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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:47:26 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/29370-8.txt b/29370-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..921eac5 --- /dev/null +++ b/29370-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13733 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Portuguese Architecture, by Walter Crum Watson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Portuguese Architecture + +Author: Walter Crum Watson + +Release Date: July 10, 2009 [EBook #29370] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +[Note of transcriber: $ is used to indicate the cifrão, symbol for +escudos. Where [= ] surrounds a letter it indicates that the letter was +written with a line above it.] + +[Illustration: FROM THE MARVILLA, SANTAREM.] + +[Illustration: FROM THE MARVILLA, SANTAREM; ALSO IN THE MATRIZ, ALVITO, +AND ELSEWHERE.] + + + + +PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE + +BY + +WALTER CRUM WATSON + +_ILLUSTRATED_ + +LONDON + +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY + +LIMITED + +1908 + +Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty + +AOS MEUS QUERIDOS PARENTES E AMIGOS +A ILL^{MA} E EX^{MA} SN^{RA} +M. L. DOS PRADOS LARGOS +E OS +ILL^{MOS} E EX^{MOS} SNR^{ES} +BARONEZA E BARÃO DE SOUTELLINHO +COMO RECONHECIMENTO PELAS AMABILIDADES E ATTENÇÕES +QUE ME DISPENSARAM NOS BELLOS DIAS QUE PASSEI +NA SUA COMPANHIA +COMO HOMENAGEM RESPEITOSA +O.D.C. +O AUCTOR + + + + +PREFACE + + +The buildings of Portugal, with one or two exceptions, cannot be said to +excel or even to come up to those of other countries. To a large extent +the churches are without the splendid furniture which makes those of +Spain the most romantic in the world, nor are they in themselves so +large or so beautiful. Some apology, then, may seem wanted for imposing +on the public a book whose subject-matter is not of first-class +importance. + +The present book is the outcome of visits to Portugal in April or May of +three successive years; and during these visits the writer became so +fond of the country and of its people, so deeply interested in the +history of its glorious achievements in the past, and in the buildings +which commemorate these great deeds, that it seemed worth while to try +and interest others in them. Another reason for writing about Portugal +instead of about Spain is that the country is so much smaller that it is +no very difficult task to visit every part and see the various buildings +with one's own eyes: besides, in no language does there exist any book +dealing with the architecture of the country as a whole. There are some +interesting monographs in Portuguese about such buildings as the palace +at Cintra, or Batalha, while the Renaissance has been fully treated by +Albrecht Haupt, but no one deals at all adequately with what came before +the time of Dom Manoel. + +Most of the plans in the book were drawn from rough measurements taken +on the spot and do not pretend to minute accuracy. + +For the use of that of the Palace at Cintra the thanks of the writer are +due to Conde de Sabugosa, who allowed it to be copied from his book, +while the plan of Mafra was found in an old magazine. + +Thanks are also due to Senhor Joaquim de Vasconcellos for much valuable +information, to his wife, Senhora Michaelis de Vasconcellos, for her +paper about the puzzling inscriptions at Batalha, and above all the +Baron and the Baroneza de Soutellinho, for their repeated welcome to +Oporto and for the trouble they have taken in getting books and +photographs. + +That the book may be more complete there has been added a short account +of some of the church plate and paintings which still survive, as well +as of the tile work which is so universal and so characteristic. + +As for the buildings, hardly any of any consequence have escaped notice. + +EDINBURGH, 1907. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION + + PAGE + +Portugal separated from Spain by no natural division geographical or +linguistic; does not correspond with Roman Lusitania, nor with the +later Suevic kingdom--Traces of early Celtic inhabitants; Citania, +Sabrosa--Roman Occupation; Temple at Evora--Barbarian Invasions--Arab +Conquest--Beginnings of Christian re-conquest--Sesnando, +first Count of Oporto--Christians defeated at Zalaca--Count +Henry of Burgundy and Dona Theresa--Beginnings of Portuguese +Independence--Affonso Henriques, King of Portugal--Growth of +Portugal--Victory of Aljubarrota--Prince Henry the Navigator--The +Spanish Usurpation--The Great Earthquake--The Peninsular +War--The Miguelite War--The suppression of the Monasteries--Differences +between Portugal and Spain, etc. 1-10 + +PAINTING IN PORTUGAL + +Not very many examples of Portuguese paintings left--Early connection +with Burgundy; and with Antwerp--Great influence of +Flemish school--The myth of Grão Vasco--Pictures at Evora, at +Thomar, at Setubal, in Santa Cruz, Coimbra--'The Fountain of +Mercy' at Oporto--The pictures at Vizeu: 'St. Peter'--Antonio +de Hollanda 10-17 + +CHURCH PLATE + +Much plate lost during the Peninsular War--Treasuries of Braga, +Coimbra, and Evora, and of Guimarães--Early chalices, etc., at +Braga, Coimbra, and Guimarães--Crosses at Guimarães and at +Coimbra--Relics of St. Isabel--Flemish influence seen in later +work--Tomb of St. Isabel, and coffins of sainted abbesses of +Lorvão 17-20 + +TILES + +Due to Arab influence--The word _azulejo_ and its origin--The different +stages in the development of tile making--Early tiles at Cintra +Moorish in pattern and in technique--Tiles at Bacalhôa Moorish in +technique but Renaissance in pattern--Later tiles without Moorish +technique, _e.g._ at Santarem and elsewhere--Della Robbia ware at +Bacalhôa--Pictures in blue and white tiles very common 20-28 + +CHAPTER I + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH + +The oldest buildings are in the North--Very rude and simple--Three +types--Villarinho--São Miguel, Guimarães--Cedo Feita, Oporto--Gandara, +Boelhe, etc., are examples of the simplest--Aguas Santas, +Rio Mau, etc., of the second; and of the third Villar de Frades, +etc.--Legend of Villar--Sé, Braga--Sé, Oporto--Paço de Souza--Method +of roofing--Tomb of Egas Moniz--Pombeiro--Castle +and Church, Guimarães 29-43 + +CHAPTER II + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH + +Growth of Christian kingdom under Affonso Henriques--His vow--Capture +of Santarem, of Lisbon--Cathedral, Lisbon, related to Church +of S. Sernin, Toulouse--Ruined by Great Earthquake, and badly +restored--Sé Velha, Coimbra, general scheme copied from Santiago +and so from S. Sernin, Toulouse--Other churches at Coimbra--Evora, +its capture--Cathedral founded--Similar in scheme to +Lisbon, but with pointed arches; central lantern; cloister--Thomar +founded by Gualdim Paes; besieged by Moors--Templar Church--Santarem, +Church of São João de Alporão--Alcobaça; great wealth +of Abbey--Designed by French monks--Same plan as Clairvaux--Has +but little influence on later buildings 44-63 + +CHAPTER III + +THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO +THE BATTLE OF ALJUBARROTA + +The thirteenth century poor in buildings--The Franciscans--São +Francisco Guimarães--Santarem--Santa Maria dos Olivaes at +Thomar--_Cf._ aisle windows at Leça do Balio--Inactivity and +deposition of Dom Sancho II. by Dom Affonso III.--Conquest of +Algarve--Sé, Silves--Dom Diniz and the castles at Beja and at +Leiria--Cloisters, Cellas, Coimbra, Alcobaça, Lisbon, and Oporto--St. +Isabel and Sta. Clara at Coimbra--Leça do Balio--The choir +of the cathedral, Lisbon, with tombs--Alcobaça, royal tombs--Dom +Pedro I. and Inez de Castro; her murder, his sorrow--Their tombs + 64-78 + +CHAPTER IV + +BATALHA AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL + +Dom Fernando and Dona Leonor Telles--Her wickedness and unpopularity--Their +daughter, Dona Brites, wife of Don Juan of Castile, rejected--Dom +João I. elected king--Battle of Aljubarrota--Dom João's +vow--Marriage of Dom João and Philippa of Lancaster--Batalha +founded; its plan national, not foreign; some details seem English, +some French, some even German--Huguet the builder did not copy +York or Canterbury--Tracery very curious--Inside very plain--Capella +do Fundador, with the royal tombs--Capellas Imperfeitas 79-92 + +CHAPTER V + +THE EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY + +Nossa Senhora da Oliveira Guimarães rebuilt as a thankoffering--Silver +reredos captured at Aljubarrota--The cathedral, Guarda--Its likeness +to Batalha--Nave later--Nuno Alvarez Pereira, the Grand +Constable, and the Carmo, Lisbon--João Vicente and Villar de +Frades--Alvito, Matriz--Capture of Ceuta--Tombs in the Graça, +Santarem--Dom Pedro de Menezes and his 'Aleo'--Tomb of +Dom Duarte de Menezes in São João de Alporão--Tombs at +Abrantes cloister--Thomar 93-103 + +CHAPTER VI + +LATER GOTHIC + +Graça, Santarem--Parish churches, Thomar, Villa do Conde, Azurara +and Caminha, all similar in plan--Cathedrals: Funchal, Lamego, +and Vizeu--Porch and chancel of cathedral, Braga--Conceição, +Braga 104-115 + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS + +Few buildings older than the re-conquest--But many built for Christians +by Moors--The Palace, Cintra--Originally country house of the +Walis--Rebuilt by Dom João I.--Plan and details Moorish--Entrance +court--Sala dos Cysnes, why so called, its windows; +Sala do Conselho; Sala das Pegas, its name, chimney-piece; Sala +das Sereias; dining-room; Pateo, baths; Sala dos Arabes; +Pateo de Diana; chapel; kitchen--Castles at Guimarães and at +Barcellos--Villa de Feira 116-128 + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MOORISH BUILDINGS + +Commoner in Alemtejo--Castle, Alvito--Not Sansovino's Palace--Evora, +Paços Reaes, Cordovis, Sempre Nova, São João Evangelista, +São Francisco, São Braz 129-135 + +CHAPTER IX + +MOORISH CARPENTRY + +Examples found all over the country--At Aguas Santas, Azurara, +Caminha and Funchal--Cintra, Sala dos Cysnes, Sala dos Escudos--Coimbra, +Misericordia, hall of University--Ville do Conde Santa +Clara, Aveiro convent 136-142 + +CHAPTER X + +EARLY MANOELINO + +João II. continues the policy of Prince Henry the Navigator--Bartholomeu +Diaz, Vasco da Gama--Accession of Dom Manoel--Discovery +of route to India, and of Brazil--Great wealth of King--Fails +to unite all the kingdoms of the Peninsula--Characteristic +features of Manoelino--House of Garcia de Resende, Evora--Caldas +da Rainha--Setubal, Jesus--Beja, Conceição, Castle, etc.--Cintra, +Palace--Gollegã, Church--Elvas, Cathedral--Santarem, +Marvilla--Lisbon, Madre de Deus--Coimbra, University Chapel--Setubal, +São Julião 143-156 + +CHAPTER XI + +THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA + +Vasco da Gama's successful voyage to Calicut, 1497--Other expeditions +lead to discovery of Brazil--Titles conferred on Dom Manoel +by Pope Alexander VI.--Ormuz taken--Strange forms at Thomar +not Indian--Templars suppressed and Order of Christ founded +instead--Prince Henry Grand Master--Spiritual supremacy of +Thomar over all conquests, made or to be made--Templar church +added to by Prince Henry, and more extensively by Dom Manoel--João +de Castilho builds Coro--Stalls burnt by French--South +door, chapter-house and its windows--Much of the detail emblematic +of the discoveries, etc., made in the East and in the West + 157-170 + +CHAPTER XII + +THE ADDITIONS TO BATALHA + +Dom Duarte's tomb-house unfinished--Work resumed by Dom +Manoel--The two Matheus Fernandes, architects--The Pateo--The +great entrance--Meaning of 'Tanyas Erey'--Piers in Octagon--How +was the Octagon to be roofed?--The great Cloister, with +its tracery--Whence derived 171-180 + +CHAPTER XIII + +BELEM + +Torre de São Viente built to defend Lisbon--Turrets and balconies +not Indian--Vasco da Gama sails from Belem--The great monastery +built as a thankoffering for the success of his voyage--Begun by +Boutaca, succeeded by Lourenço Fernandes, and then by João de +Castilho--Plan due to Boutaca--Master Nicolas, the Frenchman, +the first renaissance artist in Portugal--Plan: exterior; interior +superior to exterior; stalls; cloister, lower and upper--Lisbon, +Conceição Velha, also by João de Castilho 181-195 + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS + +Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, founded by Dom Affonso Henriques, rebuilt by +Dom Manoel, first architect Marcos Pires--Gregorio Lourenço +clerk of the works--Diogo de Castilho succeeds Marcos Pires--West +front, Master Nicolas--Cloister, inferior to that of Belem--Royal +tombs--Other French carvers--Pulpit, reredoses in cloister, +stalls--Sé Velha reredos, doors--Chapel of São Pedro 196-210 + +CHAPTER XV + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNERS + +Tomb at Thomar of the Bishop of Funchal--Tomb in Graça, Santarem--São +Marcos, founded by Dona Brites de Menezes--Tomb of +Fernão Telles--Rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, her grandson--Tombs +in chancel--Reredos, by Master Nicolas--Reredos at Cintra--Pena +Chapel by same--São Marcos, Chapel of the Reyes Magos--Sansovino's +door, Cintra--Evora, São Domingos--Portalegre, +Tavira, Lagos, Goes, Trofa, Caminha, Moncorvo 211-221 + +CHAPTER XVI + +LATER WORK OF JOÃO DE CASTILHO AND EARLIER CLASSIC + +João III. cared more for the Church than for anything else--Decay +begins--Later additions to Alcobaça--Batalha, Sta. Cruz--Thomar, +Order of Christ reformed--Knights become regulars--Great +additions, cloisters, dormitory, etc., by João de Castilho--His +difficulties, letters to the King--His addition to Batalha--Builds +Conceição at Thomar like Milagre, Santarem--Marvilla, _ibid._; +Elvas, São Domingos--Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde--Vizeu, +Cloister--Lamego, Cloister--Coimbra, São +Thomaz--Carmo--Faro--Lorvão--Amarante--Santarem, Santa Clara, and +Guarda, reredos 222-239 + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION + +Diogo de Torralva and Claustro dos Filippes, Thomar--Miranda de +Douro--Reigns of Dom Sebastião and of the Cardinal King +Henry not noted for much building--Evora, Graça and University--Fatal +expedition by Dom Sebastião to Morocco--His death and +defeat--Feeble reign of his grand-uncle--Election of Philip--Union +with Spain and consequent loss of trade--Lisbon, São +Roque; coming of Terzi--Lisbon, São Vicente de Fora; first use +of very long Doric pilasters--Santo Antão, Santa Maria do +Desterro, and Torreão do Paço--Sé Nova, Coimbra, like Santo +Antão--Oporto, Collegio Novo--Coimbra, Misericordia, Bishop's +palace; Sacristy of Sé Velha, São Domingos, Carmo, Graça, São +Bento by Alvares--Lisbon, São Bento--Oporto, São Bento 240-253 + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE +EXPULSION OF THE SPANIARDS + +Vianna do Castello, Misericordia--Beja, São Thiago--Azeitão, São +Simão--Evora, Cartuxa--Beja, Misericordia--Oporto, Nossa +Senhora da Serra do Pilar--Sheltered Wellington before he crossed +the Douro--Besieged by Dom Miguel--Very original plan--Coimbra, +Sacristy of Santa Cruz--Lisbon, Santa Engracia never +finished--Doric pilasters too tall--Coimbra, Santa Clara, great +abuse of Doric pilasters 254-260 + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +The expulsion of the Spaniards--Long war: final success of Portugal +and recovered prosperity--Mafra founded by Dom João V.--Compared +with the Escorial--Designed by a German--Palace, church, +library, etc.--Evora, Capella Mor--Great Earthquake--The +Marques de Pombal--Lisbon, Estrella--Oporto, Torre dos +Clerigos--Oporto, Quinta do Freixo--Queluz--Quinta at +Guimarães--Oporto, hospital and factory--Defeat of Dom +Miguel and suppression of monasteries 261-271 + +BOOKS CONSULTED 272 + +INDEX 273 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + _To face page_ +1. Guimarães, House from Sabrosa } 4 +2. Evora, Temple of 'Diana' } +3. Oporto, Fountain of Mercy 14 +4. Vizeu, St. Peter, in Sacristy of Cathedral 16 +5. Coimbra, Cross in Cathedral Treasury } +6. " Chalice " " } 20 +7. " Monstrance " " } +8. Cintra, Palace, Sala dos Arabes } 24 +9. " " Dining-room } +10. Santarem, Marvilla, coloured wall tiles } _frontispiece_. +11. " " } +12. Vallarinho, Parish Church } 32 +13. Villar de Frades, West Door } +14. Paço de Souza, Interior of Church } 40 +15. " " Tomb of Egas Moniz } +16. Guimarães, N. S. da Oliveira, Chapter-house Entrance } 42 +17. Leça do Balio, Cloister } +18. Coimbra, Sé Velha, Interior } 50 +19. " " West Front } +20. Evora, Cathedral, Interior } 54 +21. " " Central Lantern } +22. Evora, Cloister } 56 +23. Thomar, Templar Church } +24. Santarem, São João de Alporão } 58 +25. Alcobaça, South Transept } +26. Santarem, São Francisco, West Door } 66 +27. Silves, Cathedral, Interior } +28. Alcobaça Cloister } 72 +29. Lisbon, Cathedral Cloister } +30. Coimbra, Sta. Clara 74 +31. Alcobaça, Chapel with Royal Tombs } 78 +32. " Tomb of Dom Pedro I. } +33. Batalha, West Front 86 +34. Batalha, Interior } 88 +35. " Capella do Fundador } +36. Batalha, Capellas Imperfeitas 92 +37. Guimarães, Capella of D. Juan I. of Castile } 94 +38. Guarda, North Side of Cathedral } +39. Santarem, Tomb of Dom Pedro de Menezes } 102 +40. " Tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes } +41. Villa do Conde, West Front of Parish Church 108 +42. Vizeu, Interior of Cathedral } 112 +43. Braga, Cathedral Porch } +44. Cintra, Palace, Main Front } 120 +45. " " Window in 'Sala das Sereias' } +46. Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Chapel 126 +47. Alvito, Castle } 132 +48. Evora, São João Evangelista, Door to Chapter-house } +49. Caminha, Roof of Matriz } 138 +50. Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Sala dos Cysnes } +51. Coimbra, University, Ceiling of Sala dos Capellos 142 +52. Cintra, Palace, additions by D. Manoel 152 +53. Santarem, Marvilla, West Door } 154 +54. Coimbra, University Chapel Door } +55. Thomar, Convent of Christ, South Door } 166 +56. " " " Chapter-house Window } +57. Batalha, Entrance to Capellas Imperfeitas 174 +58. Batalha, Window of Pateo } 178 +59. " Upper part of Capellas Imperfeitas } +60. Batalha, Claustro Real } 180 +61. Batalha, Lavatory in Claustro Real } +62. Belem, Torre de São Vicente } 184 +63. Belem, Sacristy } +64. Belem, South side of Nave } 190 +65. " Interior, looking west } +66. Belem, Cloister } 194 +67. " Interior of Lower Cloister } +68. Lisbon, Conceição Velha 196 +69. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, West Front } 200 +70. " " Cloister } +71. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Tomb of D. Sancho I. } 202 +72. " " Pulpit } +73. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Reredos in Cloister } 206 +74. " " Choir Stalls } +75. Coimbra, Sé Velha, Reredos } 209 +76. " " Reredos in Chapel of São Pedro} +77. Thomar, Sta. Maria dos Olivaes, Tomb of the Bishop of Funchal } 212 +78. São Marcos, Tomb of D. João da Silva } +79. São Marcos, Chancel } 218 +80. " Chapel of the 'Reyes Magos' } +81. Cintra, Palace, Door by Sansovino } 220 +82. Caminha, West Door of Church } +83. Alcobaça, Sacristy Door } 224 +84. Batalha, Door of Sta. Cruz } +85. Thomar, Claustro da Hospedaria } 228 +86. " Chapel in Dormitory Passage } +87. Thomar, Stair in Claustro dos Filippes } 230 +88. " Chapel of the Conceição } +89. Santarem, Marvilla, Interior } 236 +90. Vizeu, Cathedral Cloister } +91. Guarda, Cathedral Reredos } 240 +92. Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes } +93. Lisbon, São Vicente de Fora } 246 +94. " " " Interior } +95. Coimbra, Sé Nova } 250 +96. " Misericordia } +97. Vianna do Castello, Misericordia 254 +98. Oporto, N. S. da Serra do Pilar, Cloister} 258 +99. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Sacristy } +100. Mafra, West Front } 266 +101. " Interior of Church } + +[Illustration: map of Portugal] + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +No one can look at a map of the Iberian Peninsula without being struck +by the curious way in which it is unequally divided between two +independent countries. Spain occupies by far the larger part of the +Peninsula, leaving to Portugal only a narrow strip on the western +seaboard some one hundred miles wide and three hundred and forty long. +Besides, the two countries are separated the one from the other by +merely artificial boundaries. The two largest rivers of the Peninsula, +the Douro and the Tagus, rise in Spain, but finish their course in +Portugal, and the Guadiana runs for some eighty miles through Portuguese +territory before acting for a second time as a boundary between the two +countries. The same, to a lesser degree, is true of the mountains. The +Gerez and the Marão are only offshoots of the Cantabrian mountains, and +the Serra da Estrella in Beira is but a continuation of the Sierra de +Gata which separates Leon from Spanish Estremadura. Indeed the only +natural frontiers are formed by the last thirty miles of the Minho in +the north, by about eighty miles of the Douro, which in its deep and +narrow gorge really separates Traz os Montes from Leon; by a few miles +of the Tagus, and by the Guadiana both before and after it runs through +a part of Alemtejo. + +If the languages of the two countries were radically unlike this curious +division would be more easy to understand, but in reality Castilian +differs from Portuguese rather in pronunciation than in anything else; +indeed differs less from Portuguese than it does from Cataluñan.[1] + +During the Roman dominion none of the divisions of the Peninsula +corresponded exactly with Portugal. Lusitania, which the poets of the +Renaissance took to be the Roman name of their country, only reached up +to the Douro, and took in a large part of Leon and the whole of Spanish +Estremadura. + +In the time of the Visigoths, a Suevic kingdom occupied most of Portugal +to the north of the Tagus, but included also all Galicia and part of +Leon; and during the Moorish occupation there was nothing which at all +corresponded with the modern divisions. + +It was, indeed, only by the gradual Christian re-conquest of the country +from the Moors that Portugal came into existence, and only owing to the +repeated failure of the attempt to unite the two crowns of Portugal and +Castile by marriage that they have remained separated to the present +day. + +Of the original inhabitants of what is now Portugal little is known, but +that they were more Celtic than Iberian seems probable from a few Celtic +words which have survived, such as _Mor_ meaning _great_ as applied to +the _Capella Mor_ of a church or to the title of a court official. The +name too of the Douro has probably nothing to do with gold but is +connected with a Celtic word for water. The Tua may mean the 'gushing' +river, and the Ave recalls the many Avons. _Ebora_, now Evora, is very +like the Roman name of York, Eboracum. _Briga_, too, the common +termination of town names in Roman times as in Conimbriga--Condeixa a +Velha--or Cetobriga, near Setubal--in Celtic means _height_ or +_fortification_. All over the country great rude stone monuments are to +be found, like those erected by primitive peoples in almost every part +of Europe, and the most interesting, the curious buildings found at +various places near Guimarães, seem to belong to a purely Celtic +civilisation. + +The best-known of these places, now called Citania--from a name of a +native town mentioned by ancient writers--occupies the summit of a hill +about nine hundred feet above the road and nearly half-way between +Guimarães and Braga. The top of this hill is covered with a number of +structures, some round from fifteen to twenty feet across, and some +square, carefully built of well-cut blocks of granite. The only opening +is a door which is often surrounded by an architrave adorned with rough +carving; the roofs seem to have been of wood and tiles. + +Some, not noticing the three encircling walls and the well-cut +water-channels, and thinking that the round buildings far exceeded the +rectangular in number, have thought that they might have been intended +for granaries where corn might be stored against a time of war. But it +seems far more likely that Citania was a town placed on this high hill +for safety. Though the remains show no other trace of Roman +civilisation, one or two of the houses are inscribed with their owner's +names in Roman character, and from coins found there they seem to have +been inhabited long after the surrounding valleys had been subdued by +the Roman arms, perhaps even after the great baths had been built not +far off at the hot springs of Taipas. Uninfluenced by Rome, Citania was +also untouched by Christianity, though it may have been inhabited after +St. James--if indeed he ever preached in Bracara Augusta, now Braga--and +his disciple São Pedro de Rates had begun their mission. + +But if Citania knew nothing of Christianity there still remains one +remarkable monument of the native religion. Among the ruins there long +lay a huge thin slab of granite, now in the museum of Guimarães, which +certainly has the appearance of having been a sacrificial stone. It is a +rough pentagon with each side measuring about five feet. On one side, in +the middle, a semicircular hollow has been cut out as if to leave room +for the sacrificing priest, while on the surface of the stone a series +of grooves has been cut, all draining to a hole near this hollow and +arranged as if for a human body with outstretched legs and arms. The +rest of the surface is covered with an intricate pattern like what may +often be found on Celtic stones in Scotland. Besides this so-called +Citania similar buildings have been found elsewhere, as at Sabrosa, also +near Guimarães, but there the Roman influence seems usually to have been +greater. (Fig. 1.) + +The Romans began to occupy the Peninsula after the second Punic war, but +the conquest of the west and north was not completed till the reign of +Augustus more than two hundred years later. The Roman dominion over what +is now Portugal lasted for over four hundred years, and the chief +monument of their occupation is found in the language. More material +memorials are the milestones which still stand in the Gerez, some +tombstones, and some pavements and other remains at Condeixa a Velha, +once Conimbriga, near Coimbra and at the place now called Troya, perhaps +the original Cetobriga, on a sandbank opposite Setubal, a town whose +founders were probably Phoenicians. + +But more important than any of these is the temple at Evora, now without +any reason called the temple of Diana. During the middle ages, crowned +with battlements, with the spaces between the columns built up, it was +later degraded by being turned into a slaughter-house, and was only +cleared of such additions a few years since. Situated near the +cathedral, almost on the highest part of the town, it stands on a +terrace whose great retaining wall still shows the massiveness of Roman +work. + +Of the temple itself there remains about half of the podium, some eleven +feet high, fourteen granite columns, twelve of which still retain their +beautiful Corinthian capitals, and the architrave and part of the frieze +resting on these twelve capitals. Everything is of granite except the +capitals and bases which are of white marble; but instead of the +orthodox twenty-four flutes each column has only twelve, with a +distinctly unpleasing result. The temple seems to have been hexastyle +peripteral, but all trace of the cella has disappeared. Nothing is known +of the temple or who it was that built it, but in Roman times Evora was +one of the chief cities of Lusitania; nothing else is left but the +temple, for the aqueduct has been rebuilt and the so-called Tower of +Sertorius was mediæval. Yet, although it may have less to show than +Merida, once Augusta Emerita and the capital of the province, this +temple is the best-preserved in the whole peninsula. (Fig. 2.) + +Before the Roman dominion came to an end, in the first quarter of the +fifth century, Christianity had been for some time firmly established. +Religious intolerance also, which nearly a thousand years later made +Spain the first home of the Inquisition, had already made itself +manifest in the burning of the heretical Priscillianists by Idacius, +whose see was at or near Lamego. + +Soon, however, the orthodox were themselves to suffer, for the Vandals, +the Goths, and the Suevi, who swept across the country from 417 A.D., +were Arians, and it was only after many years had passed that the ruling +Goths and Suevi were converted to the Catholic faith. + +The Vandals soon passed on to Africa, leaving their name in Andalucia +and the whole land to the Goths and Suevi, the + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + +HOUSE FROM SABROSA. +NOW IN MUSEUM, GUIMARÃES. +] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + +EVORA. +TEMPLE OF "DIANA." +] + +Suevi at first occupying the whole of Portugal north of the Tagus as +well as Galicia and part of Leon. Later they were expelled from the +southern part of their dominion, but they as well as the Goths have left +practically no mark on the country, for the church built at Oporto by +the Suevic king, Theodomir, on his conversion to orthodoxy in 559, has +been rebuilt in the eleventh or twelfth century. + +These Germanic rulers seem never to have been popular with those they +governed, so that when the great Moslem invasion crossed from Morocco in +711 and, defeating King Roderick at Guadalete near Cadiz, swept in an +incredibly short time right up to the northern mountains, the whole +country submitted with scarcely a struggle. + +A few only of the Gothic nobles took refuge on the seaward slopes of the +Cantabrian mountains in the Asturias and there made a successful stand, +electing Don Pelayo as their king. + +As time went on, Pelayo's descendants crossed the mountains, and taking +Leon gradually extended their small kingdom southwards. + +Meanwhile other independent counties or principalities further east were +gradually spreading downwards. The nearest was Castile, so called from +its border castles, then Navarre, then Aragon, and lastly the county of +Barcelona or Cataluña. + +Galicia, in the north-west corner, never having been thoroughly +conquered by the invaders, was soon united with the Asturias and then +with Leon. So all these Christian realms, Leon--including Galicia and +Asturias--Castile, and Aragon, which was soon united to Cataluña, spread +southwards, faster when the Moslems were weakened by division, slower +when they had been united and strengthened by a fresh wave of fanaticism +from Africa. Navarre alone was unable to grow, for the lower Ebro valley +was won by the kings of Aragon, while Castile as she grew barred the way +to the south-west. + +At last in 1037 Fernando I. united Castile and Leon into one kingdom, +extending from the sea in the north to the lower course of the Douro and +to the mountains dividing the upper Douro from the Tagus valley in the +south. Before Fernando died in 1065 he had extended his frontier on the +west as far south as the Mondego, making Sesnando, a converted Moslem, +count of this important marchland. Then followed a new division, for +Castile went to King Sancho, Leon to Alfonso VI., and Galicia, including +the two counties of Porto and of Coimbra, to Garcia. + +Before long, however, Alfonso turned out his brothers and also extended +his borders even to the Tagus by taking Toledo in 1085. But his +successes roused the Moslem powers to fresh fanaticism. A new and +stricter dynasty, the Almoravides,[2] arose in Africa and crossing the +straits inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christians at Zalaca. In +despair at this disaster and at the loss of Santarem and of Lisbon, +Alfonso appealed to Christendom for help. Among those who came were +Count Raymond of Toulouse, who was rewarded with the kingdom of Galicia +and the hand of his daughter and heiress Urraca, and Count Henry of +Burgundy, who was granted the counties of Porto and of Coimbra and who +married another daughter of Alfonso's, Theresa. + +This was really the first beginning of Portugal as an independent state; +for Portugal, derived from two towns Portus and Cales, which lie +opposite each other near the mouth of the Douro, was the name given to +Henry's county. Henry did but little to make himself independent as he +was usually away fighting elsewhere, but his widow Theresa refused to +acknowledge her sister Urraca, now queen of Castile, Leon and Galicia, +as her superior, called herself Infanta and behaved as if she was no +one's vassal. Fortunately for her and her aims, Urraca was far too busy +fighting with her second husband, the king of Aragon, to pay much +attention to what was happening in the west, so that she had time to +consolidate her power and to accustom her people to think of themselves +as being not Galicians but Portuguese. + +The breach with Galicia was increased by the favour which Theresa, after +a time, began to show to her lover, Don Fernando Peres de Trava, a +Galician noble, and by the grants of lands and of honours she made to +him. This made her so unpopular that when Alfonso Raimundes, Urraca's +son, attacked Theresa in 1127, made her acknowledge him as suzerain, and +give up Tuy and Orense, Galician towns she had taken, the people rose +against her and declared her son Affonso Henriques old enough to reign. + +Then took place the famous submission of Egas Moniz, Affonso's governor, +who induced the king to retire from the siege of Guimarães by promising +that his pupil would agree to the terms forced on his mother. This, +though but seventeen, Affonso refused to do, and next year raising an +army he expelled his mother and Don Fernando, and after four wars with +his cousin of Castile finally succeeded in maintaining his independence, +and even in assuming the title of King. + +These wars with Castile taught him at last that the true way to increase +his realm was to leave Christian territory alone and to direct his +energies southwards, gaining land only at the expense of the Moors. + +So did the kingdom of Portugal come into existence, almost accidentally +and without there being any division of race or of language between its +inhabitants and those of Galicia. + +The youngest of all the Peninsular kingdoms, it is the only one which +still remains separate from the rest of the Spains, for when in 1580 +union was forced on her by Philip II., Portugal had had too glorious a +past, and had become too different in language and in custom easily to +submit to so undesired a union, while Spain, already suffering from +coming weakness and decay, was not able long to hold her in such hated +bondage. + +It is not necessary here to tell the story of each of Affonso Henriques' +descendants. He himself permanently extended the borders of his kingdom +as far as the Tagus, and even raided the Moslem lands of the south as +far as Ourique, beyond Beja. His son, Sancho I., finding the Moors too +strong to make any permanent conquests beyond the Tagus, devoted himself +chiefly--when not fighting with the king of Castile and Leon--to +rebuilding and restoring the towns in Beira, and it was not till the +reign of his grandson, Affonso III., that the southern sea was reached +by the taking of the Algarve in the middle of the thirteenth century. + +Dom Diniz, Affonso III.'s son, carried on the work of settling the +country, building castles and planting pine-trees to stay the blowing +sands along the west coast. + +From that time on Portugal was able to hold her own, and was strong +enough in 1387 to defeat the king of Castile at Aljubarrota when he +tried to seize the throne in right of his wife, only child of the late +Portuguese king, Fernando. + +Under the House of Aviz, whose first king, João I., had been elected to +repel this invasion, Portugal rose to the greatest heights of power and +of wealth to which the country was ever to attain. The ceaseless efforts +of Dom Henrique, the Navigator, the third son of Dom João, were crowned +with success when Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in May 1498, and when +Pedro Alvares Cabral first saw the coasts of Brazil in 1500. + +To-day one is too ready to forget that Portugal was the pioneer in +geographical discovery, that the Portuguese were the first Westerns to +reach Japan, and that, had João II. listened to Columbus, it would have +been to Portugal and not to Spain that he would have given a new world. + +It was, too, under the House of Aviz that the greatest development in +architecture took place, and that the only original and distinctive +style of architecture was formed. That was also the time when the few +good pictures which the country possesses were painted, and when much of +the splendid church plate which still exists was wrought. + +The sixty years of the Spanish captivity, as it was called, from 1580 to +1640, were naturally comparatively barren of all good work. After the +restoration of peace and a revival of the Brazilian trade had brought +back some of the wealth which the country had lost, the art of building +had fallen so low that of the many churches rebuilt or altered during +the eighteenth century there is scarcely one possessed of the slightest +merit. + +The most important events of the eighteenth century were the great +earthquakes of 1755 and the ministry of the Marques de Pombal. + +Soon after the beginning of the nineteenth century came the invasion led +by Junot, 1807, the flight of the royal family to Brazil, and the +Peninsular War. Terrible damage was done by the invaders, cart-loads of +church plate were carried off, and many a monastery was sacked and +burned. Peace had not long been restored when the struggle broke out +between the constitutional party under Pedro of Brazil, who had resigned +the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter, Maria da Gloria, and +the absolutists under Dom Miguel, his brother. + +The civil war lasted for several years, from May 1828, when Dom Miguel, +then regent for his niece, summoned the Cortes and caused himself to be +elected king, till May 1834, when he was finally defeated at Evora +Monte and forced to leave the country. The chief events of his +usurpation were the siege of Oporto and the defeat of his fleet off Cape +St. Vincent in 1833 by Captain Charles Napier, who fought for Dona Maria +under the name of Carlos de Ponza. + +One of the first acts of the constitutional Cortes was to suppress all +the monasteries in the kingdom in 1834. At the same time the nunneries +were forbidden to receive any new nuns, with the result that in many +places the buildings have gradually fallen into decay, till the last +surviving sister has died, solitary and old, and so at length set free +her home to be turned to some public use.[3] + +Since then the history of Portugal has been quiet and uneventful. Good +roads have been made--but not always well kept up--railways have been +built, and Lisbon, once known as the dirtiest of towns, has become one +of the cleanest, with fine streets, electric lighting, a splendidly +managed system of electric tramways, and with funiculars and lifts to +connect the higher parts of the town with its busy centre. + +It is not uninteresting to notice in how many small matters Portugal now +differs from Spain. Portugal drinks tea, Spain chocolate or coffee; it +lunches and dines early, Spain very late; its beds and pillows are very +hard, in Spain they are much softer. Travelling too in Portugal is much +pleasanter; as the country is so much smaller, trains leave at much more +reasonable hours, run more frequently, and go more quickly. The inns +also, even in small places, are, if not luxurious, usually quite clean +with good food, and the landlord treats his guests with something more +pleasing than that lofty condescension which is so noticeable in Spain. + +Of the more distant countries of Europe, Portugal is now one of the +easiest to reach. Forty-eight hours from Southampton in a boat bound for +South America lands the traveller at Vigo, or three days at Lisbon, +where the brilliant sun and blue sky, the judas-trees in the Avenida, +the roses, the palms, and the sheets of bougainvillia, are such an +unimaginable change from the cold March winds and pinched buds of +England. + +There is perhaps no country in Europe which has so interesting a flora, +especially in spring. In March in the granite north the ground under the +pine-trees is covered with the exquisite flowers of the narcissus +triandrus,[4] while the wet water meadows are yellow with petticoat +daffodils. Other daffodils too abound, but these are the commonest. + +Later the granite rocks are hidden by great trees of white broom, while +from north to south every wild piece of land is starred with the +brilliant blue flowers of the lithospermum. There are also endless +varieties of cistus, from the small yellow annual with rich brown heart +to the large gum cistus that covers so much of the poor soil in the +Alemtejo. These plains of the Alemtejo are supposed to be the least +beautiful part of the country, but no one can cross them in April +without being almost overcome with the beauty of the flowers, cistus, +white, yellow, or red, tall white heaths, red heaths, blue lithospermum, +yellow whin, and most brilliant of all the large pimpernel, whose blue +flowers almost surpass the gentian. A little further on where there is +less heath and cistus, tall yellow and blue Spanish irises stand up out +of the grass, or there may be great heads of blue scilla peruviana or +sheets of small iris of the brightest blue. + +Indeed, sheets of brilliant colour are everywhere most wonderful. There +may be acres of rich purple where the bugloss hides the grass, or of +brilliant yellow where the large golden daisies grow thickly together, +or of sky-blue where the convolvulus has smothered a field of oats. + + +PAINTING IN PORTUGAL.[5] + +From various causes Portugal is far less rich in buildings of interest +than is Spain. The earthquake has destroyed many, but more have perished +through tasteless rebuilding during the eighteenth century when the +country again regained a small part of the trade and wealth lost during +the Spanish usurpation. + +But if this is true of architecture, it is far more true of painting. +During the most flourishing period of Spanish painting, the age of +Velasquez and of Murillo, Portugal was, before 1640, a despised part of +the kingdom, treated as a conquered province, while after the rebellion +the long struggle, which lasted for twenty-eight years, was enough to +prevent any of the arts from flourishing. Besides, many good pictures +which once adorned the royal palaces of Portugal were carried off to +Madrid by Philip or his successors. + +And yet there are scattered about the country not a few paintings of +considerable merit. Most of them have been terribly neglected, are very +dirty, or hang where they can scarcely be seen, while little is really +known about their painters. + +From the time of Dom João I., whose daughter, Isabel, married Duke +Philip early in the fifteenth century, the two courts of Portugal and of +Burgundy had been closely united. Isabel sent an alabaster monument for +the tomb of her father's great friend and companion, the Holy Constable, +and one of bronze for that of her eldest brother; while as a member of +the embassy which came to demand her hand, was J. van Eyck himself. +However, if he painted anything in Portugal, it has now vanished. + +There was also a great deal of trade with Antwerp where the Portuguese +merchants had a _lonja_ or exchange as early as 1386, and where a +factory was established in 1503. With the heads of this factory, +Francisco Brandão and Rodrigo Ruy de Almada, Albert Dürer was on +friendly terms, sending them etchings and paintings in return for wine +and southern rarities. He also drew the portrait of Damião de Goes, Dom +Manoel's friend and chronicler. + +It is natural enough, therefore, that Flanders should have had a great +influence on Portuguese painting, and indeed practically all the +pictures in the country are either by Netherland masters, painted at +home and imported, or painted in Portugal by artists who had been +attracted there by the fame of Dom Manoel's wealth and generosity, or +else by Portuguese pupils sent to study in Flanders. + +During the seventeenth century all memory of these painters had +vanished. Looking at their work, the writers of that date were struck by +what seemed to them, in their natural ignorance of Flemish art, a +strange and peculiar style, and so attributed them all to a certain +half-mythical painter of Vizeu called Vasco, or Grão Vasco, who is first +mentioned in 1630. + +Raczynski,[6] in his letters to the Berlin Academy, says that he had +found Grão Vasco's birth in a register of Vizeu; but Vasco is not an +uncommon name, and besides this child, Vasco Fernandes, was born in +1552--far too late to have painted any of the so-called Grão Vasco's +pictures. + +It is of course possible that some of the pictures now at Vizeu were the +work of a man called Vasco, and one of those at Coimbra, in the sacristy +of Santa Cruz, is signed Velascus--which is only the Spanish form of +Vasco--so that the legendary personage may have been evolved from either +or both of these, for it is scarcely possible that they can have been +the same. + +Turning now to some of the pictures themselves, there are thirteen +representing scenes from the life of the Virgin in the archbishop's +palace at Evora, which are said by Justi, a German critic, to be by +Gerhard David. Twelve of these are in a very bad state of preservation, +but one is still worthy of some admiration. In the centre sits the +Virgin with the Child on her knee: four angels are in the air above her +holding a wreath. On her right three angels are singing, and on her left +one plays an organ while another behind blows the bellows. Below there +are six other angels, three on each side with a lily between them, +playing, those on the right on a violin, a flute, and a zither, those on +the left on a harp, a triangle, and a guitar. Once part of the cathedral +reredos, it was taken down when the new Capella Mor was built in the +eighteenth century. + +Another Netherlander who painted at Evora was Frey Carlos, who came to +Espinheiro close by in 1507. Several of his works are in the Museum at +Lisbon.[7] + +When Dom Manoel was enriching the old Templar church at Thomar with +gilding and with statues of saints, he also caused large paintings to be +placed round the outer wall. Several still remain, but most have +perished, either during the French invasion or during the eleven years +after the expulsion of the monks in 1834 when the church stood open for +any one to go in and do what harm he liked. Some also, including the +'Raising of Lazarus,' the 'Entry into Jerusalem,' the 'Resurrection,' +and the 'Centurion,' are now in Lisbon. Four--the 'Nativity,' the 'Visit +of the Magi,' the 'Annunciation,' and a 'Virgin and Child'--are known to +have been given by Dom Manoel; twenty others, including the four now at +Lisbon, are spoken of by Raczynski in 1843,[8] and some at least of +these, as well as the angels holding the emblems of the Passion, who +stand above the small arches of the inner octagon, may have been painted +by Johannes Dralia of Bruges, who died and was buried at Thomar in +1504.[9] + +Also at Thomar, but in the parish church of São João Baptista, are some +pictures ascribed by Justi to a pupil of Quentin Matsys. Now it is known +that a Portuguese called _Eduard_ became a pupil of Matsys in 1504, and +four years later a Vrejmeester of the guild. So perhaps they may be by +this Eduard or by some fellow-pupil. + +The Jesus Church at Setubal, built by Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's +nurse, has fifteen paintings in incongruous gilt frames and hung high up +on the north wall of the church, which also have something of the same +style.[10] + +More interesting than these are two pictures in the sacristy of Santa +Cruz at Coimbra, an 'Ecce Homo' and the 'Day of Pentecost.' It is the +'Pentecost' which is signed Velascus, and in it the Apostles in an inner +room are seen through an arcade of three arches like a chapter-house +entrance. Perhaps once part of the great reredos, this picture has +suffered terribly from neglect; but it must once have been a fine work, +and the way in which the Apostles in the inner room are separated by the +arcade from the two spectators is particularly successful. + +In Oporto there exists at least one good picture, 'The Fountain of +Mercy,' now in the board-room of the Misericordia,[11] but painted to be +the reredos of the chapel of São Thiago in the Sé where the brotherhood +was founded by Dom Manoel in 1499. (Fig. 3.) + +In the centre above, between St. John and the Virgin, stands a crucifix +from which blood flows down to fill a white marble well. + +Below, on one side there kneels Dom Manoel with his six sons--João, +afterwards king; Luis, duke of Beja; Fernando, duke of Guarda; Affonso, +afterwards archbishop of Lisbon, with his cardinal's hat; Henrique, +later cardinal archbishop of Evora, and then king; and Duarte, duke of +Guimarães and ancestor of the present ruling house of Braganza. + +On the other side are Queen Dona Leonor,[12] granddaughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella, Dom Manoel's third wife[13] and her two stepdaughters, +Dona Isabel, the wife of Charles V. and mother of Philip II., who +through her claimed and won the throne of Portugal when his uncle, the +cardinal king, died in 1580, and Dona Beatriz, who married Charles III.. +of Savoy. + +The date of the picture is fixed as between 1518 when Dom Affonso, then +aged nine, received his cardinal's hat, and 1521 when Dom Manoel +died.[14] + +Unfortunately the picture has been somewhat spoiled by restoration, but +it is undoubtedly a very fine piece of work--especially the portraits +below--and would be worthy of admiration anywhere, even in a country +much richer in works of art. + +It has of course been attributed to Grão Vasco, but it is quite +different from either the Velascus pictures at Coimbra or the paintings +at Vizeu; besides, some of the beautifully painted flowers, such as the +columbines, which enrich the grass on which the royal persons kneel, are +not Portuguese flowers, so that it is much more likely to have been the +work of some one from Flanders. + +Equally Flemish are the pictures at Vizeu, whether any of them be by the +Grão Vasco or not. Tradition has it that he was born at a mill not far +off, still called _Moinho do Pintor_, the _Painter's Mill_, and that Dom +Manoel sent him to study in Italy. Now, wherever the painter of the +Vizeu pictures had + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. + +THE FOUNTAIN OF MERCY. +MISERICORDIA, OPORTO. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +studied it can scarcely have been in Italy, as they are all surely much +nearer to the Flemish than to any Italian school. + +There are still in the precincts of the cathedral some thirty-one +pictures of very varied merit, and not all by the same hand. Of these +there are fourteen in the chapter-house, a room opening off the upper +cloister. They are all scenes from the life of Our Lord from the +Annunciation to the day of Pentecost. Larger than any of these is a +damaged 'Crucifixion' in the Jesus Chapel under the chapter-house. The +painting is full, perhaps too full, of movement and of figures. Besides +the scenes usually portrayed in a picture of the Crucifixion, others are +shown in the background, Judas hanging himself on one side, and Joseph +of Arimathea and Nicodemus on the other, coming out from Jerusalem with +their spices. Lastly, in the sacristy there are twelve small paintings +of the Apostles and other saints of no great merit, and four large +pictures, 'St. Sebastian,' the 'Day of Pentecost,' where the room is +divided by three arches, with the Virgin and another saint in the +centre, and six of the Apostles on each side; the 'Baptism of Our Lord,' +and lastly 'St. Peter.' The first three are not very remarkable, but the +'St. Peter' is certainly one of the finest pictures in the country, and +is indeed worthy of ranking among the great pictures of the world.[15] +(Fig. 4.) + +As in the 'Day of Pentecost' there is a triple division; St. Peter's +throne being in the middle with an arch on each side open to show +distant scenes. The throne seems to be of stone, with small boys and +griffins holding shields charged with the Cross Keys on the arms. On the +canopy two other shields supporting triple crowns flank an arch whose +classic ornaments and large shell are more Italian than is any other +part of the painting. On the throne sits St. Peter pontifically robed, +and with the triple crown on his head. His right hand is raised in +blessing, and in his left he holds one very long key while he keeps a +book open upon his knee. + +The cope is of splendid gold brocade of a fine Gothic pattern, with +orfreys or borders richly embroidered with figures of saints, and is +fastened in front by a great square gold and jewelled morse. All the +draperies are very finely modelled and richly coloured, but finest of +all is St. Peter's face, solemn and stern and yet kindly, without any +of that pride and arrogance which would seem but natural to the wearer +of such vestments; it is, with its grey hair and short grey beard, +rather the face of the fisherman of Galilee than that of a Pope. + +Through the arches to the right and left above a low wall are seen the +beginning and the end of his ministry. On the one side he is leaving his +boat and his nets to become a fisher of men, and on the other he kneels +before the vision of Our Lord, when fleeing from Rome he met Him at the +place now called 'Quo Vadis' on the Appian way, and so was turned back +to meet his martyrdom. + +Fortunately this painting has suffered from no restoration, and is still +wonderfully clean, but the wood on which it is painted has split rather +badly in places, one large crack running from top to bottom just beyond +the throne on St. Peter's right. + +This 'St. Peter,' then, is entirely Flemish in the painting of the +drapery and of the scenes behind; especially of the turreted Gothic +walls of Rome. The details of the throne may be classic, but French +renaissance forms were first introduced into the country at Belem in +1517, just the time when the cathedral here was being built by Bishop +Dom Diogo Ortiz de Vilhegas. This, and the other pictures in the +sacristy, were doubtless once parts of the great reredos, which would +not be put up till the church was quite finished, and so may not have +been painted till some time after 1520, or even later. Already in 1522 +much renaissance work was being done at Coimbra, not far off, so it is +possible that the painter of these pictures may have adopted his classic +detail from what he may have seen there. + +It is worth noting, too, that preserved in the sacristy at Vizeu there +is, or was,[16] a cope so like that worn by St. Peter, that the painting +must almost certainly have been copied from it. + +We may therefore conclude that these pictures are the work of some one +who had indeed studied abroad, probably at Antwerp, but who worked at +home. + +Not only to paint religious pictures and portraits did Flemish artists +come to Portugal. One at least, Antonio de + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. + +ST. PETER. +IN THE CATHEDRAL SACRISTY. +VIZEU. +] + +Hollanda, was famous for his illuminations. He lived and worked at +Evora, and is said by his son Francisco to have been the first in +Portugal 'to make known a pleasing manner of painting in black and +white, superior to all processes known in other countries.'[17] + +When the convent of Thomar was being finished by Dom João III., some +large books were in November 1533 sent on a mule to Antonio at Evora to +be illuminated. Two of these books were finished and paid for in +February 1535, when he received 63$795 or about £15. The books were +bound at Evora for 4$000 or sixteen shillings. + +By the end of the next year a Psalter was finished which cost 54$605 or +£12, at the rate of 6$000, £1, 6s. 8d. for each of four large headings, +forty illuminated letters with vignettes at 2s. 2d. each, a hundred and +fifteen without vignettes at fivepence-halfpenny, two hundred and three +in red, gold, and blue at fourpence-farthing, eighty-four drawn in black +at twopence, and 2846 small letters at the beginning of each verse at +less than one farthing. Next March this Psalter was brought back to +Thomar on a mule whose hire was two shillings and twopence--a sum small +enough for a journey of well over a hundred miles,[18] but which may +help us the better to estimate the value of the money paid to +Antonio.[19] + + +CHURCH PLATE. + +A very great part of the church plate of Portugal has long since +disappeared, for few chapters had the foresight to hide all that was +most valuable when Soult began his devastating march from the north, and +so he and his men were able to encumber their retreat with cart-loads of +the most beautiful gold and silver ornaments. + +Yet a good deal has survived, either because it was hidden away as at +Guimarães or at Coimbra--where it is said to have been only found +lately--or because, as at Evora, it lay apart from the course of this +famous plunderer. + +The richest treasuries at the present day are those of Nossa Senhora da +Oliveira at Guimarães, and of the Sés at Braga, at Coimbra, and at +Evora. + +A silver-gilt chalice and a pastoral staff of the twelfth century in the +sacristy at Braga are among the oldest pieces of plate in the country. +The chalice is about five inches high. The cup, ornamented with animals +and leaves, stands on a plain base inscribed, 'In n[=m]e D[=m]i Menendus +Gundisaluis de Tuda domna sum.' It is called the chalice of São Giraldo, +and is supposed to have belonged to that saint, who as archbishop of +Braga baptized Affonso Henriques. + +The staff of copper-gilt is in the form of a snake with a cross in its +mouth, and though almost certainly of the twelfth century is said to +have been found in the tomb of Santo Ovidio, the third archbishop of the +see. + +Another very fine chalice of the same date is in the treasury at +Coimbra. Here the round cup is enriched by an arcade, under each arch of +which stands a saint, while on the base are leaves and medallions with +angels. It is inscribed, 'Geda Menendis me fecit in onore sci. Michaelis +e. MCLXXXX.', that is A.D. 1152. + +It was no doubt given by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see from 1162 to 1176 +and who spent so much on the old cathedral and on its furniture. For him +Master Ptolomeu made silver altar fronts, and the goldsmith Felix a jug +and basin for the service of the altar. He also had a gold chalice made +weighing 4 marks, probably the one made by Geda Menendis, and a gold +cross to enclose some pieces of the Holy Sepulchre and two pieces of the +True Cross. + +At Guimarães the chalice of São Torquato is of the thirteenth century. +The cup is quite plain and small, but on the wide-spreading base are +eight enamels of Our Lady and of seven of the Apostles. + +The finest of all the objects in the Guimarães treasury is the reredos, +taken by Dom João I. from the Spanish king's tent after the victory of +Aljubarrota, and one of the angels which once went with it. + +The same king also gave to the small church of São Miguel a silver +processional cross, all embossed with oak leaves, and ending in +fleurs-de-lys, which rises from two superimposed octagons, covered with +Gothic ornament. + +Another beautiful cross now at Coimbra has a 'Virgin and Child' in the +centre under a rich canopy, and enamels of the four Evangelists on the +arms, while the rest of the surface including the foliated ends is +covered with exquisitely pierced flowing tracery. (Fig. 5.) + +Earlier are the treasures which once belonged the Queen St. Isabel who +died in 1327, and which are still preserved at Coimbra. These include a +beautiful and simple cross of agate and silver, a curious reliquary made +of a branch of coral with silver mountings, her staff as abbess of St. +Clara, shaped like the cross of an Eastern bishop, and with heads of +animals at the ends of the arms, and a small ark-shaped reliquary of +silver and coral now set on a high renaissance base. + +But nearly all the surviving church plate dates from the time of Dom +Manoel or his son. + +To Braga Archbishop Diogo de Souza gave a splendid silver-gilt chalice +in 1509. Here the cup is adorned above by six angels holding emblems of +the Passion, and below by six others holding bells. Above them runs an +inscription, _Hic est calix sanguinis mei novi et eter_. The stem is +entirely covered with most elaborate canopy work, with six Apostles in +niches, while on the base are five other Apostles in relief, the +archbishop's arms, and six pieces of enamel. + +Very similar is a splendid chalice in the Misericordia at Oporto, +probably of about the same date, and two at Coimbra. In both of these +the cup is embossed with angels and leafage--in one the angels hold +bells--and the stem is covered with tabernacle work. On the base of the +one is a _pietà_ with mourning angels and other emblems of the Passion +in relief, while that of the other is enriched with filigree work. (Fig. +6.) + +Another at Guimarães given by Fernando Alvares is less well proportioned +and less beautiful. + +So far the architectural details of the chalices mentioned have been +entirely national, but there is a custodia at Evora, whose interlacing +canopy work seems to betray the influence of the Netherlands. The base +of this custodia[20] or monstrance, in the shape of a chalice seems +later than the upper part, which is surmounted by a rounded canopy whose +hanging cusps and traceried panels strongly recall the Flemish work of +the great reredos in the old cathedral at Coimbra. + +Even more Flemish are a pastoral staff made for Cardinal Henrique, son +of Dom Manoel and afterwards king, a monstrance or reliquary at +Coimbra,[21] and another at Guimarães.[22] + +Much splendid plate was also given to Santa Cruz at Coimbra by Dom +Manoel, but all--candlesticks, lamps, crosses and a monstrance--have +since vanished, sent to Gôa in India when the canons in the eighteenth +century wanted something more fashionable. + +Belem also possessed splendid treasures, among them a cross of silver +filigree and jewels which is still preserved. + +Much filigree work is still done in the north, where the young women +invest their savings in great golden hearts or in beautiful earrings, +though now bunches of coloured flowers on huge lockets of coppery gold +are much more sought after. + +Curiously, many of the most famous goldsmiths of the sixteenth century +were Jews. Among them was the Vicente family, a member of which made a +fine monstrance for Belem in 1505, and which, like other families, was +expelled from Coimbra to Guimarães between the years 1532 and 1537, and +doubtless wrought some of the beautiful plate for which the treasury of +Nossa Senhora is famous. + +The seventeenth century, besides smaller works, has left the great +silver tomb of the Holy Queen St. Isabel in the new church of Santa +Clara. Made by order of Bishop Dom Affonso de Castello Branco in 1614, +it weighs over 170 lbs., has at the sides and ends Corinthian columns, +leaving panels between them with beautifully chased framing, and a +sloping top. + +Later and less worthy of notice are the coffins of the two first sainted +abbesses of the convent of Lorvão, near Coimbra, in which elaborate +acanthus scrolls in silver are laid over red velvet. + + +TILE WORK OR AZULEJOS. + +The Moors occupied most of what is now Portugal for a considerable +length of time. The extreme north they held for rather less than two +hundred years, the extreme south for more than five hundred. This +occupation by a governing class, so different in religion, in race, and +in customs from + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. + +CROSS AT COIMBRA.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. + +CHALICE AT COIMBRA.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. + +MONSTRANCE AT COIMBRA.] + +those they ruled, has naturally had a strong influence, not only on the +language of Portugal, but also on the art. Though there survive no +important Moorish buildings dating from before the re-conquest--for the +so-called mosque at Cintra is certainly a small Christian church--many +were built after it for Christians by Moorish workmen. + +These, as well as the Arab ceilings, or those derived therefrom, will be +described later, but here must be mentioned the tilework, the most +universally distributed legacy of the Eastern people who once held the +land. There is scarcely a church, certainly scarcely one of any size or +importance which even in the far north has not some lining or dado of +tiles, while others are entirely covered with them from floor to ceiling +or vault. + +The word _azulejo_ applied to these tiles is derived from the Arabic +_azzallaja_ or _azulaich_, meaning _smooth_, or else through the Arabic +from a Low Latin word _azuroticus_ used by a Gaulish writer of the fifth +century to describe mosaic[23] and not from the word _azul_ or _blue_. +At first each different piece or colour in a geometric pattern was cut +before firing to the shape required, and the many different pieces when +coloured and fired were put together so as to form a regular mosaic. +This method of making tiles, though soon given up in most places as +being too troublesome, is still employed at Tetuan in Morocco, where in +caves near the town the whole process may still be seen; for there the +mixing of the clay, the cutting out of the small pieces, the colouring +and the firing are still carried on in the old primitive and traditional +manner.[24] + +Elsewhere, though similar designs long continued to be used in Spain and +Portugal, and are still used in Morocco, the tiles were all made square, +each tile usually forming one quarter of the pattern. In them the +pattern was formed by lines slightly raised above the surface of the +tile so that there was no danger during the firing of the colour running +beyond the place it was intended to occupy. + +For a long time, indeed right up to the end of the fifteenth century, +scarcely anything but Moorish geometric patterns seem to have been used. +Then with the renaissance their place was taken by other patterns of +infinite variety; some have octagons with classic mouldings represented +in colour, surrounding radiating green and blue leaves;[25] some more +strictly classical are not unlike Italian patterns; some again are more +naturalistic, while in others the pattern, though not of the old +geometric form, is still Moorish in design. + +Together with the older tiles of Moorish pattern plain tiles were often +made in which each separate tile, usually square, but at times +rhomboidal or oblong, was of one colour, and such tiles were often used +from quite early times down at least to the end of the seventeenth +century. + +More restricted in use were the beautiful embossed tiles found in the +palace at Cintra, in which each has on it a raised green vine-leaf and +tendril, or more rarely a dark bunch of grapes. + +Towards the middle of the sixteenth century the Moorish technique of +tilemaking, with its patterns marked off by raised edges, began to go +out of fashion, and instead the patterns were outlined in dark blue and +painted on to flat tiles. About the same time large pictures painted on +tiles came into use, at first, as in the work of Francisco de Mattos, +with scenes more or less in their natural colours, and later in the +second half of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the +eighteenth in blue on a white ground. + +Towards the end of the eighteenth century blue seems to have usurped the +place of all other colours, and from that time, especially in or near +Oporto, tiles were used to mask all the exterior rubble walls of houses +and churches, even spires or bulbous domes being sometimes so covered. + +Now in Oporto nearly all the houses are so covered, usually with +blue-and-white tiles, though on the more modern they may be embossed and +pale green or yellow, sometimes even brown. But all the tiles from the +beginning of the nineteenth century to the present day are marked by the +poverty of the colour and of the pattern, and still more by the hard +shiny glaze, which may be technically more perfect, but is infinitely +inferior in beauty to the duller and softer glaze of the previous +centuries. + +When square tiles were used they were throughout singularly uniform in +size, being a little below or a little above five inches square. The +ground is always white with a slightly blueish tinge. In the earlier +tiles of Arab pattern the colours are blue, green, and brown; very +rarely, and that in some of the oldest tiles, the pattern may be in +black; yellow is scarcely ever seen. In those of Moorish technique but +Western pattern, the most usual colours are blue, green, yellow and, +more rarely, brown. + +Later still in the flat tiles scarcely anything but blue and yellow are +used, though the blue and the yellow may be of two shades, light and +dark, golden and orange. Brown and green have almost disappeared, and, +as was said above, so did yellow at last, leaving nothing but blue and +white. + +Although there are few buildings which do not possess some tiles, the +oldest, those of Moorish design, are rare, and, the best collection is +to be found in the old palace at Cintra, of which the greater part was +built by Dom João I. towards the end of the fourteenth and the beginning +of the fifteenth century. + +Formerly all the piers of the old cathedral of Coimbra were covered with +such tiles, but they have lately been swept away, and only those left +which line the aisle walls. + +At Cintra there are a few which it is supposed may have belonged to the +palace of the Walis, or perhaps it would be safer to say to the palace +before it was rebuilt by Dom João. These are found round a door leading +out of a small room, called from the mermaids on the ceiling the _Sala +das Sereias_. The pointed door is enclosed in a square frame by a band +of narrow dark and light tiles with white squares between, arranged in +checks, while in the spandrels is a very beautiful arabesque pattern in +black on a white ground. + +Of slightly later date are the azulejos of the so-called _Sala dos +Arabes_, where the walls to a height of about six feet are lined with +blue, green, and white tiles, the green being square and the other +rhomboidal. Over the doors, which are pointed, a square framing is +carried up, with tiles of various patterns in the spandrels, and above +these frames, as round the whole walls, runs a very beautiful cresting +two tiles high. On the lower row are interlacing semicircles in high +relief forming foliated cusps and painted blue. In the spandrels formed +by the interlacing of the semicircles are three green leaves growing out +from a brown flower; in short the design is exactly like a Gothic +corbel table such as was used on Dom João's church at Batalha turned +upside down, and so probably dates from his time. On the second row of +tiles there are alternately a tall blue fleur-de-lys with a yellow +centre, and a lower bunch of leaves, three blue at the top and one +yellow on each side; the ground throughout is white. (Fig. 8.) + +Also of Dom João's time are the tiles in the _Sala das Pegas_, where +they are of the regular Moorish pattern--blue, green and brown on a +white ground, and where four go to make up the pattern. The cresting of +green scrolls and vases is much later. + +Judging from the cresting in the dining-room or _Sala de Jantar_, where, +except that the ground is brown relieved by large white stars, and that +the cusps are green and not blue, the design is exactly the same as in +the _Sala dos Arabes_, the tiles there must be at least as old as these +crestings; for though older tiles might be given a more modern cresting, +the reverse is hardly likely to occur, and if as old as the crestings +they may possibly belong to Dom João's time, or at least to the middle +of the fifteenth century. (Fig. 9.) + +These dining-room tiles, and also those in the neighbouring _Sala das +Sereias_, are among the most beautiful in the palace. The ground is as +usual white, and on each is embossed a beautiful green vine-leaf with +branches and tendril. Tiles similar, but with a bunch of grapes added, +line part of the stair in the picturesque little _Pateo de Diana_ near +at hand, and form the top of the back of the tiled bench and throne in +the _Sala do Conselho_, once an open veranda. Most of this bench is +covered with tiles of Moorish design, but on the front each is stamped +with an armillary sphere in which the axis is yellow, the lines of the +equator and tropics green, and the rest blue. These one would certainly +take to be of Dom Manoel's time, for the armillary sphere was his +emblem, but they are said to be older. + +Most of the floor tiles are of unglazed red, except some in the chapel, +which are supposed to have formed the paving of the original mosque, and +some in an upper room, worn smooth by the feet of Dom Affonso VI., who +was imprisoned there for many a year in the seventeenth century. + +When Dom Manoel was making his great addition to the palace in the early +years of the sixteenth century he lined the walls of the _Sala dos +Cysnes_ with tiles forming a check of green + +[Illustration: FIG. 8. + +SALA DOS ARABES. +PALACE, CINTRA. + +_From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. + +DINING-ROOM, OLD PALACE. +CINTRA. + +_From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra._] + +and white. These are carried up over the doors and windows, and in +places have a curious cresting of green cones like Moorish battlements, +and of castles. + +Much older are the tiles in the central _Pateo_, also green and white, +but forming a very curious pattern. + +Of later tiles the palace also has some good examples, such as the +hunting scenes with which the walls of the _Sala dos Brazões_ were +covered probably at the end of the seventeenth century, during the reign +of Dom Pedro II. + +The palace at Cintra may possess the finest collection of tiles, Moorish +both in technique and in pattern, but it has few or none of the second +class where the technique remains Moorish but the design is Western. To +see such tiles in their greatest quantity and variety one must cross the +Tagus and visit the Quinta de Bacalhôa not far from Setubal. + +There a country house had been built in the last quarter of the +fifteenth century by Dona Brites, the mother of Dom Manoel.[26] The +house, with melon-roofed corner turrets, simple square windows and two +loggias, has an almost classic appearance, and if built in its present +shape in the time of Dona Brites, must be one of the earliest examples +of the renaissance in the country. It has therefore been thought that +Bacalhôa may be the mysterious palace built for Dom João II. by Andrea +da Sansovino, which is mentioned by Vasari, but of which all trace has +been lost. However, it seems more likely that it owes its classic +windows to the younger Affonso de Albuquerque, son of the great Indian +Viceroy, who bought the property in 1528. The house occupies one corner +of a square garden enclosure, while opposite it is a large square tank +with a long pavilion at its southern side. A path runs along the +southern wall of the garden leading from the house to the tank, and all +the way along this wall are tiled seats and tubs for orange-trees. It is +on these tubs and seats that the greatest variety of tiles are found. + +It would be quite impossible to give any detailed description of these +tiles, the patterns are so numerous and so varied. In some the pattern +is quite classical, in others it still shows traces of Moorish +influence, while in some again the design is entirely naturalistic. This +is especially the case in a pattern used in the lake pavilion, where +eight large green leaves are arranged pointing to one centre, and four +smaller brown ones to another, and in a still more beautiful pattern +used on an orange tub in the garden, where yellow and dark flowers, +green and blue leaves are arranged in a circle round eight beautiful +fruits shaped like golden pomegranates with blue seeds set among green +leaves and stalks. + +But these thirty or more patterns do not exhaust the interest of the +Quinta. There are also some very fine tile pictures, especially one of +'Susanna and the Elders,' and a fragment of the 'Quarrel of the Lapithæ +and Centaurs' in the pavilion overlooking the tank. 'Susanna and the +Elders' is particularly good, and is interesting in that on a small +temple in the background is the date 1565.[27] Rather later seem the +five river gods in the garden loggia of the house, for their strapwork +frames of blue and yellow can hardly be as early as 1565; besides, a +fragment with similar details has on it the letters TOS, no doubt the +end of the signature 'Francisco Mattos,' who also signed some beautiful +tiles in the church of São Roque at Lisbon in 1584. + +It is known that the entrance to the convent of the Madre de Deus at +Lisbon was ornamented by Dom Manoel with some della Robbia reliefs, two +of which are now in the Museum. + +On the west side of the tank at Bacalhôa is a wall nearly a hundred feet +long, and framed with tiles. In the centre the water flows into the tank +from a dolphin above which is an empty niche. There are two other empty +niches, one inscribed _Tempora labuntur more fluentis aquae_, and the +other _Vivite victuri moneo mors omnibus instat_. These niches stand +between four medallions of della Robbia ware, some eighteen inches +across. Two are heads of men and two of women, only one of each being +glazed. The glazed woman's head is white, with yellow hair, a sky-blue +veil, and a loose reddish garment all on a blue ground. All are +beautifully modelled and are surrounded by glazed wreaths of fruit and +leaves. These four must certainly have come from the della Robbia +factory in Florence, for they, and especially the surrounding wreaths, +are exactly like what may be seen so often in North Italy. + +Much less good are six smaller medallions, four of which are much +destroyed, on the wall leading north from the tank to a pavilion named +the _Casa da India_, so called from the beautiful Indian hangings with +which its walls were covered by Albuquerque. In them the modelling is +less good and the wreaths are more conventional. + +Lastly, between the tank and the house are twelve others, one under each +of the globes, which, flanked by obelisks, crown the wall. They are all +of the same size, but in some the head and the blue backing are not in +one place. The wreaths also are inferior even to those of the last six, +though the actual heads are rather better. They all represent famous men +of old, from Alexander the Great to Nero. Two are broken; that of +Augustus is signed with what may perhaps be read Doñus Vilhelmus, +'Master William,' who unfortunately is otherwise unknown. + +It seems impossible now to tell where these were made, but they were +certainly inspired by the four genuine Florentine medallions on the tank +wall, and if by a native artist are of great interest as showing how men +so skilled in making beautiful tiles could also copy the work of a great +Italian school with considerable success. + +Of the third class of tiles, those where the patterns are merely painted +and not raised, there are few examples at Bacalhôa--except when some +restoration has been done--for this manner of tile-painting did not +become common till the next century, but there are a few with very good +patterns in the house itself, and close by, the walls of the church of +São Simão are covered with excellent examples. These were put up by the +heads of a brotherhood in 1648, and are almost exactly the same as those +in the church of Alvito; even the small saintly figures over the arches +occur in both. The pattern of Alvito is one of the finest, and is found +again at Santarem in the church of the Marvilla, where the lower tiles +are all of singular beauty and splendid colouring, blue and yellow on a +white ground. Other beautiful tiled interiors are those of the Matriz at +Caldas da Rainha, and at Caminha on the Minho. Without seeing these +tiled churches it is impossible to realise how beautiful they really +are, and how different are these tiles from all modern ones, whose hard +smooth glaze and mechanical perfection make them cold and anything but +pleasing. (Figs. 10 and 11, _frontispiece_.) + +Besides the picture-tiles at Bacalhôa there are some very good examples +of similar work in the semicircular porch which surrounds the small +round chapel of Sant' Amaro at Alcantara close to Lisbon. The chapel +was built in 1549, and the tiles added about thirty years later. Here, +as in the Dominican nunnery at Elvas, and in some exquisite framings and +steps at Bacalhôa, the pattern and architectural details are spread all +over the tiles, often making a rich framing to a bishop or saint. Some +are not at all unlike Francisco Mattos' work in São Roque, which is also +well worthy of notice. + +Of the latest pictorial tiles, the finest are perhaps those in the +church of São João Evangelista at Evora, which tell of the life of San +Lorenzo Giustiniani, Venetian Patriarch, and which are signed and dated +'Antoninus ab Oliva fecit 1711.'[28] But these blue picture-tiles are +almost the commonest of all, and were made and used up to the end of the +century.[29] + +Now although some of the patterns used are found also in Spain, as at +Seville or at Valencia, and although tiles from Seville were used at +Thomar by João de Castilho, still it is certain that many were of home +manufacture. + +As might be expected from the patterns and technique of the oldest +tiles, the first mentioned tilers are Moors.[30] Later there were as +many as thirteen tilemakers in Lisbon, and many were made in the +twenty-eight ovens of _louça de Veneza_, 'Venetian faience.' The tiles +used by Dom Manoel at Cintra came from Belem, while as for the picture +tiles the novices of the order of São Thiago at Palmella formed a school +famous for such work. + +Indeed it may be said that tilework is the most characteristic feature +of Portuguese buildings, and that to it many a church, otherwise poor +and even mean, owes whatever interest or beauty it possesses. Without +tiles, rooms like the _Sala das Sereias_ or the _Sala dos Arabes_ would +be plain whitewashed featureless apartments, with them they have a charm +and a romance not easy to find anywhere but in the East. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH + + +Portugal, like all the other Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, having +begun in the north, first as a county or march land subject to the king +of Galicia or of Leon, and later, since 1139, as an independent kingdom, +it is but natural to find nearly all the oldest buildings in those parts +of the country which, earliest freed from the Moslem dominion, formed +the original county. The province of Entre Minho-e-Douro has always been +held by the Portuguese to be the most beautiful part of their country, +and it would be difficult to find anywhere valleys more beautiful than +those of the Lima, the Cavado, or the Ave. Except the mountain range of +the Marão which divides this province from the wilder and drier +Tras-os-Montes, or the Gerez which separates the upper waters of the +Cavado and of the Lima, and at the same time forms part of the northern +frontier of Portugal, the hills are nowhere of great height. They are +all well covered with woods, mostly of pine, and wherever a piece of +tolerably level ground can be found they are cultivated with the care of +a garden. All along the valleys, and even high up the hillsides among +the huge granite boulders, there is a continuous succession of small +villages. Many of these, lying far from railway or highroad, can only be +reached by narrow and uneven paths, along which no carriage can pass +except the heavy creaking carts drawn by the beautiful large long-horned +oxen whose broad and splendidly carved yokes are so remarkable a feature +of the country lying between the Vouga and the Cavado.[31] In many of +these villages may still be seen churches built soon after the +expulsion of the Moors, and long before the establishment of the +Monarchy. Many of them originally belonged to some monastic body. Of +these the larger part have been altered and spoiled during the +seventeenth or eighteenth centuries, when, after the expulsion of the +Spaniards, the country began again to grow rich from trade with the +recovered colony of Brazil. Still enough remains to show that these old +romanesque churches differed in no very striking way from the general +romanesque introduced into Northern Spain from France, except that as a +rule they were smaller and ruder, and were but seldom vaulted. + +That these early churches should be rude is not surprising. They are +built of hard grey granite. When they were built the land was still +liable to incursions, and raids from the south, such as the famous foray +of Almansor, who harried and burned the whole land not sparing even the +shrine of Santiago far north in Galicia. Their builders were still +little more than a race of hardy soldiers with no great skill in the +working of stone. Only towards the end of the twelfth century, long +after the border had been advanced beyond the Mondego and after Coimbra +had become the capital of a new county, did the greater security as well +as the very fine limestone of the lower Mondego valley make it possible +for churches to be built at Coimbra which show a marked advance in +construction as well as in elaboration of detail. Between the Mondego +and the Tagus there are only four or five churches which can be called +romanesque, and south of the Tagus only the cathedral of Evora, begun +about 1186 and consecrated some eighteen years later, is romanesque, +constructively at least, though all its arches have become pointed. + +But to return north to Entre Minho-e-Douro, where the oldest and most +numerous romanesque churches exist and where three types may be seen. Of +these the simplest and probably the oldest is that of an aisleless nave +with simple square chancel. In the second the nave has one or two +aisles, and at the end of these aisles a semicircular apse, but with the +chancel still square: while in the third and latest the plan has been +further developed and enlarged, though even here the main chancel +generally still remains square. + +[Sidenote: Villarinho.] + +There yet exist, not far from Oporto, a considerable number of examples +of the first type, though several by their pointed doorways show that +they actually belong, in part at least, to the period of the Transition. +One of the best-preserved is the small church of Villarinho, not far +from Vizella in the valley of the Ave. Originally the church of a small +monastery, it has long been the parish church of a mountain hamlet, and +till it was lately whitewashed inside had scarcely been touched since +the day it was finished some time before the end of the twelfth century. +It consists of a rather high and narrow nave, a square-ended chancel, +and to the west a lower narthex nearly as large as the chancel. The +church is lit by very small windows which are indeed mere slits, and by +a small round opening in the gable above the narthex.[32] The narthex is +entered by a perfectly plain round-headed door with strong impost and +drip-mould, while above the corbels which once carried the roof of a +lean-to porch, a small circle enclosing a rude unglazed quatrefoil +serves as the only window. The door leading from the narthex to the nave +is much more elaborate; of four orders of mouldings, the two inner are +plain, the two outer have a big roll at the angle, and all are slightly +pointed. Except the outermost, which springs from square jambs, they all +stand on the good romanesque capitals of six shafts, four round and two +octagonal. (Fig. 12.) + +[Sidenote: São Miguel, Guimarães.] + +Exactly similar in plan but without a narthex is the church of São +Miguel at Guimarães, famous as being the church in which Affonso +Henriques, the first king of Portugal, was baptized in 1111. It claims +to have been the _Primaz_ or chief church of the whole archdiocese of +Braga. It is, like Villarinho, a small and very plain church built of +great blocks of granite, with a nave and square chancel lit by narrow +window slits. On the north side there are a plain square-headed doorway +and two bold round arches let into the outer wall over the graves of +some great men of these distant times. The drip-mould of one of these +arches is carved with a shallow zigzag ornament which is repeated on the +western door, a door whose slightly pointed arch may mean a rather later +date than the rest of the church. The wooden roof, as at Villarinho, has +a very gentle slope with eaves of considerable projection resting on +very large plain corbels, while other corbels lower down the wall seem +to show that at one time a veranda or cloister ran round three sides of +the building. The whole is even ruder and simpler than Villarinho, but +has a certain amount of dignity due to the great size of the stones of +which it is built and to the severe plainness of the walling. + +[Sidenote: Cedo Feita, Oporto.] + +Only one other church of this type need be described, and that because +it is the only one which is vaulted throughout. This is the small church +of São Martim de Cedo Feita or 'Early made' at Oporto itself. It is so +called because it claims, wrongly indeed, to be the very church which +Theodomir, king of the Suevi, who then occupied the north-west of the +Peninsula, hurriedly built in 559 A.D. This he did in order that, having +been converted from the Arian beliefs he shared with all the Germanic +invaders of the Empire, he might there be baptized into the Catholic +faith, and also that he might provide a suitable resting-place for some +relic of St. Martin of Tours which had been sent to him as a mark of +Orthodox approval. This story[33] is set forth in a long inscription on +the tympanum of the west door stating that it was put there in 1767, a +copy taken in 1557 from an old stone having then been found in the +archives of the church. As a matter of fact no part of the church can be +older than the twelfth century, and it has been much altered, probably +at the date when the inscription was cut. It is a small building, a +barrel-vaulted nave and chancel, with a door on the north side and a +larger one to the west now covered by a large porch. The six capitals of +this door are very like those at Villarinho, but the moulded arches are +round and not as there pointed. + +Other churches of this type are Gandara and Boelhe near Penafiel, and +Eja not far off--a building of rather later date with a fine pointed +chancel arch elaborately carved with foliage--São Thiago d'Antas, near +Familicão, a slightly larger church with good capitals to the chancel +arch, a good south door and another later west door with traceried round +window above; + +[Illustration: FIG. 12. + +CHURCH AT VILLARINHO.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. + +VILLAR DE FRADES. + +W. DOOR.] + +and São Torquato, near Guimarães, rather larger, having once had +transepts of which one survives, with square chancel and square chapels +to the east; one of the simplest of all having no ornament beyond the +corbel table and the small slitlike windows. + +South of the Douro, but still built of granite, are a group of three or +four small churches at Trancoso. Another close to Guarda has a much +richer corbel table with a large ball ornament on the cornice and a +round window filled with curiously built-up tracery above the plain, +round-arched west door, while further south on the castle hill at Leiria +are the ruins of the small church of São Pedro built of fine limestone +with a good west door. + +[Sidenote: Aguas Santas.] + +Of the second and rather larger type there are fewer examples still +remaining, and of these perhaps the best is the church of Aguas Santas +some seven miles north-east of Oporto. Originally the church consisted +of a nave with rectangular chancel and a north aisle with an eastern +apse roofed with a semi-dome. Later a tower with battlemented top and +low square spire was built at the west end of the aisle, and some thirty +years ago another aisle was added on the south side. As in most of the +smaller churches the chancel is lower than the nave, leaving room above +its roof for a large round window, now filled up except for a small +traceried circle in the centre. The most highly decorated part is the +chancel, which like all the rest of the church has a good corbel table, +and about two-thirds of the way up a string course richly covered with +billet moulding. Interrupting this on the south side are two +round-headed windows, still small but much larger than the slits found +in the older churches. In each case, in a round-headed opening there +stand two small shafts with bases and elaborately carved capitals but +without any abaci, supporting a large roll moulding, and these are all +repeated inside at the inner face of a deep splay. In one of these +windows not only are the capitals covered with intertwined ribbon-work, +but each shaft is covered with interknotted circles enclosing flowers, +and there is a band of interlacing work round the head of the actual +window opening. Inside the church has been more altered. Formerly the +aisle was separated from the nave by two arches, but when the south +aisle was built the central pier was taken out and the two arches thrown +into one large and elliptical arch, but the capitals of the chancel +arch and the few others that remain are all well wrought and well +designed. The west door is a good simple example of the first pointed +period, with plain moulded arches and shafts which bear simple +French-looking capitals. Other churches of the same class are those of +São Christovão do Rio Mau not far from Villo do Conde, and São Pedro de +Rates, a little further up the Ave at the birthplace of the first bishop +of Braga and earliest martyr of Portugal. São Pedro is a little later, +as the aisle arches are all pointed, and is a small basilica of nave and +aisles with short transepts, chancel and eastern chapels. + +[Sidenote: Villar de Frades.] + +The two earliest examples of the third and most highly developed type, +the church of Villar de Frades and the cathedral of Braga, have +unfortunately both suffered so terribly, the one from destruction and +the other from rebuilding, that not much has been left to show what they +were originally like--barely enough to make it clear that they were much +more elaborately decorated, and that their carved work was much better +wrought than in any of the smaller churches already mentioned. A short +distance to the south of the river Cavado and about half-way between +Braga and Barcellos, in a well-watered and well-wooded region, there +existed from very early Christian times a monastery called Villar, and +later Villar de Frades. During the troubles and disorders which followed +the Moslem invasion, this Benedictine monastery had fallen into complete +decay and so remained till it was restored in 1070 by Godinho Viegas. +Although again deserted some centuries later and refounded in 1425 as +the mother house of a new order--the Loyos--the fifteenth-century church +was so built as to leave at least a part of the front of the old ruined +church standing between itself and the monastic building, as well as the +ruins of an apse behind. Probably this old west front was the last part +of Godinho's church to be built, but it is certainly more or less +contemporary with some portions of the cathedral of Braga. + +At some period, which the legend leaves quite uncertain, one of the +monks of this monastery was one day in the choir at matins, when they +came to that Psalm where it is said that 'a thousand years in the sight +of God are but as yesterday when it is gone,' and the old monk wondered +greatly and began to think what that could mean. When matins were over +he remained praying as was his wont, and begged Our Lord to give him +some understanding of that verse. Then there appeared to him a little +bird which, singing most sweetly, flew this way and that, and so little +by little drew him towards a wood which grew near the monastery, and +there rested on a tree while the servant of God stood below to listen. +After what seemed to the monk a short time it took flight, to the great +sorrow of God's servant, who said, 'Bird of my Soul, where art thou gone +so soon?' He waited, and when he saw that it did not return he went back +to the monastery thinking it still that same morning on which he had +come out after matins. When he arrived he found the door, through which +he had come, built up and a new one opened in another place. The porter +asked who he was and what he wanted, and he answered, 'I am the +sacristan who a few hours ago went out, and now returning find all +changed.' He gave too the names of the Abbot and of the Prior, and +wondered much that the porter still would not let him in, and seemed not +to remember these names. At last he was led to the Abbot, but they did +not know one another, so that the good monk was all confused and amazed +at so strange an event. Then the Abbot, enlightened of God, sent for the +annals and histories of the order, found there the names the old man had +given, so making it clear that more than three hundred years had passed +since he had gone out. He told them all that had happened to him, was +received as a brother; and after praising God for the great marvel which +had befallen him, asked for the sacraments and soon passed from this +life in great peace.[34] + +Whether the ruined west front of the older church be that which existed +when the bird flew out through the door or not, it is or has been of +very considerable beauty. Built, like everything else in the north, of +granite, all that is now left is a high wall of carefully wrought stone. +Below is a fine round arched door of considerable size, now roughly +blocked up. It has three square orders covered with carving and a plain +inner one. First is a wide drip-mould carved on the outer side with a +zigzag threefold ribbon, and on the inner with three rows of what looks +like a rude attempt to copy the classic bead-moulding; then the first +order, of thirteen voussoirs, each with the curious figure of a +strangely dressed man or with a distorted monster. This with the +drip-mould springs from a billet-moulded abacus resting on broad square +piers. Of the two inner carved orders, the outer is covered on both +faces with innumerable animals and birds, and the other with a delicate +pattern of interlacing bands. These two spring from strange square abaci +resting on the carved capitals of round shafts, two on each side. A few +feet above the door runs a billet-moulded string course, and two or +three feet higher another and slighter course. On this stands a large +window of two orders. Of these the outer covered with animals springs +from shafts and capitals very like those of the doorway, and the inner +has a billet-moulded edge and an almost Celtic ornament on the face. Now +whether Villar be older than the smaller buildings in the neighbourhood +or not, it is undoubtedly quite different not only in style but in +execution. It is not only much larger and higher, but it is better built +and the carving is finer and more carefully wrought. (Fig. 13.) + +It is known that the great cathedral of Santiago in Galicia was begun in +1078, just about the time Villar must have been building, and Santiago +is an almost exact copy in granite of what the great abbey church of S. +Sernin at Toulouse was intended to be, so that it may be assumed that +Bernardo who built the cathedral was, if not a native of Toulouse, at +any rate very well acquainted with what was being done there. If, then, +a native of Languedoc was called in to plan so important a church in +Galicia, it is not unlikely that other foreigners were also employed in +the county of Portugal--at that time still a part of Galicia; and in +fact many churches in the south-west of what is now France have doorways +and windows whose general design is very like that at Villar de Frades, +if allowance be made for the difference of material, granite here, fine +limestone there, and for a comparative want of skill in the workmen.[35] + +[Sidenote: Sé, Braga.] + +Probably these foreigners were not invited to Portugal for the sake of +the church of a remote abbey like Villar, but to work at the +metropolitan cathedral of Braga. The see of Braga is said to have been +founded by São Pedro de Rates, a disciple of St. James himself, and in +consequence of so distinguished an origin its archbishops claim the +primacy not only of all Portugal, but even of all the Spains, a claim +which is of course disputed by the patriarch of Lisbon, not to speak of +the archbishops of Toledo and of Tarragona. However that may be, the +cathedral of Braga is not now, and can never have been, quite worthy of +such high pretensions. It is now a church with a nave and aisles of six +bays, a transept with four square chapels to the east, a chancel +projecting beyond the chapels, and at the west two towers with the main +door between and a fine porch beyond. + +Count Henry of Burgundy married Dona Theresa and received the earldom of +Portugal from his father-in-law, Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon, in +1095, and he and his wife rebuilt the cathedral--where they now lie +buried--before the end of the century. By that time it may well have +become usual, if the churches were important, to call in a foreigner to +oversee its erection. Of the original building little now remains but +the plan and two doorways, the chancel having been rebuilt and the porch +added in the sixteenth, and the whole interior beplastered and bepainted +in the worst possible style in the seventeenth, century. Of the two +doors the western has been very like that at Villar. It has only two +orders left, of which the outer, though under a deep arch, has a +billet-moulded drip-mould, and its voussoirs each carved with a figure +on the outer and delicate flutings on the under side, while the inner +has on both faces animals and monsters which, better wrought than those +at Villar, are even more like so many in the south-west of France. The +other doorway, on the south side next the south-west tower, is far +better preserved. It has three shafts on each side, all with good +capitals and abaci, from which spring two carved and one plain arch. The +outer has a rich drip-mould covered with a curious triple arrangement of +circles, has flutings on the one face and a twisting ribbon on the +other, while the next has leaf flutings on both faces, and both a +roll-moulding on the angle. The inner order is quite plain, but the +tympanum has in the centre a circle enclosing a cross with expanding +arms, the spaces between the arms and the circle being pierced and the +whole surrounded with intertwining ribbons. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Oporto.] + +Another foundation of Count Henry's was the cathedral of Oporto, which, +judging from its plan, must have been very like that of Braga, but it +has been so horribly transformed during the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries that nothing now remains of the original building but part of +the walls; for the fine western rose window must have been inserted +about the middle of the thirteenth century. + +[Sidenote: Paço de Souza.] + +Except the tragedy of Inez de Castro, there is no story in Portuguese +history more popular or more often represented in the engravings which +adorn a country inn dining-room than that of the surrender of Egas Moniz +to Alfonso VII. of Castile and Leon, when his pupil Affonso Henriques, +beginning to govern for himself, refused to fulfil the agreement[36] +whereby Egas had induced Alfonso to raise the siege of the castle of +Guimarães. And it is the fact that the church of São Salvador at Paço de +Souza contains his tomb, which adds not a little to the interest of the +best-preserved of the churches of the third type. Egas Moniz died in +1144, and at least the eastern part of the church may have existed +before then. The chancel, where the tomb first stood, is rather long and +has as usual a square east end while the two flanking chapels are +apsidal. The rest of the church, which may be a little later, as all the +larger arches are pointed, consists of a nave and aisles of three bays, +a transept, and a later tower standing on the westernmost bay of the +south aisle. The constructive scheme of the inside is interesting, +though a modern boarded vault has done its best to hide what it formerly +was. The piers are cross-shaped with a big semicircular shaft on each +face, and a large roll-moulding on each angle which is continued up +above the abacus to form an outer order for both the aisle and the main +arches, for large arches are carried across the nave and aisles from +north to south as if it had been intended to roof the church with an +ordinary groined vault. However, it is clear that this was not really +the case, and indeed it could hardly have been so as practically no +vaults had yet been built in the country except a few small barrels. +Indeed, though later the Portuguese became very skilful at vaulting, +they were at no time fond of a nave with high groined vault upheld by +flying buttresses, and low aisles, for there seems to have been never +more than three or four in the country, one of which, the choir of +Lisbon Cathedral, fell in 1755. Instead of groined vaults, barrel vaults +continued to be used where a stone roof was wanted, even till the middle +of the fourteenth century and later, long after they had been given up +elsewhere, but usually a roof of wood was thought sufficient, sometimes +resting, as was formerly the case here, on transverse arches thrown +across the nave and aisles. This was the system adopted in the +cathedrals of Braga and of Oporto before they were altered, in this +church and in that of Pombeiro not far off, and in that of Bayona near +Vigo in Galicia.[37] (Fig. 14.) + +All the details are extremely refined--almost Byzantine in their +delicacy--especially the capitals, and the abaci against the walls, +which are carried along as a beautiful string course from pier to pier. +The bases too are all carved, some with animals' heads and some with +small seated figures at the angles, while the faces of the square blocks +below are covered with beautiful leaf ornament. But the most curious +thing in the whole church is the tomb of Egas Moniz himself.[38] (Fig. +15.) Till the eighteenth century it stood in the middle of the chancel, +then it was cut in two and put half against the wall of the south aisle, +and half against that of the north. It has on it three bands of +ornament. Of these the lowest is a rudely carved chevron with what are +meant for leaves between, the next, a band of small figures including +Egas on his deathbed and what is supposed to be three of his children +riding side by side on an elongated horse with a camel-like head, and +that on the top, larger figures showing him starting on his fateful +journey to the court of Alfonso of Castile and Leon and parting from his +weeping wife. Although very rude,--all the horses except that of Egas +himself having most unhorselike heads and legs,--some of the figures are +carved with a certain not unpleasing vigour, especially that of a +spear-bearing attendant who marches with swinging skirts behind his +master's horse. Outside the most remarkable feature is the fine west +door, with its eight shafts, four on each side, some round and some +octagonal, the octagonal being enriched with an ornament like the +English dog-tooth, with their finely carved cubical capitals and rich +abaci, and with the four orders of mouldings, two of which are enriched +with ball ornament. Outside, instead of a drip-mould, runs a broad band +covered with plaited ribbon. On the tympanum, which rests on corbels +supported on one side by the head of an ox and on the other by that of a +man, are a large circle enclosing a modern inscription, and two smaller +circles in which are the symbols of the Sun and Moon upheld by curious +little half-figures. The two apses east of the transept are of the +pattern universal in Southern Europe, being divided into three equal +parts by half-shafts with capitals and crowned with an overhanging +corbel table. + +[Sidenote: Pombeiro.] + +The abbey church of Pombeiro, near Guimarães, must once have been very +similar to São Salvador at Paço de Souza, except that the nave is a good +deal longer, and that it once had a large narthex, destroyed about a +hundred and fifty years ago by an abbot who wished to add to the west +front the two towers and square spires which still exist. So full was +this narthex of tombs that from the arms on them it had become a sort of +Heralds' College for the whole of the north of Portugal, but now only +two remain in the shallow renaissance porch between the towers. As at +Paço de Souza, the oldest part of the church is the east end, where the +two apses flanking the square chancel remain unaltered. They are divided +as usual by semicircular shafts bearing good romanesque capitals, and +crowned by a cornice of three small arches to each division, each cut +out of one stone, and resting on corbels and on the capitals. Of the +west front only the fine doorway is left unchanged; pointed in shape, +but romanesque in detail; having three of the five orders, carved one +with grotesque animals and two with leafage. Above the shallow porch is +a large round window with renaissance tracery, but retaining its +original framing of a round arch resting on tall shafts with romanesque +capitals. Everything else has been altered, the inside being covered +with elaborate rococo painted and gilt plaster-work, and the outside +disfigured by shapeless rococo windows. + +Although some, and especially the last two of the buildings described +above belong, in part at least, to the time of transition from +romanesque to first pointed, and although the group of churches at +Coimbra are wholly romanesque, it would be better to have done with all +that can be ascribed to a period older than the beginning of the +Portuguese monarchy before following Affonso Henriques in his successful +efforts to extend his kingdom southwards to the Tagus. + +Although Braga was the ecclesiastical capital of their fief, + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. + +CHURCH, PAÇO DE SOUZA. + +NAVE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. + +PAÇO DE SOUZA. + +TOMB OF EGAS MONIZ.] + +[Sidenote: Guimarães, Castle.] + +Count Henry and his wife lived usually at Guimarães, a small town some +fifteen miles to the south. Towards the beginning of the tenth century +there died D. Hermengildo Gonçalves Mendes, count of Tuy and Porto, who +by his will left Vimaranes, as it was then called, to his widow, +Mumadona. About 927 she there founded a monastery and built a castle for +its defence, and this castle, which had twice suffered from Moslem +invaders, was restored or rebuilt by Count Henry, and there in 1111 was +born his son Affonso Henriques, who was later to become the first king +of the new and independent kingdom of Portugal. Henry died soon after, +in 1114, at Astorga, perhaps poisoned by his sister-in-law, Urraca, +queen of Castile and Leon, and for several years his widow governed his +lands as guardian for their son. + +Thirteen years after Count Henry's death, in 1127, the castle was the +scene of the famous submission of Egas Moniz to the Spanish king, and +this, together with the fact that Affonso Henriques was born there, has +given it a place in the romantic history of Portugal which is rather +higher than what would seem due to a not very important building. The +castle stands to the north of the town on a height which commands all +the surrounding country. Its walls, defended at intervals by square +towers, are built among and on the top of enormous granite boulders, and +enclose an irregular space in which stands the keep. The inhabited part +of the castle ran along the north-western wall where it stood highest +above the land below, but it has mostly perished, leaving only a few +windows which are too large to date from the beginning of the twelfth +century. The square keep stands within a few feet of the western wall, +rises high above it, and was reached by a drawbridge from the walk on +the top of the castle walls. Its wooden floors are gone, its windows are +mere slits, and like the rest of the castle it owes its distinctive +appearance to the battlements which crown the whole building, and whose +merlons are plain blocks of stone brought to a sharp point at the top. +This feature, which is found in all the oldest Portuguese castles such +as that of Almourol on an island in the Tagus near Abrantes, and even on +some churches such as the old cathedral at Coimbra and the later church +at Leça de Balio, is one of the most distinct legacies left by the +Moors: here the front of each merlon is perpendicular to the top, but +more usually it is finished in a small sharp pyramid. + +[Sidenote: Church.] + +The other foundation of Mumadona, the monastery of Nossa Senhora and São +Salvador in the town of Guimarães, had since her day twice suffered +destruction at the hands of the Moors, once in 967 when the castle was +taken by Al-Coraxi, emir of Seville, and thirty years later when +Almansor[39] in 998 swept northwards towards Galicia, sacking and +burning as he went. At the time when Count Henry and Dona Teresa were +living in the castle, the double Benedictine monastery for men and women +had fallen into decay, and in 1109 Count Henry got a Papal Bull changing +the foundation into a royal collegiate church under a Dom Prior, and at +once began to rebuild it, a restoration which was not finished till +1172. Since then the church has been wholly and the cloisters partly +rebuilt by João I. at the end of the fourteenth century, but some arches +of the cloister and the entrance to the chapter-house may very likely +date from Count Henry's time. These cloisters occupy a very unusual +position. Starting from the north transept they run round the back of +the chancel, along the south side of the church outside the transept, +and finally join the church again near the west front. The large round +arches have chamfered edges; the columns are monoliths of granite about +eighteen inches thick; the bases and the abaci all romanesque in form, +though many of the capitals, as can be seen from their shape and +carving, are of the fourteenth or even fifteenth century, showing how +Juan Garcia de Toledo, who rebuilt the church for Dom João I., tried, in +restoring the cloister, to copy the already existing features and as +usual betrayed the real date by his later details. A few of the old +capitals still remain, and are of good romanesque form such as may be +seen in any part of southern France or in Spain.