+the map?
+
+Well, we may first tell what the map is not. The map is not a substitute
+for a personal experience. The map does not take the place of an actual
+journey. The logically formulated material of a science or branch of
+learning, of a study, is no substitute for the having of individual
+experiences. The mathematical formula for a falling body does not take
+the place of personal contact and immediate individual experience with
+the falling thing. But the map, a summary, an arranged and orderly
+view of previous experiences, serves as a guide to future experience;
+it gives direction; it facilitates control; it economizes effort,
+preventing useless wandering, and pointing out the paths which lead most
+quickly and most certainly to a desired result. Through the map every
+new traveler may get for his own journey the benefits of the results
+of others' explorations without the waste of energy and loss of time
+involved in their wanderings--wanderings which he himself would be
+obliged to repeat were it not for just the assistance of the objective
+and generalized record of their performances. That which we call a
+science or study puts the net product of past experience in the
+form which makes it most available for the future. It represents a
+capitalization which may at once be turned to interest. It economizes
+the workings of the mind in every way. Memory is less taxed because the
+facts are grouped together about some common principle, instead of being
+connected solely with the varying incidents of their original discovery.
+Observation is assisted; we know what to look for and where to look.
+It is the difference between looking for a needle in a haystack, and
+searching for a given paper in a well-arranged cabinet. Reasoning is
+directed, because there is a certain general path or line laid out
+along which ideas naturally march, instead of moving from one chance
+association to another.
+
+There is, then, nothing final about a logical rendering of experience.
+Its value is not contained in itself; its significance is that of
+standpoint, outlook, method. It intervenes between the more casual,
+tentative, and roundabout experiences of the past, and more controlled
+and orderly experiences of the future. It gives past experience in that
+net form which renders it most available and most significant, most
+fecund for future experience. The abstractions, generalizations, and
+classifications which it introduces all have prospective meaning.
+
+The formulated result is then not to be opposed to the process of
+growth. The logical is not set over against the psychological. The
+surveyed and arranged result occupies a critical position in the process
+of growth. It marks a turning-point. It shows how we may get the benefit
+of past effort in controlling future endeavor. In the largest sense the
+logical standpoint is itself psychological; it has its meaning as a
+point in the development of experience, and its justification is in its
+functioning in the future growth which it insures.
+
+Hence the need of reinstating into experience the subject-matter of the
+studies, or branches of learning. It must be restored to the experience
+from which it has been abstracted. It needs to be _psychologized_;
+turned over, translated into the immediate and individual experiencing
+within which it has its origin and significance.
+
+Every study or subject thus has two aspects: one for the scientist as a
+scientist; the other for the teacher as a teacher. These two aspects are
+in no sense opposed or conflicting. But neither are they immediately
+identical. For the scientist, the subject-matter represents simply a
+given body of truth to be employed in locating new problems, instituting
+new researches, and carrying them through to a verified outcome. To him
+the subject-matter of the science is self-contained. He refers various
+portions of it to each other; he connects new facts with it. He is not,
+as a scientist, called upon to travel outside its particular bounds;
+if he does, it is only to get more facts of the same general sort.
+The problem of the teacher is a different one. As a teacher he is
+not concerned with adding new facts to the science he teaches; in
+propounding new hypotheses or in verifying them. He is concerned with
+the subject-matter of the science as _representing a given stage and
+phase of the development of experience_. His problem is that of inducing
+a vital and personal experiencing. Hence, what concerns him, as teacher,
+is the ways in which that subject may become a part of experience; what
+there is in the child's present that is usable with reference to it;
+how such elements are to be used; how his own knowledge of the
+subject-matter may assist in interpreting the child's needs and doings,
+and determine the medium in which the child should be placed in order
+that his growth may be properly directed. He is concerned, not with the
+subject-matter as such, but with the subject-matter as a related factor
+in a total and growing experience. Thus to see it is to psychologize it.
+
+It is the failure to keep in mind the double aspect of subject-matter
+which causes the curriculum and child to be set over against each other
+as described in our early pages. The subject-matter, just as it is for
+the scientist, has no direct relationship to the child's present
+experience. It stands outside of it. The danger here is not a merely
+theoretical one. We are practically threatened on all sides. Textbook
+and teacher vie with each other in presenting to the child the
+subject-matter as it stands to the specialist. Such modification and
+revision as it undergoes are a mere elimination of certain scientific
+difficulties, and the general reduction to a lower intellectual level.
+The material is not translated into life-terms, but is directly offered
+as a substitute for, or an external annex to, the child's present life.
+
+Three typical evils result: In the first place, the lack of any organic
+connection with what the child has already seen and felt and loved makes
+the material purely formal and symbolic. There is a sense in which it is
+impossible to value too highly the formal and the symbolic. The genuine
+form, the real symbol, serve as methods in the holding and discovery of
+truth. They are tools by which the individual pushes out most surely and
+widely into unexplored areas. They are means by which he brings to bear
+whatever of reality he has succeeded in gaining in past searchings. But
+this happens only when the symbol really symbolizes--when it stands for
+and sums up in shorthand actual experiences which the individual has
+already gone through. A symbol which is induced from without, which has
+not been led up to in preliminary activities, is, as we say, a _bare_
+or _mere_ symbol; it is dead and barren. Now, any fact, whether of
+arithmetic, or geography, or grammar, which is not led up to and into
+out of something which has previously occupied a significant position
+in the child's life for its own sake, is forced into this position.
+It is not a reality, but just the sign of a reality which _might_ be
+experienced if certain conditions were fulfilled. But the abrupt
+presentation of the fact as something known by others, and requiring
+only to be studied and learned by the child, rules out such conditions
+of fulfilment. It condemns the fact to be a hieroglyph: it would mean
+something if one only had the key. The clue being lacking, it remains
+an idle curiosity, to fret and obstruct the mind, a dead weight to
+burden it.
+
+The second evil in this external presentation is lack of motivation.
+There are not only no facts or truths which have been previously felt
+as such with which to appropriate and assimilate the new, but there is
+no craving, no need, no demand. When the subject-matter has been
+psychologized, that is, viewed as an out-growth of present tendencies
+and activities, it is easy to locate in the present some obstacle,
+intellectual, practical, or ethical, which can be handled more
+adequately if the truth in question be mastered. This need supplies
+motive for the learning. An end which is the child's own carries him
+on to possess the means of its accomplishment. But when material is
+directly supplied in the form of a lesson to be learned as a lesson, the
+connecting links of need and aim are conspicuous for their absence. What
+we mean by the mechanical and dead in instruction is a result of this
+lack of motivation. The organic and vital mean interaction--they mean
+play of mental demand and material supply.
+
+The third evil is that even the most scientific matter, arranged in
+most logical fashion, loses this quality, when presented in external,
+ready-made fashion, by the time it gets to the child. It has to undergo
+some modification in order to shut out some phases too hard to grasp,
+and to reduce some of the attendant difficulties. What happens? Those
+things which are most significant to the scientific man, and most
+valuable in the logic of actual inquiry and classification, drop out.
+The really thought-provoking character is obscured, and the organizing
+function disappears. Or, as we commonly say, the child's reasoning
+powers, the faculty of abstraction and generalization, are not
+adequately developed. So the subject-matter is evacuated of its logical
+value, and, though it is what it is only from the logical standpoint, is
+presented as stuff only for "memory." This is the contradiction: the
+child gets the advantage neither of the adult logical formulation, nor
+of his own native competencies of apprehension and response. Hence
+the logic of the child is hampered and mortified, and we are almost
+fortunate if he does not get actual non-science, flat and common-place
+residua of what was gaining scientific vitality a generation or two
+ago--degenerate reminiscence of what someone else once formulated on the
+basis of the experience that some further person had, once upon a time,
+experienced.
+
+The train of evils does not cease. It is all too common for opposed
+erroneous theories to play straight into each other's hands.
+Psychological considerations may be slurred or shoved one side; they
+cannot be crowded out. Put out of the door, they come back through the
+window. Somehow and somewhere motive must be appealed to, connection
+must be established between the mind and its material. There is no
+question of getting along without this bond of connection; the only
+question is whether it be such as grows out of the material itself in
+relation to the mind, or be imported and hitched on from some outside
+source. If the subject-matter of the lessons be such as to have an
+appropriate place within the expanding consciousness of the child, if it
+grows out of his own past doings, thinkings, and sufferings, and grows
+into application in further achievements and receptivities, then no
+device or trick of method has to be resorted to in order to enlist
+"interest." The psychologized _is_ of interest--that is, it is placed in
+the whole of conscious life so that it shares the worth of that life.
+But the externally presented material, conceived and generated in
+standpoints and attitudes remote from the child, and developed in
+motives alien to him, has no such place of its own. Hence the recourse
+to adventitious leverage to push it in, to factitious drill to drive it
+in, to artificial bribe to lure it in.
+
+Three aspects of this recourse to outside ways for giving the
+subject-matter some psychological meaning may be worth mentioning.
+Familiarity breeds contempt, but it also breeds something like
+affection. We get used to the chains we wear, and we miss them when
+removed. 'Tis an old story that through custom we finally embrace
+what at first wore a hideous mien. Unpleasant, because meaningless,
+activities may get agreeable if long enough persisted in. _It is
+possible for the mind to develop interest in a routine or mechanical
+procedure if conditions are continually supplied which demand that mode
+of operation and preclude any other sort._ I frequently hear dulling
+devices and empty exercises defended and extolled because "the children
+take such an 'interest' in them." Yes, that is the worst of it; the
+mind, shut out from worthy employ and missing the taste of adequate
+performance, comes down to the level of that which is left to it to
+know and do, and perforce takes an interest in a cabined and cramped
+experience. To find satisfaction in its own exercise is the normal law
+of mind, and if large and meaningful business for the mind be denied, it
+tries to content itself with the formal movements that remain to it--and
+too often succeeds, save in those cases of more intense activity which
+cannot accommodate themselves, and that make up the unruly and
+_declassé_ of our school product. An interest in the formal apprehension
+of symbols and in their memorized reproduction becomes in many pupils
+a substitute for the original and vital interest in reality; and all
+because, the subject-matter of the course of study being out of relation
+to the concrete mind of the individual, some substitute bond to hold it
+in some kind of working relation to the mind must be discovered and
+elaborated.
+
+The second substitute for living motivation in the subject-matter is
+that of contrast-effects; the material of the lesson is rendered
+interesting, if not in itself, at least in contrast with some
+alternative experience. To learn the lesson is more interesting than to
+take a scolding, be held up to general ridicule, stay after school,
+receive degradingly low marks, or fail to be promoted. And very much of
+what goes by the name of "discipline," and prides itself upon opposing
+the doctrines of a soft pedagogy and upon upholding the banner of effort
+and duty, is nothing more or less than just this appeal to "interest" in
+its obverse aspect--to fear, to dislike of various kinds of physical,
+social, and personal pain. The subject-matter does not appeal; it cannot
+appeal; it lacks origin and bearing in a growing experience. So the
+appeal is to the thousand and one outside and irrelevant agencies which
+may serve to throw, by sheer rebuff and rebound, the mind back upon the
+material from which it is constantly wandering.