[40] To the +chapter-house, a plain oblong room with a panelled wood ceiling, there +leads, from the east cloister walk, an unaltered archway, flanked as +usual by two openings, one on either side. The doorway arch is plain, +slightly horseshoe in shape, and is carried by short strong half-columns +whose capitals are elaborately carved with animals and twisting +branches, the animals, as is often the case, + +[Illustration: FIG. 16. + +DOOR OF CHAPTER HOUSE, N.S. DA OLIVEIRA. + +GUIMARÃES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17. + +CLOISTER. + +LEÇA DO BALIO.] + +being set back to back at the angles so that one head does duty for each +pair. Above is a large hollow hood-mould exactly similar to those which +enclose the side windows. The two lights of these windows are separated +by short coupled shafts whose capitals, derived from the Corinthian or +Composite, have stiff leaves covering the change from the round to the +square, and between them broad tendrils which end in very carefully cut +volutes at the angles. The heads themselves are markedly horseshoe in +shape, which at first sight suggests some Moorish influence, but in +everything else the details are so thoroughly Western, and by 1109 such +a long time, over a hundred years, had passed since the Moors had been +permanently expelled from that part of the country, that it were better +to see in these horseshoes an unskilled attempt at stilting, rather than +the work of some one familiar with Eastern forms. (Fig. 16.) + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH + + +In 1057 Fernando, king of Castile, Leon and Galicia crossed the Douro, +took Lamego, where the lower part of the tower is all that is left of +the romanesque cathedral, and is indeed the only romanesque tower in the +country. Vizeu fell soon after, and seven years later he advanced his +borders to the Mondego by the capture of Coimbra. The Mondego, the only +large river whose source and mouth are both in Portugal, long remained +the limit of the Christian dominion, and nearly a hundred years were to +pass before any further advance was made. In 1147 Affonso Henriques, who +had but lately assumed the title of king, convinced at last that he was +wasting his strength in trying to seize part of his cousin's dominions +of Galicia, determined to turn south and extend his new kingdom in that +direction. Accordingly in March of that year he secretly led his army +against Santarem, one of the strongest of the Moorish cities standing +high above the Tagus on an isolated hill. The vezir, Abu-Zakariah, was +surprised before he could provision the town, so that the garrison were +able to offer but a feeble resistance, and the Christians entered after +the attack had lasted only a few days. Before starting the king had +vowed that if successful he would found a monastery in token of his +gratitude, and though its vast domestic buildings are now but barracks +and court-houses, the great Cistercian abbey of Alcobaça still stands to +show how well his vow was fulfilled. + +Although Santarem was taken in 1147, the first stone of Alcobaça was not +laid till 1153, and the building was carried out very slowly and in a +style, imported directly from France, quite foreign to any previous work +in Portugal. It were better, therefore, before coming to this, the +largest church and the richest foundation in the whole country, to have +done with the other churches which though contemporary with Alcobaça +are not the work of French but of native workmen, or at least of such as +had not gone further than to Galicia for their models. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Lisbon.] + +The same year that saw the fall of Santarem saw also the more important +capture of Lisbon. Taken by the Moors in 714, it had long been their +capital, and although thrice captured by the Christians had always been +recovered. In this enterprise Affonso Henriques was helped by a body of +Crusaders, mostly English, who sailing from Dartmouth were persuaded by +the bishop of Oporto to begin their Holy War in Portugal, and when +Lisbon fell, one of them, Gilbert of Hastings, was rewarded by being +made its first bishop. Of the cathedral, begun three years later, in +1150, little but the plan of the nave and transept has survived. Much +injured by an earthquake in 1344, the whole choir was rebuilt on a +French model by Affonso IV. only to be again destroyed in 1755. The +original plan must have been very like that of Braga, an aisleless +transept, a nave and aisles of six bays, and two square towers beyond +with a porch between. The two towers are now very plain with large +belfry windows near the top, but there are traces here and there of old +built-up round-headed openings which show that the walls at least are +really old. The outer arch of the porch has been rebuilt since the +earthquake, but the original door remains inside, with a carved +hood-mould, rich abacus, and four orders of mouldings enriched with +small balls in their hollows. The eight plain shafts stand on unusually +high pedestals and have rather long capitals, some carved with flat +acanthus leaves and some with small figures of men and animals. + +Like that of the cathedral of Coimbra, which was being built about the +same time, the inside is clearly founded on the great cathedral of +Santiago, itself a copy of S. Sernin at Toulouse, and quite uninfluenced +by the French design of Alcobaça. The piers are square with a half-shaft +on each face, the arches are round, and the aisles covered with plain +unribbed fourpart vaulting, while the main aisle is roofed with a round +barrel. Instead of the large open gallery, which at Santiago allows the +quadrant vault supporting the central barrel to be seen, there is here a +low blind arcade of small round arches. Unfortunately, when restored +after the disaster of 1755 the whole inside was plastered, all the +capitals both of the main + +[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, LISBON] + +piers and of the gallery were converted into a semblance of gilt +Corinthian capitals, and large skylights were cut through the vault. +Only the inside of the low octagonal lantern remains to show that the +church must have been at least as interesting, if not more so, than the +Sé Velha or old cathedral at Coimbra. If the nave has suffered such a +transformation the fourteenth-century choir has been even worse +treated. The whole upper part, which once was as high as the top of the +lantern, fell and was re-roofed in a most miserable manner, having only +the ambulatory and its chapels uninjured. But these, the cloister and a +rather fine chapel to the north-west of the nave, had better be left for +another chapter.[41] + +[Sidenote: Sé Velha, Coimbra.] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, COIMBRA] + +Smaller but much better preserved than Lisbon Cathedral is the Sé Velha +or old cathedral of Coimbra. According to the local tradition, the +cathedral is but a mosque turned into a church after the Christian +conquest, and it may well be that in the time of Dom Sesnando, the first +governor of Coimbra--a Moor who, becoming a Christian, was made count of +Coimbra by King Fernando, and whose tomb, broken open by the French, may +still be seen outside the north wall of the church--the chief mosque of +the town was used as the cathedral. But although an Arab inscription[42] +is built into the outer wall of the nave, there can be no doubt that the +present building is as Christian in plan and design as any church can +be. If the nave of the cathedral of Lisbon is like Santiago in +construction, the nave here is, on a reduced scale, undoubtedly a copy +of Santiago not only constructively but also in its general details. The +piers are shorter but of the same plan, the great triforium gallery +looks towards the nave, as at Santiago and at Toulouse, by a double +opening whose arches spring from single shafts at the sides to rest on +double shafts in the centre, both being enclosed under one larger arch, +while the barrel vault and the supporting vaults of the gallery are +exactly similar. Now Santiago was practically finished in 1128, and +there still exists a book called the _Livro Preto_ in which is given a +list of the gifts made by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see of Coimbra from +1162 to 1176, towards the building and adorning of the church. Nothing +is said as to when the church was begun, but we are told that Dom Miguel +gave 124 morabitinos to Master Bernardo[43] who had directed the +building for ten years; the presents too of bread and wine made to his +successor Soeiro are also mentioned, so that it seems probable that the +church may have been begun soon after Dom Miguel became bishop, and that +it was finished some time before the end of his episcopate. + +Though the nave is like that of Santiago, the transepts and choir are +much simpler. There the transept is long and has an aisle on each side; +here it is short and aisleless. There the choir is deep with a +surrounding aisle and radiating chapels, here it is a simple apse +flanked by two smaller apses. Indeed throughout the whole of the +Peninsula the French east end was seldom used except in churches of a +distinctly foreign origin, such as Santiago, Leon or Toledo in Spain, or +Alcobaça in Portugal, and so it is natural here to find Bernardo +rejecting the elaboration and difficult construction of his model, and +returning to the simpler plan which had already been so often used in +the north. (Fig. 18.) + +Inside the piers are square with four half-shafts, one of which runs up +in front to carry the barrel vault, which is about sixty feet high. All +the capitals are well carved, and a moulded string which runs along +under the gallery is curiously returned against the vaulting shafts as +if it had once been carried round them and had afterwards been cut off. +Almost the only light in the nave comes from small openings in the +galleries, the aisle windows being nearly all blocked up by later +altars, and from a large window at the west end. The transept on the +other hand is very light, with several windows at either end, and eight +in the square lantern, so that the effect is extremely good of the dark +nave followed by the brilliant transept and ending in a great carved and +gilt reredos. This reredos, reaching up to the blue-and-gold apse vault, +was given to the cathedral in 1508 by Bishop D. Jorge d'Almeida, and was +the work of 'Master Vlimer a Framengo,' that is, a Fleming, and of his +partner, João D'ipri, or of Ypres, two of the many foreigners who at +that time worked for King D. Manoel. There are several picturesque tombs +in the church, especially two in the north-east corner of the transept, +whose recesses still retain their original tile decoration. Later tiles +still cover the aisle walls and altar recesses, but beautiful examples +of the Mozárabe or Moorish style which once covered the piers of the +nave, as well as the wooden choir gallery with its finely panelled under +side, have been swept away by a recent well-meaning if mistaken +restoration. The outside of the church is more unusual than the inside. +The two remaining original apses are much hidden by the sacristy, built +probably by Bishop Jorge de Castello Branco in 1593, but in their +details they are greatly like those of the church of San Isidoro at +Leon, and being like it built of fine limestone, are much more +delicately ornamented than are those of any of the granite churches +further north. The side aisles are but little lower than the central +aisle or than the transepts, and are all crowned with battlements very +like those on the castle of Guimarães. The buttresses are only shallow +strips, which in the transepts are united by round arches, but in the +aisles end among the battlements in a larger merlon. The west front is +the most striking and original part of the whole church. Below, at the +sides, a perfectly plain window lights the aisles, some feet above it +runs a string course, on which stands a small two-light window for the +gallery, flanked by larger blind arches, and then many feet of blank +walling ending in battlements. Between these two aisle ends there +projects about ten feet a large doorway or porch. This doorway is of +considerable size; some of its eight shafts are curiously twisted and +carved, its capitals are very refined and elaborate, and its arches well +moulded with, as at Lisbon, small bosses in the hollows. The abacus is +plain, and the broad pilasters which carry the outermost order are +beautifully carved on the broader face with a small running pattern of +leaves. The same 'black book' which tells of the bishop's gifts to the +church, tells how a certain Master Robert came four times from Lisbon to +perfect the work of the door, and how each time he received seven +morabitinos, besides ten for his expenses, as well as bread, wine and +meat for his four apprentices and food for his four asses. It is not +often that the name of a man who worked on a mediæval church has been +so preserved, and it is worth noticing that the west door at Lisbon has +on it exactly the same ball ornament as that with which Master Robert +and his four helpers enriched the archway here. Above the door runs an +arched corbel table on which stands the one large window which the +church possesses. This window,[44] which is much more like a door than a +window, is deeply recessed within four orders of mouldings, resting on +shafts and capitals, four on each side, all very like the door below. +Above, the whole projection is carried up higher than the battlements in +an oblong embattled belfry, having two arched openings in front and one +at the side, added in 1837 to take the place of a detached belfry which +once stood to the south of the church, and to hold some bells brought +from Thomar after that rich convent had been suppressed. (Fig. 19.) + +Of the two other doorways, that at the end of the north transept, which +has a simple archway on either side, and is surmounted by an arcade of +five arches, has been altered in the early sixteenth century with good +details of the first French renaissance, while the larger doorway in the +third bay of the nave has at the same time been rebuilt as a beautiful +three-storied porch, reaching right up to the battlements. To the south +lie the cloisters, added about the end of the thirteenth century, but +now very much mutilated. They are of the usual Portuguese type of +vaulted cloister, a large arch, here pointed, enclosing two round arches +below with a circular opening above. + +The central lantern--the only romanesque example surviving except that +of Lisbon Cathedral--is square, and not as there octagonal. It has two +round-headed windows on each side whose sills are but little above the +level of the flat roof--for, like almost all vaulted churches in +Portugal, the roofs are flat and paved--and is now crowned by a +picturesque dome covered with many-coloured tiles. + +Somewhat older than the cathedral, but not unlike it, was the church of +São Christovão now destroyed, while São Thiago still has a west door +whose shafts are even more elaborately carved and twisted than are those +at the Sé Velha.[45] + +There is more than one building, such as the Templar + +[Illustration: FIG. 18. + +COIMBRA. + +SÉ VELHA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. + +COIMBRA. + +WEST FRONT OF SÉ VELHA.] + +church at Thomar, older than the cathedral of Evora, and indeed older +than the Sé Velha at Coimbra; but Evora, except that its arches are +pointed instead of round, is so clearly derived directly from the Sé at +Lisbon that it must be mentioned next in order. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Evora.] + +Although the great province of Alemtejo, which reaches from the south +bank of the Tagus to within about twenty-five or thirty miles of the +Southern Sea, had more than once been entered by the victorious +Portuguese king Affonso Henriques, it was not till after his death in +1185, indeed not till the beginning of the thirteenth century, that it +could be called a part of Portugal. As early as 1139 Affonso Henriques +had met and defeated five kings at Ourique not far from Beja, a victory +which was long supposed to have secured his country's independence, and +which was therefore believed to have been much greater and more +important than was really the case.[46] Evora, the Roman capital of the +district, did not fall into the hands of the Christians till 1166, when +it is said to have been taken by stratagem by Giraldo Sem Pavor, or 'the +Fearless,' an outlaw who by this capture regained the favour of the +king. But soon the Moors returned, first in 1174 when they won back the +whole of the province, and again in 1184 when Dom Sancho, Affonso's son, +utterly defeated and killed their leader, Yusuf. Yusuf's son, Yakub, +returned to meet defeat in 1188 and 1190 when he was repulsed from +Thomar, but when he led a third army across the Straits in 1192 he found +that the Crusaders who had formerly helped Dom Sancho had sailed on to +Palestine, and with his huge army was able to drive the Christians back +beyond the Tagus and compel the king to come to terms, nor did the +Christian borders advance again for several years. It is said that the +cathedral begun in 1185 or 1186[47] was dedicated in 1204, so it must +have been still incomplete when Yakub's successful invasion took place, +and only finished after the Christians had again recovered the town, +though it is difficult to see how the church can have been dedicated in +that year as the town remained in Moorish power till after Dom Sancho's +death in 1211. Except the Sé Velha at Coimbra, Evora is the +best-preserved of all the older Portuguese cathedrals, and must always +have been one of the largest. The plan is evidently founded on those of +the cathedrals of Lisbon and Braga; a nave of eight bays 155 feet long +by 75 wide, leads to an aisleless transept 125 by 30, with lantern at +the crossing, to the east of which were five chapels. Unfortunately in +1718 the Capella Mor or main chancel was pulled down as being too small +for the dignity of an archiepiscopal see, and a new one of many-coloured +marbles built in its stead, measuring 75 feet by 30.[48] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF SÉ, EVORA] + +To the west are two large square towers; to the south a cloister added +in 1376; and at the end of the north transept a chapel built at the end +of the fifteenth century and entered by a large archway well carved with +rich early renaissance ornament. If there is no advance from the +romanesque plan of older churches, there is none in construction. All +the arches are pointed, but that is the only direction in which any +change has been made. The piers are all cross-shaped with a large +half-shaft on each of the four main faces and a smaller round shaft in +each angle. The capitals have square moulded abaci, and are rather +rudely carved with budlike curled leaves; the pointed arches of the +arcade are well moulded, and above them runs a continuous triforium +gallery like that in the nave at Lisbon, but with small pointed arches. +The main vault is a pointed barrel with bold ribs; it is held up by a +half-barrel over the aisles, which have groined vaults with very large +transverse arches. The galleries over the aisles are lit by small +pointed windows of two lights with a cusped circle between, but except +in the lantern which has similar windows, in the transept ends and the +west front, these are the only original openings which survive. (Fig. +20.) Both transepts have large rose windows, the northern filled with +tracery, like that, common in Champagne, radiating towards and not from +the centre. The southern is more interesting. The whole, well moulded, +is enclosed in a curious square framing. In the centre a doubly cusped +circle is surrounded by twelve radiating openings, whose trefoiled heads +abut against twelve other broad trefoils, which are rather curiously run +into the mouldings of the containing circle. Over the west porch is a +curious eight-light window. There are four equal two-light openings +below; on the two in the centre rests a large plain circle, and the +space between it and the enclosing arch is very clumsily filled by a rib +which, springing from the apex of either light, runs concentrically with +the enclosing arch till it meets the larger circle. The whole building +is surmounted by brick battlements, everything else being of granite, +resting on a good trefoil corbel table, and, as the roofs are perfectly +flat, there are no gables. + +The two western towers are very picturesque. The northern, without +buttresses, has its several windows arranged without any regard to +symmetry, and finishes in a round spire covered with green and white +glazed tiles. In the southern plain buttresses run up to the belfry +stage which has round-headed openings, and above it is a low octagonal +spire set diagonally and surrounded by eight pinnacles. + +The most unusual feature of the whole cathedral is the fine octagonal +lantern at the crossing. Each face has a two-light window, pointed +outside, with a round-headed arch within, leaving a passage between the +two walls. At each angle are plain buttresses, weathered back a few feet +below the corbel table, above which stand eight octagonal pinnacles each +with eight smaller pinnacles surrounding a conical stone spire. The +whole lantern is covered by a steep stone roof which, passing +imperceptibly from the octagonal to the round, is covered, as are all +the other pinnacles, with scales carved in imitation of tiles. Inside +the well-moulded vaulting ribs do not rise higher than the windows, +leaving therefore a large space between the vault and the outer stone +capping. (Fig. 21.) + +Lanterns, especially octagonal lanterns, are particularly common in +Spain, and at Salamanca and its neighbourhood were very early developed +and attained to a remarkable degree of perfection before the end of the +twelfth century. It is strange, therefore, that they should be so rare +in Portugal where there seem now to be only three: one, square, at +Coimbra, an octagonal at Lisbon, and one here, where however there is +nothing of the internal dome which is so striking at Salamanca. Probably +this lantern was one of the enrichments added to the church by Bishop +Durando who died in 1283, for the capitals of the west door look +considerably later. + +This door is built entirely of white marble with shafts which look, as +do those of the south transept door, almost like Cipollino, taken +perhaps from some Roman building. It has well-moulded arches and abaci; +capitals richly carved with realistic foliage, and on each side six of +the apostles, all very like each other, large-headed, long-bearded, and +long-haired, with rather good drapery but bodies and legs which look far +too short. St. Peter alone, with short curly hair and beard, has any +individuality, but is even less prepossessing than his companions. They +are, however, among the earliest specimens of large figure sculpture +which survive, and by their want of grace make it easier to understand +why Dom Manoel employed so many foreign artists in the early years of +the sixteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. + +EVORA. + +SÉ. INTERIOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. + +EVORA. + +SÉ. FROM CLOISTERS. + +SHEWING CENTRAL LANTERN.] + +The large cloister to the south must once have been one of the best in +the country. Here the main arches alone survive, having lost whatever +subsidiary arches or tracery they may once have contained, but higher up +under the corbel table are large open circles, not as everywhere else +enclosed under the large arch, but quite independent of it. Many of +these circles are still filled with thin slabs of granite all pierced +with most beautiful patterns, some quite Gothic, but the majority almost +Moorish in design, not unlike the slabs in the circles over the cloister +arcades at Alcobaça, but though this is probably only a coincidence, +still more like those at Tarragona in Cataluña. (Fig. 22.) + +[Sidenote: Templar Church, Thomar.] + +Like the cathedral at Evora, some of the arches in the Templar Church at +Thomar are pointed, yet like it again, it is entirely romanesque both in +construction and in detail. + +The Knights Templars were already established in Portugal in 1126. With +their headquarters at Soure, a little to the south of Coimbra, they had +been foremost in helping Affonso Henriques in his attacks on the Moors, +and when Santerem was taken in 1147 they were given the ecclesiastical +superiority of the town. This led to a quarrel with Dom Gilberto, the +English bishop of Lisbon, which was settled in 1150, when Dom Gualdim +Paes, the most famous member the order ever produced in Portugal, was +chosen to be Grand Master. He at once gave up all Santarem to the +bishop, except the church of São Thiago, and received instead the +territory of Cêras some forty or fifty miles to the north-east. There on +the banks of the river Nabão, on a site famous for the martyrdom under +Roman rule of Sant' Iria or Irene, Dom Gualdim built a church, and began +a castle which was soon abandoned for a far stronger position on a steep +hill some few hundred yards to the west across the river. This second +castle, begun in 1160, still survives in part but in a very ruinous +condition; the walls and the keep alike have lost their battlements and +their original openings, though a little further west, and once forming +part of the fortified enclosure, the church, begun in 1162, still +remains as a high tower-like bastion crowned with battlements. Dom +Gualdim had the laudable habit of carving inscriptions telling of any +striking event, so that we may still read, not only how the castle was +founded, but how 'In the year of the Era of Cæsar, 1228 (that is 1190 +A.D., on the 3rd of July), came the King of Morocco, leading four +hundred thousand horsemen and five hundred thousand foot and besieged +this castle for six days, destroying everything he found outside the +walls. God delivered from his hands the castle, the aforesaid Master and +his brethren. The same king returned to his country with innumerable +loss of men and of animals.'[49] Doubtless the size of Yakub the +Almohade leader's army is here much exaggerated, but that he was forced +to retire from Thomar, and by pestilence from Santarem is certain, and +though he made a more successful invasion two years later the Moors +never again gained a footing to the north of the Tagus. + +Dom Gualdim's church, since then enlarged by the addition of a nave to +the west, was originally a polygon of sixteen sides with a circular +barrel-vaulted aisle surrounding a small octagon, which with its two +stories of slightly pointed arches contains the high altar.[50] (Fig. +23.) + +The round-headed windows come up high, and till it was so richly adorned +by Dom Manoel during his grand mastership of the Order of Christ more +than three hundred years later, the church must have been extremely +simple. Outside the most noticeable feature is the picturesque grouping +of the bell-towers and gable, added probably in the seventeenth century, +which now rise on the eastern side of the polygon, and which, seen above +the orange and medlar trees of a garden reaching eastwards towards the +castle, forms one of the most pleasing views in the whole country. + +[Sidenote: São João de Alporão, Santarem.] + +If Evora and the Templar church at Thomar show one form of transition, +where the arches are pointed, but the construction and detail is +romanseque, São João de Alporão at Santarem shows another, where the +construction is Gothic but the arches are still all round. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22. + +EVORA. + +SÉ. CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23. + +THOMAR. + +TEMPLARS' CHURCH.] + +This church is said to stand on the site of a mosque and to have been at +first called Al Koran, since corrupted into Alporão, but the present +building can hardly have been begun till the early years of the +thirteenth century. The church consists of an aisleless nave with good +groined vaulting and a five-sided apsidal chancel. The round-arched west +door stands under a pointed gable, but seems to have lost by decay and +consequent restoration whatever ornament its rather flat mouldings may +once have had. Above is a good wheel window, with a cusped circle in the +centre, surrounded by eight radiating two-arched lights separated by +eight radiating columns. The two arches of each light spring from a +detached capital which seems to have lost its shaft, but as there is no +trace of bases for these missing shafts on the central circle they +probably never existed. All the other nave windows are mere slits; and +above them runs a rich corbel table of slightly stilted arches with +their edges covered with ball ornament resting on projecting corbels. In +the apse the five windows are tall and narrow with square heads, and the +corbel table of a form common in Portugal but rare elsewhere, where each +corbel is something like the bows of a boat.[51] + +The inside, now turned into a museum, is much more interesting. The +chancel is entered, under a circular cusped window, by a wide round +arch, whose outer moulding is curiously carried by shafts with capitals +set across the angle as if to carry a vaulting rib; in the chancel +itself the walls are double, the outer having the plain square-headed +windows seen outside, and the inner very elegant two-light round-headed +openings resting on very thin and delicate shafts, with a doubly cusped +circle above. The vault, whose wall arches are stilted and slightly +pointed, has strong well-moulded ribs springing from the well-wrought +capitals of tall angle shafts. It will be seen that this is a very great +advance on any older vaulting, since previously, except in the French +Church at Alcobaça, groined vaults had only been attempted over square +spaces. The finest of the many objects preserved in the museum is the +tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes, who was killed in Africa in 1464 and +buried in the church of São Francisco, whence, São Francisco having +become a cavalry stable, it was brought here not many years ago. (Fig. +24.) + +Such are, except for the church at Idanha a Velha and that of Castro de +Avelans near Braganza, nearly all the early buildings in the country. +Castro de Avelans is interesting and unique as having on the outside +brick arcades, like those on the many Mozarabic churches at Toledo, a +form of decoration not found elsewhere in Portugal. The church of +Alcobaça is of course, in part, a good deal older than are some of those +mentioned above; but the whole, the romanesque choir as well as the +early pointed nave, is so unlike anything that has come before or +anything that has come after, that it seemed better to take it by itself +without regard to strict chronological order. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF ALCOBAÇA] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24. + +SANTAREM. + +APSE, SÃO JOÃO DE ALPORÃO.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 25. + +TRANSEPT. + +ALCOBAÇA.] + +[Sidenote: Alcobaça.] + +The first stone was laid in 1158, but the church was barely finished +when King Sancho I. died in 1211 and was not dedicated till 1220, while +the monastic buildings were not ready till 1223, when the monks migrated +from Sta. Maria a Velha, their temporary home. The abbey was immensely +wealthy: it had complete jurisdiction over fourteen villages whose +inhabitants were in fact its serfs: it or its abbot was visitor to all +Benedictine abbeys in the country and was, for over three hundred years, +till the reign of Cardinal King Henry, the superior of the great +military Order of Christ. It early became one of the first centres of +learning in Portugal, having begun to teach in 1269. It helped Dom Diniz +to found the University of Lisbon, now finally settled at Coimbra, with +presents of books and of money, and it only acknowledged the king in so +far as to give him a pair of boots or shoes when he chanced to come to +Alcobaça. All these possessions and privileges of the monks were +confirmed by Dom João IV. (1640-56) after the supremacy of the Spaniards +had come to an end, and were still theirs when Beckford paid them his +memorable visit near the end of the eighteenth century and was so +splendidly entertained with feastings and even with plays and operas +performed by some of the younger brothers. Much harm was of course done +by the French invasion, and at last in 1834 the brothers were turned +out, their house made into barracks, and their church and cloister left +to fall into decay--a decay from which they are only being slowly +rescued at the present time. + +The first abbot, Ranulph, was sent by St. Bernard of Clairvaux himself +at the king's special request, and he must have brought with him the +plan of the abbey or at least of the church. Nearly all Cistercian +churches, which have not been altered, are of two types which resemble +each other in being very simple, having no towers and very little +ornament of any kind. In the simpler of these forms, the one which +prevailed in England, the transept is aisleless, with five or more +chapels, usually square, to the east, of which the largest, in the +centre, contains the main altar. Such are Fontenay near Monbart and +Furness in Lancashire, and even Melrose, though there the church has +been rebuilt more or less on the old plan but with a wealth of detail +and size of window quite foreign to the original rule. In the other, a +more complex type, the transept may have a western aisle, and instead of +a plain square chancel there is an apse with surrounding aisle and +beyond it a series of four-sided chapels. Pontigny, famous for the +shelter it gave to Thomas-à-Becket, and begun in 1114, is of this type, +and so was Clairvaux itself, begun in 1115 and rebuilt in the eighteenth +century. Now this is the type followed by Alcobaça, and it is worthy of +notice that, as far as the plan of choir and transept goes, Alcobaça and +Clairvaux are practically identical. Pontigny has a choir of three bays +between the transept and the apse and seven encircling chapels; +Clairvaux had, and Alcobaça still has, a choir of but one bay and nine +instead of seven chapels. Both had long naves, Clairvaux of eleven and +Alcobaça of thirteen bays, but at the west end there is a change, due +probably to the length of time which passed before it was reached, for +there is no trace of the large porch or narthex found in most early +Cistercian churches. + +The church is by far the largest in Portugal. It is altogether about 365 +feet long, the nave alone being about 250 feet by 75, while the transept +measures about 155 feet from north to south. Except in the choir all the +aisles are of the same height, about 68 feet. + +The east end is naturally the oldest part and most closely resembled its +French original; the eight round columns of the apse have good plain +capitals like those found in so many early Cistercian churches, even in +Italy;[52] the round-headed clerestory windows are high and narrow, and +there are well-developed flying buttresses. Unfortunately all else has +been changed: in the apse itself everything up to the clerestory level +has been hidden by two rows of classic columns and a huge reredos, and +all the choir chapels have been filled with rococo woodwork and gilding, +the work of an Englishman, William Elsden, who was employed to beautify +the church in 1770.[53] Why except for the choir aisle, and the chapels +in choir and transept, the whole church should be of the same height, it +is difficult to say, for such a method of building was unknown in France +and equally unknown in Spain or Portugal. Possibly by the time the nave +was reached the Frenchmen who had planned the church were dead, and the +native workmen, being quite unused to such a method of construction, for +all the older vaulted churches have their central barrel upheld by the +half-barrel vault of the galleries, could think of no other way of +supporting the groining of the main aisle. They had of course the flying +buttresses of the choir apse to guide them, but there the points of +support come so much closer together, and the weight to be upheld is +consequently so much less than could be the case in the nave, that they +may well have thought that to copy them was too dangerous an experiment +as well as being too foreign to their traditional manner of +construction.[54] Whatever may be the reason, the west aisle of the +transept and the side aisles of the nave rise to the full height of the +building. Their arches are naturally very much stilted, and with the +main vault rest on piers of quite unusual size and strength. The +transverse arches are so large as almost to hide the diagonal ribs and +to give the impression that the nave has, after all, a pointed barrel +vault. The piers are throughout cross-shaped with a half-shaft on each +cardinal face: at the crossing there is also a shaft in the angle, but +elsewhere this shaft is replaced by a kind of corbel capital[55] at the +very top which carries the diagonal ribs--another proof, as is the size +of the transverse arches, that such a ribbed vault was still a +half-understood novelty. The most peculiar point about nave piers is the +way in which not only the front vaulting shafts but even that portion of +the piers to which they are attached is, except in the two western bays, +cut off at varying heights from the ground. In the six eastern bays, +where the corbels are all at the same level, this was done to leave room +for the monks' stalls,[56] but it is difficult to see why, in the case +of the following five piers, against which, as at Clairvaux, stood the +stalls of the lay brothers, the level of the corbels should vary so +much. Now all stalls are gone and the church is very bare and desolate, +with nothing but the horrible reredos to detract from that severity and +sternness which was what St. Bernard wished to see in all churches of +the Order. (Fig. 25.) + +The small chapel to the west of the south transept is the only part of +the church, except the later sixteenth-century sacristy, where there is +any richness of detail, and there it is confined to the tombs of some of +the earlier kings and queens, and especially to those of D. Pedro and +the unfortunate Inez de Castro which belongs of course to a much later +date. + +The windows which are high up the aisle walls are large, round-headed, +and perfectly plain. At the transept ends are large round windows filled +with plain uncusped circles, and there is another over the west door +filled with a rococo attempt at Gothic tracery, which agrees well with +the two domed western towers whose details are not even good rococo. +Between these towers still opens the huge west door, a very plainly +moulded pointed arch of seven orders, resting on the simple capitals of +sixteen shafts: a form of door which became very common throughout the +fourteenth century. The great cloister was rebuilt later in the time of +Dom Diniz, leaving only the chapter-house entrance, which seems even +older than the nave. As usual there is one door in the centre, with a +large two-light opening on each side: all the arches are round and well +moulded, and the capitals simply carved with stiff foliage showing a +gradual transition from the earlier romanesque. In the monastery itself, +now a barrack, there are still a few vaulted passages which must belong +to the original building, but nearly all else has been rebuilt, the main +cloister in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and the greater part +of the domestic buildings in the eighteenth, so that except for the +cloister and sacristy, which will be spoken of later on, there is little +worthy of attention.[57] + +Now none of these buildings may show any very great originality or +differ to any marked degree from contemporary buildings in Spain or even +in the south of France, yet to a great extent they fixed a type which in +many ways was followed down to the end of the Gothic period. The plan of +Braga, Pombeiro, Evora or Coimbra is reproduced with but little change +at Guarda, and if the western towers be omitted, at Batalha, some two +hundred years later, and the flat paved roofs of Evora occur again at +Batalha and at Guarda. The barrel-vaulted nave also long survived, being +found as late as the beginning of the fourteenth century in the church +of Santa Clara at Coimbra, and even about seventy years later in the +church of the Knights of São Thiago at Palmella. + +The battlements also of the castle at Guimarães are found not only at +Coimbra, but as late as 1336 in the church of Leça do Balio near Oporto, +and, modified in shape by the renaissance even in the sixteenth-century +churches of Villa do Conde and of Azurara. + +Although the distinctively French features of Alcobaça seem to have had +but little influence on the further development of building in Portugal, +a few peculiarities are found there which are repeated again. For +example, the unusually large transverse arches of the nave occur at +Batalha, and the large plain western door is clearly related to such +later doors as those at Leça do Balio or of São Francisco at Oporto. +Again the vaulting of the apse in São João de Alporão is arranged very +much in the way which was almost universal during the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries in the chancels and side chapels of many a church, +such as Santa Maria do Olival at Thomar, or the Graça at Santarem +itself, and the curious boat-like corbels of São João are found more +than once, as in the choir of the old church, formerly the cathedral of +Silves, far south in the Algarve. The large round windows at Evora do +not seem to be related to the window at São João, but to be of some +independent origin; probably, like the similar windows at Leça and at +Oporto, they too belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF +ALJUBARROTA + + +In Portugal the twelfth century is marked by a very considerable +activity in building, but the thirteenth, which in France and England +saw Gothic architecture rise to a height of perfection both in +construction and in ornament which was never afterwards excelled, when +more great churches and cathedrals were built than almost ever before or +since, seems here to have been the least productive period in the whole +history of the country. In the thirteenth century, indeed, Portugal +reached its widest European limits, but the energies, alike of the kings +and of the people, seem to have been expended rather in consolidating +their conquests and in cultivating and inhabiting the large regions of +land left waste by the long-continued struggle. Although Dom Sancho's +kingdom only extended from the Minho to the Tagus, in the early years of +the thirteenth century the rich provinces of Beira, and still more of +Estremadura, were very thinly peopled: the inhabitants lived only in +walled towns, and their one occupation was fighting, and plunder almost +their only way of gaining a living. It is natural then that so few +buildings should remain which date from the reigns of Dom Sancho's +successors, Affonso II. (1211-1223), Sancho II. (1223-1248), and Affonso +III. (1248-1279): the necessary churches and castles had been built at +once after the conquest, and the people had neither the leisure nor the +means to replace them by larger and more refined structures as was being +done elsewhere. Of course some churches described in the last chapter +may be actually of that period though belonging artistically and +constructionally to an earlier time, as for instance a large part of the +cathedral of Evora or the church of São João at Santarem. + +[Sidenote: São Francisco, Guimarães.] + +The Franciscans had been introduced into Portugal by Dona Sancha, the +daughter of Dom Sancho I., and houses were built for them by Dona +Urraca, the wife of Dom Affonso II., at Lisbon and at Guimarães. Their +church at Guimarães has been very much altered at different times, +mostly in the eighteenth century, but the west door may very well belong +to Dona Urraca's building. It has a drip-mould covered with closely set +balls, and four orders of mouldings of which the second is a broad +chamfer with a row of flat four-leaved flowers; the abacus is well +moulded, but the capitals, which are somewhat bell-shaped, have the bell +covered with rude animals or foliage which are still very romanesque in +design. The entrance to the chapter-house is probably not much later in +date: from the south walk of the simple but picturesque renaissance +cloister a plain pointed doorway leads into the chapter-house, with, on +either side, an opening of about equal size and shape. In these openings +there stand three pairs of round coupled shafts with plain bases, rudely +carved capitals and large square overhanging abaci, from which spring +two pointed arches moulded only on the under side: resting on these, but +connected with them or with the enclosing arch by no moulding or fillet, +is a small circle, moulded like the arches only on one side and +containing a small quatrefoil.[58] This is one of the earliest attempts +at window tracery in the country, for the west window at Evora seems +later, but like it, it shows that tracery was not really understood in +the country, and that the Portuguese builders were not yet able so to +unite the different parts as to make such a window one complete and +beautiful whole. Indeed so unsuccessful are their attempts throughout +that whenever, as at Batalha, a better result is seen, it may be put +down to foreign influence. Much better as a rule are the round windows, +mostly of the fourteenth century, but they are all very like one +another, and are probably mostly derived from the same source, perhaps +from one of the transept windows at Evora, or from the now empty circle +over the west door at Lisbon. + +[Sidenote: São Francisco, Santarem.] + +Much more refined than this granite church at Guimarães has been São +Francisco at Santarem, now unfortunately degraded into being the stable +of a cavalry barracks. There the best-preserved and most interesting +part is the west door, which does not lead directly into the church but +into a low porch or narthex. The narthex itself has central and side +aisles, all of the same height, is two bays in length and is covered by +a fine strong vault resting on short clustered piers.[59] The doorway +itself, which is not acutely pointed, stands under a gable which reaches +up to the plain battlemented parapet of the flat narthex roof. There are +four shafts on each side with a ring-moulding rather less than half-way +up, which at once distinguishes them from any romanesque predecessors; +the capitals are round with a projecting moulding half-way up and +another one at the top with a curious projection or claw to unite the +round cap and the square moulded abacus. Of the different orders of the +arch, all well moulded, the outer has a hood with billet-mould; the +second a well-developed chevron or zigzag; and the innermost a series of +small horseshoes, which like the chevron stretch across the hollow so as +to hold in the large roll at the angle.[60] (Fig. 26.) + +[Sidenote: Santa Maria dos Olivaes, Thomar.] + +In a previous chapter the building of a church at Thomar by Dom Gualdim +Paes, Grand Master of the Templars, has been mentioned. Of this church +and the castle built at the same time, both of which stood on the east +or flat bank of the river Nabão, nothing now remains except perhaps the +lower part of the detached bell-tower. This church, Santa Maria dos +Olivaes, was the Matriz or mother church of all those held, first by the +Templars and later by their successors, the Order of Christ, not only in +Portugal but even in Africa, Brazil, and in India. Of so high a dignity +it is scarcely worthy, being but a very simple building neither large +nor richly ornamented. A nave and aisles of five bays, three polygonal +apses to the east and later square chapels beyond the aisles, make up +the whole building. The roofs are all of panelled wood of the sixteenth +century except in the three vaulted apses, of which the central is +entered by an arch, which, rising no higher than the aisle arches, +leaves room for a large window under the roof. All the arches of the +aisle arcade spring from the simple moulded capitals of piers whose +section is that of four half-octagons placed together. In the + +[Illustration: FIG. 26. + +SANTAREM. + +W. DOOR, SÃO FRANCISCO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27. + +SÉ SILVES.] + +clerestory are windows of one small light, in the aisles of two larger +lights, and in the apses single lancets. The great simplicity of the +building notwithstanding it can scarcely be as old as the thirteenth +century: the curious way in which the two lancet lights of the aisle +windows are enclosed under one larger trefoiled arch recalls the similar +windows in the church at Leça do Balio near Oporto begun in 1336, though +there the elliptical head of the enclosing arch is much less +satisfactory than the trefoiled head here used. The only part of the +church which can possibly have been built in the thirteenth century is +the central part of the west front. The pointed door below stands under +a projecting gable like that at São Francisco Santarem, except that +there is a five-foiled circle above the arch containing a pentalpha, put +there perhaps to keep out witches. The door itself has three large +shafts on each side with good but much-decayed capitals of foliage, and +a moulded jamb next the door. The arch itself is terribly decayed, but +one of its orders still has the remains of a series of large cusps, +arranged like the horseshoe cusps at Santarem but much larger. Above the +door gable is a circular window of almost disproportionate size. It has +twelve trefoil-headed lights radiating from a small circle, and +curiously crossing a larger circle some distance from the smaller. +Unfortunately the spaces between the trefoils and the outer mouldings +have been filled up with plaster and the lights themselves subdivided +with meaningless wood tracery to hold the horrible blue-and-red glass +now so popular in Portugal. Though Santa Maria dos Olivaes cannot be +nearly as old as has usually been believed, it is one of the earliest +churches built on the plan derived perhaps first from Braga Cathedral or +from the Franciscan and Dominican churches in Galicia, of a wooden +roofed basilica with or without transept, and with three or more apses +to the east; a form which to the end of the Gothic period was the most +common and which is found even in cathedrals as at Silves or at Funchal +in Madeira. + +Dom Sancho II., whose reign had begun with brilliant attacks on the +Moors, had, because of his connection with Dona Mencia de Haro, the +widow of a Castilian nobleman, and his consequent inactivity, become +extremely unpopular, so was supplanted in 1246 by his brother Dom +Affonso III. The first care of the new king was to carry on the +conquest + +[Sidenote: Silves.] + +of the Algarve, which his brother had given up when he fell under the +evil influence of Dona Mencia, and by about 1260 he had overrun the +whole country. At first Alfonso x., the Wise, king of Castile and Leon, +was much displeased at this extension of Portuguese power, but on Dom +Affonso agreeing to marry his daughter Beatriz de Guzman, the Spanish +king allowed his son-in-law to retain his conquests and to assume the +title of King of the Algarve, a title which his descendants still bear. +The countess of Boulogne, Affonso's first wife, was indeed still alive, +but that seems to have troubled neither Dona Beatriz nor her father. At +Silves or Chelb, for so the Moorish capital had been called, a bishopric +was soon founded, but the cathedral,[61] though many of its details seem +to proclaim an early origin, was probably not begun till the early, and +certainly not finished till near the later, years of the fourteenth +century. It is a church of the same type as Santa Maria at Thomar but +with a transept. The west door, a smaller edition of that at Alcobaça, +leads to a nave and aisles of four bays, with plain octagonal columns, +whose bases exactly resemble the capitals reversed--an octagon brought +to a square by a curved chamfer. The nave has a wooden roof, transepts a +pointed barrel vault, and the crossing and chancel with its side chapels +a ribbed vault. Though some of the capitals at the east end look almost +romanesque, the really late date is shown by the cusped fringing of the +chancel arch, a feature very common at Batalha, which was begun at the +end of the fourteenth century, and by the window tracery, where in the +two-light windows the head is filled by a flat pierced slab. Outside, +the chancel has good buttresses at the angles, and is crowned by that +curious boat-like corbel table seen at Santarem and by a row of +pyramidal battlements. The church is only about 150 feet long, but with +its two picturesque and dilapidated towers, and the wonderful deep +purple of its sandstone walls rising above the whitewashed houses and +palms of the older Silves and backed by the Moorish citadel, it makes a +most picturesque and even striking centre to the town, which, standing +high above the river, preserves the memory of its Moslem builders in +its remarkable and many-towered city walls.[62] (Fig. 27.) + +[Sidenote: Beja.] + +King Diniz the Labourer, so called for his energy in settling and +reclaiming the land and in fixing the moving sands along the west coast +by plantations of pine-trees, and the son of Dom Affonso and Dona +Beatriz, was a more active builder than any of his immediate +predecessors. Of the many castles built by him the best preserved is +that of Beja, the second town of Alemtejo and the Pax Julia of Roman +times. The keep, built about 1310, is a great square tower over a +hundred feet high. Some distance from the top it becomes octagonal, with +the square fortified by corbelled balconies projecting far out over the +corners. Inside are several stories of square halls finely vaulted with +massive octagonal vaults; below, the windows are little more than slits, +but on one floor there are larger two-light pointed openings.[63] + +[Sidenote: Leiria.] + +Far finer and larger has been the castle of Leiria, some fifty miles +south of Coimbra: it or the keep was begun by Dom Diniz in 1324.[64] The +rock on which it stands, in steepness and in height recalls that of +Edinburgh Castle, but without the long slope of the old town leading +nearly to the summit: towering high above Leiria it is further defended +on the only accessible quarter by the river Lis which runs round two +sides not far from the bottom of the steep descent. Unfortunately all is +ruined, only enough remaining to show that on the steepest edge of the +rock there stood a palace with large pointed windows looking out over +the town to the green wooded hills beyond. On the highest part stands +what is left of the keep, and a little lower the castle-church whose +bell-tower, built over the gate, served to defend the only access to the +inner fortification. This church, built about the same time, with a now +roofless nave which was never vaulted, is entered by a door on the +south, and has a polygonal vaulted apse. The mouldings of the door as +well as the apse vault and its tall two-light windows show a greater +delicacy and refinement than is seen in almost any earlier building, and +some of the carving has once been of great beauty, especially of the +boss at the centre of the apse.[65] + +But besides those two castles there is another building of this period +which had a greater and more lasting effect on the work of this +fourteenth century. In England the arrival of the Cistercians and the +new style introduced or rather developed by them seems almost more than +anything else to have determined the direction of the change from what +is usually, perhaps wrongly,[66] called Norman to Early English, but in +Portugal the great foundation of Alcobaça was apparently powerless to +have any such marked effect except in the one case of cloisters. Now +with the exception of the anomalous and much later Claustro Real at +Batalha, all cloisters in Portugal, before the renaissance, follow two +types: one, which is clearly only a modification of the continuous +romanesque arcades resting on coupled shafts, has usually a wooden roof, +and consists of a row of coupled shafts bearing pointed arches, and +sometimes interrupted at intervals by square piers; this form of +cloister is found at Santo Thyrso near Guimarães, at São Domingos in +Guimarães itself, and in the Cemetery cloister built by Prince Henry the +Navigator at Thomar in the fifteenth century. + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Cellas.] + +The most remarkable of all the cloisters of the first type is that of +the nunnery of Cellas near Coimbra. Founded in 1210 by Dona Sancha, +daughter of Sancho I., the nunnery is now a blind asylum. The cloister, +with round arches and coupled columns, seems thoroughly romanesque in +character, as are also the capitals. It is only on looking closer that +the real date is seen, for the figures on the capitals, which are carved +with scenes such as the beheading of St. John the Baptist, are all +dressed in the fashion that prevailed under Dom Diniz--about 1300--while +the foliage on others, though still romanesque in arrangement, is much +later in detail. More than half of the arcades were rebuilt in the +seventeenth century, but enough remains to make the cloister of Cellas +one of the most striking examples of the survival of old forms and +methods of building which in less remote countries had been given up +more than a hundred years before. + +The church, though small, is not without interest. It has a round nave +of Dom Manoel's time with a nuns' choir to the west and a chancel to the +east, and is entered by a picturesque door of the later sixteenth +century. + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Coimbra.] + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Alcobaça.] + +More interesting is the second type which was commonly used when a +cloister with a vault was wanted; and of it there are still examples to +be seen at the Sé Velha Coimbra, at Alcobaça, Lisbon Cathedral, Evora, +and Oporto. None of these five examples are exactly alike, but they +resemble each other sufficiently to make it probable that they are all, +ultimately at least, derived from one common source, and there can be no +doubt that that source was Cistercian. In France what was perhaps its +very first beginnings may be seen in the Cistercian abbey of Fontenay +near Monbart, where in each bay there are two round arches enclosed +under one larger round arch. This was further developed at Fontfroide +near Narbonne, where an arcade of four small round arches under a large +pointed arch carries a thin wall pierced by a large round circle. Of the +different Portuguese examples the oldest may very well be that at +Coimbra which differs only from Fontfroide in having an arcade of two +arches in each bay instead of one of four, but even though it may be a +little older than the large cloister of Alcobaça, it must have been due +to Cistercian influence. The great Claustro do Silencio at Alcobaça was, +as an inscription tells, begun in the year 1310,[67] when on April 13th +the first stone was laid by the abbot in the presence of the master +builder Domingo Domingues.[68] In this case each bay has an arcade of +two or three pointed arches resting on coupled columns with strong +buttresses between each bay, but the enclosing arch is not pointed as at +Coimbra or Fontfroide but segmental and springs from square jambs at the +level of the top of the buttresses, and the circles have been all filled +with pierced slabs, some of which have ordinary quatrefoils and some +much more intricate patterns, though in no case do they show the Moorish +influence which is so noticeable at Evora. On the north side projects +the lavatory, an apsidal building with two stories of windows and with +what in France would be regarded as details of the thirteenth century +and not, as is really the case, of the fourteenth. A few bays on the +west walk seem rather later than the rest, as the arches of the arcade +are trefoil-headed, while the upper part of a small projection on the +south side which now contains a stair, as well as the upper cloister to +which it leads, were added by João de Castilho for Cardinal Prince +Henry, son of Dom Manoel, and commendator of the abbey in 1518. (Fig. +28.) + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Lisbon.] + +In the cloister at Lisbon which seems to be of about the same date, and +which, owing to the nature of the site, runs round the back of the +choir, there is no outer containing arch, and in some bays there are two +large circles instead of one, but in every other respect, except that +some of the round openings are adorned with a ring of dog-tooth +moulding, the details are very similar, the capitals and bases being all +of good thirteenth-century French form.[69] (Fig. 29.) + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Oporto.] + +If the cloister at Evora, which was built in 1376 and has already been +described, is the one which departs furthest from the original type, +retaining only the round opening, that of the cathedral of Oporto, built +in 1385, comes nearer to Fontfroide than any of the others. Here each +bay is designed exactly like the French example except that the small +arches are pointed, that the large openings are chamfered instead of +moulded, and that there are buttresses between each bay. The capitals +which are rather tall are carved with rather shallow leaves, but the +most noticeable features are the huge square moulded abaci which are so +large as to be more like those of the romanesque cloisters at Moissac or +of Sta. Maria del Sar at Santiago than any fourteenth-century work. + +[Sidenote: Sta. Clara, Coimbra.] + +The most important church of the time of Dom Diniz is, or rather was, +that of the convent of Poor Clares founded at Coimbra by his wife St. +Isabel. Although a good king, Diniz had not been a good husband, and the +queen's sorrows had been still further increased by the rebellion of + +[Illustration: FIG 28. + +ALCOBAÇA. + +CLOISTER OF DOM DINIZ, OR DO SILENCIO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29. + +LISBON. + +CATHEDRAL CLOISTER.] + +her son, afterwards Affonso IV., a rebellion to which Isabel was able to +put an end by interposing between her husband and her son. When St. +Isabel died in 1327, two years after her husband, the church was not yet +quite finished, but it must have been so soon after. Unfortunately the +annual floods of the Mondego and the sands which they bring down led to +the abandonment of the church in the seventeenth century, and have so +buried it that the floor of the barn--for that is the use to which it is +now put--is almost level with the springing of the aisle arches, but +enough is left to show what the church was like, and were not its date +well assured no one would believe it to be later than the end of the +twelfth century. The chancel, which was aisleless and lower than the +rest of the church, is gone, but the nave and its aisles are still in a +tolerable state of preservation, though outside all the detail has been +destroyed except one round window on the south side filled in with white +marble tracery of a distinctly Italian type, and the corbel table of the +boat-keel shape. The inside is most unusual for a church of the +fourteenth century. The central aisle has a pointed barrel vault +springing from a little above the aisle arches, while the aisles +themselves have an ordinary cross vault. All the capitals too look +early, and the buttresses broad and rather shallow. (Fig. 30.) + +[Sidenote: Leça do Balio.] + +A few miles north of Oporto on the banks of the clear stream of the Leça +a monastery for men and women had been founded in 986. In the course of +the next hundred years it had several times fallen into decay and been +restored, till about the year 1115 when it was handed over to the +Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem and so became their +headquarters in Portugal. The church had been rebuilt by Abbot Guntino +some years before the transfer took place, and had in time become +ruinous, so that in 1336 it was rebuilt by Dom Frei Estevão Vasques +Pimentel, the head of the Order. This church still stands but little +altered since the fourteenth century, and though not a large or splendid +building it is the most complete and unaltered example of that +thoroughly national plan and style which, developed in the previous +century, was seen at Thomar and will be seen again in many later +examples. The church consists of a nave and aisles of four bays, +transepts higher than the side but lower than the centre aisle of the +nave, three vaulted apses to the east, and at the south-west corner a +square tower. Like many Portuguese buildings Sta. Maria de Leça do Balio +looks at first sight a good deal earlier than is really the case. The +west and the south doors, which are almost exactly alike, except that +the south door is surmounted by a gable, have three shafts on each side +with early-looking capitals and plain moulded archivolts, and within +these, jambs moulded at the angles bearing an inner order whose flat +face is carved with a series of circles enclosing four and five-leaved +flowers. Above the west door runs a projecting gallery whose parapet, +like all the other parapets of the church, is defended by a close-set +row of pointed battlements. Above the gallery is a large rose-window in +which twelve spokes radiate from a cusped circle in the middle to the +circumference, where the lights so formed are further enriched by cusped +semicircles. The aisle and clerestory windows show an unusual attempt to +include two lancets into one window by carrying on the outer framing of +the window till it meets above the mullion in a kind of pendant +arch.[70] + +The square tower is exceedingly plain, without string course or buttress +to mitigate its severity. Half-way up on the west side is a small window +with a battlemented balcony in front projecting out on three great +corbels; higher up are plain belfry windows. At the top, square +balconies or bartizans project diagonally from the corners; the whole, +though there are but three pyramidal battlements on each side, being +even more strongly fortified than the rest of the church. Now in the +fourteenth century such fortification of a church can hardly have been +necessary, and they were probably built rather to show that the church +belonged to a military order than with any idea of defence. The inside +is less interesting, the pointed arches are rather thin and the capitals +poor, the only thing much worthy of notice being the font, belonging to +the time of change from Gothic to Renaissance, and given in 1512.[71] + +[Sidenote: Chancel, Sé, Lisbon.] + +Of the other buildings of the time of Dom Affonso IV. who succeeded his +father Diniz in 1328 the most important + +[Illustration: FIG. 30. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CLARA.] + +has been the choir of the cathedral at Lisbon; the church had been much +injured by an earthquake in 1344 and the whole east end was at once +rebuilt on the French plan, otherwise unexampled in Portugal except by +the twelfth-century choir at Alcobaça. Unfortunately the later and more +terrible earthquake of 1755 so ruined the whole building that of Dom +Affonso's work only the surrounding aisle and its chapels remain. The +only point which calls for notice is that the chapels are considerably +lower than the aisle so as to admit of a window between the chapel arch +and the aisle vault. All the chapels have good vaulting and simple +two-light windows, and capitals well carved with naturalistic foliage. +In one chapel, that of SS. Cosmo and Damião, screened off by a very good +early wrought-iron grill, are the tombs of Lopo Fernandes Pacheco and of +his second wife Maria Rodrigues. Dona Maria, lying on a stone +sarcophagus, which stands on four short columns, and whose sides are +adorned with four shields with the arms of her father, Ruy di Villa +Lobos, has her head protected by a carved canopy and holds up in her +hands an open book which, from her position, she could scarcely hope to +read.[72] + +[Sidenote: Royal tombs, Alcobaça. (Fig. 31.)] + +Far more interesting both historically and artistically than these +memorials at Lisbon are the royal tombs in the small chapel opening off +the south transepts of the abbey church at Alcobaça. This vaulted +chapel, two bays deep and three wide, was probably built about the same +time as the cloister, and has good clustered piers and well-carved +capitals. On the floor stand three large royal tombs and two smaller for +royal children, and in deep recesses in the north and south walls, four +others. Only the three larger standing clear of the walls call for +notice; and of these one is that of Dona Beatriz, the wife of Dom +Affonso III., who died in 1279, the same lady who married Dom Affonso +while his wife the countess of Boulogne was still alive. Her tomb, which +stands high above the ground on square columns with circular ringed +shafts at the corners, was clearly not made for Dona Beatriz herself, +but for some one else at least a hundred years before. It is of a white +marble, sadly mutilated at one corner by French treasure-seekers, and +has on each side a romanesque arcade with an apostle, in quite archaic +style, seated under each arch; at the ends are large groups of seated +figures, and on the sloping lid Dona Beatriz herself, in very shallow +relief, evidently carved out of the old roof-shaped cover, which not +being very thick did not admit of any deep cutting. Far richer, indeed +more elaborate than almost any other fourteenth-century tombs, are those +of Dom Pedro I. who died in 1367, and of Inez de Castro who was murdered +in 1355. When only sixteen years old Dom Pedro, to strengthen his father +Affonso the Fourth's alliance with Castile, had been married to Dona +Costança, daughter of the duke of Penafiel. In her train there came as a +lady-in-waiting Dona Inez de Castro, the daughter of the high +chamberlain of Castile, and with her Dom Pedro soon fell in love. As +long as his wife, who was the mother of King Fernando, lived no one +thought much of his connection with Dona Inez, or of that with Dona +Thereza Lourenço, whose son afterwards became the great liberator, King +João I., but after Dona Costança's death it was soon seen that he loved +Dona Inez more than any one had imagined, and he was believed even to +have married her. This, and his refusal to accept any of the royal +princesses chosen by his father, so enraged Dom Affonso that he +determined to have Dona Inez killed, and this was done by three knights +on 7th January 1355 in the Quinta das Lagrimas--that is, the Garden of +Tears--near Coimbra. Dom Pedro, who was away hunting in the south, would +have rebelled against his father, but was persuaded by the queen to +submit after he had devastated all the province of Minho. Two years +later Dom Affonso died, and after Dom Pedro had caught and tortured to +death two of the murderers--the third escaped to Castile--he in 1361 had +Dona Inez's body removed from its grave, dressed in the royal robes and +crowned, and swearing that he had really married her, he compelled all +the court to pay her homage and to kiss her hand: then the body was +placed on a bier and carried by night to the place prepared for it at +Alcobaça, some seventy miles away. When six years later, in 1367, he +came to die himself he left directions that they should be buried with +their feet towards one another, that at the resurrection the first thing +he should see should be Dona Inez rising from her tomb. Unfortunately +the French soldiers in 1810 broke open both tombs, smashing away much +fine carved work and scattering their bones.[73] The two tombs are much +alike in design and differ only in detail; both rest on four lions; the +sides, above a narrow border of sunk quatrefoils, are divided by tiny +buttresses rising from behind the gables of small niches into six parts, +each of which has an arch under a gable whose tympanum is filled with +the most minute tracery. Each of these arches is cusped and foliated +differently according to the nature of the figure subject it contains. +Behind the tops of the gables and pinnacles of the buttresses runs a +small arcade with beautiful little figures only a few inches high: above +this a still more delicate arcade runs round the whole tomb, interrupted +at regular intervals by shields, charged on Dom Pedro's tomb with the +arms of Portugal and on that of Dona Inez with the same and with those +of the Castros alternately. At the foot of Dom Pedro's is represented +the Crucifixion, and facing it on that of Dona Inez the Last Judgment. +Nothing can exceed the delicacy and beauty of the figure sculpture, the +drapery is all good, and the smallest heads and hands are worked with a +care not to be surpassed in any country. (Fig. 32.) + +On the top of one lies King Pedro with his head to the north, on the +other Dona Inez with hers to the south; both are life size and are as +well wrought as are the smaller details below. Both have on each side +three angels who seem to be just about to lift them from where they lie +or to have just laid them down. These angels, especially those near Dom +Pedro's head, are perhaps the finest parts of either tomb, with their +beautiful drapery, their well-modelled wings, and above all with the +outstretching of their arms towards the king and Dona Inez. There seems +to be no record as to who worked or designed these tombs, but there can +be little or no doubt that he was a Frenchman, the whole feeling, alike +of the architectural detail and the figures themselves, is absolutely +French; there had been no previous figure sculpture in the country in +any way good enough to lead up to the skill in design and in execution +here shown, nor, with regard to the mere architectural detail, had +Gothic tracery and ornament yet been sufficiently developed for a native +workman to have invented the elaborate cuspings, mouldings, and other +enrichments which make both tombs so pre-eminent above all that came +before them.[74] These tombs, as indeed the whole church, as well as the +neighbouring convent of Batalha, are constructed of a wonderfully fine +limestone, which seems to be practically the same as Caen Stone, and +which, soft and easy to cut when first quarried, grows harder with +exposure and in time, when not in a too shady or damp position, where it +gets black, takes on a most beautiful rich yellow colour. + +These tombs, beautiful as they are, do not seem to have any very direct +influence on the work of the next century: it is true that a distinct +advance was made in modelling the effigies of those who lay below, but +apart from that the decoration of these high tombs is in no case even +remotely related to that of the later monuments at Batalha; nor, except +that the national method of church planning was more firmly established +than ever, and that some occasional features such as the cuspings on the +arch-mould of the door of São Francisco Santarem, which are copied on an +archaistic door at Batalha, are found in later work, is there much to +point to the great advance that was soon to be made alike in detail and +in construction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31. + +ALCOBAÇA. + +CHAPEL WITH ROYAL TOMBS. + +(DOM PEDRO AND DONA BEATRIZ.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32. + +ALCOBAÇA. + +TOMB OF DOM PEDRO I.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +BATALHA AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL + + +Towards the end of the fourteenth century came the most important and +critical years that Portugal had yet known. Dom Pedro, dying after a +reign of only ten years, was succeeded by his only legitimate son, +Fernando, in 1367. Unfortunately the new king at his sister's wedding +saw and fell in love with the wife of a northern nobleman, and soon +openly married this Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, though he was himself +already betrothed to a Castilian princess, and though her own husband +was still alive. At the first court or Beja Manos held by Dona Leonor at +Leça near Oporto, all the Portuguese nobility except Dom Diniz, the +king's half-brother and a son of Inez de Castro, acknowledged her as +queen. But soon the evil influence she exercised over the king and the +stories of her cruelty made her extremely unpopular and even hated by +the whole nation. The memory of the vengeance she took on her own +sister, Dona Maria Telles, is preserved by an interesting old house in +Coimbra which has indeed been rebuilt since, in the early sixteenth +century, but is still called the House of the Telles. To the dislike +Queen Leonor felt for the sons of Inez de Castro, owing to Dom Diniz's +refusal to kiss her hand, was added the hatred she had borne her sister, +who was married to Dom João, another son of Dona Inez, ever since this +sister Dona Maria had warned her to have nothing to do with the king; +she was also jealous because Dona Maria had had a son while her own two +eldest children had died. So plotting to be rid of them both, she at +last persuaded Dom João that his wife was not faithful to him, and sent +him full of anger to that house at Coimbra where Dona Maria was living +and where, without even giving his wife time to speak, he stabbed her to +death. Soon after Dona Leonor came in and laughed at him for having +believed her lies so as to kill his own wife. Failing to kill the queen, +Dom João fled to Castile. + +When Dom Fernando himself died in 1383 he left his widow as regent of +the kingdom on behalf of their only daughter, Dona Brites, whom they had +married to Don Juan I. of Castile. It was of course bad enough for the +nation to find itself under the regency of such a woman, but to be +absorbed by Castile and Leon was more than could be endured. So a great +Cortes was held at Coimbra, and Dom João, grand master of the Order of +Aviz, and the son of Dom Pedro and Dona Thereza Lourenço, was elected +king. The new king at once led his people against the invaders, and +after twice defeating them met them for the final struggle at +Aljubarrota, near Alcobaça, on 14th August 1385. The battle raged all +day till at last the Castilian king fled with all his army, leaving his +tent with its rich furniture and all his baggage. Before the enemy had +been driven from the little town of Aljubarrota, the wife of the village +baker made herself famous by killing nine Spaniards with her wooden +baking shovel--a shovel which may still be seen on the town arms. When +all was over Dom João dedicated the spoil he had taken in the Castilian +king's tent to Our Lady of the Olive Tree at Guimarães where may still +be seen, with many other treasures, a large silver-gilt triptych of the +Nativity and one of the silver angels from off the royal altar.[75] +Besides this, he had promised if victorious to rebuild the church at +Guimarães and to found where the victory had been won a monastery as a +thankoffering for his success. + +[Sidenote: Batalha.] + +This vow was fulfilled two years later in 1387 by building the great +convent of Sta. Maria da Victoria or Batalha, that is Battle, at a place +then called Pinhal[76] in a narrow valley some nine or ten miles north +of Aljubarrota and seven south of Leiria. Meanwhile John of Gaunt had +landed in Galicia with a large army to try and win Castile and Leon, +which he claimed for his wife Constance, elder daughter of Pedro the +Cruel; marching through Galicia he met Dom João at Oporto in February +1387, and then the Treaty of Windsor, which had been signed the year +before and which had declared the closest union of friendship and +alliance to exist between England and Portugal, was further strengthened +by the marriage of King João to Philippa, the daughter of John of Gaunt +and of his first wife, Blanche of Lancaster. Soon after, the peace of +the Peninsula was assured by the marriage of Catherine, the only child +of John of Gaunt and of Constance of Castile, to Enrique, Prince of the +Asturias and heir to the throne of Castile. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF BATALHA] + +But it is time now to turn from the history of the foundation of Batalha +to the buildings themselves, and surely no more puzzling building than +the church is to be found anywhere. The plan, indeed, of the church, +omitting the Capella do Fundador and the great Capellas Imperfeitas, +presents no difficulty as it is only a repetition of the already +well-known and national arrangement of nave with aisles, an aisleless +transept, with in this case five apsidal chapels to the east. Now in all +this there is nothing the least unusual or different from what might be +expected, except perhaps that the nave, of eight bays, is rather longer +than in any previous example. But the church was built to commemorate a +great national deliverance, and by a king who had just won immense booty +from his defeated enemy, and so was naturally built on a great and +imposing scale.[77] + +The first architect, Affonso Domingues, perhaps a grandson of the +Domingo Domingues who built the cloister at Alcobaça, is said to have +been born at Lisbon and so, as might have been expected, his plan shows +no trace at all of foreign influence. And yet even this ordinary plan +has been compared by a German writer to that of the nave and transepts +of Canterbury Cathedral, a most unlikely model to be followed, as +Chillenden, who there carried out the transformation of Lanfranc's nave, +did not become prior till 1390, three years after Batalha had been +begun.[78] But though it is easy enough to show that the plan is not +English but quite national and Portuguese, it is not so easy to say what +the building itself is. Affonso Domingues died in 1402, and was +succeeded by a man whose name is spelt in a great variety of ways, +Ouguet, Huguet, or Huet, and to whom most of the building apart from the +plan must have been due. His name sounds more French than anything else, +but the building is not at all French except in a few details. +Altogether it is not at all easy to say whence those peculiarities of +tracery and detail which make Batalha so strange and unusual a building +were derived, except that there had been in Portugal nothing to lead up +to such tracery or to such elaboration of detail, or to the constructive +skill needed to build the high groined vaults of the nave or the +enormous span required to cover the chapter-house. Perhaps it may be +better to describe the church first outside and then in, and then see if +it is possible to discover from the details themselves whence they can +have come. + +The five eastern apses, of which the largest in the centre is also twice +as high as the other four, are probably the oldest part of the building, +but all, except the two outer apses and the upper part of the central, +have been concealed by the Pateo built by Dom Manoel to unite the +church with the Capellas Imperfeitas, or unfinished chapels, beyond. +Here there is nothing very unusual: the smaller chapels all end in +three-sided apses, at whose angles are buttresses, remarkable only for +the great number of string courses, five in all, which divide them +horizontally; these buttresses are finished by two offsets just below a +plain corbel table which is now crowned by an elaborately pierced and +cusped parapet which may well have been added later. Each side of the +apse has one tall narrow single-light window which, filled at some later +date from top to bottom with elaborate stone tracery, has two thin +shafts at each side and a rather bluntly-pointed head. The central apse +has been much the same but with five sides, and two stories of similar +windows one above the other. So far there is nothing unexpected or what +could not easily have been developed from already existing buildings, +such as the church at Thomar or the Franciscan and Dominican churches no +further away than Pontevedra in Galicia. + +Coming to the south transept, there is a large doorway below under a +crocketed gable flanked by a tall pinnacle on either side. This door +with its thirteenth-century mouldings is one of the most curious and +unexpected features of the whole building. Excepting that the capitals +are well carved with leaves, it is a close copy of the west door of São +Francisco at Santarem. Here the horseshoe cuspings are on the out-most +of the five orders of mouldings, and the chevron on the fourth, while +there is also a series of pointed cusps on the second. Only the +innermost betrays its really late origin by the curious crossing and +interpenetrating of the mouldings of its large trefoiled head. All this +is thoroughly Portuguese and clearly derived from what had gone before; +but the same cannot be said for the crockets or for the pinnacles with +their square and gabled spirelets. These crockets are of the common +vine-leaf shape such as was used in England and also in France early in +the fourteenth century, while the two-storied pinnacles with shallow +traceried panels on each face, and still more the square spirelets with +rather large crockets and a large bunchy finial, are not at all French, +but a not bad imitation of contemporary English work. On the gable above +the door are two square panels, each containing a coat-of-arms set in a +cusped quatrefoil, while the vine-leaves which fill in the surface +between the quatrefoils and the outer mouldings of the square, as also +those on the crowns which surmount the coats, are also quite English. +The elaborate many-sided canopies above are not so much so in form +though they might well have been evolved from English detail. Above the +gable comes another English feature, a very large three-light window +running up to the very vault; at the top the mullions of each light are +carried up so as to intersect, with cusped circles filling in each +space, while the whole window to the top is filled with a veil of small +reticulated tracery. Above the top of the large window there is a band +of reticulated panelling whose shafts run down till they reach the +crocketed hood-mould of the window: and above this an elaborately +pierced and foliated parapet between the square pinnacles of the angle +buttresses, which like these of the apses are remarkable for the +extraordinary number (ten) of offsets and string courses. + +The next five bays of the nave as well as the whole north side (which +has no buttresses) above the cloister are all practically alike; the +buttresses, pinnacles and parapet are just the same as those of the +transept: the windows tall, standing pretty high above the ground, are +all of three lights with tracery evidently founded on that of the large +transept window, but set very far back in the wall with as many as three +shafts on each side, and with each light now filled in with horrid wood +or plaster work. The clerestory windows, also of three lights with +somewhat similar tracery, are separated by narrow buttresses bearing +square pinnacles, between which runs on a pointed corbel table the usual +pierced parapet, and by strong flying buttresses, which at least in the +western bays are doubly cusped, and are, between the arch and the +straight part, pierced with a large foliated circle and other tracery. +The last three bays on the south side are taken up by the Founder's +Chapel (Capella do Fundador), in which are buried King João, Queen +Philippa, and four of their sons. This chapel, which must have been +begun a good deal later than the church, as the church was finished in +1415 when the queen died and was temporarily buried before the high +altar, while the chapel was not yet ready when Dom João made his will in +1426, though it was so in 1434 when he and the queen were there buried, +is an exact square of about 80 feet externally, within which an octagon +of about 38 feet in diameter rises above the flat roof of the square, +rather higher than to the top of the aisles. Each exposed side of the +square is divided into three bays, one wider in the centre with one +narrower on each side. The buttresses, pinnacles and corbel table are +much the same as before, but the parapet is much more elaborate and more +like French flamboyant. Of the windows the smaller are of four lights +with very elaborate and unusual flowing tracery in their heads; small +parts of which, such as the tracery at the top of the smaller lights, is +curiously English, while the whole is neither English nor French nor +belonging to any other national school. The same may be said of the +larger eight-light window in the central bay, but that there the tracery +is even more elaborate and extravagant. The octagon above has buttresses +with ordinary pinnacles at each corner, a parapet like that below, and +flying buttresses, all pierced, cusped and crocketed like those at the +west front. On each face is a tall two-light window with flowing tracery +packed in rather tightly at the top. + +As for the west front itself, which has actually been compared to that +of York Minster, the ends of the aisles are much like the sides, with +similar buttresses, pinnacles and parapet, but with the windows not set +back quite so far. On each side of the large central door are square +buttresses, running up to above the level of the aisle roof in six +stories, the four upper of which are panelled with what looks like +English decorated tracery, and ending in large square crocketed and +gabled pinnacles. The door itself between these buttresses is another +strange mixture. In general design and in size it is entirely French: on +either side six large statues stand on corbels and under elaborate +many-sided canopies, while on the arches themselves is the usual French +arrangement of different canopied figures: the tympanum is upheld by a +richly cusped segmental arch, and has on it a curiously archaistic +carving of Our Lord under a canopy surrounded by the four Evangelists. +Above, the crocketed drip-mould is carried up in an ogee leaving room +for the coronation of the Virgin over the apex of the arch. So far all +might be French, but on examining the detail, a great deal of it is +found to be not French but English: the half octagonal corbels with +their panelled and traceried sides, and still more the strips of +panelling on the jambs with their arched heads, are quite English and +might be found in almost any early perpendicular reredos or tomb, nor +are the larger canopies quite French. (Fig. 33.) + +Above the finial of the ogee runs a corbel table supporting a pierced +and crested parapet, a little different in design from the rest. + +Above this parapeted gallery is a large window lighting the upper part +of the nave, a window which for extravagance and exuberance of tracery +exceeds all others here or elsewhere. The lower part is evidently +founded on the larger windows of the Capella do Fundador. Like them it +has two larger pointed lights under a big ogee which reaches to the apex +of a pointed arch spanning the whole window, the space between this ogee +and the enclosing arch being filled in with more or less ordinary +flowing tracery. These two main lights are again much subdivided: at the +top is a circle with spiral tracery; below it an arch enclosing an ogee +exactly similar to the larger one above, springing from two sub-lights +which are again subdivided in exactly the same manner, into circle, +sub-arch, ogee and two small lights, so that the whole lower part of the +window is really built up from the one motive repeated three times. The +space between the large arch and the window head is taken up by a large +circle completely filled with minute spiral tracery and two vesicae also +filled in with smaller vesicae and circles. Now such a window could not +have been designed in England, in France, or anywhere else; not only is +it ill arranged, but it is entirely covered from top to bottom with +tracery, which shows that an attempt was being made to adapt forms +suitable in a northern climate to the brilliant summer sun of Portugal, +a sun which a native builder would rather try to keep out than to let +in. Above the window is a band of reticulated tracery like that below, +and the front is finished with a straight line of parapet pierced and +foliated like that below, joining the picturesque clusters of corner +pinnacles. The only other part of the church which calls for notice is +the bell-tower which stands at the north end of a very thick wall +separating the sacristy from the cloister; it is now an octagon +springing strangely from the square below, with a rich parapet, inside +which stands a tall spire; this spire, which has a sort of coronet +rather more than half-way up, consists of eight massive crocketed ribs +ending in a huge finial, and with the space between filled in with very +fine pierced work.[79] From such of the original detail which has + +[Illustration: FIG. 33. + +BATALHA. + +WEST FRONT OF CHURCH. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +survived the beautiful alterations of Dom Manoel, the details of the +cloister must have been very like those of the church. The refectory to +the west of the cloister is a plain room roofed with a pointed +barrel-vault; but the chapter-house is constructively the most +remarkable part of the whole convent. It is a great room over sixty feet +square, opening off the east cloister walk by a large pointed door with +a two-light window each side. This great space is covered by an immense +vault, upheld by no central shaft; arches are thrown across the corners +bringing the square to an octagon, and though not very high, it is one +of the boldest Gothic vaults ever attempted; there is nowhere else a +room of such a size vaulted without supporting piers, and probably none +where the buttresses outside, with their small projection, look so +unequal to the work they have to do, yet this vault has successfully +withstood more than one earthquake. + +The inside of the church is in singular contrast to the floridness of +the outside. The clustered piers are exceptionally large and tall; there +is no triforium, and the side windows are set so far back as to be +scarcely seen. The capitals have elaborate Gothic foliage, but are so +square as to look at a distance almost romanesque. In front of each pier +triple vaulting shafts run up, but instead of the side shafts carrying +the diagonal ribs as they should have done, all three carry bold +transverse arches, leaving the vaulting ribs to spring as best they can. +Each bay has horizontal ridge ribs, though their effect is lost by the +too great strength of the transverse arches. The chancel, a little lower +than the nave and transepts, is entered by an acutely pointed and richly +cusped arch, and has a regular Welsh groined vault, with a +well-developed ridge rib. Unfortunately almost all the church furniture +was destroyed during the French retreat, and of the stained glass only +that in the windows of the main apse survives, save in the three-light +window of the chapter-house, a window which can be exactly dated as it +displays the arms of Portugal and Castile quartered. This could only +have been done during the life of Dom Manoel's first wife, Isabel, +eldest daughter and heir of Ferdinand and Isabella. Dom Manoel married +her in 1497, and she died in 1498 leaving a son who, had he lived, would +have inherited the whole Peninsula and so saved Spain from the fatal +connection with the Netherlands inherited by Charles V. from his own +father. (Fig. 34.) + +The most elaborate part of the interior is not unnaturally the Capella +do Fundador: though even there, the four beautiful carved and painted +altars and retables on the east side, and the elaborate carved presses +on the west, have all vanished from their places, burned for firewood by +the invaders in 1810. In the centre under the lantern, lie King João who +died in 1433, and on the right Queen Philippa of Lancaster who died +seventeen years before. The high tomb itself is a plain square block of +stone from which on each side there project four lions: at the head are +the royal arms surrounded by the Garter, and on the sides long +inscriptions in honour of the king and queen. The figures of the king +and queen lie side by side with very elaborate canopies at their heads. +King João is in armour, holding a sword in his left hand and with his +other clasping the queen's right hand. The figures are not nearly so +well carved as are those of Dom Pedro and Inez de Castro at Alcobaça, +nor is the tomb nearly as elaborate. On the south wall are the recessed +tombs of four of their younger sons. The eldest, Dom Duarte, intended to +be buried in the great unfinished chapel at the east, but still lies +with his wife before the high altar. Each recess has a pointed arch +richly moulded, and with broad bands of very unusual leaves, while above +it rises a tall ogee canopy, crocketed and ending in a large finial. The +space between arch and canopy and the sills of the windows is covered +with reticulated panelling like that on the west front, and the tombs +are divided by tall pinnacles. The four sons here buried are, beginning +at the west: first, Dom Pedro, duke of Coimbra; next him Dom Henrique, +duke of Vizeu and master of the Order of Christ, famous as Prince Henry +the Navigator; then Dom João, Constable of Portugal; and last, Dom +Fernando, master of the Order of Aviz, who died an unhappy captive in +Morocco. During the reign of his brother Dom Duarte he had taken part in +an expedition to that country, and being taken prisoner was offered his +freedom if the Portuguese would give up Ceuta, captured by King João in +the year in which Queen Philippa died. These terms he indignantly +refused and died after some years of misery. On the front of each tomb +is a large panel on which are two or three shields--one on that of Dom +Henrique being surrounded with the Garter--while all the surface is +covered with beautifully carved foliage. Dom Henrique alone has an + +[Illustration: FIG. 34. + +CHURCH, BATALHA. + +INTERIOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLA DO FUNDADOR AND TOMB OF DOM JOÃO I AND DONA FILIPPA.] + +effigy, the others having only covers raised and panelled, while the +back of the Constable's monument has on it scenes from the Passion. + +The eight piers of the lantern are made up of a great number of shafts +with a moulded angle between each. The capitals are covered with two +tiers of conventional vine-leaves and have octagonal, not as in the +church square abaci, while the arches are highly stilted and are +enriched with most elaborate cusping, each cusp ending in a square +vine-leaf. (Fig. 35.) + +Such then are the main features of the church, the design of which, +according to most writers, was brought straight from England by the +English queen, an opinion which no one who knows English contemporary +buildings can hold for a moment. + +First, to take the entirely native features. The plan is only an +elaboration of that of many already existing churches. The south +transept door is a copy of a door at Santarem. The heavy transverse +arches and the curious way the diagonal vaulting ribs are left to take +care of themselves have been seen no further away than at Alcobaça; the +flat-paved terraced roofs, whose origin the Visconde di Condeixa in his +monograph on the convent, sought even as far off as in Cyprus, existed +already at Evora and elsewhere. + +Secondly, from France might have come the general design of the west +door, and the great height of the nave, though the proportion between +the aisle arcade and the clerestory, and the entire absence of any kind +of triforium, is not at all French. + +Thirdly, several details, as has been seen, appear to be more English +than anything else, but they are none of them very important; the ridge +ribs in the nave, the Welsh groining of the chancel vault, the general +look of the pinnacles, a few pieces of stone panelling on buttresses or +door, a small part of a few of the windows, the moulding of the +chapter-house door, the leaves on the capitals of the Capella do +Fundador, and the shape of the vine-leaves at the ends of the cuspings +of the arches. From a distance the appearance of the church is certainly +more English than anything else, but that is due chiefly to the flat +roof--a thoroughly Portuguese feature--and to the upstanding pinnacles, +which suggest a long perpendicular building such as one of the college +chapels at Oxford. + +Lastly, if the open-work spire is a real copy of that destroyed in +1755, and if there ever was another like it on the Capella do +Fundador,[80] they suggest German influence, although the earliest +Spanish examples of such German work were not begun at Burgos till 1442, +by which time the church here must have been nearly if not quite +finished. + +It is then not difficult to assign a great many details, with perhaps a +certain amount of truth, to the influence of several foreign countries, +yet as a whole the church is unlike any building existing in any of +these countries or even in Spain, and it remains as difficult, or indeed +as impossible, to discover whence these characteristics came. So far +there had been scarcely any development of window tracery to lead up to +the elaborate and curious examples which are found here; still less had +any such constructive skill been shown in former buildings as to make so +great a vault as that of the chapter-house at all likely, for such a +vault is to be found perhaps nowhere else. + +Probably the plan of the church, and perhaps the eastern chapel and +lower part of the transept, are the work of Affonso Domingues, and all +the peculiarities, the strange windows, the cusped arches, the +English-looking pinnacles, as well as all the constructive skill, are +due to Huguet his successor, who may perhaps have travelled in France +and England, and had come back to Portugal with increased knowledge of +how to build, but with a rather confused idea of the ornamental detail +he had seen abroad. + +When Dom João died in 1433 his eldest son, Dom Duarte or Edward, +determined to build for himself a more splendid tomb-house than his +father's, and so was begun the great octagon to the east. + +Unfortunately Dom Duarte's reign was short; he died in 1438, partly it +is said of distress at the ill success of his expedition to Morocco and +at the captivity there of his youngest brother, so that he had no time +to finish his chapel, and his son Affonso V., the African, was too much +engaged in campaigning against the Moors to be able to give either money +or attention to his father's work; and it was still quite unfinished +when Dom Manoel came to the throne in 1495, and though he did much +towards carrying on the work it was unfinished when he died in 1521 and +so remains to the present day. It is in designing this chapel that +Huguet showed his greatest originality and constructive daring: a few +feet behind the central apse he planned a great octagon about +seventy-two feet in diameter, surrounded by seven apsidal chapels, one +on each side except that next the church, while between these chapels +are small low chambers where were to be the tombs themselves. There is +nothing to show how this chapel was to be united to the church, as the +great doorway and vaulted hall were added by Dom Manoel some seventy +years later. When Dom Duarte died in 1438, or when Huguet himself died +not long after,[81] the work had only been carried out as far as the +tops of the surrounding chapels, and so remained all through his son's +and his grandson's reigns, although in his will the king had specially +asked that the building should be carried on. In all this original part +of the Capellas Imperfeitas there is little that differs from Huguet's +work in the church. The buttresses and corbel table are very similar +(the pinnacles and parapets have been added since 1834), and the apses +quite like those of the church. (Fig. 36.) + +The tracery of the chief windows too is not unlike that of the lantern +windows of the founder's chapel except that there is a well-marked +transome half-way up--a feature which has been attributed to English +influence--while the single windows of the tomb chambers are completely +filled with geometric tracery. Inside, the capitals of the chapel arches +as well as their rich cuspings are very like those of the founder's +chapel; the capitals having octagonal abaci and stiff vine-leaves, and +the trefoiled cusps ending in square vine-leaves, while the arch +mouldings are, as in King João's chapel, more English than French in +section. There is nothing now to show how the great central octagon was +to be roofed--for the eight great piers which now rise high above the +chapel were not built till the time of Dom Manoel--but it seems likely +that the vault was meant to be low, and not to rise much above the +chapel roofs, finishing, as everywhere else in the church, in a flat, +paved terrace. + +The only important addition made during the reigns of Dom Affonso V. and +of Dom João II. was that of a second cloister, north of the Claustro +Real, and still called the Cloister of Affonso. This cloister is as +plain and wanting in ornament as everything else about the monastery is +rich and elaborate, and it was probably built under the direction of +Fernão d'Evora, who succeeded his uncle Martim Vasques as master of the +works before 1448, and held that position for nearly thirty years. +Unlike the great cloister, whose large openings must, from the first, +have been meant for tracery, the cloister of Affonso V. is so very plain +and simple, that if its date were not known it would readily be +attributed to a period older even than the foundation of the monastery. +On each side are seven square bays separated by perfectly plain +buttresses, each bay consisting of two very plain pointed arches resting +on the moulded capitals of coupled shafts. Except for the buttresses and +the vault the cloister differs in no marked way from those at Guimarães +and elsewhere whose continuous pointed arcades show so little advance +from the usual romanesque manner of cloister-building. Above is a second +story of later date, in which the tiled roof rests on short columns +placed rather far apart, and with no regard to the spacing of the bays +below. Round this are the kitchens and various domestic offices of the +convent, and behind it lay another cloister, now utterly gone, having +been burned by the French in 1810. Such are the church and monastery of +Batalha as planned by Dom João and added to by his son and grandson, and +though it is not possible to say whence Huguet drew his inspiration, it +remains, with all the peculiarities of tracery and detail which make it +seem strange and ungrammatical--if one may so speak--to eyes accustomed +to northern Gothic, one of the most remarkable examples of original +planning and daring construction to be found anywhere. Of the later +additions which give character to the cloister and to the Capellas +Imperfeitas nothing can be said till the time of Dom Manoel is reached. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLAS IMPERFEITAS. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY + + +[Sidenote: Guimarães.] + +Besides building Batalha, King João dedicated the spoils he had taken at +Aljubarrota to the church of Nossa Senhora da Oliviera at Guimarães, +which he rebuilt from the designs of Juan Garcia of Toledo. The most +important of these spoils is the silver-gilt reredos taken in the +Spanish king's travelling chapel. It is in the shape of a triptych about +four feet high. In the centre is represented the Virgin with the Infant +Christ on a bed, with Joseph seated and leaning wearily on his staff at +the foot, the figures being about fourteen inches high; above two angels +swing censers, and the heads of an ox and an ass appear feeding from a +manger. All the background is richly diapered, and above are four cusped +arches, separated by angels under canopies, while above the arches to +the top there rises a rich mass of tabernacle work, with the window-like +spaces filled in with red or green enamel. At the top are two +half-angels holding the arms of Portugal, added when the reredos was +dedicated to Our Lady by Dom João. The two leaves, each about twenty +inches wide, are divided into two equal stories, each of which has two +cusped and canopied arches enclosing, those on the left above, the +Annunciation, and below the Presentation, and those on the right, the +Angel appearing to the Shepherds above, and the Wise Men below. All the +tabernacle work is most beautifully wrought in silver, but the figures +are less good, that of the Virgin Mary being distinctly too large.[82] +(Fig. 37.) + +Of the other things taken from the defeated king's tent, only one silver +angel now remains of the twelve which were sent to Guimarães. + +Of the church rebuilt in commemoration of this great victory, only the +west front has escaped a terrible transformation carried out not so long +ago, and which has made it impossible to see what the inside was once +like. If the builder was a Spaniard, as his name, Juan Garcia de Toledo, +seems to imply, there is nothing Spanish about his design. The door is +like many another door of about the same period, with simple mouldings +ornamented with small bosses, but the deeply recessed window above is +most unusual. The tracery is gone, but the framing of the window +remains, and is far more like that of a French door than of a window. On +either jamb are two stories of three canopied niches, containing +figures, while the arches are covered with small figures under canopies; +all is rather rude, but the whole is most picturesque and original. + +To the left rises the tower, standing forward from the church front: it +is of three stories, with cable moulding at the corners, a picturesque +cornice and battlements at the top; a bell gable in front, and a low +octagonal spire. On the ground floor are two large windows defended by +simple but good iron grilles, and in the upper part are large belfry +windows. This is not the original tower, for that was pulled down in +1515, when the present one was built in its stead by Pedro Esteves +Cogominho. Though of so late a date it is quite uninfluenced, not only +by those numerous buildings of Dom Manoel's time, which are noted for +their fantastic detail, but by the early renaissance which had already +begun to show itself here and there, and it is one of the most +picturesque church towers in the country. + +A few feet to the west of the church there is a small open shrine or +chapel, a square vault resting on four pointed arches which are well +moulded, enriched with dog-tooth and surmounted by gables. This chapel +was built soon after 1342 to commemorate the miracle to which the church +owes its name. Early in the fourteenth century there grew at São +Torquato, a few miles off, an olive-tree which provided the oil for that +saint's lamp. It was transported to Guimarães to fulfil a like office +there for the altar of Our Lady. It naturally died, and so remained for +many years till 1342, when one Pedro Esteves placed on it a cross which +his brother had bought in Normandy. This was the 8th of September, and +three days after the dead olive-tree broke into leaf, a miracle + +[Illustration: FIG. 37. + +CAPELLA OF D. JUAN OF CASTILLE. + +TAKEN AT THE BATTLE OF ALJUBARROTA BY JOÃO I, 1385, AND NOW IN THE +TREASURY OF N.S. DA OLIVEIRA GUIMARÃES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38. + +GUARDA. + +N. SIDE OF CATHEDRAL.] + +greatly to the advantage and wealth of the church and of the town. From +that day the church was called Our Lady of the Olive Tree. + +[Sidenote: Guarda.] + +Far more interesting than this church, because much better preserved and +because it is clearly derived, in part at least, from Batalha, is the +cathedral of Guarda, begun by João I. Guarda is a small town, not far +from the Spanish border, built on a hill rising high above the bleak +surrounding tableland to a height of nearly four thousand feet, and was +founded by Dom Sancho I. in 1197 to guard his frontier against the +Spaniards and the Moors. Begun by João I. the plan and general design of +the whole church must belong to the beginning of the fifteenth century, +though the finishing of the nave, and the insertion of larger transept +windows, were carried out under Dom Manoel, and though the great reredos +is of the time of Dom João III. Yet the few chapels between the nave +buttresses are almost the only real additions made to the church. Though +of but moderate dimensions, it is one of the largest of Portuguese +cathedrals, being 175 feet long by 70 feet wide and 110 feet across the +transepts. It is also unique among the aisled and vaulted churches in +copying Batalha by having a well-developed clerestory and flying +buttresses. + +[Illustration: CATHEDRAL. GUARDA.] + +The plan consists of a nave and aisles of five bays, a transept +projecting one bay beyond the aisles, and three apses to the east. At +the crossing the vault is slightly raised so as to admit of four small +round windows opening above the flat roofs of the central aisle and +transepts. The only peculiarity about the plan lies in the two western +towers, which near the ground are squares set diagonally to the front of +the church and higher up change to octagons, and so rise a few feet +above the flat roof. About the end of the fifteenth century two small +chapels were added to the north of the nave, and later still the spaces +between the buttresses were filled in with shallow altar recesses. + +The likeness to Batalha is best seen in the Capella Mor. As the apse has +only three instead of five sides, the windows are rather wider, and +there are none below, but otherwise the resemblance is as great as may +be, when the model is of fine limestone and the copy of granite. The +buttresses have offset string courses, and square crocketed pinnacles +just as at Batalha; there has even been an attempt to copy the parapet, +though only the trefoil corbel table is really like the model, for the +parapet itself is solid with a cresting of rather clumsy fleurs-de-lis. +These pinnacles and this crested parapet are found everywhere all round +the church, though the pinnacles on the aisle walls from which the plain +flying buttresses spring are quite different, being of a Manoelino +design. Again the north transept door has evidently been inspired by the +richness of Batalha. Here the door itself is plain, but well moulded, +with above it an elaborately crocketed ogee drip-mould, which ends in a +large finial; above this rises to a considerable height some arcaded +panelling, ending at the top in a straight band of quatrefoil, and +interrupted by a steep gable. (Fig. 38.) + +No other part of the outside calls for much notice except the boat-keel +corbels of the smaller apses, the straight gable-less ends to transept +and nave which show that the roofs are flat and paved, and the western +towers. These are of three stories. The lowest is square at the bottom +and octagonal above, the change being effected by a curved offset at two +corners, while at the third or western corner the curve has been cut +down so as to leave room for an eighteenth-century window, lighting the +small polygonal chapel inside, a chapel originally lit by two narrow +round-headed windows on the diagonal sides. In the second story there +are again windows on the same diagonal sides, but they have been built +up: while on the third or highest division--where the octagon is +complete on all sides--are four belfry windows. The whole is finished by +a crested parapet. The west front between these towers is very plain. At +the top a cresting, simpler than that elsewhere, below a round window +without tracery, lower still two picturesque square rococo windows, and +at the bottom a rather elaborate Manoelino doorway, built not many +years ago to replace one of the same date as the windows above. + +Throughout the clerestory windows are not large. They are round-headed +of two lights, with simple tracery, and deep splays both inside and out. +The large transept windows with half octagonal heads under a large +trefoil were inserted about the beginning of the sixteenth century. + +Inside the resemblance to Batalha is less noticeable. The ribs of the +chancel vault are well moulded, as are the arches of the lantern, but in +the nave, which cannot have been finished till the end of the fifteenth +century, the design is quite different. The piers are all a hollow +square set diagonally with a large round shaft at each corner. In the +aisle arches the hollows of the diagonal sides are carried round without +capitals, with which the round shafts alone are provided; while the +shaft in front runs up to a round Manoelino capital with octagonal +abacus from which springs the vaulting at a level higher than the sills +of the clerestory windows.[83] The most unusual part of the nave is the +vaulting of all three aisles, where all the ribs, diagonal as well as +transverse, are of exactly the same section and size as is the round +shaft from which they spring, even the wall rib being of the same shape +though a little smaller. At the crossing there are triple shafts on each +side, those of the nave being twisted, which is another Manoelino +feature. The nave then must be about a hundred years later than the +eastern parts of the church, where the capitals are rather long and are +carved with foliage and have square abaci, while those of the nave are +all of the time of King João II. or of King Manoel. At about the same +time some small and picturesque windows were inserted above the smaller +apses on the east side of the transept, and rather later was built the +chapel to the north-east of the nave, which is entered through a +segmental arch whose jambs and head are well carved with early +renaissance foliage and figures, and which contains the simple tomb of a +bishop. The pulpits, organs, and stalls, both in the chancel and in the +western choir gallery, are fantastic and late, but the great reredos +which rises in three divisions to the springing of the vault is the +largest and one of the finest in the country, but belonging as it does +to a totally different period and school must be left for another +chapter. + +[Sidenote: Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo, Lisbon.] + +Much need not be said about the Carmo at Lisbon, another church of the +same date, as it has been almost entirely wrecked by the earthquake of +1755. The victory of Aljubarrota was due perhaps even more to the grand +Constable of Portugal, Dom Nuno Alvares Pereira, than to the king +himself, and, like the king, the Constable commemorated the victory by +founding a monastery, a great Carmelite house in Lisbon. The church of +Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo stands high up above the +central valley of Lisbon on the very verge of the steep hill. Begun in +July 1389 the foundations twice gave way, and it was only after the +Constable had dismissed his first master and called in three men of the +same name, Affonso, Gonçalo, and Rodrigo Eannes, that a real beginning +could be made, and it was not finished till 1423, when it was +consecrated; at the same time the founder assumed the habit of a +Carmelite and entered his own monastery to die eight years later, and to +become an object of veneration to the whole people. In plan the church +was almost exactly like that of Batalha, though with a shorter nave of +only five bays.[84] To the east of the transept are still five +apses--the best preserved part of the whole building--having windows and +buttresses like those at Batalha. The only other part of the church +which has escaped destruction is the west door, a large simple opening +of six moulded arches springing from twelve shafts whose capitals are +carved with foliage. From what is left it seems that the church was more +like what Batalha was planned to be, rather than what it became under +the direction of Huguet: but the downfall of the nave has been so +complete that it is only possible to make out that there must have been +a well-developed clerestory and a high vaulted central aisle. What makes +this destruction all the more regrettable is the fact that the church +was full of splendid tombs, especially that of the Holy Constable +himself: a magnificent piece of carving in alabaster sent from Flanders +by Dom João's daughter, Isabel, duchess of Flanders.[85] + +After this catastrophe an attempt was made to rebuild the church, but +little was done, and it still remains a complete ruin, having been used +since the suppression of all monasteries in 1834 as an Archæological +Museum where many tombs and other architectural fragments may still be +seen. + +[Sidenote: Villar de Frades.] + +Towards the end of King João's reign a man named João Vicente, noting +the corruption into which the religious orders were falling, determined +to do what he could by preaching and example to bring back a better +state of things. He first began his work in Lisbon, but was driven from +there by the bishop to find a refuge at Braga. There he so impressed the +archbishop that he was given the decayed and ruined monastery of Villar +de Frades in 1425. Soon he had gathered round him a considerable body of +followers, to whom he gave a set of rules and who, after receiving the +papal sanction, were known as the Canons Secular of St. John the +Evangelist or, popularly, Loyos, because their first settlement in +Lisbon was in a monastery formerly dedicated to St. Eloy. The church at +Villar, which is of considerable size, was probably long of building, as +the elliptical-headed west door with its naturalistic treelike posts has +details which did not become common till at least the very end of the +century. Inside the church consists of a nave of five bays, flanked with +chapels but not aisles, transepts which are really only enlarged +chapels, and a chancel like the nave but without chapels. The chief +feature of the inside is the very elaborate vaulting, which with the +number and intricacy of its ribs, is not at all unlike an English +Perpendicular vault, and indeed would need but little change to develop +into a fan vault. Here then there has been a considerable advance from +the imperfect vaulting of the central aisle at Batalha, where the +diagonal ribs had to be squeezed in wherever they could go, although +there are at Villar no side aisles so that the construction of +supporting buttresses was of course easier than at Batalha: and it is +well worth noticing how from so imperfect a beginning as the nave at +Batalha the Portuguese masters soon learned to build elaborate and even +wide vaults, without, as a rule, covering them with innumerable and +meaningless twisting ribs as was usually done in Spain. In the +north-westernmost chapel stands the font, an elaborate work of the early +renaissance; an octagonal bowl with twisted sides resting on a short +twisted base. + +[Sidenote: Matriz, Alvito.] + +Not unlike the vaulting at Villar is that of the Matriz or mother church +of Alvito, a small town in the Alemtejo, nor can it be very much later +in date. Outside it is only remarkable for its west door, an interesting +example of an attempt to use the details of the early French +renaissance, without understanding how to do so--as in the pediment all +the entablature except the architrave has been left out--and for the +short twisted pinnacles which somehow give to it, as to many other +buildings in the Alemtejo, so Oriental a look, and which are seen again +at Belem. Inside, the aisles are divided from the nave by round +chamfered arches springing from rather short octagonal piers, which have +picturesque octagonal capitals and a moulded band half-way up. Only is +the easternmost bay, opening to large transeptal chapels, pointed and +moulded. The vaulting springs from corbels, and although the ribs are +but simply chamfered they are well developed. Curiously, though the +central is so much higher than the side aisles, there is no clerestory, +nor any signs of there ever having been one, while the whole wall +surface is entirely covered with those beautiful tiles which came to be +so much used during the seventeenth century. + +In the year 1415 her five sons had sailed straight from the deathbed of +Queen Philippa to the coast of Morocco and had there captured the town +of Ceuta, a town which remained in the hands of the Portuguese till +after their ill-fated union with Spain; for in 1668 it was ceded to +Spain in return for an acknowledgment of Portuguese independence, thus +won after twenty-seven years' more or less continuous fighting. This was +the first time any attempt had been made to carry the Portuguese arms +across the Straits, and to attack their old enemies the Moors in their +own land, where some hundred and seventy years later King João's +descendant, Dom Sebastião, was to lose his life and his country's +freedom. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Graça, Santarem.] + +The first governor of Ceuta was Dom Pedro de Menezes, count of Viana. +There he died in 1437, after having for twenty-two years bravely +defended and governed the city--then, as is inscribed on his tomb, the +only place in Africa possessed by Christians. This tomb, which was made +at the command of his daughter Dona Leonor, stands in the church of the +Graça at Santarem, a church which had been founded by his grandfather +the count of Ourem in 1376 for canons regular of St. Augustine. Inside +the church itself is not very remarkable,[86] having a nave and aisles +with transepts and three vaulted chapels to the east, built very much in +the same style as is the church at Leça do Balio, except that it has a +fine west front, to be mentioned later, that the roof of the nave was +knocked down by the Devil in 1548 in anger at the extreme piety of Frey +Martinho de Santarem, one of the canons, and that many famous people, +including Pedro Alvares Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil, are therein +buried. + +In general outline the tomb of the count of Viana is not unlike that of +his master Dom João, but it is much more highly decorated. On eight +crouching lions rests a large altar-tomb. It has a well-moulded and +carved base and an elaborately carved cornice, rich with deeply undercut +foliage, while on the top lie Pedro de Menezes and his wife Dona Beatriz +Coutinho, with elaborately carved canopies at their heads, and pedestals +covered with figures and foliage at their feet. Beneath the cornice on +each of the longer sides is cut in Gothic letters a long inscription +telling of Dom Pedro's life, and lower down and on all four sides there +is in the middle a shield, now much damaged, with the Menezes arms. On +each side of these shields are carved spreading branches, knotted round +a circle in the centre in which is cut the word 'Aleo.' Once, when +playing with King João at a game in which some kind of club or mallet +was used, the news came that the Moors were collecting in great numbers +to attack Ceuta. The king, turning to Dom Pedro, asked him what +reinforcements he would need to withstand the attack; the governor +answered: 'This "Aleo," or club, will be enough,' and in fact, returning +at once to his command, he was able without further help to drive back +the enemy. So this word has been carved on his tomb to recall how well +he did his duty.[87] (Fig. 39.) + +[Sidenote: Tomb in São João de Alporão.] + +Not far from the Graça church is that of São João de Alporão, of which +something has already been said, and in it now stands the tomb of +another Menezes, who a generation later also died in Africa, fighting to +save the life of his king, Dom Affonso V., grandson of King João. +Notwithstanding the ill-success of the expedition of his father, Dom +Duarte, to Tangier, Dom Affonso, after having got rid of his uncle the +duke of Coimbra, who had governed the country during his minority, and +who fell in battle defending himself against the charge of treason, led +several expeditions to Morocco, taking first Alcazar es Seghir or +Alcacer Seguer, and later Tangier and Arzilla, thereby uselessly +exhausting the strength of the people, and hindering the spread of +maritime exploration which Dom Henrique had done so much to extend. + +This Dom Duarte de Menezes, third count of Viana, was, as an inscription +tells, first governor of Alcacer Seguer, which with five hundred +soldiers he successfully defended against a hundred thousand Moors, +dying at last in the mountains of Bonacofú in defence of his king in +1464.[88] + +The monument was built by his widow, Dona Isabel de Castro, but so +terribly had Dom Duarte been cut to pieces by the Moors, that only one +finger could be found to be buried there.[89] Though much more +elaborate, the tomb is not altogether unlike those of the royal princes +at Batalha. The count lies, armed, with a sword drawn in his right hand, +on an altar-tomb on whose front, between richly traceried panels, are +carved an inscription above, upheld by small figures, and below, in the +middle a flaming cresset, probably a memorial of his watchfulness in +Africa, and on each side a shield. + +Surmounting the altar-tomb is a deeply moulded ogee arch subdivided into +two hanging arches which spring from a pendant in the middle, while the +space between these sub-arches and the ogee above is filled with a +canopied carving of the Crucifixion. At about the level of the pendant +the open space is crossed by a cusped segmental arch supporting +elaborate flowing tracery. The outer sides of the ogee, which ends in a +large finial, are enriched with large vine-leaf crockets. On either side +of the arch is a square pier, moulded at the angles, and with each face +covered with elaborate tracery. Each pier, which ends in a square +crocketed and gabled pinnacle, has half-way + +[Illustration: FIG. 39. + +SANTAREM. + +CHURCH OF THE GRAÇA. + +TOMB OF D. PEDRO DE MENEZES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40. + +SANTAREM. + +TOMB OF DOM DUARTE DE MENEZES IN S. JOÃO DE ALPORÃO.] + +up a small figure standing on an octagonal corbel under an elaborate +canopy. The whole at the top is finished with a cornice running straight +across from pier to pier, and crested with interlacing and cusped +semicircles, while the flat field below the cornice and above the outer +moulding of the great arch is covered with flaming cressets. (Fig. 40.) + +This is perhaps one of the finest of the tombs of the fifteenth century, +and like those at Alcobaça is made of that very fine limestone which is +found in more than one place in Portugal. + +[Sidenote: At Abrantes.] + +Farther up the Tagus at Abrantes, in the church of Santa Maria do +Castello, are some more tombs of the same date, more than one of which +is an almost exact copy of the princes' tombs at Batalha, though there +is one whose arch is fringed with curious reversed cusping, almost +Moorish in appearance. + +[Sidenote: Cloister at Thomar.] + +Before turning to the many churches built towards the end of the +fifteenth century, one of the cloisters of the great convent at Thomar +must be mentioned. It is that called 'do Cemiterio,' and was built by +Prince Henry the Navigator, duke of Vizeu, during his grandmastership of +the Order of Christ about the year 1440. Unlike those at Alcobaça or at +Lisbon, which were derived from a Cistercian plan, and were always +intended to be vaulted, this small cloister followed the plan, handed +down from romanesque times, where on each side there is a continuous +arcade resting on coupled shafts. Such cloisters, differing only from +the romanesque in having pointed arches and capitals carved with +fourteenth-century foliage, may still be seen at Santo Thyrso and at São +Domingos, Guimarães, in the north. Here at Thomar the only difference is +that the arches are very much wider, there being but five on each side, +and that the bell-shaped capitals are covered with finely carved +conventional vine-leaves arranged in two rows round the bells. As in the +older cloisters one long abacus unites the two capitals, but the arches +are different, each being moulded as one deep arch instead of two +similar arches set side by side. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +LATER GOTHIC + + +During the last ten or fifteen years of the fifteenth century there was +great activity in building throughout almost the whole country, but it +now becomes almost impossible to take the different buildings in +chronological order, because at this time so many different schools +began to struggle for supremacy. There was first the Gothic school +which, though increasing in elaboration of detail, went on in some +places almost uninfluenced by any breath of the renaissance, as for +instance in the porch and chancel of Braga Cathedral, not built till +about 1532. Elsewhere this Gothic was affected partly by Spanish and +partly by Moorish influence, and gradually grew into that most curious +and characteristic of styles, commonly called Manoelino, from Dom Manoel +under whom Portugal reached the summit of its prosperity. In other +places, again, Gothic forms and renaissance details came gradually to be +used together, as at Belem. + +To take then first those buildings in which Gothic detail was but little +influenced by the approaching renaissance. + +[Sidenote: Graça, Santarem.] + +One of the earliest of these is the west front, added towards the end of +the fifteenth century to that Augustinian church of the Graça at +Santarem whose roof the Devil knocked down in 1548. Here the ends of the +side aisles are, now at any rate, quite plain, but in the centre there +is a very elaborate doorway with a large rose-window above. It is easy +to see that this doorway has not been uninfluenced by Batalha. From +well-moulded jambs, each of which has four shafts, there springs a large +pointed arch, richly fringed with cusping on its inner side. Two of its +many mouldings are enriched with smaller cuspings, and one, the +outermost, with a line of wavy tracery, while the whole ends in a +crocketed ogee. Above the arch is a strip of shallow panelling, +enclosed, as is the whole doorway, in a square moulded frame. May it +not be that this square frame is due to the almost universal Moorish +habit of setting an archway in a square frame, as may be seen at Cordoba +and in the palace windows at Cintra? The rest of the gable is perfectly +plain but for the round window, filled with elaborate spiral flowing +tracery. Here, though the details are more French than national, there +is a good example of the excellent result so often reached by later +Portuguese--and Spanish--builders, who concentrated all their elaborate +ornament on one part of the building while leaving the rest absolutely +plain--often as here plastered and whitewashed. + +[Sidenote: São João Baptista, Thomar.] + +Not long after this front was built, Dom Manoel in 1494 began a new +parish church at Thomar, that of São João Baptista. The plan of this +church is that which has already become so familiar: a nave and aisles +with wooden roof and vaulted chancel and chapels to the east, with here, +the addition of a tower and spire to the north of the west front. The +inside calls for little notice: the arches are pointed, and the capitals +carved with not very good foliage, but the west front is far more +interesting. As at the Graça it is plastered and whitewashed, but ends +not in a gable but in a straight line of cresting like Batalha, though +here there is no flat terrace behind, but a sloping tile roof. At the +bottom is a large ogee doorway whose tympanum is pierced with tracery +and whose mouldings are covered with most beautiful and deeply undercut +foliage. The outside of the arch is crocketed, and ends in a tall finial +thrust through the horizontal and crested moulding which, as at the +Graça, sets the whole in a square frame. There are also doorways in the +same style half-way along the north and south sides of the church. The +only other openings on the west front are a plain untraceried circle +above the door, and a simple ogee-headed window at the end of each +aisle. + +The tower, which is not whitewashed, rises as a plain unadorned square +to a little above the aisle roof, then turns to an octagon with, at the +top, a plain belfry window on each face. Above these runs a corbelled +gallery within which springs an octagonal spire cut into three by two +bands of ornament, and ending in a large armillary sphere, that emblem +of all the discoveries made during his reign, which Dom Manoel put on to +every building with which he had anything to do. + +Inside the chapels are as usual overloaded with huge reredoses of +heavily carved and gilt wood, but the original pulpit still survives, a +most beautiful example of the finest late Gothic carving. It consists of +four sides of an octagon, and stands on ribs which curve outwards from a +central shaft. Round the bottom runs a band of foliage most marvellously +undercut, above this are panels separated the one from the other by +slender pinnacles, and the whole ends in a cornice even more delicately +carved than is the base. At the top of each panel is some intricate +tabernacle work, below which there is on one the Cross of the Order of +Christ, on another the royal arms, with a coronet above which stands out +quite clear of the panel, and on a third there has been the armillary +sphere, now unfortunately quite broken off. But even more interesting +than this pulpit itself is the comparison between its details and those +of the nave or Coro added about the same time to the Templar church on +the hill behind. Here all is purely Gothic, there there is a mixture of +Gothic and renaissance details, and towards the west front an exuberance +of carving which cannot be called either Gothic or anything else, so +strange and unusual is it. + +[Sidenote: Villa do Conde.] + +Another church of almost exactly the same date is that of São João +Baptista, the Matriz of Villa do Conde. The plan shows a nave and aisles +of five bays, large transeptal chapels, and an apsidal chancel +projecting beyond the two square chapels by which it is flanked. As +usual the nave and aisles have a wooden roof, only the chancel and +chapels being vaulted. There is also a later tower at the west end of +the north aisle, and a choir gallery across the west end of the church. +Throughout the original windows are very narrow and round-headed, and +there is in the north-western bay a pointed door, differing only from +those of about a hundred years earlier in having twisted shafts. One +curious feature is the parapet of the central aisle, which is like a row +of small classical pedestals, each bearing a stumpy obelisk. By far the +finest feature of the outside is the great west door. On each side are +clusters of square pinnacles ending in square crocketed spirelets, and +running up to a horizontal moulding which, as so often, gives the whole +design a rectangular form. Within comes the doorway itself; a large +trefoiled arch of many mouldings of which the outermost, richly +crocketed, turns up as an ogee, to pierce the horizontal line above with +its finial. Every moulding is filled with foliage, most elaborately and +finely cut, considering that it is worked in granite. Across the +trefoil at its springing there runs a horizontal moulding resting on the +flat elliptical arch of the door itself. On the tympanum is a figure of +St. John under a very elaborate canopy with, on his right, a queer +carving of a naked man, and on his left a dragon. The space between the +arch and the top moulding is filled with intricate but shallow +panelling, among which, between two armillary spheres, are set, on the +right, a blank shield crowned--probably prepared for the royal arms--and +on the left the town arms--a galley with all sails set. Lastly, as a +cresting to the horizontal moulding, there is a row of urnlike objects, +the only renaissance features about the whole door. (Fig. 41.) + +[Illustration: SÃO JOÃO BAPTISTA VILLA DO CONDE + +S^TA MARIA DOS ANJOS CAMINHA] + +Inside, all the piers are octagonal with a slender shaft at each angle; +these shafts alone having small capitals, while their bases stand on, +and interpenetrate with, the base of the whole pier. All the arches are +round--as are those leading to the chancel and transept chapels--and are +moulded exactly as are the piers. All the vaults have a network of +well-moulded ribs. + +The tower has been added some fifty years later and is very +picturesque. It is of four stories: of these the lowest has rusticated +masonry; the second, on its western face, a square-headed window opening +beneath a small curly and broken pediment on to a balcony with very fine +balusters all upheld by three large corbels. The third story has only a +clock, and the fourth two plain round-headed belfry windows on each +face. The whole--above a shallow cornice which is no bigger than the +mouldings dividing the different stories--ends in a low stone dome, with +a bell gable in front, square below, and arched above, holding two +bells. + +[Sidenote: Azurara.] + +Scarcely a mile away, across the river Ave, lies Azurara, which was made +a separate parish in 1457 and whose church was built by Dom Manoel in +1498. + +In plan it is almost exactly the same as Villa do Conde, except that +there are no transept chapels nor any flanking the chancel. Outside +almost the only difference lies in the parapet which is of the usual +shape with regular merlons; and in the west door which is an interesting +example of the change to the early renaissance. The door itself is +round-headed, and has Gothic mouldings separated by a broad band covered +with shallow renaissance carving. On each side are twisted shafts which +run up some way above the door to a sort of horizontal entablature, +whose frieze is well carved, and which is cut into by a curious ogee +moulding springing from the door arch. Above this entablature the shafts +are carried up square for some way, and end in Gothic pinnacles. Between +them is a niche surmounted by a large half-Gothic canopy and united to +the side shafts by a broken and twisted treelike moulding. What adds to +the strangeness of this door is that the blank spaces are plastered and +whitewashed, while all the rest of the church is of grey granite. Higher +up there is a round window--heavily moulded--and the whole gable ends in +a queer little round pediment set between two armillary spheres. + +Inside the piers are eight-sided with octagonal bases and caps, and with +a band of ornament half-way up the shaft. The arches are simply +chamfered but are each crossed by three carved voussoirs. + +The tower is exactly like that at Villa do Conde except that the bottom +story is not rusticated, and that instead of a dome there is an +octagonal spire covered with yellow and white tiles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41. + +VILLA DO CONDE. SÃO JOÃO BAPTISTA.] + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +As at Azurara, the parish church of Santa Maria dos Anjos at Caminha is +in plan very like the Matriz at Villa do Conde. Caminha lies on the +Portuguese side of the estuary of the Minho, close to its mouth, and the +church was begun in 1488, but was not finished till the next century, +the tower indeed not being built till 1556. Like the others, the plan +shows a nave and rather narrow aisles of five bays, and two square +vaulted chapels with an apsidal chancel between to the east. Three large +vaulted chapels and the tower have been added, opening from the north +aisle. Probably the oldest part is the chancel with its flanking +chapels, which are very much more elaborate than any portion of the +churches already described. There are at the angles deep square +buttresses which end in groups of square spire-capped pinnacles all +elaborately crocketed, and not at all unlike those at Batalha. Between +these, in the chancel are narrow round-headed windows, whose mouldings +are enriched with large four-leaved flowers, and on all the walls from +buttress to buttress there runs a rich projecting cornice crowned by a +wonderfully pierced and crested parapet; also not unlike those at +Batalha, but more wonderful in that it is made of granite instead of +fine limestone. The rest of the outside is much plainer, except for the +two doorways, and two tall buttresses at the west end. These two +doorways--which are among the most interesting in the country--must be a +good deal later than the rest of the church, indeed could not have been +designed till after the work of that foreign school of renaissance +carvers at Coimbra had become well known, and so really belong to a +later chapter. + +Inside the columns are round, with caps and bases partly round and +partly eight-sided, the hollow octagons interpenetrating with the +circular mouldings. The arches of the arcade are also round, though +those of the chancel and eastern chapels are pointed. Attached to one of +the piers is a small eight-sided pulpit, at whose angles are Gothic +pinnacles, but whose sides and base are covered with cherubs' heads, +vases, and foliage of early renaissance. + +But the chief glory of the interior are the splendid tiles with which +its walls are entirely covered, and still more the wonderful wooden +roof, one of the finest examples of Moorish carpentry to be found +anywhere, and which, like the doorways, can now only be merely +mentioned. + +The tower, added by Diogo Eannes in 1556, is quite plain with one +belfry opening in each face close to the top and just below the low +parapet which, resting on corbels, ends in a row of curious half-classic +battlements.[90] + +[Sidenote: Funchal.] + +This plan was not confined only to parish churches, for about 1514 we +find it used by Dom Manoel at Funchal for the cathedral of the newly +founded diocese of Madeira. The only difference of importance is that +there is a well-developed transept entered by arches of the same height +as that of the chancel. Here the piers are clustered, and with rather +poorly carved capitals, the arches pointed and moulded, but rather thin. +As in the other churches of this date, the round-headed clerestory +windows come over the piers, not over the arches. The chancel, which is +rather deeper than usual, is entered by a wide foliated arch, and like +the apsidal chapels is vaulted. As at Caminha, the nave roof is of +Moorish design, but of even greater interest are the reredos and the +choir-stalls. This reredos is three divisions in height and five in +width--each division, except the two lower in the centre where there is +a niche for the image of the Virgin, containing a large picture. + +The divisions are separated perpendicularly by a series of Gothic +pinnacles, and horizontally by a band of Gothic tabernacle work at the +bottom, and above by beautifully carved early renaissance friezes. The +whole ends in a projecting canopy, divided into five bays, each bay +enriched with vaulting ribs, and in front with very delicately carved +hanging tracery. Above the horizontal cornice is a most elaborate +cresting of interlacing trefoils and leaves having in the middle the +royal arms with on each side an armillary sphere. Some of the detail of +the cresting is not all unlike that of the great reredos in the Sé Velha +at Coimbra, and like it has a Flemish look, so that it may have been +made perhaps, if not by Master Vlimer, who finished his work at Coimbra +in 1508, at any rate by one of his pupils. The stalls, which at the back +are separated by Gothic pilasters and pinnacles, have also a continuous +canopy, and a high and splendid cresting, which though Gothic in general +appearance, is quite renaissance in detail. + +Outside, the smaller eastern chapels have an elaborate cresting, and +tall twisted pinnacles. The large plain tower which rises east of the +north transept has a top crowned with battlements, within which stands a +square tile-covered spire. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Lamego.] + +Before going on to discuss the long-continued influence of the Moors, +three buildings in which Gothic finally came to an end must be +discussed. These are the west front of Lamego, the cathedral of Vizeu, +and the porch and chancel of the Sé at Braga. Except for its romanesque +tower and its west front the cathedral of Lamego has been entirely +rebuilt; and of the west front only the lower part remains uninjured. +This front is divided by rather elaborate buttresses into three nearly +equal parts--for the side aisles are nearly as wide as the central. In +each of these is a large pointed doorway, that in the centre being at +once wider and considerably higher than those of the aisles. The central +door has six moulded shafts on either side, all with elaborately carved +capitals and with deeply undercut foliage in the hollows between, this +foliage being carried round the whole arch between the mouldings. Above +the top of the arch runs a band of flat, early renaissance carving with +a rich Gothic cresting above. + +The side-doors are exactly similar, except that they have fewer shafts, +four instead of six, and that in the hollows between the mouldings the +carving is early renaissance in character and is also flatter than in +the central door. Above runs the same band of carving--but lower +down--and a similar but simpler cresting. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Vizeu.] + +Unlike Lamego, while the cathedral of Vizeu has been but little altered +within, scarcely any of the original work is to be seen outside. The +present cathedral was built by Bishop Dom Diego Ortiz de Vilhegas about +the year 1513, and his arms as well as those of Dom Manoel and of two of +his sons are found on the vault. The church is not large, having a nave +and aisles of four bays measuring about 105 feet by 62; square transept +chapels, and a seventeenth-century chancel with flanking chapels. To the +west are two towers, built between the years 1641 and 1671, and on the +south a very fine renaissance cloister of two stories, the lower having +been built, it is said, in 1524,[91] and the upper about 1730. A choir +gallery too, with an elaborate Gothic vault below and a fine renaissance +balustrade, crosses the whole west end and extends over the porch +between the two western towers. But if the cathedral in its plan follows +the ordinary type, in design and in construction it is quite unique. +Instead of there being a wooden roof as is usual in churches of this +period, the whole is vaulted, and that too in a very unusual and +original manner. Throughout the piers consist of twelve rounded shafts +set together. Of these the five towards the central aisle are several +feet higher than the other seven from which spring the aisle arches as +well as the ribs of the aisle vault. Consequently the vault of the +central aisle is considerably lower at the sides than it is in the +middle, and in this ingenious way its thrust is counteracted by the +vaults of the side aisles; and at the same time these side vaults are +not highly stilted as they would of necessity have been, had the three +aisles been of exactly the same height. All the ribs are of considerable +projection and well moulded, and of all, except the diagonal ribs, the +lowest moulding is twisted like a rope. This rope-moulding is repeated +on all the ridge ribs, and in each it is tied in a knot half-way along, +a knot which is so much admired that the whole vault is called 'a +abobada dos nós' or vault of the knots. + +The capitals are more curious than beautiful; the lower have clumsy, +early-looking foliage and a large and curious abacus. First each capital +has a square abacus of some depth, then comes a large flat circle, one +for each three caps, and at the top a star-shaped moulding of hollow +curves, the points projecting beyond the middle of the square abaci +below. The higher capitals are better. They are carved with more +elaborate foliage and gilt, and the abaci follow more exactly the line +of the caps below and are carved and gilded in the same way. (Fig. 42.) + +Perhaps, however, the chief interest of the cathedral is found in the +sacristy, a fine large room opening from the north transept chapel. On +its tiled walls there hang several large and some smaller paintings, of +which the finest is that of St. Peter. Other pictures are found in the +chapter-house, and a fine one of the crucifixion in the Jesus Chapel +below it; but this is not the place to enter into the very difficult +question of Portuguese painting, a question on which popular tradition +throws only a misleading light by attributing everything to a more or +less mythical painter, Grão Vasco, and on which all authorities differ, +agreeing only in considering this St. Peter one of the finest paintings +in the country. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Braga.] + +Perhaps the chancel of the cathedral at Braga ought rather + +[Illustration: FIG. 42. + +SÉ, VIZEU.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43. + +BRAGA. W. PORCH OF CATHEDRAL.] + +to be left to a chapter dealing with what is usually called the +Manoelino style--that strange last development of Gothic which is found +only in Portugal--but it is in many respects so like the choir chapels +of the church at Caminha, and has so little of the usual Manoelino +peculiarities, that it were better to describe it now. Whatever may be +thought of the chancel, there is no doubt about the large western porch, +which is quite free of any Manoelino fantasies. + +Both porch and chancel were built by Archbishop Dom Diego de Souza about +the year 1530--a most remarkable date when the purely Gothic work here +is compared with buildings further south, where Manoelino had already +been succeeded by various forms of the classic renaissance. The porch +stretches right across the west end of the church, and is of three bays. +That in the centre, considerably wider than those at the side, is +entered from the west by a round-headed arch, while the arches of the +others are pointed. The bays are separated by buttresses of considerable +projection, and all the arches, which have good late mouldings, are +enriched with a fine feathering of cusps, which stands out well against +the dark interior. Unfortunately the original parapet is gone, only the +elaborate canopies of the niches, of which there are two to each bay, +rise above the level of the flat paved roof. Inside there is a good +vault with many well-moulded ribs, but the finest feature of it all is +the wrought-iron railing which crosses each opening. This, almost the +only piece of wrought-iron work worthy of notice in the whole country, +is very like contemporary screens in Spain. It is made of upright bars, +some larger, twisted from top to bottom, some smaller twisted at the +top, and plain below, alternating with others plain above and twisted +below. At the top runs a frieze of most elaborate hammered and pierced +work--early renaissance in detail in the centre, Gothic in the side +arches, above which comes in the centre a wonderful cresting. In the +middle, over the gate which rises as high as the top of the cresting, is +a large trefoil made of a flat hammered band intertwined with a similar +band after the manner of a Manoelino doorway.[92] (Fig. 43.) + +Of the chancel little has been left inside but the vault and the tombs +of Dona Theresa (the first independent ruler of Portugal) and of her +husband Count Henry of Burgundy--very poor work of about the same date +as the chancel. The outside, however, has been unaltered. Below it is +square in plan, becoming at about twenty feet from the ground a +half-octagon having the eastern a good deal wider than the diagonal +sides. On the angles of the lower square stand tall clustered +buttresses, rising independently of the wall as far as the projecting +cornice, across which their highest pinnacles cut, and united to the +chancel at about a third of the height, by small but elaborate flying +buttresses. On the eastern face there is a simple pointed window, and +there is nothing else to relieve the perfectly plain walls below except +two string courses, and the elaborate side buttresses with their tall +pinnacles and twisted shafts. But if the walling is plain the cornice is +most elaborate. It is of great depth and of considerable projection, the +hollows of the mouldings being filled with square flowers below and +intricate carving above. On this stands a high parapet of traceried +quatrefoils, bearing a horizontal moulding from which springs an +elaborate cresting; all being almost exactly like the cornice and +parapet at Caminha, but larger and richer, and like it, a marvellous +example of carving in granite. At the angles are tall pinnacles, and the +pinnacles of the corner buttresses are united to the parapet by a +curious contorted moulding. + +[Sidenote: Conceiçao, Braga.] + +Opposite the east end of the cathedral there stands a small tower built +in 1512 by Archdeacon João de Coimbra as a chapel. It is of two stories, +with a vaulted chapel below and a belfrey above, lit by round-headed +windows, only one of which retains its tracery. Just above the string +which divides the two stories are statues[93] under canopies, one +projecting on a corbel from each corner, and one from the middle, while +above a cornice, on which stand short pinnacles, six to each side, the +tower ends in a low square tile roof. The chapel on the ground floor is +entered by a porch, whose flat lintel rests on moulded piers at the +angles and on two tall round columns in the centre, while its three +openings are filled with plain iron screens, the upper part of which +blossoms out into large iron flowers and leaves. Inside there is on the +east wall a reredos of early renaissance date, and on the south a large +half-classical arch flanked by pilasters under which there is a +life-size group of the Entombment made seemingly of terra cotta and +painted. + +So, rather later than in most other lands, and many years after the +renaissance had made itself felt in other parts of the country, Gothic +comes to an end, curiously enough not far from where the oldest +Christian buildings are found. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS + + +It is now time to turn back for a century and a half and to speak of the +traces left by the Moors of their long occupation of the country. +Although they held what is now the northern half of Portugal for over a +hundred years, and part of the south for about five hundred, there is +hardly a single building anywhere of which we can be sure that it was +built by them before the Christian re-conquest of the country. Perhaps +almost the only exceptions are the fortifications at Cintra, known as +the Castello dos Mouros, the city walls at Silves, and possibly the +church at Mertola. In Spain very many of their buildings still exist, +such as the small mosque, now the church of Christo de la Luz, and the +city walls at Toledo, and of course the mosque at Cordoba and the +Alcazar at Seville, not to speak of the Alhambra. Yet it must not be +forgotten that, while Portugal reached its furthest limits by the +capture of the Algarve under Affonso III. about the middle of the +thirteenth century, in Spain the progress was slower. Toledo indeed fell +in 1085, but Cordoba and Seville were only taken a few years before the +capture of the Algarve, and Granada was able to hold out till 1492. +Besides, in what is now Portugal there had been no great capital like +Cordoba. And yet, though this is so, hardly a town or a village exists +in which some slight trace of their art cannot be found, even if it be +but a tile-lining to the walls of church or house. In such towns as +Toledo, Moorish builders were employed not only in the many parish +churches but even in the cathedral, and in Portugal we find Moors at +Thomar even as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century, when such +names as Omar, Mafamedi, Bugimaa, and Bebedim occur in the list of +workmen. + +It is chiefly in three directions that Moorish influence made itself +felt, in actual design, in carpentry, and in tiling, and of these the +last two, and especially tiling, are the most general, and long survived +the disappearance of Arab detail. + +[Sidenote: Cintra.] + +Some eighteen miles from Lisbon, several sharp granite peaks rise high +above an undulating tableland. Two of these are encircled by the old +Moorish fortification which climbs up and down over huge granite +boulders, and on a projecting spur near their foot, and to the north, +there stands the old palace of Cintra. As long as the Walis ruled at +Lisbon, it was to Cintra that they came in summer for hunting and cool +air, and some part at least of their palace seems to have survived till +to-day. + +Cintra was first taken by Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon in 1093--to be +soon lost and retaken by Count Henry of Burgundy sixteen years later, +but was not permanently held by the Christians till Affonso Henriques +expelled the Moors in 1147. The Palace of the Walis was soon granted by +him to Gualdim Paes, the famous grand master of the Templars, and was +held by his successors till it was given to Dom Diniz's queen, St. +Isabel. She died in 1336, when the palace returned to the Order of +Christ--which had meanwhile been formed out of the suppressed Order of +the Temple--only to be granted to Dona Beatriz, the wife of D. Affonso +IV., in exchange for her possessions at Ega and at Torre de Murta. Dom +João I. granted the palace in 1385 to Dom Henrique de Vilhena, but he +soon sided with the Spaniards, for he was of Spanish birth, his +possessions were confiscated and Cintra returned to the Crown. Some of +the previous kings may have done something to the palace, but it was +King João who first made it one of the chief royal residences, and who +built a very large part of it. + +A few of the walls have been examined by taking off the plaster, and +have been found to be built in the usual Arab manner, courses of rubble +bonded at intervals with bands of thin bricks two or three courses deep. +Such are the back wall of the entrance hall and a thick wall near the +kitchen. Outside all the walls are plastered, all the older windows, of +one or two lights, are enclosed in square frames--for the later windows +of Dom Manoel's time are far more elaborate and fantastic--and most of +the walls end in typical Moorish battlements. High above the dark tile +roofs there tower the two strange kitchen chimneys, huge conical spires +ending in round funnels, now all plastered, but once covered with a +pattern of green and white tiles. + +[Illustration: + +1. _Entrance Court._ +2. _Sala dos Cysnes._ +3. _Central Pateo._ +4. _Sala das Pegas._ +5. " " _Sereias._ +5ª. " _do Conselho._ +6. _Sala da Jantar._ +7. _Servery._ +8. _Sala dos Arabes._ +9. _Chapel._ +10. _Kitchen._ +11. _Sala dos Brazões._ +12. _Pateo de Diana._ +13. _Wing or Dom Manoel._ + +PLAN OF PAÇO, CINTRA] + +The whole is so extremely complicated that without a plan it would be +almost useless to attempt a description. Speaking roughly, all that lies +to the west of the Porte Cochère which leads from the entrance court +through to the kitchen court and stables beyond is, with certain +alterations and additions, the work of Dom João, and all that lies to +the east is the work of Dom Manoel, added during the first years of the +sixteenth century. Entering through a pointed gateway, one finds oneself +in a long and irregular courtyard, having on the right hand a long low +building in which live the various lesser palace officials, and on the +left, first a comparatively modern projecting building in which live the +ladies-in-waiting, then somewhat further back the rooms of the +controller of the palace and his office. From the front wall of this +office, which itself juts out some feet into the courtyard, there runs +eastwards a high balustraded terrace reaching as far as another slightly +projecting wing, and approached by a great flight of steps at its +western end. Not far beyond the east end of the terrace an inclined road +leads to the Porte Cochère, and beyond it are the large additions made +by Dom Manoel. (Fig. 44.) + +On this terrace stands the main front of the palace. Below are four +large pointed arches, and above five beautiful windows lighting the +great Sala dos Cysnes or Swan Hall. Originally these four arches were +open and led into a large vaulted hall; now they are all built +up--perhaps by Dona Maria I. after the great earthquake--three having +small two-light windows, and one a large door, the chief entrance to the +palace. In the back wall of this hall may still be seen three windows +which must have existed before it was built, for what is now their inner +side was evidently at first their outer; and this wall is one of those +found to be built in the Arab manner, so that clearly Dom João's hall +was built in front of a part of the Walis' palace, a part which has +quite disappeared except for this wall. + +From the east end of this lower hall a straight stair, which looks as if +it had once been an outside stair, leads up to a winding stair by which +another hall is reached, whose floor lies at a level of about 26 feet +above the terrace.[94] From this hall, which may be of later date than +Dom João's time, a door leads down to the central pateo or courtyard, or +else going up a few steps the way goes through a smaller square room, +once an open verandah, through a wide doorway inserted by Dom Manoel +into the great Swan Hall. This hall, the largest room in the palace, +measuring about 80 feet long by 25 wide, is so called from the swans +painted in the eight-sided panels of its wonderful roof. The story is +that while the palace was still building ambassadors came to the king +from the duke of Burgundy asking for the hand of his daughter Isabel. +Among other presents they brought some swans, which so pleased the young +princess that she made them collars of red velvet and persuaded her +father to build for them a long narrow tank in the central court just +under the north windows of this hall. Here she used to feed them till +she went away to Flanders, and from love of his daughter King João had +the swans with their collars painted on the ceiling of the hall. The +swans may still be seen, but not those painted for Dom João, for all the +mouldings clearly show that the present ceiling was reconstructed some +centuries later. The hall is lit by five windows looking south across +the entrance court to the Moorish castle on the hill beyond, and by +three looking over the swan tank into the central pateo. + +These windows, and indeed all those in Dom João's part of the palace, +are very like each other. They are nearly all of two lights--never of +more--and are made of white marble. In every case there is a +square-headed moulded frame enclosing the whole window, the outer +mouldings of this frame resting on small semicircular corbels, and +having Gothic bases. Inside this framework stand three slender shafts, +with simple bases and carved capitals. These capitals are not at all +unlike French capitals of the thirteenth century, but are really of a +common Moorish pattern often found elsewhere, as in the Alhambra. On +them, moulded at the ends, but not in front or behind, rest abaci, from +which spring stilted arches. (Fig. 45.) + +Each arch is delicately moulded and elaborately cusped, but, though in +some cases--for the shape varies in almost every window--each individual +cusp may have the look of a Gothic trefoil, the arrangement is not +Gothic at all. There are far more than are ever found in a Gothic +window, sometimes as many as eleven, and they usually begin at the +bottom with a whole instead of a half cusp. From the centre of each +abacus, cutting across the arch mouldings, another moulding runs up, +which being returned across the top encloses the upper part of each +light in a smaller square frame. It is this square frame which more than +anything else gives these windows their Eastern look, and it has been +shown how often, and indeed almost universally a square framing was put +round doorways all through the last Gothic + +[Illustration: FIG. 44. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +ENTRANCE COURT.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +WINDOW OF SALA DAS SEREIAS.] + +period. In only one instance are the shafts anything but plain, and that +is in the central window overlooking the entrance court, where they are +elaborately twisted, and where also they start at the level of the floor +within instead of standing on a low parapet. + +In the room itself the walls up to a certain height are covered with +tiles, diamonds of white and a beautiful olive green which are much +later than Dom João's time. There is also near the west end of the north +side a large fireplace projecting slightly from the wall; at either end +stands a shaft with cap and base like those of the windows, bearing a +long flat moulded lintel, while on the hearth there rest two very fine +wrought-iron Gothic fire-dogs. + +East of the fireplace a door having a wide flat ogee head leads into a +small porch built in the corner of the pateo to protect the passage to +the Sala das Pegas, the first of the rooms to the south of this pateo. + +In the angle formed by the end wall of the Sala dos Cysnes and the side +of the Sala das Pegas there is a small low room now called the Sala de +Dom Sebastião or do Conselho. It is entered from the west end of the +Swan Hall through a door, which was at first a window just like all the +rest. This Hall of Dom Sebastião or of the Council is so called from the +tradition that it was there that in 1578 that unhappy king held the +council in which it was decided to invade Morocco, an expedition which +cost the king his life and his country her independence. In reality the +final solemn council was held in Lisbon, but some informal meeting may +well have been held there. Now the room is low and rather dark, being +lit only by two small windows opening above the roof of the controller's +office. It is divided into two unequal parts by an arcade of three +arches, the smaller part between the arches and the south wall being +raised a step above the rest. When first built by Dom João this raised +part formed a covered verandah, the rest being, till about the time of +Maria I., open to the sky and forming a charming and cool retreat during +the heat of summer. The floor is of tiles and marble, and all along the +south wall runs a bench entirely covered with beautiful tiles. At the +eastern end is a large seat, rather higher than the bench and provided +with arms, doubtless for the king, and tiled like the rest. + +Passing again from the Swan Hall the way leads through the porch into +the Sala das Pegas or of the magpies. The door from the porch to the +room is one of the most beautiful parts of Dom João's work. It is framed +as are the windows, and has shafts, capitals, abaci, and bases just like +those already described; but the arch is different. It is beautifully +moulded, but is--if one may so speak--made up of nine reversed cusps, +whose convex sides form the arch: the inner square moulding too is +enriched with ball ornament. Inside the walls are covered to half their +height with exquisite tiles of Moorish pattern, blue, green and brown on +a white ground. + +On the north wall is a great white marble chimney-piece, once a present +from Pope Leo X. to Dom Manoel and brought by the great Marques de +Pombal from the ruined palace of Almeirim opposite Santarem. Two other +doors, with simple pointed heads, lead one into the dining-room, and one +into the Sala das Sereias. The Sala das Pegas, like the Swan Hall, is +called after its ceiling, for on it are painted in 136 triangular +compartments, 136 magpies, each holding in one foot a red rose and in +its beak a scroll inscribed 'Por Bem.' Possibly this ceiling, which on +each side slopes up to a flat parallelogram, is more like that painted +for Dom João than is that of the Swan Hall, but even here some of the +mouldings are clearly renaissance, and the painting has been touched up, +but anyhow it was already called Camera das Pegas in the time of Dom +Duarte; further, tradition tells that the magpies were painted there by +Dom João's orders, and why. It seems that once during the hour of the +midday siesta the king, wandering about his unfinished house, found in +this room one of the maids of honour. Her he kissed, when another maid +immediately went and told the queen, Philippa of Lancaster. She was +angry, but Dom João only said 'Por bem,' meaning much what his queen's +grandfather had meant when he said 'Honi soit qui mal y pense,' and to +remind the maids of honour, whose waiting-room this was, that they must +not tell tales, he had the magpies painted on the ceiling. + +The two windows, one looking west and one into the pateo, are exactly +like those already described. + +From the Sala das Pegas one door leads up a few steps into the Sala das +Sereias, and another to the dining-room. This Sala das Sereias, so +called from the mermaids painted on the ceiling, is a small room some +eighteen feet square. It is lit by a two-light window opening towards +the courtyard, a window just like those of the Sala das Pegas and of the +Sala dos Cysnes. Some of its walls, especially that between it and the +Sala das Pegas, are very thick and seem to be older than the time of Dom +João. As usual, the walls are partly covered with beautiful tiles, +mostly embossed with green vine-leaves, but round the door leading to +the long narrow room, used as a servery, is an interlacing pattern of +green and blue tiles, while the spandrils between this and the pointed +doorhead are filled with a true Arabesque pattern, dark on a light +ground, which is said to belong to the Palace of the Walis. There are +altogether four doors, one leading to the servery, one to the Sala das +Pegas, one to a spiral stair in the corner of the pateo, and one to the +dining-room. + +This dining-room projects somewhat to the west so as to leave space for +a window looking south to the mountains, and one looking north across a +small court, as well as one looking west. Of these, the two which look +south and west are like each other, and like the other of Dom João's +time except that the arches are not cusped; that the outer frame is +omitted and that the abaci are moulded in front as well as at the ends; +but the third window looking north is rather different. The framing has +regular late Gothic bases, the capitals of the shafts are quite unlike +the rest, having one large curly leaf at each angle, and the moulding +running up the centre between the arches--which are not cusped--is +plaited instead of being plain. Altogether it looks as if it were later +than Dom João's time, for it is the only window where the capitals are +not of the usual Arab form, and they are not at all like some in the +castle of Sempre Noiva built about the beginning of the sixteenth +century. + +The wall-tiles of the dining-room are like those of the Sala das +Sereias, but end in a splendid cresting. The ceiling is modern and +uninteresting. + +Next to the north comes the servery, a room without interest but for its +window which looks west, and is like the two older dining-room windows. + +Returning to the Sala das Sereias, a spiral stair leads down to the +central pateo, which can also be reached from the porch in the +south-west corner. All along the south side runs the tank made by Dom +João for his daughter's swans, and on three sides are beautiful white +marble windows. At the east end of the north side three open arches lead +to the bathroom. As is the case with the windows, the three arches are +enclosed in a square frame. The capitals, however, are different, having +an eight-sided bell on which rests a square block with a bud carved at +each angle, and above an abacus, moulded all round. The arches are +cusped like the windows, but are stilted and segmental. Inside is a +recess framed in an arch of Dom Manoel's time, and from all over the +tiled walls and the ceiling jets of water squirt out, so that the whole +becomes a great shower-bath, delightful and cooling on a hot day but +rather public. In the middle of the pateo there stands a curious +column--not at all unlike the 'pelourinho'[95] of Cintra--which stands +in a basin just before the entrance gate. This column is formed of three +twisted shafts on whose capitals sit a group of boys holding three +shields charged with the royal arms. All round the court is a dado of +white and green tiles arranged in an Arab pattern. + +In the north-west corner and reached by the same spiral stair, but at a +higher level than the Sala das Sereias, is the Sala dos Arabes, so +called because it is commonly believed to be a part of the original +building. The walls may be so, but of the rest, nothing, but perhaps the +shallow round fountain basin in the middle and the square of tiles which +surrounds it, now so worn that little of their glazed surface is left. +The walls half-way up are lined with tiles, squares and parallelograms, +blue, white and green. The doors are framed in different tiles, and all +are finished with an elaborate cresting. The most interesting thing in +the room is the circular basin in the middle--a basin which gives it a +truly Eastern look. Inside a round shallow hollow there stands a +many-sided block of marble about six inches high. The sides are concave +as in a small section of a Doric column, and within it is hollowed into +a beautiful cup, shaped somewhat like a flower of many petals. In the +middle there now is a strange object of gilt metal through which the +water once poured. On a short stem stands a carefully modelled dish on +which rest first leaves, like long acanthus leaves, then between them +birds on whose backs sit small figures of boys. Between the boys and +above the leaves are more figures exactly like seated Indian gods, and +the whole ends in a cone. It is so completely Indian in appearance that +there can be little doubt but that it is really of Indian origin, and +perhaps it is not too much to see in it part of the spoils brought to +Dom Manoel by Vasco da Gama after he had in 1498 made his way round +Africa to Calicut and back. + +Returning to the Sala das Sereias and passing through the servery and +another room an open court is reached called the Pateo de Diana, from a +fountain over which Diana presides, and on to which one of the +dining-room windows looks. A beautifully tiled stair--these tiles are +embossed like those of the dining-room, but besides vine-leaves some +have on them bunches of grapes--goes down from the Court of Diana to the +Court of the Lion, the Pateo do Leão, where a lion spouts into a long +tank. But the chief beauty of these two courts is a small window which +overlooks them. This window is only of one light, and like the +dining-room window near it its framing has Gothic bases. The capitals +are smaller than in the other windows, and the framing partly covers the +outer moulding of the window arch, making it look like a segment of a +circle. But the cusps are the most curious part. They form four more or +less trefoiled spaces with wavy outlines, and two of them--not the +remaining one at the top--end in large well-carved vine-leaves, very +like those at the ends of the cusps on the arches in the Capella do +Fundador at Batalha. To add to the charm of the window, the space +between the top of the arch and the framing is filled in with those +beautiful tiles embossed with vine-leaves. + +Going up again to the Sala dos Arabes, a door in the northern wall leads +to a passage running northwards to the chapel. About half-way along the +passage another branches off to the right towards the great kitchen. + +The chapel stands at the northern edge of the palace buildings, having +beyond it a terrace called the Terreiro da Meca or of Mecca; partly from +this name, and partly from the tiles which still cover the middle of the +floor it is believed that the chapel stands exactly on the site of the +Walis' private mosque, with perhaps the chancel added. + +The middle of the nave--the chapel consists of a nave and chancel, two +small transeptal recesses, and two galleries one above the other at the +west end--is paved with tiles once glazed and of varying colours, but +now nearly all worn down till the natural red shows through. The pattern +has been elaborate; a broad border of diagonal checks surrounding a +narrow oblong in which the checks are crossed by darker lines so as to +form octagons, and between the outer border and the octagons a band of +lighter ground down which in the middle runs a coloured line having on +each side cones of the common Arab pattern exactly like the palace +battlements. + +Now the walls are bare and white, but were once covered with frescoes of +the fifteenth century; the reredos is a clumsy addition of the +eighteenth century. + +The cornice and the long pilasters at the entrance to the chancel seem +to have been added at the same time, but the windows and ceiling are +still those of Dom João's time. The windows--there are now three, a +fourth in the chancel having been turned into a royal pew--are of two or +three lights, have commonplace tracery, and are only interesting as +being one of the few wholly Gothic features in the palace. + +Far more interesting is the ceiling, which is entirely Arab in +construction and in design. In the nave it is an irregular polygon in +section, and in the chancel is nearly a semicircle, having nine equal +sides. The whole of the boarded surface is entirely covered with an +intricate design formed of strips of wood crossing each other in every +direction so as to form stars, triangles, octagons, and figures of every +conceivable shape. The whole still retains its original colouring. At +the centres of the main figures are gilt bosses--the one over the high +altar being a shield with the royal arms--the wooden strips are black +with a white groove down the centre of each, and the ground is either +dark red or light blue. (Fig. 46.) + +The whole is of great interest not only for its own sake, but because it +is the only ceiling in the palace which has remained unchanged since the +end of the fourteenth century, and because it is, as it were, the parent +of the splendid roofs in the Sala dos Cysnes and of the still more +wonderful one in the Sala dos Escudos. + +The kitchen lies at the back of the chapel and at right angles to it. It +is a building about 58 feet long by 25 wide, and is divided into two +equal parts by a large arch. Each of these two parts is covered by a +huge conical chimney so that the inside is more like the nave of St. +Ours at Loches than anything else, while outside these chimneys rise +high above all the rest of the palace. It is lit by small two-light +Gothic windows, and has lately been lined with white tiles. Now the + +[Illustration: FIG. 46. + +PALACE CHAPEL ROOF. + +CINTRA.] + +chimneys serve only as ventilators, as ordinary iron ranges have been +put in. There seems to be nothing in the country at all like these +chimneys--for the kitchen at Alcobaça, although it has a stream running +through it, is but a poor affair compared with this one, nor is its +chimney in any way remarkable outside.[96] + +The rest of the palace towards the west, between the west end of the +chapel and the great square tower in which is the Sala dos Escudos, was +probably also built about the time of Dom João I., but except for a few +windows there is little of interest left which belongs to his time. + +The great tower of the Sala dos Escudos was built by Dom Manoel on the +top of an older building then called the Casa da Meca, in which Affonso +V. was born in 1432--the year before his grandfather Dom João died--and +where he himself died forty-nine years later. In another room on a +higher floor--where his feet, as he walked up and down day after day, +have quite worn away the tiles--Affonso VI. was imprisoned. Affonso had +by his wildness proved himself quite unable to govern, and had also made +himself hated by his queen, a French princess. She fell in love with his +brother, so Affonso was deposed, divorced, and banished to the Azores. +After some years it was found that he was there trying to form a party, +so he was brought to Cintra and imprisoned in this room from 1674 till +his death in 1683. These worn-out tiles are worthy of notice for their +own sake since tiles with Moorish patterns, as are these here and those +in the chapel, are very seldom used for flooring, and they are probably +among the oldest in the palace. + +[Sidenote: Castles, Guimarães and Barcellos.] + +Such was the palace from the time of João I. to that of Dom Manoel, a +building thoroughly Eastern in plan as in detail, and absolutely unlike +such contemporary buildings as the palaces of the dukes of Braganza at +Guimarães or at Barcellos, or the castle at Villa da Feira between +Oporto and Aveiro. The Braganza palaces are both in ruins, but their +details are all such as might be found almost anywhere in Christian +Europe. Large pointed doors, traceried windows and tall chimneys--these +last round and of brick--differ only from similar features found +elsewhere, as one dialect may differ from another, whereas Cintra is, as +it were, built in a + +[Sidenote: Villa da Feira.] + +totally different language. The castle at Villa da Feira is even more +unlike anything at Cintra. A huge keep of granite, the square turrets +projecting slightly from the corners give it the look of a Norman +castle, for the curious spires of brick now on those turrets were added +later, perhaps under Dom Manoel. Inside there is now but one vast hall +with pointed barrel roof, for all the wooden floors are gone, leaving +only the beam holes in the walls, the Gothic fireplaces, and the small +windows to show where they once were. + +It is then no wonder that Cintra has been called the Alhambra of +Portugal, and it is curious that the same names are found given to +different parts of the two buildings. The Alhambra has a Mirador de +Lindaraxa, Cintra a Jardim de Lindaraya; the Alhambra a Torre de las dos +Hermanas, Cintra a Sala das Irmãs or of the Sisters--the part under the +Sala dos Escudos where Affonso V. was born; while both at the Alhambra +and here there is a garden called de las or das Damas. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MOORISH BUILDINGS + + +The old palace at Cintra is perhaps the only complete building to the +north of the Tagus designed and carried out by Moorish workmen scarcely, +if at all, influenced by what the conquering Christians were doing round +them. Further south in the province of Alemtejo Moorish buildings are +more common, and there are many in which, though the design and plan as +well as most of the detail may be Western, yet there is something, the +whitewashed walls, the round conical pinnacles, or the flat roofs which +give them an Eastern look. + +And this is natural. Alemtejo was conquered after the country north of +the Tagus had been for some time Christian, and no large immigration of +Christians ever came to take the place of the Moors, so that those few +who remained continued for long in their own Eastern ways of building +and of agriculture. + +It is especially in and about the town of Evora that this is seen, and +that too although the cathedral built at the end of the twelfth century +is, except for a few unimportant details, a Western building. + +[Sidenote: Alvito.] + +But more completely Eastern than any one building at Evora is the castle +at Alvito, a small town some thirty or forty miles to the south-west. +The town stands at the end of a long low hill and looks south over an +endless plain across to Beja, one of the most extensive and, in its way, +beautiful views in the country. + +At one end of the town on the slope of the hill stands the castle, and +not far off in one of the streets is the town hall whose tower is too +characteristic of the Alemtejo not to be noticed. The building is +whitewashed and perfectly plain, with ordinary square windows. An +outside stair leads to the upper story, and behind it rises the tower. +It, like the building, is absolutely plain with semicircular openings +near the top irregularly divided by a square pier. Close above these +openings is a simple cornice on which stand rather high and narrow +battlements; within them rises a short eight-sided spire, and at each +corner a short round turret capped by a conical roof. The whole from top +to bottom is plastered and whitewashed, and it is this glaring whiteness +more than anything else which gives to the whole so Eastern a look. + +As to the castle, Haupt in his most interesting book, _Die Baukunst der +Renaissance in Portugal_, says that, though he had never seen it, yet +from descriptions of its plan he had come to the conclusion that it was +the castle which, according to Vasari, was built by Andrea da Sansovino +for Dom João II. Now it is well known that Sansovino was for nine years +in Portugal and did much work there, but none of it can now be found +except perhaps a beautiful Italian door in the palace at Cintra; Vasari +also states that he did some work in the heavy and native style which +the king liked. Is it possible that the castle of Alvito is one of his +works in this native style? + +Vasari says that Sansovino built for Dom João a beautiful palace with +four towers, and that part of it was decorated by him with paintings, +and it was because Haupt believed that this castle was built round an +arcaded court--a regular Italian feature, but one quite unknown in +Portugal--that he thought it must be Sansovino's lost palace. + +As a matter of fact the court is not arcaded--there is only a row of +rough plastered arches along one side; there are five and not four +towers; there is no trace now of any fine painted decoration inside; +and, in short, it is inconceivable that, even to please a king, an +architect of the Italian renaissance could ever have designed such a +building. + +The plan of the castle is roughly square with a round tower at three of +the corners, and at the fourth or southern corner a much larger tower, +rounded in front and projecting further from the walls. The main front +is turned to the south-west, and on that side, as well as on the +south-eastern, are the habitable parts of the castle. Farm buildings run +along inside and outside the north-western, while the north-eastern side +is bounded only by a high wall. + +Half-way along the main front is the entrance gate, a plain pointed arch +surmounted by two shields, that on the right charged with the royal +arms, and that on the left with those of the Barão d'Alvito, to whose +descendant, the Marques d'Alvito, the castle still belongs. There is +also an inscription stating that the castle, begun in 1494 by the orders +of Dom João II. and finished in the time of Dom Manoel, was built by Dom +Diogo Lobo, Barão d'Alvito.[97] + +In the court a stair, carried on arches, goes up to the third floor +where are the chief rooms in the house. None of them, which open one +from the other or from a passage leading to the chapel in the +westernmost corner, are in any way remarkable except for their windows. +The ceilings of the principal rooms are of wood and panelled, but are +clearly of much later date than the building and are not to be compared +with those at Cintra. Most of the original windows--for those on the +main front have been replaced by plain square openings--are even more +Eastern than those at Cintra. They are nearly all of two lights--there +is one of a single light in the passage--but are without the square +framing. Each window has three very slender white marble shafts, with +capitals and with abaci moulded on each side. On some of the capitals +are carved twisted ropes, while others, as in a window in the large +southern tower, are like those at Cintra. As the shafts stand a little +way back from the face of the wall the arches are of two orders, of +which only the inner comes down to the central shaft. (Fig. 47.) + +These arches, all horseshoe in shape, are built of red brick with very +wide mortar joints, and each brick, in both orders, is beautifully +moulded or cut at the ends so as to form a series of small trefoiled +cusps, each arch having as many as twenty-seven or more. The whole +building is plastered and washed yellow, so that the contrast between +the bare walls and the elaborate red arches and white shafts is +singularly pleasing. All the outer walls are fortified, but the space +between each embrasure is far longer than usual; the four corner towers +rise a good deal above the rest of the buildings, but in none, except +the southern, are there windows above the main roof. It has one, shaped +like the rest, but now all plastered and framed in an ogee moulding. +Half-way along the north-west wall, outside it, stands the keep, which +curiously is not Arab at all. It is a large square tower of no great +height, absolutely plain, and built of unplastered stone or marble. It +has scarcely any windows, and walls of great thickness which, like those +of the smaller round towers, have a slight batter. It seems to be older +than the rest, and now its chief ornament is a large fig-tree growing +near the top on the south side.[98] + +[Sidenote: Evora.] + +[Sidenote: Paços Reaes.] + +Of all the towns in the Alemtejo Evora is the one where Eastern +influence is most strongly marked. Indeed the Roman temple and the +cathedral are perhaps the only old buildings which seem to be distinctly +Western, and even the cathedral has some trace of the East in its two +western spires, one round and tiled, and the other eight-sided and +plastered. For long Evora was one of the chief towns of the kingdom, and +was one of those oftenest visited by the kings. Their palace stood close +to the church of São Francisco, and must once have been a beautiful +building. + +Unfortunately most of it has disappeared, and what is left, a large hall +partly of the time of Dom Manoel, has been so horribly restored in order +to turn it into a museum as to have lost all character. + +A porch still stands at the south end, but scraped and pointed out of +all beauty. It has in front four square stone piers bearing large +horseshoe brick arches, and these arches are moulded and cusped exactly +like those at Alvito. + +[Sidenote: Morgado de Cordovis.] + +There are no other examples of Moorish brickwork in the town, but there +is more than one marble window resembling those at Alvito in shape. Of +these the most charming are found in the garden of a house belonging to +a 'morgado' or entailed estate called Cordovis. These windows form two +sides of a small square summer-house; their shafts have capitals like +those of the dining-room windows at Cintra, and the horseshoe arches +are, as usual, cusped. A new feature, showing how the pure Arab details +were being gradually combined with Gothic, is an ogee moulding which, +uniting the two arches, ends in a large Gothic finial; other mouldings +run up the cornice at the angles, and the whole, crowned with +battlements, ends in a short round whitewashed spire. + +Some miles from Evora among the mountains, Affonso of + +[Illustration: FIG. 47. + +CASTLE, ALVITO. + +COURTYARD.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48. + +EVORA. + +CHAPTER HOUSE DOOR OF SÃO JOÃO, EVANGELISTA.] + +[Sidenote: Sempre Noiva.] + +Portugal, archbishop of Evora, built himself a small country house which +he called Sempre Noiva, or 'Ever New,' about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. It is now a ruin having lost all its woodwork, but +the walls are still well preserved. The plan is simple; a rectangle with +a chapel projecting from the eastern side, and a small wing from the +west end of the south side. All the ground floor is vaulted, as is the +chapel, but the main rooms on the first floor had wooden roofs, except +the one next the chapel which forms the middle floor of a three-storied +tower, which, rising above the rest of the building, has a battlemented +flat roof reached by a spiral stair. This stair, like the round +buttresses of the chapel, is capped by a high conical plastered roof. As +usual the whole, except the windows and the angles, is plastered and has +a sgraffito frieze running round under the cornice. There is a large +porch on the north side covering a stair leading to the upper floor, +where most of the windows are of two lights and very like those of the +pavilion at Evora. Two like them have the ogee moulding, and at the +sides a rounded moulding carried on corbels and finished above the +window with a carved finial. The capitals are again carved with leaves, +but the horseshoe arches have no cusps, and the mouldings, like the +capitals, are entirely Gothic; the union between the two styles, Gothic +and Arab, was already becoming closer. + +Naturally Moorish details are more often found in secular than in +religious buildings: yet there are churches where such details exist +even if the general plan and design is Christian. + +[Sidenote: São João Evangelista, Evora.] + +Just to the north of the cathedral of Evora, Rodrigo Affonso de Mello, +count of Olivença, in 1485 founded a monastery for the Loyos, or Canons +Secular of St. John the Evangelist. The church itself is in no way +notable; the large west door opening under a flat arched porch is one of +these with plain moulded arches and simple shafts which are so common +over all the country, and is only interesting for its late date. At the +left side is a small monument to the founder's memory; on a corbel +stands a short column bearing an inscribed slab, and above the slab is a +shield under a carved curtain. Inside are some tombs--two of them being +Flemish brasses--and great tile pictures covering the walls. These give +the life of São Lorenzo Giustiniani, patriarch of Venice, and canon of +San Giorgio in Alga, where the founder of the Loyos had been kindly +received and whence he drew the rules of his order, and are interesting +as being signed and dated 'Antonius ab oliva fecit 1711.' + +The cloisters are also Gothic with vine-covered capitals, but the +entrance to the chapter-house and refectory is quite different. In +general design it is like the windows at Sempre Noiva, two horseshoe +arches springing from the capitals of thin marble shafts and an ogee +moulding above. The three shafts are twisted, the capitals are very +strange; they are round with several mouldings, some fluted, some carved +with leaves, some like pieces of rope: the moulded abaci also have four +curious corbels on two sides. The capitals are carried across the jambs +and the outer moulding, which is of granite, as is the whole except the +three shafts and their caps, and between the shafts and this moulding +there is a broad band of carved foliage. The ogee and the side finials +or pinnacles, which are of the same section as the outer moulding from +which they spring, are made of a bundle of small rolls held together by +a broad twisted ribbon. Lastly, between the arches and the ogee there is +a flat marble disk on which is carved a curious representation of a +stockaded enclosure, supposed to be memorial of the gallant attack made +by Affonso de Mello on Azila in Morocco.[99] The whole is a very curious +piece of work, the capitals and bases being, with the exception of some +details at Thomar and at Batalha, the most strange of the details of +that period, though, were the small corbels left out, they would differ +but little from other Manoelino capitals, while the bases may be only an +attempt of a Moorish workman to copy the interpenetration of late +Gothic. (Fig. 48.) + +[Sidenote: São Francisco, Evora.] + +Not much need be said here of the church of São Francisco or of the +chapel of São Braz, both begun at about the same time. São Francisco was +long in building, for it was begun by Affonso V. in 1460 and not +finished till 1501. It is a large church close to the ruins of the +palace at Evora, and has a wide nave without aisles, six chapels on each +side, larger transept chapels, and a chancel narrower than the nave. It +is, like most of Evora, built of granite, has a pointed barrel vault cut +into by small groins at the sides and scarcely any windows, for the +outer walls of the side chapels are carried up so as to leave a narrow +space between them and the nave wall. This was probably done to support +the main vault, but the result is that almost the only window is a +large one over the west porch. It is this porch that most strongly shows +the hand of Moorish workmen. It is five bays long and one deep, and most +of the five arches in front, separated by Gothic buttresses and +springing from late Gothic capitals, are horseshoe in shape. The white +marble doorway has two arches springing from a thin central shaft, which +like the arches and the two heavy mouldings, which forming the outer +part of the jambs are curved over them, is made of a number of small +rounds partly straight and partly twisted. At the corners of the church +are large round spiral pinnacles with a continuous row of battlements +between; these battlements interspersed with round pinnacles are even +set all along the ridge of the vault. The reredos and the stalls made by +Olivel of Ghent in 1508 are gone; so are Francisco Henriques' stained +windows, but there are still some good tiles, and in a large square +opening looking into the chancel there is a shaft with a beautiful early +renaissance capital. + +[Sidenote: São Braz, Evora.] + +São Braz stands outside the town near the railway station. It was built +as a pilgrimage chapel soon after 1482, when the saint had been invoked +to stay a terrible plague. It is not large, has an aisleless nave of +four bays, a large porch with three wide pointed arches at the west, and +a sort of domed chancel. Most of the details are indeed Gothic, but +there is little detail, and the whole is entirely Eastern in aspect. It +is all plastered, the buttresses are great rounded projections capped +with conical plastered roofs; there are battlements on the west gable +and on the three sides of the porch, which also has great round +conical-topped buttresses or turrets at the angles. + +Inside there are still fine tiles, but the sgraffito frieze has nearly +disappeared from the outer cornice. + +There is also an interesting church somewhat in the same style as São +Braz, but with aisles and brick flying buttresses at Vianna d'Alemtejo +near Alvito. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +MOORISH CARPENTRY + + +If it was only in the south that Moorish masons built in stone or brick, +their carpenters had a much wider range. The wooden ceilings of as late +as the middle of the seventeenth century may show no Eastern detail, yet +in the method of their construction they are all ultimately descended +from Moorish models. Such ceilings are found all over the country, but +curiously enough the finest examples of truly Eastern work are found in +the far north at Caminha and in the island of Madeira at Funchal. + +[Sidenote: Aguas Santas.] + +The old romanesque church at Aguas Santas near Oporto has a roof, simple +and unadorned, the tie-beams of which are coupled in the Moorish manner. +The two beams about a foot apart are joined in the centre by four short +pieces of wood set diagonally so as to form a kind of knot. This is very +common in Moorish roofs, and may be seen at Seville and elsewhere. The +rest of the roof is boarded inside, boards being also fastened to the +underside of the collar beams. + +[Sidenote: Azurara.] + +At Azurara the ties are single, but the whole is boarded as at Aguas +Santas, and this is also the case at Villa do Conde and elsewhere. + +In the palace chapel at Cintra, already described, the boarding is +covered with a pattern of interlacing strips, but later on panelling was +used, usually with simple mouldings. Such is the roof in the nave of the +church of Nossa Senhora do Olival at Thomar, probably of the seventeenth +century, and in many houses, as for instance in the largest hall in the +castle at Alvito. From such simple panelled ceilings the splendid +elaboration of those in the palace at Cintra was derived. + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +The roofs at Caminha and at Funchal are rather different. At Caminha the +roof is divided into bays of such a size that each of the three +divisions, the two sloping sides and the flat centre under the collar +ties, is cut into squares. In the sloping sides these squares are +divided from each other by a strip of boarding covering the space +occupied by three rafters. On this boarding are two bands of ornament +separated by a carved chain, while one band, with the chain, is returned +round the top and bottom of the square. Between each strip of boarding +are six exposed rafters, and these are united alternately by small knots +in the middle and at the ends, and by larger and more elaborate knots at +the ends. In the flat centre under the collar ties each square is again +surrounded by the band of ornament and by the chains, but here band and +chain are also carried across the corners, leaving a large octagon in +the centre with four triangles in the angles. Each octagon has a plain +border about a foot wide, and within it a plain moulding surrounding an +eight-sided hollow space. All these spaces are of some depth; each has +in the centre a pendant, and in each the opening is fringed with tracery +or foliation. In some are elaborate Gothic cuspings, in others long +carved leaves curved at the ends; and in one which happens to come +exactly over an iron tie-rod--for the rods are placed quite +irregularly--the pendant is much longer and is joined to the tie by a +small iron bar. At the sides the roof starts from a cornice of some +depth whose mouldings and ornamentation are more classic than Gothic. +(Fig. 49.) + +In the side aisles the cornice is similar, but of greater projection, +and the rafters are joined to each other in much the same way, but more +simply. + +[Sidenote: Funchal.] + +At Funchal the roof is on a larger scale: there is no division into +squares, but the rafters are knotted together with much greater +elaboration, and the flat part is like the chapel roof at Cintra, +entirely covered with interlacing strips forming an intricate pattern +round hollow octagons. + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Cysnes, Cintra.] + +The simple boarding of the earlier roofs may well have led to the two +wonderful ceilings at Cintra, those in the Sala dos Cysnes, and in the +Sala dos Brazões or dos Escudos, but the idea of the many octagons in +the Sala dos Cysnes may have come from some such roof as that at +Caminha, when the octagons are so important a feature of the design. In +that hall swans may have first been painted for Dom João, but the roof +has clearly been remade since then, possibly under Dom Manoel. The gilt +ornament on the mouldings seem even later, but may of course have been +added afterwards, though it is not very unlike some of the carving on +the roof at Caminha, an undoubted work of Dom Manoel's time. + +This great roof in the Swan Hall has a deep and projecting classical +cornice; it is divided into three equal parts, two sloping and one flat, +with the slopes returned at the ends. The whole is made up of +twenty-three large octagons and of four other rather distorted ones in +the corners, all surrounded with elaborate mouldings, carved and gilt +like the cornice. From the square or three-sided spaces left between the +octagons there project from among acanthus leaves richly carved and gilt +pendants. + +In each of the twenty-seven octagons there is painted on a flat-boarded +ground a large swan, each wearing on its neck the red velvet and gold +collar made by Dona Isabel for the real swans in the tank outside. These +paintings, which are very well done, certainly seem to belong to the +seventeenth century, for the trees and water are not at all like the +work of an artist of Dom Manoel's time. (Fig. 50.) + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Escudos, Cintra.] + +Even more remarkable is the roof of the Sala dos Brazões or dos +Escudos--that is 'of the shields'--also built by Dom Manoel, and also +retouched at the same time as that in the Sala dos Cysnes. This other +hall is a large room over forty feet square. The cornice begins about +twelve feet from the ground, the walls being covered with hunting scenes +on blue and white tiles of about the end of the seventeenth century. The +cornice, about three feet deep and of considerable projection, is, like +all the mouldings, painted blue and enriched with elaborate gilt +carving. On the frieze is the following inscription in large gilt +letters: + + Pois com esforços leais + Serviços foram ganhadas + Com estas e outras tais + Devem de ser comservadas.[100] + +The inscription is interrupted by brackets, round which the cornice is +returned, and on which rest round arches thrown across the four corners, +bringing the whole to an equal-sided + +[Illustration: FIG. 49. + +CAMINHA. ROOF OF MATRIZ.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50. + +PALACE, CINTRA. SALA DOS CYSNES.] + +[Illustration: CINTRA. + +Portugal. + +Old Palace. + +Sala dos Brazões.] + +octagon. These triangular spaces are roofed with elaborate wooden +vaults, with carved and gilt ribs leaving spaces painted blue and +covered with gilt ornament. Above the cornice the panelling rises +perpendicularly for about eleven feet; there being on each cardinal side +eight panels, in two rows of four, one above the other, and over each +arch four more--forty-eight panels in all. Above this begins an +octagonal dome with elaborately carved and gilt mouldings, like those +round the panels, in each angle and round the large octagon which comes +in the middle of each side. The next stage is similar, but set at a +different angle, and with smaller and unequal-sided octagons, while the +dome ends in one large flat eight-sided panel forty-five feet above the +floor. All the space between the mouldings and the octagons is filled +with most elaborate gilt carving on a blue ground. Nor does the +decoration stop here, for the whole is a veritable Heralds' College for +all the noblest families of Portugal in the early years of the sixteenth +century. The large flat panel at the top is filled with the royal arms +carved and painted, with a crown above and rich gilt mantling all round. +In the eight panels below are the arms of Dom Manoel's eight children, +and in the eight large octagons lower down are painted large stags with +scrolls between their horns; lastly, in each of the forty-eight panels +at the bottom, and of the six spaces which occur under each of the +vaults in the four corners; in each of these seventy-two panels or +spaces there is painted a stag. Every stag has round its neck a shield +charged with the arms of a noble family, between its horns a crest, and +behind it a scroll on which is written the name of the family.[101] + +The whole of this is of wood, and for beauty and originality of design, +as well as for richness of colour, cannot be surpassed anywhere. In any +northern country the seven small windows would not let in enough light, +and the whole dome would be in darkness, but the sky and air of Portugal +are clear enough for every detail to be seen, and for the gold on every +moulding and piece of carving to gleam brightly from the blue +background. + +None of the ceilings of later date are in any way to be compared in +beauty or richness with those of these two halls, for in all others the +mouldings are shallower and the panels flatter. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra Misericordia.] + +In Coimbra there are two, both good examples of a simpler form of such +ceilings. They are, one in the Misericordia--the headquarters of a +corporation which owns and looks after all the hospitals, asylums and +orphanages in the town--and one in the great hall of the University. The +Misericordia, built by bishop Affonso de Castello Branco about the end +of the sixteenth century, has a good cloister of the later renaissance, +and opening off it two rooms of considerable size with panelled +ceilings, of which only one has its original painting. A cornice of some +size, with brackets projecting from the frieze to carry the upper +mouldings, goes round the room, and is carried across the corners so +that at the ends of the room the ceiling has one longer and two quite +short sides. The lower sloping part of the ceiling all round is divided +into square panels with three-sided panels next the squares on the short +canted sides; the upper slope is divided in exactly the same way so that +the flat centre-piece consists of three squares set diagonally and of +four triangles. All the panels are painted with a variety of emblems, +but the colours are dark and the ceiling now looks rather dingy. + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Capellos University.] + +The great hall of the University built by the rector, Manoel de +Saldanha, in 1655 is a very much larger and finer room. A raised seat +runs round the whole room, the lower part of the walls are covered with +tiles, and the upper with red silk brocade on which hang portraits of +all the kings of Portugal, many doubtless as authentic as the early +kings of Scotland at Holyrood. Here only the upper part of the cornice +is carried across the corners, and the three sides at either end are +equal, each being two panels wide. + +As in the Misericordia the section of the roof is five-sided, each two +panels wide. All the panels are square except at the half-octagonal ends +where they diminish in breadth towards the top: they are separated by a +large cable moulding and are painted alternately red and blue with an +elaborate design in darker colour on each. (Fig. 51.) + +The effect is surprisingly good, for each panel with its beautiful +design of curling and twisting acanthus, of birds, of mermaids and of +vases has almost the look of beautiful old brocade, for the blues and +reds have grown soft with age. + +[Sidenote: Santa Clara, Villa do Conde.] + +Before finally leaving wood ceilings it were better to speak of another +form or style which was sometimes used for their decoration although +they are even freer from Moorish detail than are those at Coimbra, +though probably like them ultimately derived from the same source. One +of the finest of these ceilings is found in the upper Nuns' Choir in the +church of Santa Clara at Villa do Conde. The church consists of a short +nave with transepts and chancel all roofed with panelled wooden +ceilings, painted grey as is often the case, and in no way remarkable. +The church was founded in 1318, but the ceilings and stalls of both +Nuns' Choirs, which, + +[Sidenote: Convent, Aveiro.] + +one above the other take up much the greater part of the nave, cannot be +earlier than the first half of the seventeenth century. Like the other +ceilings it is polygonal in section, but unlike all Moorish ones is not +returned round the ends. Above a finely carved cornice with elaborate +frieze, the whole ceiling is divided into deeply set panels, large and +small squares with narrow rectangles between: all alike covered with +elaborate carving, as are also the mouldings and the flat surfaces of +the dividing bands. Here the wood is left in its natural colour, but in +the nave of the church of a large convent at Aveiro, where the general +design of the ceiling is almost the same, pictures are painted in the +larger panels, and all the rest is heavily gilt, making the whole most +gorgeous. + +As time went on wooden roofs became less common, stone barrel vaults +taking their place, but where they were used they were designed with a +mass of meaningless ornament, lavished over the whole surface, which was +usually gilt. One of the most remarkable examples of such a roof is +found in the chancel of that same church at Aveiro. It is semicircular +in shape and is all covered with greater and smaller carved and gilt +circles, from the smallest of which in the middle large pendants hang +down. + +These circles are so arranged as to make the roof almost like that of +Henry VII. Chapel, though the two really only resemble each other in +their extreme richness and elaboration. This same extravagance of +gilding and of carving also overtook altar and reredos. Now almost every +church is full of huge masses of gilt wood, in which hardly one square +inch has been left uncarved; sometimes, if there is nothing else, and +the whole church--walls and ceiling alike--is a mass of gilding and +painting, the effect is not bad, but sometimes the contrast is terrible +between the plain grey walls of some old and simple building and the +exuberance behind the high altar. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51. + +COIMBRA. HALL OF UNIVERSITY.] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EARLY MANOELINO + + +Affonso V., the African, had died and been succeeded by his son João II. +in 1487. João tried, not without success, to play the part of Louis XI. +of France and by a judicious choice of victims (he had the duke of +Braganza, the richest noble in the country, arrested by a Cortes at +Evora and executed, and he murdered his cousin the duke of Vizeu with +his own hand) he destroyed the power of the feudal nobility. Enriched by +the confiscation of his victims' possessions, the king was enabled to do +without the help of the Cortes, and so to establish himself as a +despotic ruler. Yet he governed for the benefit of the people at large, +and reversing the policy of his father Affonso directed the energies of +his people towards maritime commerce and exploration instead of wasting +them in quarrelling with Castile or in attempting the conquest of +Morocco. It was he who, following the example of his grand-uncle Prince +Henry, sent out ship after ship to find a way to India round the +continent of Africa. Much had already been done, for in 1471 Fernando Po +had reached the mouth of the Niger, and all the coast southward from +Morocco was well known and visited annually, for slaves used to +cultivate the vast estates in the Alemtejo; but it was not till 1484 +that Diogo Cão, sent out by the king, discovered the mouth of the Congo, +or till 1486 that Bartholomeu Diaz doubled the Cabo Tormentoso, an +ill-omened name which Dom João changed to Good Hope. + +Dom João II. did not live to greet Vasco da Gama on his return from +India, for he died in 1495, but he had already done so much that Dom +Manoel had only to reap the reward of his predecessor's labours. The one +great mistake he made was that in 1493 he dismissed Columbus as a +dreamer, and so left the glory of the discovery of America to Ferdinand +and Isabella. Besides doing so much for the trade of his country, Dom +João did what he could to promote literature and art. Andrea da +Sansovino worked for him for nine years from 1491 to 1499, and although +scarcely anything done by him can now be found, he here too set an +example to Dom Manoel, who summoned so many foreign artists to the +country and who sent so many of his own people to study in Italy and in +Flanders. + +Four years before Dom João died, his only son Affonso, riding down from +Almerim to the Tagus to meet his father, who had been bathing, fell from +his horse and was killed. In 1495 he himself died, and was succeeded by +his cousin, Manoel the Fortunate. Dom Manoel indeed deserved the name of +'Venturoso.' He succeeded his cousin just in time to see Vasco da Gama +start on his great voyage which ended in 1497 at Calicut. Three years +later Pedro Alvares Cabral landed in Brazil, and before the king died, +Gôa--the great Portuguese capital of the East--had become the centre of +a vast trade with India, Ormuz[102] in the Persian Gulf of trade with +Persia, while all the spices[103] of the East flowed into Lisbon and +even Pekin[104] had been reached. + +From all these lands, from Africa, from Brazil, and from the East, +endless wealth poured into Lisbon, nearly all of it into the royal +treasury, so that Dom Manoel became the richest sovereign of his time. + +In some other ways he was less happy. To please the Catholic Kings, for +he wished to marry their daughter Isabel, widow of the young Prince +Affonso, he expelled the Jews and many Moors from the country. As they +went they cursed him and his house, and Miguel, the only child born to +him and Queen Isabel, and heir not only to Portugal but to all the +Spains, died when a baby. Isabel had died at her son's birth, and +Manoel, still anxious that the whole peninsula should be united under +his descendants, married her sister Maria. His wish was realised--but +not as he had hoped--for his daughter Isabel married her cousin Charles +V. and so was the mother of Philip II., who, when Cardinal King Henry +died in 1580, was strong enough to usurp the throne of Portugal. + +Being so immensely rich, Dom Manoel was able to cover the whole land +with buildings. Damião de Goes, who died in 1570, gives a list of +sixty-two works paid for by him. These include cathedrals, monasteries, +churches, palaces, town walls, fortifications, bridges, arsenals, and +the draining of marshes, and this long list does not take in nearly all +that Dom Manoel is known to have built. + +Nearly all these churches and palaces were built or added to in that +peculiar style now called Manoelino. Some have seen in Manoelino only a +development of the latest phase of Spanish Gothic, but that is not +likely, for in Spain that latest phase lasted for but a short time, and +the two were really almost contemporaneous. + +Manoelino does not always show the same characteristics. Sometimes it is +exuberant Gothic mixed with something else, something peculiar, and this +phase seems to have grown out of a union of late Gothic and Moorish. +Sometimes it is frankly naturalistic, and this seems to have been +developed out of the first; and sometimes Gothic and renaissance are +used together. In this phase, the composition is still always Gothic, +though the details may be renaissance. At times, of course, all phases +are found together, but those which most distinctly deserve the name, +Manoelino, are the first and second. + +The shape of the arches, whether of window or of door, is one of the +most characteristic features of Manoelino. After it had been well +established they were rarely pointed. Some are round, some trefoils; +some have a long line of wavy curves, others a line of sharp angles and +curves together.