+
+Human nature being what it is, however, it tends to seek its motivation
+in the agreeable rather than in the disagreeable, in direct pleasure
+rather than in alternative pain. And so has come up the modern theory
+and practice of the "interesting," in the false sense of that term. The
+material is still left; so far as its own characteristics are concerned,
+just material externally selected and formulated. It is still just
+so much geography and arithmetic and grammar study; not so much
+potentiality of child-experience with regard to language, earth, and
+numbered and measured reality. Hence the difficulty of bringing the mind
+to bear upon it; hence its repulsiveness; the tendency for attention to
+wander; for other acts and images to crowd in and expel the lesson.
+The legitimate way out is to transform the material; to psychologize
+it--that is, once more, to take it and to develop it within the range
+and scope of the child's life. But it is easier and simpler to leave it
+as it is, and then by trick of method to _arouse_ interest, to _make_ it
+_interesting_; to cover it with sugar-coating; to conceal its barrenness
+by intermediate and unrelated material; and finally, as it were, to get
+the child to swallow and digest the unpalatable morsel while he is
+enjoying tasting something quite different. But alas for the analogy!
+Mental assimilation is a matter of consciousness; and if the attention
+has not been playing upon the actual material, that has not been
+apprehended, nor worked into faculty.
+
+How, then, stands the case of Child _vs._ Curriculum? What shall the
+verdict be? The radical fallacy in the original pleadings with which we
+set out is the supposition that we have no choice save either to leave
+the child to his own unguided spontaneity or to inspire direction upon
+him from without. Action is response; it is adaptation, adjustment.
+There is no such thing as sheer self-activity possible--because all
+activity takes place in a medium, in a situation, and with reference to
+its conditions. But, again, no such thing as imposition of truth from
+without, as insertion of truth from without, is possible. All depends
+upon the activity which the mind itself undergoes in responding to what
+is presented from without. Now, the value of the formulated wealth of
+knowledge that makes up the course of study is that it may enable the
+educator to _determine the environment of the child_, and thus by
+indirection to direct. Its primary value, its primary indication, is for
+the teacher, not for the child. It says to the teacher: Such and such
+are the capacities, the fulfilments, in truth and beauty and behavior,
+open to these children. Now see to it that day by day the conditions are
+such that _their own activities_ move inevitably in this direction,
+toward such culmination of themselves. Let the child's nature fulfil its
+own destiny, revealed to you in whatever of science and art and industry
+the world now holds as its own.
+
+The case is of Child. It is his present powers which are to assert
+themselves; his present capacities which are to be exercised; his
+present attitudes which are to be realized. But save as the teacher
+knows, knows wisely and thoroughly, the race-expression which is
+embodied in that thing we call the Curriculum, the teacher knows neither
+what the present power, capacity, or attitude is, nor yet how it is to
+be asserted, exercised, and realized.
+
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note.
+
+Two half-title pages have been omitted.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***
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+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Child and the Curriculum, by John Dewey</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Child and the Curriculum</p>
+<p>Author: John Dewey</p>
+<p>Release Date: June 28, 2009  [eBook #29259]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram, Andrew D. Hwang,<br />
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+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net/c/">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from digital material generously made available by<br />
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+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/toronto">http://www.archive.org/details/toronto</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+	  Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/childandcurricul00deweuoft">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/childandcurricul00deweuoft</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<!-- TITLE PAGE-->
+<div class="bbox">
+<h1 class="toc"
+    style="font-size: 250%;
+           letter-spacing: 0.1em;
+           word-spacing: 0.15em;
+           padding-bottom: 1ex">
+THE CHILD<br />
+AND<br />
+THE CURRICULUM</h1>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-size: 100%;
+          padding-bottom: 0ex">
+<i>by</i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-size: 150%;
+          padding-bottom: 8ex">
+<i>John Dewey</i>
+</p>
+
+<div style="text-align: center">
+<img src="images/device.png" width="69" height="75" alt="Publisher's Device" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-size: 80%;
+          letter-spacing: 0.2em;
+          word-spacing: 0.3em;
+          padding-bottom: 0ex">
+THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO&nbsp;PRESS
+</p>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-size: 50%;
+          letter-spacing: 0.2em;
+          word-spacing: 0.5em;
+          padding-bottom: 0ex">
+CHICAGO &amp; LONDON
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<!--End of TITLE PAGE-->
+
+<div class="vskip"></div>
+
+<!--COPYRIGHT PAGE-->
+<div class="bbox" style="padding-top: 48ex;">
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-variant: small-caps;
+          padding-bottom: 0ex;
+          font-size: 90%;">
+The University of Chicago Press, Chicago &amp; London
+</p>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style=" font-size: 90%;
+           word-spacing: 0.2em;
+           padding-bottom: 0ex;">
+The University of Toronto Press, Toronto&nbsp;5,&nbsp;Canada
+</p>
+
+<p class="toc"
+   style="font-size: 90%;
+          word-spacing: 0.15em;
+          padding-bottom: 0ex;">
+<i>Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
+Published 1902. Twenty-eighth Impression 1966</i><br />
+<i>Printed in the United States of America</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+<!--End of COPYRIGHT PAGE-->
+
+<div class="vskip"></div>
+
+<!--Duplicate (half-)title pages removed-->
+
+<!--<div class="bbox" style="padding: 30ex 1em;">
+<p class="toc">THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="vskip"></div>
+
+<div class="bbox" style="padding: 30ex 1em;">
+<p class="toc">
+THE CHILD AND THE<br />
+CURRICULUM<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+-->
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 3 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<h2>
+<i>The Child and the Curriculum</i><br />
+</h2>
+
+<p>Profound differences in theory are never gratuitous or
+invented. They grow out of conflicting elements in a genuine
+problem&mdash;a problem which is genuine just because the elements,
+taken as they stand, are conflicting. Any significant problem involves
+conditions that for the moment contradict each other. Solution comes
+only by getting away from the meaning of terms that is already fixed
+upon and coming to see the conditions from another
+<!-- Page 4 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>
+point of view, and hence in a fresh light. But this reconstruction
+means travail of thought. Easier than thinking with surrender of
+already formed ideas and detachment from facts already learned is just
+to stick by what is already said, looking about for something with
+which to buttress it against attack.</p>
+
+<p>Thus sects arise: schools of opinion. Each selects that set of
+conditions that appeals to it; and then erects them into a complete
+and independent truth, instead of treating them as a factor in a
+problem, needing adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental factors in the educative process are an immature,
+undeveloped being; and certain social aims, meanings, values incarnate
+in the matured experience of the adult. The educative process is the
+due interaction of these forces. Such a conception of each in relation
+to the other as facilitates completest and freest interaction is the
+essence of educational theory.</p>
+
+<p>But here comes the effort of thought. It is easier to see the
+conditions in their separateness, to insist upon one at the expense of
+the other, to make antagonists of them, than to discover a reality to
+which each belongs. The easy thing is to seize upon something in the
+nature of the child, or upon something in the developed consciousness
+of the adult, and insist upon <i>that</i> as the key to the whole
+problem. When this happens a really serious practical
+problem&mdash;that of interaction&mdash;is transformed into an unreal,
+and hence insoluble, theoretic problem.  Instead of seeing
+<!-- Page 5 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span>
+the educative steadily and as a whole, we see conflicting terms. We
+get the case of the child <i>vs.</i> the curriculum; of the individual nature
+<i>vs.</i> social culture. Below all other divisions in pedagogic opinion
+lies this opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The child lives in a somewhat narrow world of personal
+contacts. Things hardly come within his experience unless they touch,
+intimately and obviously, his own well-being, or that of his family
+and friends. His world is a world of persons with their personal
+interests, rather than a realm of facts and laws. Not truth, in the
+sense of conformity to external fact, but affection and sympathy, is
+its keynote. As against this, the course of study met in the school
+presents material stretching back indefinitely in time, and extending
+outward indefinitely into space. The child is taken out of his
+familiar physical environment, hardly more than a square mile or so in
+area, into the wide world&mdash;yes, and even to the bounds of the
+solar system. His little span of personal memory and tradition is
+overlaid with the long centuries of the history of all peoples.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the child's life is an integral, a total one. He passes
+quickly and readily from one topic to another, as from one spot to
+another, but is not conscious of transition or break. There is no
+conscious isolation, hardly conscious distinction. The things that
+occupy him are held together by the unity of the personal and social
+interests which his life carries along. Whatever is
+<!-- Page 6 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span>
+uppermost in his mind constitutes to him, for the time being, the
+whole universe. That universe is fluid and fluent; its contents
+dissolve and re-form with amazing rapidity.  But, after all, it is the
+child's own world. It has the unity and completeness of his own
+life. He goes to school, and various studies divide and fractionize
+the world for him. Geography selects, it abstracts and analyzes one
+set of facts, and from one particular point of view. Arithmetic is
+another division, grammar another department, and so on
+indefinitely.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in school each of these subjects is classified. Facts are
+torn away from their original place in experience and rearranged with
+reference to some general principle. Classification is not a matter of
+child experience; things do not come to the individual
+pigeonholed. The vital ties of affection, the connecting bonds of
+activity, hold together the variety of his personal experiences. The
+adult mind is so familiar with the notion of logically ordered facts
+that it does not recognize&mdash;it cannot realize&mdash;the amount of
+separating and reformulating which the facts of direct experience have
+to undergo before they can appear as a "study," or branch of
+learning. A principle, for the intellect, has had to be distinguished
+and defined; facts have had to be interpreted in relation to this
+principle, not as they are in themselves. They have had to be
+regathered about a new center which is wholly abstract and ideal. All
+this means a development of a special intellectual interest.