[105] In others, like the door to the Sala das Pegas at +Cintra, and so probably derived from Moorish sources, the arch is made +of three or more convex curves, and in others again the arch is half of +a straight-sided polygon, while in many of the more elaborate all or +many of these may be used together to make one complicated whole of +interlacing mouldings and hanging cusps. + +The capitals too are different from any that have come before. Some are +round, but they are more commonly eight-sided, or have at least an +eight-sided abacus, often with the sides hollow forming a star. If +ornamented with leaves, the leaves do not grow out of the bell but are +laid round it like a wreath. But leaf carving is not common; usually +the caps are merely moulded, one or two of the mouldings being often +like a rope; or branches may be set round them sometimes bound together +with a broad ribbon like a bent faggot. The bases too are usually +octagonal with an ogee section. + +Another feature common to all phases is the use of round mouldings, +either one by itself--often forming a kind of twisting broken +hood-mould--or of several together, when they usually form a spiral. +Such a round moulding has already been seen forming an ogee over the +windows at Sempre Noiva and over the chapter-house door at São João +Evangelista, Evora, and there are at Evora two windows side by side, in +one of which this round moulding forms a simple ogee, while in the other +it forms a series of reversed curves after the true Manoelino manner. + +[Sidenote: House of Resende, Evora.] + +They are in the house of Garcia de Resende, a man of many +accomplishments whose services were much valued both by Dom João and by +Dom Manoel. He seems too to have been an architect of some distinction, +if, as is said, he designed the Torre de São Vicente at Belem. + +This second window in his house is one of the best examples of the +complete union between Gothic and Moorish. It has three shafts, one (in +the centre) with a Moorish capital, and two whose caps are bound round +with a piece of rope. The semicircular arches consist of one round +moulding with round cusps. A hollow mould runs down the two jambs and +over the two arches, turning up as an ogee at the top. Beyond this +hollow are two tall round shafts ending in large crocketed finials, +while tied to them with carved cords is a curious hood-mould, forming +three reversed cusps ending in large finials, one in the centre and one +over each of the arches, and at the two ends curling across the hollow +like a cut-off branch. + +Here then we have an example not only of the use of the round moulding, +but also of naturalistic treatment which was afterwards sometimes +carried to excess. + +Probably this window may be rather later in date than at least the +foundation of the churches of Nossa Senhora do Popolo at Caldas da +Rainha or of the Jesus Convent at Setubal; but it is in itself so good +an example of the change from the simple ogee to the round broken +moulding and of the use of naturalistic features, that it has been taken +first. + +In 1485 Queen Leonor, wife of Dom João II., began a + +[Sidenote: Caldas da Rainha.] + +hospital for poor bathers at the place now called after her, Caldas da +Rainha, or Queen's hot baths. Beside the hospital was built a small +church, now a good deal altered, with simple round-headed windows, and a +curious cresting. Attached to it is a tower, interesting as being the +only Manoelino church tower now existing. The lower part is square and +plain, but the upper is very curious. On one side are two belfry +windows, with depressed trefoil heads--that is the top of the trefoil +has a double curve, exactly like the end of a clover leaf. On the outer +side of each window is a twisted shaft with another between them, and +from the top of these shafts grow round branches forming an arch over +each window, and twining up above them in interlacing curves. The window +on the east side has a very fantastic head of broken curves and straight +lines. A short way above the windows the square is changed to an octagon +by curved offsets. There are clock faces under small gables on each +cardinal side, and at the top of it all rises a short eight-sided spire. + +Probably this was the last part of the church to be built, and so would +not be finished till about the year 1502, when the whole was dedicated. + +[Sidenote: Jesus, Setubal.] + +More interesting than this is the Jesus College at Setubal. Founded by +Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's nurse, in 1487 or 1488 and designed by one +Boutaca or Boitaca,[106] it was probably finished sooner than the church +at Caldas, and is the best example in the country of a late Gothic +church modified by the addition of certain Manoelino details. +Unfortunately it was a good deal injured by the great earthquake in +1755, when it lost all pinnacles and parapets. The church consists of a +nave and aisles of three and a half bays and of a square chancel. +Inside, the side aisles are vaulted with a half barrel and the central +with a simple vault having large plain chamfered ribs. The columns, +trefoils in section, are twisted, and have simple moulded caps. The +chancel which is higher than the nave is entered by a large pointed +arch, which like its jambs has one of its mouldings twisted. The chancel +vault has many ribs, most of which are also twisted. All the piers and +jambs as well as the windows are built of Arrabida marble, a red breccia +found in the mountains to the west of Setubal; the rest is all +whitewashed except the arches and vaulting ribs which are painted in +imitation of the marble piers. + +Outside, the main door, also of Arrabida marble, is large and pointed, +with many mouldings and two empty niches on each side. It has little +trace of Manoelino except in the bent curves of the upturned drip-mould, +and in the broken lines of the two smaller doors which open under the +plain tympanum. The nave window is of two lights with simple tracery, +but in the chancel, which was ready by 1495, the window shows more +Manoelino tendencies. It is of three lights, with flowing tracery at the +head, and with small cusped and crocketed arches thrown across each +light at varying levels. There are niches on the jambs, and the outer +moulding is carried round the window head in broken curves, after the +manner of Resende's house at Evora. Though the chancel is square inside, +the corners outside are cut off by a very broad chamfer, and a very +curious ogee curve unites the two. + +The cloisters to the north are more usual. The arches are round or +slightly pointed, and like the short round columns with their moulded +eight-sided caps and sides, are of Arrabida marble. Half-way along each +walk two of the columns are set more closely together, and between them +is a small round arch, with below it a Manoelino trefoil; there is too +in the north-west corner a lavatory with a good flat vault. + +[Sidenote: Beja, Conceição.] + +At Beja the church of the Conceição, founded by Dom Manoel's father, has +been very much pulled about, but the cornice and parapet with Gothic +details, rope mouldings, and twisted pinnacles still show that it also +was built when the new Manoelino style was first coming into use. + +[Sidenote: Castle.] + +In the ruins of the Castle there is a very picturesque window where two +horseshoe arches are set so close together that the arches meet in such +a way that the cusps at their meeting form a pendant, while another +window in the Rua dos Mercadores, though very like the one in Resende's +house in Evora, is more naturalistic. The outer shafts of the jambs are +carved like tree trunks, and the hood moulding like a thick branch is +bent and interlaced with other branches. + +[Sidenote: Paço, Cintra.] + +The additions made to the palace at Cintra by Dom Manoel are a complete +treasury of Manoelino detail in its earlier phases. + +The works were already begun in 1508, and in January of the previous +year André Gonsalves, who was in charge, bought two notebooks for 240 +reis in which to set down expenses, as well as paper for his office and +four bottles of ink. From these books we learn what wages the different +workmen received. Pero de Carnide, the head mason, got 50 reis or about +twopence-halfpenny a day, and his helper only 35 reis. The chief +carpenter, Johan Cordeiro, had 60 reis a day, and so had Gonçalo Gomes, +the head painter. All the workmen are recorded from Pero de Torres, who +was paid 3500 reis, about 14 shillings, for each of the windows he +carved and set up, down to the man who got 35 reis a day for digging +holes for planting orange-trees and for clearing out the place where the +rabbits were kept. André Gonsalves also speaks of a Boitaca, master +mason. He was doubtless the Boitaca or Boutaca of the Jesus Church at +Setubal and afterwards at Belem, though none of his work at Setubal in +any way resembles anything he may have done here. + +The carriage entry which runs under the palace between Dom Manoel's +addition and the earlier part of the palace, has in it some very +characteristic capitals, two which support the entrance arch, while one +belongs to the central column of an arcade which forms a sort of aisle +on the west side. They are all round, though one belongs to an octagonal +shaft. They have no abacus proper, but instead two branches are bent +round, bound together by a wide ribbon. Below these branches are several +short pieces of rope turned in just above the neck-mould, and between +them carved balls, something like two artichokes stuck together face to +face. + +On the east side of the entry a large doorway leads into the newer part +of the palace, in which are now the queen-dowager's private rooms. This +doorhead is most typical of the style. In the centre two flat convex +curves meet at an obtuse angle. At the end of about two feet on either +side of the centre the moulding forming these curves is bent sharply +down for a few inches to a point, and is then united to the jambs by a +curve rather longer than a semicircle. Outside the round moulding +forming these curves and bends is a hollow following the same lines and +filled with branch-work, curved, twisted, and intertwined. Outside the +hollow are shafts, resting on octagonal and interpenetrating bases. + +These shafts are half-octagon in section with hollow--not as usual +rounded--sides, ornamented with four-leafed flowers, and are twisted. +Their capitals are formed by three carved wreaths, from which the shafts +rise to curious half-Gothic pinnacles; they are also curved over to form +a hood-mould. Above the central curves this moulding is broken and +turned up to end in most curious cone-shaped horns, while from the +middle there grows a large and elaborate finial. + +In the front of the new part overlooking the entrance court there are +six windows, three in each floor. They are all, except for a slight +variation in detail, exactly alike, and are evidently derived from the +Moorish windows in the other parts of the palace. Like them each has two +round-headed lights, and a framing standing on corbelled-out bases at +the sides. The capitals are various, most are mere wreaths of foliage, +but one belonging to the centre shaft of the middle window on the lower +floor has twisted round it two branches out of which grow the cusps. +While at the sides there is no distinct abacus, in the centre it is +always square and moulded. The cusps end in knobs like thistle-heads, +and are themselves rather branchlike. In the hollow between the shafts +and the framing there are sometimes square or round flowers, sometimes +twisting branches. Branches too form the framing of all, they are +intertwined up the sides, and form above the arches a straight-topped +mass of interlacing twigs, out of which grow three large finials. + +Originally the three windows of the upper floor belonged to a large hall +whose ceiling was like that of the Sala dos Cysnes. Unfortunately the +ceiling was destroyed, and the hall cut up into small rooms some time +ago. (Fig. 52.) + +Inside are several Manoelino doorways. One at the end of a passage has a +half-octagonal head, with curved sides. Beyond a hollow moulding +enriched with square flowers are thick twisted shafts, which are carried +up to form a hood-mould following the curves of the opening below, and +having at each angle a large radiating finial. + +Besides these additions Dom Manoel made not a few changes in the older +part of the palace. The main door leading into the Sala dos Cysnes is of +his time, as is too a window in the upper passage leading to the chapel +gallery. Though the walls of the Sala das Duas Irmãs are probably older, +he altered it inside and built the two rows of columns and arches which +support the floor of the Sala dos Brazões above. The arches are round +and unmoulded. The thin columns are also round, but the bases are +eight-sided; so are the capitals, but with a round abacus of boughs and +twisted ribbons. The great hall above is also Dom Manoel's work, though +the ceiling may probably have been retouched since. His also are the +two-light windows, with slender shafts and heads more or less trefoil in +shape, but with many small convex curves in the middle. The lower part +of the outer cornice too is interesting, and made of brick plastered. At +the bottom is a large rope moulding, then three courses of tilelike +bricks set diagonally. Above them is a broad frieze divided into squares +by a round moulding; there are two rows of these squares, and in each is +an opening with a triangular head like a pigeon-hole, which has given +rise to the belief that it was added by the Marquez de Pombal after the +great earthquake. Pombal means 'dovecot,' and so it is supposed that the +marquis added a pigeon-house wherever he could. He may have built the +upper part of the cornice, which might belong to the eighteenth century, +but the lower part is certainly older. + +The white marble door leading to the Sala dos Brazões from the upper +passage is part of Dom Manoel's work. It has a flat ogee head with round +projections which give it a roughly trefoil shape, and is framed in rope +mouldings of great size, which end above in three curious finials. + +[Sidenote: Gollegã.] + +There are not very many churches built entirely in this style, though to +many a door or a window may have been added or even a nave, as was done +to the church of the Order of Christ at Thomar and perhaps to the +cathedral of Guarda. Santa Cruz at Coimbra is entirely Manoelino, but is +too large and too full of the work of the foreigners who brought in the +most beautiful features of the French renaissance to be spoken of now. +Another is the church at Gollegã, not far from the Tagus and about +half-way between Santarem and Thomar. It is a small church, with nave +and aisles of five bays and a square chancel. The piers consist of four +half-round shafts round a square. In front the capitals are round next +the neck moulding and square next the moulded abacus, while at the sides +they become eight-sided. The arches are of two orders and only +chamfered. The bases are curious, as each part belonging to a different +member of the pier begins at a different level. That of the shaft at +the side begins highest, and of the shaft in front lowest, and both +becoming eight-sided, envelop the base of the square centre. These +eight-sided bases interpenetrate with the mouldings of a lower round +base, and all stand on a large splayed octagon, formed from a square by +curious ogee curves at the corners. The nave is roofed in wood, but the +chancel is vaulted, having ribs enriched like the chancel arch with +cable moulding. The west front has a plain tower at the end of the south +aisle, buttresses with Gothic pinnacles, a large door below and a round +window above. The doorhead is a depressed trefoil, or quatrefoil, as the +central leaf is of two curves. Between the inner and outer round +moulding is as usual a hollow filled with branches. The outer moulding, +on its upper side, throws out the most fantastic curves and cusps, which +with their finials nearly encircle two little round windows, and then in +wilder curves push up through the square framing at the top to a finial +just below the window. At the sides two large twisted shafts standing on +very elaborate bases end in twisted pinnacles. The round window is +surrounded by large rope moulding, out of which grow two little arms, to +support armillary spheres. + +[Sidenote: Sé, Elvas.] + +Dom Manoel also built the cathedral at Elvas, but it has been very much +pulled about. Only the nave--in part at least--and an earlier west tower +survive. Outside the buttresses are square below and three-cornered +above; all the walls are battlemented; the aisle windows are tall and +round-headed. On the north side a good trefoil-headed door leads to the +interior, where the arches are round, the piers clustered with +cable-moulded capitals and starry eight-sided abaci. There is a good +vault springing from corbels, but the clerestory windows have been +replaced by large semicircles. + +[Sidenote: Marvilla, Santarem.] + +All the body of the church of Santa Maria da Marvilla at Santarem is +built in the style of Dom João III., that is, the nave arcade has tall +Ionic columns and round arches. The rebuilding of the church was ordered +by Dom Manoel, but the style called after him is only found in the +chancel and in the west door. The chancel, square and vaulted, is +entered by a wide and high arch, consisting, like the door to the Sala +das Pegas at Cintra, of a series of moulded convex curves. The west door +is not unlike that at Gollegã. It has a trefoiled head; with a round +moulding at the angle resting on the + +[Illustration: FIG. 52. + +PALACE, CINTRA. PARTS ADDED BY D. MANOEL.] + +capitals of thin shafts. Beyond a broad hollow over which straggles a +very realistic and thick-stemmed plant is a large round moulding +springing from larger shafts and concentric with the inner. As at +Gollegã from the outer side of this moulding large cusps project, one on +each side, while in the middle it rises up in two curves forming an +irregular pentagon with curved sides. Each outward projection of this +round moulding ends in a large finial, so that there are five in all, +one to each cusp and three to the pentagon. Beyond this moulding a plain +flat band runs up the jambs and round the top cutting across the base of +the cusps and of the pentagon. The bases of the shafts rest on a moulded +plinth and are eight-sided, as are the capitals round which run small +wreaths of leaves. Here the upright shafts at the sides are not twisted +but run up in three divisions to Gothic pinnacles. (Fig. 53.) + +[Sidenote: Madre de Deus.] + +Almost exactly the same is a door in the Franciscan nunnery called Madre +de Deus, founded to the east of Lisbon in 1509 by Dona Leonor, the widow +of Dom João II. and sister of Dom Manoel. The only difference is that +the shafts at the sides are both twisted, that the pentagon at the top +is a good deal larger and has in it the royal arms, and that at the +sides are shields, one on the right with the arms of Lisbon--the ship +guided by ravens in which St. Vincent's body floated from the east of +Spain to the cape called after him--and one on the left with a pelican +vulning her breast.[107] + +The proportions of this door are rather better than those of the door at +Santarem, and it looks less clumsy, but it is impossible to admire +either the design or the execution. The fat round outer moulding with +its projecting curves and cusps is very unpleasing, the shafts at the +sides are singularly purposeless, and the carving is coarse. At Gollegã +the design was even more outrageous, but there it was pulled together +and made into a not displeasing whole by the square framing. + +[Sidenote: University Chapel, Coimbra.] + +What has been since 1540 the university at Coimbra was originally the +royal palace, and the master of the works there till the time of his +death in 1524 was Marcos Pires, who also planned and carried out most of +the great church of Santa Cruz. Probably the university chapel is his +work, for the windows are not at all unlike those at Santa Cruz. The +door in many ways resembles the three last described, but the detail is +smaller and all the proportions better. The door is double with a triple +shaft in the middle; the two openings have very flat trefoil heads with +a small ogee curve to the central leaf. The jambs have on each side two +slender shafts between which there is a delicate twisted branch, and +beyond them is a band of finely carved foliage and then another shaft. +From these side shafts there springs a large trefoil, encompassing both +openings. It is crocketed on the outside and has the two usual ogee +cusps or projections on the outer side; but, instead of a large curved +pentagon in the middle, the mouldings of the projections and of the +trefoil then intertwine and rise up to some height forming a kind of +wide-spreading cross with hollow curves between the arms. The arms of +the cross end in finials, as do the ogee projections; there is a shield +on each side below the cross arms, another crowned and charged with the +royal arms above the central shaft, and on one side of it the Cross of +the Order of Christ, and on the other an armillary sphere. On either +side, as usual, on an octagonal base are tall twisted shafts, with a +crown round the base of the twisted pinnacles which rise just to the +level of the spreading arms of the cross. Like the door at Santarem the +whole would be sprawling and ill-composed but that here the white-wash +of the wall comes down only to the arms of the cross, so as to give +it--built as it is of grey limestone--a simple square outline, broken +only by the upper arm and finial of the cross. + +The heads of the two windows, one on either side of the door, are +half-irregular octagons with convex sides. They are surrounded by a +broad hollow splay framed by thin shafts resting on corbels and bearing +a head, a flat ogee in shape, but broken by two hanging points; one of +the most common shapes for a Manoelino window. (Fig. 54.) + +One more doorway before ending this chapter, already too long. + +[Sidenote: São Julião, Setubal.] + +The parish church of São Julião at Setubal was built during the early +years of the sixteenth century, but was so shattered by the great +earthquake of 1755 that only two of the doorways survive of the original +building. The western is not of much interest, but that on the +north--probably the work of João Fenacho who is mentioned as being a +well-known carver working at Setubal in 1513--is one of the most +elaborate doorways of that period. + +The northern side of the church is now a featureless expanse + +[Illustration: FIG. 53. + +SANTAREM. W. DOOR, MARVILLA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 54. + +COIMBRA. UNIVERSITY CHAPEL.] + +of whitewashed plaster, scarcely relieved by a few simple square windows +up near the cornice; but near the west end, in almost incongruous +contrast, the plainness of the plaster is emphasised by the exuberant +mouldings and carving of the door. Though in some features related to +the doors at Santarem or the Madre de Deus the door here is much more +elaborate and even barbaric, but at the same time, being contained +within a simple gable-shaped moulding under a plain round arch, with no +sprawling projections, the whole design--as is the case with the +university chapel at Coimbra--is much more pleasing, and if the large +outer twisted shafts with their ogee trefoiled head had been omitted, +would even have been really beautiful. + +The opening of the door itself has a trefoiled head, whose hollow +moulding is enriched with small well-carved roses and flowers. This +trefoiled head opens under a round arch, springing from delicate round +shafts, shafts and arch-mould being alike enriched with several finely +carved rings, while from ring to ring the rounded surface is beautifully +wrought with wonderful minutely carved spirals. The bases and caps of +these, as of the other larger shafts, are of the usual Manoelino type, +round with a hollow eight-sided abacus. Beyond these shafts and their +arch, rather larger shafts, ringed in the same way and carved with a +delicate diaper, support a larger arch, half-octagonal in shape and with +convex sides, all ornamented like its supports, while all round this and +outside it there runs a broad band of foliage, half Gothic, half +renaissance in character. Beyond these again are the large shafts with +their ogee trefoiled arch, which though they spoil the beauty of the +design, at the same time do more than all the rest to give that strange +character which it possesses. These shafts are much larger than the +others, indeed they are made up of several round mouldings twisted +together each of the same size as the shaft next them. Base and capital +are of course also much larger, and there is only one ring ornament, +above which the twisting is reversed. All the mouldings are carved, some +with spirals, some with bundles of leaves bound round by a rope, with +bunches of grape-like fruit between. The twisted mouldings are carried +up beyond the capitals to form a huge trefoil turning up at the top to a +large and rather clumsy finial. In this case the upright shafts at the +sides are not twisted as in the other doors; they are square in plan, +interrupted by a moulding at the level of the capitals, below which they +are carved on each face with large square flowers, while above they have +a round moulding at the angles. At the top are plain Gothic pinnacles; +behind which rises the enclosing arch, due doubtless to the restoration +after the earthquake. The gable-shaped moulding runs from the base of +these pinnacles to the top of the ogee, and forms the boundary between +the stonework and the plaster. + +Such then is the Manoelino in its earlier forms, and there can be little +doubt that it was gradually evolved from a union of late Gothic and +Moorish, owing some peculiarities such as twisted shafts, rounded +mouldings, and coupled windows to Moorish, and to Gothic others such as +its flowery finials. The curious outlines of its openings may have been +derived, the simpler from Gothic, the more complex from Moorish. Steps +are wanting to show whence came the sudden growth of naturalism, but it +too probably came from late Gothic, which had already provided crockets, +finials and carved bands of foliage so that it needed but little change +to connect these into one growing plant. Sometimes these Manoelino +designs, as in the palace at Cintra, are really beautiful when the parts +are small and do not straggle all over the surface, but sometimes as in +the Marvilla door at Santarem, or in that of the convent of the Madre de +Deus at Lisbon, the mouldings are so clumsy and the design so sprawling +and ill-connected, that they can only be looked on as curiosities of +architectural aberration. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA + + +Vasco da Gama set sail from Lisbon in July 1497 with a small fleet to +try and make his way to India by sea, and he arrived at Calicut on the +Malabar coast nearly a year later, in May 1598. He and his men were well +received by the zamorim or ruler of the town--then the most important +trade centre in India--and were much helped in their intercourse by a +renegade native of Seville who acted as interpreter. After a stay of +about two months he started for home with his ships laden with spices, +and with a letter to Dom Manoel in which the zamorim said:-- + +'Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of thy household, has visited my kingdom, and +has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom is abundance of cinnamon, +cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones; what I seek from thy +country is gold, silver, coral and scarlet.'[108] + +Arriving at Lisbon in July 1499, Vasco da Gama met with a splendid +reception from king and people; was given 20,000 gold cruzados, a +pension of 500 cruzados a year, and the title of Dom; while provision +was also made for the families of those who had perished during the +voyage; for out of one hundred and forty-eight who started two years +earlier only ninety-six lived to see Lisbon again. + +So valuable were spices in those days that the profit to the king on +this expedition, after all expenses had been paid and all losses +deducted, was reckoned as being in the proportion of sixty to one. + +No wonder then that another expedition was immediately organised by Dom +Manoel. This armada--in which the largest ship was of no more than four +hundred tons--sailed from Lisbon under the command of Pedro Alvares +Cabral on March 9, 1500. Being driven out of his course, Cabral after +many days saw a high mountain which he took to be an island, but sailing +on found that it was part of a great continent. He landed, erected a +cross, and took possession of it in the name of his king, thus securing +Brazil for Portugal. One ship was sent back to Lisbon with the news, and +the rest turned eastwards to make for the Cape of Good Hope. Four were +sunk by a great gale, but the rest arrived at Calicut on September 13th. + +Here he too was well received by the zamorim and built a factory, but +this excited the anger of the Arab traders, who burned it, killing fifty +Portuguese. Cabral retorted by burning part of the town and sailed south +to Cochin, whose ruler, a vassal of the zamorim, was glad to receive the +strangers and to accept their help against his superior. Thence he soon +sailed homewards with the three ships which remained out of his fleet of +thirteen. + +In 1502 Dom Manoel received from the Pope Alexander VI. the title of +'Lord of Navigation, conquests and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, +and India,' and sent out another great expedition under Vasco da Gama, +who, however, with his lieutenant, Vicente Sodre, found legitimate trade +less profitable than the capture of pilgrim ships going to and from +Mecca, which they rifled and sank with all on board. From the first thus +treated they took 12,000 ducats in money and 10,000 ducats' worth in +goods, and then blew up the ship with 240 men besides women and +children. + +Reaching Calicut, the town was again bombarded and sacked, since the +zamorim would not or could not expel all the Arab merchants, the richest +of his people. + +Other expeditions followed every year till in 1509 a great Mohammedan +fleet led by the 'Mirocem, the Grand Captain of the Sultan of Grand +Cairo and of Babylon,' was defeated off the island of Diu, and next year +the second viceroy, Affonso de Albuquerque, moved the seat of the +government from Cochin to Gôa, which, captured and held with some +difficulty, soon became one of the richest and most splendid cities of +the East. + +Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf and the great depot of Persian +trade had been captured in 1509, and it was not long before the +Portuguese had penetrated to the Straits of Malacca and even to China +and Japan. + +So within twelve years from the time of Vasco da Gama's voyage the +foundations of the Portuguese empire in the East had been firmly +laid--an empire which, however, existed merely as a great trading +concern in which Dom Manoel was practically sole partner and so soon +became the richest sovereign of his time. + +Seeing therefore how close the intercourse was between Lisbon and +India,[109] it is perhaps no wonder that, in his very interesting book +on the Renaissance Architecture of Portugal, Albrecht Haupt, struck by +the very strange forms used at Thomar and to a lesser degree in the +later additions to Batalha, propounded a theory that this strangeness +was directly due to the importation of Indian details. That the +discovery of a sea route to India had a great influence on the +architecture of Portugal cannot be denied, for the direct result of this +discovery was to fill the coffers of a splendour-loving king with what +was, for the time, untold wealth, and so to enable him to cover the +country with innumerable buildings; but tempting as it would be to +accept Haupt's theory, it is surely more reasonable to look nearer home +for the origin of these peculiar features, and to see in them only the +culmination of the Manoelino style and the product of an even more +exuberant fancy than that possessed by any other contemporary builder. +Of course, when looking for parallels with such a special object in view +it is easy enough to find them, and to see resemblances between the +cloister windows at Batalha and various screens or panels at Ahmedabad; +and when we find that a certain Thomas Fernandes[110] had been sent to +India in 1506 as military engineer and architect; that another +Fernandes, Diogo of Beja, had in 1513 formed part of an embassy sent to +Gujerat and so probably to the capital Ahmedabad; and that Fernandes was +also the name of the architects of Batalha, it becomes difficult not to +connect these separate facts together and to jump to the quite +unwarrantable conclusion that the four men of the same name may have +been related and that one of them, probably Diogo, had given his +kinsmen sketches or descriptions on which they founded their +designs.[111] + +With regard to Thomar, where the detail is even more curious and +Indian-looking, the temptation to look for Indian models is still +stronger, owing to the peculiar position which the Order of Christ at +Thomar now held, for the knights of that order had for some time +possessed complete spiritual jurisdiction over India and all other +foreign conquests. + +This being so, it might have seemed appropriate enough for Dom Manoel to +decorate the additions he made to the old church with actual Indian +detail, as his builder did with corals and other symbols of the strange +discoveries then made. The fact also that on the stalls at Santa Cruz in +Coimbra are carved imaginary scenes from India and from Brazil might +seem to be in favour of the Indian theory, but the towns and forests +there depicted are exactly what a mediæval artist would invent for +himself, and are not at all like what they were supposed to represent, +and so, if they are to be used in the argument at all, would rather go +to show how little was actually known of what India was like. + +There seems also not to be even a tradition that anything of the sort +was done, and if a tradition has survived about the stalls at Coimbra, +surely, had there been one, it might have survived at Thomar as well. + +At the same time it must be admitted that the bases of the jambs inside +the west window in the chapter-house are very unlike anything else, and +are to a Western eye like Indian work. However, a most diligent search +in the Victoria and Albert Museum through endless photographs of Indian +buildings failed to find anything which was really at all like them, and +this helped to confirm the belief that this resemblance is more fancied +than real; besides, the other strange features, the west window outside, +and the south window, now a door, are surely nothing more than Manoelino +realism gone a little mad. + +Thomar has already been seen in the twelfth century when Dom Gualdim +Paes built the sixteen-sided church and the castle, and when he and his +Templars withstood the Moorish invaders with such success. + +As time went on the Templars in other lands became rich and powerful, +and in the fourteenth century Philippe le Bel of France determined to +put an end to them as an order and to confiscate their goods. So in 1307 +the grand master was imprisoned, and five years later the Council of +Vienne, presided over by Clement V.--a Frenchman, Bertrand de +Goth--suppressed the order. Philippe seized their property, and in 1314 +the grand master was burned. + +In Portugal their services against the Moors were still remembered, and +although by this time no part of Portugal was under Mohammedan rule, +Granada was not far off, and Morocco was still to some extent a danger. + +Dom Diniz therefore determined not to exterminate the Templars, but to +change them into a new military order, so in 1319 he obtained a bull +from John XXII. from Avignon constituting the Order of Christ. At first +their headquarters were at Castro-Marim at the mouth of the Guadiana, +but soon they returned to their old Templar stronghold at Thomar and +were re-granted most of their old possessions. + +The Order of Christ soon increased in power, and under the +administration of Prince Henry, 1417 to 1460, took a great part in the +discoveries and explorations which were to bring such wealth and glory +to their country. In 1442, Eugenius IV. confirmed the spiritual +jurisdiction of the order over all conquests in Africa, and Nicholas V. +and Calixtus III. soon extended this to all other conquests made, or to +be made anywhere, so that the knights had spiritual authority over them +'as if they were in Thomar itself.' This boon was obtained by Dom +Affonso V. at his uncle Prince Henry's wish. + +When Prince Henry died he was succeeded as duke of Vizeu and as governor +of the order by his nephew Fernando, the second son of Dom Duarte. +Fernando died ten years later and was succeeded by his elder son Diogo, +who was murdered fifteen years later by Dom João II. in 1485. Then the +title passed to his brother Dom Manoel, and with it the administration +of the order, a position which he retained when he ascended the throne, +and which has since belonged to all his successors. + +Prince Henry finding that the old Templar church with its central altar +was unsuited to the religious services of the order, built a chapel or +small chancel out from one of the eastern sides and dedicated it to St. +Thomas of Canterbury. But as the order advanced in wealth and in power +this addition was found to be far too small, and in a general chapter +held by Dom Manoel in 1492 it was determined to build a new Coro large +enough to hold all the knights and leaving the high altar in its old +place in the centre of the round church. + +In all the Templar churches in England, when more room was wanted, a +chancel was built on to the east, so that the round part, instead of +containing the altar, has now become merely a nave or a vestibule. At +Thomar, however, probably because it was already common to put the +stalls in a gallery over the west door, it was determined to build the +new Coro to the west, and this was done by breaking through the two +westernmost sides of the sixteen-sided building and inserting a large +pointed arch. + +Although it was decided to build in 1492, little or nothing can have +been done for long, if it is true that João de Castilho who did the work +was only born about the year 1490; and that he did it is certain, as he +says himself that he 'built the Coro, the chapter-house--under the +Coro--the great arch of the church, and the principal door.' + +Two stone carvers, Alvaro Rodrigues and Diogo de Arruda, were working +there in 1512 and 1513, and the stalls were begun in July 1511, so that +some progress must have been made by them. If then João de Castilho did +the work he must have been born some time before 1490, as he could +hardly have been entrusted with such a work when a boy of scarcely +twenty. + +João de Castilho, who is said to have been by birth a Biscayan, soon +became the most famous architect of his time. He not only was employed +on this Coro, but was afterwards summoned to superintend the great +Jeronymite monastery of Belem, which he finished. Meanwhile he was +charged by João III. with the building of the vast additions made +necessary at Thomar when in 1523 the military order was turned into a +body of monks. He lived long enough to become a complete convert to the +renaissance, for at Belem the Gothic framework is all overlaid with +renaissance detail, while in his latest additions at Thomar no trace of +Gothic has been left. He died shortly before 1553, as we learn from a +document dated January 1st of that year, which states that his daughter +Maria de Castilho then began, on the death of her father, to receive a +pension of 20,000 reis. + +The new Coro is about eighty-five feet long inside by thirty wide, and +is of three bays. Standing, as does the Templars' church, on the highest +point of the hill, it was, till the erection of the surrounding +cloisters, clear of any buildings. Originally the round church, being +part of the fortifications, could only be entered from the north, but +the first thing done by Dom Manoel was to build on the south side a +large platform or terrace reached from the garden on the east by a great +staircase. This terrace is now bounded on the west by the Cloister dos +Filippes, on the south by a high wall and by the chapter-house, begun by +Dom Manoel but never finished, and on the north by the round church and +by one bay of the Coro; and in this bay is now the chief entrance to the +church. The lower part of the two western bays is occupied by the +chapter-house, with one window looking west over the cloister of Santa +Barbara, and one south, now hidden by the upper Cloister dos Filippes +and used as a door. [See plan p. 225.] + +Inside, the part over the chapter-house is raised to form the choir, and +there, till they were burned in 1810 by the French for firewood, stood +the splendid stalls begun in July 1511 by Olivel of Ghent who had +already made stalls for São Francisco at Evora.[112] The stalls had +large figures carved on their backs, a continuous canopy, and a high and +elaborate cresting, while in the centre on the west side the Master's +stall ended in a spire which ran up with numberless pinnacles, ribs and +finials to a large armillary sphere just under the vaulting.[113] Now +the inside is rather bare, with no ornament beyond the intricacy of the +finely moulded ribs and the elaborate corbels from which they spring. +These are a mass of carving, armillary spheres, acanthus leaves, shields +upheld by well-carved figures, crosses, and at the top small cherubs +holding the royal crown. + +The inner side of the door has a segmental head and on either jamb are +tall twisted shafts. A moulded string course running round just above +the level once reached by the top of the stalls turns up over the window +as a hood-mould. + +At the same time much was done to enrich the old Templars' church. All +the shafts were covered with gilt diaper and the capitals with gold; +crockets were fixed to the outer sides of the pointed arches of the +central octagon, and inside it were placed figures of saints standing on +Gothic corbels under canopies of beautiful tabernacle work. Similar +statues stand on the vaulting shafts of the outer polygon and between +them, filling in the spaces below the round-headed windows, are large +paintings in the Flemish style common to all Portuguese pictures of that +time--of the Nativity, of the Visit of the Magi, of the Annunciation, +and of the Virgin and Child. + +To-day the only part of the south side visible down to the ground level +is the eastern bay in which opens the great door. This is one of the +works which João de Castilho claims as his, and on one of the jambs +there is carved a strap, held by two lion's paws on which are some +letters supposed to be his signature, and some figures which have been +read as 1515, probably wrongly, for there seems to have been no +renaissance work done in Portugal except by Sansovino till the coming of +Master Nicolas to Belem in 1517 or later.[114] If it is 1515 and gives +the date, it must mean the year when the mere building was finished, not +the carving, for the renaissance band can hardly have been done till +after his return from Belem. + +The doorway is one of great beauty, indeed is one of the most beautiful +pieces of work in the kingdom. The opening itself is round-headed with +three bands of carving running all round it, separated by slender shafts +of which the outermost up to the springing of the arch is a beautiful +spiral with four-leaved flowers in the hollows. Of the carved bands the +innermost is purely renaissance, with candelabra, medallions, griffins +and leaves all most beautifully cut in the warm yellow limestone. On the +next band are large curly leaves still Gothic in style and much +undercut; and in the last, four-leaved flowers set some distance one +from the other. + +At the top, the drip-mould grows into a large trefoil with crockets +outside and an armillary sphere within. At the sides tall thin +buttresses end high above the door in sharp carved pinnacles and bear +under elaborate canopies many figures of saints.[115] Two other +pinnacles rise from the top of the arch, and between them are more +saints. In the middle stands Our Lady, and from her canopy a curious +broken and curving moulding runs across the other pinnacles and canopies +to the sides. + +But that which gives to the whole design its chief beauty is the deep +shadow cast by the large arch thrown across from one main buttress to +the other just under the parapet. This arch, moulded and enriched with +four-leaved flowers, is fringed with elaborate cusps, irregular in size, +which with rounded mouldings are given a trefoil shape by small +beautifully carved crockets. (Fig. 55.) + +Except the two round buttresses at the west end and one on the north +side which has Manoelino pinnacles, all are the same, breaking into a +cluster of Gothic pinnacles rather more than half-way up and ending in +one large square crocketed pinnacle very like those at Batalha. The roof +being flat and paved there is no gable at the west end; there is a band +of carving for cornice, then a moulding, and above it a parapet of +flattened quatrefoils, in each of which is an armillary sphere, and at +the top a cresting, alternately of cusped openings and crosses of the +Order of Christ, most of which, however, have been broken away. Of the +windows all are wide and pointed, without tracery and deeply splayed. +The one in the central bay next the porch has niches and canopies at the +side for statues and jambs not unlike those designed some years after at +Belem. There is also a certain resemblance between the door here and the +great south entrance to Belem, though this one is of far greater beauty, +being more free from over-elaboration and greatly helped by the shadow +of the high arch. + +So far the design has shown nothing very abnormal; but for one or two +renaissance details it is all of good late Gothic, with scarcely any +Manoelino features. It is also more pleasing than any other contemporary +building in Portugal, and the detail, though very rich, is more +restrained. This may be due to the nationality of João de Castilho, for +some of the work is almost Spanish, for example the buttresses, the +pinnacles, and the door with its trefoiled drip-mould. + +If, however, the two eastern bays are good late Gothic, what can be said +of the western? Here the fancy of the designer seems to have run quite +wild, and here it is that what have been considered to be Indian +features are found. + +It is hard to believe that João de Castilho, who nowhere, except perhaps +in the sacristy door at Alcobaça, shows any love of what is abnormal and +outlandish, should have designed these extraordinary details, and so +perhaps the local tradition may be so far true, according to which the +architect was not João but one Ayres do Quintal. Nothing else seems to +be known of Ayres--though a head carved under the west window of the +chapter-house is said to be his--but in a country so long illiterate as +Portugal, where unwritten stories have been handed down from quite +distant times, it is possible that oral tradition may be as true as +written records. + +Now it is known that João de Castilho was working at Alcobaça in 1519. +In 1522 he was busy at Belem, where he may have been since 1517, when +for the first time some progress seems to have been made with the +building there. What really happened, therefore, may be that when he +left Thomar, the Coro was indeed built, and the eastern buttresses +finished, but that the carving of the western part was still uncut and +so may have been the work of Ayres after João was himself gone.[116] +This is, of course, only a conjecture, for Ayres seems to be mentioned +in no document, but whoever it was who carved these buttresses and +windows was a man of extraordinary originality, and almost mad fancy. + +To turn now from the question of the builder to the building itself. The +large round buttresses at the west end are fluted at the bottom; at +about half their height comes a band of carving about six feet deep +seeming to represent a mass of large ropes ending in tasselled fringes +or possibly of roots. On one buttress a large chain binds these +together, on the others a strap and buckle--probably the Order of the +Garter given to Dom Manoel by Henry VII. Above this five large knotty +tree-trunks or branches of coral grow up the buttresses uniting in rough +trefoiled heads at the top, and having statues between them--Dom Affonso +Henriques, + +[Illustration: FIG. 55. + +THOMAR. CONVENT OF CHRIST. S. DOOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 56. + +THOMAR. OUTSIDE OF W. WINDOW OF CHAPTER HOUSE UNDER HIGH CHOIR IN +NAVE.] + +Dom Gualdim Paes, Dom Diniz and Dom Manoel--two on each buttress. Then +the buttress becomes eight-sided and smaller, and, surrounded by five +thick growths, of which not a square inch is unworked and whose +pinnacles are covered with carving, rises with many a strange moulding +to a high round pinnacle bearing the cross of the order--a sign, if one +may take the coral and the trees to be symbolical of the distant seas +crossed and of the new lands visited, of the supreme control exercised +by the order over all missions. + +Coral-like mouldings too run round the western windows on both north and +south sides, and at the bottom these are bound together with basket +work. + +Strange as are the details of these buttresses, still more strange are +the windows of the chapter-house. Since about 1560 the upper cloister of +the Filippes has covered the south side of the church so that the south +chapter-house window, which now serves as a door, is hidden away in the +dark. Still there is light enough to see that in naturalism and in +originality it far surpasses anything elsewhere, except the west window +of the same chapter-house. Up the jambs grow branches bound round by a +broad ribbon. From the spaces between the ribbons there sprout out on +either side thick shoots ending in large thistle heads. The top of the +opening is low, of complicated curves and fine mouldings, on the +outermost of which are cut small curly leaves, but higher up the +branches of the jambs with their thistle heads and ribbons with knotted +ropes and leaves form a mass of inextricable intricacy, of which little +can be seen in the dark except the royal arms. + +Inside the vault is Gothic and segmental, but the west window is even +more strange than the southern; its inner arch is segmental and there +are window seats in the thickness of the wall. The jambs have large +round complicated bases of many mouldings, some enriched with leaves, +some with thistle heads, some with ribbons, and one with curious +projections like small elephants' trunks--in short very much what a +Western mind might imagine some Hindu capital, reversed, to be like. On +the jamb itself and round the head are three upright mouldings held +together by carved basket work of cords, and bearing at intervals +thistle heads in threes; beyond is another band of leaf-covered carving, +and beyond it an upright strip of wavy lines.[117] The opening has a +head like that of the other window and is filled with a bronze grille. + +Still more elaborate and extraordinary is the outside of this window, +nor would it be possible to find words to describe it. + +The jambs are of coral branches, with large round shafts beyond, +entirely leaf-covered and budding into thistle heads. Ropes bind them +round at the bottom and half-way up great branches are fastened on by +chains. At the top are long finials with more chains holding corals on +which rest armillary spheres. The head of the window is formed of +twisted masses, from which project downwards three large thistle heads. +Above this is a great wreath of leaves, hung with two large loops of +rope, and twisting up as a sort of cusped ogee trefoil to the royal arms +and a large cross of the Order of Christ. A square frame with flamelike +border rises to the top of the side finials to enclose a field cut into +squares by narrow grooves. Below the window more branches, coral, and +ropes knot each other round the head of Ayres just below the rope +moulding which runs across from buttress to buttress. Above the top of +the opening and about half-way up the whole composition there is an +offset, and on it rests a series of disks, set diagonally and strung on +another rope. (Fig. 56.) + +Although, were the royal arms and the cross removed, the window might +not look out of place in some wild Indian temple, yet it is much more +likely not to be Indian, but that the shafts at the sides are but the +shafts seen in many Manoelino doors, that the window head is an +elaboration of other heads,[118] that the coral jambs are another form +of common naturalism, and that the great wreath is only the hood-mould +rendered more extravagant. In no other work in Portugal or anywhere in +the West are these features carved and treated with such wild +elaboration, nor anywhere else is there seen a base like that of the +jambs inside, but surely there is nothing which a man of imagination +could not have evolved from details already existing in the country. + +Above the window the details are less strange. A little higher than the +cross a string course traverses the front from north to south, crested +with pointed cusps. Higher up still, a round window, set far back in a +deep splay, lights the church above. Outside the sharp projecting outer +moulding of this window are rich curling leaves, inside a rope, while +other ropes run spirally across the splay, which seems to swell like a +sail, and was perhaps meant to remind all who saw it that it was the sea +that had brought the order and its master such riches and power. At the +top are the royal arms crowned, and above the spheres of the parapet and +the crosses of the cresting another larger cross dominates the whole +front. + +Such is Dom Manoel's addition to the Templars' church, and outlandish +and strange as some of it is, the beautiful rich yellow of the stone +under the blue sky and the dark shadows thrown by the brilliant sun make +the whole a building of real beauty. Even the wild west window is helped +by the compactness of its outline and by the plainness of the wall in +which it is set, and only the great coral branches of the round +buttresses are actually unpleasing. The size too of the windows and the +great thickness of the wall give the Coro a strength and a solidity +which agree well with the old church, despite the richness of the one +and the severe plainness of the other. There is perhaps no building in +Portugal which so well tells of the great increase of wealth which began +under Dom Manoel, or which so well recalls the deeds of his heroic +captains--their long and terrible voyages, and their successful +conquests and discoveries. Well may the emblem of Hope,[119] the +armillary sphere, whereby they found their way across the ocean, be +carved all round the parapet, over the door, and beside the west window +with its wealth of knots and wreaths. + +Whether or not Ayres or João de Castilho meant the branches of coral to +tell of the distant oceans, the trees of the forests of Brazil, and the +ropes of the small ships which underwent such dangers, is of little +consequence. To the present generation which knows that all these +discoveries were only possible because Prince Henry and his Order of +Christ had devoted their time and their wealth to the one object of +finding the way to the East, Thomar will always be a fitting memorial of +these great deeds, and of the great men, Bartholomeu Diaz, Vasco da +Gama, Affonso de Albuquerque, Pedro Cabral, and Tristão da Cunha, by +whom Prince Henry's great schemes were brought to a successful issue. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE ADDITIONS TO BATALHA + + +Little had been done to the monastery of Batalha since the death of Dom +Duarte left his great tomb-chapel unfinished. Dom Affonso v., bent on +wasting the lives of the bravest of his people and his country's wealth +in the vain pursuit of conquests in Morocco, could spare no money to +carry out what his father had begun, and so make it possible to move his +parents' bodies from their temporary resting-place before the high altar +to the chapel intended to receive them. Affonso V. himself dying was +laid in a temporary tomb of wood in the chapter-house, as were his wife +and his grandson, the only child of Dom João II.; while a coffin of wood +in one of the side chapels held Dom João himself. + +When João died, his widow Dona Leonor is said to have urged her brother, +the new king, to finish the work begun by their ancestor and so form a +fitting burial-place for her son as well as for himself and his +descendants. Dom Manoel therefore determined to finish the Capellas +Imperfeitas, and the work was given to the elder Matheus Fernandes, who +had till 1480, when he was followed by João Rodrigues, been master of +the royal works at Santarem. The first document which speaks of him at +Batalha is dated 1503, and mentions him as Matheus Fernandes, vassal of +the king, judge in ordinary of the town of Santa Maria da Victoria, and +master of the works of the same monastery, named by the king. He died in +1515, and was buried near the west door.[120] He was followed by another +Matheus Fernandes, probably his son, who died in 1528, to be succeeded +by João de Castilho. But by then Dom Manoel was already dead. He had +been buried not here, but in his new foundation of Belem, and his son +João III. and João de Castilho himself were too much occupied in +finishing Belem and in making great additions to Thomar to be able to do +much to the Capellas Imperfeitas. So after building two beautiful but +incongruous arches, João de Castilho went back to his work elsewhere, +and the chapels remain Imperfeitas to this day. + +It will be remembered that the tomb-house begun by Dom Duarte took the +form of a vast octagon some seventy-two feet in diameter surrounded by +seven apsidal chapels--one on each side except that towards the +church--and by eight smaller chapels between the apses. When Matheus +Fernandes began his work most of the seven surrounding chapels were +finished except for their vaulting, but not all, as in two or three the +outer moulding of the entrance arch is enriched by small crosses of the +Order of Christ, and by armillary spheres carved in the hollow; while +the whole building stood isolated and unconnected with the church. + +The first thing, therefore, done by Matheus was to build an entrance +hall or pateo uniting the octagon with the church. Unless the walls of +the Pateo be older than Dom Manoel's time it is impossible now to tell +how Huguet, Dom Duarte's architect, meant to connect the two, perhaps by +a low passage running eastwards from the central apse, perhaps not at +all. + +The plan carried out by Matheus took the form of a rectangular hall +enclosing the central apse and the two smaller apses to the north and +south, but leaving--now at any rate--a space between it and the side +apses. Possibly the original intention may have been to pull down the +two side apses, and so to form a square ambulatory behind the high altar +leading to the great octagon beyond; but if that were the intention it +was never carried out, and now the only entrance is through an +insignificant pointed door on the north side. + +The walls of the Pateo with their buttresses, string courses and parapet +are so exactly like the older work as to suggest that they may really +date from the time of Dom Duarte, and that all that Matheus Fernandes +did was to build the vault, insert the windows, and form the splendid +entrance to the octagon; but in any case the building was well advanced +if not finished in 1509, when over the small entrance door was written, +'Perfectum fuit anno Domini 1509.' + +Two windows light the Pateo, one looking north and one south. They are +both alike, and both are thoroughly Manoelino in style. They are of two +lights, with well-moulded jambs, and half-octagonal heads. The +drip-mould, instead or merely surrounding the half octagon, is so broken +and bent as to project across it at four points, being indeed shaped +like half a square with a semicircle on the one complete side, and two +quarter circles on the half sides, all enriched by many a small cusp and +leaf. The mullion is made of two branches twisting upwards, and the +whole window head is filled with curving boughs and leaves forming a +most curious piece of naturalistic tracery, to be compared with the +tracery of some of the openings in the Claustro Real. (Fig. 58.) + +No doubt, while the Pateo was being built, the great entrance to the +Imperfect chapels, one of the richest as well as one of the largest +doorways in the world, was begun, and it must have taken a long time to +build and to carve, for the lower part, on the chapel side especially, +seems to be rather earlier in style than the upper. The actual opening +to the springing of the arch measures some 17 feet wide by 28 feet high, +while including the jambs the whole is about 24 feet wide on the chapel, +and considerably more on the Pateo side,--since there the splay is much +deeper--by 40 feet high. To take the chapel side first:--Above a +complicated base there is up the middle of each jamb a large hollow, in +which are two niches one above the other, with canopies and bases of the +richest late Gothic; on either side of this hollow are tall thin shafts +entirely carved with minute diaper, two on the inner and one on the +outer side. Next towards the chapel is another slender shaft, bearing +two small statues one above the other, and outside it slender Gothic +pinnacles and tabernacle work rise up to the capital. Up the outer side +of the jambs are carved sharp pointed leaves, like great acanthus whose +stalk bears many large exquisitely carved crockets. On the other side of +the central hollow the diapered shaft is separated from the tiers of +tiny pinnacles which form the inner angle of the jamb by a broad band of +carving, which for beauty of design and for delicacy of carving can +scarcely be anywhere surpassed. On the Pateo side the carving is even +more wonderful.[121] There are seven shafts in all on each side, some +diapered, some covered with spirals of leaves, one with panelling and +one with exquisite foliage carved as minutely as on a piece of ivory. + +Between each shaft are narrow mouldings, and between the outer five four +bands of ivy, not as rich or as elaborately undercut as on the chapel +side, but still beautiful, and interesting as the ivy forms many double +circles, two hundred and four in all, in each of which are written the +words 'Tãyas Erey' or 'Tãya Serey,' Dom Manoel's motto. For years this +was a great puzzle. In the seventeenth century the writer of the history +of the Dominican Order in Portugal, Frei Luis de Souza, boldly said they +were Greek, and in this opinion he was supported by 'persons of great +judgment, for "Tanyas" is the accusative of a Greek word "Tanya," which +is the same as region, and "erey" is the imperative of the verb "ereo", +which signifies to seek, inquire, investigate, so that the meaning is, +addressed to Dom Manoel, seek for new regions, new climes.' Of course +whatever the meaning may be it is not Greek, indeed at that time in +Portugal there was hardly any one who could speak Greek, and Senhora de +Vasconcellos--than whom no one has done more for the collecting of +inscriptions in Portugal--has come to the very probable conclusion that +the words are Portuguese. She holds that 'Tãyas erey' or 'Tãya serey' +should be read 'Tanaz serey,' 'I shall be tenacious'--for Tanaz is old +Portuguese for Tenaz--and that the Y is nothing but a rebus or picture +of a tenaz or pair of pincers, and indeed the Y's are very like pincers. +In this opinion she is upheld by the carving of the tenacious ivy round +each word, and the fact that Dom Manoel was not really tenacious at all, +but rather changeable, makes it all the more likely that he would adopt +such a motto. + +The carvers were doubtless quite illiterate and may well have thought +that the pincers in the drawing from which they were working were a +letter and may therefore have mixed them up to the puzzling of future +generations.[122] Or since nowhere is 'Tayaz serey' written with the 'z' +may not the first 'y' be the final 'z' of Tanaz misplaced? + +The arched head of the opening is treated differently on the two sides. +Towards the Pateo the two outer mouldings form a large half octagon set +diagonally and with curved sides; the next two form a large trefoil. In +the spandrels between these are larger wreaths enclosing 'Tanyas erey,' +which is also repeated all round these four mouldings. + +The trefoils form large hanging cusps in front of the complicated inner +arch. This too is more or less trefoil in shape, + +[Illustration: Fig. 57. + +BATALHA ENTRANCE TO CAPELLAS INPERFEITAS. + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto] + +but with smaller curves between the larger, and all elaborately fringed +with cuspings and foliage. + +Four mouldings altogether are of this shape, two on each side, and +beyond them towards the chapel is that arch or moulding which gives to +the whole its most distinctive character. The great trefoil, with large +cusps, which forms the head is crossed by another moulding in such a way +as to become a cinquefoil, while the second moulding, like the hood of +the door at Santarem, forms three large reversed cusps, each ending in +splendid acanthus leaves. Further, the whole of these mouldings are on +the inner side carved with a delicate spiral of ribbon and small balls, +and on the outer with the same acanthus that runs up the jambs. + +Now, on the chapel side especially, from the base to the springing there +is little that might not be found in late French Gothic work, except +perhaps that diapered shafts were not then used in France, and that the +bands of carving are rather different in spirit from French work; but as +for the head, no opening of that size was made in France of so +complicated and, it must be added, so unconstructional a shape. It is +the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of the Manoelino style, and although a foreigner +may be inclined at first, from its very strangeness, to call it Eastern, +it is really only a true development in the hands of a real artist of +what Manoelino was; an expression of Portugal's riches and power, and of +the gradual assimilation of such Moors as still remained on this side +the Straits. Of course it is easy to say that it is extravagant, +overloaded and debased; and so it may be. Yet no one who sees it can +help falling a victim to its fascination, for perhaps its only real +fault is that the great cusps and finials are on rather too large a +scale for the rest. Not even the greatest purist could help admiring the +exquisite fineness of the carving--a fineness made possible by the +limestone, very soft when new, which gradually hardens and grows to a +lovely yellow with exposure to the air. No records tell us so, but +considering the difference in style between the upper and the lower part +it may perhaps be conjectured that the elder Matheus designed the lower +part, and the younger the upper, after his father's death in 1515. + +In the great octagon itself the first thing to be done was to build huge +piers, which partly encroach on the small sepulchral chapels between the +larger apses. These piers now rise nearly to the level of the central +aisle of the church where they are cut off unfinished; they must be +about 80 or 90 feet in height. On the outer side they are covered with +many circular shafts which are banded together by mouldings at nearly +regular intervals. Haupt has pointed out that in general appearance they +are not unlike the great minar called the Kutub at Old Delhi, and a +lively imagination might see a resemblance to the vast piers, once the +bases of minars, which flank the great entrance archways of some mosques +at Ahmedabad, for example those in the Jumma Musjid. Yet there is no +necessity to go so far afield. Manoelino architects had always been fond +of bundles of round mouldings and so naturally used them here, nor +indeed are the piers at all like either the Kutub or the minars at +Ahmedabad. They have not the batter or the sharp angles of the one, nor +the innumerable breaks and mouldings of the others. + +Between each pier a large window was meant to open, of which +unfortunately nothing has been built but part of the jambs. + +Inside the vaulting of the apsidal chapels was first finished; all the +vaults are elaborate, have well-moulded ribs, and bosses, some carved +with crosses of the Order of Christ, some with armillary spheres, others +with a cross and the words 'In hoc signo vinces,' or with a sphere and +the words 'Espera in Domino.' Where Dom João II. was to be buried is a +pelican vulning herself--for that was his device--and in that intended +for his father Dom Affonso V. a 'rodisio' or mill-wheel. A little above +the entrance arches to the chapels the octagon is surrounded by two +carved string courses separated by a broad plain frieze.[123] On the +lower string are the beautifully modelled necks and heads of dragons, +springing from acanthus leaves and so set as to form a series of M's, +and on the upper an exquisite pattern arranged in squares, while on it +rests a most remarkable cresting. In this cresting, which is formed of a +single bud set on branches between two coupled buds, the forms are most +strange and at the same time beautiful. + +Inside, the great piers have been much more highly adorned than without. +The vaulting shafts in the middle--which, formed of several small round +mouldings, have run up quite plain from the ground, only interrupted by +shields and their mantling on the frieze--are here broken and twisted. +On either side are niches with Gothic canopies, above which are +interlacing leaves and branches. Beyond the niches are the window jambs, +on which, next the opening, are shafts carved with naturalistic +tree-stems, and between these and the niches two bands of ornament +separated by thin plain shafts. + +In each opening these bands are different. In some is Gothic foliage, in +others semi-classic carving like the string below or realistic like the +cresting. In others are naturalistic branches, and in the opening over +the chapel where Dom Manoel was to lie are cut the letters M in one hand +and R in the other; Manoel Rey. (Fig. 59.) + +Only the first foot or so of the vaulting has been built, and there is +nothing now to show how the great octagon was to be roofed. Murphy[124] +gives his idea; the eight piers carried high up and capped with spires, +huge Gothic windows between, and the whole covered by a vast pointed +roof--presumably of wood--above the vault. Haupt with his Indian +prepossessions suggests a dome surrounded by eight great domed +pinnacles. Probably neither is right; certainly Murphy's great roof of +wood would never have been made, and as for Haupt's dome nothing domed +was built in Portugal till long after and that at first only on a small +scale.[125] Besides, the well-developed Gothic ribs which are seen +springing in each corner clearly show that some kind of Gothic vault was +meant, and not a dome; and that the Portuguese could build wonderful +vaults had been already shown by the chapter-house here and was soon to +be shown by the transept at Belem. So in all probability the roof would +have been a great Gothic vault of which the centre would rise very +considerably above the sides; for there is no sign of stilting the ribs +over the windows. The whole would have been covered with stone slabs, +and would have been surrounded by eight groups of pinnacles, most of +which would no doubt have been twisted. + +Deeply though one must regret that this great chapel has been left +unfinished and open to the sky, yet even in its incomplete state it is a +treasure-house of beautiful ornament, and it is wonderful how well the +more commonplace Gothic of Huguet's work agrees with and even enhances +the richness of the detail which Fernandes drew from so many sources, +late Gothic, early renaissance, and naturalistic, and which he knew so +well how to combine into a beautiful whole. + +The great Claustro Real, built by Dom João I., was peculiar among +Portuguese cloisters in having, or at least being prepared for, large +traceried windows. Probably these had remained blank, and for about a +hundred years awaited the tracery which more than any part of the +convent shows the skill of Matheus Fernandes. + +There seems to be no exact record of when the work was done, but it must +have been while additions were being made to the Imperfect chapels, +though more fortunate than they, the work here was successfully +finished. + +The cloister has seven bays on each side, of which the five in the +middle are nearly equal, having either five or six lights. In the +eastern corners the openings have only three lights, in the +south-western they have four, and in the north-western there stands the +square two-bayed lavatory. (Fig. 60.) + +In all the openings the shafts are alike. They have tall eight-sided and +round bases, similar capitals and a moulded ring half-way up, while the +whole shaft from ring to base and from ring to capital is carved with +the utmost delicacy, with spirals, with diaper patterns, or with +leaflike scales. Above the capitals the pointed openings are filled in +with veils of tracery of three different patterns. In the central bay, +and in the two next but one on either side of it, and so filling nine +openings, is what at first seems to be a kind of reticulated tracery. +But on looking closer it is found to be built up of leaf-covered curves +and of buds very like those forming the cresting in the Capellas +Imperfeitas. In the corner bays--except where stands the lavatory--there +is another form of reticulated tracery, where the larger curves are +formed by branches, whose leaves make the cusps, while filling in the +larger spaces are budlike growths like those in the first-mentioned +windows. + +On either side of the central openings the tracery is more naturalistic +than elsewhere; here the whole is formed of interlacing and intertwining +branches, with leaves and large fruit-like poppy heads, and in the +centre the Cross of the Order of Christ. But of all, the most successful +is in the lavatory; there the two bays which form each side are high and +narrow, + +[Illustration: FIG. 58. + +BATALHA. + +WINDOW OF PATEO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 59. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLAS IMPERFEITAS. + +UPPER PART. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +with richly cusped pointed arches. Instead of cutting out the cusps and +filling the upper part with tracery, Matheus Fernandes has with +extraordinary skill thrown a crested transome across the opening and +below it woven together a veil of exquisitely carved branches, which, +resting on a central shaft, half hide and half reveal the large marble +fountain within. (Fig. 61.) + +At first, perhaps, accustomed to the ordinary forms of Gothic tracery, +these windows seem strange, to some even unpleasing. Soon, however, when +they have been studied more closely, when it has been recognised that +the brilliant sunshine needs closer tracery and smaller openings than +does the cooler North, and that indeed the aim of the designer is to +keep out rather than to let in the direct rays of light, no one can be +anything but thankful that Matheus Fernandes, instead of trying to adapt +Gothic forms to new requirements, as was done by his predecessors in the +church, boldly invented new forms for himself; forms which are entirely +suited to the sun, the clear air and sky, and which with their creamy +lace make a fitting background to the roses and flowers with which the +cloister is now planted. + +Now the question arises, from whence did Matheus Fernandes draw his +inspiration? We have seen that windows with good Gothic tracery are +almost unknown in Portugal, for even in the church here at Batalha the +larger windows nearly all show a want of knowledge, and a wish to shut +out the sun as much as possible, and besides there is really no +resemblance between the tracery in the church and that in the cloister. + +In the lowest floor of the Torre de São Vicente, begun by Dom João II. +and finished by Dom Manoel to defend the channel of the Tagus, the +central hall is divided from a passage by a thin wall whose upper part +is pierced to form a perforated screen. The original plan for the tower +is said to have been furnished by Garcia de Resende, whose house we have +seen at Evora, and if this screen, which is built up of heart-shaped +curves, is older than the cloister windows at Batalha, he may have +suggested to Matheus Fernandes the tracery which has a more or less +reticulated form, though on the other hand it may be later and have been +suggested by them. Most probably, however, Matheus Fernandes thought out +the tracery for himself. He would not have had far to go to see real +reticulated panelling, for the church is covered with it; but an even +more likely source of this reticulation might be found in the beautiful +Moorish panelling which exists on such buildings as the Giralda or the +tower at Rabat, and if we find Moors among the workmen at Thomar there +may well have been some at Batalha as well. As for the naturalistic +tracery, it is clearly only an improvement on such windows as those of +the Pateo behind the church, and there is no need to go to Ahmedabad and +find there pierced screens to which they have a certain resemblance. + +However, whatever may be its origin, this tracery it is which makes the +Claustro Real not only the most beautiful cloister in Portugal, but +even, as that may not seem very great praise, one of the most beautiful +cloisters in the world, and it must have been even more beautiful before +a modern restoration crowned all the walls with a pierced Gothic parapet +and a spiky cresting, whose angular form and sharp mouldings do not +quite harmonise with the rounded and gentle curves of the tracery below. + +After the suppression of the monastic orders in 1834, Batalha, which had +already suffered terribly from the French invasion--for in 1810 during +the retreat under Massena two cloisters were burned and much furniture +destroyed--was for a time left to decay. However, in 1840 the Cortes +decreed an annual expenditure of two contos of reis,[126] or about £450 +to keep the buildings in repair and to restore such parts as were +damaged. + +The first director was Senhor Luis d'Albuquerque, and he and his +successors have been singularly successful in their efforts, and have +carried out a restoration with which little fault can be found, except +that they have been too lavish in building pierced parapets, and in +filling the windows of the church with wooden fretwork and with hideous +green, red and blue glass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60. + +BATALHA. + +CLOISTER. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 61. + +BATALHA. + +LAVATORY IN CLAUSTRO REAL.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +BELEM + + +Belem or Bethlehem lies close to the shore, after the broad estuary of +the Tagus has again grown narrow, about four miles from the centre of +Lisbon, and may best be reached by one of the excellent electric cars +which now so well connect together the different parts of the town and +its wide-spreading suburbs. + +Situated where the river mouth is at its narrowest, it is natural that +it was chosen as the site of one of the forts built to defend the +capital. Here, then, on a sandbank washed once by every high tide, but +now joined to the mainland by so unromantic a feature as the gasworks, a +tower begun by Dom João II., and designed, it is said, by Garcia de +Resende, was finished by Dom Manoel about 1520 and dedicated to São +Vicente, the patron of Lisbon.[127] + +The tower is not of very great size, perhaps some forty feet square by +about one hundred high. It stands free on three sides, but on the south +towards the water it is protected by a great projecting bastion, which, +rather wider than the tower, ends at the water edge in a polygon. + +The tower contains several stories of one room each, none of which are +in themselves in any way remarkable except the lowest, in which is the +perforated screen mentioned in the last chapter. In the second story the +south window opens on to a long balcony running the whole breadth of the +tower, and the other windows on to smaller balconies. The third story is +finished with a fortified parapet resting on great corbels. The last and +fourth, smaller than those below, is fortified with pointed merlons, and +with a round corbelled turret at each corner. + +On entering, it is found that the bastion contains a sort of cloister +with a flat paved roof on to which opens the door of the tower. Under +the cloister are horrid damp dungeons, last used by Dom Miguel, who +during his usurpation imprisoned in them such of his liberal opponents +as he could catch. The whole bastion is fortified with great merlons, +rising above a rope moulding, each, like those on the tower, bearing a +shield carved with the Cross of the Order of Christ, and by round +turrets corbelled out at the corners. These, like all the turrets, are +capped with melon-shaped stone roofs, and curious finials. Similar +turrets jut out from two corners of the ground floor. + +The parapet also of the cloister is interesting. It is divided into +squares, in each of which a quatrefoil encloses a cross of the Order of +Christ. At intervals down the sides are spiral pinnacles, at the corners +columns bearing spheres, and at the south end a tall niche, elaborately +carved, under whose strange canopy stand a Virgin and Child. + +The most interesting features of the tower are the balconies. That on +the south side, borne on huge corbels, has in front an arcade of seven +round arches, resting on round shafts with typical Manoelino caps. A +continuous sloping stone roof covers the whole, enriched at the bottom +by a rope moulding, and marked with curious nicks at the top. The +parapet is Gothic and very thin. The other balconies are the same, a +pointed tentlike roof ending in a knob, a parapet whose circles enclose +crosses of the order, but with only two arches in front. + +The third story is lit by two light windows on three sides, and on the +south side by two round-headed windows, between which is cut a huge +royal coat-of-arms crowned. + +Altogether the building is most picturesque, the balconies are charming, +and the round turrets and the battlements give it a look of strength and +at the same time add greatly to its appearance. The general outline, +however, is not altogether pleasing owing to the setting back of the top +story. (Fig. 62.) + +The detail, however, is most interesting. It is throughout Manoelino, +and that too with hardly an admixture of Gothic. There is no naturalism, +and hardly any suggestion of the renaissance, and as befits a fort it is +without any of the exuberance so common to buildings of this time. + +Now here again, as at Thomar and Batalha, Haupt has seen a result of +the intercourse with India; both in the balconies and in the turret +roofs[128] he sees a likeness to a temple in Gujerat; and it must be +admitted that in the example he gives the balconies and roofs are not at +all unlike those at Belem. It might further be urged that Garcia de +Resende who designed the tower, if he was never in India himself, formed +part of Dom Manoel's great embassy to Rome in 1514, when the wonders of +the East were displayed before the Pope, that he might easily be +familiar with Indian carvings or paintings, and that finally there are +no such balconies elsewhere in Portugal. All that may be true, and yet +in his own town of Evora there are still many pavilions more like the +smaller balconies than are those in India, and it surely did not need +very great originality to put such a pavilion on corbels and so give the +tower its most distinctive feature. As for the turrets, in Spain there +are many, at Medina del Campo or at Coca, which are corbelled out in +much the same way, though their roofs are different, and like though the +melon-shaped dome of the turrets may be to some in Gujerat, they are +more like those at Bacalhôa, and surely some proof of connection between +Belem and Gujerat, better than mere likeness, is wanted before the +Indian theory can be accepted. That the son of an Indian viceroy should +roof his turrets at Bacalhôa with Indian domes might seem natural; but +the turrets were certainly built before he bought the Quinta in 1528, +and neither they nor the house shows any other trace of Indian +influence. + +The night of July 7, 1497, the last Vasco da Gama and his captains were +to spend on shore before starting on the momentous voyage which ended at +Calicut, was passed by them in prayer, in a small chapel built by Prince +Henry the Navigator for the use of sailors, and dedicated to Nossa +Senhora do Restello. + +Two years later he landed again in the Tagus, with a wonderful story of +the difficulties overcome and of the vast wealth which he had seen in +the East. As a thankoffering Dom Manoel at once determined to found a +great monastery for the Order of St. Jerome on the spot where stood +Prince Henry's chapel. Little time was lost, and the first stone was +laid on April 1 of the next year. + +The first architect was that Boutaca who, about ten years before, had +built the Jesus Church at Setubal for the king's nurse, Justa Rodrigues, +and to him is probably due the plan. Boutaca was succeeded in 1511 by +Lourenço Fernandes, who in turn gave place to João de Castilho in +1517[129] or 1522. + +It is impossible now to say how much each of these different architects +contributed to the building as finished. At Setubal Boutaca had built a +church with three vaulted aisles of about the same height. The idea was +there carried out very clumsily, but it is quite likely that Belem owes +its three aisles of equal height to his initiative even though they were +actually carried out by some one else. + +Judging also from the style, for the windows show many well-known +Manoelino features, while the detail of the great south door is more +purely Gothic, they too and the walls may be the work of Boutaca or of +Lourenço Fernandes, while the great door is almost certainly that of +João de Castilho. + +In any case, when João de Castilho came the building was not nearly +finished, for in 1522 he received a thousand cruzados towards building +columns and the transept vault.[130] + +But even more important to the decoration of the building than either +Boutaca or João de Castilho was the coming of Master Nicolas, the +Frenchman[131] whom we shall see at work at Coimbra and at São Marcos. +Belem seems to have been the first place to which he came after leaving +home, and we soon find him at work there on the statues of the great +south door, and later on those of the west door, where, with the +exception of the Italian door at Cintra, is carved what is probably the +earliest piece of renaissance detail in the country. + +The south door, except for a band of carving round each entrance, is +free of renaissance detail, and so was probably built before Nicolas +added the statues, but in the western a few such details begin to +appear, and in these, as in the band round the other openings, he may +have had a hand. Inside renaissance detail is more in evidence, but +since the great piers would not be carved till after they were built, it +is more likely that the renaissance work there is due to João de +Castilho himself and to what he had learned either from Nicolas or + +[Illustration: FIG. 62. + +TORRE DE SÃO VICENTE. + +BELEM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 63. + +BELEM. + +SACRISTY.] + +from the growing influence of the Coimbra School. It is, of course, also +possible that when Nicolas went to Coimbra, where he was already at work +in 1524, some French assistant may have stayed behind, yet the carving +on the piers is rather coarser than in most French work, and so was more +probably done by Portuguese working under Castilho's direction. + +The monastic buildings were begun after the church; but although at +first renaissance forms seem supreme in the cloisters, closer inspection +will show that they are practically confined to the carving on the +buttresses and on the parapets of the arches thrown across from buttress +to buttress. All the rest, except the door of the chapter-house--the +refectory, undertaken by Leonardo Vaz, the chapter-house itself, and the +great undercroft of the dormitory stretching 607 feet away opposite the +west door, and scarcely begun in 1521, are purely Manoelino, so that the +date 1544 on the lower cloister must refer to the finishing of the +renaissance additions and not to the actual building, especially as the +upper cloister is even more completely Gothic than the lower. + +The sacristy, adjoining the north transept, must have been one of the +last parts of the original building to be finished, since in it the +vault springs in the centre from a beautiful round shaft covered with +renaissance carving and standing on a curious base. (Fig. 63.) + +The first chancel, which in 1523 was nearly ready, was thought to be too +small and so was pulled down, being replaced in 1551 by a rather poor +classic structure designed by Diogo de Torralva. In it now lie Dom +Manoel, his son Dom João III., and the unfortunate Dom Sebastião, his +great-grandson. Vasco da Gama and other national heroes have also found +a resting-place in the church, and the chapter-house is nearly filled +with the tomb of Herculano, the best historian of his country. + +Since the expulsion of the monks in 1834 the monastic buildings have +been turned into an excellent orphanage for boys, who to the number of +about seven hundred are taught some useful trade and who still use the +refectory as their dining-hall. The only other change since 1835 has +been the building of an exceedingly poor domed top to the south-west +tower instead of its original low spire, the erection of an upper story +above the long undercroft, and of a great entrance tower half-way +along, with the result that the tower soon fell, destroying the vault +below. + +[Illustration: O Mosheiro des Jerónimos de Sta Maria de Belem. + +1. CHAPTER HOVSE +2. SACRISTY +3. REFECTORY +4. CHOIR GALLERY +5. INTENDED ENTRANCE PORCH +6. VNDERCROFT OF DORMITORY +607 FEET LONG + +FOVNDED BY DOM MANOEL APRIL 21 1500. +BOVTACA ARCHITECT TILL 1511. SVCCEEDED BY +LOVRENÇO FERNANDES. LITTLE DONE TILL +1522 WHEN JOÃO DE CASTILHO SVCCEEDED. +LOWER CLOISTER FINISHED 1544. +CAPELLA MOR REBVILT 1551 BY DIOGO DE +TORRALVA. +] + +The plan of the church is simple but original. It consists of a nave of +four bays with two oblong towers to the west. The westernmost bay is +divided into two floors by a great choir gallery entered from the upper +cloister and also extending to the west between the towers, which on the +ground floor form chapels. The whole nave with its three aisles of equal +height measures from the west door to the transept some 165 feet long by +77 broad and over 80 high. East of the nave the church spreads out into +an enormous transept 95 feet long by 65 wide, and since the vast vault +is almost barrel-shaped considerably higher than the nave. North and +south of this transept are smaller square chapels, and to the east the +later chancel, the whole church being some 300 feet long inside. North +of the nave is the cloister measuring 175 feet by 185, on its western +side the refectory 125 feet by 30, and on the east next the transept a +sacristy 48 feet square, and north of it a chapter-house of about the +same size, but increased on its northern side by a large apse. In the +thickness of the north wall of the nave a stair leads from the transept +to the upper cloister, and a series of confessionals open alternately, +the one towards the church for the penitent and the next towards the +lower cloister for the father confessor. Lastly, separated from the +church by an open space once forming a covered porch, there stretches +away to the west the great undercroft, 607 feet long by 30 wide. + +Taking the outside of the church first. The walls of the transept and of +the transept chapel are perfectly plain, without buttresses, with but +little cornice and, now at least, without a cresting or parapet. They +are only relieved by an elaborate band of ornament which runs along the +whole south side of the church, by the tall round-headed windows, and in +the main transept by a big rope moulding which carries on the line of +the chapel roof. Plain as it is, this part of the church is singularly +imposing from its very plainness and from its great height, and were the +cornice and cresting complete and the original chancel still standing +would equal if not surpass in beauty the more elaborate nave. The +windows--one of which lights the main transept on each side of the +chancel, and two, facing east and west, the chapel which also has a +smaller round window looking south--are of great size, being about +thirty-four feet high by over six wide; they are deeply set in the thick +wall, are surrounded by two elaborate bands of carving, and have +crocketed ogee hood-moulds. + +The great band of ornament which is interrupted by the lower part of the +windows has a rope moulding at the top above which are carved and +interlacing branches, two rope mouldings at the bottom, and between them +a band of carving consisting of branches twisted into intertwining S's, +ending in leaves at the bottom and buds at the top, the whole being +nearly six feet across. + +The three eastern bays of the nave are separated by buttresses, square +below, polygonal above, and ending in round shafts and pinnacles at the +top. The cornice, here complete, is deep with its five carved mouldings, +but not of great projection. On it stands the cresting of elaborately +branched leaves, nearly six feet high. + +The central bay is entirely occupied by the great south door which, with +its niches, statues and pinnacles entirely hides the lower part of the +buttresses. The outer round arch of the door is thrown across between +the two buttresses, which for more than half their height are covered +with carved and twisted mouldings, with niches, canopies, corbels, and +statues all carved with the utmost elaboration. Immediately above the +great arch is a round-headed window, and on either side between it and +the buttresses are two rows of statues and niches in tiers separated by +elaborate statue-bearing shafts and pinnacles. Statues even occupy +niches on the window jamb, and a Virgin and Child stand up in front on +the end of the ogee drip-mould of the great arch. (Fig. 64.) + +It will be seen later how poorly Diogo de Castilho at Coimbra finished +off his window on the west front of Santa Cruz. Here the work was +probably finished first, and it is curious that Diogo in copying his +brother's design did not also copy the great canopy which overshadows +the window and which, rising through the cornice to a great pinnacled +niche, so successfully finishes the whole design. Here too the +buttresses carry up the design to the top of the wall, and with the +strong cornice and rich cresting save it from the weakness which at +Coimbra is emphasised by the irregularity of the walling above. + +Luckier than the door at Coimbra this one retains its central jamb, on +which, on a twisting shaft from whose base look out two charming lions, +there stands, most appropriately, Prince Henry the Navigator, without +whose enterprise Vasco da Gama would in all probability never have +sailed to India and so given occasion for the founding of this church. +Round each of the two entrances runs a band of renaissance carving, and +the flat reliefs in the divided tympanum are rather like some that may +be seen in France,[132] but otherwise the detail is all Gothic. Twisted +shafts bearing the corbels, elaborate canopies, crocketed finials, all +are rather Gothic than Manoelino. Since the material--a kind of +marble--is much less fine than the stone used at Batalha or in Coimbra +or Thomar, the carving is naturally less minute and ivory-like than it +is there, and this is especially the case with the foliage, which is +rather coarse. The statues too--except perhaps Prince Henry's--are a +little short and sturdy. + +The tall windows in the bays on either side of this great door are like +those in the transept, except that round them are three bands of carving +instead of two, the one in the centre formed of rods which at intervals +of about a foot are broken to cross each other in the middle, and that +beyond the jambs tall twisted shafts run up to round finials just under +the cornice. + +In the next bay to the west, where is the choir gallery inside, there +are two windows, one above the other, like the larger ones but smaller, +and united by a moulding which runs round both. + +The same is the case with the tower, where, however, the upper window is +divided into two, the lower being a circle and the upper having three +intersecting lights. The drip-mould is also treated in the common +Manoelino way with large spreading finials. Above the cornice, which is +less elaborate than in the nave, was a short octagonal drum capped by a +low spire, now replaced by a poor dome and flying buttresses. + +The west door once opened into a three-aisled porch now gone. It is much +less elaborate than the great south door, but shows great ingenuity in +fitting it in under what was once the porch vault. The twisted and +broken curves of the head follow a common Manoelino form, and below the +top of the broken hood-mould are two flying angels who support a large +corbel on which is grouped the Holy Family. On the jambs are three +narrow bands of foliage, and one of figures standing under renaissance +canopies. On either side are spreading corbels and large niches with +curious bulbous canopies[133] under which kneel Dom Manoel on the left +presented by St. Jerome, and on the right, presented by St. John the +Baptist, his second wife, Queen Maria--like the first, Queen Isabel, a +daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and the aunt of his third wife, +Leonor. These figures are evidently portraits, and even if they were +flattered show that they were not a handsome couple. + +Below these large corbels, on which are carved large angels, are two +smaller niches with figures, one on each side of the twisted shaft. +Renaissance curves form the heads of these as they do of larger niches, +one on each side of the Holy Family above, which contain the +Annunciation and the Visit of the Wise Men. + +Beyond Dom Manoel and his wife are square shafts with more niches and +figures, and beyond them again flatter niches, half Manoelino, half +renaissance. The rest of the west front above the ruined porch is plain +except for a large round window lighting the choir gallery. The +north-west tower does not rise above the roof. + +Outside, the church as a whole is neither well proportioned nor +graceful. The great mass of the transept is too overwhelming, the nave +not long enough, and above all, the large windows of the nave too large. +It would have looked much better had they been only the size of the +smaller windows lighting the choir gallery--omitting the one below, and +this would further have had the advantage of not cutting up the +beautiful band of ornament. But the weakest part of the whole design are +the towers, which must always have been too low, and yet would have been +too thin for the massive building behind them had they been higher. Now, +of course, the one finished with a dome has nothing to recommend it, +neither height, nor proportion, nor design. Yet the doorway taken by +itself, or together with the bay on either side, is a very successful +composition, and on a brilliantly sunny day so blue is the sky and so +white the stone that hardly any one would venture to criticise it for +being too elaborate and over-charged, though no doubt it might seem so +were the stone dingy and the sky grey and dull. + +The church of Belem may be ill-proportioned and unsatisfactory outside, +but within it is so solemn and vast as to fill one with surprise. +Compared with many churches the actual area is not really very great nor +is it very high, yet there is perhaps no other building which gives such +an impression of space and of freedom. Entering from the brilliant +sunlight it seems far darker than, with large windows, should be the +case, and however hideous the yellow-and-blue checks with which they are +filled may be, they have the advantage of keeping out all brilliant +light; the huge transept too is not well lit and gives that feeling of +vastness and mystery which, as the supports are few and slender, would +otherwise be wanting, while looking westwards the same result is +obtained by the dark cavernous space under the gallery. (Fig. 65.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 64. + +BELEM. + +SOUTH SIDE OF CHURCH OF JERONYMOS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65. + +BELEM. + +NAVE OF CHURCH LOOKING WEST.] + +On the south side the walls are perfectly plain, broken only by the +windows, whose jambs are enriched with empty niches; on the north the +small windows are placed very high up, the twisted vaulting shafts only +come down a short way to a string course some way below the windows, +leaving a great expanse of cliff-like wall. At the bottom are the +confessional doors, so small that they add greatly to the scale, and +above them tall narrow niches and their canopies. But the nave piers are +the most astonishing part of the whole building. Not more than three +feet thick, they rise up to a height of nearly seventy feet to support a +great stone vault. Four only of the six stand clear from floor to roof, +for the two western are embedded at the bottom in the jambs of the +gallery arches. From their capitals the vaulting ribs spread out in +every direction, being constructively not unlike an English fan vault, +and covering the whole roof with a network of lines. The piers are +round, stand on round moulded pedestals, and are divided into narrow +strips by eight small shafts. The height is divided into four nearly +equal parts by well-moulded rings, encircling the whole pier, and in the +middle of the second of these divisions are corbels and canopies for +statues. The capitals are round and covered with leaves, but scarcely +exceed the piers in diameter. Besides all this each strip between the +eight thin shafts is covered from top to bottom--except where the empty +niches occur--with carving in slight relief, either foliage or, more +usually, renaissance arabesques. + +Larger piers stand next the transept, cross-shaped, formed of four of +the thinner piers set together, and about six feet thick. They are like +the others, except that there are corbels and canopies for statues in +the angles, and that a capital is formed by a large moulding carved with +what is meant for egg and tongue. From this, well moulded and carved +arches, round in the central and pointed in the side aisles, cross the +nave from side to side, dividing its vault from that of the transept. + +This transept vault, perhaps the largest attempted since the days of the +Romans--for it covers a space measuring about ninety-five feet by +sixty-five--is three bays long from north to south and two wide from +east to west; formed of innumerable ribs springing from these points--of +which those at the north and south ends are placed immediately above the +arches leading to the chapels--it practically assumes in the middle the +shape of a flat oblong dome. + +Now, though the walls are thick, there are no buttresses, and the skill +and daring required to build a vault sixty-five feet wide and about a +hundred feet high resting on side walls on one side and on piers +scarcely six feet thick on the other must not only excite the admiration +of every one, especially when it is remembered that no damage was caused +by the great earthquake which shook Lisbon to pieces in 1755, but must +also raise the wish that what has been so skilfully done here had been +also done in the Capellas Imperfeitas at Batalha. + +At the north end of the main transept are two doors, one leading to the +cloister and one to the sacristy. A straight and curved moulding +surrounds their trefoil heads under a double twining hood-mould. +Outside, other mouldings rise high above the whole to form a second +large trefoil, whose hood-mould curves into two great crocketed circles +before rising to a second ogee. + +The chancel has a round and the chapels pointed entrance arches, formed, +as are the jambs, of two bands of carving and two thick twisted +mouldings. Tomb recesses, added later, with strapwork pediments line the +chapels, and at the entrance to the chancel are two pulpits, for the +Gospel and Epistle. These are rather like João de Ruão's pulpit at +Coimbra in outline, but supported on a large capital are quite Gothic, +as are the large canopies which rise above them. + +Strong arches with cable mouldings lead to the space under the gallery, +which is supported by an elaborate vault, elliptical in the central and +pointed in the side aisles. + +In the gallery itself--only to be entered from the upper cloister--are +the choir stalls, of Brazil wood, added in 1560, perhaps from the +designs of Diogo da Carta.[134] + +With the earlier stalls at Santa Cruz and at Funchal, and the later at +Evora, these are almost the only ones left which have not been replaced +by rococo extravagances. + +The back is divided into large panels three stalls wide, each containing +a painting of a saint, and separated by panelled and carved Corinthian +pilasters. Below each painting is an oblong panel with, in the centre, a +beautifully carved head looking out of a circle, and at the sides bold +carvings of leaves, dragons, sirens, or animals, while beautiful figures +of saints stand in round-headed niches under the pilasters. At the ends +are larger pilasters, and a cornice carried on corbels serves as canopy. +Each of the lower stalls has a carved panel under the upper book-board, +but the small figures which stood between them on the arms are nearly +all gone. + +If 1560 be the real date, the carving is extraordinarily early in +character; the execution too is excellent, though perhaps the heads +under the paintings are on too large a scale for woodwork, still they +are not at all coarse, and would be worthy of the best Spanish or French +sculptors. + +The cloister, nearly, but not quite square, has six bays on each side, +of which the four central bays are of four lights each, while narrower +ones at the ends have no tracery. In the traceried bays the arches are +slightly elliptical, subdivided by two round-headed arches, which in +turn enclose two smaller round arches enriched some with trefoil cusps, +some with curious hanging pieces of tracery which are put, not in the +middle, but a little to the side nearer the central shaft. The shafts +are round, very like those at Batalha, and, like every inch of the arch +and tracery mouldings, are covered with ornament; some are twisted, some +diapered, some covered with renaissance detail. Broad bands too of +carving run round the inside and the outside of the main arches, the +inner being almost renaissance and the outer purely Manoelino. The vault +of many ribs, varying in arrangement in the different walks, is entirely +Gothic, while all the doors--except the double opening leading to the +chapter-house, which has beautifully carved renaissance panels on the +jambs--are Manoelino. The untraceried openings at the ends are fringed +with very extraordinary lobed projections, and on the solid pieces of +walling at the corners are carved very curious and interesting coats of +arms crosses and emblems worked in with beautifully cut leaves and +birds. (Figs. 66 and 67.) + +Outside, between each bay, wide buttresses project, of which the +front--formed into a square pilaster--is enriched with panels of +beautiful renaissance work, while the back part is fluted or panelled. +From the top mouldings of these pilasters, rather higher than the +capitals of the openings, elliptical arches with a vault behind are +thrown across from pier to pier with excellent effect. Now, the base +mouldings of these panelled pilasters either do not quite fit those of +the fluted strips behind, or else are cut off against them, as are also +the top mouldings of the fluted part; further, the fluted part runs up +rather awkwardly into the vault, so that it seems reasonable to +conjecture that these square renaissance pilasters and the arches may be +an after-thought, added because it was found that the original +buttresses were not quite strong enough for their work, and this too +would account for the purely renaissance character of the carving on +them, while the rest is almost entirely Gothic or Manoelino. The arches +are carried diagonally across the corners, in a very picturesque manner, +and they all help to keep out the direct sunlight and to throw most +effective shadows. + +The parapet above these arches is carved with very pleasing renaissance +details, and above each pier rise a niche and saint. + +The upper cloister is simpler than the lower. All the arches are round +with a big splay on each side carved with four-leaved flowers. They are +cusped at the top, and at the springing two smaller cusped arches are +thrown across to a pinnacled shaft in the centre. The buttresses between +them are covered with spiral grooves, and are all finished off with +twisted pinnacles. Inside the pointed vault is much simpler than in the +walks below. + +Here the tracery is very much less elaborate than in the Claustro Real +at Batalha, but as scarcely a square inch of the whole cloister is left +uncarved the effect is much more disturbed and so less pleasing. + +Beautiful though most of the ornament is, there is too much of it, and +besides, the depressed shape of the lower arches is bad and ungraceful, +and the attempt at tracery in the upper walks is more curious than +successful. + +The chapter-house too, though a large and splendid room, would have +looked better with a simpler vault and without the elliptical arches of +the apse recesses. + +The refectory, without any other ornament than the bold ribs of its +vaulted roof, and a dado of late tiles, is far more pleasing. + +Altogether, splendid as it is, Belem is far less pleasing, outside at +least, than the contemporary work at Batalha or at Thomar, for, like the +tower of São Vicente near by, it is wanting in those perfect proportions +which more than richness of detail give charm to a building. Inside it +is not so, and though many of the vaulting ribs might be criticised as +useless + +[Illustration: FIG. 66. + +BELEM. + +CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 67. + +BELEM. + +LOWER CLOISTER.] + +and the whole vault as wanting in simplicity, yet there is no such +impressive interior in Portugal and not many elsewhere. + +The very over-elaboration which spoils the cloister is only one of the +results of all the wealth which flowed in from the East, and so, like +the whole monastery, is a worthy memorial of all that had been done to +further exploration from the time of Prince Henry, till his efforts were +crowned with success by Vasco da Gama. + +[Sidenote: Conceição, Velha.] + +There can be little doubt that the transept front of the church of the +Conceição Velha was also designed by João de Castilho. The church was +built after 1520 on the site of a synagogue, and was almost entirely +destroyed by the earthquake of 1755. Only the transept front has +survived, robbed of its cornice and cresting, and now framed in plain +pilasters and crowned by a pediment. The two windows, very like those at +Belem, have beautiful renaissance details and saints in niches on the +jambs. + +The large door has a round arch with uprights at the sides rising to a +horizontal crested moulding. Below, these uprights have a band of +renaissance carving on the outer side, and in front a canopied niche +with a well-modelled figure. Above they become semicircular and end in +sphere-bearing spirelets. The great round arch is filled with two orders +of mouldings, one a broad strip of arabesque, the other a series of +kneeling angels below and of arabesque above. The actual openings are +formed of two round-headed arches whose outer mouldings cross each other +on the central jamb. Above them are two reversed semicircles, and then a +great tympanum carved with a figure of Our Lady sheltering popes, +bishops, and saints under her robe: a carving which seems to have lately +taken the place of a large window. (Fig. 68.) + +As it now stands the front is not pleasing. It is too wide, and the +great spreading pediment is very ugly. Of course it ought not to be +judged by its present appearance, and yet it must be admitted that the +windows are too large and come too near the ground, and that much of the +detail is coarse. Still it is of interest if only because it is the only +surviving building closely related to the church of Belem. Built perhaps +to commemorate the expulsion of the Jews, it shared the fate of the +Jesuits who instigated the expulsion, and was destroyed only a few years +before they were driven from the country by the Marques de Pombal. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS + + +If João de Castilho and his brother Diogo were really natives of one of +the Basque provinces, they might rightly be included among the foreign +artists who played such an important part in Portugal towards the end of +Dom Manoel's reign and the beginning of that of his son, Dom João III. +Yet the earlier work of João de Castilho at Thomar shows little trace of +that renaissance influence which the foreigners, and especially the +Frenchmen, were to do so much to introduce. + +[Sidenote: Santa Cruz, Coimbra.] + +A great house of the Canon Regular of St. Augustine had been founded at +Coimbra by Dom Affonso Henriques for his friend São Theotonio in 1131. +But with the passage of centuries the church and monastic building of +Sta. Cruz had become dilapidated, and were no longer deemed worthy of so +wealthy and important a body. So in 1502 Dom Manoel determined to +rebuild them and to adorn the church, and it was for this adorning that +he summoned so many sculptors in stone and in wood to his aid. + +The first architect of the church was Marcos Pires, to whom are due the +cloister and the whole church except the west door, which was finished +by his successor Diogo de Castilho with the help of Master Nicolas, a +Frenchman. + +One Gregorio Lourenço seems to have been what would now be called master +of the works, and from his letters to Dom Manoel we learn how the work +was going on. After Dom Manoel's death in 1521 he writes to Dom João +III., telling him what, of all the many things his father the late king +had ordered, was already finished and what was still undone. + +The church consists of a nave of four bays, measuring some 105 feet by +39, with flanking chapels, the whole lined with eighteenth-century +tiles, mostly blue and white. There are also a great choir gallery at +the west end, a chancel, polygonal + +[Illustration: FIG. 68. + +LISBON. + +CONCEIÇÃO VELHA.] + +within but square outside, 54 feet long by 20 broad, with a +seventeenth-century sacristy to the south, a cloister to the north, and +chapels, one of which was the chapter-house, forming a kind of passage +from sacristy to cloister behind the chancel. + +By 1518 the church must have been already well advanced, for in January +of that year Gregorio Lourenço writes to Dom Manoel saying that 'the +wall of the dormitory was shaken and therefore I have sent for "Pere +Anes"--Pedro Annes had been master builder of the royal palace, now the +university at Coimbra, and being older may have had more experience than +Marcos Pires, the designer of the monastery--who had it shored up, and +they say that after the vault of the cloister is finished and the wooden +floors in it will be quite safe. Also six days ago came the master of +the reredos from Seville and set to work at once to finish the great +reredos, for which he has worked all the wood--he must surely have +brought it with him from Seville--but the glazier has not yet come to +finish the windows.' + +[Illustration: PLAN OF STA. CRUZ] + +On 22nd July following he writes again that all but one of the vaults of +the cloister were finished--'and Marcos Pirez works well, and the master +of the reredos has finished the tabernacle, and the "cadeiras" [that is +probably, sedilia] and the bishop has come to see them and they are very +good, and the master who is making the tombs of the kings is working at +his job, and has already much stonework.' + +These tombs of the kings are the monuments of Dom Affonso Henriques on +the north wall of the chancel and of Dom Sancho I. on the south. The two +first kings of Portugal had originally been buried in front of the old +church, and were now for the first time given monuments worthy of their +importance in the history of their country. + +In 1521 Dom Manoel died, and next year Gregorio tells his successor what +his father had ordered; after speaking of the pavement, the vault of São +Theotonio's Chapel, the dormitory with its thirty beds and its +fireplace, the refectory, the royal tombs and a great screen twenty-five +palms, or about eighteen feet high, he comes to the pulpit--'This, Sir, +which is finished, all who see it say, that in Spain there is no piece +of stone of better workmanship, for this 20$000 have been paid,' leaving +some money still due. + +He then speaks of the different reredoses, tombs of two priors, silver +candlesticks, a great silver cross made by Eytor Gonsalves, a goldsmith +of Lisbon, much other church plate, and then goes on to say that a +lectern was ordered for the choir but was not made and was much needed, +as was a silver monstrance, and that the monastery had no money to pay +Christovam de Figueiredo for painting the great reredos of the high +altar and those of the other chapels, 'and, Sir, it is necessary that +they should be painted.' + +Besides making so many gifts to Sta. Cruz, Dom Manoel endowed it with +many privileges. The priors were exempt from the jurisdiction of the +bishop, and had themselves complete control over their own dependent +churches. All the canons were chaplains to the king, and after the +university came back to Coimbra from Lisbon in 1539 Dom João III. made +the priors perpetual chancellors.[135] + +By 1522 then the church must have been practically ready, though some +carving still had to be done. + +Marcos Pires died in 1524 and was succeeded by Diogo de Castilho, and in +a letter dated from Evora in that year the king orders a hundred gold +cruzados to be paid to Diogo and to Master Nicolas[136] for the statues +on the west door which were still wanting, and two years later in +September another letter granted Diogo the privilege of riding on a +mule.