+<!-- Page 7 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span>
+It means ability to view facts impartially and objectively; that is,
+without reference to their place and meaning in one's own
+experience. It means capacity to analyze and to synthesize. It means
+highly matured intellectual habits and the command of a definite
+technique and apparatus of scientific inquiry. The studies as
+classified are the product, in a word, of the science of the ages, not
+of the experience of the child.</p>
+
+<p>These apparent deviations and differences between child and
+curriculum might be almost indefinitely widened. But we have here
+sufficiently fundamental divergences: first, the narrow but personal
+world of the child against the impersonal but infinitely extended
+world of space and time; second, the unity, the single
+wholeheartedness of the child's life, and the specializations and
+divisions of the curriculum; third, an abstract principle of logical
+classification and arrangement, and the practical and emotional bonds
+of child life.</p>
+
+<p>From these elements of conflict grow up different educational
+sects. One school fixes its attention upon the importance of the
+subject-matter of the curriculum as compared with the contents of the
+child's own experience. It is as if they said: Is life petty, narrow,
+and crude?  Then studies reveal the great, wide universe with all its
+fulness and complexity of meaning. Is the life of the child egoistic,
+self-centered, impulsive? Then in these studies is found an objective
+universe of truth, law, and order. Is his experience
+<!-- Page 8 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>
+confused, vague, uncertain, at the mercy of the moment's caprice and
+circumstance? Then studies introduce a world arranged on the basis of
+eternal and general truth; a world where all is measured and
+defined. Hence the moral: ignore and minimize the child's individual
+peculiarities, whims, and experiences.  They are what we need to get
+away from. They are to be obscured or eliminated. As educators our
+work is precisely to substitute for these superficial and casual
+affairs stable and well-ordered realities; and these are found in
+studies and lessons.</p>
+
+<p>Subdivide each topic into studies; each study into lessons; each
+lesson into specific facts and formulae. Let the child proceed step by
+step to master each one of these separate parts, and at last he will
+have covered the entire ground. The road which looks so long when
+viewed in its entirety is easily traveled, considered as a series of
+particular steps. Thus emphasis is put upon the logical subdivisions
+and consecutions of the subject-matter. Problems of instruction are
+problems of procuring texts giving logical parts and sequences, and of
+presenting these portions in class in a similar definite and graded
+way.  Subject-matter furnishes the end, and it determines method. The
+child is simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the
+superficial being who is to be deepened; his is narrow experience
+which is to be widened. It is his to receive, to accept. His part is
+fulfilled when he is ductile and docile.</p>
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 9 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Not so, says the other sect. The child is the starting-point, the
+center, and the end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It
+alone furnishes the standard. To the growth of the child all studies
+are subservient; they are instruments valued as they serve the needs
+of growth. Personality, character, is more than subject-matter. Not
+knowledge or information, but self-realization, is the goal. To
+possess all the world of knowledge and lose one's own self is as awful
+a fate in education as in religion. Moreover, subject-matter never can
+be got into the child from without. Learning is active. It involves
+reaching out of the mind. It involves organic assimilation starting
+from within.  Literally, we must take our stand with the child and our
+departure from him. It is he and not the subject-matter which
+determines both quality and quantity of learning.</p>
+
+<p>The only significant method is the method of the mind as it reaches
+out and assimilates. Subject-matter is but spiritual food, possible
+nutritive material. It cannot digest itself; it cannot of its own
+accord turn into bone and muscle and blood. The source of whatever is
+dead, mechanical, and formal in schools is found precisely in the
+subordination of the life and experience of the child to the
+curriculum.  It is because of this that "study" has become a synonym
+for what is irksome, and a lesson identical with a task.</p>
+
+<p>This fundamental opposition of child and curriculum set up by these
+two modes of doctrine can be duplicated in a series of
+<!-- Page 10 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
+other terms.  "Discipline" is the watchword of those who magnify the
+course of study; "interest" that of those who blazon "The Child" upon
+their banner. The standpoint of the former is logical; that of the
+latter psychological.  The first emphasizes the necessity of adequate
+training and scholarship on the part of the teacher; the latter that
+of need of sympathy with the child, and knowledge of his natural
+instincts. "Guidance and control" are the catchwords of one school;
+"freedom and initiative" of the other.  Law is asserted here;
+spontaneity proclaimed there. The old, the conservation of what has
+been achieved in the pain and toil of the ages, is dear to the one;
+the new, change, progress, wins the affection of the other. Inertness
+and routine, chaos and anarchism, are accusations bandied back and
+forth. Neglect of the sacred authority of duty is charged by one side,
+only to be met by counter-charges of suppression of individuality
+through tyrannical despotism.</p>
+
+<p>Such oppositions are rarely carried to their logical conclusion.
+Common-sense recoils at the extreme character of these results. They
+are left to theorists, while common-sense vibrates back and forward in
+a maze of inconsistent compromise. The need of getting theory and
+practical common-sense into closer connection suggests a return to our
+original thesis: that we have here conditions which are necessarily
+related to each other in the educative process, since this is
+precisely one of interaction and adjustment.</p>
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 11 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>What, then, is the problem? It is just to get rid of the
+prejudicial notion that there is some gap in kind (as distinct from
+degree) between the child's experience and the various forms of
+subject-matter that make up the course of study. From the side of the
+child, it is a question of seeing how his experience already contains
+within itself elements&mdash;facts and truths&mdash;of just the same
+sort as those entering into the formulated study; and, what is of more
+importance, of how it contains within itself the attitudes, the
+motives, and the interests which have operated in developing and
+organizing the subject-matter to the plane which it now occupies. From
+the side of the studies, it is a question of interpreting them as
+outgrowths of forces operating in the child's life, and of discovering
+the steps that intervene between the child's present experience and
+their richer maturity.</p>
+
+<p>Abandon the notion of subject-matter as something fixed and
+ready-made in itself, outside the child's experience; cease thinking
+of the child's experience as also something hard and fast; see it as
+something fluent, embryonic, vital; and we realize that the child and
+the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single
+process. Just as two points define a straight line, so the present
+standpoint of the child and the facts and truths of studies define
+instruction. It is continuous reconstruction, moving from the child's
+present experience out into that represented by the organized bodies
+of truth that we call studies.</p>
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 12 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the face of it, the various studies, arithmetic, geography,
+language, botany, etc., are themselves experience&mdash;they are that
+of the race. They embody the cumulative outcome of the efforts, the
+strivings, and the successes of the human race generation after
+generation. They present this, not as a mere accumulation, not as a
+miscellaneous heap of separate bits of experience, but in some
+organized and systematized way&mdash;that is, as reflectively
+formulated.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, the facts and truths that enter into the child's present
+experience, and those contained in the subject-matter of studies, are
+the initial and final terms of one reality. To oppose one to the other
+is to oppose the infancy and maturity of the same growing life; it is
+to set the moving tendency and the final result of the same process
+over against each other; it is to hold that the nature and the destiny
+of the child war with each other.</p>
+
+<p>If such be the case, the problem of the relation of the child and
+the curriculum presents itself in this guise: Of what use,
+educationally speaking, is it to be able to see the end in the
+beginning? How does it assist us in dealing with the early stages of
+growth to be able to anticipate its later phases? The studies, as we
+have agreed, represent the possibilities of development inherent in
+the child's immediate crude experience. But, after all, they are not
+parts of that present and immediate life. Why, then, or how, make
+account of them?</p>
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 13 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Asking such a question suggests its own answer. To see the outcome is to
+know in what direction the present experience is moving, provided it
+move normally and soundly. The far-away point, which is of no
+significance to us simply as far away, becomes of huge importance the
+moment we take it as defining a present direction of movement. Taken in
+this way it is no remote and distant result to be achieved, but a
+guiding method in dealing with the present. The systematized and defined
+experience of the adult mind, in other words, is of value to us in
+interpreting the child's life as it immediately shows itself, and in
+passing on to guidance or direction.</p>
+
+<p>Let us look for a moment at these two ideas: interpretation and
+guidance. The child's present experience is in no way
+self-explanatory.  It is not final, but transitional. It is nothing
+complete in itself, but just a sign or index of certain
+growth-tendencies. As long as we confine our gaze to what the child
+here and now puts forth, we are confused and misled. We cannot read
+its meaning. Extreme depreciations of the child morally and
+intellectually, and sentimental idealizations of him, have their root
+in a common fallacy. Both spring from taking stages of a growth or
+movement as something cut off and fixed. The first fails to see the
+promise contained in feelings and deeds which, taken by themselves,
+are uncompromising and repellent; the second fails to see that even
+the most pleasing and beautiful exhibitions are but
+<!-- Page 14 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>
+signs, and that they begin to spoil and rot the moment they are
+treated as achievements.</p>
+
+<p>What we need is something which will enable us to interpret, to
+appraise, the elements in the child's present puttings forth and
+fallings away, his exhibitions of power and weakness, in the light of
+some larger growth-process in which they have their place. Only in
+this way can we discriminate. If we isolate the child's present
+inclinations, purposes, and experiences from the place they occupy and
+the part they have to perform in a developing experience, all stand
+upon the same level; all alike are equally good and equally bad. But
+in the movement of life different elements stand upon different planes
+of value. Some of the child's deeds are symptoms of a waning tendency;
+they are survivals in functioning of an organ which has done its part
+and is passing out of vital use. To give positive attention to such
+qualities is to arrest development upon a lower level. It is
+systematically to maintain a rudimentary phase of growth. Other
+activities are signs of a culminating power and interest; to them
+applies the maxim of striking while the iron is hot. As regards them,
+it is perhaps a matter of now or never.  Selected, utilized,
+emphasized, they may mark a turning-point for good in the child's
+whole career; neglected, an opportunity goes, never to be
+recalled. Other acts and feelings are prophetic; they represent the
+dawning of flickering light that will shine steadily only in the far
+future. As
+<!-- Page 15 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>
+ regards them there is little at present to do but give them fair and
+full chance, waiting for the future for definite direction.</p>
+
+<p>Just as, upon the whole, it was the weakness of the "old education"
+that it made invidious comparisons between the immaturity of the child
+and the maturity of the adult, regarding the former as something to be
+got away from as soon as possible and as much as possible; so it is
+the danger of the "new education" that it regard the child's present
+powers and interests as something finally significant in
+themselves. In truth, his learnings and achievements are fluid and
+moving. They change from day to day and from hour to hour.</p>
+
+<p>It will do harm if child-study leave in the popular mind the
+impression that a child of a given age has a positive equipment of
+purposes and interests to be cultivated just as they stand. Interests
+in reality are but attitudes toward possible experiences; they are not
+achievements; their worth is in the leverage they afford, not in the
+accomplishment they represent. To take the phenomena presented at a
+given age as in any way self-explanatory or self-contained is
+inevitably to result in indulgence and spoiling. Any power, whether of
+child or adult, is indulged when it is taken on its given and present
+level in consciousness. Its genuine meaning is in the propulsion it
+affords toward a higher level. It is just something to do
+with. Appealing to the interest upon the present plane means
+excitation; it means playing with a power so as continually
+<!-- Page 16 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span>
+to stir it up without directing it toward definite
+achievement. Continuous initiation, continuous starting of activities
+that do not arrive, is, for all practical purposes, as bad as the
+continual repression of initiative in conformity with supposed
+interests of some more perfect thought or will. It is as if the child
+were forever tasting and never eating; always having his palate
+tickled upon the emotional side, but never getting the organic
+satisfaction that comes only with digestion of food and transformation
+of it into working power.</p>
+
+<p>As against such a view, the subject-matter of science and history
+and art serves to reveal the real child to us. We do not know the
+meaning either of his tendencies or of his performances excepting as
+we take them as germinating seed, or opening bud, of some fruit to be
+borne. The whole world of visual nature is all too small an answer to
+the problem of the meaning of the child's instinct for light and
+form. The entire science of physics is none too much to interpret
+adequately to us what is involved in some simple demand of the child
+for explanation of some casual change that has attracted his
+attention. The art of Raphael or of Corot is none too much to enable
+us to value the impulses stirring in the child when he draws and
+daubs.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the use of the subject-matter in interpretation. Its
+further employment in direction or guidance is but an expansion of the
+same thought. To interpret the fact is to see it in its vital
+<!-- Page 17 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>
+movement, to see it in its relation to growth. But to view it as a
+part of a normal growth is to secure the basis for guiding
+it. Guidance is not external imposition. <i>It is freeing the
+life-process for its own most adequate fulfilment.</i> What was said
+about disregard of the child's present experience because of its
+remoteness from mature experience; and of the sentimental idealization
+of the child's naïve caprices and performances, may be repeated here
+with slightly altered phrase. There are those who see no alternative
+between forcing the child from without, or leaving him entirely
+alone. Seeing no alternative, some choose one mode, some another. Both
+fall into the same fundamental error. Both fail to see that
+development is a definite process, having its own law which can be
+fulfilled only when adequate and normal conditions are
+provided. Really to interpret the child's present crude impulses in
+counting, measuring, and arranging things in rhythmic series involves
+mathematical scholarship&mdash;a knowledge of the mathematical
+formulae and relations which have, in the history of the race, grown
+out of just such crude beginnings. To see the whole history of
+development which intervenes between these two terms is simply to see
+what step the child needs to take just here and now; to what use he
+needs to put his blind impulse in order that it may get clarity and
+gain force.</p>
+
+<p>If, once more, the "old education" tended to ignore the dynamic
+quality, the developing force inherent in the child's present
+<!-- Page 18 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>
+experience, and therefore to assume that direction and control were
+just matters of arbitrarily putting the child in a given path and
+compelling him to walk there, the "new education" is in danger of
+taking the idea of development in altogether too formal and empty a
+way. The child is expected to "develop" this or that fact or truth out
+of his own mind. He is told to think things out, or work things out
+for himself, without being supplied any of the environing conditions
+which are requisite to start and guide thought. Nothing can be
+developed from nothing; nothing but the crude can be developed out of
+the crude&mdash;and this is what surely happens when we throw the
+child back upon his achieved self as a finality, and invite him to
+spin new truths of nature or of conduct out of that. It is certainly
+as futile to expect a child to evolve a universe out of his own mere
+mind as it is for a philosopher to attempt that task. Development does
+not mean just getting something out of the mind. It is a development
+of experience and into experience that is really wanted. And this is
+impossible save as just that educative medium is provided which will
+enable the powers and interests that have been selected as valuable to
+function. They must operate, and how they operate will depend almost
+entirely upon the stimuli which surround them and the material upon
+which they exercise themselves. The problem of direction is thus the
+problem of selecting appropriate stimuli for instincts and impulses
+which it is desired to employ in the gaining
+<!-- Page 19 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span>
+of new experience. What new experiences are desirable, and thus what
+stimuli are needed, it is impossible to tell except as there is some
+comprehension of the development which is aimed at; except, in a word,
+as the adult knowledge is drawn upon as revealing the possible career
+open to the child.</p>
+
+<p>It may be of use to distinguish and to relate to each other the
+logical and the psychological aspects of experience&mdash;the former
+standing for subject-matter in itself, the latter for it in relation
+to the child. A psychological statement of experience follows its
+actual growth; it is historic; it notes steps actually taken, the
+uncertain and tortuous, as well as the efficient and successful. The
+logical point of view, on the other hand, assumes that the development
+has reached a certain positive stage of fulfilment. It neglects the
+process and considers the outcome.  It summarizes and arranges, and
+thus separates the achieved results from the actual steps by which
+they were forthcoming in the first instance.  We may compare the
+difference between the logical and the psychological to the difference
+between the notes which an explorer makes in a new country, blazing a
+trail and finding his way along as best he may, and the finished map
+that is constructed after the country has been thoroughly
+explored. The two are mutually dependent. Without the more or less
+accidental and devious paths traced by the explorer there would be no
+facts which could be utilized in the making of the complete and
+related chart. But no
+<!-- Page 20 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>
+one would get the benefit of the explorer's trip if it was not
+compared and checked up with similar wanderings undertaken by others;
+unless the new geographical facts learned, the streams crossed, the
+mountains climbed, etc., were viewed, not as mere incidents in the
+journey of the particular traveler, but (quite apart from the
+individual explorer's life) in relation to other similar facts already
+known. The map orders individual experiences, connecting them with one
+another irrespective of the local and temporal circumstances and
+accidents of their original discovery.</p>
+
+<p>Of what use is this formulated statement of experience? Of what use
+is the map?</p>
+
+<p>Well, we may first tell what the map is not. The map is not a
+substitute for a personal experience. The map does not take the place
+of an actual journey. The logically formulated material of a science
+or branch of learning, of a study, is no substitute for the having of
+individual experiences. The mathematical formula for a falling body
+does not take the place of personal contact and immediate individual
+experience with the falling thing. But the map, a summary, an arranged
+and orderly view of previous experiences, serves as a guide to future
+experience; it gives direction; it facilitates control; it economizes
+effort, preventing useless wandering, and pointing out the paths which
+lead most quickly and most certainly to a desired result. Through the
+map every new traveler may get for his own journey the benefits of the
+results of
+<!-- Page 21 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+others' explorations without the waste of energy and loss of time
+involved in their wanderings&mdash;wanderings which he himself would
+be obliged to repeat were it not for just the assistance of the
+objective and generalized record of their performances. That which we
+call a science or study puts the net product of past experience in the
+form which makes it most available for the future. It represents a
+capitalization which may at once be turned to interest. It economizes
+the workings of the mind in every way. Memory is less taxed because
+the facts are grouped together about some common principle, instead of
+being connected solely with the varying incidents of their original
+discovery.  Observation is assisted; we know what to look for and
+where to look. It is the difference between looking for a needle in a
+haystack, and searching for a given paper in a well-arranged
+cabinet. Reasoning is directed, because there is a certain general
+path or line laid out along which ideas naturally march, instead of
+moving from one chance association to another.</p>
+
+<p>There is, then, nothing final about a logical rendering of
+experience.  Its value is not contained in itself; its significance is
+that of standpoint, outlook, method. It intervenes between the more
+casual, tentative, and roundabout experiences of the past, and more
+controlled and orderly experiences of the future. It gives past
+experience in that net form which renders it most available and most
+significant, most fecund for future experience. The abstractions,
+<!-- Page 22 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>
+generalizations, and classifications which it introduces all have
+prospective meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The formulated result is then not to be opposed to the process of
+growth. The logical is not set over against the psychological. The
+surveyed and arranged result occupies a critical position in the
+process of growth. It marks a turning-point. It shows how we may get
+the benefit of past effort in controlling future endeavor. In the
+largest sense the logical standpoint is itself psychological; it has
+its meaning as a point in the development of experience, and its
+justification is in its functioning in the future growth which it
+insures.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the need of reinstating into experience the subject-matter of
+the studies, or branches of learning. It must be restored to the
+experience from which it has been abstracted. It needs to be
+<i>psychologized</i>; turned over, translated into the immediate and
+individual experiencing within which it has its origin and
+significance.</p>
+
+<p>Every study or subject thus has two aspects: one for the scientist
+as a scientist; the other for the teacher as a teacher. These two
+aspects are in no sense opposed or conflicting. But neither are they
+immediately identical. For the scientist, the subject-matter
+represents simply a given body of truth to be employed in locating new
+problems, instituting new researches, and carrying them through to a
+verified outcome. To him the subject-matter
+<!-- Page 23 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>
+of the science is self-contained. He refers various portions of it to
+each other; he connects new facts with it. He is not, as a scientist,
+called upon to travel outside its particular bounds; if he does, it is
+only to get more facts of the same general sort. The problem of the
+teacher is a different one. As a teacher he is not concerned with
+adding new facts to the science he teaches; in propounding new
+hypotheses or in verifying them. He is concerned with the
+subject-matter of the science as <i>representing a given stage and
+phase of the development of experience</i>. His problem is that of
+inducing a vital and personal experiencing. Hence, what concerns him,
+as teacher, is the ways in which that subject may become a part of
+experience; what there is in the child's present that is usable with
+reference to it; how such elements are to be used; how his own
+knowledge of the subject-matter may assist in interpreting the child's
+needs and doings, and determine the medium in which the child should
+be placed in order that his growth may be properly directed. He is
+concerned, not with the subject-matter as such, but with the
+subject-matter as a related factor in a total and growing
+experience. Thus to see it is to psychologize it.</p>
+
+<p>It is the failure to keep in mind the double aspect of
+subject-matter which causes the curriculum and child to be set over
+against each other as described in our early pages. The
+subject-matter, just as it is for the scientist, has no direct
+relationship to
+<!-- Page 24 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>
+the child's present experience. It stands outside of it. The danger
+here is not a merely theoretical one. We are practically threatened on
+all sides. Textbook and teacher vie with each other in presenting to
+the child the subject-matter as it stands to the specialist. Such
+modification and revision as it undergoes are a mere elimination of
+certain scientific difficulties, and the general reduction to a lower
+intellectual level.  The material is not translated into life-terms,
+but is directly offered as a substitute for, or an external annex to,
+the child's present life.</p>
+
+<p>Three typical evils result: In the first place, the lack of any
+organic connection with what the child has already seen and felt and
+loved makes the material purely formal and symbolic. There is a sense
+in which it is impossible to value too highly the formal and the
+symbolic. The genuine form, the real symbol, serve as methods in the
+holding and discovery of truth. They are tools by which the individual
+pushes out most surely and widely into unexplored areas. They are
+means by which he brings to bear whatever of reality he has succeeded
+in gaining in past searchings. But this happens only when the symbol
+really symbolizes&mdash;when it stands for and sums up in shorthand
+actual experiences which the individual has already gone through. A
+symbol which is induced from without, which has not been led up to in
+preliminary activities, is, as we say, a <i>bare</i> or
+<i>mere</i> symbol; it is dead and barren. Now, any fact, whether of
+arithmetic, or geography, or grammar,
+<!-- Page 25 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>
+which is not led up to and into out of something which has previously
+occupied a significant position in the child's life for its own sake,
+is forced into this position. It is not a reality, but just the sign
+of a reality which <i>might</i> be experienced if certain conditions
+were fulfilled. But the abrupt presentation of the fact as something
+known by others, and requiring only to be studied and learned by the
+child, rules out such conditions of fulfilment. It condemns the fact
+to be a hieroglyph: it would mean something if one only had the
+key. The clue being lacking, it remains an idle curiosity, to fret and
+obstruct the mind, a dead weight to burden it.</p>
+
+<p>The second evil in this external presentation is lack of
+motivation.  There are not only no facts or truths which have been
+previously felt as such with which to appropriate and assimilate the
+new, but there is no craving, no need, no demand. When the
+subject-matter has been psychologized, that is, viewed as an
+out-growth of present tendencies and activities, it is easy to locate
+in the present some obstacle, intellectual, practical, or ethical,
+which can be handled more adequately if the truth in question be
+mastered. This need supplies motive for the learning. An end which is
+the child's own carries him on to possess the means of its
+accomplishment. But when material is directly supplied in the form of
+a lesson to be learned as a lesson, the connecting links of need and
+aim are conspicuous for their absence. What we mean
+<!-- Page 26 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>
+by the mechanical and dead in instruction is a result of this lack of
+motivation. The organic and vital mean interaction&mdash;they mean
+play of mental demand and material supply.</p>
+
+<p>The third evil is that even the most scientific matter, arranged in
+most logical fashion, loses this quality, when presented in external,
+ready-made fashion, by the time it gets to the child. It has to
+undergo some modification in order to shut out some phases too hard to
+grasp, and to reduce some of the attendant difficulties. What happens?