[137] + +The interest of the church itself is very inferior to that of the +different pieces of church furniture, nearly all the work of foreigners, +with which it was adorned, and of which some, though not all, survive to +the present day. + +Inside there is nothing very remarkable in the structure of the church +except the fine vaulting with its many moulded ribs, the large windows +with their broken Manoelino heads, and the choir gallery which occupies +nearly two bays at the west end. Vaulted underneath, it opens to the +church by a large elliptical arch which springs from jambs ornamented +with beautiful candelabrum shafts. + +Of the outside little is to be seen except the west front, one of the +least successful designs of that period. + +In the centre--now partly blocked up by eighteenth-century additions, +and sunk several feet below the street--is a great moulded arch, about +eighteen feet across and once divided into two by a central jamb bearing +a figure of Our Lord, whence the door was called 'Portal da Majestade'; +above the arch a large round-headed window, deeply recessed, lights the +choir gallery, and between it and the top of the arch are three +renaissance niches, divided by pilasters, and containing three +figures--doubtless some of those for which Diogo de Castilho and Master +Nicolas were paid one hundred cruzados in 1524. The window with its +mouldings is much narrower than the door, and is joined to the tall +pinnacles which rise to the right and left of the great opening by +Gothic flying buttresses. Between the side pinnacles and the central +mass of the window a curious rounded and bent shaft rises from the +hood-mould of the door to end in a semi-classic column between two +niches, and from the shaft there grow out two branches to support the +corbels on which the niche statues stand. All this is very like the +great south door of the Jeronymite monastery at Belem, the work of +Diogo's brother João de Castilho; both have a wide door below with a +narrower window above, surrounded by a mass of pinnacles and statues, +but here the lower door is far too wide, and the upper window too small, +and besides the wall is set back a foot or two immediately on each side +of the window so that the surface is more broken up. Again, instead of +the whole rising up with a great pinnacled niche to pierce the cornice +and to dominate parapet and cresting, the drip-mould of the window only +gives a few ugly twists, and leaves a blank space between the window +head and the straight line of the cornice and parapet; a line in no way +improved by the tall rustic cross or the four broken pinnacles which +rise above it. Straight crested parapets also crown the wall where it is +set back, but at the sides the two corners grow into eight-sided turrets +ending in low crocketed stone roofs. Of course the whole front has +suffered much from the raising of the street level, but it can never +have been beautiful, for the setting back of part of the wall looks +meaningless, and the turrets are too small for towers and yet far too +large for angle pinnacles. (Fig. 69.) + +Although the soft stone is terribly perished, greater praise can be +given to the smaller details, especially to the figures, which show +traces of considerable vigour and skill. + +If the church shows that Marcos Pires was not a great architect, the +cloister still more marks his inferiority to the Fernandes or to João de +Castilho, though with its central fountain and its garden it is +eminently picturesque. Part of it is now, and probably all once was, of +two stories. The buttresses are picturesque, polygonal below, a cluster +of rounded shafts above, and are carried up in front of the upper +cloister to end in a large cross. All the openings have segmental +pointed heads with rather poor mouldings. Each is subdivided into two +lights with segmental round heads, supporting a vesica-like opening. All +the shafts are round, with round moulded bases and round Manoelino caps. +The central shaft has a ring moulding half-way up, and all, including +the flat arches and the vesicae, are either covered with leaves, or are +twisted into ropes, but without any of that wonderful delicacy which is +so striking at Batalha. Across one corner a vault has been thrown +covering a fountain, and though elsewhere the ribs are plainly moulded, +here they are covered with leaf carving, and altogether make this +north-east corner the most picturesque part of the whole cloister. (Fig. +70.) + +The upper walk with its roof of wood is much simpler, there being three +flat arches to each bay upheld by short round shafts. + +Now to turn from the church itself and its native builders to the +beautiful furniture provided for it by foreign skill. Much of it has +vanished. The church plate when it became unfashionable was sent to Gôa, +the great metal screen made by Antonius Fernandes is gone, and so is the +reredos carved by a master from Seville and painted by Christovão de +Figueredo. There still hang on the wall of the sacristy two or three + +[Illustration: FIG. 69. + +COIMBRA. + +WEST FRONT OF STA. CRUZ.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 70. + +COIMBRA. + +CLOISTER OF STA. CRUZ.] + +pictures which may have formed part of this reredos. They are high up +and very dirty, but seem to have considerable merit, especially one of +'Pentecost' which is signed 'Velascus.' The 'Pentecost' still has for +its frame some pieces of beautiful early renaissance moulding not unlike +what may still be seen on the reredos at Funchal, and it is just the +size of a panel for a large reredos. Of course 'Velascus' is not Grão +Vasco, though the name is the same, nor can he be Christovão de +Figueredo, but perhaps the painting spoken of by Gregorio Lourenço as +done by Christovão may only have been of the framing and not necessarily +of the panels. + +These are gone, but there are still left the royal tombs, the choir +stalls, the pulpit, and three beautiful carved altar-pieces in the +cloister. + +The royal tombs are both practically alike. In each the king lies under +a great round arch, on a high altar-tomb, on whose front, under an egg +and tongue moulding a large scroll bearing an inscription is upheld by +winged children. The arch is divided into three bands of carving, +one--the widest--carved with early renaissance designs, the next which +is also carried down the jambs, with very rich Gothic foliage, and the +outermost with more leaves. The back of each tomb is divided into three +by tall Gothic pinnacles, and contains three statues on elaborate +corbels and under very intricate canopies, of which the central rises in +a spire to the top of the arch. + +On the jambs, under the renaissance band of carving, are two statues one +above the other on Gothic corbels but under renaissance canopies. + +Beyond the arch great piers rise up with three faces separated by Gothic +pinnacles. On each face there is at the bottom--above the +interpenetrating bases--a classic medallion encompassed by Manoelino +twisting stems and leaves, and higher up two statues one above the +other. Of these the lower stands on a Gothic corbel under a renaissance +canopy, and the upper, standing on the canopy, has over it another tall +canopy Gothic in style. Higher up the piers rise up to the vault with +many pinnacles and buttresses, and between them, above the arch, are +other figures in niches and two angels holding the royal arms. + +The design of the whole is still very Manoelino, and therefore the +master of the royal tombs spoken of by Gregorio Lourenço was probably a +Portuguese, but the skill shown in modelling the figures and the +renaissance details are something quite new. (Fig. 71.) + +Many Frenchmen are known to have worked in Santa Cruz. One, Master +Nicolas, has been met already working at Belem and at the west door +here, and others--Longuim, Philipo Uduarte, and finally João de Ruão +(Jean de Rouen)--are spoken of as having worked at the tombs. + +Though the figures are good with well-modelled draperies, their faces, +or those of most of them, are rather expressionless, and some of them +look too short--all indeed being less successful than those on the +pulpit, the work of João de Ruão. It is likely then that the figures are +mostly the work of the lesser known men and not of Master Nicolas or of +João de Ruão, though João, who came later to Portugal, may have been +responsible for some of the renaissance canopies which are not at all +unlike some of his work on the pulpit. + +The pulpit projects from the north wall of the church between two of the +chapels. In shape it is a half-octagon set diagonally, and is upheld by +circular corbelling. It was ready by the time Gregorio Lourenço wrote to +Dom João III. in 1522, but still wanted a suitable finishing to its +door. This Gregorio urged Dom João to add, but it was never done, and +now the entrance is only framed by a simple classic architrave. + +Now Georges d'Amboise, the second archbishop of that name to hold the +see of Rouen, began the beautiful tomb, on which he and his uncle kneel +in prayer, in the year 1520, and the pulpit at Coimbra was finished +before March 1522. + +Among the workmen employed on this tomb a Jean de Rouen is mentioned, +but he left in 1521. The detail of the tomb at Rouen and that of the +pulpit here are alike in their exceeding fineness and beauty, and a man +thought worthy of taking part in the carving of the tomb might well be +able to carry out the pulpit; besides, on it are cut initials or signs +which have been read as J.R.[138] The J or I is distinct, the R much +less so, but the carver of the pulpit was certainly a Frenchman well +acquainted with the work of the French renaissance. It may therefore be +accepted with perhaps some likelihood, that the Jean de Rouen who left +Normandy in 1521, came then to Coimbra, carved this pulpit, and is the +same who as João de Ruão is mentioned in later documents as + +[Illustration: FIG. 71. + +COIMBRA, STA. CRUZ. + +TOMB OF D. SANCHO I.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 72. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CRUZ. + +PULPIT.] + +still working for Santa Cruz, where he signed a discharge as late as +1549.[139] + +The whole pulpit is but small, not more than about five feet high +including the corbelled support, and all carved with a minuteness and +delicacy not to be surpassed and scarcely to be equalled by such a work +as the tomb at Rouen. At the top is a finely moulded cornice enriched +with winged heads, tiny egg and tongue and other carving. Below on each +of the four sides are niches whose shell tops rest on small pilasters +all covered with the finest ornaments, and in each niche sits a Father +of the Western Church, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Gregory, and St. +Ambrose. Their feet rest on slightly projecting bases, on the front of +each of which is a small panel measuring about four inches by two carved +with tiny figures and scenes in slight relief. On the shell heads, which +project a little in the centre, there stand, above St. Augustine three +minute figures of boys with wreaths, the figures being about three or +four inches high, above St. Jerome sit two others, with masks hanging +from their arms, upholding a shield and a cross of the Order of Christ. +Those above St. Gregory support a sphere, and above St. Ambrose one +stands alone with a long-necked bird on each side. At each angle two +figures, one above the other, each about eight inches high, stand under +canopies the delicacy of whose carving could scarcely be surpassed in +ivory. They represent, above, Religion with Faith, Hope, and Charity, +and below, four prophets. The corbelled support is made up of a great +many different mouldings, most of them enriched in different ways. + +Near the top under the angles of the pulpit are beautiful cherubs' +heads. About half-way down creatures with wings and human heads capped +with winged helmets grow out of a mass of flat carving, and at the very +bottom is a kind of winged dragon whose five heads stretch up across the +lower mouldings. (Fig. 72.) + +Altogether the pulpit is well worthy of the praise given it by Gregorio; +there may be more elaborate pieces of carving in Spain, but scarcely one +so beautiful in design and in execution, and indeed it may almost be +doubted whether France itself can produce a finer piece of work. The +figure sculpture is worthy of the best French artists, the whole design +is elaborate, but not too much so, considering the smallness of the +scale, and the execution is such as could only have been carried out in +alabaster or the finest limestone, such as that found at Ançã not far +off, and used at Coimbra for all delicate work.[140] + +In the discharge signed by João de Ruão in 1549 reredoses are spoken of +as worked by him. There is nothing in the document to show whether these +are the three great pieces of sculpture in the cloisters each of which +must once have been meant for a reredos. Unfortunately in the +seventeenth century they were walled up, and were only restored to view +not many years ago, and though much destroyed, enough survives to show +that they were once worthy of the pulpit. + +They represent 'Christ shown to the people by Pilate,' the 'Bearing of +the Cross,' and the 'Entombment.' + +In each there is at the bottom a shelf narrower than the carving above, +and uniting the two, a broad band wider at the top than at the bottom, +most exquisitely carved in very slight relief, with lovely early +renaissance scrolls, and with winged boys holding shields or medallions +in the centre. Above is a large square framework, flanked at the sides +by tall candelabrum shafts on corbels, and finished at the top by a +moulding or, above the 'Bearing of the Cross,' by a crested entablature, +with beautifully carved frieze. Within this framework the stone is cut +back with sloping sides, carved with architectural detail, arches, +doors, entablatures in perspective. At the top is a panelled canopy. + +In the 'Ecce Homo' on the left is a flight of steps leading up to the +judgment seat of Pilate, who sits under a large arch, with Our Lord and +a soldier on his right. The other half of the composition has a large +arch in the background, and in front a crowd of people some of whom are +seen coming through the opening in the sloping side. + +In the 'Bearing of the Cross' the background is taken up by the walls +and towers of Jerusalem. Our Lord with a great T-shaped cross is in the +centre, with St. Veronica on the right and a great crowd of people +behind, while other persons look out of the perspective arches at the +side. (Fig. 73.) + +In all, especially perhaps in the 'Ecce Homo,' the composition is good, +and the modelling of the figures excellent. Unfortunately the faces are +much decayed and perhaps the figures may be rather wanting in repose, +and yet even in their decay they are very beautiful pieces of work, and +show that João de Ruão--if he it was who carved them--was as able to +design a large composition as to carve a small pulpit. Under the 'Ecce +Homo,' in a tablet held by winged boys who grow out of the ends of the +scrolls, there is a date which seems to read 1550. The 'Quitaçam' was +signed on the 11th of September 1549, and if 1550 is the date here +carved it may show when the work was finally completed.[141] + +There once stood in the refectory a terra cotta group of the 'Last +Supper.' Now nothing is left but a few fragments in the Museum, but +there too the figures of the apostles were well modelled and well +executed. + +Of the other works ordered by Dom Manoel the only one which still +remains are the splendid stalls in the western choir gallery. These in +two tiers of seats run round the three walls of the gallery except where +interrupted by the large west window. They can hardly be the 'cadeiras' +or seats mentioned in Gregorio's letter of July 1518, for it is surely +impossible that they should have been begun in January and finished in +July however active the Seville master may have been, and judging from +their carving they seem more Flemish than Spanish, and we know that +Flemings had been working not very long before on the cathedral reredos. +The lower tier of seats has Gothic panelling below, good Miserere seats, +arms, on each of which sits a monster, and on the top between each and +supporting the book-board of the upper row, small figures of men, with +bowed backs, beggars, pilgrims, men and women all most beautifully +carved. The panels behind the upper tier are divided by twisted +Manoelino shafts bearing Gothic pinnacles, and the upper part of each +panel is enriched with deeply undercut leaves and finials surrounding +armillary spheres. Above the panels, except over the end stalls where +sat the Dom Prior and the other dignitaries, and which have higher +canopies, there runs a continuous canopy panelled with Gothic +quatrefoils, and having in front a fringe of interlacing cusps. Between +this and the cresting is a beautiful carved cornice of leaves and of +crosses of the Order of Christ, and the cresting itself is formed by a +number of carved scenes, cities, forests, ships, separated by saintly +figures and surmounted by a carved band from which grow up great curling +leaves and finials. These scenes are supposed to represent the great +discoveries of Vasco da Gama and of Pedro Alvares Cabral in India and in +Brazil, but if this is really so the carvers must have been left to +their own imagination, for the towns do not look particularly Indian, +nor do the forests suggest the tropical luxuriance of Brazil: perhaps +the small three-masted ships alone, with their high bows and stern, +represent the reality. (Fig. 74.) + +As a whole the design is entirely Gothic, only at the ends of each row +of stalls is there anything else, and there the panels are carved with +renaissance arabesque, which, being gilt like all the other carving, +stands out well from the dark brown background. + +These are almost the only mediæval stalls left in the country. Those at +Thomar were burnt by the French, those in the Carmo at Lisbon destroyed +by the earthquake, and those at Alcobaça have disappeared. Only at +Funchal are there stalls of the same date, for those at Vizeu seem +rather later and are certainly poorer, their chief interest now being +derived from the old Chinese stamped paper with which their panels are +covered. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Sé Velha.] + +If the stalls at Santa Cruz are the only examples of this period still +left on the mainland, the Sé Velha possesses the only great mediæval +reredos. In Spain great structures are found in almost every cathedral +rising above the altar to the vault in tier upon tier of niche and +panel. Richly gilded, with fine paintings on the panels, with delicate +Gothic pinnacles and tabernacle work, they and the metal screens which +half hide them do much to make Spanish churches the most interesting in +the world. Unfortunately in Portugal the bad taste of the eighteenth +century has replaced all those that may have existed by great and heavy +erections of elaborately carved wood. All covered with gold, the +Corinthian columns, twisted and wreathed with vines, the overloaded +arches and elaborate entablatures are now often sadly out of place in +some old interior, and make one grieve the more over the loss of the +simpler or more appropriate reredos which came before them. + +Dom Jorge d'Almeida held the see of Coimbra and the countship of +Arganil--for the bishops are always counts of + +[Illustration: FIG. 73. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CRUZ. + +REREDOS IN CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 74. + +COIMBRA. + +STALLS, STA. CRUZ.] + +Arganil--from 1481 till 1543, when he died at the age of eighty-five; +during these sixty-two years he did much to beautify his church, and of +these additions the oldest is the reredos put up in 1508. This we learn +from a 'quitaçã' or discharge granted in that year to 'Mestre Vlimer +framengo, ora estante nesta cidada, e seu Parceiro João Dipri,' that is, +to 'Master Vlimer a Fleming, now in this city, and to his partner John +of Ypres.' + +The reredos stands well back in the central apse; it is divided into +five upright parts, of which that in the centre is twice as wide as any +of the others, while the outermost with the strips of panelling and +carving which come beyond them are canted, following the line of the +apse wall. Across these five upright divisions and in a straight line is +thrown a great flattened trefoil arch joined to the back with Gothic +vaulting. In the middle over the large division it is fringed with the +intersecting circles of curved branches, while from the top to the +blue-painted apse vault with its gilded ribs and stars a forest of +pinnacles, arches, twisting and intertwining branches and leaves rises +high above the bishop's arms and mitre and the two angels who uphold +them. + +Below the arch the five parts are separated by pinnacle rising above +pinnacle. At the bottom under long canopies of extraordinary elaboration +are scenes in high relief. Above them in the middle the apostles watch +the Assumption of the Virgin; saints stand in the other divisions, one +in each, and over their heads are immense canopies rising across a +richly cusped background right up to the vaulting of the arch. Though +not so high, the canopy over the Virgin is far more intricate as it +forms a great curve made up of seven little cusped arches with +innumerable pinnacles and spires. (Fig. 75.) + +Being the work of Flemings, the reredos is naturally full of that +exuberant Flemish detail which may be seen in a Belgian town-hall or in +the work of an early Flemish painter; and if the stalls at Santa Cruz +are not by this same Master Vlimer, the intertwining branches on the +cresting and the sharply carved leaves on the panels show that he had +followers or pupils. + +Like most Flemish productions, the reredos is wanting in grace. Though +it throws a fine deep shadow the great arch is very ugly in shape and +the great canopies are far too large, and yet the mass of gold, well lit +by the windows of the lantern and rising to the dim blue vault, makes a +singularly fine ending to the old and solemn church. + +More important than the reredos in the art history of the country are +some other changes made by Dom Jorge, which show that the Frenchmen +working at Santa Cruz were soon employed elsewhere. + +On the north side of the nave a door leads out of the church, and this +these Frenchmen entirely transformed. + +At the bottom, between two much decayed Corinthian pilasters, is the +door reached by a flight of steps. The arch is of several orders, one +supported by thin columns, one by square fluted pilasters. Within these, +at right angles to each other, are broad faces carved and resting on +piers at whose corners are tiny round columns, in two stories, with +carved reliefs between the upper pair. In the tympanum is a beautiful +Madonna and Child, and two round medallions with heads adorn the +spandrils above the arch. Beyond each pilaster is a canted side joining +the porch to the wall and having a large niche and figure near the top. +The whole surface has been covered with exquisite arabesques like those +below the reredoses in the cloister at Santa Cruz, but they have now +almost entirely perished. + +Above the entablature a second story rises forming a sort of portico. At +the corners are square fluted Corinthian pilasters; between them in +front runs a balustrading, divided into three by the pedestals of two +slender columns, Corinthian also, and there are others next the +pilasters. The entablature has been most delicate, with the finest +wreaths carved on the frieze. Over the canted sides are built small +round-domed turrets. + +Above this the third story reaches nearly up to the top of the wall. In +the middle is an arch resting on slender columns and supporting a +pediment; on either side are square niches with columns at the sides, +beyond them fan-shaped semicircles, and at the corners vases. Behind +this there rise to the top of the battlements four panelled Doric +pilasters with cornice above, and two deep round-headed niches with +figures, one on each side. + +Inside the church are pilasters and a wealth of delicate relief. + +Perhaps the whole may not be much more fortunate than most attempts to +build up a tall composition by piling columns one above the other, and +the top part is certainly too heavy + +[Illustration: FIG. 75. + +COIMBRA. + +SÉ VELHA. + +REREDOS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 76. + +COIMBRA. + +SÉ VELHA. + +CHAPEL OF SÃO PEDRO.] + +for what comes below it. Yet the details are or were beautiful, and the +portico above the door most graceful and pleasing, though, being +unfortunately on the north side, the effect is lost of the deep shadow +the sun would have thrown and the delicacy of the mouldings almost +wasted. + +Less important are the changes made to the north transept door. Fluted +pilasters and Corinthian columns were inserted below, a medallion with a +figure cut on the tympanum, and small coupled shafts resting on the +Doric capitals of the pilasters built to uphold the entablature. + +Inside the most important, as well as the most beautiful addition, was a +reredos built by Dom Jorge as his monument in the chapel of São Pedro, +the small apse to the north of the high altar. + +Just above the altar table--which is of stone supported on one central +shaft--are three panels filled in high relief with sculptured scenes +from the life of St. Peter, the central and widest panel representing +his martyrdom, while on the uprights between them are small figures +under canopies. + +The upper and larger part is arranged somewhat like a Roman triumphal +arch. There are three arches, one larger and higher in the middle, with +a lower and narrower one on each side, separated by most beautiful tall +candelabrum shafts with very delicate half-Ionic capitals. In the +centre, in front of the representation of some town, probably Rome, is +Our Lord bearing His Cross and St. Peter kneeling at His feet--no doubt +the well-known legend 'Domine quo vadis?' In the side arches stand two +figures with books: one is St. Paul with a sword, and the other probably +St. Peter himself. Above each of the side arches there is a small +balustraded loggia, scarcely eighteen inches high, in each of which are +two figures, talking, all marvellously lifelike. Beautiful carvings +enrich the friezes everywhere, and small heads in medallions all the +spandrils. At the top, in a hollow circle upheld by carved supports, +crowned and bearing an orb in His left hand, is God the Father Himself. +(Fig. 76.) + +Less elaborate than the pulpit and less pictorial than the altar-pieces +in the cloister of Santa Cruz, this reredos is one of the most +successful of all the French works at Coimbra, and its beauty is +enhanced by the successful lighting through a large window cut on +purpose at the side, and by the beautiful tiles--probably +contemporary--with which the chapel is lined. + +In front of the altar lies Dom Jorge d'Almeida, under a flat stone, +bearing his arms, and this inscription in Latin, 'Here lies Jorge +d'Almeida by the goodness of the divine power bishop and count. He lived +eighty-five years, and died eight days before the Kalends of Sextillis +A.D. 1543, having held both dignities sixty-two years.' + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNER + + +Very quickly the fame of these French workers spread across the country, +and they or their pupils were employed to design tombs, altar-pieces, or +chapels outside of Coimbra. Perhaps the da Silvas, lords of Vagos, were +among the very first to employ them, and in their chapel of São Marcos, +some eight or nine miles from Coimbra, more than one example of their +handiwork may still be seen. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes, Thomar.] + +However, before visiting São Marcos mention must be made of two tombs, +one in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at Thomar, and one in the Graça church +at Santarem. Both are exceedingly French in design, and both were +erected not long after the coming of the foreigners. + +The tomb in Thomar is the older. It is that of Diogo Pinheiro, the first +bishop of Funchal--which he never visited--who died in 1525. No doubt +the monument was put up soon after. It is placed rather high on the +north wall of the chancel; at the very bottom is a moulding enriched +with egg and tongue, separated by a plain frieze--crossed by a shield +with the bishop's arms--from the plinth and from the pedestals of the +side shafts and their supporting mouldings. On the plinth under a round +arched recess stands a sarcophagus with a tablet in front bearing the +date A.D. 1525, while behind in an elegant shell-topped niche is a +figure kneeling on a beautiful corbel. The front of this arch is adorned +with cherubs' heads, the jambs with arabesques, and heads look out of +circles in the spandrils. At the sides are Corinthian pilasters, and in +front of them beautiful candelabrum shafts. The cornice with a +well-carved frieze is simple, and in the pediment are again carved Dom +Diogo's arms, surmounted by his bishop's hat. + +At the ends are vase-shaped finials, and another supported by dragons +rises from the pediment. (Fig. 77.) + +This monument is indeed one of the most pleasing pieces of renaissance +work in existence, and one would be tempted to attribute it to João de +Castilho were it not that it is more French than any of his work, and +that in 1525 he can hardly have come back to Thomar, where the Claustro +da Micha, the first of the new additions, was only begun in 1528. It +will be safer then to attribute it to one of the Coimbra Frenchmen. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Graça, Santarem.] + +The same must be said of the tomb in the Graça church at Santarem. It +was built in 1532 in honour of three men already long dead--Pero +Carreiro, Gonzalo Gil Barbosa his son-in-law, and Francisco Barbosa his +grandson. The design is like that of Bishop Pinheiro's monument, +omitting all beneath the plinth, except that the back is plain, the arch +elliptical, and the pediment small and round. The coffer has a long +inscription,[142] the jambs and arch are covered with arabesques, the +side shafts are taller and even more elegant than at Thomar, and in the +round pediment is a coat of arms, and on one side the head of a young +man wearing a helmet, and on the other the splendidly modelled head of +an old man; though much less pleasing as a whole, this head for +excellent realism is better than anything found on the bishop's tomb. + +If we cannot tell which Frenchman designed these tombs, we know the name +of one who worked for the da Silvas at São Marcos, and we can also see +there the work of some of their pupils and successors. + +[Sidenote: São Marcos.] + +São Marcos, which lies about two miles to the north of the road leading +from Coimbra through Tentugal to Figueira de Foz at the mouth of the +Mondego, is now unfortunately much ruined. Nothing remains complete but +the church, for the monastic buildings were all burned not so long ago +by some peasantry to injure the landlord to whom they belonged, and with +them perished many a fine piece of carving. + +The da Silvas had long had here a manor-house with a chapel, and in 1452 +Dona Brites de Menezes, the wife of Ayres Gomes da Silva, the fourth +lord of Vagos, founded a small Jeronymite monastery. Of her chapel, +designed by + +[Illustration: FIG. 77. + +THOMAR. STA. MARIA DOS OLIVAES. TOMB OF BP. OF FUNCHAL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 78. + +SÃO MARCOS. TOMB IN CHANCEL. _From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., +Oporto._] + +Gil de Souza, little now remains, for the chancel was rebuilt in the +next century and the nave in the seventeenth. Only the tomb of Dona +Brites' second son, Fernão Telles de Menezes, still survives, for the +west door, with a cusped arch, beautifully undercut foliage, and knotted +shafts at the side, was added in 1570. + +The tomb of Fernão Telles, which was erected about the year 1471, is +still quite Gothic. In the wall there opens a large pointed and cusped +arch, within which at the top there hangs a small tent which, passing +through a ring, turns into a great stone curtain upheld by hairy wild +men. Inside this curtain Dom Fernão lies in armour on a tomb whose front +is covered with beautifully carved foliage, and which has a cornice of +roses. On it are three coats of arms, Dom Fernão's, those of his wife, +Maria de Vilhena, and between them his and hers quartered. + +Most of the tombs, five in all, are found in the chancel which was +rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, fifth lord of Vagos, the grandson of Dona +Brites, in 1522 and 1523. These are, on the north side, first, at the +east end, Dona Brites herself, then her son João da Silva in the middle, +and her grandson Ayres at the west, the tombs of Ayres and his father +being practically identical. Opposite Dona Brites lies the second count +of Aveiras, who died in 1672 and whose tomb is without interest, and +opposite Ayres, his son João da Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, who died in +1559. At the east end is a great reredos given by Ayres and containing +figures of himself and of his wife Dona Guiomar de Castro, while opening +from the north side of the nave is a beautiful domed chapel built by +Dona Antonia de Vilhena as a tomb-house for her husband, Diogo da Silva, +who died in 1556. In it also lies his elder brother Lourenço, seventh +lord of Vagos. + +The chancel, which is of two bays, one wide, and one to the east +narrower, has a low vault with many well-moulded ribs springing from +large corbels, some of which are Manoelino, while others have on them +shields and figures of the renaissance. It still retains an original +window on each side, small, round-headed, with a band of beautiful +renaissance carving on the splay. + +Dona Brites lies on a plain tomb in front of which there is a long +inscription. Above her rises a round arch set in a square frame. Large +flowers like Tudor roses are cut on the spandrils, the ogee hood-mould +is enriched with huge wonderfully undercut curly crockets, all Gothic, +but the band between the two mouldings of the arch is carved with +renaissance arabesques. The tomb of Ayres himself and that of his father +João are much more elaborate. Each, lying like Dona Brites on an +altar-tomb, is clad in full armour. In front are semi-classic mouldings +at the top and bottom, and between them a tablet held by cherubs, that +on Dom João's bearing a long inscription, while Dom Ayres' has been left +blank. The arches over the recumbent figures are slightly elliptical, +and like that of the foundress's tomb each is enriched by a band of +renaissance carving, but with classic mouldings outside, instead of a +simple round, and with a rich fringe of leafy cusps within. At the ends +and between the tombs are square buttresses or pilasters ornamented on +each face with renaissance corbels and canopies. The background of each +recess is covered with delicate flowing leaves in very slight relief, +and has in the centre a niche, with rustic shafts and elaborate Gothic +base and canopy under which stands a figure of Our Lord holding an orb +in His left hand and blessing with His right. The buttresses, on which +stand curious vase-shaped finials, are joined by a straight moulded +cornice, above which rises a rounded pediment floriated on the outer +side. From the pediment there stands out a helmet whose mantling +entirely covers the flat surface, and below it hangs a shield, charged +with the da Silva arms, a lion rampant. (Fig. 78.) + +Here, as in the royal tombs at Coimbra, Manoelino and renaissance forms +have been used together, but here the renaissance largely predominates, +for even the cusping is not Gothic, although, as is but natural, the +general design still is after the older style. Though very elaborate, +these tombs cannot be called quite satisfactory. The figure sculpture is +poor, and it is only the arabesques which show skill in execution. +Probably then it was the work not of one of the well-known Frenchmen, +but of one of their pupils.[143] + +Raczynski[144] thought that here in São Marcos he had found some works +of Sansovino: a battlepiece in relief, a statue of St. Mark, and the +reredos. The first two are gone, but if they were as unlike Italian work +as is the reredos, one may be sure that they were not by him. A +recently found document[145] confirms what its appearance suggests, +namely, that it is French. It was in fact the work of Mestre Nicolas, +the Nicolas Chantranez who worked first at Belem and then on the Portal +da Magestade at Santa Cruz, and who carved an altar-piece in the Pena +chapel at Cintra. Though much larger in general design, it is not +altogether unlike the altar-piece in the Sé Velha. It is divided into +two stories. In the lower are four divisions, with a small tabernacle in +the middle, and in each division, which has either a curly broken +pediment, or a shell at its head, are sculptured scenes from the life of +St. Jerome. + +The upper part contains only three divisions, one broad under an arch in +the centre, and one narrower and lower on each side. As in the +cathedral, slim candelabrum shafts stand between each division and at +the ends, but the entablatures are less refined, and the sharp pediments +at the two sides are unpleasing, as is the small round one and the vases +at the top. The large central arch is filled with a very spirited +carving of the 'Deposition.' In front of the three crosses which rise +behind with the thieves still hanging to the two at the sides, is a +group of people--officials on horseback on the left, and weeping women +on the right. In the division to the left kneels Ayres himself presented +by St. Jerome, and in the other on the right Dona Guiomar de Castro, his +wife, presented by St. Luke. Throughout all the figure sculpture is +excellent, as good as anything at Coimbra, but compared with the reredos +in the Sé Velha, the architecture is poor in the extreme: the central +division is too large, and the different levels of the cornice, rendered +necessary of course by the shape of the vault, is most unpleasing. No +one, however, can now judge of the true effect, as it has all been +carefully and hideously painted with the brightest of colours. (Fig. +79.) + +Being architecturally so inferior to the Sé Velha reredos, it is +scarcely possible that they should be by the same hand, and therefore it +seems likely that both the work in St. Peter's chapel and the pulpit in +Santa Cruz may have been executed by the same man, namely by João de +Ruão.[146] + +[Sidenote: Pena Chapel, Cintra.] + +Leaving São Marcos for a minute to finish with the works of Nicolas +Chantranez, we turn to the small chapel of Nossa Senhora da Pena, +founded by Dom Manoel in 1503 as a cell of the Jeronymite monastery at +Belem. Here in 1532 his son João III. dedicated a reredos of alabaster +and black marble as a thankoffering for the birth of a son.[147] + +Like Nicolas' work at São Marcos the altar piece is full of exquisite +carving, more beautiful than in his older work. In the large central +niche, with its fringe of cusps, is the 'Entombment,' where Our Lord is +being laid by angels in a beautiful sarcophagus. Above this niche sit +the Virgin and Child, on the left are the Annunciation above and the +Birth at Bethlehem below, and on the right the Visit of the Magi and the +Flight into Egypt. Nothing can exceed the delicacy of these alabaster +carvings or of the beautiful little reliefs that form the pradella. Many +of the little columns too are beautifully wrought, with good capitals +and exquisitely worked drums, and yet, though the separate details may +be and are fine, the whole is even more unsatisfactory than is his +altar-piece at São Marcos, and one has to look closely and carefully to +see its beauties. As the one at São Marcos is spoiled by paint, this one +is spoiled by the use of different-coloured marble; besides, the +different parts are even worse put together. There is no repose +anywhere, for the little columns are all different, and the bad effect +is increased by the way the different entablatures are broken out over +the many projections. + +[Sidenote: São Marcos.] + +Interesting and even beautiful as are the tombs on the north side of the +chancel of São Marcos, the chapel dos Reis Magos is even more important +historically. This chapel, as stated above, was built by Dona Antonia de +Vilhena in 1556 as a monument to her husband. Dona Antonia was in her +time noted for her devotion to her husband's memory, and for her +patriotism in that she sent her six sons to fight in Morocco, from +whence three never returned. Her brother-in-law, Lourenço da Silva, +also, who lies on the east side of the same chapel, fell in Africa in +the fatal battle of Alcacer-Quebir in 1578, where Portugal lost her king +and soon after her independence. + +The chapel is entered from the nave by a large arch enriched in front +with beautiful cherubs' heads and wreaths of flowers, and on the under +side with coffered panels. This arch springs from a beautifully modelled +entablature borne on either side by a Corinthian pilaster, panelled and +carved, and by a column fluted above, and wreathed with hanging fruits +and flowers below, while similar arches form recesses on the three +remaining sides of the chapel, one--to the north--containing the altar, +and the other two the tombs of Diogo and of Lourenço da Silva. + +On the nave side, outside the columns, there stands on either +side--placed like the columns on a high pedestal--a pilaster, panelled +and carved with exquisite arabesques. These pilasters have no capitals, +but instead well-moulded corbels, carved with griffin heads, uphold the +entablature, and, by a happy innovation, on the projection thus formed +are pedestals bearing short Corinthian columns. These support the main +entablature whose cornice and frieze are enriched, the one with egg and +tongue and with dentils, and the other with strapwork and with leaves. +In the spandrils above the arch are medallions surrounding the heads of +St. Peter and of St. Paul, St. Peter being especially expressive. + +Inside, the background of each tomb recess is covered with strapwork, +surrounding in one case an open and in another a blank window, but +unfortunately the reredos representing the Visit of the Magi is gone, +and its place taken by a very poor picture of Our Lady of Lourdes. + +The pendentives with their cherub heads are carried by corbels in the +corners, and the dome is divided by bold ribs, themselves enriched with +carving, into panels filled with strapwork. (Fig. 80.) + +This chapel then is of great interest, not only because of the real +beauty of its details but also because it was the first built of a type +which was repeated more than once elsewhere, as, for instance, at +Marceana near Alemquer, on the Tagus, and in the church of Nossa Senhora +dos Anjos at Montemor-o-Velho, not far from São Marcos. Of the chapels +at Montemor one at least was built by the same family, and in another +where the reredos--a very fine piece of carving--represents a Pietà, +small angels are seen to weep as they look from openings high up at the +sides. + +Perhaps the most successful feature of the design is the happy way in +which corbels take the place of capitals on the lower pilasters of the +front. By this expedient it was possible to keep the upper column short +without having to compare its proportions with those of the pilaster +below, and also by projecting these columns to give the upper part an +importance and an emphasis it would not otherwise have had. + +There is no record of who designed this or the similar chapels, but by +1556 enough time had passed since the coming of the French for native +pupils to have learned much from them. There is in the design something +which seems to show that it is not from the hand of a Frenchman, but +from that of some one who had learned much from Master Nicolas or from +João de Ruão, but who had also learned something from elsewhere. While +the smaller details remain partly French, the dome with its bold ribs +suggests Italy, and it is known that Dom Manoel, and after him Dom João, +sent young men to Italy for study. In any case the result is something +neither Italian nor French. + +Even more Italian is the tomb of Dona Antonia's father-in-law, João da +Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, erected in 1559 and probably by the same +sculptor. João da Silva lies in armour under a round arch carved with +flowers and cherubs. In front of his tomb is a long inscription on a +tablet held by beautifully modelled boys. On each side of the arch is a +Corinthian pilaster, panelled and carved below and having at the top a +shallow niche in which stand saints. On the entablature, enriched with +medallions and strapwork, is a frame supported by boys and containing +the da Silva arms. But the most interesting and beautiful part of the +monument is the back, above the effigy. Here, in the upper part, is a +shallow recess flanked by corbel-carried pilasters, and containing a +relief of the Assumption of the Virgin. Now, the execution of the Virgin +and of the small angels who bear her up may not be of the best, but the +character of the whole design is quite Italian, and could only have been +carved by some one who knew Italian work. On either side of this recess +are round-headed niches containing saints, while boys sit in the +spandrils above the arch. + +Any one seeing this tomb will be at once struck with the Italian +character of the design, especially perhaps with the boys who hold the +tablet and with those who sit in the spandrils.[148] + +[Illustration: FIG. 79. + +SÃO MARCOS. CHANCEL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 80. + +SÃO MARCOS. CHAPEL OF THE "REYES MAGOS." _From a photograph by E. Biel & +Co., Oporto._] + +Even without leaving their country, Portuguese designers would already +have had no great difficulty in finding pieces of real Italian work. Not +to speak of the white marble door in the old palace of Cintra, possibly +the work of Sansovino himself, with its simple mouldings and the +beautiful detail of its architrave, there exist at Evora two doorways +originally belonging to the church of São Domingos, which must either be +the work of Italians or of some man who knew Italy. (Fig. 81.) + +[Sidenote: Evora, São Domingos.] + +Built of white marble from Estremoz and dating from about 1530, the +panelled jambs have moulded caps on which rests the arch. Like the +jambs, the arch has a splay which is divided into small panels. Above in +the spandrils are ribboned circles enclosing well-carved heads. On +either side are pilasters with Corinthian capitals of the earlier +Italian kind. The entablature is moulded only, and instead of a pediment +two curves lead up to a horizontal moulding supporting a shell, and +above it a cherub's head. + +Such real Italian doors, which would look quite at home in Genoa, seem +almost unique, but there are many examples of work which, like the tomb +and the chapel at São Marcos, seem to have been influenced not only by +the French school at Coimbra, but also by Italian work. + +[Sidenote: Portalegre.] + +[Sidenote: Tavira.] + +[Sidenote: Lagos.] + +Not very far from Evora in Portalegre, where a bishop's see was founded +by Dom João III. in 1549, there is a very fine monument of this kind to +a bishop of the Mello family in the seminary, and also a doorway, while +at Tavira in the Algarve the Misericordia has an interesting door, not +unlike that at Evora, but more richly ornamented by having a sculptured +frieze and a band of bold acanthus leaves joining the two capitals above +the arch. There is another somewhat similar, but less successful, in the +church of São Sebastião at Lagos. + +[Sidenote: Goes.] + +[Sidenote: Trofa.] + +Nearer Coimbra there are some fine monuments to the Silveira family at +Goes not far from Louzã, and four less interesting to the Lemos in the +little parish church of Trofa near Agueda. At Trofa there is a pair of +tombs on each side of the chancel, round-arched, with pilasters and with +heads in the spandrils, and covered with arabesques. Each pair is +practically alike except that the tombs on the north side, being placed +closer together leave no room for a central pilaster and have small +shafts instead of panelled jambs, and that the pair on the south have +pediments. The best feature is a figure of the founder of the chancel +kneeling at prayer with his face turned towards the high altar. + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +Even in the far north the doors of the church at Caminha show how +important had been the coming of the Frenchmen to Coimbra. They seem +later than the church, but though very picturesque are clearly the work +of some one who was not yet quite familiar with renaissance forms. The +south door is the more interesting and picturesque. The arch and jambs +are splayed, but there are no capitals; heads look out of circles in the +spandrils; and the splay as well as the panels of the side pilasters are +enriched with carvings which, partly perhaps owing to the granite in +which they are cut, are much less delicate than elsewhere. The +Corinthian capitals of the pilasters are distinctly clumsy, as are the +mouldings, but the most interesting part of the whole design is the +frieze, which is so immensely extended as to leave room for four large +niches separated by rather clumsy shafts and containing figures of St. +Mark and St. Luke in the middle and of St. Peter and St. Paul at the +ends. Above in the pediment are a Virgin and Child with kneeling angels. +Besides the innovation of the enlarged frieze, which reminds one of a +door in the Certosa near Pavia, the clumsiness of the mouldings and the +comparative poorness of the sculpture, though the figures are much +better than any previously worked by native artists, suggest that the +designer and workmen were Portuguese. + +The same applies to the west door, which is wider and where the capitals +are of a much better shape, though the pilasters are rather too tall. +The sculpture frieze is a little wider than usual, and instead of a +pediment there is a picturesque cresting, above which are cut four +extraordinary monsters. (Fig. 82.) + +[Sidenote: Moncorvo.] + +A somewhat similar but much plainer door has been built against the +older and round-arched entrance of the Misericordia at Moncorvo in Traz +os Montes. The parish church of the same place begun in 1544 is both +outside and in a curious mixture of Gothic and Classic. The three aisles +are of the same height with round-arched Gothic vaults, but the columns +are large and round with bases and capitals evidently copied from Roman +doric, though the abacis have been made circular. + +Outside the buttresses are still Gothic in form, but the west door is of +the fully developed renaissance. The opening is + +[Illustration: FIG. 81. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +DOOR BY SANSOVINO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 82. + +W. DOOR, CAMINHA.] + +flanked by coupled columns which support an entablature on which rest +four other shorter columns separating three white marble niches. Above +this is a window flanked by single columns which carry a pediment. +Though built of granite, the detail is good and the whole doorway not +unpleasing.[149] + +But, that it was not only such details as doors and monuments that began +to show the result of the coming of the Frenchmen is seen in the work of +João de Castilho, after he first left Thomar for Belem. There he had +found Master Nicolas Chantranez already at work, and there he learned, +perhaps from him, so to change his style that by the time he returned to +Thomar to work for Dom João III. in 1528 he was able to design buildings +practically free from that Gothic spirit which is still found in his +latest work at Belem. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +LATER WORK OF JOÃO DE CASTILHO AND THE EARLIER CLASSIC + + +To Dom Manoel, who died in 1521, had succeeded his son Dom João III. The +father had been renowned for his munificence and his splendour, the son +cared more for the Church and for the suppression of heresy. By him the +Inquisition was introduced in 1536 to the gradual crushing of all +independent thought, and so by degrees to the degradation of his +country. He reigned for thirty-six years, a time of wealth and luxury, +but before he died the nation had begun to suffer from this very luxury; +with all freedom of thought forbidden, with the most brave and +adventurous of her sons sailing east to the Indies or west to Brazil, +most of them never to return, Portugal was ready to fall an easy prey to +Philip of Spain when in 1580 there died the old Cardinal King Henry, +last surviving son of Dom Manoel, once called the Fortunate King. + +With the death of Dom Manoel, or at least with the finishing of the +great work which he had begun, the most brilliant and interesting period +in the history of Portuguese architecture comes to an end. When the +younger Fernandes died seven years after his master in 1538, or when +João de Castilho saw the last vault built at Belem, Gothic, even as +represented by Manoelino, disappeared for ever, and renaissance +architecture, taught by the French school at Coimbra, or learned in +Italy by those sent there by Dom Manoel, became universal, to flourish +for a time, and then to fall even lower than in any other country. + +Except the Frenchmen at Coimbra no one played a greater part in this +change than João de Castilho, who, no doubt, first learned about the +renaissance from Master Nicolas at Belem; Thomar also, his own home, +lies about half-way between Lisbon and Coimbra, so that he may well +have visited his brother Diogo at Santa Cruz and seen what other +Frenchmen were doing there and so become acquainted with better +architects than Master Nicolas; but in any case, who ever it may have +been who taught him, he planned at Thomar, after his return there, the +first buildings which are wholly in the style of the renaissance and are +not merely decorated with renaissance details. + +[Sidenote: Alcobaça.] + +But before following him back to Thomar, his additions to the abbey of +Alcobaça must be mentioned, as there for the last time, except in some +parts of Belem, he allowed himself to follow the older methods, though +even at this early date--1518 and 1519--renaissance forms are beginning +to creep in. + +On the southern side of the ambulatory one of the radiating chapels was +pulled down in 1519 to form a passage, irregular in shape and roofed +with a vault of many ribs. From this two doors lead, one on the north to +the sacristy, and one on the south to a chapel. Unfortunately both +sacristy and chapel have been rebuilt and now contain nothing of +interest, except, in the sacristy, some fine presses inlaid with ivory, +now fast falling to pieces. The two doors are alike, and show that João +de Castilho was as able as any of his contemporaries to design a piece +of extreme realism. On the jambs is carved renaissance ornament, but +nowhere else is there anything to show that João and Nicolas had met at +Belem some two years before. The head of the arch is wavy and formed +mostly of convex curves. Beyond the strip of carving there grows up on +either side a round tree, with roots and bark all shown; at the top +there are some leaves for capitals, and then each tree grows up to meet +in the centre and so form a great ogee, from which grow out many cut-off +branches, all sprouting into great curly leaves. + +This is realism carried to excess, and yet the leaves are so finely +carved, the whole design so compact, and the surrounding whitewashed +wall with its dado of tiles so plain, that the effect is quite good. +(Fig. 83.) + +The year before he had begun for Cardinal Henry, afterwards king, and +then commendator of the abbey, a second story to the great cloister of +Dom Diniz. Reached by a picturesque stair on the south side, the +three-centred arches each enclose two or three smaller round arches, +with the spandrils merely pierced or sometimes cusped. The mouldings +are simple but not at all classic. The shafts which support these round +arches are all carried down across the parapet through the rope moulding +at the top to the floor level, and are of three or more patterns. Those +at the jambs are plain with hollow chamfered edges, as are also a few of +the others. They are, however, mostly either twisted, having four round +mouldings separated by four hollows, or else shaped like a rather fat +baluster; most of the capitals with curious volutes at the corner are +evidently borrowed from Corinthian capitals, but are quite unorthodox in +their arrangement. + +Though this upper cloister adds much to the picturesqueness of the whole +it is not very pleasing in itself, as the three-centred arches are often +too wide and flat, and yet it is of great interest as showing how João +de Castilho was in 1518 beginning to accept renaissance forms though +still making them assume a Manoelino dress. + +[Sidenote: Batalha, Santa Cruz.] + +But in the door of the little parish church of Sta. Cruz at Batalha, +also built by João de Castilho, Manoelino and renaissance details are +used side by side with the happiest result. On each jamb are three round +shafts and two bands of renaissance carving; of these the inner band is +carried round the broken and curved head of the opening, while the outer +runs high up to form a square framing. Of the three shafts the inner is +carried round the head, the outer round the outside of the framing, +while the one in the centre divides into two, one part running round the +head, while the other forms the inner edge of the framing, and also +forms a great trefoil on the flat field above the opening. In the two +corners between the trefoils and the framing are circles enclosing +shields, one charged with the Cross of the Order of Christ, the other +with the armillary sphere. + +The inner side of the trefoil is cusped, crockets and finials enrich the +outer moulding of the opening, while beyond the jambs are niches, now +empty. (Fig. 84.) + +It is not too much to say that, except the great entrance to the +Capellas Imperfeitas, this is the most beautiful of all Manoelino +doorways; in no other is the detail so refined nor has any other so +satisfactory a framing. Unfortunately the construction has not been +good, so that the upper part is now all full of cracks and gaping +joints. + +[Sidenote: Thomar.] + +Since Dom João III. was more devoted to the Church than + +[Illustration: FIG. 83. + +ALCOBAÇA. + +SACRISTY DOOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 84. + +W. DOOR, STA. CRUZ. + +BATALHA.] + +to anything else he determined in 1524 to change the great Order of +Christ from a body of military knights bound, as had been the Templars, +by certain vows, into a monastic order of regulars. This necessitated +great additions to the buildings at Thomar, for the knights had not been +compelled to live in common like monks. + +Accordingly João de Castilho was summoned back from Belem and by 1528 +had got to work. + +All these additions were made to the west of the existing buildings, and +to make room for them Dom João had to buy several houses and gardens, +which together formed a suburb called São Martinho, and some of which +were the property of João de Castilho, who received for them 463$000 or +about £100.[150] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THOMAR] + +These great additions, which took quite twenty-five years to build, +cover an immense area, measuring more than 300 feet long by 300 wide and +containing five cloisters. Immediately to the west of the Coro of the +church, then probably scarcely finished, is the small cloister of Sta. +Barbara; to the north of this is the larger Claustro da Hospedaria, +begun about 1539, while to the south and hiding the lower part of the +Coro is the splendid two-storied Claustro, miscalled 'dos Filippes,' +begun in its present form in 1557 by Diogo de Torralva some time after +de Castilho's death. + +Further west are two other large cloisters, do Mixo or da Micha to the +north and dos Corvos to the south, and west of the Corvos a sort of +farmyard called the Pateo dos Carrascos--that is of the evergreen oaks, +or since Carrasco also means a hangman, it may be that the executioners +of the Inquisition had their quarters there. + +Between these cloisters, and dividing the three on the east from the two +on the west, is an immense corridor nearly three hundred feet long from +which small cells open on each side; in the centre it is crossed by +another similar corridor stretching over one hundred and fifty feet to +the west, separating the two western cloisters, and with a small chapel +to the east. + +North of all the cloisters are more corridors and rooms extending +eastwards almost to the Templars' castle, but there the outer face dates +mostly from the seventeenth century or later. + +The first part to be begun was the Claustro da Micha, or loaf, so called +from the bread distributed there to the poor. Outside it was begun in +1528, but inside an inscription over the door says it was begun in 1534 +and finished in 1546. Being the kitchen cloister it is very plain, with +simple round-headed arches. Only the entrance door is adorned with a +Corinthian column on either side; its straight head rests on well-carved +corbels, and above it is a large inscribed tablet upheld by small boys. + +Under the pavement of the cloister as well as under the Claustro dos +Corvos is a great cistern. On the south was the kitchen and the oil +cellar, on the east the dispensary, and on the west a great oven and +wood-store with three large halls above, which seem to have been used by +the Inquisition.[151] The lodgings of the Dom Prior were above the +cloister to the north. + +Like the Claustro da Micha, the Claustro dos Corvos has plain round +arches resting on round columns and set usually in pairs with a buttress +between each pair. On the south side, below, were the cellars, finished +in 1539, and above the library, on the west, various vaulted stores with +a passage above leading to the library from the dormitory. + +The whole of the east side is occupied by the refectory, about 100 feet +long by 30 wide. On each of the long sides there is a pulpit, one +bearing the date 1536, enriched with arabesques, angels, and small +columns. At the south end are two windows, and at the north a hatch +communicating with the kitchen. + +The Claustro da Hospedaria, as its name denotes, was where strangers +were lodged; like the Claustro dos Corvos each pair of arches is divided +by a buttress, and the round columns have simple but effective capitals, +in which nothing of the regular Corinthian is left but the abacus, and a +large plain leaf at each corner. Still, though plain, this cloister is +very picturesque. Its floor, like those of all the cloisters, lies deep +below the level of the church, and looking eastward from one of the cell +windows the Coro and the round church are seen towering high above the +brown tile roofs of the rooms beyond the cloister and of the simple +upper cloister, which runs across the eastern walk. (Fig. 85.) + +This part of the building, begun about 1539, must have been carried on +during João de Castilho's absence, as in 1541 he was sent to Mazagão on +the Moroccan coast to build fortifications; there he made a bastion 'so +strong as to be able not only to resist the Shariff, but also the Turk, +so strong was it.'[152] + +The small cloister of Santa Barbara is the most pleasing of all those +which João de Castilho was able to finish. In order not to hide the west +front of the church its arches had to be kept very low. They are +three-centred and almost flat, while the vault is even flatter, the bays +being divided by a stone beam resting on beautifully carved brackets. +The upper cloister is not carried across the east side next the church; +but in its south-west corner an opening with a good entablature, resting +on two columns with fine Corinthian capitals, leads to one of those +twisting stairs without a newel of which builders of this time were so +fond. Going up this stair one reaches the cloister of the Filippes which +João did not live to carry out. + +More interesting than any of these cloisters are the long dormitory +passages. The walls for about one-third of the height are lined with +tiles, which with the red paving tiles were bought for about £33 from +one Aleixo Antunes. The roofs are throughout of dark panelled wood and +semicircular in shape. The only windows--except at the crossing--are at +the ends of the three long arms. There is a small round-headed window +above, and below one, flat-headed, with a column in the centre and one +at each side, the window on the north end having on it the date 1541, +eight years after the chapel in the centre had been built. + +On this chapel at the crossing has been expended far more ornament than +on any other part of the passages. Leading to each arm of the passage an +arch, curiously enriched with narrow bands which twice cross each other +leaving diamond-shaped hollows, rests on Corinthian pilasters, which +have only four flutes, but are adorned with niches, whose elegant +canopies mark the level of the springing of the chapel vault. This +vault, considerably lower than the passage arches, is semicircular and +coffered. Between it and the cornice which runs all round the square +above the passage arches is a large oblong panel, in the middle of which +is a small round window. Beautifully carved figures which, instead of +having legs, end in great acanthus-leaf volutes with dragons in the +centre, hold a beautifully carved wreath round this window. In the +middle of the architrave below, a tablet, held by exquisite little +winged boys, gives the date, 'Era de 1533.' Above the cornice there +rises a simple vault with a narrow round-headed window on each side. + +This carving over the chapel is one of the finest examples of +renaissance work left in the country. It is much bolder than any of the +French work left at Coimbra, being in much higher relief than was usual +in the early French renaissance, and yet the figures and leaves are +carved with the utmost delicacy and refinement. (Fig. 86.) + +The same delicacy characterises such small parts of the cloister dos +Filippes as were built by João de Castilho before he retired in 1551. +These are now confined to two stairs leading from the upper to the lower +cloister. These stairs + +[Illustration: FIG. 85. + +THOMAR. + +CONVENT OF CHRIST. + +CLAUSTRO DA HOSPEDARIA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 86. + +THOMAR. + +CHAPEL IN DORMITORY PASSAGE.] + +are adorned with pilasters or thin columns against the walls, delicate +cornices, medallions, figures, and foliage; in one are square-headed +built-up doors or doorlike spaces, with well-moulded architraves, and +always in the centre above the opening small figures are carved, in one +an exquisite little Cupid holding a torch. At the bottom of the eastern +stair, which is decorated with scenes from the life of St. Jerome and +with the head of Frei Antonio of Lisbon, first prior of the reformed +order, a door led into the lower floor of the unfinished chapter-house. +On this same stair there is a date 1545, so the work was probably going +on till the very end of João's tenure of office, and fine as the present +cloister is, it is a pity that he was not able himself to finish it, for +it is the chief cloister in the whole building, and on it he would no +doubt have employed all the resources of his art. (Fig. 87.) + +It is not without interest to learn that, like architects of the present +day, João de Castilho often found very great difficulties in carrying +out his work. Till well within the last hundred years Portugal was an +almost roadless country, and four centuries ago, as now, most of the +heavy carting was done by oxen, which are able to drag clumsy carts +heavily laden up and down the most impassable lanes. Several times does +he write to the king of the difficulty of getting oxen. On 4th March +1548 he says: + +'I have written some days ago to Pero Carvalho to tell him of the want +of carts, since those which we had were away carrying stone for the +works at Cardiga and at Almeirim'--a palace now destroyed opposite +Santarem--'the works of Thomar remaining without stone these three +months. And for want of a hundred cart-loads of stone which I had worked +at the quarry--doors and windows--I have not finished the students' +studies'--probably in the noviciate near the Claustro da Micha. 'The +studies are raised to more than half their height and in eight days' +work I shall finish them if only I had oxen, for those I had have died. + +'I would ask 20$000 [about £4, 10s.] to buy five oxen, and with three +which I have I could manage the carriage of a thousand cart-loads of +worked stone, besides that of which I speak of to your Highness, and +since there are no carts the men can bring nothing, even were they given +60 reis [about 3d.] a cartload there is no one to do carting.... + +' ... And if your Highness will give me these oxen I shall finish the +work very quickly, that when your Highness comes here you may find +something to see and have contentment of it.' + +Later he again complains of transport difficulties, for the few carts +there were in the town were all being used by the Dom Prior; and in the +year when he retired, 1551, he writes in despair asking the king for 'a +very strong edict [Alvará] that no one of any condition whatever might +be excused, because in this place those who have something of their own +are excused by favour, and the poor men do service, which to them seems +a great aggravation and oppression. May your Highness believe that I +write this as a desperate man, since I cannot serve as I desire, and may +this provision be sent to the magistrate and judge that they may have it +executed by their officer, since the mayor [Alcaide] here is always away +and never in his place.'[153] + +These letters make it possible to understand how buildings in those days +took such a long time to finish, and how João de Castilho--though it was +at least begun in 1545--was able to do so little to the Claustro dos +Filippes in the following six years. + +The last letter also seems to show that some at least of the labour was +forced. + +Leaving the Claustro dos Filippes for the present, we must return to +Batalha for a little, and then mention some buildings in which the early +renaissance details recall some of the work at Thomar. + +[Sidenote: Batalha.] + +The younger Fernandes had died in 1528, leaving the Capellas Imperfeitas +very much in the state in which they still remain. Though so much more +interested in his monastery at Thomar, Dom João ordered João de Castilho +to go on with the chapels, and in 1533 the loggia over the great +entrance door had been finished. Beautiful though it is it did not +please the king, and is not in harmony with the older work, and so +nothing more was done. + +In place of the large Manoelino window, which was begun on all the other +seven sides, João de Castilho here built two renaissance arches, each of +two orders, of which the broader springs from the square pilasters and +the narrower from candelabrum shafts. In front there run up to the +cornice three beautiful shafts standing on high pedestals which rest + +[Illustration: FIG. 87. + +THOMAR. + +CONVENTO DE CHRISTO. + +STAIR IN CLAUSTRO DOS FILIPPES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88. + +THOMAR. + +CHAPEL OF THE CONCEIÇÃO.] + +on corbels; the frieze of the cornice is carved much after the manner of +the window panel in the dormitory corridor at Thomar, and with long +masks where it projects over the shafts. + +Below, the carved cornice and architrave are carried across the opening +as they are round the whole octagon, but the frieze is open and filled +with balusters. Behind, the whole space is spanned by a three-centred +arch, panelled like the passage arches at Thomar. + +All the work is most exquisite, but it is not easy to see how the +horizontal cornice was to be brought into harmony with the higher +windows intended on the other seven sides, nor does the renaissance +detail, beautiful though it is, agree very well with the exuberant +Manoelino of the rest. + +With the beginning of the Claustro dos Filippes the work of João de +Castilho comes to an end. He had been actively employed for about forty +years, beginning and ending at Thomar, finishing Belem, and adding to +Alcobaça, besides improving the now vanished royal palace and even +fortifying Mazagão on the Moroccan coast, where perhaps his work may +still survive. In these forty years his style went through more than one +complete change. Beginning with late Gothic he was soon influenced by +the surrounding Manoelino; at Belem he first met renaissance artists, at +Alcobaça he either used Manoelino and renaissance side by side or else +treated renaissance in a way of his own, though shortly after, at Belem +again, he came to use renaissance details more and more fully. A little +later at Thomar, having a free hand--for at Belem he had had to follow +out the lines laid down by Boutaca--he discarded Manoelino and Gothic +alike in favour of renaissance. + +In this final adoption of the renaissance he was soon followed by many +others, even before he laid down his charge at Thomar in 1551. + +In most of these buildings, however, it is not so much his work at +Thomar which is followed--except in the case of cloisters--but rather +the chapel of the Conceição, also at Thomar. Like it they are free from +the more exuberant details so common in France and in Spain, and yet +they cannot be called Italian. + +[Sidenote: Thomar, Conceição.] + +There is unfortunately no proof that the Conceição chapel is João's +work; indeed the date inscribed inside is 1572, twenty-one years after +his retirement, and nineteen after his death. Still this date is +probably a mistake, and some of the detail is so like what is found in +the great convent on the hill above that probably it was really designed +by him. + +This small chapel stands on a projecting spur of the hill half-way down +between the convent and the town. + +Inside the whole building is about sixty feet long by thirty wide, and +consists of a nave with aisles about thirty feet long, a transept the +width of the central aisle but barely projecting beyond the walls, a +square choir with a chapel on each side, followed by an apse; east of +the north choir chapel is a small sacristy, and east of the south a +newel-less stair--like that in the Claustro de Sta. Barbara--leading up +to the roof and down to some vestries under the choir. Owing to the +sacristy and stair the eastern part of the chancel, which is rather +narrower than the nave, is square, showing outside no signs of the apse. + +The outside is very plain: Ionic pilasters at the angles support a +simple cornice which runs round the whole building; the west end and +transepts have pediments with small semicircular windows. The tile roofs +are surmounted by a low square tower crowned by a flat plastered dome at +the crossing and by the domed stair turret at the south-east corner. The +west door is plain with a simple architrave. The square-headed windows +have a deep splay--the wall being very thick--their architraves as well +as their cornices and pediments rest on small brackets set not at right +angles with the wall, but crooked so as to give an appearance of false +perspective. + +The inside is very much more pleasing, indeed it is one of the most +beautiful interiors to be found anywhere. (Fig. 88.) + +On each side of the central aisle there are three Corinthian columns, +with very correct proportions, and exquisite capitals, beautifully +carved if not quite orthodox. Corresponding pilasters stand against the +walls, as well as at the entrance to the choir, and at the beginning of +the apse. These and the columns support a beautifully modelled +entablature, enriched only with a dentil course. Central aisle, +transepts and choir are all roofed with a larger and the side aisles +with a smaller barrel vault, divided into bays by shallow arches. In +choir and transepts the vault is coffered, but in the nave each bay is +ornamented with three sets of four square panels, set in the shape of a +cross, each panel having in it another panel set diagonally to form a +diamond. At the crossing, which is crowned by a square coffered dome, +the spandrils are filled with curious winged heads, while the semi-dome +of the apse is covered with narrow ribs. The windows are exactly like +those outside, but the west door has over it a very refined though plain +pediment. + +So far, beyond the great refinement of the details, there has been +nothing very characteristic of João de Castilho, but when we find that +the pilasters of the choir and apse, as well as the choir and transept +arches, are panelled in that very curious way--with strips crossing each +other at long intervals to form diamonds--which João employed in the +passage arches in the Thomar dormitory and in the loggia at Batalha, it +would be natural enough to conclude that this chapel is his work, and +indeed the best example of what he could do with classic details. + +Now under the west window of the north aisle there is a small tablet +with the following inscription in Portuguese[154]:--'This chapel was +erected in A.D. 1572, but profaned in 1810 was restored in 1848 by L. L. +d'Abreu,' etc. + +Of course in 1572 João de Castilho had been long dead, but the +inscription was put up in 1848, and it is quite likely that by then L. +L. d'Abreu and his friends had forgotten or did not know that even as +late as the sixteenth century dates were sometimes still reckoned by the +era of Cæsar, so finding it recorded that the chapel had been built in +the year 1572 they took for granted that it was A.D. 1572, whereas it +may just as well have been E.C. 1572, that is A.D. 1534, just the very +time when João de Castilho was building the dormitory in the convent and +using there the same curious panelling. Besides in 1572 this form of +renaissance had long been given up and been replaced by a heavier and +more classic style brought from Italy. It seems therefore not +unreasonable to claim this as João de Castilho's work, and to see in it +one of the earliest as well as the most complete example of this form of +renaissance architecture, a form which prevailed side by side with the +work of the Frenchmen and their pupils for about fifteen years. + +Now in some respects this chapel recalls some of the earlier renaissance +buildings in Italy, and yet no part of it is quite Italian, nor can it +be called Spanish. The barrel vault here and in the dormitory chapel in +the convent are Italian features, but they have not been treated exactly +as was done there, or as was to be done in Portugal some fifty years +later, so that it seems more likely that João de Castilho got his +knowledge of Italian work at second-hand, perhaps from one of the men +sent there by Dom Manoel, and not by having been there himself. + +No other building in this style can be surely ascribed to him, and no +other is quite so pleasing, yet there are several in which refined +classic detail of a similar nature is used, and one of the best of these +is the small church of the Milagre at Santarem. As for the cloisters +which are mentioned later, they have much in common with João de +Castilho's work at Thomar, as, for instance, in the Claustros da Micha, +or the Claustro da Hospedaria; in the latter especially the upper story +suggests the arrangement which became so common. + +This placing of a second story with horizontal architrave on the top of +an arched cloister is very common in Spain, and might have been +suggested by such as are found at Lupiana or at Alcalá de Henares,[155] +but these are not divided into bays by buttresses, so it is more likely +that they were borrowed from such a cloister as that of Sta. Cruz at +Coimbra, where the buttresses run up to the roof of the upper story and +where the arches of that story are almost flat. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Milagre.] + +The Milagre or Miracle church at Santarem is so called because it stands +near where the body of St. Irene, martyred by the Romans at Nabantia, +now Thomar, after floating down the Nabão, the Zezere, and the Tagus, +came to shore and so gave her name to Santarem. + +The church is small, being about sixty-five feet long by forty wide. It +has three aisles, wooden panelled roofs, an arcade resting on Doric +columns, and at the east a sort of transept followed by an apse. The +piers to the west side of this transept are made up of four pilasters, +all of different heights. The highest, the one on the west side, has a +Corinthian capital and is enriched in front by a statue under a canopy +standing on a corbel upheld by a slender baluster shaft. The second in +height is plain, and supports the arch which crosses the central aisle. +The arches opening from the aisles into the transept chapel are lower +still, and rest, not on capitals, but on corbels. Like the nave arch, on +their spandrels heads are carved looking out of circles. Lowest of +all--owing to the barrel vault which covers the central aisle at the +crossing--are the arches leading north and south to the chapels. They +too spring from corbels and are quite plain. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Marvilla.] + +Up in the town on the top of the hill the nave of the church of the +Marvilla--whose Manoelino door and chancel have already been +mentioned--is of about the same date. This nave is about one hundred +feet long by fifty-five wide, has three aisles with wooden ceilings; the +arcades of round arches with simple moulded architrave rest on the +beautiful Ionic capitals of columns over twenty-six feet high. These +capitals, of Corinthian rather than of Ionic proportions, with simple +fluting instead of acanthus leaves, have curious double volutes at each +angle, and small winged heads in the middle of each side of the abacus. + +Altogether the arcades are most stately, and the beauty of the church is +further enhanced by the exceptionally fine tiles with which the walls as +well as the spandrels above the arches are lined. Up to about the height +of fifteen feet, above a stone bench, the tiles, blue, yellow, and +orange, are arranged in panels, two different patterns being used +alternatively, with beautiful borders, while in each spandrel towards +the central aisle an Emblem of the Virgin, Tower of Ivory, Star of the +Sea, and so on, is surrounded by blue and yellow intertwining leaves. +Above these, as above the panels on the walls, the whole is covered with +dark and light tiles arranged in checks, and added as stated by a date +over the chancel arch in 1617. The lower tiles are probably of much the +same date or a little earlier. + +Against one of the nave columns there stands a very elegant little +pulpit. It rests on the Corinthian capital of a very bulbous baluster, +is square, and has on each side four beautiful little Corinthian +columns, fluted and surrounded with large acanthus leaves at the bottom. +Almost exactly like it, but round and with balusters instead of +columns, is the pulpit in the church of Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at +Thomar. (Fig. 89.) + +[Sidenote: Elvas, São Domingos.] + +The most original in plan as well as in decoration of all the buildings +of this time is the church of the nunnery of São Domingos at Elvas, like +nearly all nunneries in the kingdom now fast falling to pieces. In plan +it is an octagon about forty-two feet across with three apses to the +east and a smaller octagonal dome in the middle standing on eight white +marble columns with Doric capitals. The columns, the architrave below +the dome, the arches of the apses and their vaults, are all of white +marble covered with exquisite carved ornament partly gilt, while all the +walls and the other vaults are lined with tiles, blue and yellow +patterns on a white ground. The abacus of each column is set diagonally +to the diameter of the octagon, and between it and the lower side of the +architrave are interposed thin blocks of stone rounded at the ends. + +Like the Conceicão at Thomar this too dates from near the end of Dom +João's reign, having been founded about 1550. + +[Sidenote: Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde.] + +Capitals very like those in the nave of the Marvilla, but with a ring of +leaves instead of flutes, are found in the cloister of the church at +Penha Longa near Cintra, and in the little round chapel at Penha Verde +not far off, where lies the heart of Dom João de Castro, fourth viceroy +of India. Built about 1535, it is a simple little round building with a +square recess for the altar opposite the door. Inside, the dome springs +from a cornice resting on six columns whose capitals are of the same +kind. + +Others nearly the same are found in the house of the Conde de São +Vicente at Lisbon, only there the volutes are replaced by winged +figures, as is also the case in the arcades of the Misericordia at +Tavira, the door of which has been mentioned above. + +[Sidenote: Vizeu, Cloister.] + +Still more like the Marvilla capitals are those of the lower cloister of +the cathedral of Vizeu. This, the most pleasing of all the renaissance +cloisters in Portugal, has four arches on each side resting on fluted +columns which though taller than usual in cloisters, have no entasis. +The capitals are exactly like those at Santarem, but being of granite +are much coarser, with roses instead of winged heads on the unmoulded +abaci. At the angles two columns are placed together and a shallow strip +is carried up above them all to the cornice. Somewhere in the lower +cloister are the arms of Bishop Miguel da Silva, who is + +[Illustration: FIG. 89. + +SANTAREM. + +CHURCH OF THE MARVILLA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 90. + +VIZEU. + +CATHEDRAL CLOISTER.] + +said to have built it about 1524, but that is an impossibly early date, +as even in far less remote places such classical columns were not used +till at least ten years later. Yet the cloister must probably have been +built some time before 1550. An upper unarched cloister, with an +architrave resting on simple Doric columns, was added, _sede vacante_, +between 1720 and 1742, and greatly increases the picturesqueness of the +whole. (Fig. 90.) + +[Sidenote: Lamego, Cloister.] + +A similar but much lower second story was added by Bishop Manoel +Noronha[156] in 1557 to the cloister of Lamego Cathedral. The lower +cloister with its round arches and eight-sided shafts is interesting, as +most of its capitals are late Gothic, some moulded, a few with leaves, +though some have been replaced by very good capitals of the Corinthian +type but retaining the Gothic abacus.[157] + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, São Thomaz.] + +[Sidenote: Carmo.] + +[Sidenote: Cintra, Penha Longa.] + +[Sidenote: Faro, São Bento.] + +[Sidenote: Lorvão.] + +Most, however, of the cloisters of this period do not have a continuous +arcade like that of Vizeu, but have arches set in pairs in the lower +story with big buttresses between each pair. Such is the cloister of the +college of São Thomaz at Coimbra, founded in 1540, where the arches of +the lower cloister rest on Ionic capitals, while the architrave of the +upper is upheld by thin Doric columns; of the Carmo, also at Coimbra, +founded in 1542, where the cloister is almost exactly like that of São +Thomaz, except that there are twice as many columns in the upper story; +of Penha Longa near Cintra, where the two stories are of equal height +and the lower, with arches, has moulded and the upper, with horizontal +architrave, Ionic capitals, and of São Bento at Faro, where the lower +capitals are like those in the Marvilla, but without volutes, while the +upper are Ionic. In all these the big square buttress is carried right +up to the roof of the upper cloister, as it was also at Lorvão near +Coimbra. There the arches below are much wider, so that above the number +of supports has been doubled.[158] + +[Sidenote: Amarante.] + +In one of the cloisters of São Gonçalvo at Amarante on the +Tamega--famous for the battle on the bridge during the French +invasion--there is only one arch to each bay below, and it springs from +jambs, not from columns, and is very plain. The buttresses do not rise +above the lower cornice and have Ionic capitals, as have also the rather +stout columns of the upper story. The lower cloister is roofed with a +beautiful three-centred vault with many ribs, and several of the doors +are good examples of early renaissance. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Sta. Clara.] + +More like the other cloisters, but probably somewhat later in date, is +that of Sta. Clara at Santarem, fast falling to pieces. In it there are +three arches, here three-centred, to each bay, and instead of projecting +buttresses wide pilasters, like the columns, Doric below, Ionic above. + +[Sidenote: Guarda, Reredos.] + +On first seeing the great reredos in the cathedral of Guarda, the +tendency is to attribute it to a period but little later than the works +of Master Nicolas at São Marcos or of João de Ruão at Coimbra. But on +looking closer it is seen that a good deal of the ornament--the +decoration of the pilasters and of the friezes--as well as the +appearance of the figures, betray a later date--a date perhaps as late +as the end of the reign of Dom João III. (Fig. 91.) + +Though the reredos is very much larger and of finer design, the figures +have sufficient resemblance to those in the chapel of the Holy Sacrament +in the Sé Velha at Coimbra, put up in 1566, to show that they must be +more or less contemporary, the Guarda reredos being probably the +older.[159] + +Filling the whole of the east end of the apse of the Capella Mor, the +structure rises in a curve up to the level of the windows. Without the +beautiful colouring of Master Vlimer's work at Coimbra, or the charm of +the reredos at Funchal, with figures distinctly inferior to those by +Master Nicolas at São Marcos, this Guarda reredos is yet a very fine +piece of work, and is indeed the only large one of its kind which still +survives. + +It is divided into three stories, each about ten feet high, with a +half-story below resting on a plain plinth. + +Each story is divided into large square panels by pilasters or columns +set pretty close together, the topmost story having candelabrum shafts, +the one below it Corinthian columns, the lowest Doric pilasters, and the +half-story below pedestals for these pilasters. Entablatures with +ornamental friezes divide each story, while at the top the centre is +raised to admit of an arch, an arrangement probably copied from João de +Ruão's altar-piece. + +In the half-story at the bottom are half-figures of the twelve Apostles, +four under each of the square panels at the sides, and one between each +pair of pilasters. + +Above is represented, on the left the Annunciation, on the right the +Nativity; in the centre, now hidden by a hideous wooden erection, there +is a beautiful little tabernacle between two angels. Between the +pilasters, as between the columns above, stand large figures of +prophets. + +In the next story the scenes are, on the left the Magi, on the right the +Presentation, and in the centre the Assumption of the Virgin. + +The whole of the top is taken up with the Story of the Crucifixion, our +Lord bearing the Cross on the left, the Crucifixion under the arch, and +the Deposition on the right. + +Although the whole is infinitely superior in design to anything by +Master Nicolas, it must be admitted that the sculpture is very inferior +to his, and also to João de Ruão's. The best are the Crucifixion scenes, +where the grouping is better and the action freer, but everywhere the +faces are rather expressionless and the figures stiff. + +As everything is painted, white for the background and an ugly yellow +for the figures and detail, it is not possible to see whether stone or +terra cotta is the material; if terra cotta the sculptor may have been a +pupil of Filipe Eduard, who in the time of Dom Manoel wrought the Last +Supper in terra cotta, fragments of which still survive at Coimbra. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION + + +This earlier style did not, however, last very long. Even before the +death of Dom João more strictly classical forms began to come in from +Italy, brought by some of the many pupils who had been sent to study +there. Once when staying at Almeirim the king had been much interested +in a model of the Colosseum brought to him by Gonçalo Bayão, whom he +charged to reproduce some of the monuments he had seen in Rome. + +Whether he did reproduce them or not is unknown, but in the Claustro dos +Filippes at Thomar this new and thoroughly Italian style is seen fully +developed. + +[Sidenote: Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes.] + +Diogo de Torralva had been nominated to direct the works in Thomar in +1554, but did nothing to this cloister till 1557 after Dom João's death, +when his widow, Dona Catharina, regent for her grandson, Dom Sebastião, +ordered him to pull down what was already built, as it was unsafe, and +to build another of the same size about one hundred and fifteen feet +square, but making the lower story rather higher. + +The work must have been carried out quickly, since on the vault of the +upper cloister there is the date 1562--a date which shows that the whole +must have been practically finished some eighteen years before Philip of +Spain secured the throne of Portugal, and that therefore the cloister +should rather be called after Dona Catharina, who ordered it, than after +the 'Reis Intrusos,' whose only connection with Thomar is that the first +was there elected king. + +Between each of the three large arches which form a side of the lower +cloister stand two Roman Doric columns of considerable size. They are +placed some distance apart leaving room between them for an opening, +while another window-like opening occurs above the moulding from which +the arches + +[Illustration: FIG. 91. + +GUARDA. + +REREDOS IN CATHEDRAL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 92. + +THOMAR. + +CLAUSTRO DOS FILIPPES.] + +spring. In the four corners the space between the columns, as well as +the entablature, is set diagonally, leaving room in one instance for a +circular stair. The cornice is enriched with dentils and the frieze with +raised squares. On the entablature more columns of about the same height +as those below, but with Ionic capitals, stand in pairs. Stairs lead up +in each corner to the flat roof, above which they rise in a short +dome-bearing drum. In this upper cloister the arches are much narrower, +springing from square Ionic pilasters, two on each side, set one behind +the other, and leaving an open space beyond so that the whole takes the +form of a Venetian window. The small upper window between the columns is +round instead of square, and the cornice is carried on large corbels. In +front of all the openings is a balustrade. Two windows look south down +the hillside over rich orchards and gardens, while immediately below +them a water channel, the end of a great aqueduct built under Philip I. +of Portugal, II. of Spain, by the Italian Filippo Terzi,[160] cools the +air, and, overflowing, clothes the arches with maidenhair fern. Another +window opening on to the Claustro de Sta. Barbara gives a very good view +of the curious west front of the church. There is not and there probably +never was any parapet to the flat paved roof, from where one can look +down on the surrounding cloisters, and on the paved terrace before the +church door where Philip was elected king in April 1580. (Fig. 92.) + +This cloister, the first example in Portugal of the matured Italian +renaissance, is also, with the exception of the church of São Vicente de +Fora at Lisbon, the most successful, for all is well proportioned, and +shows that Diogo de Torralva really understood classic detail and how to +use it. He was much less successful in the chancel of Belem, while about +the cathedral which he built at Miranda de Douro it is difficult to find +out anything, so remote and inaccessible is it, except that it stands +magnificently on a high rock above the river.[161] + +The reigns of Dom Sebastião and of his grand-uncle, the Cardinal-King, +were noted for no great activity in building. Only at Evora, where he so +long filled the position of archbishop before succeeding to the throne, +was the cardinal able to do much. The most important architectural +event in Dom Sebastião's reign was the coming of Filippo Terzi from +Italy to build São Roque, the church of the Jesuits in Lisbon, and the +consequent school of architects, the Alvares, Tinouco, Turianno, and +others who were so active during the reign of Philip. + +But before speaking of the work of this school some of Cardinal Henry's +buildings at Evora must be mentioned, and then the story told of how +Philip succeeded in uniting the whole Peninsula under his rule. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Graça.] + +A little to the south of the cathedral of Evora, and a little lower down +the hill, stands the Graça or church of the canons of St. Augustine. +Begun during the reign of Dom João III., the nave and chancel, in which +there is a fine tomb, have many details which recall the Conceicão at +Thomar, such as windows set in sham perspective. But they were long in +building, and the now broken down barrel vault and the curious porch +were not added till the reign of Dom Sebastião, while the monastic +buildings were finished about the same time. + +This porch is most extraordinary. Below, there are in front four +well-proportioned and well-designed Doric columns; beyond them and next +the outer columns are large projecting pilasters forming buttresses, not +unlike the buttresses in some of the earlier cloisters. Above the +entablature, which runs round these buttresses, there stand on the two +central columns two tall Ionic semi-columns, surmounted by an +entablature and pointed pediment, and enclosing a large window set back +in sham perspective. On either side large solid square panels are filled +by huge rosettes several feet across, and above them half-pediments +filled with shields reach up to the central pediment but at a lower +level. Above these pediments another raking moulding runs up supported +on square blocks, while on the top of the upper buttresses there sit +figures of giant boys with globes on their backs; winged figures also +kneel on the central pediment. + +It will be seen that this is one of the most extraordinary erections in +the world. Though built of granite some of the detail is quite fine, and +the lower columns are well proportioned; but the upper part is +ridiculously heavy and out of keeping with the rest, and inconceivably +ill-designed. The different parts also are ill put together and look as +if they had belonged to distinct buildings designed on a totally +different scale. + +[Sidenote: Evora University.] + +Not much need be said of the Jesuit University founded at Evora by the +Cardinal in 1559 and suppressed by the Marques de Pombal. Now partly a +school and partly an orphanage, the great hall for conferring degrees is +in ruins, but the courtyard with its two ranges of galleries still +stands. The court is very large, and the galleries have round arches and +white marble columns, but is somehow wanting in interest. The church too +is very poor, though the private chapel with barrel vault and white +marble dome is better, yet the whole building shows, like the Graça +porch, that classic architecture was not yet fully understood, for Diogo +de Torralva had not yet finished his cloister at Thomar, nor had Terzi +begun to work in Lisbon. + +When Dom João III. died in 1557 he was succeeded by his grandson +Sebastião, who was then only three years old. At first his grandmother, +Dona Catharina, was regent, but she was thoroughly Spanish, and so +unpopular. For five years she withstood the intrigues of her +brother-in-law, Cardinal Henry, but at last in 1562 retired to Spain in +disgust. The Cardinal then became regent, but the country was really +governed by two brothers, of whom the elder, Luis Gonçalves da Câmara, a +Jesuit, was confessor to the young king. + +Between them Dom Sebastião grew up a dreamy bigot whose one ambition was +to lead a crusade against the Moors--an ambition in which popular rumour +said he was encouraged by the Jesuits at the instigation of his cousin, +Philip of Spain, who would profit so much by his death. + +Since the wealth of the Indies had begun to fill the royal treasury, the +Cortes had not been summoned, so there was no one able to oppose his +will, when at last an expedition sailed in 1578. + +At this time the country had been nearly drained of men by India and +Brazil, so a large part of the army consisted of mercenaries; peculation +too had emptied the treasury, and there was great difficulty in finding +money to pay the troops. + +Yet the expedition started, and landing first at Tangier afterwards +moved on to Azila, which Mulay Ahmed, a pretender to the Moorish +umbrella, had handed over. + +On July 29th, Dom Sebastião rashly started to march inland from Azila. +The army suffered terribly from heat and thirst, and was quite worn out +before it met the reigning amir, Abd-el-Melik, at Alcacer-Quebir, or +El-Kasar-el-Kebir, 'the great castle,' on the 3rd of August. + +Next morning the battle began, and though Abd-el-Melik died almost at +once, the Moors, surrounding the small Christian army, were soon +victorious. Nine thousand were killed, and of the rest all were taken +prisoners except fifty. Both the Pretender and Dom Sebastião fell, and +with his death and the destruction of his army the greatness of Portugal +disappeared. + +For two years, till 1580, his feeble old grand-uncle the Cardinal Henry +sat on the throne, but when he died without nominating an heir none of +Dom Manoel's descendants were strong enough to oppose Philip II. of +Spain. Philip was indeed a grandson of Dom Manoel through his mother +Isabel, but the duchess of Braganza, daughter of Dom Duarte, duke of +Guimarães, Cardinal Henry's youngest brother, had really a better claim. + +But the spirit of the nation was changed, she dared not press her +claims, and few supported the prior of Crato, whose right was at least +as good as had been that of Dom João I., and so Philip was elected at +Thomar in April 1580. + +Besides losing her independence Portugal lost her trade, for Holland and +England both now regarded her as part of their great enemy, Spain, and +so harried her ports and captured her treasure ships. Brazil was nearly +lost to the Dutch, who also succeeded in expelling the Portuguese from +Ceylon and from the islands of the East Indies, so that when the sixty +years' captivity was over and the Spaniards expelled, Portugal found it +impossible to recover the place she had lost. + +It is then no wonder that almost before the end of the century money for +building began to fail, and that some of the churches begun then were +never finished; and yet for about the first twenty or thirty years of +the Spanish occupation building went on actively, especially in Lisbon +and at Coimbra, where many churches were planned by Filippo Terzi, or by +the two Alvares and others. Filippo Terzi seems first to have been +employed at Lisbon by the Jesuits in building their church of São Roque, +begun about 1570.[162] + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, São Roque.] + +Outside the church is as plain as possible; the front is divided into +three by single Doric pilasters set one on each side of the main door +and two at each corner. Similar pilasters stand on these, separated from +them only by a shallow cornice. The main cornice is larger, but the +pediment is perfectly plain. Three windows, one with a pointed and two +with round pediments, occupy the spaces left between the upper +pilasters. The inside is richer; the wooden ceiling is painted, the +shallow chancel and the side chapels vaulted with barrel vaults, of +which those in the chapels are enriched with elaborate strapwork. Above +the chapels are square-headed windows, and then a corbelled cornice. +Even this is plain, and it owes most of its richness to the paintings +and to the beautiful tiles which cover part of the walls.[163] + +The three other great churches which were probably also designed by +Terzi are Santo Antão, Sta. Maria do Desterro, and São Vicente de Fora. + +Of these the great earthquake of 1755 almost entirely destroyed the +first two and knocked down the dome of the last. + +[Sidenote: São Vicente de Fora.] + +Though not the first to be built, São Vicente being the least injured +may be taken before the others. It is a large church, being altogether +about 236 feet long by 75 wide, and consists of a nave of three bays +with connected chapels on each side, a transept with the fallen dome at +the crossing, a square chancel, a retro-choir for the monks about 45 +feet deep behind the chancel, and to the west a porch between two tall +towers. + +On the south side are two large square cloisters of no great interest +with a sacristy between--in which all the kings of the House of Braganza +lie in velvet-covered coffins--and the various monastic buildings now +inhabited by the patriarch of Lisbon. + +The outside is plain, except for the west front, which stands at the top +of a great flight of steps. On the west front two orders of pilasters +are placed one above the other. Of these the lower is Doric, of more +slender proportions than usual, while the upper has no true capitals +beyond the projecting entablature and corbels on the frieze. Single +pilasters divide the centre of the front into three equal parts and +coupled pilasters stand at the corners of the towers. In the central +part three plain arches open on to the porch, with a pedimented niche +above each. In the tower the niches are placed lower with oblong +openings above and below. + +Above the entablature of the lower order there are three windows in the +middle flanked by Ionic pilasters and surmounted by pediments, while in +the tower are large round-headed niches with pediments. (Fig. 93.) + +[Illustration: PLAN OF SÃO VICENTE] + +The entablature of the upper order is carried straight across the whole +front, with nothing above it in the centre but a balustrading +interrupted by obelisk-bearing pedestals, but at the ends the towers +rise in one more square story flanked with short Doric pilasters. +Round-arched openings for bells occur on each side, and within the +crowning balustrade with its obelisks a stone dome rises to an +eight-sided domed lantern. + +Like all the church, the front is built of beautiful limestone, +rivalling Carrara marble in whiteness, and seen down the narrow street +which runs uphill from across the small _praça_ the whole building is +most imposing. It would have been even more satisfactory had the central +part been a little narrower, and had there been something to mark the +barrel vault within; the omission too of the lower order, which is so +much taller than the upper, would have been an improvement, but even +with these defects the design is most stately, and refreshingly free of +all the fussy over-elaboration and the fantastic piling up of pediments +which soon became too common. + +But if the outside deserves such praise, the inside is worthy of far +more. The great stone barrel vault is simply coffered with square +panels. The chapel arches are singularly plain, and spring from a good +moulding which projects nearly + +[Illustration: FIG. 93. + +LISBON. + +SÃO VICENTE DE FORA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 94. + +LISBON. + +SÃO VICENTE DE FORA.] + +to the face of the pilasters. Two of these stand between each chapel, +and have very beautiful capitals founded on the Doric but with a long +fluted neck ornamented in front by a bunch of crossed arrows and at the +corners with acanthus leaves, and with egg and tongue carved on the +moulding below the Corinthian abacus. Of the entablature, only the +frieze and architrave is broken round the pilasters; for the cornice +with its great mutules runs straight round the whole church, supported +over the chapels by carving out the triglyphs--of which there is one +over each pilaster, and two in the space between each pair of +pilasters--so as to form corbels. + +Only the pendentives of the dome and the panelled drum remain; the rest +was replaced after the earthquake by wooden ceiling pierced with +skylights. (Fig. 94.) + +Though so simple--there is no carved ornament except in the beautiful +capitals--the interior is one of the most imposing to be seen anywhere, +and though not really very large gives a wonderful impression of space +and size, being in this respect one of the most successful of classic +churches. It is only necessary to compare São Vicente de Fora with the +great clumsy cathedral which Herrera had begun to build five years +earlier at Valladolid to see how immensely superior Terzi was to his +Spanish contemporary. Even in his masterpiece, the church of the +Escorial, Herrera did not succeed in giving such spacious greatness, +for, though half as large again, the Escorial church is imposing rather +from its stupendous weight and from the massiveness of its granite piers +than from the beauty of its proportions. + +Philip took a great interest in the building of the Escorial, and also +had the plans of São Vicente submitted to him in 1590. This plan, signed +by him in November 1590, was drawn by João Nunes Tinouco, so that it is +possible that Tinouco was the actual designer and not Terzi, but Tinouco +was still alive sixty years later when he published a plan of Lisbon, +and so must have been very young in 1590. It is probable, therefore, +that tradition is right in assigning São Vicente to Terzi, and even if +it be actually the work of Tinouco, he has here done little but copy +what his master had already done elsewhere. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santo Antão.] + +After São Roque the first church begun by Terzi was Santo Antão, now +attached to the hospital of São José. Begun in 1579 it was not finished +till 1652, only to be destroyed by the earthquake in 1755. As at São +Vicente, the west front has a lower order of huge Doric pilasters nearly +fifty feet high. There is no porch, but three doors with poor windows +above which look as if they had been built after the earthquake. + +Unfortunately, nearly all above the lower entablature is gone, but +enough is left to show that the upper order was Ionic and very short, +and that the towers were to rise behind buttress-like curves descending +from the central part to two obelisks placed above the coupled corner +pilasters. + +The inside was almost exactly like São Vicente, but larger. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santa Maria do Desterro.] + +Santa Maria do Desterro was begun later than either of the last two, in +1591. Unlike them the two orders of the west front are short and of +almost equal size, Doric below and Ionic above. The arches of the porch +reach up to the lower entablature, and the windows above are rather +squat; it looks as if there was to have been a third order above, but it +is all gone. + +The inside was of the usual pattern, except that the pilasters were not +coupled between the chapels, that they were panelled, and that above the +low chapel arches there are square windows looking into a gallery. + +[Sidenote: Torreão do Paço.] + +Besides these churches Terzi built for Philip a large addition to the +royal palace in the shape of a great square tower or pavilion, called +the Torreão. The palace then stood to the west of what is now called the +Praça do Commercio, and the Torreão jutted out over the Tagus. It seems +to have had five windows on the longer and four on the shorter sides, to +have been two stories in height, and to have been covered by a great +square dome-shaped roof, with a lantern at the top and turrets at the +corners. Pilasters stood singly between each window and in pairs at the +corners, and the windows all had pediments. Now, not a stone of it is +left, as it was in the palace square, the Terreno do Paço da Ribeira, +that the earthquake was at its worst, swallowing up the palace and +overwhelming thousands of people in the waves of the river. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Sé Nova.] + +Meanwhile the great Jesuit church at Coimbra, now the Sé Nova or new +cathedral, had been gradually rising. Founded by Dom João III. in 1552, +and dedicated to the Onze mil Virgems, it cannot have been begun in its +present form till much later, till about 1580, while the main, or south, +front seems even later still.[164] + +Inside, the church consists of a nave of four bays with side chapels--in +one of which there is a beautiful Manoelino font--transepts and chancel +with a drumless dome over the crossing. In some respects the likeness to +São Vicente is very considerable; there are coupled Doric pilasters +between the chapels, the barrel vault is coffered, and the chapel arches +are extremely plain. But here the likeness ends. The pilasters are +panelled and have very simple moulded capitals; the entablature is quite +ordinary, without triglyphs or mutules, and is broken round each pair of +pilasters; the coffers on the vault are very deep, and are scarcely +moulded; and, above all, the proportions are quite different as the nave +is too wide for its height, and the drum is terribly needed to lift up +the dome. In short, the architect seems to have copied the dispositions +of Santo Antão and has done his best to spoil them, and yet he has at +the same time succeeded in making the interior look large, though with +an almost Herrera-like clumsiness. + +The south front is even more like Santo Antão. As there, three doors +take the place of the porch, and the only difference below is that each +Doric pilaster is flanked by half pilasters. Above the entablature the +front breaks out into a wild up-piling of various pediments, but even +here the likeness to Santo Antão is preserved, in that a great curve +comes down from the outer Ionic pilasters of the central part, to end, +however, not in obelisks, but in a great volute: the small towers too +are set much further back. Above, as below, the central part is divided +into three. Of these the two outer, flanked by Ionic pilasters on +pedestals, are finished off above with curved pediments broken to admit +of obelisks. The part between these has a large window below, a huge +coat of arms above, and rises high above the sides to a pediment so +arranged that while the lower mouldings form an angle the upper form a +curve on which stand two finials and a huge cross. (Fig. 95.) + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Collegio Novo.] + +Very soon this fantastic way of piling up pieces of pediment and of +entablature became only too popular, being copied for instance in the +Collegio Novo at Oporto, where, however, the design is not quite so bad +as the towers are brought forward and are carried up considerably +higher. But apart from this horrid misuse of classic details the +greatest fault of the façade at Coimbra is the disproportionate size of +some of the details; the obelisks and the cherubs' heads on which they +stand, the statues at the ends, and the central cross, and above all the +colossal acanthus leaves in the great scrolls are of such a size as +entirely to dwarf all the rest. + +From what remains of the front of Santo Antão, it looks as if it and the +front of the Sé Velha had been very much alike. Santo Antão was not +quite finished till 1652, so that it is probable that the upper part of +the west front dates from the seventeenth century, long after Terzi's +death, and that the Sé Nova at Coimbra was finished about the same time, +and perhaps copied from it. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Misericordia.] + +But it was not only Terzi's churches which were copied at Coimbra. While +the Sé Nova, then, and for nearly two hundred years more, the church of +the Jesuits, was still being built, the architect of the chief pateo of +the Misericordia took Diogo de Torralva's cloister at Thomar as his +model. + +It was in the year 1590 that Cardinal Affonso de Castello Branco began +to build the headquarters of the Misericordia of Coimbra, founded in +1500 as a simple confraternity. The various offices of the institution, +including a church, the halls whose ceilings have been already +mentioned, and hospital dormitories--all now turned into an +orphanage--are built round two courtyards, one only of which calls for +special notice, for nearly everything else has been rebuilt or altered. +In this court or cloister, the plan of the Claustro dos Filippes has +been followed in that there are three wide arches on each side, and +between them--but not in the corners, and further apart than at +Thomar--a pair of columns. In this case the space occupied by one arch +is scarcely wider than that occupied by the two fluted Doric columns and +the square-headed openings between them. Another change is that the +complete entablature with triglyphs and metopes is only found above the +columns, for the arches rise too high to leave room for more than the +cornice. (Fig. 96.) + +The upper story is quite different, for it has only square-headed +windows, though the line of the columns is carried up by slender and +short Ionic columns; a sloping tile roof rests immediately on the upper +cornice, above which rise small obelisks placed over the columns. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Episcopal Palace.] + +At about the same time the Cardinal built a long loggia on the west side +of the entrance court of his palace at Coimbra. The hill on which the +palace is built being extremely + +[Illustration: FIG. 95. + +SÉ NOVA, COIMBRA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 96 + +COIMBRA. + +MISERICORDIA.] + +steep, an immense retaining wall, some fifty or sixty feet high, bounds +the courtyard on the west, and it is on the top of this wall that the +loggia is built forming a covered way two stories in height and uniting +the Manoelino palace on the north with some offices which bound the yard +on the south. This covered way is formed by two rows of seven arches, +each resting on Doric columns, with a balustrading between the outer +columns on the top of the great wall. The ceiling is of wood and forms +the floor of the upper story, where the columns are Ionic and support a +continuous architrave. The whole is quite simple and unadorned, but at +the same time singularly picturesque, since the view through the arches, +over the old cathedral and the steeply descending town, down to the +convent of Santa Clara and the wooded hills beyond the Mondego, is most +beautiful; besides, the courtyard itself is not without interest. In the +centre stands a fountain, and on the south side a stair, carried on a +flying half-arch, leads up to a small porch whose steep pointed roof +rests on two walls, and on one small column. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Sé Velha Sacristy.] + +The same bishop also built the sacristy of the old cathedral. Entered by +a passage from the south transept, and built across the back of the +apse, it is an oblong room with coffered barrel vault, lit by a large +semicircular window at the north end. The cornice, of which the frieze +is adorned with eight masks, rests on corbels. On a black-and-white +marble lavatory is the date 1593 and the Cardinal's arms. The two ends +are divided into three tiled panels by Doric columns, and on the longer +sides are presses. + +Altogether it is very like the sacristy of Santa Cruz built some thirty +years later, but plainer. + +By 1590 or so several Portuguese followers of Terzi had begun to build +churches, founded on his work, but in some respects less like than is +the Sé Nova at Coimbra. Such churches are best seen at Coimbra, where +many were built, all now more or less deserted and turned to base uses. +Three at least of these stand on either side of the long Rua Sophia +which leads northwards from the town. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, São Domingos.] + +The oldest seems to be the church of São Domingos, founded by the dukes +of Aveiro, but never finished. Only the chancel with its flanking +chapels and the transept have been built. Two of the churches at Lisbon +and the Sé Nova of Coimbra are noted for their extremely long Doric +pilasters. Here, in the chancel the pilasters and the half columns in +the transept are Ionic, and even more disproportionately tall. The +architrave is unadorned, the frieze has corbels set in pairs, and +between the pairs curious shields and strapwork, and the cornice is +enriched with dentils, egg and tongue and modillions. Most elaborate of +all is the barrel vault, where each coffer is filled with round or +square panels surrounded with strapwork. + +This vault and the cornice were probably not finished till well on in +the seventeenth century, for on the lower, and probably earlier vaults, +of the side chapels the ornamentation is much finer and more delicate. + +The transepts were to have been covered with groined vaults of which +only the springing has been built. In the north transept and in one of +the chapels there still stand great stone reredoses once much gilt, but +now all broken and dusty and almost hidden behind the diligences and +cabs with which the church is filled. The great fault in São Domingos is +the use of the same order both for the tall pilasters in the chancel, +and for the shorter ones in the side chapels; so that the taller, which +are twice as long and of about the same diameter, are ridiculously lanky +and thin. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Carmo.] + +Almost opposite São Domingos is the church of the Carmo, begun by Frey +Amador Arraes, bishop of Portalegre about 1597. The church is an oblong +hall about 135 feet long, including the chancel, by nearly 40 wide, +roofed with a coffered barrel vault. On each side of the nave are two +rectangular and one semicircular chapel; the vaults of the chapel are +beautifully enriched with sunk panels of various shapes. The great +reredos covers the whole east wall with two stories of coupled columns, +niches and painted panels. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Graça.] + +Almost exactly the same is the Graça church next door, both very plain +and almost devoid of interest outside. + +[Sidenote: São Bento.] + +Equally plain is the unfinished front of the church of São Bento up on +the hill near the botanical gardens. It was designed by Baltazar Alvares +for Dom Diogo de Murça, rector of the University in 1600, but not +consecrated till thirty-four years later. The church, which inside is +about 164 feet long, consists of a nave with side chapels, measuring 60 +feet by about 35, a transept of the same width, and a square chancel. +Besides there is a deep porch in front between two oblong towers, which +have never been carried up above the roof. + +The porch is entered by three arches, one in the middle wider and higher +than the others. Above are three niches with shell heads, and then three +windows, two oblong and one round, all set in rectangular frames. At the +sides there are broad pilasters below, with the usual lanky Doric +pilasters above reaching to the main cornice, above which there now +rises only an unfinished gable end. The inside is much more pleasing. +The barrel vaults of the chapels are beautifully panelled and enriched +with egg and tongue; between each, two pilasters rise only to the +moulding from which the chapel arches spring, and support smaller +pilasters with a niche between. In the spandrels of the arches are +rather badly carved angels holding shields, and on the arches +themselves, as at São Marcos, are cherubs' heads. A plain entablature +runs along immediately above these arches, and from it to the main +cornice, the walls, covered with blue and white tiles, are perfectly +blank, broken only by square-headed windows. Only at the crossing do +pilasters run up to the vault, and they are of the usual attenuated +Doric form. As usual the roof is covered with plain coffers, as is also +the drumless dome. + +This is very like the Carmo and the Graça, which repeat the fault of +leaving a blank tiled wall above the chapels, and it is quite possible +that they too may have been built by Alvares; the plan is evidently +founded on that of one of Terzi's churches, as São Vicente, or on that +of the Sé Nova, but though some of the detail is charming there is a +want of unity between the upper and lower parts which is found in none +of Terzi's work, nor even in the heavier Sé Nova.[165] + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, São Bento.] + +Baltazar Alvares seems to have been specially employed by the order of +St. Benedict, for not only did he build their monasteries at Coimbra but +also São Bento, now the Cortes in Lisbon, as well as São Bento da +Victoria at Oporto, his greatest and most successful work. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, São Bento.] + +The plan is practically the same as that of São Bento at Coimbra, but +larger. Here, however, there are no windows over the chapel arches, nor +any dome at the crossing. Built of grey granite, a certain heaviness +seems suitable enough, and the great coffered vault is not without +grandeur, while the gloom of the inside is lit up by huge carved and +gilt altar-pieces and by the elaborate stalls in the choir gallery. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE EXPULSION OF THE +SPANIARDS + + +In the last chapter the most important works of Terzi and of his pupils +have been described, and it is now necessary to go back and tell of +various buildings which do not conform to his plan of a great +barrel-vaulted nave with flanking chapels, though the designers of some +of these buildings have copied such peculiarities as the tall and narrow +pilasters of which his school was so fond, and which, as will be seen, +ultimately degenerated into mere pilaster strips. + +[Sidenote: Vianna do Castello, Misericordia.] + +But before speaking of the basilican and other churches of this time, +the Misericordia at Vianna do Castello must be described.[166] + +The Misericordia of Vianna stands on the north side of the chief square +of the town, and was built in 1589 by one João Lopez, whose father had +designed the beautiful fountain which stands near by. + +It is a building of very considerable interest, as there seems to be +nothing else like it in the country. The church of the Misericordia, a +much older building ruined by later alteration, is now only remarkable +for the fine blue and white tile decoration with which its walls are +covered. Just to the west of it, and at the corner of the broad street +in which is a fine Manoelino house belonging to the Visconde de +Carreira, stands the building designed by Lopez. The front towards the +street is plain, but that overlooking the square highly decorated. + +At the two corners are broad rusticated bands which run up uninterrupted +to the cornice; between them the front is divided into three stories of +open loggias. Of these the lowest has five round arches resting on Ionic +columns; in + +[Illustration: FIG. 97. + +VIANNA DO CASTELLO. + +MISERICORDIA.] + +the second, on a solid parapet, stand four whole and two half 'terms' or +atlantes which support an entablature with wreath-enriched frieze; +corbels above the heads of the figures cross the frieze, and others +above them the low blocking course, and on them are other terms +supporting the main cornice, which is not of great projection. A simple +pediment rises above the four central figures, surmounted by a crucifix +and containing a carving of a sun on a strapwork shield. (Fig. 97.) + +The whole is of granite and the figures and mouldings are distinctly +rude, and yet it is eminently picturesque and original, and shows that +Lopez was a skilled designer if but a poor sculptor. + +[Sidenote: Beja, São Thiago.] + +Coming now to the basilican churches. That of São Thiago at Beja was +begun in 1590 by Jorge Rodrigues for Archbishop Theotonio of Evora. It +has a nave and aisles of six bays covered with groined vaults resting on +Doric columns, a transept and three shallow rectangular chapels to the +east. The clerestory windows are round. + +[Sidenote: Azeitão, São Simão.] + +Much the same plan had been followed a little earlier by Affonso de +Albuquerque, son of the great viceroy of India, when about 1570 he built +the church of São Simão close to his country house of Bacalhôa, at +Azeitão not far from Setubal. São Simão is a small church with nave and +aisles of five bays, the latter only being vaulted, with arcades resting +on Doric columns; at first there was a tower at each corner, but they +fell in 1755, and only one has been rebuilt. Most noticeable in the +church are the very fine tiles put up in 1648, with saintly figures over +each arch. They are practically the same as those in the parish church +of Alvito. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Cartuxa.] + +Another basilican church of this date is that of the Cartuxa or Charter +House,[167] founded by the same Archbishop Theotonio in 1587, a few +miles out of Evora. Only the west front, built about 1594 of black and +white marble, deserves mention. Below there is a porch, spreading beyond +the church, and arranged exactly like the lower Claustro dos Filippes at +Thomar, with round arches separated by two Doric columns on pedestals, +but with a continuous entablature carried above the arches on large +corbelled keystones. Behind rises the front in two stories. The lower +has three windows, square-headed and separated by Ionic columns, two on +each side, with niches between. Single Ionic columns also stand at the +outer angles of the aisles. In the upper story the central part is +carried up to a pediment by Corinthian columns resting on the Ionic +below; between them is a large statued niche surrounded by panels. + +Unfortunately the simplicity of the design is spoilt by the broken and +curly volutes which sprawl across the aisles, by ugly finials at the +corners, and by a rather clumsy balustrading to the porch. + +[Sidenote: Beja, Misericordia.] + +The interior of the Misericordia at Beja, a square, divided into nine +smaller vaulted squares by arches resting on fine Corinthian columns, +with altar recesses beyond, looks as if it belonged to the time of Dom +João III., but if so the front must have been added later. This is very +simple, but at the same time strong and unique. The triple division +inside is marked by three great rusticated Doric pilasters on which rest +a simple entablature and parapet. Between are three round arches, +enclosing three doors of which the central has a pointed pediment, while +over the others a small round window lights the interior. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar.] + +But by far the most original of all the buildings of this later +renaissance is the monastery of Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar in Villa +Nova de Gaya, the suburb of Oporto which lies south of the Douro. +Standing on a high granite knoll, which rises some fifty feet above the +country to the south, and descends by an abrupt precipice on the north +to the deep-flowing river, here some two hundred yards wide, and running +in a narrow gorge, the monastery and its hill have more than once played +an important part in history. From there Wellington, in 1809, was able +to reconnoitre the French position across the river while his army lay +hidden behind the rocks; and it was from a creek just a little to the +east that the first barges started for the north bank with the men who +seized the unfinished seminary and held it till enough were across to +make Soult see he must retreat or be cut off. Later, in 1832, the +convent, defended for Queen Maria da Gloria, was much knocked about by +the besieging army of Dom Miguel. + +The Augustinians had begun to build on the hill in 1540, but none of the +present monastery can be earlier than the seventeenth century, the date +1602 being found in the cloister. + +The plan of the whole building is most unusual and original: the nave is +a circle some seventy-two feet in diameter, surmounted by a dome, and +surrounded by eight shallow chapels, of which one contains the entrance +and another is prolonged to form a narrow chancel. This chancel leads +to a larger square choir behind the high altar, and east of it is a +round cloister sixty-five feet across. The various monastic buildings +are grouped round the choir and cloister, leaving the round nave +standing free. The outside of the circle is two stories in height, +divided by a plain cornice carried round the pilasters which mark the +recessed chapels within. The face of the wall above this cornice is set +a little back, and the pilaster strips are carried up a short distance +to form a kind of pedestal, and are then set back with a volute and +obelisk masking the offset. The main cornice has two large corbels to +each bay, and carries a picturesque balustrading within which rises a +tile roof covering the dome and crowned by a small lantern at the top. +The west door has two Ionic columns on each side; a curious niche with +corbelled sides rises above it to the lower cornice; and the church is +lit by a square-headed window pierced through the upper part of each +bay. Only the pilasters, cornices, door and window dressings are of +granite ashlar, all the rest being of rubble plastered and whitewashed. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF NOSSA SENHORA DO PILAR] + +Now the eucalyptus-trees planted round the church have grown so tall +that only the parapet can be seen rising above the tree-tops. + +Though much of the detail of the outside is far from being classical or +correct, the whole is well proportioned and well put together, but the +same cannot be said of the inside. Pilasters of inordinate height have +been seen in some of the Lisbon churches, but compared with these which +here stand in couples between the chapels they are short and well +proportioned. These pilasters, which are quite seventeen diameters high, +have for capitals coarse copies of those in São Vicente de Fora in +Lisbon. In São Vicente the cornice was carried on corbels crossing the +frieze, and so was continuous and unbroken. Here all the lower +mouldings of the cornice are carried round the corbels and the pilasters +so that only the two upper are continuous, an arrangement which is +anything but an improvement. Another unpleasing feature are the three +niches which, with hideous painted figures, are placed one above the +other between the pilasters. The chancel arch reaches up to the main +cornice, but those of the door and chapel recesses are low enough to +leave room for the windows. The dome is divided into panels of various +shapes by broad flat ribs with coarse mouldings. The chancel and choir +beyond have barrel vaults divided into simple square panels. + +The church then, though interesting from its plan, is--inside +especially--remarkably unpleasing, though it is perhaps only fair to +attribute a considerable part of this disagreeable effect to the state +of decay into which it has fallen--a state which has only advanced far +enough to be squalid and dirty without being in the least picturesque. +Far more pleasing than the church is the round cloister behind. In it +the thirty-six Ionic columns are much better proportioned, and the +capitals better carved; on the cornice stands an attic, rendered +necessary by the barrel vault, heavy indeed, but not too heavy for the +columns below. This attic is panelled, and on it stand obelisk-bearing +pedestals, one above each column, and between them pediments of +strapwork. (Fig. 98.) + +Had this cloister been square it would have been in no way very +remarkable, but its round shape as well as the fig-trees that now grow +in the garth, and the many plants which sprout from joints in the +cornice, make it one of the most picturesque buildings in the country. +The rest of the monastic buildings have been in ruins since the siege of +1832. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Santa Cruz Sacristy.] + +The sacristy of Santa Cruz at Coimbra must have been begun before Nossa +Senhora da Serra had been finished. Though so much later--for it is +dated 1622--the architect of this sacristy has followed much more +closely the good Italian forms introduced by Terzi. Like that of the Sé +Velha, the sacristy of Santa Cruz is a rectangular building, and +measures about 52 feet long by 26 wide; each of the longer sides is +divided into three bays by Doric pilasters which have good capitals, but +are themselves cut up into many small panels. The cornice is partly +carried on corbels as in the Serra church, but here the effect is much +better. There are large semicircular windows, divided into three lights +at each end, and + +[Illustration: FIG. 98. + +OPORTO. + +CLOISTER, NOSSA SENHORA DA SERRA DO PILAR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 99. + +COIMBRA. + +SACRISTY OF STA. CRUZ.] + +the barrel vault is covered with deep eight-sided coffers. One curious +feature is the way the pilasters in the north-east corner are carried on +corbels, so as to leave room for two doors, one of which leads into the +chapter-house behind the chancel. (Fig. 99.) + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santa Engracia.] + +Twenty years later was begun the church of Santa Engracia in Lisbon. It +was planned on a great scale; a vast dome in the centre surrounded by +four equal apses, and by four square towers. It has never been finished, +and now only rises to the level of the main cornice; but had the dome +been built it would undoubtedly have been one of the very finest of the +renaissance buildings in the country. + +Like the Serra church it is, outside, two stories in height having Doric +pilasters below--coupled at the angles of the towers--and Ionic above. +In the western apse, the pilasters are replaced by tall detached Doric +columns, and the Ionic pilasters above by buttresses which grow out of +voluted curves. Large, simply moulded windows are placed between the +upper pilasters, with smaller blank windows above them, while in the +western apse arches with niches set between pediment-bearing pilasters +lead into the church. + +Here, in Santa Engracia, is a church designed in the simplest and most +severe classic form, and absolutely free of all the fantastic misuse of +fragments of classic detail which had by that time become so common, and +which characterise such fronts as those of the Sé Nova at Coimbra or the +Collegio Novo at Oporto. The niches over the entrance arches are severe +but well designed, as are the windows in the towers and all the +mouldings. Perhaps the only fault of the detail is that the Doric +pilasters and columns are too tall. + +Now in its unfinished state the whole is heavy and clumsy, but at the +same time imposing and stately from its great size; but it is scarcely +fair to judge so unfinished a building, which would have been very +different had its dome and four encompassing towers risen high above the +surrounding apses and the red roofs of the houses which climb steeply up +the hillside. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Santa Clara.] + +The new convent of Santa Clara at Coimbra was begun about the same +time--in 1640--on the hillside overlooking the Mondego and the old +church which the stream has almost buried; and, more fortunate than +Santa Engracia, it has been finished, but unlike it is a building of +little interest. + +The church is a rectangle with huge Doric pilasters on either side +supporting a heavy coffered roof. There are no aisles, but shallow altar +recesses with square-headed windows above. The chancel at the south end +is like the nave but narrower; the two-storied nuns' choir is to the +north. As the convent is still occupied it cannot be visited, but +contains the tomb of St. Isabel, brought from the old church, in the +lower choir, and her silver shrine in the upper. Except for the +cloister, which, designed after the manner of the Claustro dos Filippes +at Thomar, has coupled Doric columns between the arches, and above, +niches flanked by Ionic columns between square windows, the rest of the +nunnery is even heavier and more barrack-like than the church. Indeed +almost the only interest of the church is the use of the huge Doric +pilasters, since from that time onward such pilasters, usually as clumsy +and as large, are found in almost every church. + +This fondness for Doric is probably due to the influence of Terzi, who +seems to have preferred it to all the other orders, though he always +gave his pilasters a beautiful and intricate capital. In any case from +about 1580 onwards scarcely any other order on a large scale is used +either inside or outside, and by 1640 it had grown to the ugly size used +in Santa Clara and in nearly all later buildings, the only real +exception being perhaps in the work of the German who designed Mafra and +rebuilt the Capella Mor at Evora. Such pilasters are found forming piers +in the church built about 1600 to be the cathedral of Leiria, in the +west front of the cathedral of Portalegre, where they are piled above +each other in three stories, huge and tall below, short and thinner +above, and in endless churches all over the country. Later still they +degenerated into mere angle strips, as in the cathedral of Angra do +Heroismo in the Azores and elsewhere. + +Such a building as Santa Engracia is the real ending of Architecture in +Portugal, and its unfinished state is typical of the poverty which had +overtaken the country during the Spanish usurpation, when robbed of her +commerce by Holland and by England, united against her will to a +decaying power, she was unable to finish her last great work, while such +buildings as she did herself finish--for it must not be forgotten that +Mafra was designed by a foreigner--show a meanness of invention and +design scarcely to be equalled in any other land, a strange contrast to +the exuberance of fancy lavished on the buildings of a happier age. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + + +When elected at Thomar in 1580, Philip II. of Spain had sworn to govern +Portugal only through Portuguese ministers, a promise which he seems to +have kept. He was fully alive to the importance of commanding the mouth +of the Tagus and the splendid harbour of Lisbon, and had he fixed his +capital there instead of at Madrid it is quite possible that the two +countries might have remained united. + +For sixty years the people endured the ever-growing oppression and +misgovernment. The duque de Lerma, minister to Philip III., or II. of +Portugal, and still more the Conde duque de Olivares under Philip IV., +treated Portugal as if it were a conquered province. + +In 1640, the very year in which Santa Engracia was begun, the regent was +Margaret of Savoy, whose ministers, with hardly an exception, were +Spaniards. + +It will be remembered that when Philip II. was elected in 1580, Dona +Catharina, duchess of Braganza and daughter of Dom Manoel's sixth son, +Duarte, duke of Guimarães, had been the real heir to the throne of her +uncle, the Cardinal King. Her Philip had bought off by a promise of the +sovereignty of Brazil, a promise which he never kept, and now in 1640 +her grandson Dom João, eighth duke of Braganza and direct descendant of +Affonso, a bastard son of Dom João I., had succeeded to all her rights. + +He was an unambitious and weak man, fond only of hunting and music, so +Olivares had thought it safe to restore to him his ancestral lands; and +to bind him still closer to Spain had given him a Spanish wife, Luisa +Guzman, daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia. Matters, however, turned +out very differently from what he had expected. A gypsy had once told +Dona Luisa that she would be a queen, and a queen she was determined to +be. With difficulty she persuaded her husband to become the nominal head +of the conspiracy for the expulsion of the Spaniards, and on the 1st of +December 1640 the first blow was struck by the capture of the regent and +her ministers in the palace at Lisbon. Next day, December 2nd, the duke +of Braganza was saluted as King Dom João IV. at Villa Viçosa, his +country home beyond Evora. + +The moment of the revolution was well chosen, for Spain was at that time +struggling with a revolt which had broken out in Cataluña, and so was +unable to send any large force to crush Dom João. All the Indian and +African colonies at once drove out the Spaniards, and in Brazil the +Dutch garrisons which had been established there by Count Maurice of +Nassau were soon expelled. + +Though a victory was soon gained over the Spaniards at Montijo, the war +dragged on for twenty-eight years, and it was only some years after Don +John of Austria[168] had been defeated at Almeixial by Schomberg (who +afterwards took service under William of Orange) that peace was finally +made in 1668. Portugal then ceded Ceuta, and Spain acknowledged the +independence of the revolted kingdom, and granted to its sovereign the +title of Majesty. + +It is no great wonder, then, that with such a long-continued war and an +exhausted treasury a building like Santa Engracia should have remained +unfinished, and it would have been well for the architecture of the +country had this state of poverty continued, for then far more old +buildings would have survived unaltered and unspoiled. + +Unfortunately by the end of the seventeenth century trade had revived, +and the discovery of diamonds and of gold in Brazil had again brought +much wealth to the king. + +Of the innumerable churches and palaces built during the eighteenth +century scarcely any are worthy of mention, for perhaps the great +convent palace of Mafra and the Capella Mor of the Sé at Evora are the +only exceptions. + +In the early years of that century King João V. made a vow that if a son +was born to him, he would, on the site of the poorest monastery in the +country, build the largest and the richest. At the same time anxious to +emulate the glories of the Escorial, he determined that his building +should contain a palace as well as a monastery--indeed it may almost be +said to contain two palaces, one for the king on the south, and one on +the north for the queen. + +[Sidenote: Mafra.] + +A son was born, and the poorest monastery in the kingdom was found at +Mafra, where a few Franciscans lived in some miserable buildings. Having +found his site, King João had next to find an architect able to carry +out his great scheme, and so low had native talent fallen, that the +architect chosen was a foreigner, Frederic Ludovici or Ludwig, a German. + +The first stone of the vast building was laid in 1717, and the church +was dedicated thirteen years later, in 1730.[169] + +The whole building may be divided into two main parts. One to the east, +measuring some 560 feet by 350, and built round a large square +courtyard, was devoted to the friars, and contained the convent +entrance, the refectory, chapter-house, kitchen, and cells for two +hundred and eighty brothers, as well as a vast library on the first +floor. + +The other and more extensive part to the west comprises the king's +apartments on the south side, the queen's on the north, and between them +the church. + +It is not without interest to compare the plan of this palace or +monastery with the more famous Escorial. Both cover almost exactly the +same area,[170] but while in the Escorial the church is thrust back at +the end of a vast patio, here it is brought forward to the very front. +There the royal palace occupies only a comparatively small area in the +north-west corner of the site, and the monastic part the whole lying +south of the entrance patio and of the church; here the monastic part is +thrust back almost out of sight, and the palace stretches all along the +west front except where it is interrupted in the middle by the church. + +Indeed the two buildings differ from one another much as did the +characters of their builders. The gloomy fanaticism of Philip of Spain +is exemplified by the preponderance of the monastic buildings no less +than by his own small dark bed-closet opening only to the church close +to the high altar. João V., pleasure-loving and luxurious, pushed the +friars to the back, and made his own and the queen's rooms the most +prominent part of the whole building, and one cannot but feel that, +though a monastery had to be built to fulfil a vow, the king was +actuated not so much by religious zeal as by an ostentatious megalomania +which led him to try and surpass the size of the Escorial. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF MAFRA] + +To take the plan rather more in detail. The west front, about 740 feet +long, is flanked by huge square projecting pavilions. The king's and the +queen's apartments are each entered by rather low and insignificant +doorways in the middle of the long straight blocks which join these +pavilions to the church. These doors lead under the palace to large +square courtyards, one on each side of the church, and forming on the +ground floor a cloister with a well-designed arcading of round arches, +separated by Roman Doric shafts. The king's and the queen's blocks are +practically identical, except that in the king's a great oval hall +called the Sala dos actos takes the place of some smaller rooms between +the cloister and the outer wall. + +Between these blocks stands the church reached by a great flight of +steps. It has a nave and aisles of three large and one small bay, a dome +at the crossing, and transepts and chancel ending in apses. In front, +flanking towers projecting beyond the aisles are united by a long +entrance porch. + +Between the secular and the monastic parts a great corridor runs north +and south, and immediately beyond it a range of great halls, including +the refectory at the north end and the chapter-house at the south. +Further east the great central court with its surrounding cells divides +the monastic entrance and great stair from such domestic buildings as +the kitchen, the bakery, and the lavatory. Four stories of cells occupy +the whole east side. + +Though some parts of the palace and monastery such as the two entrance +courts, the library, and the interior of the church, may be better than +might have been expected from the date, it is quite impossible to speak +at all highly of the building as a whole. + +It is nearly all of the same height with flat paved roofs; indeed the +only breaks are the corner pavilions and the towers and dome of the +church. + +The west side consists of two monotonous blocks, one on each side of the +church, with three stories of windows. At either end is a great square +projecting mass, rusticated on the lowest floor, with short pilaster +strips between the windows on the first, and Corinthian pilasters on the +second. The poor cornice is surmounted by a low attic, within which +rises a hideous ogee plastered roof. (Fig. 100.) + +The church in the centre loses much by not rising above the rest of the +front, and the two towers, though graceful enough in outline, are poor +in detail, and are finished off with a very ugly combination of hollow +curves and bulbous domes. + +The centre dome, too, is very poor in outline with a drum and lantern +far too tall for its size; though of course, had the drum been of a +better proportion, it would hardly have shown above the palace roof. + +Still more monotonous are the other sides with endless rows of windows +set in a pink plastered wall. + +Very different is the outline of the Escorial, whose very plainness and +want of detail suits well the rugged mountain side in which it is set. +The main front with its high corner towers and their steep slate roofs, +and with its high centre-piece, is far more impressive, and the mere +reiteration of its endless featureless windows gives the Escorial an +appearance of size quite wanting to Mafra. Above all the great church +with massive dome and towers rises high above all the rest, and gives +the whole a sense of unity and completeness which the smaller church of +Mafra, though in a far more prominent place, entirely fails to do. + +Poor though the church at Mafra is outside, inside there is much to +admire, and but little to betray the late date. The porch has an +effective vault of black and white marble, and domes with black and +white panels cover the spaces under the towers. Inside the church is all +built of white marble with panels and pilasters of pink marble from Pero +Pinheiro on the road to Cintra. (Fig. 101.) + +The whole church measures about 200 feet long by 100 wide, with a nave +also 100 feet long. The central aisle is over 40 feet wide, and has two +very well-proportioned Corinthian pilasters between each bay. Almost the +only trace of the eighteenth century is found in the mouldings of the +pendentive panels, and in the marble vault, but on the whole the church +is stately and the detail refined and restrained. + +The refectory, a very plain room with plastered barrel vault, 160 feet +long by 40 wide, is remarkable only for the splendid slabs of Brazil +wood which form the tables, and for the beautiful brass lamps which hang +from the ceiling. + +Much more interesting is the library which occupies the central part of +the floor above. Over 200 feet long, it has a dome-surmounted transept +in the middle, and a barrel vault divided into panels. All the walls are +lined with bookcases painted white like the barrel vault and like the +projecting gallery from which the upper shelves are reached. One half is +devoted to religious, and one half to secular books, and in the latter +each country has a space more or less large allotted to it. As scarcely +any books seem to have been added since the building was finished, it +should contain many a rare and valuable volume, and as all seem to be in +excellent condition, + +[Illustration: FIG. 100. + +MAFRA. + +W. FRONT OF PALACE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 101. + +MAFRA. + +INTERIOR OF CHURCH.] + +they might well deserve a visit from some learned book-lover. + +Mafra does not seem to have ever had any interesting history. Within the +lines of Torres Vedras, the palace escaped the worst ravages of the +French invasion. In 1834 the two hundred and eighty friars were turned +out, and since then most of the vast building has been turned into +barracks, while the palace is but occasionally inhabited by the king +when he comes to shoot in the great wooded _tapada_ or enclosure which +stretches back towards the east. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Capella Mor.] + +Just about the time that João V. was beginning his great palace at +Mafra, the chapter of the cathedral of Evora came to the conclusion that +the old Capella Mor was too small, and altogether unworthy of the +dignity of an archiepiscopal see. So they determined to pull it down, +and naturally enough employed Ludovici to design the new one. The first +stone was laid in 1717, and the chancel was consecrated in 1746 at the +cost of about £27,000. + +The outside, of white marble, is enriched with two orders of pilasters, +Corinthian and Composite. Inside, white, pink and black marbles are +used, the columns are composite, but the whole design is far poorer than +anything at Mafra. + +King João V. died in 1750 after a long and prosperous reign. Besides +building Mafra he gave great sums of money to the Pope, and obtained in +return the division of Lisbon into two bishoprics, and the title of +Patriarch for the archbishop of Lisboa Oriental, or Eastern Lisbon. + +When he died he was succeeded by Dom José, whose reign is noted for the +terrible earthquake of 1755, and for the administration of the great +Marques de Pombal. + +It was on the 1st of November, when the population of Lisbon was +assembled in the churches for the services of All Saints' day, that the +first shock was felt. This was soon followed by two others which laid +the city in ruins, killing many people. Most who had escaped rushed to +the river bank, where they with the splendid palace at the water's edge +were all overwhelmed by an immense tidal wave. + +The damage done to the city was almost incalculable. Scarcely a house +remained uninjured, and of the churches nearly all were ruined. The +cathedral was almost entirely destroyed, leaving only the low chapels +and the romanesque nave and transepts standing, and of the later +churches all were ruined, and only São Roque and São Vicente de +Fora--which lost its dome--remained to show what manner of churches were +built at the end of the sixteenth century. + +This is not the place to tell of the administration of the Marques de +Pombal, who rose to eminence owing to the great ability he showed after +this awful calamity, or to give a history of how he expelled the +Jesuits, subdued the nobles, attempted to make Portugal a manufacturing +country, abolished slavery and the differences between the _Old_ and the +_New Christians_, reformed the administration and the teaching of the +University of Coimbra, and robbed the Inquisition of half its terrors by +making its trials public. In Lisbon he rebuilt the central part of the +town, laying out parallel streets, and surrounding the Praça do +Commercio with great arcaded government offices; buildings remarkable +rather for the fine white stone of which they are made, than for any +architectural beauty. Indeed it is impossible to admire any of the +buildings erected in Portugal since the earthquake; the palaces of the +Necessidades and the Ajuda are but great masses of pink-washed plaster +pierced with endless windows, and without any beauty of detail or of +design. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Estrella.] + +Nor does the church of the Coração de Jesus, usually called the +Estrella, call for any admiration. It copies the faults of Mafra, the +tall drum, the poor dome, and the towers with bulbous tops. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Torre dos Clerigos.] + +More vicious, indeed, than the Estrella, but much more original and +picturesque, is the Torre dos Clerigos at Oporto, built by the clergy in +1755. It stands at the top of a steep hill leading down to the busiest +part of the town. The tower is a square with rounded corners, and is of +very considerable height. The main part is four stories in height, of +which the lowest is the tallest and the one above it the shortest. All +are adorned with pilasters or pilaster strips, and the third, in which +is a large belfry window, has an elaborate cornice, rising over the +window in a rounded pediment to enclose a great shield of arms. The +fourth story is finished by a globe-bearing parapet, within which the +tower rises to another parapet much corbelled out. The last or sixth +story is set still further back and ends in a fantastic dome-shaped +roof. In short, the tower is a good example of the wonderful and +ingenious way in which the eighteenth-century builders of Portugal often +contrived the strangest results by a use--or misuse--of pieces of +classic detail, forming a whole often more Chinese than Western in +appearance, but at the same time not unpicturesque.[171] + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Quinta do Freixo.] + +A much more pleasing example of the same school--a school doubtless +influenced by the bad example of Churriguera in Spain--is the house +called the Quinta do Freixo on the Douro a mile or so above the town. +Here the four towers with their pointed slate roofs rise in so +picturesque a way at the four corners, and the whole house blends so +well with the parapets and terraces of the garden, that one can almost +forgive the broken pediments which form so strange a gable over the +door, and the still more strange shapes of the windows. Now that factory +chimneys rise close on either side the charm is spoiled, but once the +house, with its turrets, its vase-laden parapets, its rococo windows, +and the slates painted pale blue that cover its walls, must have been a +fit setting for the artificial civilisation of a hundred and fifty years +ago, and for the ladies in dresses of silk brocade and gentlemen in +flowered waistcoats and powdered hair who once must have gone up and +down the terrace steps, or sat in the shell grottoes of the garden. + +[Sidenote: Queluz.] + +Though less picturesque and fantastic, the royal palace at Queluz, +between Lisbon and Cintra, is another really pleasing example of the +more sober rococo. Built by Dom Pedro III. about 1780, the palace is a +long building with a low tiled roof, and the gardens are rich in +fountains and statues. + +[Sidenote: Guimarães, Quinta.] + +Somewhat similar, but unfinished, and enriched with niches and statues, +is a Quinta near the station at Guimarães. Standing on a slope, the +garden descends northwards in beautiful terraces, whose fronts are +covered with tiles. Being well cared for, it is rich in beautiful trees +and shrubs. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Hospital and Factory.] + +Much more correct, and it must be said commonplace, are the hospital and +the English factory--or club-house--in Oporto. The plans of both have +clearly been sent out from England, the hospital especially being +thoroughly English in design. Planned on so vast a scale that it has +never been completed, with the pediment of its Doric portico unfinished, +the hospital is yet a fine building, simple and severe, not unlike what +might have been designed by some pupil of Chambers. + +The main front has a rusticated ground floor with round-headed windows +and doors. On this in the centre stands a Doric portico of six columns, +and at the ends narrower colonnades of four shafts each. Between them +stretches a long range of windows with simple, well-designed +architraves. The only thing, apart from its unfinished condition, which +shows that the hospital is not in England, are some colossal figures of +saints which stand above the cornice, and are entirely un-English in +style. + +Of later buildings little can be said. Many country houses are pleasing +from their complete simplicity; plastered, and washed pink, yellow, or +white, they are devoid of all architectural pretension, and their low +roofs of red pantiles look much more natural than do the steep slated +roofs of some of the more modern villas. + +The only unusual point about these Portuguese houses is that, as a rule, +they have sash windows, a form of window so rare in the South that one +is tempted to see in them one of the results of the Methuen Treaty and +of the long intercourse with England. The chimneys, too, are often +interesting. Near Lisbon they are long, narrow oblongs, with a curved +top--not unlike a tombstone in shape--from which the smoke escapes by a +long narrow slit. Elsewhere the smoke escapes through a picturesque +arrangement of tiles, and hardly anywhere is there to be seen a simple +straight shaft with a chimney can at the top. + +For twenty years after the end of the Peninsular War the country was in +a more or less disturbed state. And it was only after Dom Miguel had +been defeated and expelled, and the more liberal party who supported +Dona Maria II. had won the day, that Portugal again began to revive. + +In 1834, the year which saw Dom Miguel's surrender, all monasteries +throughout the country were suppressed, and the monks turned out. Even +more melancholy was the fate of the nuns, for they were allowed to stay +on till the last should have died. In some cases one or two survived +nearly seventy years, watching the gradual decay of their homes, a decay +they were powerless to arrest, till, when their death at last set the +convents free, they were found, with leaking roofs, and rotten floors, +almost too ruinous to be put to any use. + +The Gothic revival has not been altogether without its effects in +Portugal. Batalha has been, and Alcobaça is being, saved from ruin. The +Sé Velha at Coimbra has been purged--too drastically perhaps--of all the +additions and disfigurements of the eighteenth century, and the same is +being done with the cathedral of Lisbon. + +Such new buildings as have been put up are usually much less successful. +Nothing can exceed the ugliness of the new domed tower of the church of +Belem, or of the upper story imposed on the long undercroft. Nor can the +new railway station in the Manoelino style be admired. + +Probably the best of such attempts to copy the art of Portugal's +greatest age is found at Bussaco, where the hotel, with its arcaded +galleries and its great sphere-bearing spire, is not unworthy of the +sixteenth century, and where the carving, usually the spontaneous work +of uninstructed men, shows that some of the mediæval skill, as well as +some of the mediæval methods, have survived till the present century. + + + + +BOOKS CONSULTED + + + +Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani, Silvensis in Algarviis Episcopi: _De +rebus Emmanuelis, etc._ Cologne, 1597. + +Padre Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos: _Historia de Santarem +Edificada_. Lisboa Occidental, 1790. + +J. Murphy: _History and Description of the Royal Convent of +Batalha_. London, 1792. + +Raczynski: _Les Arts en Portugal_. Paris, 1846. + +Raczynski: _Diccionaire Historico-Artistique du Portugal_. Paris, +1847. + +J. C. Robinson: 'Portuguese School of Painting' in the _Fine Arts +Quarterly Review_. 1866. + +Simões, A. F.: _Architectura Religiosa em Coimbra na Idade Meia_. + +Ignacio de Vilhena Barbosa: _Monumentos de Portugal Historicos, +etc._ Lisboa, 1886. + +Oliveira Martims: _Historia de Portugal_. + +Pinho Leal: _Diccionario Geographico de Portugal_. + +Albrecht Haupt: _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal_. +Frankfurt A.M., 1890. + +Visconde de Condeixa: _O Mosteiro da Batalha em Portugal_. Lisboa & +Paris. + +Justi: 'Die Portugiesische Malerei des 16ten Jahrhunderts' in the +_Jahrbuch der K. Preuss. Kunstsammlung_, vol. ix. Berlin, 1888. + +Joaquim Rasteiro: _Quinta e Palacio de Bacalhôa em Azeitão_. +Lisboa, 1895. + +Joaquim de Vasconcellos: 'Batalha' & 'São Marcos' from _A Arte e a +Natureza em Portugal._ Ed. E. Biel e Cie. Porto. + +L. R. D.: _Roteiro Illustrado do Viajante em Coimbra_. Coimbra, +1894. + +Caetano da Camara Manoel: _Atravez a Cidade de Evora, etc._ Evora, +1900. + +Conde de Sabugosa: _O Paço de Cintra_. Lisboa, 1903. + +Augusto Fuschini: _A Architectura Religiosa da Edade Média_. +Lisboa, 1904. + +José Queiroz: _Ceramica Portugueza_. Lisboa, 1907. + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Abd-el-Melik, 244. + +Abrantes, 41, 103. + +Abreu, L. L. d', 233. + +Abu-Zakariah, the vezir, 44. + +Affonso II., 64, 65. + ---- III., 7, 64, 67, 68, 75, 116. + ---- IV., 43, 73, 74, 76. + ---- V., 92, 101, 102, 127, 134, 143, 161, 171, 176. + ---- VI., 24, 127. + ---- I., Henriques, 6, 31, 38, 40, 41, 44, 51, 117, 166, 196, 197. + ---- of Portugal, Bishop of Evora, 19. + ---- son of João I., 261. + ---- son of João II., 144. + +Africa, 66, 144, 161. + +Aguas Santas, 33, 136. + +Agua de Peixes, 131. + +Ahmedabad, 159, 176, 180. + +Albuquerque, Affonso de, 25, 144, 158, 170, 183, 255. + ---- Luis de, 180, 183 _n._ + +Alcacer-Quebir, battle of, 216, 244. + +Alcacer Seguer, 102. + +Alcantara, 28. + +Alcobaça, 44, 45, 48, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 68, 70, 71, +75-78, 82, 166, 204, 206, 223, 227, 231, 270. + +Al-Coraxi, emir, 42. + +Alemquer, 217. + +Alemtejo, 1, 10, 51, 100, 129, 143. + +Alexander VI., Pope, 158. + +Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon, 6, 117. + ---- VII. of Castile and Leon, 6, 7, 38, 39. + ---- X. of Castile and Leon, 68. + +Alga, San Giorgio in, 133. + +Algarve, the, 7, 67, 68, 116, 219. + +Alhambra, the, 120, 128. + +Aljubarrota, battle of, 7, 18, 80, 93, 98. + +Almada, Rodrigo Ruy de, 11. + +Almansor, 30, 42. + +Almeida, Bishop Jorge d', 21, 48, 206, 208, 209, 210. + +Almeirim, palace of, 122, 144, 229, 240. + +Almeixial, battle of, 262. + +Almourol, 41. + +Almoravides, the, 6. + +Alvares, the, 49, 242, 244. + ---- Baltazar, 252, 253. + ---- Fernando, 19. + +Alvito, 27, 100, 129-132, 255. + +Amarante, 237. + +Amaro, Sant', 27. + +Amboise, Georges d', 202. + +Ançã, 204. + +Andalucia, 4. + +Andrade, Fernão Peres de, 144. + +Angra do Heroismo, in the Azores, 260. + +Annes, Canon Gonçalo, 20 _n._ + ---- Margarida, 91 _n._ + ---- Pedro, 197. + +Antunes, Aleixo, 228. + +Antwerp, 11. + +Arabes, Sala dos, Cintra, 23, 24, 124. + +Aragon, 5. + +Arganil, Counts of, 206, 207. + +Arraes, Frey Amador, 252. + +Arruda, Diogo de, 162. + +Astorga, 41. + +Asturias, 5. + ---- Enrique, Prince of the, 81. + +Augustus, reign of, 3. + +Ave, river, 2, 29, 31, 107. + +Aveiro, convent at, 142. + ---- the Duque d', 140. + ---- Dukes of, 251. + +Avignon, 161. + +Aviz, House of, 8. + +Azeitão, 255. + +Azila, in Morocco, 134, 243, 244. + +Azurara, 63, 107, 108, 136. + + +B + +Bacalhôa, Quinta de, 22, 25, 27, 176 _n._, 183, 255. + +Barbosa, Francisco, 212. + ---- Gonzalo Gil, 212. + +Barcellos, 127. + +Barcelona, 5. + +Batalha, 24, 61 _n._, 62, 63, 65, 70, 78, 80-92, 95, 96, +97, 99, 109, 159, 171-181, 193, 194, 204, 224, 227, 230-233, 270. + +Bayão, Gonçalo, 240. + +Bayona, in Galicia, 39. + +Beatriz, Dona, wife of Charles III. of Savoy, 14. + ---- Queen of Affonso III., 68, 75. + ---- ---- Affonso IV., 117. + +Bebedim, 116, 168 _n._ + +Beckford, 59. + +Beira, 1, 7, 64. + +Beja, 7, 51, 69, 148, 255, 256. + ---- Luis, Duke of, 14. + +Belem, 14, 15, 16, 20, 28, 100, 104, 162, 164, 166, 171, 172, 177, +183-195, 221, 222, 227, 231, 241, 271. + + ---- Tower of São Vicente, 146, 179, 181-183, 194. + +Bernardo (of Santiago), 36, 48 _n._ + ---- Master, 48. + +Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, 59. + +Boelhe, 32. + +Bonacofú, 102. + +Boulogne, Countess of, 68, 75. + +Boutaca, or Boitaca, 147, 149, 184, 231. + +Braga, 2, 3, 18, 19, 31, 34-40, 52, 62, 67, 98, 99, 104, 112-115. + +Braganza, Archbishop José de, 114 _n._ + ---- Catherine, Duchess of, 244, 261. + ---- Duke of, 143. + ---- Dukes of, 127. + ---- João, Duke of, 261. + +Brandão, Francisco, 11. + +Brazil, 8, 66, 144, 158, 160, 222, 243, 244, 261, 262. + +Brazil, Pedro of, 8. + +Brazões, Sala dos, Cintra, 24, 126, 138, 151. + +Brites, Dona, daughter of Fernando I., 80. + ---- ---- mother of D. Manoel, 25, 183 _n._ + +Buchanan, George, 198 _n._ + +Bugimaa, 116, 168 _n._ + +Burgos, 90. + +Burgundy, Count Henry of, 6, 37, 41, 42, 114, 117. + ---- Isabel, Duchess of, 11, 98 _n._, 120. + +Bussaco, 271. + + +C + +Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 8, 101, 144, 158, 170, 206. + +Caldas da Rainha, 27, 146, 147. + +Cales, 6. + +Calicut, Portuguese at, 8, 144, 157, 158, 183. + +Calixtus III., Pope, 161. + +Câmara, Luis Gonçalves de, 243. + +Caminha, 27, 109, 110, 136, 137, 218, 220. + +Cantabrian Mountains, 1, 5. + +Cantanhede, 215 _n._ + +Canterbury Cathedral, 82. + +Canton, Portuguese at, 144. + +Cão, Diogo, 143. + +Cardiga, 229. + +Carlos, Frey, painter, 12. + +Carnide, Pero de, 149. + +Carreira, house of Visconde de, 254. + +Carreiro, Pero, 212. + +Carta, Diogo da, 192. + +Carvalho, Pero, 229. + +Castello Branco, Cardinal Affonso de, 19, 20, 140, 250. + +Castile, 5, 6, 7, 44, 80. + ---- Constance of, 80, 81. + +Castilho, Diogo de, 188, 196, 198, 199. + ---- João de, 22, 28, 72, 162, 164-166, 169, 171, 172, 184, 195, 196, 199, + 200, 212, 222-239. + ---- Maria de, 162. + +Castro de Avelans, 58. + ---- Guiomar de, 213, 215. + ---- Inez de, 38, 62, 76-78, 88. + ---- Isabel de, 102. + +Castro-Marim, 161. + +Cataluña, 5, 262. + +Catharina, queen of João III., 240, 243. + +Cavado, river, 29. + +Cellas, 70. + +Cêras, 55. + +Cetobriga, 2, 4. + +Ceuta, 88, 100, 101, 262. + +Ceylon, loss of, 244. + +Chambers, 269. + +Chantranez, Nicolas. See Nicolas, Master. + +Chelb. See Silves. + +Chillenden, Prior, 82. + +Chimneys, 270. + +China, Portuguese in, 158. + +Christo de la Luz, 116. + +Churriguera, 269. + +Cintra, 21, 22, 23, 28, 116-128, 130, 136-138, 148, 184, 215, 216. + +Citania, 2, 3. + +Clairvaux, 59, 60. + +Claustro Real, Batalha, 178-180. + +Clement v., Pope, 161. + +Coca, in Spain, 183. + +Cochin, Portuguese in, 158. + +Cogominho, Pedro Esteves, 94. + +Coimbra, 16, 17, 19, 30, 40, 44, 79, 80, 109, 184, 239, 244. + ---- Archdeacon João de, 114. + ---- Carmo, 252. + ---- County of, 6. + ---- Episcopal palace, 250. + ---- Graça, 252. + ---- Misericordia, 140, 250. + ---- Pedro, Duke of, 88, 101. + ---- São Bento, 252. + ---- São Domingos, 251. + ---- São Thomaz, 237. + ---- Sta. Clara, 72. New, 259. + ---- Sta. Cruz, 12, 13, 20, 151, 153, 160, 188, 192, 196-200, 214, 215, 234, + 258. + ---- Sé Nova, 248, 253, 259. + ---- Sé Velha, 19, 23, 41, 45, 49-51, 54, 62, 63, 71, 110, + 206-210, 251, 270. + ---- University, 59, 141, 153, 198, 268. + +Columbus, Christopher, 8, 143. + +Condeixa, 2, 3. + ---- Visconde de, 89. + +Conimbriga, 2, 3. + +Conselbo, Sala do, Cintra, 24, 121. + +Cordeiro, Johan, 149. + +Cordoba, 116. + +Coro, the, Thomar, 161-170. + +Coutinho, Beatriz, 101. + +Crato, Prior of, 244. + +Cunha, João Lourenço da, 74 _n._ + ---- Tristão da, 170. + +Cyprus, 89. + +Cysnes, Sala de. See Swan Hall. + + +D + +Dartmouth, 44. + +David, Gerhard, 12. + +Delhi, Old, Kutub at, 176. + +Diana, Pateo de, Cintra, 24, 125. + +Diaz, Bartholomeu, 143, 170. + +Diniz, Dom, King, 7, 59, 62, 69, 72, 117, 161, 167, 223. + ---- ---- son of Inez de Castro, 79. + +Diogo, Duke of Vizen, 143, 161. + +D'ipri, João, 49, 287. + +Diu, 158. + +Domingues, Affonso, 71, 82, 90. + ---- Domingo, 71, 82. + +Douro, river, 1, 2, 5, 6, 44, 256. + +Dralia, Johannes, 13. + +Duarte, Dom, 88, 91, 101, 122, 171, 172. + +Durando, Bishop of Evora, 51, 54. + +Dürer, Albert, 11. + + +E + +Eannes, Affonso, 98. + ---- Diogo, 109. + ---- Gonçalo, 98. + ---- Rodrigo, 98. + +Earthquake at Lisbon, 8, 98, 192, 267, 268. + +Ebro, river, 5. + +Eduard, Felipe, 239. + See Uduarte. + +Ega, 117. + +Egas Moniz, 7, 38, 39, 41. + +Eja, 32. + +El-Kasar-el-Kebir, 244. + +Elsden, William, 60. + +Elvas, 28, 152, 236. + +English influence, supposed, 82-92. + +Entre Minho e Douro, 29, 30. + +Escorial, the, 247, 263-266. + +Escudos, Sala dos. See Sala dos Brazões. + +Espinheiro, 12. + +Essex, Earl of, 68. + +Estaço, Gaspar, 93 _n._ + +Esteves, Pedro, 94. + +Estrella, Serra d', 1. + +Estremadura, 1, 2, 64. + +Estremoz, 219. + +Eugenius IV., Pope, 161. + +Evora, 2, 9 _n._, 12, 51, 129, 143, 183, 198, 241. + ---- Cartuxa, 255. + ---- Fernão d', 92. + ---- Graça, 242. + ---- Henrique, Archbishop of, 14, 20. + ---- Monte, 9. + ---- Morgado de Cordovis, 132. + ---- Paços Reaes, 132. + ---- Resende, House of, 146, 148, 179. + ---- São Braz, 135. + ---- São Domingos, 219. + ---- São Francisco, 134, 163. + ---- Sé, 17, 19, 30, 51-55, 62, 64, 71, 72, 89, 192, 260, 262, 267. + ---- Temple, 4. + ---- University, 243. + +Eyck, J. van, 11. + + +F + +Familicão, 32. + +Faro, 68 _n._, 237. + +Felix, the goldsmith, 18. + +Fenacho, João, 154. + +Fernandes, Antonius, 200. + ---- Diogo, 159. + ---- Lourenço, 184. + ---- Matheus, sen., 171, 172, 175, 200, 222, 230. + ---- Matheus, jun., 171, 175, 178, 179, 200, 222, 230. + ---- Thomas, 159. + ---- Vasco, 12. + +Ferdinand and Isabella (the Catholic king), 87, 144, 189. + +Fernando I. of Castile and Leon, 5, 6, 44, 47. + ---- I., Dom, 7, 74, 76, 78, 79. + ---- son of João I., 88. + ---- ---- Dom Duarte, 161. + +Figueira de Foz, 212. + +Figueredo, Christovão de, 198, 200, 201. + +Flanders, Isabel of. See Burgundy, Duchess of. + +Fontenay, 59, 71. + +Fontfroide, 71. + +Furness, 59. + +Funchal, in Madeira, 67, 110, 136, 137, 192, 206, 211. + + +G + +Galicia, 2, 5, 6, 7, 29, 42, 44, 67. + +Gama, Vasco da, 8, 125, 143, 144, 157, 170, 183, 185, 188, 195, 206. + +Gandara, 32. + +Garcia, King of Galicia, 6. + +Gata, Sierra de, 1. + +Gaunt, John of, 80, 81. + ---- ---- Philippa, daughter of. See Lancaster, Philippa of. + +Gerez, the, 1, 3, 29. + +Gilberto, Bishop. See Hastings, Gilbert of. + +Giraldo, São, 18. + +Giustiniani, San Lorenzo, 28, 133. + +Gôa (India), 20, 144, 158, 200, 234 _n._ + +Goes, 219. + ---- Damião de, 11, 145. + +Gollegã, 151, 152, 153. + +Gomes, Gonçalo, 149. + +Gonsalves, André, 149. + ---- Eytor, 198. + +Goth, Bertrand de. See Clement V. + +Granada, 116, 161. + +Guadiana, river, 1. + +Guarda, 33, 61 _n._, 62, 95-99, 151, 238. + ---- Fernando, Duke of, 14. + +Guadelete, 5. + +Guimarães, 2, 3, 7, 17, 18, 19, 20, 31, 38, 41, 42, 63, +65, 70, 80, 93, 94, 103, 127, 269. + ---- Duarte, Duke of, 14, 244, 261. + +Gujerat, 159, 183. + +Guntino, Abbot, 73. + +Guzman, Beatriz de, 68. + See Beatriz, Queen of Affonso III. + ---- Luisa, Queen of João IV., 261. + + +H + +Haro, Dona Mencia de, 67. + +Hastings, Gilbert of, 45, 55. + +Haupt, Albrecht, 82, 85, 130, 159, 176, 177, 183. + +Henares, Alcalá de, 234. + +Henriques, Francisco, 135. + +Henry, Cardinal King, 14, 20, 59, 72, 144, 222, 223, 241-244, 261. + ---- Prince, the Navigator, Duke of Vizen, 8, 70, 88, + 102, 103, 161, 169, 170, 183, 188, 195. + ---- VII. of England, 166. + +Herculano, 185. + +Herrera, 247. + +Hollanda, Antonio de, 16, 17. + ---- Francisco de, 17. + +Holy Constable. See Pereira, Nuno Alvares. + +Huguet (Ouguet, or Huet), 82, 90, 91, 98, 178. + + +I + +Idacius, 4. + +Idanha a Velha, 57. + +India, 66, 144, 159, 243. + +Indian influence, supposed, 159, 183. + +Inquisition, the, 222, 248. + +Isabel, St., Queen, 19, 20, 72, 117, 260. + ---- Queen of D. Manoel, 87, 144, 189. + ---- Queen of Charles V., 14, 244. + +Italian influence, 219. + + +J + +Jantar, Sala de, Cintra, 24, 123. + +Japan, Portuguese in, 158. + +Jeronymo, 203. + +Jews, expulsion of the, 144. + +João I., 1, 8, 11, 18, 23, 24, 42, 80, 81, 84, 88, 93, 95, +101, 117, 122, 123, 178, 244. + ---- II., 8, 25, 92, 97, 93, 130, 131, 143, 144, 161, 171, 176, 179, 181. + ---- III., 17, 95, 162, 185, 196, 198, 216, 218, 219, + 221, 222, 224, 225, 236, 242, 243, 248, 251, 256. + ---- IV., 59, 261, 262. + ---- V., 262, 263, 267. + ---- Dom, son of Inez de Castro, 79, 80. + ---- ---- son of João I., 88. + +John, Don, of Austria, son of Philip of Spain, 262. + +John XXII., Pope, 161. + +José, Dom, 267. + +Junot, Marshal, 8. + +Justi, 12, 13. + + +L + +Lagos, São Sebastião at, 219. + +Lagrimas, Quinta das, 76. + +Lamego, 4, 9 _n._, 44, 111, 237. + +Lancaster, Philippa of, 81, 84, 88, 89, 100, 122. + +Leça do Balio, 41, 42 _n._, 63, 67, 73, 74, 79. + +Leiria, 33, 69, 260. + +Leyre, S. Salvador de, 35 _n._ + +Lemos family, 219. + +Leo X., Pope, 122. + +Leon, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 29, 44, 80. + +Leonor, Queen of João II., 146, 153, 171. + ---- Queen of D. Manoel, 14, 189. + +Lerma, Duque de, 261. + +Lima, river, 29. + +Lis, river, 69. + +Lisbon, 6, 9, 65, 157, 158, 159, 192, 227, 251, 261, 267. + ---- Ajuda Palace, 268. + ---- Carmo, 98, 99, 206. + ---- ---- Museum, 78, 99. + + ---- Cathedral, 38, 45-47, 49, 50, 52, 54, 61 _n._, 71, 72, 74, 271. + ---- Conceição Velha, 195. + ---- Estrella, 268. + ---- Madre de Deus, 26, 153, 155, 156. + ---- Necessidades, Palace, 268. + ---- São Bento, 253. + ---- São Roque, 26, 242, 244, 245, 268. + ---- São Vicente de Fora, 241, 245, 247, 253, 257, 268. + ---- ---- house of Conde de, 236. + ---- Santo Antão, 245, 247-248, 249, 250. + ---- Sta. Maria do Desterro, 245, 248. + ---- Torre do Tombo, 226 _n._ + ---- Torreão do Paço, 248. + ---- University, 248. + ---- Affonso, Archbishop of, 14. + +Lobo, Diogo, Barão d'Alvito, 131. + +Lobos, Ruy de Villa, 75. + +Loches, St. Ours, 126. + +Lopez, João, 254-255. + +Lorvão, 20, 237. + +Longuim, 202. + +Lourenço, Gregorio, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202. + ---- Thereza, 76, 80. + +Louzã, 10 _n._, 219. + +Loyos, the, 99, 133, 260. + +Ludovici, Frederic, 263, 267. + +Lupiana, Spain, 234 _n._ + +Lusitania, 1, 4. + + +M + +Madrid, 10, 261. + +Mafamede, 116, 168. + +Mafra, 52, 260, 262, 263, 268. + +Malabar Coast, 157. + +Malacca, 158. + +Manoel, Dom, 11, 12, 14, 20, 24, 26, 54, 56, 71, 83, 87, 95, 97, 104, +105, 108-111, 117-119, 144, 157, 159, 162-169, 171-172, 189, 196, 198, +199, 205, 216, 218, 222, 244. + +Manuel, Jorge, 226 _n._ + +Marão Mts., 1, 29. + +Marceana, 217. + +Maria I., 119, 121. + ---- II., da Gloria, 8, 256, 270. + ---- Queen of Dom Manoel, 144, 189. + +Massena, General, 180. + +Matsys, Quentin, 13. + +Mattos, Francisco de, 22, 26, 28, 245 _n._ + +Mazagão, Morocco, 227, 231. + +Meca, Terreiro da, 125, 127. + +Mecca, 158. + +Medina del Campo, Spain, 183. + ---- Sidonia, Duke of, 261. + +Mello, family, 219. + ---- Rodrigo Affonso de, 133, 134. + +Melrose, 59. + +Mendes, Hermengildo, Count of Tuy and Porto, 41. + +Menendes, Geda, 18. + +Menezes, Brites de, 212-215. + ---- Duarte de, 57, 101, 102. + ---- Fernão Telles de, 213. + ---- Dona Leonor Telles de, 74 _n._, 79. + ---- Leonor de, daughter of D. Pedro, 100. + ---- Pedro de, 100, 101. + +Merida, 4. + +Mertola, 116. + +Miguel, Dom, 8, 182, 256, 270. + ---- Prince, son of D. Manoel, 144. + ---- bishop of Coimbra, 18, 47, 48. + +Minho, river, 1, 64, 109. + +Miranda de Douro, 241. + +Moissac, 72. + +Moncorvo, 220. + +Mondego, river, 5, 30, 44, 73, 212, 251, 259. + +Montemor-o-Velho, 217. + +Montijo, battle of, 262. + +Morocco, 5, 21, 55, 88, 100, 121, 143, 171. + +Mulay-Ahmed, 243. + +Mumadona, Countess of Tuy and Porto, 41. + +Muñoz, assistant of Olivel of Ghent, 163. + +Murillo, 10. + +Murça, Diogo de, 252. + +Murphy, J., 90 _n._, 177. + + +N + +Nabantia. See Thomar. + +Nabão, river, 66, 234. + +Napier, Captain Charles, 9. + +Nassau, Maurice of, 262. + +Navarre, 5, 35 _n._ + +Nicolas, Master, 164, 184, 196, 198, 199, 200, 215, 216, 218, 221, 222, +223, 238, 239. + ---- V., Pope, 161. + +Noronha, Bishop Manoel, 237. + +Noya, 254 _n._ + + +O + +Oliva, Antonio ab, 28. + +Olivares, Conde, Duque de, 261. + +Olivel of Ghent, 135, 163. + +Oporto, 6, 9, 22, 41, 73, 80. + ---- Cathedral, 37, 39, 71, 72. + ---- Cedofeita, 5, 32. + ---- Collegio Novo, 249, 259. + ---- Hospital and Factory, 269, + ---- Misericordia, 13, 19. + ---- Nossa Senhors da Serra do Pilar, 256-8. + ---- Quinta ado Freixo, 269. + ---- São Bento, 253. + ---- São Francisco, 63. + ---- Torre dos Clerigos, 268. + +Order of Christ, the. See Thomar. + +Orense, in Galicia, 6, 66 _n._, 254. + +Ormuz, Portuguese in, 144, 158. + +Ouguet. See Huguet. + +Ourem, Count of, 100. + +Ourique, 7, 51. + +Ovidio, Archbishop, 18. + + +P + +Pacheco, Lopo Fernandes, 75. + ---- Maria Rodrigues, 75. + +Paço de Souza, 38, 40. + +Paes, Gualdim, 55, 56, 66, 117, 160, 167. + +Palmella, 28, 62. + +Pax Julia, the. See Beja. + +Payo, Bishop, of Evora, 51 _n._ + +Pedro I., 62, 76, 77, 79, 88. + ---- II., 25. + ---- III., 269. + ---- son of João I., Duke of Coimbra, 88. + ---- the Cruel, Constance, daughter of, 80. + +Pegas, Sala das, Cintra, 24, 122, 145, 152. + +Pekin, Portuguese in, 144. + +Pelayo, Don, 5. + +Penafiel, Constança de, 76. + +Penha Longa, 236-237. + ---- Verde, 236. + +Pereira, Nuno Alvares, 11, 98. + +Pero Pinheiro, 266. + +Persia, 124. + +Philip I. and II., 7, 14, 144, 222, 240-244, 261, 263. + ---- III. and IV., 261. + +Philippe le Bel, 161. + +Pimentel, Frei Estevão Vasques, 73. + +Pinhal, 80. + +Pinheiro, Diogo, Bishop of Funchal, 211, 212. + +Pires Marcos, 153, 196-198, 200. + +Po, Fernando, 143. + +Pombal, Marques de, 8, 122, 151, 195, 243, 267. + +Pombeiro, 39, 40, 62. + +Ponza, Carlos de. See Captain Napier, 9. + +Pontigny, 60. + +Portalegre, 219, 260. + +Ptolomeu, Master, 18, 48 _n._ + + +Q + +Queluz, 269. + +Quintal, Ayres do, 166, 168, 169. + + +R + +Rabat, minaret at, 168 _n._, 180. + +Raczynski, Count, 11, 13, 160 _n._, 214. + +Raimundes Alfonso. See Alfonso VII. + +Ranulph, Abbot, 59. + +Rates, São Pedro de, 3, 34, 36. + +Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 6. + +Resende, Garcia de, 146, 179, 181, 183. + +Restello, Nossa Senhora do, 183. + +Rio Mau, São Christovão do, 34. + +Robbia, della, 26, 176 _n._ + +Robert, Master, 49, 50. + +Roderick, King, 5. + +Rodrigues, Alvaro, 162. + ---- João, 171. + ---- Jorge, 255. + ---- Justa, 13, 147, 184. + +Roliça, battle of, 62 _n._ + +Romans in Portugal, 2, 3, 4. + +Rome, embassy to, 1514, 183. + +Rouen, Jean de. See next. + +Ruão, João de, 192, 202-205, 215, 218, 238, 239. + + +S + +Sabrosa, 3. + +Salamanca, 54. + +Saldanha, Manoel de, 141. + +Sancha, Dona, 64, 70. + +Sancho, King of Castile, 6. + +Sancho I., 7, 51, 52, 59, 64, 95, 197. + ---- II., 64, 67. + +Sansovino, Andrea da, 25, 130, 144, 164, 198, 214. + +São Marcos, 177, 184, 185, 211-216. + ---- Theotonio, 196. + ---- Thiago d'Antas, 32. + ---- Torquato, 18, 33, 94. + +Santa Cruz. See Coimbra. + ---- Maria da Victoria. See Batalha. + +Santarem, 6, 44, 55, 56, 229. + ---- Graça, 53, 100, 104, 105, 211, 212. + ---- Marvilla, 27, 152, 153, 156, 235. + ---- Milagre, 234. + ---- São Francisco, 57. 65, 67, 78, 83. + ---- São João de Alporão, 56-57, 63, 64, 101. + ---- Sta. Clara, 238. + ---- Frey Martinho de, 101. + +Santiago, 36, 45, 47, 72, 254. + +Santos, 227 _n._ + +Santo Thyrso, 70, 103. + +Sash windows, 270. + +Savoy, Margaret of, 261. + +Schomberg, Marshal, 262. + +Sebastião, Dom, 100, 121, 185, 240-244. + +Sem Pavor, Giraldo, 51. + +Sempre Noiva, 123, 133, 146. + +Sereias, Sala das, Cintra, 24, 122. + +Sesnando, Count, 5, 47. + +Setubal, 2, 4, 13, 147, 148, 154-156, 184. + +Seville, 42, 116, 157, 197. + +Silvas, the da, 211-215. + +Silva, Ayres Gomes da, 212, 213. + ---- Miguel da, Bishop of Vizeu, 236. + ---- Diogo da, 213, 217. + ---- João da, 213, 218. + ---- Lourenço da, 213, 216, 217. + +Silveira family, 219. + +Silves, 63, 67, 68, 116. + +Simão, 203. + +Sodre, Vicente, 158. + +Soeire, 48. + +Soult, Marshal, 17, 256. + +Soure, 55. + +Souza, Diogo de, Archbishop of Braga, 19, 113. + ---- Gil de, 213. + +Sta. Maria a Velha, 59. + +St. James, 3. + +St. Vincent, Cape, battle of, 9. + +Suevi, 2, 4, 5, 32. + +Swan Hall, the, Cintra, 24, 119, 120, 137. + + +T + +Taipas, 3. + +Tagus, river, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 30, 51, 72 _n._, 129, 144, 261. + +Tangier, 243. + +Tarragona, 37, 55. + +Tavira, 219, 236. + +Telles, Maria, 79. + +Templars, the, 55, 117, 160, 161. + +Tentugal, 212. + +Terzi, Filippo, 241, 242, 243, 244-253, 258, 260. + +Tetuan, in Morocco, 21. + +Theodomir, Suevic King, 5, 32. + +Theotonio, Archbishop of Evora, 255. + +Theresa, Dona, wife of Henry of Burgundy, 6, 37, 114. + +Thomar, 56, 116, 222, 244, 261. + ---- Convent of the Order of Christ, 12, 17, 28, 50, 51, + 55, 70, 103, 151, 157-170, 194, 206, 224-230, 240, 250, 255, 260. + ---- Conceição, 231-234, 242. + ---- Nossa Senhora do Olival, 63, 66, 68, 73, 74 _n._, 211. + ---- São João Baptista, 13, 105. + +Tinouco, João Nunes, 242, 247. + +Toledo, 6, 37, 48, 58, 116. + ---- Juan Garcia de, 42, 93, 94. + +Torralva, Diogo de, 185, 226, 240-243, 250. + +Torre de Murta, 117. + ---- de São Vicente. See Belem. + +Torres, Pero de, 149. + ---- Pedro Fernandes de, 241. + ---- Vedras, 267. + +Toulouse, St. Sernin at, 36, 45, 47. + +Trancoso, 33. + +Trava, Fernando Peres de, 6, 7. + +Traz os Montes, 1, 29, 220. + +Trofa, near Agueda, 219, 220. + +Troya, 3. + +Tua, river, 2. + +Turianno, 242. + +Tuy, 6, 41. + + +U + +Urraca, Queen of Castile and Leon, 6, 41. + ---- Queen of Affonso II., 11, 65. + +Uduarte, Philipo, 202. + + +V + +Vagos, Lords. See the da Silvas, 211. + +Valladolid, 247. + +Vandals, the, 4. + +Varziella, 215 _n._ + +Vasari, 130. + +Vasco, Grão, 11, 12, 14, 112, 201. + +Vasconcellos, Senhora de, 174. + +Vasquez, Master, 91. + +Vaz, Leonardo, 185. + +Velasquez, 10. + +Vianna d'Alemtejo, 135. + ---- do Castello, 254. + +Vicente, family of goldsmiths, 20. + ---- João, 99. + +Vigo, 9. + +Viegas, Godinho, 34. + +Vilhegas, Diogo Ortiz de, Bishop of Vizeu, 16, 111. + +Vilhelmus, Doñus, 27. + +Vilhena, Antonia de, 213, 216. + ---- Henrique de, 117. + ---- Maria de, 213. + +Villa do Conde, 29 _n._, 63, 106-108, 109, 136, 141, 142. + ---- da Feira, 127, 128. + ---- nova de Gaya, 256-258. + +Villa Viçosa, 202. + +Villar de Frades, 34-36, 99. + +Villarinho, 31. + +Vimaranes, 41. + +Visigoths, 1, 4, 5. + +Viterbo, San Martino al Cimino, near 60 _n._ + +Vizeu, 11, 14, 16, 44, 111, 112, 143, 161, 206, 236, 237. + ---- Diogo, Duke of, 143, 161. + +Vizella, 31. + +Vlimer, Master, 49, 110, 207. + +Vouga, river, 29. + + +W + +Walis, palace of, 117. + +Wellington, Duke of, 62, 77 _n._, 241, 256. + +Windsor, Treaty of, 1386, 80. + + +Y + +Yakub, Emir of Morocco, 51, 56. + +Yokes, ox, 29 _n._ + +Ypres, John of. See D'ipri. + +Yusuf, Emir of Morocco, 51. + + +Z + +Zalaca, battle of, 6. + +Zezere, river, 234. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The most noticeable difference in pronunciation, the Castilian +guttural soft G and J, and the lisping of the Z or soft C seems to be of +comparatively modern origin. However different such words as 'chave' and +'llave,' 'filho' and 'hijo,' 'mão' and 'mano' may seem they are really +the same in origin and derived from _clavis_, _filius_, and _manus_. + +[2] From the name of this dynasty Moabitin, which means fanatic, is +derived the word Maravedi or Morabitino, long given in the Peninsula to +a coin which was first struck in Morocco. + +[3] The last nun in a convent at Evora only died in 1903, which must +have been at least seventy years after she had taken the veil. + +[4] A narcissus triandrus with a white perianth and yellow cup is found +near Lamego and at Louzã, not far from Coimbra. + +[5] See article by C. Justi, 'Die Portugesische Malerei des xvi. +Jahrhunderts,' in vol. ix. of the _Jahrbuch der K. Preussischen +Kunstsammlungen_. + +[6] Raczynski, _Les Arts en Portugal_. + +[7] These are the 'Annunciation,' the 'Risen Lord appearing to His +Mother,' the 'Ascension,' the 'Assumption,' the 'Good Shepherd,' and +perhaps a 'Pentecost' and a 'Nativity.' + +[8] V. Guimarães, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 155. + +[9] A. Hapt, _Die Baukunst, etc., in Portugal_, vol. ii. p. 36. + +[10] These may perhaps be by the so-called Master of São Bento, to whom +are attributed a 'Visitation'--in which Chastity, Poverty, and Humility +follow the Virgin--and a 'Presentation,' both now in Lisbon. Some +paintings in São Francisco Evora seem to be by the same hand. + +[11] Misericordia=the corporation that owns and manages all the +hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions in the town. There +is one in almost every town in the country. + +[12] She seems almost too old to be Dona Leonor and may be Dona Maria. + +[13] His first wife was Dona Isabel, eldest daughter and heiress to the +Catholic Kings. She died in 1498 leaving an infant son Dom Miguel, heir +to Castile and Aragon as well as to Portugal. He died two years later +when Dom Manoel married his first wife's sister, Dona Maria, by whom he +had six sons and two daughters. She died in 1517, and next year he +married her niece Dona Leonor, sister of Charles V. and daughter of Mad +Juana. She had at first been betrothed to his eldest son Dom João. All +these marriages were made in the hope of succeeding to the Spanish +throne. + +[14] Some authorities doubt the identification of the king and queen. +But there is a distinct likeness between the figures of Dom Manoel and +his queen which adorn the west door of the church at Belem, and the +portrait of the king and queen in this picture. + +[15] It has been reproduced by the Arundel Society, but the copyist has +entirely missed the splendid solemnity of St. Peter's face. + +[16] See 'Portuguese School of Painting,' by J. C. Robinson, in the +_Fine Arts Quarterly_ of 1866. + +[17] Vieira Guimarães, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 150. + +[18] _Ibid._, p. 157. + +[19] Carriage hire is still cheap in Portugal, for in 1904 only 6$000 +was paid for a carriage from Thomar to Leiria, a distance of over +thirty-five miles, though the driver and horses had to stay at Leiria +all night and return next day. 6$000 was then barely over twenty +shillings. + +[20] It was the gift of Bishop Affonso of Portugal who held the see from +1485 to 1522. + +[21] This monstrance was given by Bishop Dom Jorge d'Almeida who died in +1543, having governed the see for sixty-two years. (Fig. 7.) + +[22] Presented by Canon Gonçalo Annes in 1534. + +[23] D. Francisco Simonet, professor of Arabic at Granada. Note in _Paço +de Cintra_, p. 206. + +[24] See Miss I. Savory, _In the Tail of the Peacock_. + +[25] A common pattern found at Bacalhôa, near Setubal, in the Museum at +Oporto, and in the Corporation Galleries of Glasgow, where it is said to +have come from Valencia in Spain. + +[26] Joaquim Rasteiro, _Palacio e Quinta de Bacalhôa em Azeitão_. +Lisbon, 1895. + +[27] Columns with corbel capitals support a house on the right. Such +capitals were common in Spain, so it is just possible that these tiles +may have been made in Spain. + +[28] Antonio ab Oliva=Antonio de Oliveira Bernardes, who also painted +the tiles in São Pedro de Rates. + +[29] _E.g._ in the church of the Misericordia Vianna do Castello, the +cloister at Oporto, the Graça Santarem, Sta. Cruz Coimbra, the Sé, +Lisbon, and in many other places. + +[30] Paço de Cintra, _Cond. de Sabugosa_. Lisbon, 1903. + +[31] These yokes are about 4 or 5 feet long by 18 inches or 2 feet +broad, are made of walnut, and covered with the most intricate pierced +patterns. Each parish or district, though no two are ever exactly alike, +has its own design. The most elaborate, which are also often painted +bright red, green, and yellow are found south of the Douro near Espinho. +Further north at Villa do Conde they are much less elaborate, the +piercings being fewer and larger. Nor do they extend far up the Douro as +in the wine country in Tras-os-Montes the oxen, darker and with shorter +horns, pull not from the shoulder but from the forehead, to which are +fastened large black leather cushions trimmed with red wool. + +[32] Originally there was a bell-gable above the narthex door, since +replaced by a low square tower resting on the north-west corner of the +narthex and capped by a plastered spire. + +[33] + +Theodomir rex gloriosus v. erex. & contrux. hoc. monast. can. B. +Aug. ad. Gl. D. et V.M.G.D. & B. Martini et fecit ita so: lemnit: +sacrari ab Lucrec. ep. Brac. et alliis sub. J. III. P. M. Prid. +Idus. Nov. an. D. DLIX. Post id. rex in hac eccl. ab. eod. ep. +palam bapt. et fil. Ariamir cum magnat. suis. omnes conversi ad +fid. ob. v. reg. & mirab. in fil. ex sacr. reliq. B.M. a Galiis eo. +reg. postul translatis & hic asservatis Kal. Jan. An. D. DLX. + + +[34] From M. Bernardes, _Tratados Varios_, vol. ii. p. 4. The same story +is told of the monastery of San Salvador de Leyre in Navarre, whose +abbot, Virila, wondering how it could be possible to listen to the +heavenly choirs for ever without weariness, sat down to rest by a spring +which may still be seen, and there listened, enchanted, to the singing +of a bird for three hundred years. + +[35] _E.g._ the west door of Ste. Croix, Bordeaux, though it is of +course very much more elaborate. + +[36] Namely, to give back some Galician towns which had been captured. + +[37] Bayona is one of the most curious and unusual churches in the north +of Spain. Unfortunately, during a restoration made a few years ago a +plaster groined vault was added hiding the old wooden roof. + +[38] + +The tomb is inscribed: Hic requiescit Fys: + Dei: Egas: Monis: Vir: + Inclitus: era: millesima: + centesima: LXXXII + _i.e._ Era of Caesar 1182, A.D. 1144. + + +[39] He died soon after at Medinaceli, and a Christian contemporary +writer records the fact saying: 'This day died Al-Mansor. He desecrated +Santiago, and destroyed Pampluna, Leon and Barcelona. He was buried in +Hell.' + +[40] Another cloister-like building of even earlier date is to be found +behind the fourteenth-century church of Leça de Balio: it was built +probably after the decayed church had been granted to the Knights of St. +John of Jerusalem. (Fig. 17.) + +[41] A careful restoration is now being carried out under the direction +of Senhor Fuschini. + +[42] The inscription is mutilated at both ends and seems to read, +'Ahmed-ben-Ishmael built it strongly by order of ...' + +[43] It is a pity that the difference in date makes it impossible to +identify this Bernardo with the Bernardo who built Santiago. For the +work Dom Miguel gave 500 morabitinos, besides a yoke of oxen worth 12, +also silver altar fronts made by Master Ptolomeu. Besides the money +Bernardo received a suit of clothes worth 3 morabitinos and food at the +episcopal table, while Soeiro his successor got a suit of clothes, a +quintal of wine, and a mora of bread. The bishop also gave a great deal +of church plate showing that the cathedral was practically finished +before his death. + +[44] Compare the doorlike window of Nossa Senhora da Oliveira at +Guimarães. + +[45] The small church of São Salvador has also an old door, plainer and +smaller than São Thiago. + +[46] The five small shields with the Wounds of Christ on the Portuguese +coat are supposed to have been adopted because on the eve of this battle +Christ crucified appeared to Affonso and promised him victory, and +because five kings were defeated. + +[47] Andre de Rezende, a fifteenth-century antiquary, says, quoting from +an old 'book of anniversaries': 'Each year an anniversary is held in +memory of Bishop D. Payo on St. Mark's Day, that is May 21st, on which +day he laid the first stone for the foundation of this cathedral, on the +spot where now is St. Mark's Altar, and he lies behind the said place +and altar in the Chapel of St. John. This church was founded Era 1224,' +_i.e._ 1186 A.D. D. Payo became bishop in 1181. Another stone in the +chancel records the death, in era 1321, _i.e._ 1283 A.D., of Bishop D. +Durando, 'who built and enriched this cathedral with his alms,' but +probably he only made some additions, perhaps the central lantern. + +[48] It was built 1718-1746 by Ludovici or Ludwig the architect of Mafra +and cost 160:000$000 or about £30,000. + +[49] The whole inscription, the first part occurring also on a stone in +the castle, runs thus:-- + +E (i.e. Era) MC : L[~X]. VIII. regnant : Afonso : illustrisimo rege +Portugalis : magister : galdinus : Portugalensium : Militum Templi : cum +fratribus suis Primo : die : Marcii : cepit edificari : hoc : castellu : +n[=m]e Thomar : q[=o]d : prefatus rex obtulit : Deo : et militibus : +Templi : E. M. CC. XX. VIII : III. mens. : Julii : venit rex de maroqis +ducens : CCCC milia equit[=u] : et quingenta milia : pedit[=u]m : et +obsedit castrum istud : per sex Dies : et delevit : quantum extra : +murum invenit : castell[=u] : et prefatus : magister : c[=u] : fratribus +suis liberavit Deus : de manibus : suis Idem : rex : remeavit : in +patri[=a] : su[=a] : cu : innumerabili : detrimento : homin[=u] et +bestiarum. + + +[50] Cf. Templar church at Segovia, Old Castile, where, however, the +interior octagon is nearly solid with very small openings, and a vault +over the lower story; it has also three eastern apses. + +[51] There is a corbel table like it but more elaborate at Vezelay in +Burgundy. + +[52] _E.g._ in S. Martino al Cimino near Viterbo. + +[53] So says Murray. Vilhena Barbosa says 1676. 1770 seems the more +probable. + +[54] Indeed to the end the native builders have been very chary of +building churches with a high-groined vault and a well-developed +clerestory. The nave of Batalha and of the cathedral of Guarda seem to +be almost the only examples which have survived, for Lisbon choir was +destroyed by the great earthquake of 1755, as was also the church of the +Carmo in the same city, which perhaps shows that they were right in +rejecting such a method of construction in a country so liable to be +shaken. + +[55] Cf. similar corbel capitals in the nave of the cathedral of Orense +in Galicia. + +[56] Before the Black Death, which reduced the number to eight, there +are said to have sometimes been as many as 999 monks! + +[57] It was a monk of Alcobaça who came to General Wellesley on the +night of 16th August 1808, and told him that if he wished to catch the +French he must be quick as they meant to retire early in the morning, +thus enabling him to win the battle of Roliça, the first fight of the +Peninsular War. + +[58] Cf. the clerestory windows of Burgos Cathedral, or those at +Dunblane, where as at Guimarães the circle merely rests on the lights +below without being properly united with them. + +[59] From the north-east corner of the narthex a door leads to the +cloisters, which have a row of coupled shafts and small pointed arches. +From the east walk a good doorway of Dom Manoel's time led into the +chapter-house, now the barrack kitchen, the smoke from which has +entirely blackened alike the doorway and the cloister near. + +[60] Compare the horseshoe moulding on the south door of the cathedral +of Orense, Galicia, begun 1120, where, however, each horseshoe is +separated from the next by a deep groove. + +[61] The town having much decayed owing to fevers and to the gradual +shallowing of the river the see was transferred to Faro in 1579. The +cathedral there, sacked by Essex in 1596, and shattered by the +earthquake of 1755, has little left of its original work except the +stump of a west tower standing on a porch open on three sides with plain +pointed arches, and leading to the church on the fourth by a door only +remarkable for the dog-tooth of its hood-mould. + +[62] The towers stand quite separate from the walls and are united to +them by wide round arches. + +[63] In the dilapidated courtyard of the castle there is one very +picturesque window of Dom Manoel's time (his father the duke of Beja is +buried in the church of the Conceição in the town). + +[64] An inscription says:-- + +'Era 1362 [i.e. A.D. 1324] anos foi +esta tore co (meçad) a (aos) 8 +dias demaio. é mandou a faze (r +o muito) nobre Dom Diniz +rei de P...' + + +[65] Just outside the castle there is a good romanesque door belonging +to a now desecrated church. + +[66] Some of the distinctive features of Norman such as cushion capitals +seem to be unknown in Normandy and not to be found any nearer than +Lombardy. + +[67] Sub Era MCCCXLVIII. idus Aprilis, Dnus Nuni Abbas monasterij de +Alcobatie posuit primam lapidem in fundamento Claustri ejusdem loci. +presente Dominico Dominici magistro operis dicti Claustri. Era 1348 = +A.D. 1310. + +[68] It is interesting to notice that the master builder was called +Domingo Domingues, who, if Domingues was already a proper name and not +still merely a patronymic, may have been the ancestor of Affonso +Domingues who built Batalha some eighty years later and died 1402. + +[69] In this cloister are kept in a cage some unhappy ravens in memory +of their ancestors having guided the boat which miraculously brought St. +Vincent's body to the Tagus. + +[70] Cf. the aisle windows of Sta. Maria dos Olivaes at Thomar. + +[71] It was at Leça that Dom Fernando in 1372 announced his marriage +with Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, the wife of João Lourenço da Cunha, +whom he had seen at his sister's wedding, and whom he married though he +was himself betrothed to a daughter of the Castilian king, and though +Dona Leonor's husband was still alive: a marriage which nearly ruined +Portugal, and caused the extinction of the legitimate branch of the +house of Burgundy. + +[72] Opening off the north-west corner of the cathedral is an apsidal +chapel of about the same period, entered by a fine pointed door, one of +whose mouldings is enriched by an early-looking chevron, but whose real +date is shown by the leaf-carving of its capitals. + +[73] A note in Sir H. Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, vol. i. p. 215, +says of Alcobaça: 'They had burned what they could and destroyed the +remainder with an immense deal of trouble. The embalmed kings and queens +were taken out of their tombs, and I saw them lying in as great +preservation as the day they were interred. The fine tesselated +pavement, from the entrance to the Altar, was picked up, the facings of +the stone pillars were destroyed nearly to the top, scaffolding having +been erected for that purpose. An orderly book found near the place +showed that regular parties had been ordered for the purpose' +(Tomkinson, 77). + +[74] There is in the Carmo Museum at Lisbon a fine tomb to Dom Fernando, +Dom Pedro's unfortunate successor. It was brought from São Francisco at +Santarem, but is very much less elaborate, having three panels on each +side filled with variously shaped cuspings, enclosing shields, all +beautifully wrought. + +[75] Another trophy is now at Alcobaça in the shape of a huge copper +caldron some four feet in diameter. + +[76] This site at Pinhal was bought from one Egas Coelho. + +[77] Though a good deal larger than most Portuguese churches, except of +course Alcobaça, the church is not really very large. Its total length +is about 265 feet with a transept of about 109 feet long. The central +aisle is about 25 feet wide by 106 high--an unusual proportion anywhere. + +[78] Albrecht Haupt, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal_, says +that 'Der Plan durchaus englisch ist (Lang-und Querschiff fast ganz +identisch mit dener der Kathedral zu Canterbury, nur thurmlos).' + +[79] This spire has been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1755, and so +may be quite different from that originally intended. + +[80] In his book on Batalha, Murphy, who stayed in the abbey for some +months towards the end of the eighteenth century, gives an engraving of +an open-work spire on this chapel, saying it had been destroyed in 1755. + +[81] Huguet witnessed a document dated December 7, 1402, concerning a +piece of land belonging to Margarida Annes, servant to Affonso +Domingues, master of the works, and his name also occurs in a document +of 1450 as having had a house granted to him by Dom Duarte, but he must +have been dead some time before that as his successor as master of the +works, Master Vasquez, was already dead before 1448. Probably Huguet +died about 1440. + +[82] Caspar Estaço, writing in the sixteenth century, says that this +triptych was made of the silver against which King João weighed himself, +but the story of its capture at Aljubarrota seems the older tradition. + +[83] These capitals have the distinctive Manoelino feature of the +moulding just under the eight-sided abacus, being twisted like a rope or +like two interlacing branches. + +[84] The church was about 236 feet long with a transept of over 100 +feet, which is about the length of the Batalha transept. + +[85] She also sent the beautiful bronze tomb in which her eldest brother +Affonso, who died young, lies in the cathedral, Braga. The bronze effigy +lies on the top of an altar-tomb under a canopy upheld by two slender +bronze shafts. Unfortunately it is much damaged and stands in so dark a +corner that it can scarcely be seen. + +[86] In one transept there is a very large blue tile picture. + +[87] The Aleo is still at Ceuta. In the cathedral Our Lady of Africa +holds it in her hand, and it is given to each new governor on his +arrival as a symbol of office. + +[88] The inscription is:-- + + Memoria de D. Duarte de Menezes + Terceiro conde de Viana, Tronco + dos condes de Tarouca. Primeiro +Capitão de Alcacer-Seguer, em Africa, + que com quinhentos soldados defendeu + esta praça contra cemmil + Mouros, com os quaes teve + muitos encontros, ficando n'elles +com grande honra e gloria. Morreu na + serra de Bonacofú per salvar a + vida do seu rei D. Affonso o Quinto. + + + +[89] When the tomb was moved from São Francisco, only one tooth, not a +finger, was found inside. + +[90] Besides the church there is in Caminha a street in which most of +the houses have charming doors and windows of about the same date as the +church. + +[91] 1524 seems too early by some forty years. + +[92] The rest of the west front was rebuilt and the inside altered by +Archbishop Dom José de Braganza, a son of Dom Pedro II., about two +hundred years ago. + +[93] A chapel was added at the back, and at a higher level some time +during the seventeenth century to cover in one of the statues, that of +St. Anthony of Padua, who was then becoming very popular. + +[94] This winding stair was built by Dom Manoel: cf. some stairs at +Thomar. + +[95] A 'pelourinho' is a market cross. + +[96] The kitchens in the houses at Marrakesh and elsewhere in Morocco +have somewhat similar chimneys. See B. Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_. + +[97] 'Esta fortaleza se começou a xiij dagosto de mil cccc.l. P[N. of T. +horizonal line through it] iiij por mãdado del Rey dõ Joam o segundo +nosso sõr e acabouse em tpõ del Rey dom Manoel o primeiro nosso Sñor +fela per seus mãdados dom Diogo Lobo baram dalvito.' + +[98] The house of the duke of Cadaval called 'Agua de Peixes,' not very +far off, has several windows in the same Moorish style. + +[99] Vilhena Barbosa, _Monumentos de Portugal_, p. 324. + +[100] Though the grammar seems a little doubtful this seems to mean + +Since these by service were +And loyal efforts gained, +By these and others like to them +They ought to be maintained. + + +[101] One blank space in one of the corners is pointed out as having +contained the arms of the Duque d'Aveiro beheaded for conspiracy in +1758. In reality it was painted with the arms of the Coelhos, but the +old boarding fell out and has never been replaced. + +[102] Affonso de Albuquerque took Ormuz in 1509 and Gôa next year. + +[103] Sumatra was visited in 1509. + +[104] Fernão Peres de Andrade established himself at Canton in 1517 and +reached Pekin in 1521. + +[105] Compare the elaborate outlines of some Arab arches at the Alhambra +or in Morocco. + +[106] Some have supposed that Boutaca was a foreigner, but there is a +place called Boutaca near Batalha, so he probably came from there. + +[107] Once the Madre de Deus was adorned with several della Robbia +placques. They are now all gone. + +[108] Danver's _Portuguese in India_, vol. i. + +[109] See in Oliveira Martims' _Historia de Portugal_, vol. II. ch. i., +the account of the Embassy sent to Pope Leo IX. by Dom Manoel in 1514. +No such procession had been seen since the days of the Roman Empire. +There were besides endless wealth, leopards from India, also an elephant +which, on reaching the Castle of S. Angelo, filled its trunk with +scented water and 'asperged' first the Pope and then the people. These +with a horse from Ormuz represented the East. Unfortunately the +representative of Africa, a rhinoceros, died on the way. + +[110] Danver's _Portuguese in India_, vol. i. + +[111] Unfortunately Fernandes was one of the commonest of names. In his +list of Portuguese artists, Count Raczynski mentions an enormous number. + +[112] In the year 1512 Olivel was paid 25$000. He had previously +received 12$000 a month. He died soon after and his widow undertook to +finish his work with the help of his assistant Muñoz. + +[113] See the drawing in _A Ordem de Christo_ by Vieira Guimarães. + +[114] The last two figures look like 15 but the first two are scarcely +legible; it may not be a date at all. + +[115] All the statues are rather Northern in appearance, not unlike +those on the royal tombs in Santa Cruz, Coimbra, and may be the work of +the two Flemings mentioned among those employed at Thomar, Antonio and +Gabriel. + +[116] The door--notwithstanding the supposed date, 1515--was probably +finished by João after 1523. + +[117] Cf. the carving on the jambs of the Allah-ud-din gate at Delhi. + +[118] Such heads of many curves may have been derived from such +elaborate Moorish arches as may be seen in the Alhambra, or, for +example, in the Hasan tower at Rabat in Morocco, and it is worth +noticing that there were men with Moorish names among the workmen at +Thomar--Omar, Mafamede, Bugimaa, and Bebedim. + +[119] Esp(h)era=_sphere_; Espera=_hope_, present imperative. + +[120] The inscription says: 'Aqui jaz Matheus Fernandes mestre que foi +destas obras, e sua mulher Izabel Guilherme e levou-o nosso Senhor a dez +dias de Abril de 1515. Ella levou-a a....' + +[121] Fig. 57. + +[122] _As Capellas Imperfeitas e a lenda das devisas Gregas._ Por +Caroline Michaëlis de Vasconcellos. Porto, 1905. + +[123] The frieze is now filled up and plastered, but not long ago was +empty and recessed as if prepared for letting in reliefs. Can these have +been of terra cotta of the della Robbia school? Dom Manoel imported many +which are now all gone but one in the Museum at Lisbon. There are also +some della Robbia medallions at the Quinta de Bacalhôa at Azeitão near +Setubal. + +[124] J. Murphy, _History of the Royal Convent of Batalha_. London, +1792. + +[125] One of the first was probably the chapel dos Reys Magos at São +Marcos near Coimbra. + +[126] A conto = 1.000$000. + +[127] It is no use telling a tramway conductor to stop near the Torre de +São Vicente. He has never heard of it, but if one says 'Fabrica de Gas' +the car will stop at the right place. + +[128] Similar roofs cap the larger angle turrets in the house of the +Quinta de Bacalhôa near Setubal, built by Dona Brites, mother of Dom +Manoel, about 1490, and rebuilt or altered by the younger Albuquerque +after 1528 when he bought the Quinta. + +[129] Raczynski says 1517, Haupt 1522. + +[130] According to Raczynski, João de Castilho in 1517 undertook to +carry on the work for 140$000 per month, at the rate of $50 per day per +man. 140$000=now about £31. + +[131] Nicolas was the first of the French renaissance artists to come to +Portugal. + +[132] _E.g._ on the Hotel Bourgthéroulde, Rouen. + +[133] Cf. the top of a turret at St. Wulfram, Abbeville. + +[134] Haupt. + +[135] The university was first accommodated in Sta. Cruz, till Dom João +gave up the palace where it still is. It was after the return of the +university to Coimbra that George Buchanan was for a time professor. He +got into difficulties with the Inquisition and had to leave. + +[136] Nicolas the Frenchman is first mentioned in 1517 as working at +Belem. He therefore was probably the first to introduce the renaissance +into Portugal, for Sansovino had no lasting influence. + +[137] 'To give room and licence to Dioguo de Castylho, master of the +work of my palace at Coimbra, to ride on a mule and a nag seeing that he +has no horse, and notwithstanding my decrees to the contrary.'--Sept. +18, 1526. + +[138] _Vilhena Barbosa Monumentes de Portugal_, p. 411. + +[139] Other men from Rouen are also mentioned, Jeronymo and Simão. + +[140] The stone used at Batalha and at Alcobaça is of similar fineness, +but seems better able to stand exposure, as the front of Santa Cruz at +Coimbra is much more decayed than are any parts of the buildings at +either Batalha or Alcobaça. The stone resembles Caen stone, but is even +finer. + +[141] João de Ruão also made some bookcases for the monastery library. + +[142] 'Aqui jas o muito honrado Pero Rodrigues Porto Carreiro, ayo que +foy do Conde D. Henrique, Cavalleiro da Ordem de San Tiago, e o muyto +honrado Gonzalo Gil Barbosa seu genro, Cavalleiro da Ordem de X^to, e +assim o muito honrado seu filho Francisco Barbosa: os quaes forão +trasladados a esta sepultura no anno de 1532.'--Fr. _Historia de +Santarem edificada_. By Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos. Lisboa +Occidental, MDCCXXXX. + +[143] The date 1522 is found on a tablet on Ayres' tomb, so the three +must have been worked while the chancel was being built. + +[144] _Les Arts en Portugal:_ letters to the Berlin Academy of Arts. +Paris, 1846. + +[145] _São Marcos:_ E. Biel. Porto, in _A arte e a natureza em +Portugal:_ text by J. de Vasconcellos. + +[146] There is also a fine reredos of somewhat later date in the church +of Varziella near Cantanhede not far off: but it belongs rather to the +school of the chapel dos Reis Magos; there is another in the Matriz of +Cantanhede itself. + +[147] Johannis III. Emanuelis filius, Ferdinandi nep. Eduardi pronep. +Johannis I. abnep. Portugal. et Alg. rex. Affric. Aethiop. arabic. +persic. Indi. ob felicem partum Catherinae reginae conjugis +incomparabilis suscepto Emanuele filio principi, aram cum signis pos. +dedicavitque anno MDXXXII. Divae Mariae Virgini et Matri sac. + +[148] The only other object of any interest in the São Marcos is a small +early renaissance pulpit on the north side of the nave, not unlike that +at Caminha. + +[149] During the French invasion much church plate was hidden on the top +of capitals and so escaped discovery. + +[150] João then bought a house in the Rua de Corredoura for 80$000 or +nearly £18.--Vieira Guimarães, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 167. + +[151] There is preserved in the Torre do Tombo at Lisbon a long account +of the trial of a 'new Christian' of Thomar, Jorge Manuel, begun on July +15, 1543, in the office of the Holy Inquisition within the convent of +Thomar.--Vieira Guimarães, p. 179. + +[152] From book 34 of João III.'s Chancery a 'quitaçã' or discharge +given to João de Castilho for all the work done for Dom João or for his +father, viz.--'In Monastery of Belem; in palace by the sea--swallowed up +by the earthquake in 1755--balconies in hall, stair, chapel, and rooms +of Queen Catherine, chapel of monastery of São Francisco in Lisbon, +foundation of Arsenal Chapel; a balcony at Santos, and divers other +lesser works. Then a door, window, well balustrade, garden repairs; work +in pest house; stone buildings at the arsenal for a dry dock for the +Indian ships; the work he has executed at Thomar, as well as the work he +has done at Alcobaça and Batalha; besides he made a bastion at Mazagão +so strong,' etc.--Raczynski's _Les Artistes Portugais_. + +[153] Vieira Guimarães, _A Ordem de Christo_, pp. 184, 185. + +[154] Foi erecta esta cap. No A.D. 1572 sed prof. E. 1810 foi restaur E. +1848 por L. L. d'Abreu Monis. Serrão, E. Po. D Roure, Pietra +concra. Muitas Pessoas ds. cid^{eç}. + +[155] Ferguson (_History of Modern Architecture_, vol. ii. p. 287) says +that some of the cloisters at Gôa reminded him of Lupiana, so no doubt +they are not unlike those here mentioned. + +[156] An inscription over a door outside says: + +DNS. EMANVEL +NORONHA EPVS +LAMACEN. 1557. + + +[157] One chapel, that of São Martin, has an iron screen like a poor +Spanish _reja_. + +[158] It has been pulled down quite lately. Lorvão, in a beautiful +valley some fifteen miles from Coimbra, was a very famous nunnery. The +church was rebuilt in the eighteenth century, has a dome, a nuns' choir +to the west full of stalls, but in style, except the ruined cloister, +which was older, all is very rococo. + +[159] This reredos is in the chapel on the south of the Capella Mor. + +[160] This aqueduct begun by Terzi in 1593 was finished in 1613 by Pedro +Fernandes de Torres, who also designed the fountain in the centre of the +cloister. + +[161] It was here that Wellington was slung across the river in a basket +on his way to confer with the Portuguese general during the advance on +Salamanca. + +[162] Terzi was taken prisoner at Alcacer-Quebir in 1578 and ransomed by +King Henry, who made him court architect, a position he held till his +death in 1598. + +[163] Some of the most elaborate dated 1584 are by Francisco de Mattos. + +[164] It was handed over to the cathedral chapter on the expulsion of +the Jesuits in 1772. + +[165] São Bento is now used as a store for drain-pipes. + +[166] The Matriz at Vianna has a fifteenth-century pointed door, with +half figures on the voussoirs arranged as are the four-and-twenty elders +on the great door at Santiago, a curious arrangement found also at +Orense and at Noya. + +[167] There was only one other house of this order in Portugal, at +Laveiras. + +[168] Not of course the famous son of Charles V., but a son of Philip +IV. + +[169] In that year from June to October 45,000 men are inscribed as +working on the building, and 1266 oxen were bought to haul stones! + +[170] The area of the Escorial, excluding the many patios and cloisters, +is over 300,000 square feet; that of Mafra, also excluding all open +spaces, is nearly 290,000. + +[171] Compare also the front of the Misericordia in Oporto. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Portuguese Architecture, by Walter Crum Watson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 29370-8.txt or 29370-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/3/7/29370/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Portuguese Architecture + +Author: Walter Crum Watson + +Release Date: July 10, 2009 [EBook #29370] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="full" /> +<table summary="note" border="2" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ffffcc;"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note from the producer of this etext:<br />A larger version of any of the images may be viewed +by clicking directly on the image.</td> + + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + + +<table summary="images"> +<tr><td><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;"> +<a href="images/i000_frontispiece_a.png"> +<img src="images/i000_frontispiece_a_th.png" width="326" height="400" alt="From the Marvilla, Santarem." /></a> +<span class="caption">From the Marvilla, Santarem. <br /> <br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td> </td><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 288px;"> +<a href="images/i000_frontispiece_b.png"> +<img src="images/i000_frontispiece_b_th.png" width="288" height="400" alt="From the Marvilla, Santarem." /></a> +<span class="caption">From the Marvilla, Santarem; also in the Matriz,<br />Alvito, and elsewhere</span> +</div></td></tr></table> + + +<h1>PORTUGUESE<br />ARCHITECTURE</h1> + +<p class="c smcap95 top15"><b>by</b></p> + +<h3 class="top5">WALTER CRUM WATSON</h3> + +<p class="c top15"><i><b>ILLUSTRATED</b></i></p> + + +<p class="c top15"><b>LONDON<br /> +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY<br /> +LIMITED<br /> +1908</b></p> + +<p class="c top15">Edinburgh: T. and A. +<span class="smcap95">Constable</span>, Printers to His Majesty</p> + +<div class="aos"> + +<p class="c top5"><span class="smcap65"><b> +AOS MEUS QUERIDOS PARENTES E AMIGOS<br /> +A ILL<sup>MA</sup> E EX<sup>MA</sup> SN<sup>RA</sup></b></span><br /> +<b>M. L. DOS PRADOS LARGOS</b><br /> +<span class="smcap65"><b>E OS<br /> +ILL<sup>MOS</sup> E EX<sup>MOS</sup> SNR<sup>ES</sup></b></span><br /> +<b>BARONEZA E BARÃO DE SOUTELLINHO</b><br /> +<span class="smcap65"><b>COMO RECONHECIMENTO PELAS AMABILIDADES E ATTENÇÕES<br /> +QUE ME DISPENSARAM NOS BELLOS DIAS QUE PASSEI<br /> +NA SUA COMPANHIA<br /> +COMO HOMENAGEM RESPEITOSA<br /> +O.D.C.<br /> +O AUCTOR</b></span><br /> +</p> +</div> + +<div class="toc c"> +<a href="#PREFACE"><b>PREFACE</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONTENTS"><b>CONTENTS</b></a><br /> +<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INTRODUCTION"><b>INTRODUCTION</b></a><br /> +<a href="#BOOKS_CONSULTED"><b>BOOKS CONSULTED</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX"><b>INDEX</b></a><br /> +<a href="#FOOTNOTES"><b>FOOTNOTES</b></a><br /> +</div> + +<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h3> + + +<p>T<span class="smcap95">he</span> buildings of Portugal, with one or two exceptions, cannot be said to +excel or even to come up to those of other countries. To a large extent +the churches are without the splendid furniture which makes those of +Spain the most romantic in the world, nor are they in themselves so +large or so beautiful. Some apology, then, may seem wanted for imposing +on the public a book whose subject-matter is not of first-class +importance.</p> + +<p>The present book is the outcome of visits to Portugal in April or May of +three successive years; and during these visits the writer became so +fond of the country and of its people, so deeply interested in the +history of its glorious achievements in the past, and in the buildings +which commemorate these great deeds, that it seemed worth while to try +and interest others in them. Another reason for writing about Portugal +instead of about Spain is that the country is so much smaller that it is +no very difficult task to visit every part and see the various buildings +with one's own eyes: besides, in no language does there exist any book +dealing with the architecture of the country as a whole. There are some +interesting monographs in Portuguese about such buildings as the palace +at Cintra, or Batalha, while the Renaissance has been fully treated by +Albrecht Haupt, but no one deals at all adequately with what came before +the time of Dom Manoel.</p> + +<p>Most of the plans in the book were drawn from rough measurements taken +on the spot and do not pretend to minute accuracy.</p> + +<p>For the use of that of the Palace at Cintra the thanks of the writer are +due to Conde de Sabugosa, who allowed it to be copied from his book, +while the plan of Mafra was found in an old magazine.</p> + +<p>Thanks are also due to Senhor Joaquim de Vasconcellos for much valuable +information, to his wife, Senhora Michaelis de Vasconcellos, for her +paper about the puzzling inscriptions at Batalha, and above all the +Baron and the Baroneza de Soutellinho, for their repeated welcome to +Oporto and for the trouble they have taken in getting books and +photographs.</p> + +<p>That the book may be more complete there has been added a short account +of some of the church plate and paintings which still survive, as well +as of the tile work which is so universal and so characteristic.</p> + +<p>As for the buildings, hardly any of any consequence have escaped notice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap65">Edinburgh</span>, <span class="sml">1907.</span><br /> +</p> + + +<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3> + + +<h3 class="top5"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</a></h3> + +<table summary="toc" border="0" +cellspacing="5" +cellpadding="5"> + +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" class="smcap95">PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Portugal separated from Spain by no natural division geographical or +linguistic; does not correspond with Roman Lusitania, nor with the +later Suevic kingdom—Traces of early Celtic inhabitants; Citania, +Sabrosa—Roman Occupation; Temple at Evora—Barbarian Invasions—Arab +Conquest—Beginnings of Christian re-conquest—Sesnando, +first Count of Oporto—Christians defeated at Zalaca—Count +Henry of Burgundy and Dona Theresa—Beginnings of Portuguese +Independence—Affonso Henriques, King of Portugal—Growth of +Portugal—Victory of Aljubarrota—Prince Henry the Navigator—The +Spanish Usurpation—The Great Earthquake—The Peninsular +War—The Miguelite War—The suppression of the Monasteries—Differences +between Portugal and Spain, etc.</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_1">1-10</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-variant:small-caps; font-weight:800;"><a href="#Painting_in_Portugal">Painting in Portugal</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Not very many examples of Portuguese paintings left—Early connection +with Burgundy; and with Antwerp—Great influence of +Flemish school—The myth of Grão Vasco—Pictures at Evora, at +Thomar, at Setubal, in Santa Cruz, Coimbra—'The Fountain of +Mercy' at Oporto—The pictures at Vizeu: 'St. Peter'—Antonio +de Hollanda</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_10">10-17</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-variant:small-caps;font-weight:800;"><a href="#hurch">Church Plate</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Much plate lost during the Peninsular War—Treasuries of Braga, +Coimbra, and Evora, and of Guimarães—Early chalices, etc., at +Braga, Coimbra, and Guimarães—Crosses at Guimarães and at +Coimbra—Relics of St. Isabel—Flemish influence seen in later +work—Tomb of St. Isabel, and coffins of sainted abbesses of +Lorvão</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_17">17-20</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-variant:small-caps;font-weight:800;"><a href="#zulejos">Tiles</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Due to Arab influence—The word <i>azulejo</i> and its origin—The different +stages in the development of tile making—Early tiles at Cintra +Moorish in pattern and in technique—Tiles at Bacalhôa Moorish in +technique but Renaissance in pattern—Later tiles without Moorish +technique, <i>e.g.</i> at Santarem and elsewhere—Della Robbia ware at +Bacalhôa—Pictures in blue and white tiles very common</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_20">20-28</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><b>CHAPTER I</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">The oldest buildings are in the North—Very rude and simple—Three +types—Villarinho—São Miguel, Guimarães—Cedo Feita, Oporto—Gandara, +Boelhe, etc., are examples of the simplest—Aguas Santas, +Rio Mau, etc., of the second; and of the third Villar de Frades, +etc.—Legend of Villar—Sé, Braga—Sé, Oporto—Paço de Souza—Method +of roofing—Tomb of Egas Moniz—Pombeiro—Castle +and Church, Guimarães</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_29">29-43</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><b>CHAPTER II</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Growth of Christian kingdom under Affonso Henriques—His vow—Capture +of Santarem, of Lisbon—Cathedral, Lisbon, related to Church +of S. Sernin, Toulouse—Ruined by Great Earthquake, and badly +restored—Sé Velha, Coimbra, general scheme copied from Santiago +and so from S. Sernin, Toulouse—Other churches at Coimbra—Evora, +its capture—Cathedral founded—Similar in scheme to +Lisbon, but with pointed arches; central lantern; cloister—Thomar +founded by Gualdim Paes; besieged by Moors—Templar Church—Santarem, +Church of São João de Alporão—Alcobaça; great wealth +of Abbey—Designed by French monks—Same plan as Clairvaux—Has +but little influence on later buildings</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_44">44-63</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><b>CHAPTER III</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO<br />THE BATTLE OF ALJUBARROTA</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">The thirteenth century poor in buildings—The Franciscans—São +Francisco Guimarães—Santarem—Santa Maria dos Olivaes at +Thomar—<i>Cf.