+Those things which are most significant to the scientific man, and
+most valuable in the logic of actual inquiry and classification, drop
+out.  The really thought-provoking character is obscured, and the
+organizing function disappears. Or, as we commonly say, the child's
+reasoning powers, the faculty of abstraction and generalization, are
+not adequately developed. So the subject-matter is evacuated of its
+logical value, and, though it is what it is only from the logical
+standpoint, is presented as stuff only for "memory." This is the
+contradiction: the child gets the advantage neither of the adult
+logical formulation, nor of his own native competencies of
+apprehension and response. Hence the logic of the child is hampered
+and mortified, and we are almost fortunate if he does not get actual
+non-science, flat and common-place residua of what was gaining
+scientific vitality a generation or two ago&mdash;degenerate
+reminiscence of what someone else once formulated on the basis of the
+experience that some further person had, once upon a time,
+experienced.</p>
+
+<div>
+<!-- Page 27 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The train of evils does not cease. It is all too common for opposed
+erroneous theories to play straight into each other's hands.
+Psychological considerations may be slurred or shoved one side; they
+cannot be crowded out. Put out of the door, they come back through the
+window. Somehow and somewhere motive must be appealed to, connection
+must be established between the mind and its material. There is no
+question of getting along without this bond of connection; the only
+question is whether it be such as grows out of the material itself in
+relation to the mind, or be imported and hitched on from some outside
+source. If the subject-matter of the lessons be such as to have an
+appropriate place within the expanding consciousness of the child, if
+it grows out of his own past doings, thinkings, and sufferings, and
+grows into application in further achievements and receptivities, then
+no device or trick of method has to be resorted to in order to enlist
+"interest." The psychologized <i>is</i> of interest&mdash;that is, it
+is placed in the whole of conscious life so that it shares the worth
+of that life.  But the externally presented material, conceived and
+generated in standpoints and attitudes remote from the child, and
+developed in motives alien to him, has no such place of its own. Hence
+the recourse to adventitious leverage to push it in, to factitious
+drill to drive it in, to artificial bribe to lure it in.</p>
+
+<p>Three aspects of this recourse to outside ways for giving the
+subject-matter some psychological meaning may be worth mentioning.
+Familiarity breeds contempt, but it also breeds something
+<!-- Page 28 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>
+like affection. We get used to the chains we wear, and we miss them
+when removed. 'Tis an old story that through custom we finally embrace
+what at first wore a hideous mien. Unpleasant, because meaningless,
+activities may get agreeable if long enough persisted in. <i>It is
+possible for the mind to develop interest in a routine or mechanical
+procedure if conditions are continually supplied which demand that
+mode of operation and preclude any other sort.</i> I frequently hear
+dulling devices and empty exercises defended and extolled because "the
+children take such an 'interest' in them." Yes, that is the worst of
+it; the mind, shut out from worthy employ and missing the taste of
+adequate performance, comes down to the level of that which is left to
+it to know and do, and perforce takes an interest in a cabined and
+cramped experience. To find satisfaction in its own exercise is the
+normal law of mind, and if large and meaningful business for the mind
+be denied, it tries to content itself with the formal movements that
+remain to it&mdash;and too often succeeds, save in those cases of more
+intense activity which cannot accommodate themselves, and that make up
+the unruly and <i>declassé</i> of our school product. An interest in
+the formal apprehension of symbols and in their memorized reproduction
+becomes in many pupils a substitute for the original and vital
+interest in reality; and all because, the subject-matter of the course
+of study being out of relation to the concrete mind of the individual,
+some substitute bond to hold it in
+<!-- Page 29 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span>
+some kind of working relation to the mind must be discovered and
+elaborated.</p>
+
+<p>The second substitute for living motivation in the subject-matter
+is that of contrast-effects; the material of the lesson is rendered
+interesting, if not in itself, at least in contrast with some
+alternative experience. To learn the lesson is more interesting than
+to take a scolding, be held up to general ridicule, stay after school,
+receive degradingly low marks, or fail to be promoted. And very much
+of what goes by the name of "discipline," and prides itself upon
+opposing the doctrines of a soft pedagogy and upon upholding the
+banner of effort and duty, is nothing more or less than just this
+appeal to "interest" in its obverse aspect&mdash;to fear, to dislike
+of various kinds of physical, social, and personal pain. The
+subject-matter does not appeal; it cannot appeal; it lacks origin and
+bearing in a growing experience. So the appeal is to the thousand and
+one outside and irrelevant agencies which may serve to throw, by sheer
+rebuff and rebound, the mind back upon the material from which it is
+constantly wandering.</p>
+
+<p>Human nature being what it is, however, it tends to seek its
+motivation in the agreeable rather than in the disagreeable, in direct
+pleasure rather than in alternative pain. And so has come up the
+modern theory and practice of the "interesting," in the false sense of
+that term. The material is still left; so far as its own
+characteristics are concerned, just material externally selected and
+<!-- Page 30 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span>
+formulated. It is still just so much geography and arithmetic and
+grammar study; not so much potentiality of child-experience with
+regard to language, earth, and numbered and measured reality. Hence
+the difficulty of bringing the mind to bear upon it; hence its
+repulsiveness; the tendency for attention to wander; for other acts
+and images to crowd in and expel the lesson. The legitimate way out is
+to transform the material; to psychologize it&mdash;that is, once
+more, to take it and to develop it within the range and scope of the
+child's life. But it is easier and simpler to leave it as it is, and
+then by trick of method to <i>arouse</i> interest, to <i>make</i> it
+<i>interesting</i>; to cover it with sugar-coating; to conceal its
+barrenness by intermediate and unrelated material; and finally, as it
+were, to get the child to swallow and digest the unpalatable morsel
+while he is enjoying tasting something quite different. But alas for
+the analogy!  Mental assimilation is a matter of consciousness; and if
+the attention has not been playing upon the actual material, that has
+not been apprehended, nor worked into faculty.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, stands the case of Child <i>vs.</i> Curriculum? What
+shall the verdict be? The radical fallacy in the original pleadings
+with which we set out is the supposition that we have no choice save
+either to leave the child to his own unguided spontaneity or to
+inspire direction upon him from without. Action is response; it is
+adaptation, adjustment.  There is no such thing as sheer self-activity
+possible&mdash;because all activity takes place in a medium, in
+<!-- Page 31 -->
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>
+a situation, and with reference to its conditions. But, again, no such
+thing as imposition of truth from without, as insertion of truth from
+without, is possible. All depends upon the activity which the mind
+itself undergoes in responding to what is presented from without. Now,
+the value of the formulated wealth of knowledge that makes up the
+course of study is that it may enable the educator to <i>determine the
+environment of the child</i>, and thus by indirection to direct. Its
+primary value, its primary indication, is for the teacher, not for the
+child. It says to the teacher: Such and such are the capacities, the
+fulfilments, in truth and beauty and behavior, open to these
+children. Now see to it that day by day the conditions are such that
+<i>their own activities</i> move inevitably in this direction, toward
+such culmination of themselves. Let the child's nature fulfil its own
+destiny, revealed to you in whatever of science and art and industry
+the world now holds as its own.</p>
+
+<p>The case is of Child. It is his present powers which are to assert
+themselves; his present capacities which are to be exercised; his
+present attitudes which are to be realized. But save as the teacher
+knows, knows wisely and thoroughly, the race-expression which is
+embodied in that thing we call the Curriculum, the teacher knows
+neither what the present power, capacity, or attitude is, nor yet how
+it is to be asserted, exercised, and realized.</p>
+
+<div class="vskip"></div>
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<h3>Transcriber's Note.</h3>
+
+<p>Two half-title pages have been omitted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 29259-h.txt or 29259-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/2/5/29259">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/2/5/29259</a></p>
+<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.</p>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,1126 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Child and the Curriculum, by John Dewey
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Child and the Curriculum
+
+
+Author: John Dewey
+
+
+
+Release Date: June 28, 2009  [eBook #29259]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jonathan Ingram, Andrew D. Hwang, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from
+digital material generously made available by Internet Archive/Canadian
+Libraries (http://www.archive.org/details/toronto)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/childandcurricul00deweuoft
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM
+
+by
+
+JOHN DEWEY
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Publisher's Device]
+
+The University of Chicago Press
+Chicago & London
+
+The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London
+
+The University of Toronto Press, Toronto 5, Canada
+
+Copyright 1902 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.
+Published 1902. Twenty-eighth Impression 1966 Printed in the United
+States of America
+
+
+
+
+_The Child and the Curriculum_
+
+
+Profound differences in theory are never gratuitous or invented. They
+grow out of conflicting elements in a genuine problem--a problem
+which is genuine just because the elements, taken as they stand, are
+conflicting. Any significant problem involves conditions that for the
+moment contradict each other. Solution comes only by getting away from
+the meaning of terms that is already fixed upon and coming to see the
+conditions from another point of view, and hence in a fresh light. But
+this reconstruction means travail of thought. Easier than thinking with
+surrender of already formed ideas and detachment from facts already
+learned is just to stick by what is already said, looking about for
+something with which to buttress it against attack.
+
+Thus sects arise: schools of opinion. Each selects that set of
+conditions that appeals to it; and then erects them into a complete and
+independent truth, instead of treating them as a factor in a problem,
+needing adjustment.
+
+The fundamental factors in the educative process are an immature,
+undeveloped being; and certain social aims, meanings, values incarnate
+in the matured experience of the adult. The educative process is the due
+interaction of these forces. Such a conception of each in relation to
+the other as facilitates completest and freest interaction is the
+essence of educational theory.