</i> aisle windows at Leça do Balio—Inactivity and +deposition of Dom Sancho <span class="smcap95">ii</span>. by Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii</span>.—Conquest of +Algarve—Sé, Silves—Dom Diniz and the castles at Beja and at +Leiria—Cloisters, Cellas, Coimbra, Alcobaça, Lisbon, and Oporto—St. +Isabel and Sta. Clara at Coimbra—Leça do Balio—The choir +of the cathedral, Lisbon, with tombs—Alcobaça, royal tombs—Dom +Pedro <span class="smcap95">i</span>. and Inez de Castro; her murder, his sorrow—Their tombs</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_64">64-78</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><b>CHAPTER IV</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Dom Fernando and Dona Leonor Telles—Her wickedness and unpopularity—Their +daughter, Dona Brites, wife of Don Juan of Castile, rejected—Dom +João <span class="smcap95">i</span>. elected king—Battle of Aljubarrota—Dom João's +vow—Marriage of Dom João and Philippa of Lancaster—Batalha +founded; its plan national, not foreign; some details seem English, +some French, some even German—Huguet the builder did not copy +York or Canterbury—Tracery very curious—Inside very plain—Capella +do Fundador, with the royal tombs—Capellas Imperfeitas</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_79">79-92</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><b>CHAPTER V</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Nossa Senhora da Oliveira Guimarães rebuilt as a thankoffering—Silver +reredos captured at Aljubarrota—The cathedral, Guarda—Its likeness +to Batalha—Nave later—Nuno Alvarez Pereira, the Grand +Constable, and the Carmo, Lisbon—João Vicente and Villar de +Frades—Alvito, Matriz—Capture of Ceuta—Tombs in the Graça, +Santarem—Dom Pedro de Menezes and his 'Aleo'—Tomb of +Dom Duarte de Menezes in São João de Alporão—Tombs at +Abrantes cloister—Thomar</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_93">93-103</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><b>CHAPTER VI</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> GOTHIC</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Graça, Santarem—Parish churches, Thomar, Villa do Conde, Azurara +and Caminha, all similar in plan—Cathedrals: Funchal, Lamego, +and Vizeu—Porch and chancel of cathedral, Braga—Conceição, +Braga</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_104">104-115</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><b>CHAPTER VII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Few buildings older than the re-conquest—But many built for Christians +by Moors—The Palace, Cintra—Originally country house of the +Walis—Rebuilt by Dom João <span class="smcap95">i</span>.—Plan and details Moorish—Entrance +court—Sala dos Cysnes, why so called, its windows; +Sala do Conselho; Sala das Pegas, its name, chimney-piece; Sala +das Sereias; dining-room; Pateo, baths; Sala dos Arabes; +Pateo de Diana; chapel; kitchen—Castles at Guimarães and at +Barcellos—Villa de Feira</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_116">116-128</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><b>CHAPTER VIII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> MOORISH BUILDINGS</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Commoner in Alemtejo—Castle, Alvito—Not Sansovino's Palace—Evora, +Paços Reaes, Cordovis, Sempre Nova, São João Evangelista, +São Francisco, São Braz</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_129">129-135</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><b>CHAPTER IX</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> CARPENTRY</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Examples found all over the country—At Aguas Santas, Azurara, +Caminha and Funchal—Cintra, Sala dos Cysnes, Sala dos Escudos—Coimbra, +Misericordia, hall of University—Ville do Conde Santa +Clara, Aveiro convent</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_136">136-142</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><b>CHAPTER X</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> MANOELINO</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">João <span class="smcap95">ii</span>. continues the policy of Prince Henry the Navigator—Bartholomeu +Diaz, Vasco da Gama—Accession of Dom Manoel—Discovery +of route to India, and of Brazil—Great wealth of King—Fails +to unite all the kingdoms of the Peninsula—Characteristic +features of Manoelino—House of Garcia de Resende, Evora—Caldas +da Rainha—Setubal, Jesus—Beja, Conceição, Castle, etc.—Cintra, +Palace—Gollegã, Church—Elvas, Cathedral—Santarem, +Marvilla—Lisbon, Madre de Deus—Coimbra, University Chapel—Setubal, +São Julião</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_143">143-156</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><b>CHAPTER XI</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Vasco da Gama's successful voyage to Calicut, 1497—Other expeditions +lead to discovery of Brazil—Titles conferred on Dom Manoel +by Pope Alexander <span class="smcap95">vi</span>.—Ormuz taken—Strange forms at Thomar +not Indian—Templars suppressed and Order of Christ founded +instead—Prince Henry Grand Master—Spiritual supremacy of +Thomar over all conquests, made or to be made—Templar church +added to by Prince Henry, and more extensively by Dom Manoel—João +de Castilho builds Coro—Stalls burnt by French—South +door, chapter-house and its windows—Much of the detail emblematic +of the discoveries, etc., made in the East and in the West</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_157">157-170</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><b>CHAPTER XII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> ADDITIONS TO BATALHA</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Dom Duarte's tomb-house unfinished—Work resumed by Dom +Manoel—The two Matheus Fernandes, architects—The Pateo—The +great entrance—Meaning of 'Tanyas Erey'—Piers in Octagon—How +was the Octagon to be roofed?—The great Cloister, with +its tracery—Whence derived</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_171">171-180</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><b>CHAPTER XIII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;">BELEM</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Torre de São Viente built to defend Lisbon—Turrets and balconies +not Indian—Vasco da Gama sails from Belem—The great monastery +built as a thankoffering for the success of his voyage—Begun by +Boutaca, succeeded by Lourenço Fernandes, and then by João de +Castilho—Plan due to Boutaca—Master Nicolas, the Frenchman, +the first renaissance artist in Portugal—Plan: exterior; interior +superior to exterior; stalls; cloister, lower and upper—Lisbon, +Conceição Velha, also by João de Castilho</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_181">181-195</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV"><b>CHAPTER XIV</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, founded by Dom Affonso Henriques, rebuilt by +Dom Manoel, first architect Marcos Pires—Gregorio Lourenço +clerk of the works—Diogo de Castilho succeeds Marcos Pires—West +front, Master Nicolas—Cloister, inferior to that of Belem—Royal +tombs—Other French carvers—Pulpit, reredoses in cloister, +stalls—Sé Velha reredos, doors—Chapel of São Pedro</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_196">196-210</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV"><b>CHAPTER XV</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNERS</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Tomb at Thomar of the Bishop of Funchal—Tomb in Graça, Santarem—São +Marcos, founded by Dona Brites de Menezes—Tomb of +Fernão Telles—Rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, her grandson—Tombs +in chancel—Reredos, by Master Nicolas—Reredos at Cintra—Pena +Chapel by same—São Marcos, Chapel of the Reyes Magos—Sansovino's +door, Cintra—Evora, São Domingos—Portalegre, +Tavira, Lagos, Goes, Trofa, Caminha, Moncorvo</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_211">211-221</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI"><b>CHAPTER XVI</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> WORK OF JOÃO DE CASTILHO AND EARLIER CLASSIC</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">João <span class="smcap95">iii</span>. cared more for the Church than for anything else—Decay +begins—Later additions to Alcobaça—Batalha, Sta. Cruz—Thomar, +Order of Christ reformed—Knights become regulars—Great +additions, cloisters, dormitory, etc., by João de Castilho—His +difficulties, letters to the King—His addition to Batalha—Builds +Conceição at Thomar like Milagre, Santarem—Marvilla, <i>ibid.</i>; +Elvas, São Domingos—Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde—Vizeu, +Cloister—Lamego, Cloister—Coimbra, São Thomaz—Carmo—Faro—Lorvão—Amarante—Santarem, +Santa Clara, and +Guarda, reredos</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_222">222-239</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII"><b>CHAPTER XVII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Diogo de Torralva and Claustro dos Filippes, Thomar—Miranda de +Douro—Reigns of Dom Sebastião and of the Cardinal King +Henry not noted for much building—Evora, Graça and University—Fatal +expedition by Dom Sebastião to Morocco—His death and +defeat—Feeble reign of his grand-uncle—Election of Philip—Union +with Spain and consequent loss of trade—Lisbon, São +Roque; coming of Terzi—Lisbon, São Vicente de Fora; first use +of very long Doric pilasters—Santo Antão, Santa Maria do +Desterro, and Torreão do Paço—Sé Nova, Coimbra, like Santo +Antão—Oporto, Collegio Novo—Coimbra, Misericordia, Bishop's +palace; Sacristy of Sé Velha, São Domingos, Carmo, Graça, São +Bento by Alvares—Lisbon, São Bento—Oporto, São Bento</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_240">240-253</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII"><b>CHAPTER XVIII</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE<br />EXPULSION OF THE SPANIARDS</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">Vianna do Castello, Misericordia—Beja, São Thiago—Azeitão, São +Simão—Evora, Cartuxa—Beja, Misericordia—Oporto, Nossa +Senhora da Serra do Pilar—Sheltered Wellington before he crossed +the Douro—Besieged by Dom Miguel—Very original plan—Coimbra, +Sacristy of Santa Cruz—Lisbon, Santa Engracia never +finished—Doric pilasters too tall—Coimbra, Santa Clara, great +abuse of Doric pilasters</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_254">254-260</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="chapter" colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX"><b>CHAPTER XIX</b></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;"> RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</td></tr> + +<tr><td style="text-indent:0%;">The expulsion of the Spaniards—Long war: final success of Portugal +and recovered prosperity—Mafra founded by Dom João <span class="smcap95">v</span>.—Compared +with the Escorial—Designed by a German—Palace, church, +library, etc.—Evora, Capella Mor—Great Earthquake—The +Marques de Pombal—Lisbon, Estrella—Oporto, Torre dos +Clerigos—Oporto, Quinta do Freixo—Queluz—Quinta at +Guimarães—Oporto, hospital and factory—Defeat of Dom +Miguel and suppression of monasteries</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_261">261-271</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;">BOOKS CONSULTED</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td style="line-height:2em;font-weight:800;">INDEX</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3> +<table summary="illustrations" +cellspacing="8" +cellpadding="0" +border="0"> +<tr><td colspan="3" align="right"><i>To face page</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_1">1</a>.</td> +<td> Guimarães, House from Sabrosa</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_2">2</a>.</td> +<td> Evora, Temple of 'Diana'</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_3">3</a>.</td> +<td> Oporto, Fountain of Mercy</td> +<td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> +</tr><tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_4">4</a>.</td><td> Vizeu, St. Peter, in Sacristy of Cathedral</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_5">5</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Cross in Cathedral Treasury</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_6">6</a>.</td> +<td> " Chalice " + " +</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_7">7</a>.</td> +<td> " Monstrance " + "</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_8">8</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, Sala dos Arabes</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_9">9</a>.</td><td> " " Dining-room</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#frontispiece">10</a>.</td><td> Santarem, Marvilla, coloured wall tiles +</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i>.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#frontispiece">11</a>.</td><td> " " </td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_12">12</a>.</td><td> Vallarinho, Parish Church</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_13">13</a>.</td><td> Villar de Frades, West Door</td> +</tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_14">14</a>.</td><td> Paço de Souza, Interior of Church</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_15">15</a>.</td><td> " " Tomb of Egas Moniz</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_16">16</a>.</td><td> Guimarães, N. S. da Oliveira, Chapter-house Entrance +</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_17">17</a>.</td><td> Leça do Balio, Cloister</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_18">18</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sé Velha, Interior</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_19">19</a>.</td><td> " " West Front</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_20">20</a>.</td><td> Evora, Cathedral, Interior</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_21">21</a>.</td><td> " " Central Lantern</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_22">22</a>.</td><td> Evora, Cloister</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_23">23</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Templar Church</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_24">24</a>.</td><td> Santarem, São João de Alporão</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_25">25</a>.</td><td> Alcobaça, South Transept</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_26">26</a>.</td><td> Santarem, São Francisco, West Door</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_27">27</a>.</td><td> Silves, Cathedral, Interior</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_28">28</a>.</td><td> Alcobaça Cloister</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_29">29</a>.</td><td> Lisbon, Cathedral Cloister</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_30">30</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sta. Clar</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_31">31</a>.</td><td> Alcobaça, Chapel with Royal Tombs</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_32">32</a>.</td><td> " Tomb of Dom Pedro <span class="smcap95">i</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_33">33</a>.</td><td> Batalha, West Fron</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_34">34</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Interior</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_35">35</a>.</td><td> " Capella do Fundador</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_36">36</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Capellas Imperfeita</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_37">37</a>.</td><td> Guimarães, Capella of D. Juan <span class="smcap95">i</span>. of Castile</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_38">38</a>.</td><td> Guarda, North Side of Cathedral</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_39">39</a>.</td><td> Santarem, Tomb of Dom Pedro de Menezes</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_40">40</a>.</td><td> " Tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_41">41</a>.</td><td> Villa do Conde, West Front of Parish Churc</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_42">42</a>.</td><td> Vizeu, Interior of Cathedral</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_43">43</a>.</td><td> Braga, Cathedral Porch</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_44">44</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, Main Front</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_45">45</a>.</td><td> " " Window in 'Sala das Sereias'</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_46">46</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Chape</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_47">47</a>.</td><td> Alvito, Castle</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_48">48</a>.</td><td> Evora, São João Evangelista, Door to Chapter-house</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_49">49</a>.</td><td> Caminha, Roof of Matriz</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_50">50</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Sala dos Cysnes</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_51">51</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, University, Ceiling of Sala dos Capello</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_52">52</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, additions by D. Manoe</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_53">53</a>.</td><td> Santarem, Marvilla, West Door</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_54">54</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, University Chapel Door</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_55">55</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Convent of Christ, South Door</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_56">56</a>.</td><td> " " " Chapter-house Window</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_57">57</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Entrance to Capellas Imperfeita</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_58">58</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Window of Pateo</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_59">59</a>.</td><td> " Upper part of Capellas Imperfeitas</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_60">60</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Claustro Real</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_61">61</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Lavatory in Claustro Real</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_62">62</a>.</td><td> Belem, Torre de São Vicente</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_63">63</a>.</td><td> Belem, Sacristy</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_64">64</a>.</td><td> Belem, South side of Nave</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_65">65</a>.</td><td> " Interior, looking west</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_66">66</a>.</td><td> Belem, Cloister</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_67">67</a>.</td><td> " Interior of Lower Cloister</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_68">68</a>.</td><td> Lisbon, Conceição Velh</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_69">69</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, West Front</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_70">70</a>.</td><td> " " Cloister</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_71">71</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Tomb of D. Sancho <span class="smcap95">i</span>.</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_72">72</a>.</td><td> " " Pulpit</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_73">73</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Reredos in Cloister</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_74">74</a>.</td><td> " " Choir Stalls</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_75">75</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sé Velha, Reredos</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_76">76</a>.</td><td> " " Reredos in Chapel of São Pedro</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_77">77</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Sta. Maria dos Olivaes, Tomb of the Bishop of Funchal</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_78">78</a>.</td><td> São Marcos, Tomb of D. João da Silva</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_79">79</a>.</td><td> São Marcos, Chancel</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_218">218</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_80">80</a>.</td><td> " Chapel of the 'Reyes Magos'</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_81">81</a>.</td><td> Cintra, Palace, Door by Sansovino</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_82">82</a>.</td><td> Caminha, West Door of Church</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_83">83</a>.</td><td> Alcobaça, Sacristy Door</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_84">84</a>.</td><td> Batalha, Door of Sta. Cruz</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_85">85</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Claustro da Hospedaria</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_228">228</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_86">86</a>.</td><td> " Chapel in Dormitory Passage</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_87">87</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Stair in Claustro dos Filippes</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_88">88</a>.</td><td> " Chapel of the Conceição</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_89">89</a>.</td><td> Santarem, Marvilla, Interior</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_90">90</a>.</td><td> Vizeu, Cathedral Cloister</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_91">91</a>.</td><td> Guarda, Cathedral Reredos</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_92">92</a>.</td><td> Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_93">93</a>.</td><td> Lisbon, São Vicente de Fora</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_94">94</a>.</td><td> " " " Interior</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_95">95</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sé Nova</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_96">96</a>.</td><td> " Misericordia</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_97">97</a>.</td><td> Vianna do Castello, Misericordi</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_98">98</a>.</td><td> Oporto, N. S. da Serra do Pilar, Cloister</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_99">99</a>.</td><td> Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Sacristy</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_100">100</a>.</td><td> Mafra, West Front</td> +<td rowspan="2" align="right"> +<span class="lg">}</span> +<a href="#Page_266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#Fig_101">101</a>.</td><td> " Interior of Church</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;"> +<a name="map" id="map"></a> +<a href="images/i001_map_portugal.png"> +<img src="images/i001_map_portugal_th.png" width="263" height="550" alt="map of Portugal" /></a> +<span class="caption">map of Portugal</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">Page 1</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h3> + + +<p>No one can look at a map of the Iberian Peninsula without being struck +by the curious way in which it is unequally divided between two +independent countries. Spain occupies by far the larger part of the +Peninsula, leaving to Portugal only a narrow strip on the western +seaboard some one hundred miles wide and three hundred and forty long. +Besides, the two countries are separated the one from the other by +merely artificial boundaries. The two largest rivers of the Peninsula, +the Douro and the Tagus, rise in Spain, but finish their course in +Portugal, and the Guadiana runs for some eighty miles through Portuguese +territory before acting for a second time as a boundary between the two +countries. The same, to a lesser degree, is true of the mountains. The +Gerez and the Marão are only offshoots of the Cantabrian mountains, and +the Serra da Estrella in Beira is but a continuation of the Sierra de +Gata which separates Leon from Spanish Estremadura. Indeed the only +natural frontiers are formed by the last thirty miles of the Minho in +the north, by about eighty miles of the Douro, which in its deep and +narrow gorge really separates Traz os Montes from Leon; by a few miles +of the Tagus, and by the Guadiana both before and after it runs through +a part of Alemtejo.</p> + +<p>If the languages of the two countries were radically unlike this curious +division would be more easy to understand, but in reality Castilian +differs from Portuguese rather in pronunciation than in anything else; +indeed differs less from Portuguese than it does from Cataluñan.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 1.">[1]</a></p> + +<p>During the Roman dominion none of the divisions of the Peninsula +corresponded exactly with Portugal. Lusitania,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> which the poets of the +Renaissance took to be the Roman name of their country, only reached up +to the Douro, and took in a large part of Leon and the whole of Spanish +Estremadura.</p> + +<p>In the time of the Visigoths, a Suevic kingdom occupied most of Portugal +to the north of the Tagus, but included also all Galicia and part of +Leon; and during the Moorish occupation there was nothing which at all +corresponded with the modern divisions.</p> + +<p>It was, indeed, only by the gradual Christian re-conquest of the country +from the Moors that Portugal came into existence, and only owing to the +repeated failure of the attempt to unite the two crowns of Portugal and +Castile by marriage that they have remained separated to the present +day.</p> + +<p>Of the original inhabitants of what is now Portugal little is known, but +that they were more Celtic than Iberian seems probable from a few Celtic +words which have survived, such as <i>Mor</i> meaning <i>great</i> as applied to +the <i>Capella Mor</i> of a church or to the title of a court official. The +name too of the Douro has probably nothing to do with gold but is +connected with a Celtic word for water. The Tua may mean the 'gushing' +river, and the Ave recalls the many Avons. <i>Ebora</i>, now Evora, is very +like the Roman name of York, Eboracum. <i>Briga</i>, too, the common +termination of town names in Roman times as in Conimbriga—Condeixa a +Velha—or Cetobriga, near Setubal—in Celtic means <i>height</i> or +<i>fortification</i>. All over the country great rude stone monuments are to +be found, like those erected by primitive peoples in almost every part +of Europe, and the most interesting, the curious buildings found at +various places near Guimarães, seem to belong to a purely Celtic +civilisation.</p> + +<p>The best-known of these places, now called Citania—from a name of a +native town mentioned by ancient writers—occupies the summit of a hill +about nine hundred feet above the road and nearly half-way between +Guimarães and Braga. The top of this hill is covered with a number of +structures, some round from fifteen to twenty feet across, and some +square, carefully built of well-cut blocks of granite. The only opening +is a door which is often surrounded by an architrave adorned with rough +carving; the roofs seem to have been of wood and tiles.</p> + +<p>Some, not noticing the three encircling walls and the well-cut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> +water-channels, and thinking that the round buildings far exceeded the +rectangular in number, have thought that they might have been intended +for granaries where corn might be stored against a time of war. But it +seems far more likely that Citania was a town placed on this high hill +for safety. Though the remains show no other trace of Roman +civilisation, one or two of the houses are inscribed with their owner's +names in Roman character, and from coins found there they seem to have +been inhabited long after the surrounding valleys had been subdued by +the Roman arms, perhaps even after the great baths had been built not +far off at the hot springs of Taipas. Uninfluenced by Rome, Citania was +also untouched by Christianity, though it may have been inhabited after +St. James—if indeed he ever preached in Bracara Augusta, now Braga—and +his disciple São Pedro de Rates had begun their mission.</p> + +<p>But if Citania knew nothing of Christianity there still remains one +remarkable monument of the native religion. Among the ruins there long +lay a huge thin slab of granite, now in the museum of Guimarães, which +certainly has the appearance of having been a sacrificial stone. It is a +rough pentagon with each side measuring about five feet. On one side, in +the middle, a semicircular hollow has been cut out as if to leave room +for the sacrificing priest, while on the surface of the stone a series +of grooves has been cut, all draining to a hole near this hollow and +arranged as if for a human body with outstretched legs and arms. The +rest of the surface is covered with an intricate pattern like what may +often be found on Celtic stones in Scotland. Besides this so-called +Citania similar buildings have been found elsewhere, as at Sabrosa, also +near Guimarães, but there the Roman influence seems usually to have been +greater. (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>.)</p> + +<p>The Romans began to occupy the Peninsula after the second Punic war, but +the conquest of the west and north was not completed till the reign of +Augustus more than two hundred years later. The Roman dominion over what +is now Portugal lasted for over four hundred years, and the chief +monument of their occupation is found in the language. More material +memorials are the milestones which still stand in the Gerez, some +tombstones, and some pavements and other remains at Condeixa a Velha, +once Conimbriga, near Coimbra and at the place now called Troya, perhaps +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> original Cetobriga, on a sandbank opposite Setubal, a town whose +founders were probably Phœnicians.</p> + +<p>But more important than any of these is the temple at Evora, now without +any reason called the temple of Diana. During the middle ages, crowned +with battlements, with the spaces between the columns built up, it was +later degraded by being turned into a slaughter-house, and was only +cleared of such additions a few years since. Situated near the +cathedral, almost on the highest part of the town, it stands on a +terrace whose great retaining wall still shows the massiveness of Roman +work.</p> + +<p>Of the temple itself there remains about half of the podium, some eleven +feet high, fourteen granite columns, twelve of which still retain their +beautiful Corinthian capitals, and the architrave and part of the frieze +resting on these twelve capitals. Everything is of granite except the +capitals and bases which are of white marble; but instead of the +orthodox twenty-four flutes each column has only twelve, with a +distinctly unpleasing result. The temple seems to have been hexastyle +peripteral, but all trace of the cella has disappeared. Nothing is known +of the temple or who it was that built it, but in Roman times Evora was +one of the chief cities of Lusitania; nothing else is left but the +temple, for the aqueduct has been rebuilt and the so-called Tower of +Sertorius was mediæval. Yet, although it may have less to show than +Merida, once Augusta Emerita and the capital of the province, this +temple is the best-preserved in the whole peninsula. (<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>.)</p> + +<p>Before the Roman dominion came to an end, in the first quarter of the +fifth century, Christianity had been for some time firmly established. +Religious intolerance also, which nearly a thousand years later made +Spain the first home of the Inquisition, had already made itself +manifest in the burning of the heretical Priscillianists by Idacius, +whose see was at or near Lamego.</p> + +<p>Soon, however, the orthodox were themselves to suffer, for the Vandals, +the Goths, and the Suevi, who swept across the country from 417 <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span>, +were Arians, and it was only after many years had passed that the ruling +Goths and Suevi were converted to the Catholic faith.</p> + +<p>The Vandals soon passed on to Africa, leaving their name in Andalucia +and the whole land to the Goths and Suevi, the</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a> +<a href="images/i002_fig_1.png"> +<img src="images/i002_fig_1_th.png" width="550" height="419" alt="FIG. 1. +House from Sabrosa. +Now in Museum, Guimarães. +" /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 1.<br /> +House from Sabrosa.<br /> +Now in Museum, Guimarães. +</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 435px;"> +<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a> +<a href="images/i002_fig_2.png"> +<img src="images/i002_fig_2_th.png" width="435" height="550" alt="FIG. 2. +Evora. +Temple of "Diana." +" /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 2.<br /> +Evora.<br /> +Temple of "Diana."</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span>Suevi at first occupying the whole of Portugal north of the Tagus as +well as Galicia and part of Leon. Later they were expelled from the +southern part of their dominion, but they as well as the Goths have left +practically no mark on the country, for the church built at Oporto by +the Suevic king, Theodomir, on his conversion to orthodoxy in 559, has +been rebuilt in the eleventh or twelfth century.</p> + +<p>These Germanic rulers seem never to have been popular with those they +governed, so that when the great Moslem invasion crossed from Morocco in +711 and, defeating King Roderick at Guadalete near Cadiz, swept in an +incredibly short time right up to the northern mountains, the whole +country submitted with scarcely a struggle.</p> + +<p>A few only of the Gothic nobles took refuge on the seaward slopes of the +Cantabrian mountains in the Asturias and there made a successful stand, +electing Don Pelayo as their king.</p> + +<p>As time went on, Pelayo's descendants crossed the mountains, and taking +Leon gradually extended their small kingdom southwards.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile other independent counties or principalities further east were +gradually spreading downwards. The nearest was Castile, so called from +its border castles, then Navarre, then Aragon, and lastly the county of +Barcelona or Cataluña.</p> + +<p>Galicia, in the north-west corner, never having been thoroughly +conquered by the invaders, was soon united with the Asturias and then +with Leon. So all these Christian realms, Leon—including Galicia and +Asturias—Castile, and Aragon, which was soon united to Cataluña, spread +southwards, faster when the Moslems were weakened by division, slower +when they had been united and strengthened by a fresh wave of fanaticism +from Africa. Navarre alone was unable to grow, for the lower Ebro valley +was won by the kings of Aragon, while Castile as she grew barred the way +to the south-west.</p> + +<p>At last in 1037 Fernando <span class="smcap95">i.</span> united Castile and Leon into one kingdom, +extending from the sea in the north to the lower course of the Douro and +to the mountains dividing the upper Douro from the Tagus valley in the +south. Before Fernando died in 1065 he had extended his frontier on the +west as far south as the Mondego, making Sesnando, a converted Moslem, +count of this important marchland. Then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> followed a new division, for +Castile went to King Sancho, Leon to Alfonso <span class="smcap95">vi.</span>, and Galicia, including +the two counties of Porto and of Coimbra, to Garcia.</p> + +<p>Before long, however, Alfonso turned out his brothers and also extended +his borders even to the Tagus by taking Toledo in 1085. But his +successes roused the Moslem powers to fresh fanaticism. A new and +stricter dynasty, the Almoravides,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 2.">[2]</a> arose in Africa and crossing the +straits inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christians at Zalaca. In +despair at this disaster and at the loss of Santarem and of Lisbon, +Alfonso appealed to Christendom for help. Among those who came were +Count Raymond of Toulouse, who was rewarded with the kingdom of Galicia +and the hand of his daughter and heiress Urraca, and Count Henry of +Burgundy, who was granted the counties of Porto and of Coimbra and who +married another daughter of Alfonso's, Theresa.</p> + +<p>This was really the first beginning of Portugal as an independent state; +for Portugal, derived from two towns Portus and Cales, which lie +opposite each other near the mouth of the Douro, was the name given to +Henry's county. Henry did but little to make himself independent as he +was usually away fighting elsewhere, but his widow Theresa refused to +acknowledge her sister Urraca, now queen of Castile, Leon and Galicia, +as her superior, called herself Infanta and behaved as if she was no +one's vassal. Fortunately for her and her aims, Urraca was far too busy +fighting with her second husband, the king of Aragon, to pay much +attention to what was happening in the west, so that she had time to +consolidate her power and to accustom her people to think of themselves +as being not Galicians but Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The breach with Galicia was increased by the favour which Theresa, after +a time, began to show to her lover, Don Fernando Peres de Trava, a +Galician noble, and by the grants of lands and of honours she made to +him. This made her so unpopular that when Alfonso Raimundes, Urraca's +son, attacked Theresa in 1127, made her acknowledge him as suzerain, and +give up Tuy and Orense, Galician towns she had taken, the people rose +against her and declared her son Affonso Henriques old enough to reign.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span></p> + +<p>Then took place the famous submission of Egas Moniz, Affonso's governor, +who induced the king to retire from the siege of Guimarães by promising +that his pupil would agree to the terms forced on his mother. This, +though but seventeen, Affonso refused to do, and next year raising an +army he expelled his mother and Don Fernando, and after four wars with +his cousin of Castile finally succeeded in maintaining his independence, +and even in assuming the title of King.</p> + +<p>These wars with Castile taught him at last that the true way to increase +his realm was to leave Christian territory alone and to direct his +energies southwards, gaining land only at the expense of the Moors.</p> + +<p>So did the kingdom of Portugal come into existence, almost accidentally +and without there being any division of race or of language between its +inhabitants and those of Galicia.</p> + +<p>The youngest of all the Peninsular kingdoms, it is the only one which +still remains separate from the rest of the Spains, for when in 1580 +union was forced on her by Philip <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, Portugal had had too glorious a +past, and had become too different in language and in custom easily to +submit to so undesired a union, while Spain, already suffering from +coming weakness and decay, was not able long to hold her in such hated +bondage.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary here to tell the story of each of Affonso Henriques' +descendants. He himself permanently extended the borders of his kingdom +as far as the Tagus, and even raided the Moslem lands of the south as +far as Ourique, beyond Beja. His son, Sancho <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, finding the Moors too +strong to make any permanent conquests beyond the Tagus, devoted himself +chiefly—when not fighting with the king of Castile and Leon—to +rebuilding and restoring the towns in Beira, and it was not till the +reign of his grandson, Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, that the southern sea was reached +by the taking of the Algarve in the middle of the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p>Dom Diniz, Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>'s son, carried on the work of settling the +country, building castles and planting pine-trees to stay the blowing +sands along the west coast.</p> + +<p>From that time on Portugal was able to hold her own, and was strong +enough in 1387 to defeat the king of Castile at Aljubarrota when he +tried to seize the throne in right of his wife, only child of the late +Portuguese king, Fernando.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span></p> + +<p>Under the House of Aviz, whose first king, João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, had been elected to +repel this invasion, Portugal rose to the greatest heights of power and +of wealth to which the country was ever to attain. The ceaseless efforts +of Dom Henrique, the Navigator, the third son of Dom João, were crowned +with success when Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in May 1498, and when +Pedro Alvares Cabral first saw the coasts of Brazil in 1500.</p> + +<p>To-day one is too ready to forget that Portugal was the pioneer in +geographical discovery, that the Portuguese were the first Westerns to +reach Japan, and that, had João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> listened to Columbus, it would have +been to Portugal and not to Spain that he would have given a new world.</p> + +<p>It was, too, under the House of Aviz that the greatest development in +architecture took place, and that the only original and distinctive +style of architecture was formed. That was also the time when the few +good pictures which the country possesses were painted, and when much of +the splendid church plate which still exists was wrought.</p> + +<p>The sixty years of the Spanish captivity, as it was called, from 1580 to +1640, were naturally comparatively barren of all good work. After the +restoration of peace and a revival of the Brazilian trade had brought +back some of the wealth which the country had lost, the art of building +had fallen so low that of the many churches rebuilt or altered during +the eighteenth century there is scarcely one possessed of the slightest +merit.</p> + +<p>The most important events of the eighteenth century were the great +earthquakes of 1755 and the ministry of the Marques de Pombal.</p> + +<p>Soon after the beginning of the nineteenth century came the invasion led +by Junot, 1807, the flight of the royal family to Brazil, and the +Peninsular War. Terrible damage was done by the invaders, cart-loads of +church plate were carried off, and many a monastery was sacked and +burned. Peace had not long been restored when the struggle broke out +between the constitutional party under Pedro of Brazil, who had resigned +the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter, Maria da Gloria, and +the absolutists under Dom Miguel, his brother.</p> + +<p>The civil war lasted for several years, from May 1828, when Dom Miguel, +then regent for his niece, summoned the Cortes and caused himself to be +elected king, till May 1834,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> when he was finally defeated at Evora +Monte and forced to leave the country. The chief events of his +usurpation were the siege of Oporto and the defeat of his fleet off Cape +St. Vincent in 1833 by Captain Charles Napier, who fought for Dona Maria +under the name of Carlos de Ponza.</p> + +<p>One of the first acts of the constitutional Cortes was to suppress all +the monasteries in the kingdom in 1834. At the same time the nunneries +were forbidden to receive any new nuns, with the result that in many +places the buildings have gradually fallen into decay, till the last +surviving sister has died, solitary and old, and so at length set free +her home to be turned to some public use.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 3.">[3]</a></p> + +<p>Since then the history of Portugal has been quiet and uneventful. Good +roads have been made—but not always well kept up—railways have been +built, and Lisbon, once known as the dirtiest of towns, has become one +of the cleanest, with fine streets, electric lighting, a splendidly +managed system of electric tramways, and with funiculars and lifts to +connect the higher parts of the town with its busy centre.</p> + +<p>It is not uninteresting to notice in how many small matters Portugal now +differs from Spain. Portugal drinks tea, Spain chocolate or coffee; it +lunches and dines early, Spain very late; its beds and pillows are very +hard, in Spain they are much softer. Travelling too in Portugal is much +pleasanter; as the country is so much smaller, trains leave at much more +reasonable hours, run more frequently, and go more quickly. The inns +also, even in small places, are, if not luxurious, usually quite clean +with good food, and the landlord treats his guests with something more +pleasing than that lofty condescension which is so noticeable in Spain.</p> + +<p>Of the more distant countries of Europe, Portugal is now one of the +easiest to reach. Forty-eight hours from Southampton in a boat bound for +South America lands the traveller at Vigo, or three days at Lisbon, +where the brilliant sun and blue sky, the judas-trees in the Avenida, +the roses, the palms, and the sheets of bougainvillia, are such an +unimaginable change from the cold March winds and pinched buds of +England.</p> + +<p>There is perhaps no country in Europe which has so interesting a flora, +especially in spring. In March in the granite north the ground under the +pine-trees is covered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> with the exquisite flowers of the narcissus +triandrus,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 4.">[4]</a> +while the wet water meadows are yellow with petticoat +daffodils. Other daffodils too abound, but these are the commonest.</p> + +<p>Later the granite rocks are hidden by great trees of white broom, while +from north to south every wild piece of land is starred with the +brilliant blue flowers of the lithospermum. There are also endless +varieties of cistus, from the small yellow annual with rich brown heart +to the large gum cistus that covers so much of the poor soil in the +Alemtejo. These plains of the Alemtejo are supposed to be the least +beautiful part of the country, but no one can cross them in April +without being almost overcome with the beauty of the flowers, cistus, +white, yellow, or red, tall white heaths, red heaths, blue lithospermum, +yellow whin, and most brilliant of all the large pimpernel, whose blue +flowers almost surpass the gentian. A little further on where there is +less heath and cistus, tall yellow and blue Spanish irises stand up out +of the grass, or there may be great heads of blue scilla peruviana or +sheets of small iris of the brightest blue.</p> + +<p>Indeed, sheets of brilliant colour are everywhere most wonderful. There +may be acres of rich purple where the bugloss hides the grass, or of +brilliant yellow where the large golden daisies grow thickly together, +or of sky-blue where the convolvulus has smothered a field of oats.</p> + + +<p class="c top5"><span class="smcap95"><a name="Painting_in_Portugal" id="Painting_in_Portugal"></a>Painting in Portugal</span>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 5.">[5]</a></p> + +<p>From various causes Portugal is far less rich in buildings of interest +than is Spain. The earthquake has destroyed many, but more have perished +through tasteless rebuilding during the eighteenth century when the +country again regained a small part of the trade and wealth lost during +the Spanish usurpation.</p> + +<p>But if this is true of architecture, it is far more true of painting. +During the most flourishing period of Spanish painting, the age of +Velasquez and of Murillo, Portugal was, before 1640, a despised part of +the kingdom, treated as a conquered province, while after the rebellion +the long struggle, which lasted for twenty-eight years, was enough to +prevent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> any of the arts from flourishing. Besides, many good pictures +which once adorned the royal palaces of Portugal were carried off to +Madrid by Philip or his successors.</p> + +<p>And yet there are scattered about the country not a few paintings of +considerable merit. Most of them have been terribly neglected, are very +dirty, or hang where they can scarcely be seen, while little is really +known about their painters.</p> + +<p>From the time of Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, whose daughter, Isabel, married Duke +Philip early in the fifteenth century, the two courts of Portugal and of +Burgundy had been closely united. Isabel sent an alabaster monument for +the tomb of her father's great friend and companion, the Holy Constable, +and one of bronze for that of her eldest brother; while as a member of +the embassy which came to demand her hand, was J. van Eyck himself. +However, if he painted anything in Portugal, it has now vanished.</p> + +<p>There was also a great deal of trade with Antwerp where the Portuguese +merchants had a <i>lonja</i> or exchange as early as 1386, and where a +factory was established in 1503. With the heads of this factory, +Francisco Brandão and Rodrigo Ruy de Almada, Albert Dürer was on +friendly terms, sending them etchings and paintings in return for wine +and southern rarities. He also drew the portrait of Damião de Goes, Dom +Manoel's friend and chronicler.</p> + +<p>It is natural enough, therefore, that Flanders should have had a great +influence on Portuguese painting, and indeed practically all the +pictures in the country are either by Netherland masters, painted at +home and imported, or painted in Portugal by artists who had been +attracted there by the fame of Dom Manoel's wealth and generosity, or +else by Portuguese pupils sent to study in Flanders.</p> + +<p>During the seventeenth century all memory of these painters had +vanished. Looking at their work, the writers of that date were struck by +what seemed to them, in their natural ignorance of Flemish art, a +strange and peculiar style, and so attributed them all to a certain +half-mythical painter of Vizeu called Vasco, or Grão Vasco, who is first +mentioned in 1630.</p> + +<p>Raczynski,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 6.">[6]</a> in his letters to the Berlin Academy, says that he had +found Grão Vasco's birth in a register of Vizeu; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> Vasco is not an +uncommon name, and besides this child, Vasco Fernandes, was born in +1552—far too late to have painted any of the so-called Grão Vasco's +pictures.</p> + +<p>It is of course possible that some of the pictures now at Vizeu were the +work of a man called Vasco, and one of those at Coimbra, in the sacristy +of Santa Cruz, is signed Velascus—which is only the Spanish form of +Vasco—so that the legendary personage may have been evolved from either +or both of these, for it is scarcely possible that they can have been +the same.</p> + +<p>Turning now to some of the pictures themselves, there are thirteen +representing scenes from the life of the Virgin in the archbishop's +palace at Evora, which are said by Justi, a German critic, to be by +Gerhard David. Twelve of these are in a very bad state of preservation, +but one is still worthy of some admiration. In the centre sits the +Virgin with the Child on her knee: four angels are in the air above her +holding a wreath. On her right three angels are singing, and on her left +one plays an organ while another behind blows the bellows. Below there +are six other angels, three on each side with a lily between them, +playing, those on the right on a violin, a flute, and a zither, those on +the left on a harp, a triangle, and a guitar. Once part of the cathedral +reredos, it was taken down when the new Capella Mor was built in the +eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>Another Netherlander who painted at Evora was Frey Carlos, who came to +Espinheiro close by in 1507. Several of his works are in the Museum at +Lisbon.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 7.">[7]</a></p> + +<p>When Dom Manoel was enriching the old Templar church at Thomar with +gilding and with statues of saints, he also caused large paintings to be +placed round the outer wall. Several still remain, but most have +perished, either during the French invasion or during the eleven years +after the expulsion of the monks in 1834 when the church stood open for +any one to go in and do what harm he liked. Some also, including the +'Raising of Lazarus,' the 'Entry into Jerusalem,' the 'Resurrection,' +and the 'Centurion,' are now in Lisbon. Four—the 'Nativity,' the 'Visit +of the Magi,' the 'Annunciation,' and a 'Virgin and Child'—are known to +have been given by Dom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span> Manoel; twenty others, including the four now at +Lisbon, are spoken of by Raczynski in 1843,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 8.">[8]</a> and some at least of +these, as well as the angels holding the emblems of the Passion, who +stand above the small arches of the inner octagon, may have been painted +by Johannes Dralia of Bruges, who died and was buried at Thomar in +1504.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 9.">[9]</a></p> + +<p>Also at Thomar, but in the parish church of São João Baptista, are some +pictures ascribed by Justi to a pupil of Quentin Matsys. Now it is known +that a Portuguese called <i>Eduard</i> became a pupil of Matsys in 1504, and +four years later a Vrejmeester of the guild. So perhaps they may be by +this Eduard or by some fellow-pupil.</p> + +<p>The Jesus Church at Setubal, built by Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's +nurse, has fifteen paintings in incongruous gilt frames and hung high up +on the north wall of the church, which also have something of the same +style.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 10.">[10]</a></p> + +<p>More interesting than these are two pictures in the sacristy of Santa +Cruz at Coimbra, an 'Ecce Homo' and the 'Day of Pentecost.' It is the +'Pentecost' which is signed Velascus, and in it the Apostles in an inner +room are seen through an arcade of three arches like a chapter-house +entrance. Perhaps once part of the great reredos, this picture has +suffered terribly from neglect; but it must once have been a fine work, +and the way in which the Apostles in the inner room are separated by the +arcade from the two spectators is particularly successful.</p> + +<p>In Oporto there exists at least one good picture, 'The Fountain of +Mercy,' now in the board-room of the Misericordia,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 11.">[11]</a> but painted to be +the reredos of the chapel of São Thiago in the Sé where the brotherhood +was founded by Dom Manoel in 1499. (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>.)</p> + +<p>In the centre above, between St. John and the Virgin, stands a crucifix +from which blood flows down to fill a white marble well.</p> + +<p>Below, on one side there kneels Dom Manoel with his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> six sons—João, +afterwards king; Luis, duke of Beja; Fernando, duke of Guarda; Affonso, +afterwards archbishop of Lisbon, with his cardinal's hat; Henrique, +later cardinal archbishop of Evora, and then king; and Duarte, duke of +Guimarães and ancestor of the present ruling house of Braganza.</p> + +<p>On the other side are Queen Dona Leonor,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 12.">[12]</a> granddaughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella, Dom Manoel's third wife<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 13.">[13]</a> and her two stepdaughters, +Dona Isabel, the wife of Charles <span class="smcap95">v.</span> and mother of Philip <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, who +through her claimed and won the throne of Portugal when his uncle, the +cardinal king, died in 1580, and Dona Beatriz, who married Charles <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>. +of Savoy.</p> + +<p>The date of the picture is fixed as between 1518 when Dom Affonso, then +aged nine, received his cardinal's hat, and 1521 when Dom Manoel +died.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 14.">[14]</a></p> + +<p>Unfortunately the picture has been somewhat spoiled by restoration, but +it is undoubtedly a very fine piece of work—especially the portraits +below—and would be worthy of admiration anywhere, even in a country +much richer in works of art.</p> + +<p>It has of course been attributed to Grão Vasco, but it is quite +different from either the Velascus pictures at Coimbra or the paintings +at Vizeu; besides, some of the beautifully painted flowers, such as the +columbines, which enrich the grass on which the royal persons kneel, are +not Portuguese flowers, so that it is much more likely to have been the +work of some one from Flanders.</p> + +<p>Equally Flemish are the pictures at Vizeu, whether any of them be by the +Grão Vasco or not. Tradition has it that he was born at a mill not far +off, still called <i>Moinho do Pintor</i>, the <i>Painter's Mill</i>, and that Dom +Manoel sent him to study in Italy. Now, wherever the painter of the +Vizeu pictures had studied it can scarcely have been in Italy, as they are all surely much +nearer to the Flemish than to any Italian school.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a> +<a href="images/i003_fig_3.png"> +<img src="images/i003_fig_3_th.png" width="422" height="550" alt="FIG. 3. +The Fountain of Mercy. +Misericordia, Oporto. + + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 3.<br /> +The Fountain of Mercy.<br /> +Misericordia, Oporto.<br /> +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>There are still in the precincts of the cathedral some thirty-one +pictures of very varied merit, and not all by the same hand. Of these +there are fourteen in the chapter-house, a room opening off the upper +cloister. They are all scenes from the life of Our Lord from the +Annunciation to the day of Pentecost. Larger than any of these is a +damaged 'Crucifixion' in the Jesus Chapel under the chapter-house. The +painting is full, perhaps too full, of movement and of figures. Besides +the scenes usually portrayed in a picture of the Crucifixion, others are +shown in the background, Judas hanging himself on one side, and Joseph +of Arimathea and Nicodemus on the other, coming out from Jerusalem with +their spices. Lastly, in the sacristy there are twelve small paintings +of the Apostles and other saints of no great merit, and four large +pictures, 'St. Sebastian,' the 'Day of Pentecost,' where the room is +divided by three arches, with the Virgin and another saint in the +centre, and six of the Apostles on each side; the 'Baptism of Our Lord,' +and lastly 'St. Peter.' The first three are not very remarkable, but the +'St. Peter' is certainly one of the finest pictures in the country, and +is indeed worthy of ranking among the great pictures of the world.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 15.">[15]</a> +(<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>.)</p> + +<p>As in the 'Day of Pentecost' there is a triple division; St. Peter's +throne being in the middle with an arch on each side open to show +distant scenes. The throne seems to be of stone, with small boys and +griffins holding shields charged with the Cross Keys on the arms. On the +canopy two other shields supporting triple crowns flank an arch whose +classic ornaments and large shell are more Italian than is any other +part of the painting. On the throne sits St. Peter pontifically robed, +and with the triple crown on his head. His right hand is raised in +blessing, and in his left he holds one very long key while he keeps a +book open upon his knee.</p> + +<p>The cope is of splendid gold brocade of a fine Gothic pattern, with +orfreys or borders richly embroidered with figures of saints, and is +fastened in front by a great square gold and jewelled morse. All the +draperies are very finely modelled and richly coloured, but finest of +all is St. Peter's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> face, solemn and stern and yet kindly, without any +of that pride and arrogance which would seem but natural to the wearer +of such vestments; it is, with its grey hair and short grey beard, +rather the face of the fisherman of Galilee than that of a Pope.</p> + +<p>Through the arches to the right and left above a low wall are seen the +beginning and the end of his ministry. On the one side he is leaving his +boat and his nets to become a fisher of men, and on the other he kneels +before the vision of Our Lord, when fleeing from Rome he met Him at the +place now called 'Quo Vadis' on the Appian way, and so was turned back +to meet his martyrdom.</p> + +<p>Fortunately this painting has suffered from no restoration, and is still +wonderfully clean, but the wood on which it is painted has split rather +badly in places, one large crack running from top to bottom just beyond +the throne on St. Peter's right.</p> + +<p>This 'St. Peter,' then, is entirely Flemish in the painting of the +drapery and of the scenes behind; especially of the turreted Gothic +walls of Rome. The details of the throne may be classic, but French +renaissance forms were first introduced into the country at Belem in +1517, just the time when the cathedral here was being built by Bishop +Dom Diogo Ortiz de Vilhegas. This, and the other pictures in the +sacristy, were doubtless once parts of the great reredos, which would +not be put up till the church was quite finished, and so may not have +been painted till some time after 1520, or even later. Already in 1522 +much renaissance work was being done at Coimbra, not far off, so it is +possible that the painter of these pictures may have adopted his classic +detail from what he may have seen there.</p> + +<p>It is worth noting, too, that preserved in the sacristy at Vizeu there +is, or was,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 16.">[16]</a> a cope so like that worn by St. Peter, that the painting +must almost certainly have been copied from it.</p> + +<p>We may therefore conclude that these pictures are the work of some one +who had indeed studied abroad, probably at Antwerp, but who worked at +home.</p> + +<p>Not only to paint religious pictures and portraits did Flemish artists +come to Portugal. One at least, Antonio de</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;"> +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a> +<a href="images/i004_fig_4.png"> +<img src="images/i004_fig_4_th.png" width="482" height="550" alt="FIG. 4. +St. Peter. +In the Cathedral Sacristy. +Vizeu." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 4.<br /> +St. Peter.<br /> +In the Cathedral Sacristy.<br /> +Vizeu.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>Hollanda, was famous for his illuminations. He lived and worked at +Evora, and is said by his son Francisco to have been the first in +Portugal 'to make known a pleasing manner of painting in black and +white, superior to all processes known in other countries.'<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 17.">[17]</a></p> + +<p>When the convent of Thomar was being finished by Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, some +large books were in November 1533 sent on a mule to Antonio at Evora to +be illuminated. Two of these books were finished and paid for in +February 1535, when he received 63<img src="images/001.png" +alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />795 or about <i>£</i>15. The books were +bound at Evora for 4<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" +style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" +width="8" height="20" />000 or sixteen shillings.</p> + +<p>By the end of the next year a Psalter was finished which cost 54<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />605 or +<i>£</i>12, at the rate of 6<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000, <i>£</i>1, 6s. 8d. for each of four large headings, +forty illuminated letters with vignettes at 2s. 2d. each, a hundred and +fifteen without vignettes at fivepence-halfpenny, two hundred and three +in red, gold, and blue at fourpence-farthing, eighty-four drawn in black +at twopence, and 2846 small letters at the beginning of each verse at +less than one farthing. Next March this Psalter was brought back to +Thomar on a mule whose hire was two shillings and twopence—a sum small +enough for a journey of well over a hundred miles,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 18.">[18]</a> but which may +help us the better to estimate the value of the money paid to +Antonio.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 19.">[19]</a></p> + + +<p class="c top5">C<span class="smcap95"><a name="hurch" id="hurch"></a>hurch</span> P<span class="smcap95">late.</span></p> + +<p>A very great part of the church plate of Portugal has long since +disappeared, for few chapters had the foresight to hide all that was +most valuable when Soult began his devastating march from the north, and +so he and his men were able to encumber their retreat with cart-loads of +the most beautiful gold and silver ornaments.</p> + +<p>Yet a good deal has survived, either because it was hidden away as at +Guimarães or at Coimbra—where it is said to have been only found +lately—or because, as at Evora, it lay apart from the course of this +famous plunderer.</p> + +<p>The richest treasuries at the present day are those of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> Nossa Senhora da +Oliveira at Guimarães, and of the Sés at Braga, at Coimbra, and at +Evora.</p> + +<p>A silver-gilt chalice and a pastoral staff of the twelfth century in the +sacristy at Braga are among the oldest pieces of plate in the country. +The chalice is about five inches high. The cup, ornamented with animals +and leaves, stands on a plain base inscribed, +'In n<span +style="text-decoration:overline;">m</span>e +D<span style="text-decoration:overline;">m</span>i +Menendus +Gundisaluis de Tuda domna sum.' It is called the chalice of São Giraldo, +and is supposed to have belonged to that saint, who as archbishop of +Braga baptized Affonso Henriques.</p> + + +<p>The staff of copper-gilt is in the form of a snake with a cross in its +mouth, and though almost certainly of the twelfth century is said to +have been found in the tomb of Santo Ovidio, the third archbishop of the +see.</p> + +<p>Another very fine chalice of the same date is in the treasury at +Coimbra. Here the round cup is enriched by an arcade, under each arch of +which stands a saint, while on the base are leaves and medallions with +angels. It is inscribed, 'Geda Menendis me fecit in onore sci. Michaelis +e. <span class="smcap95">mclxxxx.</span>', that is <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1152.</p> + +<p>It was no doubt given by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see from 1162 to 1176 +and who spent so much on the old cathedral and on its furniture. For him +Master Ptolomeu made silver altar fronts, and the goldsmith Felix a jug +and basin for the service of the altar. He also had a gold chalice made +weighing 4 marks, probably the one made by Geda Menendis, and a gold +cross to enclose some pieces of the Holy Sepulchre and two pieces of the +True Cross.</p> + +<p>At Guimarães the chalice of São Torquato is of the thirteenth century. +The cup is quite plain and small, but on the wide-spreading base are +eight enamels of Our Lady and of seven of the Apostles.</p> + +<p>The finest of all the objects in the Guimarães treasury is the reredos, +taken by Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span> from the Spanish king's tent after the victory of +Aljubarrota, and one of the angels which once went with it.</p> + +<p>The same king also gave to the small church of São Miguel a silver +processional cross, all embossed with oak leaves, and ending in +fleurs-de-lys, which rises from two superimposed octagons, covered with +Gothic ornament.</p> + +<p>Another beautiful cross now at Coimbra has a 'Virgin and Child' in the +centre under a rich canopy, and enamels of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span> four Evangelists on the +arms, while the rest of the surface including the foliated ends is +covered with exquisitely pierced flowing tracery. (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>.)</p> + +<p>Earlier are the treasures which once belonged the Queen St. Isabel who +died in 1327, and which are still preserved at Coimbra. These include a +beautiful and simple cross of agate and silver, a curious reliquary made +of a branch of coral with silver mountings, her staff as abbess of St. +Clara, shaped like the cross of an Eastern bishop, and with heads of +animals at the ends of the arms, and a small ark-shaped reliquary of +silver and coral now set on a high renaissance base.</p> + +<p>But nearly all the surviving church plate dates from the time of Dom +Manoel or his son.</p> + +<p>To Braga Archbishop Diogo de Souza gave a splendid silver-gilt chalice +in 1509. Here the cup is adorned above by six angels holding emblems of +the Passion, and below by six others holding bells. Above them runs an +inscription, <i>Hic est calix sanguinis mei novi et eter</i>. The stem is +entirely covered with most elaborate canopy work, with six Apostles in +niches, while on the base are five other Apostles in relief, the +archbishop's arms, and six pieces of enamel.</p> + +<p>Very similar is a splendid chalice in the Misericordia at Oporto, +probably of about the same date, and two at Coimbra. In both of these +the cup is embossed with angels and leafage—in one the angels hold +bells—and the stem is covered with tabernacle work. On the base of the +one is a <i>pietà</i> with mourning angels and other emblems of the Passion +in relief, while that of the other is enriched with filigree work. (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>.)</p> + +<p>Another at Guimarães given by Fernando Alvares is less well proportioned +and less beautiful.</p> + +<p>So far the architectural details of the chalices mentioned have been +entirely national, but there is a custodia at Evora, whose interlacing +canopy work seems to betray the influence of the Netherlands. The base +of this custodia<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 20.">[20]</a> or monstrance, in the shape of a chalice seems +later than the upper part, which is surmounted by a rounded canopy whose +hanging cusps and traceried panels strongly recall the Flemish work of +the great reredos in the old cathedral at Coimbra.</p> + +<p>Even more Flemish are a pastoral staff made for Cardinal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> Henrique, son +of Dom Manoel and afterwards king, a monstrance or reliquary at +Coimbra,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 21.">[21]</a> and another at Guimarães.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 22.">[22]</a></p> + +<p>Much splendid plate was also given to Santa Cruz at Coimbra by Dom +Manoel, but all—candlesticks, lamps, crosses and a monstrance—have +since vanished, sent to Gôa in India when the canons in the eighteenth +century wanted something more fashionable.</p> + +<p>Belem also possessed splendid treasures, among them a cross of silver +filigree and jewels which is still preserved.</p> + +<p>Much filigree work is still done in the north, where the young women +invest their savings in great golden hearts or in beautiful earrings, +though now bunches of coloured flowers on huge lockets of coppery gold +are much more sought after.</p> + +<p>Curiously, many of the most famous goldsmiths of the sixteenth century +were Jews. Among them was the Vicente family, a member of which made a +fine monstrance for Belem in 1505, and which, like other families, was +expelled from Coimbra to Guimarães between the years 1532 and 1537, and +doubtless wrought some of the beautiful plate for which the treasury of +Nossa Senhora is famous.</p> + +<p>The seventeenth century, besides smaller works, has left the great +silver tomb of the Holy Queen St. Isabel in the new church of Santa +Clara. Made by order of Bishop Dom Affonso de Castello Branco in 1614, +it weighs over 170 lbs., has at the sides and ends Corinthian columns, +leaving panels between them with beautifully chased framing, and a +sloping top.</p> + +<p>Later and less worthy of notice are the coffins of the two first sainted +abbesses of the convent of Lorvão, near Coimbra, in which elaborate +acanthus scrolls in silver are laid over red velvet.</p> + +<p class="c top5">T<span class="smcap95">ile</span> +W<span class="smcap95">ork or</span> A<span class="smcap95"><a name="zulejos" id="zulejos"></a>zulejos.</span></p> + + +<p>The Moors occupied most of what is now Portugal for a considerable +length of time. The extreme north they held for rather less than two +hundred years, the extreme south for more than five hundred. This +occupation by a governing class, so different in religion, in race, and +in customs from</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a> +<a href="images/i005_fig_5.png"> +<img src="images/i005_fig_5_th.png" width="275" height="370" alt="FIG. 5.Cross at Coimbra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 5.<br />Chalice at Coimbra.</span> +</div> +</td><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a> +<a href="images/i005_fig_6.png"> +<img src="images/i005_fig_6_th.png" width="275" height="380" alt="FIG. 5.Cross at Coimbra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 5.<br />Cross at Coimbra.</span> +</div> +</td><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a> +<a href="images/i005_fig_7.png"> +<img src="images/i005_fig_7_th.png" width="260" height="380" alt="FIG. 7.Monstrance at Coimbra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 7.<br />Monstrance at Coimbra.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>those they ruled, has naturally had a strong influence, not only on the +language of Portugal, but also on the art. Though there survive no +important Moorish buildings dating from before the re-conquest—for the +so-called mosque at Cintra is certainly a small Christian church—many +were built after it for Christians by Moorish workmen.</p> + +<p>These, as well as the Arab ceilings, or those derived therefrom, will be +described later, but here must be mentioned the tilework, the most +universally distributed legacy of the Eastern people who once held the +land. There is scarcely a church, certainly scarcely one of any size or +importance which even in the far north has not some lining or dado of +tiles, while others are entirely covered with them from floor to ceiling +or vault.</p> + +<p>The word <i>azulejo</i> applied to these tiles is derived from the Arabic +<i>azzallaja</i> or <i>azulaich</i>, meaning <i>smooth</i>, or else through the Arabic +from a Low Latin word <i>azuroticus</i> used by a Gaulish writer of the fifth +century to describe mosaic<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 23.">[23]</a> and not from the word <i>azul</i> or <i>blue</i>. +At first each different piece or colour in a geometric pattern was cut +before firing to the shape required, and the many different pieces when +coloured and fired were put together so as to form a regular mosaic. +This method of making tiles, though soon given up in most places as +being too troublesome, is still employed at Tetuan in Morocco, where in +caves near the town the whole process may still be seen; for there the +mixing of the clay, the cutting out of the small pieces, the colouring +and the firing are still carried on in the old primitive and traditional +manner.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 24.">[24]</a></p> + +<p>Elsewhere, though similar designs long continued to be used in Spain and +Portugal, and are still used in Morocco, the tiles were all made square, +each tile usually forming one quarter of the pattern. In them the +pattern was formed by lines slightly raised above the surface of the +tile so that there was no danger during the firing of the colour running +beyond the place it was intended to occupy.</p> + +<p>For a long time, indeed right up to the end of the fifteenth century, +scarcely anything but Moorish geometric patterns seem to have been used. +Then with the renaissance their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> place was taken by other patterns of +infinite variety; some have octagons with classic mouldings represented +in colour, surrounding radiating green and blue leaves;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 25.">[25]</a> some more +strictly classical are not unlike Italian patterns; some again are more +naturalistic, while in others the pattern, though not of the old +geometric form, is still Moorish in design.</p> + +<p>Together with the older tiles of Moorish pattern plain tiles were often +made in which each separate tile, usually square, but at times +rhomboidal or oblong, was of one colour, and such tiles were often used +from quite early times down at least to the end of the seventeenth +century.</p> + +<p>More restricted in use were the beautiful embossed tiles found in the +palace at Cintra, in which each has on it a raised green vine-leaf and +tendril, or more rarely a dark bunch of grapes.</p> + +<p>Towards the middle of the sixteenth century the Moorish technique of +tilemaking, with its patterns marked off by raised edges, began to go +out of fashion, and instead the patterns were outlined in dark blue and +painted on to flat tiles. About the same time large pictures painted on +tiles came into use, at first, as in the work of Francisco de Mattos, +with scenes more or less in their natural colours, and later in the +second half of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the +eighteenth in blue on a white ground.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the eighteenth century blue seems to have usurped the +place of all other colours, and from that time, especially in or near +Oporto, tiles were used to mask all the exterior rubble walls of houses +and churches, even spires or bulbous domes being sometimes so covered.</p> + +<p>Now in Oporto nearly all the houses are so covered, usually with +blue-and-white tiles, though on the more modern they may be embossed and +pale green or yellow, sometimes even brown. But all the tiles from the +beginning of the nineteenth century to the present day are marked by the +poverty of the colour and of the pattern, and still more by the hard +shiny glaze, which may be technically more perfect, but is infinitely +inferior in beauty to the duller and softer glaze of the previous +centuries.</p> + +<p>When square tiles were used they were throughout <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>singularly uniform in +size, being a little below or a little above five inches square. The +ground is always white with a slightly blueish tinge. In the earlier +tiles of Arab pattern the colours are blue, green, and brown; very +rarely, and that in some of the oldest tiles, the pattern may be in +black; yellow is scarcely ever seen. In those of Moorish technique but +Western pattern, the most usual colours are blue, green, yellow and, +more rarely, brown.</p> + +<p>Later still in the flat tiles scarcely anything but blue and yellow are +used, though the blue and the yellow may be of two shades, light and +dark, golden and orange. Brown and green have almost disappeared, and, +as was said above, so did yellow at last, leaving nothing but blue and +white.</p> + +<p>Although there are few buildings which do not possess some tiles, the +oldest, those of Moorish design, are rare, and, the best collection is +to be found in the old palace at Cintra, of which the greater part was +built by Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span> towards the end of the fourteenth and the beginning +of the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>Formerly all the piers of the old cathedral of Coimbra were covered with +such tiles, but they have lately been swept away, and only those left +which line the aisle walls.</p> + +<p>At Cintra there are a few which it is supposed may have belonged to the +palace of the Walis, or perhaps it would be safer to say to the palace +before it was rebuilt by Dom João. These are found round a door leading +out of a small room, called from the mermaids on the ceiling the <i>Sala +das Sereias</i>. The pointed door is enclosed in a square frame by a band +of narrow dark and light tiles with white squares between, arranged in +checks, while in the spandrels is a very beautiful arabesque pattern in +black on a white ground.</p> + +<p>Of slightly later date are the azulejos of the so-called <i>Sala dos +Arabes</i>, where the walls to a height of about six feet are lined with +blue, green, and white tiles, the green being square and the other +rhomboidal. Over the doors, which are pointed, a square framing is +carried up, with tiles of various patterns in the spandrels, and above +these frames, as round the whole walls, runs a very beautiful cresting +two tiles high. On the lower row are interlacing semicircles in high +relief forming foliated cusps and painted blue. In the spandrels formed +by the interlacing of the semicircles are three green leaves growing out +from a brown flower; in short the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> design is exactly like a Gothic +corbel table such as was used on Dom João's church at Batalha turned +upside down, and so probably dates from his time. On the second row of +tiles there are alternately a tall blue fleur-de-lys with a yellow +centre, and a lower bunch of leaves, three blue at the top and one +yellow on each side; the ground throughout is white. (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>.)</p> + +<p>Also of Dom João's time are the tiles in the <i>Sala das Pegas</i>, where +they are of the regular Moorish pattern—blue, green and brown on a +white ground, and where four go to make up the pattern. The cresting of +green scrolls and vases is much later.</p> + +<p>Judging from the cresting in the dining-room or <i>Sala de Jantar</i>, where, +except that the ground is brown relieved by large white stars, and that +the cusps are green and not blue, the design is exactly the same as in +the <i>Sala dos Arabes</i>, the tiles there must be at least as old as these +crestings; for though older tiles might be given a more modern cresting, +the reverse is hardly likely to occur, and if as old as the crestings +they may possibly belong to Dom João's time, or at least to the middle +of the fifteenth century. (<a href="#Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>.)</p> + +<p>These dining-room tiles, and also those in the neighbouring <i>Sala das +Sereias</i>, are among the most beautiful in the palace. The ground is as +usual white, and on each is embossed a beautiful green vine-leaf with +branches and tendril. Tiles similar, but with a bunch of grapes added, +line part of the stair in the picturesque little <i>Pateo de Diana</i> near +at hand, and form the top of the back of the tiled bench and throne in +the <i>Sala do Conselho</i>, once an open veranda. Most of this bench is +covered with tiles of Moorish design, but on the front each is stamped +with an armillary sphere in which the axis is yellow, the lines of the +equator and tropics green, and the rest blue. These one would certainly +take to be of Dom Manoel's time, for the armillary sphere was his +emblem, but they are said to be older.</p> + +<p>Most of the floor tiles are of unglazed red, except some in the chapel, +which are supposed to have formed the paving of the original mosque, and +some in an upper room, worn smooth by the feet of Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">vi.</span>, who +was imprisoned there for many a year in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>When Dom Manoel was making his great addition to the palace in the early +years of the sixteenth century he lined the walls of the <i>Sala dos +Cysnes</i> with tiles forming a check of green and white. These are carried up over the doors and windows, and in +places have a curious cresting of green cones like Moorish battlements, +and of castles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a> +<a href="images/i006_fig_8.png"> +<img src="images/i006_fig_8_th.png" width="550" height="391" alt="FIG. 8. +Sala dos Arabes. +Palace, Cintra. +From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 8.<br /> +Sala dos Arabes.<br /> +Palace, Cintra.<br /> +From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a> +<a href="images/i006_fig_9.png"> +<img src="images/i006_fig_9_th.png" width="550" height="415" alt="FIG. 9. +Dining-room, Old Palace. Cintra. From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 9.<br /> +Dining-room, Old Palace.<br /> +Cintra.<br /> +From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra.</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span></p> + + +<p>Much older are the tiles in the central <i>Pateo</i>, also green and white, +but forming a very curious pattern.</p> + +<p>Of later tiles the palace also has some good examples, such as the +hunting scenes with which the walls of the <i>Sala dos Brazões</i> were +covered probably at the end of the seventeenth century, during the reign +of Dom Pedro <span class="smcap95">ii.</span></p> + +<p>The palace at Cintra may possess the finest collection of tiles, Moorish +both in technique and in pattern, but it has few or none of the second +class where the technique remains Moorish but the design is Western. To +see such tiles in their greatest quantity and variety one must cross the +Tagus and visit the Quinta de Bacalhôa not far from Setubal.</p> + +<p>There a country house had been built in the last quarter of the +fifteenth century by Dona Brites, the mother of Dom Manoel.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 26.">[26]</a> The +house, with melon-roofed corner turrets, simple square windows and two +loggias, has an almost classic appearance, and if built in its present +shape in the time of Dona Brites, must be one of the earliest examples +of the renaissance in the country. It has therefore been thought that +Bacalhôa may be the mysterious palace built for Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii</span>. by Andrea +da Sansovino, which is mentioned by Vasari, but of which all trace has +been lost. However, it seems more likely that it owes its classic +windows to the younger Affonso de Albuquerque, son of the great Indian +Viceroy, who bought the property in 1528. The house occupies one corner +of a square garden enclosure, while opposite it is a large square tank +with a long pavilion at its southern side. A path runs along the +southern wall of the garden leading from the house to the tank, and all +the way along this wall are tiled seats and tubs for orange-trees. It is +on these tubs and seats that the greatest variety of tiles are found.</p> + +<p>It would be quite impossible to give any detailed description of these +tiles, the patterns are so numerous and so varied. In some the pattern +is quite classical, in others it still shows traces of Moorish +influence, while in some again the design is entirely naturalistic. This +is especially the case in a pattern used in the lake pavilion, where +eight large green leaves are arranged pointing to one centre, and four +smaller brown ones<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> to another, and in a still more beautiful pattern +used on an orange tub in the garden, where yellow and dark flowers, +green and blue leaves are arranged in a circle round eight beautiful +fruits shaped like golden pomegranates with blue seeds set among green +leaves and stalks.</p> + +<p>But these thirty or more patterns do not exhaust the interest of the +Quinta. There are also some very fine tile pictures, especially one of +'Susanna and the Elders,' and a fragment of the 'Quarrel of the Lapithæ +and Centaurs' in the pavilion overlooking the tank. 'Susanna and the +Elders' is particularly good, and is interesting in that on a small +temple in the background is the date 1565.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 27.">[27]</a> Rather later seem the +five river gods in the garden loggia of the house, for their strapwork +frames of blue and yellow can hardly be as early as 1565; besides, a +fragment with similar details has on it the letters TOS, no doubt the +end of the signature 'Francisco Mattos,' who also signed some beautiful +tiles in the church of São Roque at Lisbon in 1584.</p> + +<p>It is known that the entrance to the convent of the Madre de Deus at +Lisbon was ornamented by Dom Manoel with some della Robbia reliefs, two +of which are now in the Museum.</p> + +<p>On the west side of the tank at Bacalhôa is a wall nearly a hundred feet +long, and framed with tiles. In the centre the water flows into the tank +from a dolphin above which is an empty niche. There are two other empty +niches, one inscribed <i>Tempora labuntur more fluentis aquae</i>, and the +other <i>Vivite victuri moneo mors omnibus instat</i>. These niches stand +between four medallions of della Robbia ware, some eighteen inches +across. Two are heads of men and two of women, only one of each being +glazed. The glazed woman's head is white, with yellow hair, a sky-blue +veil, and a loose reddish garment all on a blue ground. All are +beautifully modelled and are surrounded by glazed wreaths of fruit and +leaves. These four must certainly have come from the della Robbia +factory in Florence, for they, and especially the surrounding wreaths, +are exactly like what may be seen so often in North Italy.</p> + +<p>Much less good are six smaller medallions, four of which are much +destroyed, on the wall leading north from the tank to a pavilion named +the <i>Casa da India</i>, so called from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> beautiful Indian hangings with +which its walls were covered by Albuquerque. In them the modelling is +less good and the wreaths are more conventional.</p> + +<p>Lastly, between the tank and the house are twelve others, one under each +of the globes, which, flanked by obelisks, crown the wall. They are all +of the same size, but in some the head and the blue backing are not in +one place. The wreaths also are inferior even to those of the last six, +though the actual heads are rather better. They all represent famous men +of old, from Alexander the Great to Nero. Two are broken; that of +Augustus is signed with what may perhaps be read Doñus Vilhelmus, +'Master William,' who unfortunately is otherwise unknown.</p> + +<p>It seems impossible now to tell where these were made, but they were +certainly inspired by the four genuine Florentine medallions on the tank +wall, and if by a native artist are of great interest as showing how men +so skilled in making beautiful tiles could also copy the work of a great +Italian school with considerable success.</p> + +<p>Of the third class of tiles, those where the patterns are merely painted +and not raised, there are few examples at Bacalhôa—except when some +restoration has been done—for this manner of tile-painting did not +become common till the next century, but there are a few with very good +patterns in the house itself, and close by, the walls of the church of +São Simão are covered with excellent examples. These were put up by the +heads of a brotherhood in 1648, and are almost exactly the same as those +in the church of Alvito; even the small saintly figures over the arches +occur in both. The pattern of Alvito is one of the finest, and is found +again at Santarem in the church of the Marvilla, where the lower tiles +are all of singular beauty and splendid colouring, blue and yellow on a +white ground. Other beautiful tiled interiors are those of the Matriz at +Caldas da Rainha, and at Caminha on the Minho. Without seeing these +tiled churches it is impossible to realise how beautiful they really +are, and how different are these tiles from all modern ones, whose hard +smooth glaze and mechanical perfection make them cold and anything but +pleasing. (Figs. <a href="#frontispiece">10</a> and <a href="#frontispiece">11</a>, +<a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a>.)</p> + +<p>Besides the picture-tiles at Bacalhôa there are some very good examples +of similar work in the semicircular porch which surrounds the small +round chapel of Sant' Amaro at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> Alcantara close to Lisbon. The chapel +was built in 1549, and the tiles added about thirty years later. Here, +as in the Dominican nunnery at Elvas, and in some exquisite framings and +steps at Bacalhôa, the pattern and architectural details are spread all +over the tiles, often making a rich framing to a bishop or saint. Some +are not at all unlike Francisco Mattos' work in São Roque, which is also +well worthy of notice.</p> + +<p>Of the latest pictorial tiles, the finest are perhaps those in the +church of São João Evangelista at Evora, which tell of the life of San +Lorenzo Giustiniani, Venetian Patriarch, and which are signed and dated +'Antoninus ab Oliva fecit 1711.'<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 28.">[28]</a> But these blue picture-tiles are +almost the commonest of all, and were made and used up to the end of the +century.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 29.">[29]</a></p> + +<p>Now although some of the patterns used are found also in Spain, as at +Seville or at Valencia, and although tiles from Seville were used at +Thomar by João de Castilho, still it is certain that many were of home +manufacture.</p> + +<p>As might be expected from the patterns and technique of the oldest +tiles, the first mentioned tilers are Moors.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 30.">[30]</a> Later there were as +many as thirteen tilemakers in Lisbon, and many were made in the +twenty-eight ovens of <i>louça de Veneza</i>, 'Venetian faience.' The tiles +used by Dom Manoel at Cintra came from Belem, while as for the picture +tiles the novices of the order of São Thiago at Palmella formed a school +famous for such work.</p> + +<p>Indeed it may be said that tilework is the most characteristic feature +of Portuguese buildings, and that to it many a church, otherwise poor +and even mean, owes whatever interest or beauty it possesses. Without +tiles, rooms like the <i>Sala das Sereias</i> or the <i>Sala dos Arabes</i> would +be plain whitewashed featureless apartments, with them they have a charm +and a romance not easy to find anywhere but in the East.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p class="head">THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH</p> + + +<p>P<span class="smcap95">ortugal</span>, like all the other Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, having +begun in the north, first as a county or march land subject to the king +of Galicia or of Leon, and later, since 1139, as an independent kingdom, +it is but natural to find nearly all the oldest buildings in those parts +of the country which, earliest freed from the Moslem dominion, formed +the original county. The province of Entre Minho-e-Douro has always been +held by the Portuguese to be the most beautiful part of their country, +and it would be difficult to find anywhere valleys more beautiful than +those of the Lima, the Cavado, or the Ave. Except the mountain range of +the Marão which divides this province from the wilder and drier +Tras-os-Montes, or the Gerez which separates the upper waters of the +Cavado and of the Lima, and at the same time forms part of the northern +frontier of Portugal, the hills are nowhere of great height. They are +all well covered with woods, mostly of pine, and wherever a piece of +tolerably level ground can be found they are cultivated with the care of +a garden. All along the valleys, and even high up the hillsides among +the huge granite boulders, there is a continuous succession of small +villages. Many of these, lying far from railway or highroad, can only be +reached by narrow and uneven paths, along which no carriage can pass +except the heavy creaking carts drawn by the beautiful large long-horned +oxen whose broad and splendidly carved yokes are so remarkable a feature +of the country lying between the Vouga and the Cavado.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 31.">[31]</a> In many of +these villages may still be seen churches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> built soon after the +expulsion of the Moors, and long before the establishment of the +Monarchy. Many of them originally belonged to some monastic body. Of +these the larger part have been altered and spoiled during the +seventeenth or eighteenth centuries, when, after the expulsion of the +Spaniards, the country began again to grow rich from trade with the +recovered colony of Brazil. Still enough remains to show that these old +romanesque churches differed in no very striking way from the general +romanesque introduced into Northern Spain from France, except that as a +rule they were smaller and ruder, and were but seldom vaulted.</p> + +<p>That these early churches should be rude is not surprising. They are +built of hard grey granite. When they were built the land was still +liable to incursions, and raids from the south, such as the famous foray +of Almansor, who harried and burned the whole land not sparing even the +shrine of Santiago far north in Galicia. Their builders were still +little more than a race of hardy soldiers with no great skill in the +working of stone. Only towards the end of the twelfth century, long +after the border had been advanced beyond the Mondego and after Coimbra +had become the capital of a new county, did the greater security as well +as the very fine limestone of the lower Mondego valley make it possible +for churches to be built at Coimbra which show a marked advance in +construction as well as in elaboration of detail. Between the Mondego +and the Tagus there are only four or five churches which can be called +romanesque, and south of the Tagus only the cathedral of Evora, begun +about 1186 and consecrated some eighteen years later, is romanesque, +constructively at least, though all its arches have become pointed.</p> + +<p>But to return north to Entre Minho-e-Douro, where the oldest and most +numerous romanesque churches exist and where three types may be seen. Of +these the simplest and probably the oldest is that of an aisleless nave +with simple square chancel. In the second the nave has one or two +aisles, and at the end of these aisles a semicircular apse, but with the +chancel still square: while in the third and latest the plan has been +further developed and enlarged, though even here the main chancel +generally still remains square.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Villarinho.</div> + +<p>There yet exist, not far from Oporto, a considerable number of examples +of the first type, though several by their pointed doorways show that +they actually belong, in part at least, to the period of the Transition. +One of the best-preserved is the small church of Villarinho, not far +from Vizella in the valley of the Ave. Originally the church of a small +monastery, it has long been the parish church of a mountain hamlet, and +till it was lately whitewashed inside had scarcely been touched since +the day it was finished some time before the end of the twelfth century. +It consists of a rather high and narrow nave, a square-ended chancel, +and to the west a lower narthex nearly as large as the chancel. The +church is lit by very small windows which are indeed mere slits, and by +a small round opening in the gable above the narthex.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 32.">[32]</a> The narthex is +entered by a perfectly plain round-headed door with strong impost and +drip-mould, while above the corbels which once carried the roof of a +lean-to porch, a small circle enclosing a rude unglazed quatrefoil +serves as the only window. The door leading from the narthex to the nave +is much more elaborate; of four orders of mouldings, the two inner are +plain, the two outer have a big roll at the angle, and all are slightly +pointed. Except the outermost, which springs from square jambs, they all +stand on the good romanesque capitals of six shafts, four round and two +octagonal. (<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São Miguel, Guimarães.</div> + +<p>Exactly similar in plan but without a narthex is the church of São +Miguel at Guimarães, famous as being the church in which Affonso +Henriques, the first king of Portugal, was baptized in 1111. It claims +to have been the <i>Primaz</i> or chief church of the whole archdiocese of +Braga. It is, like Villarinho, a small and very plain church built of +great blocks of granite, with a nave and square chancel lit by narrow +window slits. On the north side there are a plain square-headed doorway +and two bold round arches let into the outer wall over the graves of +some great men of these distant times. The drip-mould of one of these +arches is carved with a shallow zigzag ornament which is repeated on the +western door, a door whose slightly pointed arch may mean a rather later +date than the rest of the church. The wooden roof, as at Villarinho, has +a very gentle slope with eaves of considerable projection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> resting on +very large plain corbels, while other corbels lower down the wall seem +to show that at one time a veranda or cloister ran round three sides of +the building. The whole is even ruder and simpler than Villarinho, but +has a certain amount of dignity due to the great size of the stones of +which it is built and to the severe plainness of the walling.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Cedo Feita, Oporto.</div> + +<p>Only one other church of this type need be described, and that because +it is the only one which is vaulted throughout. This is the small church +of São Martim de Cedo Feita or 'Early made' at Oporto itself. It is so +called because it claims, wrongly indeed, to be the very church which +Theodomir, king of the Suevi, who then occupied the north-west of the +Peninsula, hurriedly built in 559 <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> This he did in order that, having +been converted from the Arian beliefs he shared with all the Germanic +invaders of the Empire, he might there be baptized into the Catholic +faith, and also that he might provide a suitable resting-place for some +relic of St. Martin of Tours which had been sent to him as a mark of +Orthodox approval. This story<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 33.">[33]</a> is set forth in a long inscription on +the tympanum of the west door stating that it was put there in 1767, a +copy taken in 1557 from an old stone having then been found in the +archives of the church. As a matter of fact no part of the church can be +older than the twelfth century, and it has been much altered, probably +at the date when the inscription was cut. It is a small building, a +barrel-vaulted nave and chancel, with a door on the north side and a +larger one to the west now covered by a large porch. The six capitals of +this door are very like those at Villarinho, but the moulded arches are +round and not as there pointed.</p> + +<p>Other churches of this type are Gandara and Boelhe near Penafiel, and +Eja not far off—a building of rather later date with a fine pointed +chancel arch elaborately carved with foliage—São Thiago d'Antas, near +Familicão, a slightly larger church with good capitals to the chancel +arch, a good south door and another later west door with traceried round +window above; and São Torquato, near Guimarães, rather larger, having once had +transepts of which one survives, with square chancel and square chapels +to the east; one of the simplest of all having no ornament beyond the +corbel table and the small slitlike windows.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a> +<a href="images/i007_fig_12.png"> +<img src="images/i007_fig_12_th.png" width="275" height="365" alt="FIG. 12.Church at Villarinho." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 12.<br />Church at Villarinho.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a> +<a href="images/i007_fig_13.png"> +<img src="images/i007_fig_13_th.png" width="275" height="353" alt="FIG. 13.Villar de Frades.W. Door." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 13.<br />Villar de Frades.W. Door.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>South of the Douro, but still built of granite, are a group of three or +four small churches at Trancoso. Another close to Guarda has a much +richer corbel table with a large ball ornament on the cornice and a +round window filled with curiously built-up tracery above the plain, +round-arched west door, while further south on the castle hill at Leiria +are the ruins of the small church of São Pedro built of fine limestone +with a good west door.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Aguas Santas.</div> + +<p>Of the second and rather larger type there are fewer examples still +remaining, and of these perhaps the best is the church of Aguas Santas +some seven miles north-east of Oporto. Originally the church consisted +of a nave with rectangular chancel and a north aisle with an eastern +apse roofed with a semi-dome. Later a tower with battlemented top and +low square spire was built at the west end of the aisle, and some thirty +years ago another aisle was added on the south side. As in most of the +smaller churches the chancel is lower than the nave, leaving room above +its roof for a large round window, now filled up except for a small +traceried circle in the centre. The most highly decorated part is the +chancel, which like all the rest of the church has a good corbel table, +and about two-thirds of the way up a string course richly covered with +billet moulding. Interrupting this on the south side are two +round-headed windows, still small but much larger than the slits found +in the older churches. In each case, in a round-headed opening there +stand two small shafts with bases and elaborately carved capitals but +without any abaci, supporting a large roll moulding, and these are all +repeated inside at the inner face of a deep splay. In one of these +windows not only are the capitals covered with intertwined ribbon-work, +but each shaft is covered with interknotted circles enclosing flowers, +and there is a band of interlacing work round the head of the actual +window opening. Inside the church has been more altered. Formerly the +aisle was separated from the nave by two arches, but when the south +aisle was built the central pier was taken out and the two arches thrown +into one large and elliptical arch, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> capitals of the chancel +arch and the few others that remain are all well wrought and well +designed. The west door is a good simple example of the first pointed +period, with plain moulded arches and shafts which bear simple +French-looking capitals. Other churches of the same class are those of +São Christovão do Rio Mau not far from Villo do Conde, and São Pedro de +Rates, a little further up the Ave at the birthplace of the first bishop +of Braga and earliest martyr of Portugal. São Pedro is a little later, +as the aisle arches are all pointed, and is a small basilica of nave and +aisles with short transepts, chancel and eastern chapels.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Villar de Frades.</div> + +<p>The two earliest examples of the third and most highly developed type, +the church of Villar de Frades and the cathedral of Braga, have +unfortunately both suffered so terribly, the one from destruction and +the other from rebuilding, that not much has been left to show what they +were originally like—barely enough to make it clear that they were much +more elaborately decorated, and that their carved work was much better +wrought than in any of the smaller churches already mentioned. A short +distance to the south of the river Cavado and about half-way between +Braga and Barcellos, in a well-watered and well-wooded region, there +existed from very early Christian times a monastery called Villar, and +later Villar de Frades. During the troubles and disorders which followed +the Moslem invasion, this Benedictine monastery had fallen into complete +decay and so remained till it was restored in 1070 by Godinho Viegas. +Although again deserted some centuries later and refounded in 1425 as +the mother house of a new order—the Loyos—the fifteenth-century church +was so built as to leave at least a part of the front of the old ruined +church standing between itself and the monastic building, as well as the +ruins of an apse behind. Probably this old west front was the last part +of Godinho's church to be built, but it is certainly more or less +contemporary with some portions of the cathedral of Braga.</p> + +<p>At some period, which the legend leaves quite uncertain, one of the +monks of this monastery was one day in the choir at matins, when they +came to that Psalm where it is said that 'a thousand years in the sight +of God are but as yesterday when it is gone,' and the old monk wondered +greatly and began to think what that could mean. When matins were over +he remained praying as was his wont, and begged Our Lord to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> give him +some understanding of that verse. Then there appeared to him a little +bird which, singing most sweetly, flew this way and that, and so little +by little drew him towards a wood which grew near the monastery, and +there rested on a tree while the servant of God stood below to listen. +After what seemed to the monk a short time it took flight, to the great +sorrow of God's servant, who said, 'Bird of my Soul, where art thou gone +so soon?' He waited, and when he saw that it did not return he went back +to the monastery thinking it still that same morning on which he had +come out after matins. When he arrived he found the door, through which +he had come, built up and a new one opened in another place. The porter +asked who he was and what he wanted, and he answered, 'I am the +sacristan who a few hours ago went out, and now returning find all +changed.' He gave too the names of the Abbot and of the Prior, and +wondered much that the porter still would not let him in, and seemed not +to remember these names. At last he was led to the Abbot, but they did +not know one another, so that the good monk was all confused and amazed +at so strange an event. Then the Abbot, enlightened of God, sent for the +annals and histories of the order, found there the names the old man had +given, so making it clear that more than three hundred years had passed +since he had gone out. He told them all that had happened to him, was +received as a brother; and after praising God for the great marvel which +had befallen him, asked for the sacraments and soon passed from this +life in great peace.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 34.">[34]</a></p> + +<p>Whether the ruined west front of the older church be that which existed +when the bird flew out through the door or not, it is or has been of +very considerable beauty. Built, like everything else in the north, of +granite, all that is now left is a high wall of carefully wrought stone. +Below is a fine round arched door of considerable size, now roughly +blocked up. It has three square orders covered with carving and a plain +inner one. First is a wide drip-mould carved on the outer side with a +zigzag threefold ribbon, and on the inner with three rows of what looks +like a rude attempt to copy the classic bead-moulding; then the first +order, of thirteen voussoirs, each with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> curious figure of a +strangely dressed man or with a distorted monster. This with the +drip-mould springs from a billet-moulded abacus resting on broad square +piers. Of the two inner carved orders, the outer is covered on both +faces with innumerable animals and birds, and the other with a delicate +pattern of interlacing bands. These two spring from strange square abaci +resting on the carved capitals of round shafts, two on each side. A few +feet above the door runs a billet-moulded string course, and two or +three feet higher another and slighter course. On this stands a large +window of two orders. Of these the outer covered with animals springs +from shafts and capitals very like those of the doorway, and the inner +has a billet-moulded edge and an almost Celtic ornament on the face. Now +whether Villar be older than the smaller buildings in the neighbourhood +or not, it is undoubtedly quite different not only in style but in +execution. It is not only much larger and higher, but it is better built +and the carving is finer and more carefully wrought. (<a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>.)