+
+But here comes the effort of thought. It is easier to see the conditions
+in their separateness, to insist upon one at the expense of the other,
+to make antagonists of them, than to discover a reality to which each
+belongs. The easy thing is to seize upon something in the nature of the
+child, or upon something in the developed consciousness of the adult,
+and insist upon _that_ as the key to the whole problem. When this
+happens a really serious practical problem--that of interaction--is
+transformed into an unreal, and hence insoluble, theoretic problem.
+Instead of seeing the educative steadily and as a whole, we see
+conflicting terms. We get the case of the child _vs._ the curriculum; of
+the individual nature _vs._ social culture. Below all other divisions in
+pedagogic opinion lies this opposition.
+
+The child lives in a somewhat narrow world of personal contacts. Things
+hardly come within his experience unless they touch, intimately and
+obviously, his own well-being, or that of his family and friends. His
+world is a world of persons with their personal interests, rather than
+a realm of facts and laws. Not truth, in the sense of conformity to
+external fact, but affection and sympathy, is its keynote. As against
+this, the course of study met in the school presents material stretching
+back indefinitely in time, and extending outward indefinitely into
+space. The child is taken out of his familiar physical environment,
+hardly more than a square mile or so in area, into the wide world--yes,
+and even to the bounds of the solar system. His little span of personal
+memory and tradition is overlaid with the long centuries of the history
+of all peoples.
+
+Again, the child's life is an integral, a total one. He passes quickly
+and readily from one topic to another, as from one spot to another,
+but is not conscious of transition or break. There is no conscious
+isolation, hardly conscious distinction. The things that occupy him are
+held together by the unity of the personal and social interests which
+his life carries along. Whatever is uppermost in his mind constitutes
+to him, for the time being, the whole universe. That universe is fluid
+and fluent; its contents dissolve and re-form with amazing rapidity.
+But, after all, it is the child's own world. It has the unity and
+completeness of his own life. He goes to school, and various studies
+divide and fractionize the world for him. Geography selects, it
+abstracts and analyzes one set of facts, and from one particular point
+of view. Arithmetic is another division, grammar another department, and
+so on indefinitely.
+
+Again, in school each of these subjects is classified. Facts are torn
+away from their original place in experience and rearranged with
+reference to some general principle. Classification is not a matter
+of child experience; things do not come to the individual pigeonholed.
+The vital ties of affection, the connecting bonds of activity, hold
+together the variety of his personal experiences. The adult mind is so
+familiar with the notion of logically ordered facts that it does not
+recognize--it cannot realize--the amount of separating and reformulating
+which the facts of direct experience have to undergo before they can
+appear as a "study," or branch of learning. A principle, for the
+intellect, has had to be distinguished and defined; facts have had
+to be interpreted in relation to this principle, not as they are in
+themselves. They have had to be regathered about a new center which is
+wholly abstract and ideal. All this means a development of a special
+intellectual interest. It means ability to view facts impartially and
+objectively; that is, without reference to their place and meaning in
+one's own experience. It means capacity to analyze and to synthesize. It
+means highly matured intellectual habits and the command of a definite
+technique and apparatus of scientific inquiry. The studies as classified
+are the product, in a word, of the science of the ages, not of the
+experience of the child.
+
+These apparent deviations and differences between child and curriculum
+might be almost indefinitely widened. But we have here sufficiently
+fundamental divergences: first, the narrow but personal world of the
+child against the impersonal but infinitely extended world of space and
+time; second, the unity, the single wholeheartedness of the child's
+life, and the specializations and divisions of the curriculum; third, an
+abstract principle of logical classification and arrangement, and the
+practical and emotional bonds of child life.
+
+From these elements of conflict grow up different educational sects.
+One school fixes its attention upon the importance of the subject-matter
+of the curriculum as compared with the contents of the child's own
+experience. It is as if they said: Is life petty, narrow, and crude?
+Then studies reveal the great, wide universe with all its fulness and
+complexity of meaning. Is the life of the child egoistic, self-centered,
+impulsive? Then in these studies is found an objective universe of
+truth, law, and order. Is his experience confused, vague, uncertain,
+at the mercy of the moment's caprice and circumstance? Then studies
+introduce a world arranged on the basis of eternal and general truth; a
+world where all is measured and defined. Hence the moral: ignore and
+minimize the child's individual peculiarities, whims, and experiences.
+They are what we need to get away from. They are to be obscured or
+eliminated. As educators our work is precisely to substitute for these
+superficial and casual affairs stable and well-ordered realities; and
+these are found in studies and lessons.
+
+Subdivide each topic into studies; each study into lessons; each lesson
+into specific facts and formulae. Let the child proceed step by step to
+master each one of these separate parts, and at last he will have
+covered the entire ground. The road which looks so long when viewed in
+its entirety is easily traveled, considered as a series of particular
+steps. Thus emphasis is put upon the logical subdivisions and
+consecutions of the subject-matter. Problems of instruction are problems
+of procuring texts giving logical parts and sequences, and of presenting
+these portions in class in a similar definite and graded way.
+Subject-matter furnishes the end, and it determines method. The child is
+simply the immature being who is to be matured; he is the superficial
+being who is to be deepened; his is narrow experience which is to be
+widened. It is his to receive, to accept. His part is fulfilled when he
+is ductile and docile.
+
+Not so, says the other sect. The child is the starting-point, the
+center, and the end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It
+alone furnishes the standard. To the growth of the child all studies
+are subservient; they are instruments valued as they serve the needs
+of growth. Personality, character, is more than subject-matter. Not
+knowledge or information, but self-realization, is the goal. To possess
+all the world of knowledge and lose one's own self is as awful a fate in
+education as in religion. Moreover, subject-matter never can be got into
+the child from without. Learning is active. It involves reaching out
+of the mind. It involves organic assimilation starting from within.
+Literally, we must take our stand with the child and our departure from
+him. It is he and not the subject-matter which determines both quality
+and quantity of learning.
+
+The only significant method is the method of the mind as it reaches
+out and assimilates. Subject-matter is but spiritual food, possible
+nutritive material. It cannot digest itself; it cannot of its own
+accord turn into bone and muscle and blood. The source of whatever
+is dead, mechanical, and formal in schools is found precisely in the
+subordination of the life and experience of the child to the curriculum.
+It is because of this that "study" has become a synonym for what is
+irksome, and a lesson identical with a task.
+
+This fundamental opposition of child and curriculum set up by these
+two modes of doctrine can be duplicated in a series of other terms.
+"Discipline" is the watchword of those who magnify the course of study;
+"interest" that of those who blazon "The Child" upon their banner. The
+standpoint of the former is logical; that of the latter psychological.
+The first emphasizes the necessity of adequate training and scholarship
+on the part of the teacher; the latter that of need of sympathy with the
+child, and knowledge of his natural instincts. "Guidance and control"
+are the catchwords of one school; "freedom and initiative" of the other.
+Law is asserted here; spontaneity proclaimed there. The old, the
+conservation of what has been achieved in the pain and toil of the ages,
+is dear to the one; the new, change, progress, wins the affection of the
+other. Inertness and routine, chaos and anarchism, are accusations
+bandied back and forth. Neglect of the sacred authority of duty is
+charged by one side, only to be met by counter-charges of suppression
+of individuality through tyrannical despotism.
+
+Such oppositions are rarely carried to their logical conclusion.
+Common-sense recoils at the extreme character of these results. They
+are left to theorists, while common-sense vibrates back and forward
+in a maze of inconsistent compromise. The need of getting theory and
+practical common-sense into closer connection suggests a return to our
+original thesis: that we have here conditions which are necessarily
+related to each other in the educative process, since this is precisely
+one of interaction and adjustment.
+
+What, then, is the problem? It is just to get rid of the prejudicial
+notion that there is some gap in kind (as distinct from degree) between
+the child's experience and the various forms of subject-matter that make
+up the course of study. From the side of the child, it is a question of
+seeing how his experience already contains within itself elements--facts
+and truths--of just the same sort as those entering into the formulated
+study; and, what is of more importance, of how it contains within itself
+the attitudes, the motives, and the interests which have operated in
+developing and organizing the subject-matter to the plane which it now
+occupies. From the side of the studies, it is a question of interpreting
+them as outgrowths of forces operating in the child's life, and of
+discovering the steps that intervene between the child's present
+experience and their richer maturity.
+
+Abandon the notion of subject-matter as something fixed and ready-made
+in itself, outside the child's experience; cease thinking of the child's
+experience as also something hard and fast; see it as something fluent,
+embryonic, vital; and we realize that the child and the curriculum are
+simply two limits which define a single process. Just as two points
+define a straight line, so the present standpoint of the child and the
+facts and truths of studies define instruction. It is continuous
+reconstruction, moving from the child's present experience out into that
+represented by the organized bodies of truth that we call studies.
+
+On the face of it, the various studies, arithmetic, geography, language,
+botany, etc., are themselves experience--they are that of the race. They
+embody the cumulative outcome of the efforts, the strivings, and the
+successes of the human race generation after generation. They present
+this, not as a mere accumulation, not as a miscellaneous heap of
+separate bits of experience, but in some organized and systematized
+way--that is, as reflectively formulated.
+
+Hence, the facts and truths that enter into the child's present
+experience, and those contained in the subject-matter of studies, are
+the initial and final terms of one reality. To oppose one to the other
+is to oppose the infancy and maturity of the same growing life; it is to
+set the moving tendency and the final result of the same process over
+against each other; it is to hold that the nature and the destiny of the
+child war with each other.
+
+If such be the case, the problem of the relation of the child and the
+curriculum presents itself in this guise: Of what use, educationally
+speaking, is it to be able to see the end in the beginning? How does
+it assist us in dealing with the early stages of growth to be able to
+anticipate its later phases? The studies, as we have agreed, represent
+the possibilities of development inherent in the child's immediate crude
+experience. But, after all, they are not parts of that present and
+immediate life. Why, then, or how, make account of them?
+
+Asking such a question suggests its own answer. To see the outcome is
+to know in what direction the present experience is moving, provided
+it move normally and soundly. The far-away point, which is of no
+significance to us simply as far away, becomes of huge importance the
+moment we take it as defining a present direction of movement. Taken
+in this way it is no remote and distant result to be achieved, but a
+guiding method in dealing with the present. The systematized and defined
+experience of the adult mind, in other words, is of value to us in
+interpreting the child's life as it immediately shows itself, and in
+passing on to guidance or direction.
+
+Let us look for a moment at these two ideas: interpretation and
+guidance. The child's present experience is in no way self-explanatory.
+It is not final, but transitional. It is nothing complete in itself, but
+just a sign or index of certain growth-tendencies. As long as we confine
+our gaze to what the child here and now puts forth, we are confused and
+misled. We cannot read its meaning. Extreme depreciations of the child
+morally and intellectually, and sentimental idealizations of him, have
+their root in a common fallacy. Both spring from taking stages of a
+growth or movement as something cut off and fixed. The first fails
+to see the promise contained in feelings and deeds which, taken by
+themselves, are uncompromising and repellent; the second fails to see
+that even the most pleasing and beautiful exhibitions are but signs,
+and that they begin to spoil and rot the moment they are treated as
+achievements.
+
+What we need is something which will enable us to interpret, to
+appraise, the elements in the child's present puttings forth and
+fallings away, his exhibitions of power and weakness, in the light of
+some larger growth-process in which they have their place. Only in this
+way can we discriminate. If we isolate the child's present inclinations,
+purposes, and experiences from the place they occupy and the part they
+have to perform in a developing experience, all stand upon the same
+level; all alike are equally good and equally bad. But in the movement
+of life different elements stand upon different planes of value. Some of
+the child's deeds are symptoms of a waning tendency; they are survivals
+in functioning of an organ which has done its part and is passing out of
+vital use. To give positive attention to such qualities is to arrest
+development upon a lower level. It is systematically to maintain a
+rudimentary phase of growth. Other activities are signs of a culminating
+power and interest; to them applies the maxim of striking while the
+iron is hot. As regards them, it is perhaps a matter of now or never.
+Selected, utilized, emphasized, they may mark a turning-point for good
+in the child's whole career; neglected, an opportunity goes, never to
+be recalled. Other acts and feelings are prophetic; they represent the
+dawning of flickering light that will shine steadily only in the far
+future. As regards them there is little at present to do but give them
+fair and full chance, waiting for the future for definite direction.
+
+Just as, upon the whole, it was the weakness of the "old education" that
+it made invidious comparisons between the immaturity of the child and
+the maturity of the adult, regarding the former as something to be got
+away from as soon as possible and as much as possible; so it is the
+danger of the "new education" that it regard the child's present powers
+and interests as something finally significant in themselves. In truth,
+his learnings and achievements are fluid and moving. They change from
+day to day and from hour to hour.
+
+It will do harm if child-study leave in the popular mind the impression
+that a child of a given age has a positive equipment of purposes and
+interests to be cultivated just as they stand. Interests in reality are
+but attitudes toward possible experiences; they are not achievements;
+their worth is in the leverage they afford, not in the accomplishment
+they represent. To take the phenomena presented at a given age as
+in any way self-explanatory or self-contained is inevitably to result
+in indulgence and spoiling. Any power, whether of child or adult,
+is indulged when it is taken on its given and present level in
+consciousness. Its genuine meaning is in the propulsion it affords
+toward a higher level. It is just something to do with. Appealing to the
+interest upon the present plane means excitation; it means playing with
+a power so as continually to stir it up without directing it toward
+definite achievement. Continuous initiation, continuous starting of
+activities that do not arrive, is, for all practical purposes, as bad
+as the continual repression of initiative in conformity with supposed
+interests of some more perfect thought or will. It is as if the child
+were forever tasting and never eating; always having his palate tickled
+upon the emotional side, but never getting the organic satisfaction that
+comes only with digestion of food and transformation of it into working
+power.
+
+As against such a view, the subject-matter of science and history and
+art serves to reveal the real child to us. We do not know the meaning
+either of his tendencies or of his performances excepting as we take
+them as germinating seed, or opening bud, of some fruit to be borne. The
+whole world of visual nature is all too small an answer to the problem
+of the meaning of the child's instinct for light and form. The entire
+science of physics is none too much to interpret adequately to us what
+is involved in some simple demand of the child for explanation of some
+casual change that has attracted his attention. The art of Raphael or of
+Corot is none too much to enable us to value the impulses stirring in
+the child when he draws and daubs.
+
+So much for the use of the subject-matter in interpretation. Its further
+employment in direction or guidance is but an expansion of the same
+thought. To interpret the fact is to see it in its vital movement, to
+see it in its relation to growth. But to view it as a part of a normal
+growth is to secure the basis for guiding it. Guidance is not external
+imposition. _It is freeing the life-process for its own most adequate
+fulfilment._ What was said about disregard of the child's present
+experience because of its remoteness from mature experience; and of the
+sentimental idealization of the child's naive caprices and performances,
+may be repeated here with slightly altered phrase. There are those who
+see no alternative between forcing the child from without, or leaving
+him entirely alone. Seeing no alternative, some choose one mode, some
+another. Both fall into the same fundamental error. Both fail to see
+that development is a definite process, having its own law which can be
+fulfilled only when adequate and normal conditions are provided. Really
+to interpret the child's present crude impulses in counting, measuring,
+and arranging things in rhythmic series involves mathematical
+scholarship--a knowledge of the mathematical formulae and relations
+which have, in the history of the race, grown out of just such crude
+beginnings. To see the whole history of development which intervenes
+between these two terms is simply to see what step the child needs to
+take just here and now; to what use he needs to put his blind impulse in
+order that it may get clarity and gain force.
+
+If, once more, the "old education" tended to ignore the dynamic quality,
+the developing force inherent in the child's present experience, and
+therefore to assume that direction and control were just matters of
+arbitrarily putting the child in a given path and compelling him to
+walk there, the "new education" is in danger of taking the idea of
+development in altogether too formal and empty a way. The child is
+expected to "develop" this or that fact or truth out of his own mind. He
+is told to think things out, or work things out for himself, without
+being supplied any of the environing conditions which are requisite to
+start and guide thought. Nothing can be developed from nothing; nothing
+but the crude can be developed out of the crude--and this is what surely
+happens when we throw the child back upon his achieved self as a
+finality, and invite him to spin new truths of nature or of conduct
+out of that. It is certainly as futile to expect a child to evolve a
+universe out of his own mere mind as it is for a philosopher to attempt
+that task. Development does not mean just getting something out of the
+mind. It is a development of experience and into experience that is
+really wanted. And this is impossible save as just that educative medium
+is provided which will enable the powers and interests that have been
+selected as valuable to function. They must operate, and how they
+operate will depend almost entirely upon the stimuli which surround
+them and the material upon which they exercise themselves. The problem
+of direction is thus the problem of selecting appropriate stimuli for
+instincts and impulses which it is desired to employ in the gaining
+of new experience. What new experiences are desirable, and thus what
+stimuli are needed, it is impossible to tell except as there is some
+comprehension of the development which is aimed at; except, in a word,
+as the adult knowledge is drawn upon as revealing the possible career
+open to the child.
+
+It may be of use to distinguish and to relate to each other the logical
+and the psychological aspects of experience--the former standing for
+subject-matter in itself, the latter for it in relation to the child. A
+psychological statement of experience follows its actual growth; it is
+historic; it notes steps actually taken, the uncertain and tortuous, as
+well as the efficient and successful. The logical point of view, on the
+other hand, assumes that the development has reached a certain positive
+stage of fulfilment. It neglects the process and considers the outcome.
+It summarizes and arranges, and thus separates the achieved results from
+the actual steps by which they were forthcoming in the first instance.
+We may compare the difference between the logical and the psychological
+to the difference between the notes which an explorer makes in a new
+country, blazing a trail and finding his way along as best he may,
+and the finished map that is constructed after the country has been
+thoroughly explored. The two are mutually dependent. Without the more
+or less accidental and devious paths traced by the explorer there would
+be no facts which could be utilized in the making of the complete and
+related chart. But no one would get the benefit of the explorer's trip
+if it was not compared and checked up with similar wanderings undertaken
+by others; unless the new geographical facts learned, the streams
+crossed, the mountains climbed, etc., were viewed, not as mere incidents
+in the journey of the particular traveler, but (quite apart from the
+individual explorer's life) in relation to other similar facts already
+known. The map orders individual experiences, connecting them with one
+another irrespective of the local and temporal circumstances and
+accidents of their original discovery.
+
+Of what use is this formulated statement of experience? Of what use is
+the map?
+
+Well, we may first tell what the map is not. The map is not a substitute
+for a personal experience. The map does not take the place of an actual
+journey. The logically formulated material of a science or branch of
+learning, of a study, is no substitute for the having of individual
+experiences. The mathematical formula for a falling body does not take
+the place of personal contact and immediate individual experience with
+the falling thing. But the map, a summary, an arranged and orderly
+view of previous experiences, serves as a guide to future experience;
+it gives direction; it facilitates control; it economizes effort,
+preventing useless wandering, and pointing out the paths which lead most
+quickly and most certainly to a desired result. Through the map every
+new traveler may get for his own journey the benefits of the results
+of others' explorations without the waste of energy and loss of time
+involved in their wanderings--wanderings which he himself would be
+obliged to repeat were it not for just the assistance of the objective
+and generalized record of their performances. That which we call a
+science or study puts the net product of past experience in the
+form which makes it most available for the future. It represents a
+capitalization which may at once be turned to interest. It economizes
+the workings of the mind in every way. Memory is less taxed because the
+facts are grouped together about some common principle, instead of being
+connected solely with the varying incidents of their original discovery.
+Observation is assisted; we know what to look for and where to look.
+It is the difference between looking for a needle in a haystack, and
+searching for a given paper in a well-arranged cabinet. Reasoning is
+directed, because there is a certain general path or line laid out
+along which ideas naturally march, instead of moving from one chance
+association to another.
+
+There is, then, nothing final about a logical rendering of experience.
+Its value is not contained in itself; its significance is that of
+standpoint, outlook, method. It intervenes between the more casual,
+tentative, and roundabout experiences of the past, and more controlled
+and orderly experiences of the future. It gives past experience in that
+net form which renders it most available and most significant, most
+fecund for future experience. The abstractions, generalizations, and
+classifications which it introduces all have prospective meaning.
+
+The formulated result is then not to be opposed to the process of
+growth. The logical is not set over against the psychological. The
+surveyed and arranged result occupies a critical position in the process
+of growth. It marks a turning-point. It shows how we may get the benefit
+of past effort in controlling future endeavor. In the largest sense the
+logical standpoint is itself psychological; it has its meaning as a
+point in the development of experience, and its justification is in its
+functioning in the future growth which it insures.
+
+Hence the need of reinstating into experience the subject-matter of the
+studies, or branches of learning. It must be restored to the experience
+from which it has been abstracted. It needs to be _psychologized_;
+turned over, translated into the immediate and individual experiencing
+within which it has its origin and significance.
+
+Every study or subject thus has two aspects: one for the scientist as a
+scientist; the other for the teacher as a teacher. These two aspects are
+in no sense opposed or conflicting. But neither are they immediately
+identical. For the scientist, the subject-matter represents simply a
+given body of truth to be employed in locating new problems, instituting
+new researches, and carrying them through to a verified outcome. To him
+the subject-matter of the science is self-contained. He refers various
+portions of it to each other; he connects new facts with it. He is not,
+as a scientist, called upon to travel outside its particular bounds;
+if he does, it is only to get more facts of the same general sort.
+The problem of the teacher is a different one. As a teacher he is
+not concerned with adding new facts to the science he teaches; in
+propounding new hypotheses or in verifying them. He is concerned with
+the subject-matter of the science as _representing a given stage and
+phase of the development of experience_. His problem is that of inducing
+a vital and personal experiencing. Hence, what concerns him, as teacher,
+is the ways in which that subject may become a part of experience; what
+there is in the child's present that is usable with reference to it;
+how such elements are to be used; how his own knowledge of the
+subject-matter may assist in interpreting the child's needs and doings,
+and determine the medium in which the child should be placed in order
+that his growth may be properly directed. He is concerned, not with the
+subject-matter as such, but with the subject-matter as a related factor
+in a total and growing experience. Thus to see it is to psychologize it.
+
+It is the failure to keep in mind the double aspect of subject-matter
+which causes the curriculum and child to be set over against each other
+as described in our early pages. The subject-matter, just as it is for
+the scientist, has no direct relationship to the child's present
+experience. It stands outside of it. The danger here is not a merely
+theoretical one. We are practically threatened on all sides. Textbook
+and teacher vie with each other in presenting to the child the
+subject-matter as it stands to the specialist. Such modification and
+revision as it undergoes are a mere elimination of certain scientific
+difficulties, and the general reduction to a lower intellectual level.
+The material is not translated into life-terms, but is directly offered
+as a substitute for, or an external annex to, the child's present life.
+
+Three typical evils result: In the first place, the lack of any organic
+connection with what the child has already seen and felt and loved makes
+the material purely formal and symbolic. There is a sense in which it is
+impossible to value too highly the formal and the symbolic. The genuine
+form, the real symbol, serve as methods in the holding and discovery of
+truth. They are tools by which the individual pushes out most surely and
+widely into unexplored areas. They are means by which he brings to bear
+whatever of reality he has succeeded in gaining in past searchings. But
+this happens only when the symbol really symbolizes--when it stands for
+and sums up in shorthand actual experiences which the individual has
+already gone through. A symbol which is induced from without, which has
+not been led up to in preliminary activities, is, as we say, a _bare_
+or _mere_ symbol; it is dead and barren. Now, any fact, whether of
+arithmetic, or geography, or grammar, which is not led up to and into
+out of something which has previously occupied a significant position
+in the child's life for its own sake, is forced into this position.
+It is not a reality, but just the sign of a reality which _might_ be
+experienced if certain conditions were fulfilled. But the abrupt
+presentation of the fact as something known by others, and requiring
+only to be studied and learned by the child, rules out such conditions
+of fulfilment. It condemns the fact to be a hieroglyph: it would mean
+something if one only had the key. The clue being lacking, it remains
+an idle curiosity, to fret and obstruct the mind, a dead weight to
+burden it.
+
+The second evil in this external presentation is lack of motivation.
+There are not only no facts or truths which have been previously felt
+as such with which to appropriate and assimilate the new, but there is
+no craving, no need, no demand. When the subject-matter has been
+psychologized, that is, viewed as an out-growth of present tendencies
+and activities, it is easy to locate in the present some obstacle,
+intellectual, practical, or ethical, which can be handled more
+adequately if the truth in question be mastered. This need supplies
+motive for the learning. An end which is the child's own carries him
+on to possess the means of its accomplishment. But when material is
+directly supplied in the form of a lesson to be learned as a lesson, the
+connecting links of need and aim are conspicuous for their absence. What
+we mean by the mechanical and dead in instruction is a result of this
+lack of motivation. The organic and vital mean interaction--they mean
+play of mental demand and material supply.
+
+The third evil is that even the most scientific matter, arranged in
+most logical fashion, loses this quality, when presented in external,
+ready-made fashion, by the time it gets to the child. It has to undergo
+some modification in order to shut out some phases too hard to grasp,
+and to reduce some of the attendant difficulties. What happens? Those
+things which are most significant to the scientific man, and most
+valuable in the logic of actual inquiry and classification, drop out.
+The really thought-provoking character is obscured, and the organizing
+function disappears. Or, as we commonly say, the child's reasoning
+powers, the faculty of abstraction and generalization, are not
+adequately developed. So the subject-matter is evacuated of its logical
+value, and, though it is what it is only from the logical standpoint, is
+presented as stuff only for "memory." This is the contradiction: the
+child gets the advantage neither of the adult logical formulation, nor
+of his own native competencies of apprehension and response. Hence
+the logic of the child is hampered and mortified, and we are almost
+fortunate if he does not get actual non-science, flat and common-place
+residua of what was gaining scientific vitality a generation or two
+ago--degenerate reminiscence of what someone else once formulated on the
+basis of the experience that some further person had, once upon a time,
+experienced.
+
+The train of evils does not cease. It is all too common for opposed
+erroneous theories to play straight into each other's hands.
+Psychological considerations may be slurred or shoved one side; they
+cannot be crowded out. Put out of the door, they come back through the
+window. Somehow and somewhere motive must be appealed to, connection
+must be established between the mind and its material. There is no
+question of getting along without this bond of connection; the only
+question is whether it be such as grows out of the material itself in
+relation to the mind, or be imported and hitched on from some outside
+source. If the subject-matter of the lessons be such as to have an
+appropriate place within the expanding consciousness of the child, if it
+grows out of his own past doings, thinkings, and sufferings, and grows
+into application in further achievements and receptivities, then no
+device or trick of method has to be resorted to in order to enlist
+"interest." The psychologized _is_ of interest--that is, it is placed in
+the whole of conscious life so that it shares the worth of that life.
+But the externally presented material, conceived and generated in
+standpoints and attitudes remote from the child, and developed in
+motives alien to him, has no such place of its own. Hence the recourse
+to adventitious leverage to push it in, to factitious drill to drive it
+in, to artificial bribe to lure it in.
+
+Three aspects of this recourse to outside ways for giving the
+subject-matter some psychological meaning may be worth mentioning.
+Familiarity breeds contempt, but it also breeds something like
+affection. We get used to the chains we wear, and we miss them when
+removed. 'Tis an old story that through custom we finally embrace
+what at first wore a hideous mien. Unpleasant, because meaningless,
+activities may get agreeable if long enough persisted in. _It is
+possible for the mind to develop interest in a routine or mechanical
+procedure if conditions are continually supplied which demand that mode
+of operation and preclude any other sort._ I frequently hear dulling
+devices and empty exercises defended and extolled because "the children
+take such an 'interest' in them." Yes, that is the worst of it; the
+mind, shut out from worthy employ and missing the taste of adequate
+performance, comes down to the level of that which is left to it to
+know and do, and perforce takes an interest in a cabined and cramped
+experience. To find satisfaction in its own exercise is the normal law
+of mind, and if large and meaningful business for the mind be denied, it
+tries to content itself with the formal movements that remain to it--and
+too often succeeds, save in those cases of more intense activity which
+cannot accommodate themselves, and that make up the unruly and
+_declasse_ of our school product. An interest in the formal apprehension
+of symbols and in their memorized reproduction becomes in many pupils
+a substitute for the original and vital interest in reality; and all
+because, the subject-matter of the course of study being out of relation
+to the concrete mind of the individual, some substitute bond to hold it
+in some kind of working relation to the mind must be discovered and
+elaborated.
+
+The second substitute for living motivation in the subject-matter is
+that of contrast-effects; the material of the lesson is rendered
+interesting, if not in itself, at least in contrast with some
+alternative experience. To learn the lesson is more interesting than to
+take a scolding, be held up to general ridicule, stay after school,
+receive degradingly low marks, or fail to be promoted. And very much of
+what goes by the name of "discipline," and prides itself upon opposing
+the doctrines of a soft pedagogy and upon upholding the banner of effort
+and duty, is nothing more or less than just this appeal to "interest" in
+its obverse aspect--to fear, to dislike of various kinds of physical,
+social, and personal pain. The subject-matter does not appeal; it cannot
+appeal; it lacks origin and bearing in a growing experience. So the
+appeal is to the thousand and one outside and irrelevant agencies which
+may serve to throw, by sheer rebuff and rebound, the mind back upon the
+material from which it is constantly wandering.
+
+Human nature being what it is, however, it tends to seek its motivation
+in the agreeable rather than in the disagreeable, in direct pleasure
+rather than in alternative pain. And so has come up the modern theory
+and practice of the "interesting," in the false sense of that term. The
+material is still left; so far as its own characteristics are concerned,
+just material externally selected and formulated. It is still just
+so much geography and arithmetic and grammar study; not so much
+potentiality of child-experience with regard to language, earth, and
+numbered and measured reality. Hence the difficulty of bringing the mind
+to bear upon it; hence its repulsiveness; the tendency for attention to
+wander; for other acts and images to crowd in and expel the lesson.
+The legitimate way out is to transform the material; to psychologize
+it--that is, once more, to take it and to develop it within the range
+and scope of the child's life. But it is easier and simpler to leave it
+as it is, and then by trick of method to _arouse_ interest, to _make_ it
+_interesting_; to cover it with sugar-coating; to conceal its barrenness
+by intermediate and unrelated material; and finally, as it were, to get
+the child to swallow and digest the unpalatable morsel while he is
+enjoying tasting something quite different. But alas for the analogy!
+Mental assimilation is a matter of consciousness; and if the attention
+has not been playing upon the actual material, that has not been
+apprehended, nor worked into faculty.
+
+How, then, stands the case of Child _vs._ Curriculum? What shall the
+verdict be? The radical fallacy in the original pleadings with which we
+set out is the supposition that we have no choice save either to leave
+the child to his own unguided spontaneity or to inspire direction upon
+him from without. Action is response; it is adaptation, adjustment.
+There is no such thing as sheer self-activity possible--because all
+activity takes place in a medium, in a situation, and with reference to
+its conditions. But, again, no such thing as imposition of truth from
+without, as insertion of truth from without, is possible. All depends
+upon the activity which the mind itself undergoes in responding to what
+is presented from without. Now, the value of the formulated wealth of
+knowledge that makes up the course of study is that it may enable the
+educator to _determine the environment of the child_, and thus by
+indirection to direct. Its primary value, its primary indication, is for
+the teacher, not for the child. It says to the teacher: Such and such
+are the capacities, the fulfilments, in truth and beauty and behavior,
+open to these children. Now see to it that day by day the conditions are
+such that _their own activities_ move inevitably in this direction,
+toward such culmination of themselves. Let the child's nature fulfil its
+own destiny, revealed to you in whatever of science and art and industry
+the world now holds as its own.
+
+The case is of Child. It is his present powers which are to assert
+themselves; his present capacities which are to be exercised; his
+present attitudes which are to be realized. But save as the teacher
+knows, knows wisely and thoroughly, the race-expression which is
+embodied in that thing we call the Curriculum, the teacher knows neither
+what the present power, capacity, or attitude is, nor yet how it is to
+be asserted, exercised, and realized.
+
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note.
+
+Two half-title pages have been omitted.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM***
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