</p> + +<p>It is known that the great cathedral of Santiago in Galicia was begun in +1078, just about the time Villar must have been building, and Santiago +is an almost exact copy in granite of what the great abbey church of S. +Sernin at Toulouse was intended to be, so that it may be assumed that +Bernardo who built the cathedral was, if not a native of Toulouse, at +any rate very well acquainted with what was being done there. If, then, +a native of Languedoc was called in to plan so important a church in +Galicia, it is not unlikely that other foreigners were also employed in +the county of Portugal—at that time still a part of Galicia; and in +fact many churches in the south-west of what is now France have doorways +and windows whose general design is very like that at Villar de Frades, +if allowance be made for the difference of material, granite here, fine +limestone there, and for a comparative want of skill in the workmen.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 35.">[35]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Sé, Braga.</div> + +<p>Probably these foreigners were not invited to Portugal for the sake of +the church of a remote abbey like Villar, but to work at the +metropolitan cathedral of Braga. The see of Braga is said to have been +founded by São Pedro de Rates, a disciple of St. James himself, and in +consequence of so distinguished an origin its archbishops claim the +primacy not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> of all Portugal, but even of all the Spains, a claim +which is of course disputed by the patriarch of Lisbon, not to speak of +the archbishops of Toledo and of Tarragona. However that may be, the +cathedral of Braga is not now, and can never have been, quite worthy of +such high pretensions. It is now a church with a nave and aisles of six +bays, a transept with four square chapels to the east, a chancel +projecting beyond the chapels, and at the west two towers with the main +door between and a fine porch beyond.</p> + +<p>Count Henry of Burgundy married Dona Theresa and received the earldom of +Portugal from his father-in-law, Alfonso <span class="smcap95">vi</span>. of Castile and Leon, in +1095, and he and his wife rebuilt the cathedral—where they now lie +buried—before the end of the century. By that time it may well have +become usual, if the churches were important, to call in a foreigner to +oversee its erection. Of the original building little now remains but +the plan and two doorways, the chancel having been rebuilt and the porch +added in the sixteenth, and the whole interior beplastered and bepainted +in the worst possible style in the seventeenth, century. Of the two +doors the western has been very like that at Villar. It has only two +orders left, of which the outer, though under a deep arch, has a +billet-moulded drip-mould, and its voussoirs each carved with a figure +on the outer and delicate flutings on the under side, while the inner +has on both faces animals and monsters which, better wrought than those +at Villar, are even more like so many in the south-west of France. The +other doorway, on the south side next the south-west tower, is far +better preserved. It has three shafts on each side, all with good +capitals and abaci, from which spring two carved and one plain arch. The +outer has a rich drip-mould covered with a curious triple arrangement of +circles, has flutings on the one face and a twisting ribbon on the +other, while the next has leaf flutings on both faces, and both a +roll-moulding on the angle. The inner order is quite plain, but the +tympanum has in the centre a circle enclosing a cross with expanding +arms, the spaces between the arms and the circle being pierced and the +whole surrounded with intertwining ribbons.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé, Oporto.</div> + +<p>Another foundation of Count Henry's was the cathedral of Oporto, which, +judging from its plan, must have been very like that of Braga, but it +has been so horribly transformed during the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries that nothing now remains of the original building but part of +the walls;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> for the fine western rose window must have been inserted +about the middle of the thirteenth century.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Paço de Souza.</div> + +<p>Except the tragedy of Inez de Castro, there is no story in Portuguese +history more popular or more often represented in the engravings which +adorn a country inn dining-room than that of the surrender of Egas Moniz +to Alfonso <span class="smcap95">vii</span>. of Castile and Leon, when his pupil Affonso Henriques, +beginning to govern for himself, refused to fulfil the agreement<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 36.">[36]</a> +whereby Egas had induced Alfonso to raise the siege of the castle of +Guimarães. And it is the fact that the church of São Salvador at Paço de +Souza contains his tomb, which adds not a little to the interest of the +best-preserved of the churches of the third type. Egas Moniz died in +1144, and at least the eastern part of the church may have existed +before then. The chancel, where the tomb first stood, is rather long and +has as usual a square east end while the two flanking chapels are +apsidal. The rest of the church, which may be a little later, as all the +larger arches are pointed, consists of a nave and aisles of three bays, +a transept, and a later tower standing on the westernmost bay of the +south aisle. The constructive scheme of the inside is interesting, +though a modern boarded vault has done its best to hide what it formerly +was. The piers are cross-shaped with a big semicircular shaft on each +face, and a large roll-moulding on each angle which is continued up +above the abacus to form an outer order for both the aisle and the main +arches, for large arches are carried across the nave and aisles from +north to south as if it had been intended to roof the church with an +ordinary groined vault. However, it is clear that this was not really +the case, and indeed it could hardly have been so as practically no +vaults had yet been built in the country except a few small barrels. +Indeed, though later the Portuguese became very skilful at vaulting, +they were at no time fond of a nave with high groined vault upheld by +flying buttresses, and low aisles, for there seems to have been never +more than three or four in the country, one of which, the choir of +Lisbon Cathedral, fell in 1755. Instead of groined vaults, barrel vaults +continued to be used where a stone roof was wanted, even till the middle +of the fourteenth century and later, long after they had been given up +elsewhere, but usually a roof of wood was thought sufficient, sometimes +resting, as was formerly the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span> case here, on transverse arches thrown +across the nave and aisles. This was the system adopted in the +cathedrals of Braga and of Oporto before they were altered, in this +church and in that of Pombeiro not far off, and in that of Bayona near +Vigo in Galicia.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 37.">[37]</a> (<a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>.)</p> + +<p>All the details are extremely refined—almost Byzantine in their +delicacy—especially the capitals, and the abaci against the walls, +which are carried along as a beautiful string course from pier to pier. +The bases too are all carved, some with animals' heads and some with +small seated figures at the angles, while the faces of the square blocks +below are covered with beautiful leaf ornament. But the most curious +thing in the whole church is the tomb of Egas Moniz himself.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 38.">[38]</a> (<a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>.) Till the eighteenth century it stood in the middle of the chancel, +then it was cut in two and put half against the wall of the south aisle, +and half against that of the north. It has on it three bands of +ornament. Of these the lowest is a rudely carved chevron with what are +meant for leaves between, the next, a band of small figures including +Egas on his deathbed and what is supposed to be three of his children +riding side by side on an elongated horse with a camel-like head, and +that on the top, larger figures showing him starting on his fateful +journey to the court of Alfonso of Castile and Leon and parting from his +weeping wife. Although very rude,—all the horses except that of Egas +himself having most unhorselike heads and legs,—some of the figures are +carved with a certain not unpleasing vigour, especially that of a +spear-bearing attendant who marches with swinging skirts behind his +master's horse. Outside the most remarkable feature is the fine west +door, with its eight shafts, four on each side, some round and some +octagonal, the octagonal being enriched with an ornament like the +English dog-tooth, with their finely carved cubical capitals and rich +abaci, and with the four orders of mouldings, two of which are enriched +with ball ornament. Outside, instead of a drip-mould, runs a broad band +covered with plaited ribbon. On the tympanum,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> which rests on corbels +supported on one side by the head of an ox and on the other by that of a +man, are a large circle enclosing a modern inscription, and two smaller +circles in which are the symbols of the Sun and Moon upheld by curious +little half-figures. The two apses east of the transept are of the +pattern universal in Southern Europe, being divided into three equal +parts by half-shafts with capitals and crowned with an overhanging +corbel table.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Pombeiro.</div> + +<p>The abbey church of Pombeiro, near Guimarães, must once have been very +similar to São Salvador at Paço de Souza, except that the nave is a good +deal longer, and that it once had a large narthex, destroyed about a +hundred and fifty years ago by an abbot who wished to add to the west +front the two towers and square spires which still exist. So full was +this narthex of tombs that from the arms on them it had become a sort of +Heralds' College for the whole of the north of Portugal, but now only +two remain in the shallow renaissance porch between the towers. As at +Paço de Souza, the oldest part of the church is the east end, where the +two apses flanking the square chancel remain unaltered. They are divided +as usual by semicircular shafts bearing good romanesque capitals, and +crowned by a cornice of three small arches to each division, each cut +out of one stone, and resting on corbels and on the capitals. Of the +west front only the fine doorway is left unchanged; pointed in shape, +but romanesque in detail; having three of the five orders, carved one +with grotesque animals and two with leafage. Above the shallow porch is +a large round window with renaissance tracery, but retaining its +original framing of a round arch resting on tall shafts with romanesque +capitals. Everything else has been altered, the inside being covered +with elaborate rococo painted and gilt plaster-work, and the outside +disfigured by shapeless rococo windows.</p> + +<p>Although some, and especially the last two of the buildings described +above belong, in part at least, to the time of transition from +romanesque to first pointed, and although the group of churches at +Coimbra are wholly romanesque, it would be better to have done with all +that can be ascribed to a period older than the beginning of the +Portuguese monarchy before following Affonso Henriques in his successful +efforts to extend his kingdom southwards to the Tagus.</p> + + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a> +<a href="images/i008_fig_14.png"> +<img src="images/i008_fig_14_th.png" width="275" height="361" alt="FIG. 14.Church, Paço de Souza. +Nave." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 14.<br />Church, Paço de Souza. +Nave.</span> +</div> + +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a> +<a href="images/i008_fig_15.png"> +<img src="images/i008_fig_15_th.png" width="275" height="338" alt="FIG. 15.Paço de Souza. +Tomb of Egas Moniz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 15.<br />Paço de Souza. +Tomb of Egas Moniz.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Guimarães, Castle.</div> + +<p>Although Braga was the ecclesiastical capital of their fief,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span> +Count Henry and his wife lived usually at Guimarães, a small town some +fifteen miles to the south. Towards the beginning of the tenth century +there died D. Hermengildo Gonçalves Mendes, count of Tuy and Porto, who +by his will left Vimaranes, as it was then called, to his widow, +Mumadona. About 927 she there founded a monastery and built a castle for +its defence, and this castle, which had twice suffered from Moslem +invaders, was restored or rebuilt by Count Henry, and there in 1111 was +born his son Affonso Henriques, who was later to become the first king +of the new and independent kingdom of Portugal. Henry died soon after, +in 1114, at Astorga, perhaps poisoned by his sister-in-law, Urraca, +queen of Castile and Leon, and for several years his widow governed his +lands as guardian for their son.</p> + +<p>Thirteen years after Count Henry's death, in 1127, the castle was the +scene of the famous submission of Egas Moniz to the Spanish king, and +this, together with the fact that Affonso Henriques was born there, has +given it a place in the romantic history of Portugal which is rather +higher than what would seem due to a not very important building. The +castle stands to the north of the town on a height which commands all +the surrounding country. Its walls, defended at intervals by square +towers, are built among and on the top of enormous granite boulders, and +enclose an irregular space in which stands the keep. The inhabited part +of the castle ran along the north-western wall where it stood highest +above the land below, but it has mostly perished, leaving only a few +windows which are too large to date from the beginning of the twelfth +century. The square keep stands within a few feet of the western wall, +rises high above it, and was reached by a drawbridge from the walk on +the top of the castle walls. Its wooden floors are gone, its windows are +mere slits, and like the rest of the castle it owes its distinctive +appearance to the battlements which crown the whole building, and whose +merlons are plain blocks of stone brought to a sharp point at the top. +This feature, which is found in all the oldest Portuguese castles such +as that of Almourol on an island in the Tagus near Abrantes, and even on +some churches such as the old cathedral at Coimbra and the later church +at Leça de Balio, is one of the most distinct legacies left by the +Moors: here the front of each merlon is perpendicular to the top, but +more usually it is finished in a small sharp pyramid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Church.</div> + +<p>The other foundation of Mumadona, the monastery of Nossa Senhora and São +Salvador in the town of Guimarães, had since her day twice suffered +destruction at the hands of the Moors, once in 967 when the castle was +taken by Al-Coraxi, emir of Seville, and thirty years later when +Almansor<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 39.">[39]</a> in 998 swept northwards towards Galicia, sacking and +burning as he went. At the time when Count Henry and Dona Teresa were +living in the castle, the double Benedictine monastery for men and women +had fallen into decay, and in 1109 Count Henry got a Papal Bull changing +the foundation into a royal collegiate church under a Dom Prior, and at +once began to rebuild it, a restoration which was not finished till +1172. Since then the church has been wholly and the cloisters partly +rebuilt by João <span class="smcap95">i</span>. at the end of the fourteenth century, but some arches +of the cloister and the entrance to the chapter-house may very likely +date from Count Henry's time. These cloisters occupy a very unusual +position. Starting from the north transept they run round the back of +the chancel, along the south side of the church outside the transept, +and finally join the church again near the west front. The large round +arches have chamfered edges; the columns are monoliths of granite about +eighteen inches thick; the bases and the abaci all romanesque in form, +though many of the capitals, as can be seen from their shape and +carving, are of the fourteenth or even fifteenth century, showing how +Juan Garcia de Toledo, who rebuilt the church for Dom João <span class="smcap95">i</span>., tried, in +restoring the cloister, to copy the already existing features and as +usual betrayed the real date by his later details. A few of the old +capitals still remain, and are of good romanesque form such as may be +seen in any part of southern France or in Spain.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 40.">[40]</a> To the +chapter-house, a plain oblong room with a panelled wood ceiling, there +leads, from the east cloister walk, an unaltered archway, flanked as +usual by two openings, one on either side. The doorway arch is plain, +slightly horseshoe in shape, and is carried by short strong half-columns +whose capitals are elaborately carved with animals and twisting +branches, the animals, as is often the case,</p> +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a> +<a href="images/i009_fig_16.png"> +<img src="images/i009_fig_16_th.png" width="275" height="356" alt="FIG. 16.Door of Chapter House, N.S. da Oliveira.Guimarães." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 16.<br />Door of Chapter House, N.S. da Oliveira.<br />Guimarães.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a> +<a href="images/i009_fig_17.png"> +<img src="images/i009_fig_17_th.png" width="275" height="356" alt="FIG. 17.Cloister.Leça do Balio." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 17.<br />Cloister.<br />Leça do Balio.<br /> </span></div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>being set back to back at the angles so that one head does duty for each +pair. Above is a large hollow hood-mould exactly similar to those which +enclose the side windows. The two lights of these windows are separated +by short coupled shafts whose capitals, derived from the Corinthian or +Composite, have stiff leaves covering the change from the round to the +square, and between them broad tendrils which end in very carefully cut +volutes at the angles. The heads themselves are markedly horseshoe in +shape, which at first sight suggests some Moorish influence, but in +everything else the details are so thoroughly Western, and by 1109 such +a long time, over a hundred years, had passed since the Moors had been +permanently expelled from that part of the country, that it were better +to see in these horseshoes an unskilled attempt at stilting, rather than +the work of some one familiar with Eastern forms. (<a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p class="head">THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">n</span> 1057 Fernando, king of Castile, Leon and Galicia crossed the Douro, +took Lamego, where the lower part of the tower is all that is left of +the romanesque cathedral, and is indeed the only romanesque tower in the +country. Vizeu fell soon after, and seven years later he advanced his +borders to the Mondego by the capture of Coimbra. The Mondego, the only +large river whose source and mouth are both in Portugal, long remained +the limit of the Christian dominion, and nearly a hundred years were to +pass before any further advance was made. In 1147 Affonso Henriques, who +had but lately assumed the title of king, convinced at last that he was +wasting his strength in trying to seize part of his cousin's dominions +of Galicia, determined to turn south and extend his new kingdom in that +direction. Accordingly in March of that year he secretly led his army +against Santarem, one of the strongest of the Moorish cities standing +high above the Tagus on an isolated hill. The vezir, Abu-Zakariah, was +surprised before he could provision the town, so that the garrison were +able to offer but a feeble resistance, and the Christians entered after +the attack had lasted only a few days. Before starting the king had +vowed that if successful he would found a monastery in token of his +gratitude, and though its vast domestic buildings are now but barracks +and court-houses, the great Cistercian abbey of Alcobaça still stands to +show how well his vow was fulfilled.</p> + +<p>Although Santarem was taken in 1147, the first stone of Alcobaça was not +laid till 1153, and the building was carried out very slowly and in a +style, imported directly from France, quite foreign to any previous work +in Portugal. It were better, therefore, before coming to this, the +largest church and the richest foundation in the whole country, to have +done<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> with the other churches which though contemporary with Alcobaça +are not the work of French but of native workmen, or at least of such as +had not gone further than to Galicia for their models.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé, Lisbon.</div> + +<p>The same year that saw the fall of Santarem saw also the more important +capture of Lisbon. Taken by the Moors in 714, it had long been their +capital, and although thrice captured by the Christians had always been +recovered. In this enterprise Affonso Henriques was helped by a body of +Crusaders, mostly English, who sailing from Dartmouth were persuaded by +the bishop of Oporto to begin their Holy War in Portugal, and when +Lisbon fell, one of them, Gilbert of Hastings, was rewarded by being +made its first bishop. Of the cathedral, begun three years later, in +1150, little but the plan of the nave and transept has survived. Much +injured by an earthquake in 1344, the whole choir was rebuilt on a +French model by Affonso <span class="smcap95">iv</span>. only to be again destroyed in 1755. The +original plan must have been very like that of Braga, an aisleless +transept, a nave and aisles of six bays, and two square towers beyond +with a porch between. The two towers are now very plain with large +belfry windows near the top, but there are traces here and there of old +built-up round-headed openings which show that the walls at least are +really old. The outer arch of the porch has been rebuilt since the +earthquake, but the original door remains inside, with a carved +hood-mould, rich abacus, and four orders of mouldings enriched with +small balls in their hollows. The eight plain shafts stand on unusually +high pedestals and have rather long capitals, some carved with flat +acanthus leaves and some with small figures of men and animals.</p> + +<p>Like that of the cathedral of Coimbra, which was being built about the +same time, the inside is clearly founded on the great cathedral of +Santiago, itself a copy of S. Sernin at Toulouse, and quite uninfluenced +by the French design of Alcobaça. The piers are square with a half-shaft +on each face, the arches are round, and the aisles covered with plain +unribbed fourpart vaulting, while the main aisle is roofed with a round +barrel. Instead of the large open gallery, which at Santiago allows the +quadrant vault supporting the central barrel to be seen, there is here a +low blind arcade of small round arches. Unfortunately, when restored +after the disaster of 1755 the whole inside was plastered, all the +capitals both of the main<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"> +<a href="images/i010_cath_lisbon.png"> +<img src="images/i010_cath_lisbon_th.png" width="220" height="400" alt="PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, LISBON" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, LISBON</span> +</div> + +<p class="non">piers and of the gallery were converted into a semblance of gilt +Corinthian capitals, and large skylights were cut through the vault. +Only the inside of the low octagonal lantern remains to show that the +church must have been at least as interesting, if not more so, than the +Sé Velha or old cathedral at Coimbra. If the nave has suffered such a +transformation the fourteenth-century <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span>choir has been even worse +treated. The whole upper part, which once was as high as the top of the +lantern, fell and was re-roofed in a most miserable manner, having only +the ambulatory and its chapels uninjured. But these, the cloister and a +rather fine chapel to the north-west of the nave, had better be left for +another chapter.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 41.">[41]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé Velha, Coimbra.</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<a href="images/i011_cath_coimbra.png"> +<img src="images/i011_cath_coimbra_th.png" width="200" height="224" alt="PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, COIMBRA" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, COIMBRA</span> +</div> + +<p>Smaller but much better preserved than Lisbon Cathedral is the Sé Velha +or old cathedral of Coimbra. According to the local tradition, the +cathedral is but a mosque turned into a church after the Christian +conquest, and it may well be that in the time of Dom Sesnando, the first +governor of Coimbra—a Moor who, becoming a Christian, was made count of +Coimbra by King Fernando, and whose tomb, broken open by the French, may +still be seen outside the north wall of the church—the chief mosque of +the town was used as the cathedral. But although an Arab inscription<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 42.">[42]</a> +is built into the outer wall of the nave, there can be no doubt that the +present building is as Christian in plan and design as any church can +be. If the nave of the cathedral of Lisbon is like Santiago in +construction, the nave here is, on a reduced scale, undoubtedly a copy +of Santiago not only constructively but also in its general details. The +piers are shorter but of the same plan, the great triforium gallery +looks towards the nave, as at Santiago and at Toulouse, by a double +opening whose arches spring from single shafts at the sides to rest on +double shafts in the centre, both being enclosed under one larger arch, +while the barrel vault and the supporting vaults of the gallery are +exactly similar. Now Santiago was practically finished in 1128, and +there still exists a book called the <i>Livro Preto</i> in which is given a +list of the gifts made by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see of Coimbra from +1162 to 1176, towards the building and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> adorning of the church. Nothing +is said as to when the church was begun, but we are told that Dom Miguel +gave 124 morabitinos to Master Bernardo<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 43.">[43]</a> who had directed the +building for ten years; the presents too of bread and wine made to his +successor Soeiro are also mentioned, so that it seems probable that the +church may have been begun soon after Dom Miguel became bishop, and that +it was finished some time before the end of his episcopate.</p> + +<p>Though the nave is like that of Santiago, the transepts and choir are +much simpler. There the transept is long and has an aisle on each side; +here it is short and aisleless. There the choir is deep with a +surrounding aisle and radiating chapels, here it is a simple apse +flanked by two smaller apses. Indeed throughout the whole of the +Peninsula the French east end was seldom used except in churches of a +distinctly foreign origin, such as Santiago, Leon or Toledo in Spain, or +Alcobaça in Portugal, and so it is natural here to find Bernardo +rejecting the elaboration and difficult construction of his model, and +returning to the simpler plan which had already been so often used in +the north. (<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>.)</p> + +<p>Inside the piers are square with four half-shafts, one of which runs up +in front to carry the barrel vault, which is about sixty feet high. All +the capitals are well carved, and a moulded string which runs along +under the gallery is curiously returned against the vaulting shafts as +if it had once been carried round them and had afterwards been cut off. +Almost the only light in the nave comes from small openings in the +galleries, the aisle windows being nearly all blocked up by later +altars, and from a large window at the west end. The transept on the +other hand is very light, with several windows at either end, and eight +in the square lantern, so that the effect is extremely good of the dark +nave followed by the brilliant transept and ending in a great carved and +gilt reredos. This reredos, reaching up to the blue-and-gold apse vault, +was given to the cathedral in 1508 by Bishop D. Jorge d'Almeida, and was +the work of 'Master<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> Vlimer a Framengo,' that is, a Fleming, and of his +partner, João D'ipri, or of Ypres, two of the many foreigners who at +that time worked for King D. Manoel. There are several picturesque tombs +in the church, especially two in the north-east corner of the transept, +whose recesses still retain their original tile decoration. Later tiles +still cover the aisle walls and altar recesses, but beautiful examples +of the Mozárabe or Moorish style which once covered the piers of the +nave, as well as the wooden choir gallery with its finely panelled under +side, have been swept away by a recent well-meaning if mistaken +restoration. The outside of the church is more unusual than the inside. +The two remaining original apses are much hidden by the sacristy, built +probably by Bishop Jorge de Castello Branco in 1593, but in their +details they are greatly like those of the church of San Isidoro at +Leon, and being like it built of fine limestone, are much more +delicately ornamented than are those of any of the granite churches +further north. The side aisles are but little lower than the central +aisle or than the transepts, and are all crowned with battlements very +like those on the castle of Guimarães. The buttresses are only shallow +strips, which in the transepts are united by round arches, but in the +aisles end among the battlements in a larger merlon. The west front is +the most striking and original part of the whole church. Below, at the +sides, a perfectly plain window lights the aisles, some feet above it +runs a string course, on which stands a small two-light window for the +gallery, flanked by larger blind arches, and then many feet of blank +walling ending in battlements. Between these two aisle ends there +projects about ten feet a large doorway or porch. This doorway is of +considerable size; some of its eight shafts are curiously twisted and +carved, its capitals are very refined and elaborate, and its arches well +moulded with, as at Lisbon, small bosses in the hollows. The abacus is +plain, and the broad pilasters which carry the outermost order are +beautifully carved on the broader face with a small running pattern of +leaves. The same 'black book' which tells of the bishop's gifts to the +church, tells how a certain Master Robert came four times from Lisbon to +perfect the work of the door, and how each time he received seven +morabitinos, besides ten for his expenses, as well as bread, wine and +meat for his four apprentices and food for his four asses. It is not +often that the name of a man who worked on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> a mediæval church has been +so preserved, and it is worth noticing that the west door at Lisbon has +on it exactly the same ball ornament as that with which Master Robert +and his four helpers enriched the archway here. Above the door runs an +arched corbel table on which stands the one large window which the +church possesses. This window,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 44.">[44]</a> which is much more like a door than a +window, is deeply recessed within four orders of mouldings, resting on +shafts and capitals, four on each side, all very like the door below. +Above, the whole projection is carried up higher than the battlements in +an oblong embattled belfry, having two arched openings in front and one +at the side, added in 1837 to take the place of a detached belfry which +once stood to the south of the church, and to hold some bells brought +from Thomar after that rich convent had been suppressed. (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>.)</p> + +<p>Of the two other doorways, that at the end of the north transept, which +has a simple archway on either side, and is surmounted by an arcade of +five arches, has been altered in the early sixteenth century with good +details of the first French renaissance, while the larger doorway in the +third bay of the nave has at the same time been rebuilt as a beautiful +three-storied porch, reaching right up to the battlements. To the south +lie the cloisters, added about the end of the thirteenth century, but +now very much mutilated. They are of the usual Portuguese type of +vaulted cloister, a large arch, here pointed, enclosing two round arches +below with a circular opening above.</p> + +<p>The central lantern—the only romanesque example surviving except that +of Lisbon Cathedral—is square, and not as there octagonal. It has two +round-headed windows on each side whose sills are but little above the +level of the flat roof—for, like almost all vaulted churches in +Portugal, the roofs are flat and paved—and is now crowned by a +picturesque dome covered with many-coloured tiles.</p> + +<p>Somewhat older than the cathedral, but not unlike it, was the church of +São Christovão now destroyed, while São Thiago still has a west door +whose shafts are even more elaborately carved and twisted than are those +at the Sé Velha.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 45.">[45]</a></p> + +<p>There is more than one building, such as the Templar</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a> +<a href="images/i012_fig_18.png"> +<img src="images/i012_fig_18_th.png" width="275" height="366" alt="FIG. 18. +Coimbra. +Sé Velha." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 18.<br /> +Coimbra.<br /> +Sé Velha.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a> +<a href="images/i012_fig_19.png"> +<img src="images/i012_fig_19_th.png" width="275" height="342" alt="FIG. 19.Coimbra.West Front of Sé Velha." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 19.<br />Coimbra.<br />West Front of Sé Velha.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>church at Thomar, older than the cathedral of Evora, and indeed older +than the Sé Velha at Coimbra; but Evora, except that its arches are +pointed instead of round, is so clearly derived directly from the Sé at +Lisbon that it must be mentioned next in order.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé, Evora.</div> + +<p>Although the great province of Alemtejo, which reaches from the south +bank of the Tagus to within about twenty-five or thirty miles of the +Southern Sea, had more than once been entered by the victorious +Portuguese king Affonso Henriques, it was not till after his death in +1185, indeed not till the beginning of the thirteenth century, that it +could be called a part of Portugal. As early as 1139 Affonso Henriques +had met and defeated five kings at Ourique not far from Beja, a victory +which was long supposed to have secured his country's independence, and +which was therefore believed to have been much greater and more +important than was really the case.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 46.">[46]</a> Evora, the Roman capital of the +district, did not fall into the hands of the Christians till 1166, when +it is said to have been taken by stratagem by Giraldo Sem Pavor, or 'the +Fearless,' an outlaw who by this capture regained the favour of the +king. But soon the Moors returned, first in 1174 when they won back the +whole of the province, and again in 1184 when Dom Sancho, Affonso's son, +utterly defeated and killed their leader, Yusuf. Yusuf's son, Yakub, +returned to meet defeat in 1188 and 1190 when he was repulsed from +Thomar, but when he led a third army across the Straits in 1192 he found +that the Crusaders who had formerly helped Dom Sancho had sailed on to +Palestine, and with his huge army was able to drive the Christians back +beyond the Tagus and compel the king to come to terms, nor did the +Christian borders advance again for several years. It is said that the +cathedral begun in 1185 or 1186<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 47.">[47]</a> was dedicated in 1204, so it must +have been still incomplete when Yakub's successful invasion took place, +and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> only finished after the Christians had again recovered the town, +though it is difficult to see how the church can have been dedicated in +that year as the town remained in Moorish power till after Dom Sancho's +death in 1211. Except the Sé Velha at Coimbra, Evora is the +best-preserved of all the older Portuguese cathedrals, and must always +have been one of the largest. The plan is evidently founded on those of +the cathedrals of Lisbon and Braga; a nave of eight bays 155 feet long +by 75 wide, leads to an aisleless transept 125 by 30, with lantern at +the crossing, to the east of which were five chapels. Unfortunately in +1718 the Capella Mor or main chancel was pulled down as being too small +for the dignity of an archiepiscopal see, and a new one of many-coloured +marbles built in its stead, measuring 75 feet by 30.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 48.">[48]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 486px;"> +<img src="images/i013_se_evora.png" width="486" height="550" alt="PLAN OF SÉ, EVORA" /> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF SÉ, EVORA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span></p> +<p>To the west are two large square towers; to the south a cloister added +in 1376; and at the end of the north transept a chapel built at the end +of the fifteenth century and entered by a large archway well carved with +rich early renaissance ornament. If there is no advance from the +romanesque plan of older churches, there is none in construction. All +the arches are pointed, but that is the only direction in which any +change has been made. The piers are all cross-shaped with a large +half-shaft on each of the four main faces and a smaller round shaft in +each angle. The capitals have square moulded abaci, and are rather +rudely carved with budlike curled leaves; the pointed arches of the +arcade are well moulded, and above them runs a continuous triforium +gallery like that in the nave at Lisbon, but with small pointed arches. +The main vault is a pointed barrel with bold ribs; it is held up by a +half-barrel over the aisles, which have groined vaults with very large +transverse arches. The galleries over the aisles are lit by small +pointed windows of two lights with a cusped circle between, but except +in the lantern which has similar windows, in the transept ends and the +west front, these are the only original openings which survive. (<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>.) Both transepts have large rose windows, the northern filled with +tracery, like that, common in Champagne, radiating towards and not from +the centre. The southern is more interesting. The whole, well moulded, +is enclosed in a curious square framing. In the centre a doubly cusped +circle is surrounded by twelve radiating openings, whose trefoiled heads +abut against twelve other broad trefoils, which are rather curiously run +into the mouldings of the containing circle. Over the west porch is a +curious eight-light window. There are four equal two-light openings +below; on the two in the centre rests a large plain circle, and the +space between it and the enclosing arch is very clumsily filled by a rib +which, springing from the apex of either light, runs concentrically with +the enclosing arch till it meets the larger circle. The whole building +is surmounted by brick battlements, everything else being of granite, +resting on a good trefoil corbel table, and, as the roofs are perfectly +flat, there are no gables.</p> + +<p>The two western towers are very picturesque. The northern, without +buttresses, has its several windows arranged without any regard to +symmetry, and finishes in a round spire covered with green and white +glazed tiles. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span> southern plain buttresses run up to the belfry +stage which has round-headed openings, and above it is a low octagonal +spire set diagonally and surrounded by eight pinnacles.</p> + +<p>The most unusual feature of the whole cathedral is the fine octagonal +lantern at the crossing. Each face has a two-light window, pointed +outside, with a round-headed arch within, leaving a passage between the +two walls. At each angle are plain buttresses, weathered back a few feet +below the corbel table, above which stand eight octagonal pinnacles each +with eight smaller pinnacles surrounding a conical stone spire. The +whole lantern is covered by a steep stone roof which, passing +imperceptibly from the octagonal to the round, is covered, as are all +the other pinnacles, with scales carved in imitation of tiles. Inside +the well-moulded vaulting ribs do not rise higher than the windows, +leaving therefore a large space between the vault and the outer stone +capping. (<a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>.)</p> + +<p>Lanterns, especially octagonal lanterns, are particularly common in +Spain, and at Salamanca and its neighbourhood were very early developed +and attained to a remarkable degree of perfection before the end of the +twelfth century. It is strange, therefore, that they should be so rare +in Portugal where there seem now to be only three: one, square, at +Coimbra, an octagonal at Lisbon, and one here, where however there is +nothing of the internal dome which is so striking at Salamanca. Probably +this lantern was one of the enrichments added to the church by Bishop +Durando who died in 1283, for the capitals of the west door look +considerably later.</p> + +<p>This door is built entirely of white marble with shafts which look, as +do those of the south transept door, almost like Cipollino, taken +perhaps from some Roman building. It has well-moulded arches and abaci; +capitals richly carved with realistic foliage, and on each side six of +the apostles, all very like each other, large-headed, long-bearded, and +long-haired, with rather good drapery but bodies and legs which look far +too short. St. Peter alone, with short curly hair and beard, has any +individuality, but is even less prepossessing than his companions. They +are, however, among the earliest specimens of large figure sculpture +which survive, and by their want of grace make it easier to understand +why Dom Manoel employed so many foreign artists in the early years of +the sixteenth century.</p> +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a> +<a href="images/i014_fig_20.png"> +<img src="images/i014_fig_20_th.png" width="275" height="373" alt="FIG. 20.Evora.Sé. Interior." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 20.<br />Evora.Sé.<br />Interior.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a> +<a href="images/i014_fig_21.png"> +<img src="images/i014_fig_21_th.png" width="275" height="374" alt="FIG. 21.Evora.Sé. from Cloisters.Shewing Central Lantern." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 21.<br />Evora.Sé.<br />from Cloisters.<br />Shewing Central Lantern.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span>The large cloister to the south must once have been one of the best in +the country. Here the main arches alone survive, having lost whatever +subsidiary arches or tracery they may once have contained, but higher up +under the corbel table are large open circles, not as everywhere else +enclosed under the large arch, but quite independent of it. Many of +these circles are still filled with thin slabs of granite all pierced +with most beautiful patterns, some quite Gothic, but the majority almost +Moorish in design, not unlike the slabs in the circles over the cloister +arcades at Alcobaça, but though this is probably only a coincidence, +still more like those at Tarragona in Cataluña. (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Templar Church, Thomar.</div> + +<p>Like the cathedral at Evora, some of the arches in the Templar Church at +Thomar are pointed, yet like it again, it is entirely romanesque both in +construction and in detail.</p> + +<p>The Knights Templars were already established in Portugal in 1126. With +their headquarters at Soure, a little to the south of Coimbra, they had +been foremost in helping Affonso Henriques in his attacks on the Moors, +and when Santerem was taken in 1147 they were given the ecclesiastical +superiority of the town. This led to a quarrel with Dom Gilberto, the +English bishop of Lisbon, which was settled in 1150, when Dom Gualdim +Paes, the most famous member the order ever produced in Portugal, was +chosen to be Grand Master. He at once gave up all Santarem to the +bishop, except the church of São Thiago, and received instead the +territory of Cêras some forty or fifty miles to the north-east. There on +the banks of the river Nabão, on a site famous for the martyrdom under +Roman rule of Sant' Iria or Irene, Dom Gualdim built a church, and began +a castle which was soon abandoned for a far stronger position on a steep +hill some few hundred yards to the west across the river. This second +castle, begun in 1160, still survives in part but in a very ruinous +condition; the walls and the keep alike have lost their battlements and +their original openings, though a little further west, and once forming +part of the fortified enclosure, the church, begun in 1162, still +remains as a high tower-like bastion crowned with battlements. Dom +Gualdim had the laudable habit of carving inscriptions telling of any +striking event, so that we may still read, not only how the castle was +founded, but how 'In the year of the Era of Cæsar, 1228 (that is 1190 +<span class="smcap95">A.D.</span>, on the 3rd of July), came the King of Morocco, leading four +hundred thousand horsemen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> and five hundred thousand foot and besieged +this castle for six days, destroying everything he found outside the +walls. God delivered from his hands the castle, the aforesaid Master and +his brethren. The same king returned to his country with innumerable +loss of men and of animals.'<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 49.">[49]</a> Doubtless the size of Yakub the +Almohade leader's army is here much exaggerated, but that he was forced +to retire from Thomar, and by pestilence from Santarem is certain, and +though he made a more successful invasion two years later the Moors +never again gained a footing to the north of the Tagus.</p> + +<p>Dom Gualdim's church, since then enlarged by the addition of a nave to +the west, was originally a polygon of sixteen sides with a circular +barrel-vaulted aisle surrounding a small octagon, which with its two +stories of slightly pointed arches contains the high altar.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 50.">[50]</a> (<a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>.)</p> + +<p>The round-headed windows come up high, and till it was so richly adorned +by Dom Manoel during his grand mastership of the Order of Christ more +than three hundred years later, the church must have been extremely +simple. Outside the most noticeable feature is the picturesque grouping +of the bell-towers and gable, added probably in the seventeenth century, +which now rise on the eastern side of the polygon, and which, seen above +the orange and medlar trees of a garden reaching eastwards towards the +castle, forms one of the most pleasing views in the whole country.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São João de Alporão, Santarem.</div> + +<p>If Evora and the Templar church at Thomar show one form of transition, +where the arches are pointed, but the construction and detail is +romanseque, São João de Alporão at Santarem shows another, where the +construction is Gothic but the arches are still all round.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a> +<a href="images/i015_fig_22.png"> +<img src="images/i015_fig_22_th.png" width="275" height="373" alt="FIG. 22.Evora.Sé. Cloister." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 22.<br />Evora.Sé.<br />Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a> +<a href="images/i015_fig_23.png"> +<img src="images/i015_fig_23_th.png" width="275" height="360" alt="FIG. 23.Thomar.Templars' Church." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 23.<br />Thomar.<br />Templars' Church.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span>This church is said to stand on the site of a mosque and to have been at +first called Al Koran, since corrupted into Alporão, but the present +building can hardly have been begun till the early years of the +thirteenth century. The church consists of an aisleless nave with good +groined vaulting and a five-sided apsidal chancel. The round-arched west +door stands under a pointed gable, but seems to have lost by decay and +consequent restoration whatever ornament its rather flat mouldings may +once have had. Above is a good wheel window, with a cusped circle in the +centre, surrounded by eight radiating two-arched lights separated by +eight radiating columns. The two arches of each light spring from a +detached capital which seems to have lost its shaft, but as there is no +trace of bases for these missing shafts on the central circle they +probably never existed. All the other nave windows are mere slits; and +above them runs a rich corbel table of slightly stilted arches with +their edges covered with ball ornament resting on projecting corbels. In +the apse the five windows are tall and narrow with square heads, and the +corbel table of a form common in Portugal but rare elsewhere, where each +corbel is something like the bows of a boat.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 51.">[51]</a></p> + +<p>The inside, now turned into a museum, is much more interesting. The +chancel is entered, under a circular cusped window, by a wide round +arch, whose outer moulding is curiously carried by shafts with capitals +set across the angle as if to carry a vaulting rib; in the chancel +itself the walls are double, the outer having the plain square-headed +windows seen outside, and the inner very elegant two-light round-headed +openings resting on very thin and delicate shafts, with a doubly cusped +circle above. The vault, whose wall arches are stilted and slightly +pointed, has strong well-moulded ribs springing from the well-wrought +capitals of tall angle shafts. It will be seen that this is a very great +advance on any older vaulting, since previously, except in the French +Church at Alcobaça, groined vaults had only been attempted over square +spaces. The finest of the many objects preserved in the museum is the +tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes, who was killed in Africa in 1464 and +buried in the church of São Francisco, whence, São Francisco having +become a cavalry stable, it was brought here not many years ago. (<a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>.)</p> + +<p>Such are, except for the church at Idanha a Velha and that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> of Castro de +Avelans near Braganza, nearly all the early buildings in the country. +Castro de Avelans is interesting and unique as having on the outside +brick arcades, like those on the many Mozarabic churches at Toledo, a +form of decoration not found elsewhere in Portugal. The church of +Alcobaça is</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"> +<img src="images/i016_plan_alcobaca.png" width="451" height="550" alt="PLAN OF ALCOBAÇA" /> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF ALCOBAÇA</span> + +</div><p class="non">of course, in part, a good deal older than are some of those +mentioned above; but the whole, the romanesque choir as well as the +early pointed nave, is so unlike anything that has come before or +anything that has come after, that it seemed better to take it by itself +without regard to strict chronological order.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr +valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a> +<a href="images/i017_fig_24.png"> +<img src="images/i017_fig_24_th.png" width="275" height="376" alt="FIG. 24.SantaremApse, São João de Alporão." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 24.<br />SantaremApse, São João de Alporão.</span> +</div></td> +<td style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a> +<a href="images/i017_fig_25.png"> +<img src="images/i017_fig_25_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 25.TranseptAlcobaça." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 25.<br />TranseptAlcobaça.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Alcobaça.</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>The first stone was laid in 1158, but the church was barely finished +when King Sancho <span class="smcap95">i</span>. died in 1211 and was not dedicated till 1220, while +the monastic buildings were not ready till 1223, when the monks migrated +from Sta. Maria a Velha, their temporary home. The abbey was immensely +wealthy: it had complete jurisdiction over fourteen villages whose +inhabitants were in fact its serfs: it or its abbot was visitor to all +Benedictine abbeys in the country and was, for over three hundred years, +till the reign of Cardinal King Henry, the superior of the great +military Order of Christ. It early became one of the first centres of +learning in Portugal, having begun to teach in 1269. It helped Dom Diniz +to found the University of Lisbon, now finally settled at Coimbra, with +presents of books and of money, and it only acknowledged the king in so +far as to give him a pair of boots or shoes when he chanced to come to +Alcobaça. All these possessions and privileges of the monks were +confirmed by Dom João <span class="smcap95">iv</span>. (1640-56) after the supremacy of the Spaniards +had come to an end, and were still theirs when Beckford paid them his +memorable visit near the end of the eighteenth century and was so +splendidly entertained with feastings and even with plays and operas +performed by some of the younger brothers. Much harm was of course done +by the French invasion, and at last in 1834 the brothers were turned +out, their house made into barracks, and their church and cloister left +to fall into decay—a decay from which they are only being slowly +rescued at the present time.</p> + +<p>The first abbot, Ranulph, was sent by St. Bernard of Clairvaux himself +at the king's special request, and he must have brought with him the +plan of the abbey or at least of the church. Nearly all Cistercian +churches, which have not been altered, are of two types which resemble +each other in being very simple, having no towers and very little +ornament of any kind. In the simpler of these forms, the one which +prevailed in England, the transept is aisleless, with five or more +chapels, usually square, to the east, of which the largest, in the +centre, contains the main altar. Such are Fontenay near Monbart and +Furness in Lancashire, and even Melrose, though there the church has +been rebuilt more or less on the old plan but with a wealth of detail +and size of window quite foreign to the original rule. In the other, a +more complex type, the transept may have a western aisle, and instead of +a plain square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> chancel there is an apse with surrounding aisle and +beyond it a series of four-sided chapels. Pontigny, famous for the +shelter it gave to Thomas-à-Becket, and begun in 1114, is of this type, +and so was Clairvaux itself, begun in 1115 and rebuilt in the eighteenth +century. Now this is the type followed by Alcobaça, and it is worthy of +notice that, as far as the plan of choir and transept goes, Alcobaça and +Clairvaux are practically identical. Pontigny has a choir of three bays +between the transept and the apse and seven encircling chapels; +Clairvaux had, and Alcobaça still has, a choir of but one bay and nine +instead of seven chapels. Both had long naves, Clairvaux of eleven and +Alcobaça of thirteen bays, but at the west end there is a change, due +probably to the length of time which passed before it was reached, for +there is no trace of the large porch or narthex found in most early +Cistercian churches.</p> + +<p>The church is by far the largest in Portugal. It is altogether about 365 +feet long, the nave alone being about 250 feet by 75, while the transept +measures about 155 feet from north to south. Except in the choir all the +aisles are of the same height, about 68 feet.</p> + +<p>The east end is naturally the oldest part and most closely resembled its +French original; the eight round columns of the apse have good plain +capitals like those found in so many early Cistercian churches, even in +Italy;<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 52.">[52]</a> the round-headed clerestory windows are high and narrow, and +there are well-developed flying buttresses. Unfortunately all else has +been changed: in the apse itself everything up to the clerestory level +has been hidden by two rows of classic columns and a huge reredos, and +all the choir chapels have been filled with rococo woodwork and gilding, +the work of an Englishman, William Elsden, who was employed to beautify +the church in 1770.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 53.">[53]</a> Why except for the choir aisle, and the chapels +in choir and transept, the whole church should be of the same height, it +is difficult to say, for such a method of building was unknown in France +and equally unknown in Spain or Portugal. Possibly by the time the nave +was reached the Frenchmen who had planned the church were dead, and the +native workmen, being quite unused to such a method of construction, for +all the older vaulted churches have their central barrel upheld<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> by the +half-barrel vault of the galleries, could think of no other way of +supporting the groining of the main aisle. They had of course the flying +buttresses of the choir apse to guide them, but there the points of +support come so much closer together, and the weight to be upheld is +consequently so much less than could be the case in the nave, that they +may well have thought that to copy them was too dangerous an experiment +as well as being too foreign to their traditional manner of +construction.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 54.">[54]</a> Whatever may be the reason, the west aisle of the +transept and the side aisles of the nave rise to the full height of the +building. Their arches are naturally very much stilted, and with the +main vault rest on piers of quite unusual size and strength. The +transverse arches are so large as almost to hide the diagonal ribs and +to give the impression that the nave has, after all, a pointed barrel +vault. The piers are throughout cross-shaped with a half-shaft on each +cardinal face: at the crossing there is also a shaft in the angle, but +elsewhere this shaft is replaced by a kind of corbel capital<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 55.">[55]</a> at the +very top which carries the diagonal ribs—another proof, as is the size +of the transverse arches, that such a ribbed vault was still a +half-understood novelty. The most peculiar point about nave piers is the +way in which not only the front vaulting shafts but even that portion of +the piers to which they are attached is, except in the two western bays, +cut off at varying heights from the ground. In the six eastern bays, +where the corbels are all at the same level, this was done to leave room +for the monks' stalls,<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 56.">[56]</a> but it is difficult to see why, in the case +of the following five piers, against which, as at Clairvaux, stood the +stalls of the lay brothers, the level of the corbels should vary so +much. Now all stalls are gone and the church is very bare and desolate, +with nothing but the horrible reredos to detract from that severity and +sternness which was what St. Bernard wished to see in all churches of +the Order. (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>.)</p> + +<p>The small chapel to the west of the south transept is the only part of +the church, except the later sixteenth-century<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> sacristy, where there is +any richness of detail, and there it is confined to the tombs of some of +the earlier kings and queens, and especially to those of D. Pedro and +the unfortunate Inez de Castro which belongs of course to a much later +date.</p> + +<p>The windows which are high up the aisle walls are large, round-headed, +and perfectly plain. At the transept ends are large round windows filled +with plain uncusped circles, and there is another over the west door +filled with a rococo attempt at Gothic tracery, which agrees well with +the two domed western towers whose details are not even good rococo. +Between these towers still opens the huge west door, a very plainly +moulded pointed arch of seven orders, resting on the simple capitals of +sixteen shafts: a form of door which became very common throughout the +fourteenth century. The great cloister was rebuilt later in the time of +Dom Diniz, leaving only the chapter-house entrance, which seems even +older than the nave. As usual there is one door in the centre, with a +large two-light opening on each side: all the arches are round and well +moulded, and the capitals simply carved with stiff foliage showing a +gradual transition from the earlier romanesque. In the monastery itself, +now a barrack, there are still a few vaulted passages which must belong +to the original building, but nearly all else has been rebuilt, the main +cloister in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and the greater part +of the domestic buildings in the eighteenth, so that except for the +cloister and sacristy, which will be spoken of later on, there is little +worthy of attention.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 57.">[57]</a></p> + +<p>Now none of these buildings may show any very great originality or +differ to any marked degree from contemporary buildings in Spain or even +in the south of France, yet to a great extent they fixed a type which in +many ways was followed down to the end of the Gothic period. The plan of +Braga, Pombeiro, Evora or Coimbra is reproduced with but little change +at Guarda, and if the western towers be omitted, at Batalha, some two +hundred years later, and the flat paved roofs of Evora occur again at +Batalha and at Guarda. The barrel-vaulted nave also long survived, being +found as late as the beginning of the fourteenth century in the church +of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> Santa Clara at Coimbra, and even about seventy years later in the +church of the Knights of São Thiago at Palmella.</p> + +<p>The battlements also of the castle at Guimarães are found not only at +Coimbra, but as late as 1336 in the church of Leça do Balio near Oporto, +and, modified in shape by the renaissance even in the sixteenth-century +churches of Villa do Conde and of Azurara.</p> + +<p>Although the distinctively French features of Alcobaça seem to have had +but little influence on the further development of building in Portugal, +a few peculiarities are found there which are repeated again. For +example, the unusually large transverse arches of the nave occur at +Batalha, and the large plain western door is clearly related to such +later doors as those at Leça do Balio or of São Francisco at Oporto. +Again the vaulting of the apse in São João de Alporão is arranged very +much in the way which was almost universal during the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries in the chancels and side chapels of many a church, +such as Santa Maria do Olival at Thomar, or the Graça at Santarem +itself, and the curious boat-like corbels of São João are found more +than once, as in the choir of the old church, formerly the cathedral of +Silves, far south in the Algarve. The large round windows at Evora do +not seem to be related to the window at São João, but to be of some +independent origin; probably, like the similar windows at Leça and at +Oporto, they too belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<p class="head">THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF +ALJUBARROTA</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">n</span> Portugal the twelfth century is marked by a very considerable +activity in building, but the thirteenth, which in France and England +saw Gothic architecture rise to a height of perfection both in +construction and in ornament which was never afterwards excelled, when +more great churches and cathedrals were built than almost ever before or +since, seems here to have been the least productive period in the whole +history of the country. In the thirteenth century, indeed, Portugal +reached its widest European limits, but the energies, alike of the kings +and of the people, seem to have been expended rather in consolidating +their conquests and in cultivating and inhabiting the large regions of +land left waste by the long-continued struggle. Although Dom Sancho's +kingdom only extended from the Minho to the Tagus, in the early years of +the thirteenth century the rich provinces of Beira, and still more of +Estremadura, were very thinly peopled: the inhabitants lived only in +walled towns, and their one occupation was fighting, and plunder almost +their only way of gaining a living. It is natural then that so few +buildings should remain which date from the reigns of Dom Sancho's +successors, Affonso <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> (1211-1223), Sancho <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> (1223-1248), and Affonso +<span class="smcap95">iii.</span> (1248-1279): the necessary churches and castles had been built at +once after the conquest, and the people had neither the leisure nor the +means to replace them by larger and more refined structures as was being +done elsewhere. Of course some churches described in the last chapter +may be actually of that period though belonging artistically and +constructionally to an earlier time, as for instance a large part of the +cathedral of Evora or the church of São João at Santarem.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Francisco, Guimarães.</div> + +<p>The Franciscans had been introduced into Portugal by Dona Sancha, the +daughter of Dom Sancho <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, and houses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> were built for them by Dona +Urraca, the wife of Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, at Lisbon and at Guimarães. Their +church at Guimarães has been very much altered at different times, +mostly in the eighteenth century, but the west door may very well belong +to Dona Urraca's building. It has a drip-mould covered with closely set +balls, and four orders of mouldings of which the second is a broad +chamfer with a row of flat four-leaved flowers; the abacus is well +moulded, but the capitals, which are somewhat bell-shaped, have the bell +covered with rude animals or foliage which are still very romanesque in +design. The entrance to the chapter-house is probably not much later in +date: from the south walk of the simple but picturesque renaissance +cloister a plain pointed doorway leads into the chapter-house, with, on +either side, an opening of about equal size and shape. In these openings +there stand three pairs of round coupled shafts with plain bases, rudely +carved capitals and large square overhanging abaci, from which spring +two pointed arches moulded only on the under side: resting on these, but +connected with them or with the enclosing arch by no moulding or fillet, +is a small circle, moulded like the arches only on one side and +containing a small quatrefoil.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 58.">[58]</a> This is one of the earliest attempts +at window tracery in the country, for the west window at Evora seems +later, but like it, it shows that tracery was not really understood in +the country, and that the Portuguese builders were not yet able so to +unite the different parts as to make such a window one complete and +beautiful whole. Indeed so unsuccessful are their attempts throughout +that whenever, as at Batalha, a better result is seen, it may be put +down to foreign influence. Much better as a rule are the round windows, +mostly of the fourteenth century, but they are all very like one +another, and are probably mostly derived from the same source, perhaps +from one of the transept windows at Evora, or from the now empty circle +over the west door at Lisbon.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São Francisco, Santarem.</div> + +<p>Much more refined than this granite church at Guimarães has been São +Francisco at Santarem, now unfortunately degraded into being the stable +of a cavalry barracks. There the best-preserved and most interesting +part is the west door, which does not lead directly into the church but +into a low<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span> porch or narthex. The narthex itself has central and side +aisles, all of the same height, is two bays in length and is covered by +a fine strong vault resting on short clustered piers.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 59.">[59]</a> The doorway +itself, which is not acutely pointed, stands under a gable which reaches +up to the plain battlemented parapet of the flat narthex roof. There are +four shafts on each side with a ring-moulding rather less than half-way +up, which at once distinguishes them from any romanesque predecessors; +the capitals are round with a projecting moulding half-way up and +another one at the top with a curious projection or claw to unite the +round cap and the square moulded abacus. Of the different orders of the +arch, all well moulded, the outer has a hood with billet-mould; the +second a well-developed chevron or zigzag; and the innermost a series of +small horseshoes, which like the chevron stretch across the hollow so as +to hold in the large roll at the angle.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 60.">[60]</a> (<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Santa Maria dos Olivaes, Thomar.</div> + +<p>In a previous chapter the building of a church at Thomar by Dom Gualdim +Paes, Grand Master of the Templars, has been mentioned. Of this church +and the castle built at the same time, both of which stood on the east +or flat bank of the river Nabão, nothing now remains except perhaps the +lower part of the detached bell-tower. This church, Santa Maria dos +Olivaes, was the Matriz or mother church of all those held, first by the +Templars and later by their successors, the Order of Christ, not only in +Portugal but even in Africa, Brazil, and in India. Of so high a dignity +it is scarcely worthy, being but a very simple building neither large +nor richly ornamented. A nave and aisles of five bays, three polygonal +apses to the east and later square chapels beyond the aisles, make up +the whole building. The roofs are all of panelled wood of the sixteenth +century except in the three vaulted apses, of which the central is +entered by an arch, which, rising no higher than the aisle arches, +leaves room for a large window under the roof. All the arches of the +aisle arcade spring from the simple moulded capitals of piers whose +section is that of four half-octagons placed together.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a> +<a href="images/i018_fig_26.png"> +<img src="images/i018_fig_26_th.png" width="275" height="367" alt="FIG. 26.SantaremW. Door, São Francisco." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 26.<br />Santarem<br />W. Door, São Francisco.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a> +<a href="images/i018_fig_27.png"> +<img src="images/i018_fig_27_th.png" width="275" height="353" alt="FIG. 27.Sé Silves." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 27.<br />Sé Silves.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span>In the clerestory are windows of one small light, in the aisles of two larger +lights, and in the apses single lancets. The great simplicity of the +building notwithstanding it can scarcely be as old as the thirteenth +century: the curious way in which the two lancet lights of the aisle +windows are enclosed under one larger trefoiled arch recalls the similar +windows in the church at Leça do Balio near Oporto begun in 1336, though +there the elliptical head of the enclosing arch is much less +satisfactory than the trefoiled head here used. The only part of the +church which can possibly have been built in the thirteenth century is +the central part of the west front. The pointed door below stands under +a projecting gable like that at São Francisco Santarem, except that +there is a five-foiled circle above the arch containing a pentalpha, put +there perhaps to keep out witches. The door itself has three large +shafts on each side with good but much-decayed capitals of foliage, and +a moulded jamb next the door. The arch itself is terribly decayed, but +one of its orders still has the remains of a series of large cusps, +arranged like the horseshoe cusps at Santarem but much larger. Above the +door gable is a circular window of almost disproportionate size. It has +twelve trefoil-headed lights radiating from a small circle, and +curiously crossing a larger circle some distance from the smaller. +Unfortunately the spaces between the trefoils and the outer mouldings +have been filled up with plaster and the lights themselves subdivided +with meaningless wood tracery to hold the horrible blue-and-red glass +now so popular in Portugal. Though Santa Maria dos Olivaes cannot be +nearly as old as has usually been believed, it is one of the earliest +churches built on the plan derived perhaps first from Braga Cathedral or +from the Franciscan and Dominican churches in Galicia, of a wooden +roofed basilica with or without transept, and with three or more apses +to the east; a form which to the end of the Gothic period was the most +common and which is found even in cathedrals as at Silves or at Funchal +in Madeira.</p> + +<p>Dom Sancho <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, whose reign had begun with brilliant attacks on the +Moors, had, because of his connection with Dona Mencia de Haro, the +widow of a Castilian nobleman, and his consequent inactivity, become +extremely unpopular, so was supplanted in 1246 by his brother Dom +Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> The first care of the new king was to carry on the +conquest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Silves.</div> + +<p class="non">of the Algarve, which his brother had given up when he fell under the +evil influence of Dona Mencia, and by about 1260 he had overrun the +whole country. At first Alfonso x., the Wise, king of Castile and Leon, +was much displeased at this extension of Portuguese power, but on Dom +Affonso agreeing to marry his daughter Beatriz de Guzman, the Spanish +king allowed his son-in-law to retain his conquests and to assume the +title of King of the Algarve, a title which his descendants still bear. +The countess of Boulogne, Affonso's first wife, was indeed still alive, +but that seems to have troubled neither Dona Beatriz nor her father. At +Silves or Chelb, for so the Moorish capital had been called, a bishopric +was soon founded, but the cathedral,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 61.">[61]</a> though many of its details seem +to proclaim an early origin, was probably not begun till the early, and +certainly not finished till near the later, years of the fourteenth +century. It is a church of the same type as Santa Maria at Thomar but +with a transept. The west door, a smaller edition of that at Alcobaça, +leads to a nave and aisles of four bays, with plain octagonal columns, +whose bases exactly resemble the capitals reversed—an octagon brought +to a square by a curved chamfer. The nave has a wooden roof, transepts a +pointed barrel vault, and the crossing and chancel with its side chapels +a ribbed vault. Though some of the capitals at the east end look almost +romanesque, the really late date is shown by the cusped fringing of the +chancel arch, a feature very common at Batalha, which was begun at the +end of the fourteenth century, and by the window tracery, where in the +two-light windows the head is filled by a flat pierced slab. Outside, +the chancel has good buttresses at the angles, and is crowned by that +curious boat-like corbel table seen at Santarem and by a row of +pyramidal battlements. The church is only about 150 feet long, but with +its two picturesque and dilapidated towers, and the wonderful deep +purple of its sandstone walls rising above the whitewashed houses and +palms of the older Silves and backed by the Moorish citadel, it makes a +most picturesque and even striking centre to the town, which, standing +high above the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> river, preserves the memory of its Moslem builders in +its remarkable and many-towered city walls.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 62.">[62]</a> (<a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Beja.</div> + +<p>King Diniz the Labourer, so called for his energy in settling and +reclaiming the land and in fixing the moving sands along the west coast +by plantations of pine-trees, and the son of Dom Affonso and Dona +Beatriz, was a more active builder than any of his immediate +predecessors. Of the many castles built by him the best preserved is +that of Beja, the second town of Alemtejo and the Pax Julia of Roman +times. The keep, built about 1310, is a great square tower over a +hundred feet high. Some distance from the top it becomes octagonal, with +the square fortified by corbelled balconies projecting far out over the +corners. Inside are several stories of square halls finely vaulted with +massive octagonal vaults; below, the windows are little more than slits, +but on one floor there are larger two-light pointed openings.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 63.">[63]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Leiria.</div> + +<p>Far finer and larger has been the castle of Leiria, some fifty miles +south of Coimbra: it or the keep was begun by Dom Diniz in 1324.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 64.">[64]</a> The +rock on which it stands, in steepness and in height recalls that of +Edinburgh Castle, but without the long slope of the old town leading +nearly to the summit: towering high above Leiria it is further defended +on the only accessible quarter by the river Lis which runs round two +sides not far from the bottom of the steep descent. Unfortunately all is +ruined, only enough remaining to show that on the steepest edge of the +rock there stood a palace with large pointed windows looking out over +the town to the green wooded hills beyond. On the highest part stands +what is left of the keep, and a little lower the castle-church whose +bell-tower, built over the gate, served to defend the only access to the +inner fortification. This church, built about the same time, with a now +roofless nave which was never vaulted, is entered by a door on the +south, and has a polygonal vaulted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span> apse. The mouldings of the door as +well as the apse vault and its tall two-light windows show a greater +delicacy and refinement than is seen in almost any earlier building, and +some of the carving has once been of great beauty, especially of the +boss at the centre of the apse.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 65.">[65]</a></p> + +<p>But besides those two castles there is another building of this period +which had a greater and more lasting effect on the work of this +fourteenth century. In England the arrival of the Cistercians and the +new style introduced or rather developed by them seems almost more than +anything else to have determined the direction of the change from what +is usually, perhaps wrongly,<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 66.">[66]</a> called Norman to Early English, but in +Portugal the great foundation of Alcobaça was apparently powerless to +have any such marked effect except in the one case of cloisters. Now +with the exception of the anomalous and much later Claustro Real at +Batalha, all cloisters in Portugal, before the renaissance, follow two +types: one, which is clearly only a modification of the continuous +romanesque arcades resting on coupled shafts, has usually a wooden roof, +and consists of a row of coupled shafts bearing pointed arches, and +sometimes interrupted at intervals by square piers; this form of +cloister is found at Santo Thyrso near Guimarães, at São Domingos in +Guimarães itself, and in the Cemetery cloister built by Prince Henry the +Navigator at Thomar in the fifteenth century.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Cloister, Cellas.</div> + +<p>The most remarkable of all the cloisters of the first type is that of +the nunnery of Cellas near Coimbra. Founded in 1210 by Dona Sancha, +daughter of Sancho <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, the nunnery is now a blind asylum. The cloister, +with round arches and coupled columns, seems thoroughly romanesque in +character, as are also the capitals. It is only on looking closer that +the real date is seen, for the figures on the capitals, which are carved +with scenes such as the beheading of St. John the Baptist, are all +dressed in the fashion that prevailed under Dom Diniz—about 1300—while +the foliage on others, though still romanesque in arrangement, is much +later in detail. More than half of the arcades were rebuilt in the +seventeenth century, but enough remains to make the cloister of Cellas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span> +one of the most striking examples of the survival of old forms and +methods of building which in less remote countries had been given up +more than a hundred years before.</p> + +<p>The church, though small, is not without interest. It has a round nave +of Dom Manoel's time with a nuns' choir to the west and a chancel to the +east, and is entered by a picturesque door of the later sixteenth +century.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Cloister, Coimbra.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Cloister, Alcobaça.</div> + +<p>More interesting is the second type which was commonly used when a +cloister with a vault was wanted; and of it there are still examples to +be seen at the Sé Velha Coimbra, at Alcobaça, Lisbon Cathedral, Evora, +and Oporto. None of these five examples are exactly alike, but they +resemble each other sufficiently to make it probable that they are all, +ultimately at least, derived from one common source, and there can be no +doubt that that source was Cistercian. In France what was perhaps its +very first beginnings may be seen in the Cistercian abbey of Fontenay +near Monbart, where in each bay there are two round arches enclosed +under one larger round arch. This was further developed at Fontfroide +near Narbonne, where an arcade of four small round arches under a large +pointed arch carries a thin wall pierced by a large round circle. Of the +different Portuguese examples the oldest may very well be that at +Coimbra which differs only from Fontfroide in having an arcade of two +arches in each bay instead of one of four, but even though it may be a +little older than the large cloister of Alcobaça, it must have been due +to Cistercian influence. The great Claustro do Silencio at Alcobaça was, +as an inscription tells, begun in the year 1310,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 67.">[67]</a> when on April 13th +the first stone was laid by the abbot in the presence of the master +builder Domingo Domingues.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 68.">[68]</a> In this case each bay has an arcade of +two or three pointed arches resting on coupled columns with strong +buttresses between each bay, but the enclosing arch is not pointed as at +Coimbra or Fontfroide but segmental and springs from square jambs at the +level of the top of the buttresses, and the circles have been all filled +with pierced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> slabs, some of which have ordinary quatrefoils and some +much more intricate patterns, though in no case do they show the Moorish +influence which is so noticeable at Evora. On the north side projects +the lavatory, an apsidal building with two stories of windows and with +what in France would be regarded as details of the thirteenth century +and not, as is really the case, of the fourteenth. A few bays on the +west walk seem rather later than the rest, as the arches of the arcade +are trefoil-headed, while the upper part of a small projection on the +south side which now contains a stair, as well as the upper cloister to +which it leads, were added by João de Castilho for Cardinal Prince +Henry, son of Dom Manoel, and commendator of the abbey in 1518. (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Cloister, Lisbon.</div> + +<p>In the cloister at Lisbon which seems to be of about the same date, and +which, owing to the nature of the site, runs round the back of the +choir, there is no outer containing arch, and in some bays there are two +large circles instead of one, but in every other respect, except that +some of the round openings are adorned with a ring of dog-tooth +moulding, the details are very similar, the capitals and bases being all +of good thirteenth-century French form.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 69.">[69]</a> (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Cloister, Oporto.</div> + +<p>If the cloister at Evora, which was built in 1376 and has already been +described, is the one which departs furthest from the original type, +retaining only the round opening, that of the cathedral of Oporto, built +in 1385, comes nearer to Fontfroide than any of the others. Here each +bay is designed exactly like the French example except that the small +arches are pointed, that the large openings are chamfered instead of +moulded, and that there are buttresses between each bay. The capitals +which are rather tall are carved with rather shallow leaves, but the +most noticeable features are the huge square moulded abaci which are so +large as to be more like those of the romanesque cloisters at Moissac or +of Sta. Maria del Sar at Santiago than any fourteenth-century work.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Sta. Clara, Coimbra.</div> + +<p>The most important church of the time of Dom Diniz is, or rather was, +that of the convent of Poor Clares founded at Coimbra by his wife St. +Isabel. Although a good king, Diniz had not been a good husband, and the +queen's sorrows had been still further increased by the rebellion of</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a> +<a href="images/i019_fig_28.png"> +<img src="images/i019_fig_28_th.png" width="275" height="341" alt="FIG 28.Alcobaça.Cloister of Dom Diniz, or do Silencio." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG 28.<br />Alcobaça.<br />Cloister of Dom Diniz, or do Silencio.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a> +<a href="images/i019_fig_29.png"> +<img src="images/i019_fig_29_th.png" width="275" height="338" alt="FIG. 29.LisbonCathedral Cloister." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 29.<br />Lisbon<br />Cathedral Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>her son, afterwards Affonso <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, a rebellion to which Isabel was able to +put an end by interposing between her husband and her son. When St. +Isabel died in 1327, two years after her husband, the church was not yet +quite finished, but it must have been so soon after. Unfortunately the +annual floods of the Mondego and the sands which they bring down led to +the abandonment of the church in the seventeenth century, and have so +buried it that the floor of the barn—for that is the use to which it is +now put—is almost level with the springing of the aisle arches, but +enough is left to show what the church was like, and were not its date +well assured no one would believe it to be later than the end of the +twelfth century. The chancel, which was aisleless and lower than the +rest of the church, is gone, but the nave and its aisles are still in a +tolerable state of preservation, though outside all the detail has been +destroyed except one round window on the south side filled in with white +marble tracery of a distinctly Italian type, and the corbel table of the +boat-keel shape. The inside is most unusual for a church of the +fourteenth century. The central aisle has a pointed barrel vault +springing from a little above the aisle arches, while the aisles +themselves have an ordinary cross vault. All the capitals too look +early, and the buttresses broad and rather shallow. (<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Leça do Balio.</div> + +<p>A few miles north of Oporto on the banks of the clear stream of the Leça +a monastery for men and women had been founded in 986. In the course of +the next hundred years it had several times fallen into decay and been +restored, till about the year 1115 when it was handed over to the +Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem and so became their +headquarters in Portugal. The church had been rebuilt by Abbot Guntino +some years before the transfer took place, and had in time become +ruinous, so that in 1336 it was rebuilt by Dom Frei Estevão Vasques +Pimentel, the head of the Order. This church still stands but little +altered since the fourteenth century, and though not a large or splendid +building it is the most complete and unaltered example of that +thoroughly national plan and style which, developed in the previous +century, was seen at Thomar and will be seen again in many later +examples. The church consists of a nave and aisles of four bays, +transepts higher than the side but lower than the centre aisle of the +nave, three vaulted apses to the east, and at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> the south-west corner a +square tower. Like many Portuguese buildings Sta. Maria de Leça do Balio +looks at first sight a good deal earlier than is really the case. The +west and the south doors, which are almost exactly alike, except that +the south door is surmounted by a gable, have three shafts on each side +with early-looking capitals and plain moulded archivolts, and within +these, jambs moulded at the angles bearing an inner order whose flat +face is carved with a series of circles enclosing four and five-leaved +flowers. Above the west door runs a projecting gallery whose parapet, +like all the other parapets of the church, is defended by a close-set +row of pointed battlements. Above the gallery is a large rose-window in +which twelve spokes radiate from a cusped circle in the middle to the +circumference, where the lights so formed are further enriched by cusped +semicircles. The aisle and clerestory windows show an unusual attempt to +include two lancets into one window by carrying on the outer framing of +the window till it meets above the mullion in a kind of pendant +arch.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 70.">[70]</a></p> + +<p>The square tower is exceedingly plain, without string course or buttress +to mitigate its severity. Half-way up on the west side is a small window +with a battlemented balcony in front projecting out on three great +corbels; higher up are plain belfry windows. At the top, square +balconies or bartizans project diagonally from the corners; the whole, +though there are but three pyramidal battlements on each side, being +even more strongly fortified than the rest of the church. Now in the +fourteenth century such fortification of a church can hardly have been +necessary, and they were probably built rather to show that the church +belonged to a military order than with any idea of defence. The inside +is less interesting, the pointed arches are rather thin and the capitals +poor, the only thing much worthy of notice being the font, belonging to +the time of change from Gothic to Renaissance, and given in 1512.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 71.">[71]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Chancel, Sé, Lisbon.</div> + +<p>Of the other buildings of the time of Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">iv.</span> who succeeded his +father Diniz in 1328 the most important</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> +<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a> +<a href="images/i020_fig_30.png"> +<img src="images/i020_fig_30_th.png" width="430" height="550" alt="FIG. 30.CoimbraSta. Clara." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 30.<br />Coimbra<br />Sta. Clara.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>has been the choir of the cathedral at Lisbon; the church had been much +injured by an earthquake in 1344 and the whole east end was at once +rebuilt on the French plan, otherwise unexampled in Portugal except by +the twelfth-century choir at Alcobaça. Unfortunately the later and more +terrible earthquake of 1755 so ruined the whole building that of Dom +Affonso's work only the surrounding aisle and its chapels remain. The +only point which calls for notice is that the chapels are considerably +lower than the aisle so as to admit of a window between the chapel arch +and the aisle vault. All the chapels have good vaulting and simple +two-light windows, and capitals well carved with naturalistic foliage. +In one chapel, that of SS. Cosmo and Damião, screened off by a very good +early wrought-iron grill, are the tombs of Lopo Fernandes Pacheco and of +his second wife Maria Rodrigues. Dona Maria, lying on a stone +sarcophagus, which stands on four short columns, and whose sides are +adorned with four shields with the arms of her father, Ruy di Villa +Lobos, has her head protected by a carved canopy and holds up in her +hands an open book which, from her position, she could scarcely hope to +read.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 72.">[72]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Royal tombs, Alcobaça. (<a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>.)</div> + +<p>Far more interesting both historically and artistically than these +memorials at Lisbon are the royal tombs in the small chapel opening off +the south transepts of the abbey church at Alcobaça. This vaulted +chapel, two bays deep and three wide, was probably built about the same +time as the cloister, and has good clustered piers and well-carved +capitals. On the floor stand three large royal tombs and two smaller for +royal children, and in deep recesses in the north and south walls, four +others. Only the three larger standing clear of the walls call for +notice; and of these one is that of Dona Beatriz, the wife of Dom +Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, who died in 1279, the same lady who married Dom Affonso +while his wife the countess of Boulogne was still alive. Her tomb, which +stands high above the ground on square columns with circular ringed +shafts at the corners, was clearly not made for Dona Beatriz herself, +but for some one else at least a hundred years before. It is of a white +marble, sadly mutilated at one corner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> by French treasure-seekers, and +has on each side a romanesque arcade with an apostle, in quite archaic +style, seated under each arch; at the ends are large groups of seated +figures, and on the sloping lid Dona Beatriz herself, in very shallow +relief, evidently carved out of the old roof-shaped cover, which not +being very thick did not admit of any deep cutting. Far richer, indeed +more elaborate than almost any other fourteenth-century tombs, are those +of Dom Pedro <span class="smcap95">i.</span> who died in 1367, and of Inez de Castro who was murdered +in 1355. When only sixteen years old Dom Pedro, to strengthen his father +Affonso the Fourth's alliance with Castile, had been married to Dona +Costança, daughter of the duke of Penafiel. In her train there came as a +lady-in-waiting Dona Inez de Castro, the daughter of the high +chamberlain of Castile, and with her Dom Pedro soon fell in love. As +long as his wife, who was the mother of King Fernando, lived no one +thought much of his connection with Dona Inez, or of that with Dona +Thereza Lourenço, whose son afterwards became the great liberator, King +João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, but after Dona Costança's death it was soon seen that he loved +Dona Inez more than any one had imagined, and he was believed even to +have married her. This, and his refusal to accept any of the royal +princesses chosen by his father, so enraged Dom Affonso that he +determined to have Dona Inez killed, and this was done by three knights +on 7th January 1355 in the Quinta das Lagrimas—that is, the Garden of +Tears—near Coimbra. Dom Pedro, who was away hunting in the south, would +have rebelled against his father, but was persuaded by the queen to +submit after he had devastated all the province of Minho. Two years +later Dom Affonso died, and after Dom Pedro had caught and tortured to +death two of the murderers—the third escaped to Castile—he in 1361 had +Dona Inez's body removed from its grave, dressed in the royal robes and +crowned, and swearing that he had really married her, he compelled all +the court to pay her homage and to kiss her hand: then the body was +placed on a bier and carried by night to the place prepared for it at +Alcobaça, some seventy miles away. When six years later, in 1367, he +came to die himself he left directions that they should be buried with +their feet towards one another, that at the resurrection the first thing +he should see should be Dona Inez rising from her tomb. Unfortunately +the French soldiers in 1810 broke open both tombs,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> smashing away much +fine carved work and scattering their bones.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 73.">[73]</a> The two tombs are much +alike in design and differ only in detail; both rest on four lions; the +sides, above a narrow border of sunk quatrefoils, are divided by tiny +buttresses rising from behind the gables of small niches into six parts, +each of which has an arch under a gable whose tympanum is filled with +the most minute tracery. Each of these arches is cusped and foliated +differently according to the nature of the figure subject it contains. +Behind the tops of the gables and pinnacles of the buttresses runs a +small arcade with beautiful little figures only a few inches high: above +this a still more delicate arcade runs round the whole tomb, interrupted +at regular intervals by shields, charged on Dom Pedro's tomb with the +arms of Portugal and on that of Dona Inez with the same and with those +of the Castros alternately. At the foot of Dom Pedro's is represented +the Crucifixion, and facing it on that of Dona Inez the Last Judgment. +Nothing can exceed the delicacy and beauty of the figure sculpture, the +drapery is all good, and the smallest heads and hands are worked with a +care not to be surpassed in any country. (<a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>.)</p> + +<p>On the top of one lies King Pedro with his head to the north, on the +other Dona Inez with hers to the south; both are life size and are as +well wrought as are the smaller details below. Both have on each side +three angels who seem to be just about to lift them from where they lie +or to have just laid them down. These angels, especially those near Dom +Pedro's head, are perhaps the finest parts of either tomb, with their +beautiful drapery, their well-modelled wings, and above all with the +outstretching of their arms towards the king and Dona Inez. There seems +to be no record as to who worked or designed these tombs, but there can +be little or no doubt that he was a Frenchman, the whole feeling, alike +of the architectural detail and the figures themselves, is absolutely +French; there had been no previous figure sculpture in the country in +any way good enough to lead up to the skill in design and in execution +here shown, nor, with regard to the mere archi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>tectural detail, had +Gothic tracery and ornament yet been sufficiently developed for a native +workman to have invented the elaborate cuspings, mouldings, and other +enrichments which make both tombs so pre-eminent above all that came +before them.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 74.">[74]</a> These tombs, as indeed the whole church, as well as the +neighbouring convent of Batalha, are constructed of a wonderfully fine +limestone, which seems to be practically the same as Caen Stone, and +which, soft and easy to cut when first quarried, grows harder with +exposure and in time, when not in a too shady or damp position, where it +gets black, takes on a most beautiful rich yellow colour.</p> + +<p>These tombs, beautiful as they are, do not seem to have any very direct +influence on the work of the next century: it is true that a distinct +advance was made in modelling the effigies of those who lay below, but +apart from that the decoration of these high tombs is in no case even +remotely related to that of the later monuments at Batalha; nor, except +that the national method of church planning was more firmly established +than ever, and that some occasional features such as the cuspings on the +arch-mould of the door of São Francisco Santarem, which are copied on an +archaistic door at Batalha, are found in later work, is there much to +point to the great advance that was soon to be made alike in detail and +in construction.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a> +<a href="images/i021_fig_31.png"> +<img src="images/i021_fig_31_th.png" width="275" height="346" alt="FIG. 31.Alcobaça.>Chapel with Royal Tombs.Dom Pedro and Dona Beatriz.)" /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 31.<br />Alcobaça.<br />Chapel with Royal Tombs.<br />(Dom Pedro and Dona Beatriz.)</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a> +<a href="images/i021_fig_32.png"> +<img src="images/i021_fig_32_th.png" width="275" height="346" alt="FIG. 32.Alcobaça.Tomb of Dom Pedro i." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 32.<br />Alcobaça.<br />Tomb of Dom Pedro i.</span><br /> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<p class="head">BATALHA AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL</p> + + +<p>T<span class="smcap95">owards</span> the end of the fourteenth century came the most important and +critical years that Portugal had yet known. Dom Pedro, dying after a +reign of only ten years, was succeeded by his only legitimate son, +Fernando, in 1367. Unfortunately the new king at his sister's wedding +saw and fell in love with the wife of a northern nobleman, and soon +openly married this Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, though he was himself +already betrothed to a Castilian princess, and though her own husband +was still alive. At the first court or Beja Manos held by Dona Leonor at +Leça near Oporto, all the Portuguese nobility except Dom Diniz, the +king's half-brother and a son of Inez de Castro, acknowledged her as +queen. But soon the evil influence she exercised over the king and the +stories of her cruelty made her extremely unpopular and even hated by +the whole nation. The memory of the vengeance she took on her own +sister, Dona Maria Telles, is preserved by an interesting old house in +Coimbra which has indeed been rebuilt since, in the early sixteenth +century, but is still called the House of the Telles. To the dislike +Queen Leonor felt for the sons of Inez de Castro, owing to Dom Diniz's +refusal to kiss her hand, was added the hatred she had borne her sister, +who was married to Dom João, another son of Dona Inez, ever since this +sister Dona Maria had warned her to have nothing to do with the king; +she was also jealous because Dona Maria had had a son while her own two +eldest children had died. So plotting to be rid of them both, she at +last persuaded Dom João that his wife was not faithful to him, and sent +him full of anger to that house at Coimbra where Dona Maria was living +and where, without even giving his wife time to speak, he stabbed her to +death. Soon after Dona Leonor came in and laughed at him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> for having +believed her lies so as to kill his own wife. Failing to kill the queen, +Dom João fled to Castile.</p> + +<p>When Dom Fernando himself died in 1383 he left his widow as regent of +the kingdom on behalf of their only daughter, Dona Brites, whom they had +married to Don Juan <span class="smcap95">i.</span> of Castile. It was of course bad enough for the +nation to find itself under the regency of such a woman, but to be +absorbed by Castile and Leon was more than could be endured. So a great +Cortes was held at Coimbra, and Dom João, grand master of the Order of +Aviz, and the son of Dom Pedro and Dona Thereza Lourenço, was elected +king. The new king at once led his people against the invaders, and +after twice defeating them met them for the final struggle at +Aljubarrota, near Alcobaça, on 14th August 1385. The battle raged all +day till at last the Castilian king fled with all his army, leaving his +tent with its rich furniture and all his baggage. Before the enemy had +been driven from the little town of Aljubarrota, the wife of the village +baker made herself famous by killing nine Spaniards with her wooden +baking shovel—a shovel which may still be seen on the town arms. When +all was over Dom João dedicated the spoil he had taken in the Castilian +king's tent to Our Lady of the Olive Tree at Guimarães where may still +be seen, with many other treasures, a large silver-gilt triptych of the +Nativity and one of the silver angels from off the royal altar.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 75.">[75]</a> +Besides this, he had promised if victorious to rebuild the church at +Guimarães and to found where the victory had been won a monastery as a +thankoffering for his success.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Batalha.</div> + +<p>This vow was fulfilled two years later in 1387 by building the great +convent of Sta. Maria da Victoria or Batalha, that is Battle, at a place +then called Pinhal<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 76.">[76]</a> in a narrow valley some nine or ten miles north +of Aljubarrota and seven south of Leiria. Meanwhile John of Gaunt had +landed in Galicia with a large army to try and win Castile and Leon, +which he claimed for his wife Constance, elder daughter of Pedro the +Cruel; marching through Galicia he met Dom João at Oporto in February +1387, and then the Treaty of Windsor, which had been signed the year +before and which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> had declared the closest union of friendship and +alliance to exist between England and Portugal, was further strengthened +by the marriage of King João to Philippa, the daughter of John of Gaunt +and of his first wife, Blanche of Lancaster. Soon after, the peace of +the Peninsula was assured by the marriage of Catherine, the only child +of John of Gaunt and of Constance of Castile, to Enrique, Prince of the +Asturias and heir to the throne of Castile.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 493px;"> +<a href="images/i022_plan_batalha.png"> +<img src="images/i022_plan_batalha_th.png" width="493" height="400" alt="PLAN OF BATALHA" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF BATALHA</span> +</div> + +<p>But it is time now to turn from the history of the foundation of Batalha +to the buildings themselves, and surely no more puzzling building than +the church is to be found anywhere. The plan, indeed, of the church, +omitting the Capella do Fundador and the great Capellas Imperfeitas, +presents no difficulty as it is only a repetition of the already +well-known and national arrangement of nave with aisles, an aisleless +transept, with in this case five apsidal chapels to the east. Now in all +this there is nothing the least unusual or different from what might be +expected, except perhaps that the nave, of eight bays, is rather longer +than in any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> previous example. But the church was built to commemorate a +great national deliverance, and by a king who had just won immense booty +from his defeated enemy, and so was naturally built on a great and +imposing scale.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 77.">[77]</a></p> + +<p>The first architect, Affonso Domingues, perhaps a grandson of the +Domingo Domingues who built the cloister at Alcobaça, is said to have +been born at Lisbon and so, as might have been expected, his plan shows +no trace at all of foreign influence. And yet even this ordinary plan +has been compared by a German writer to that of the nave and transepts +of Canterbury Cathedral, a most unlikely model to be followed, as +Chillenden, who there carried out the transformation of Lanfranc's nave, +did not become prior till 1390, three years after Batalha had been +begun.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 78.">[78]</a> But though it is easy enough to show that the plan is not +English but quite national and Portuguese, it is not so easy to say what +the building itself is. Affonso Domingues died in 1402, and was +succeeded by a man whose name is spelt in a great variety of ways, +Ouguet, Huguet, or Huet, and to whom most of the building apart from the +plan must have been due. His name sounds more French than anything else, +but the building is not at all French except in a few details. +Altogether it is not at all easy to say whence those peculiarities of +tracery and detail which make Batalha so strange and unusual a building +were derived, except that there had been in Portugal nothing to lead up +to such tracery or to such elaboration of detail, or to the constructive +skill needed to build the high groined vaults of the nave or the +enormous span required to cover the chapter-house. Perhaps it may be +better to describe the church first outside and then in, and then see if +it is possible to discover from the details themselves whence they can +have come.</p> + +<p>The five eastern apses, of which the largest in the centre is also twice +as high as the other four, are probably the oldest part of the building, +but all, except the two outer apses and the upper part of the central, +have been concealed by the Pateo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> built by Dom Manoel to unite the +church with the Capellas Imperfeitas, or unfinished chapels, beyond. +Here there is nothing very unusual: the smaller chapels all end in +three-sided apses, at whose angles are buttresses, remarkable only for +the great number of string courses, five in all, which divide them +horizontally; these buttresses are finished by two offsets just below a +plain corbel table which is now crowned by an elaborately pierced and +cusped parapet which may well have been added later. Each side of the +apse has one tall narrow single-light window which, filled at some later +date from top to bottom with elaborate stone tracery, has two thin +shafts at each side and a rather bluntly-pointed head. The central apse +has been much the same but with five sides, and two stories of similar +windows one above the other. So far there is nothing unexpected or what +could not easily have been developed from already existing buildings, +such as the church at Thomar or the Franciscan and Dominican churches no +further away than Pontevedra in Galicia.</p> + +<p>Coming to the south transept, there is a large doorway below under a +crocketed gable flanked by a tall pinnacle on either side. This door +with its thirteenth-century mouldings is one of the most curious and +unexpected features of the whole building. Excepting that the capitals +are well carved with leaves, it is a close copy of the west door of São +Francisco at Santarem. Here the horseshoe cuspings are on the out-most +of the five orders of mouldings, and the chevron on the fourth, while +there is also a series of pointed cusps on the second. Only the +innermost betrays its really late origin by the curious crossing and +interpenetrating of the mouldings of its large trefoiled head. All this +is thoroughly Portuguese and clearly derived from what had gone before; +but the same cannot be said for the crockets or for the pinnacles with +their square and gabled spirelets. These crockets are of the common +vine-leaf shape such as was used in England and also in France early in +the fourteenth century, while the two-storied pinnacles with shallow +traceried panels on each face, and still more the square spirelets with +rather large crockets and a large bunchy finial, are not at all French, +but a not bad imitation of contemporary English work. On the gable above +the door are two square panels, each containing a coat-of-arms set in a +cusped quatrefoil, while the vine-leaves which fill in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span> surface +between the quatrefoils and the outer mouldings of the square, as also +those on the crowns which surmount the coats, are also quite English. +The elaborate many-sided canopies above are not so much so in form +though they might well have been evolved from English detail. Above the +gable comes another English feature, a very large three-light window +running up to the very vault; at the top the mullions of each light are +carried up so as to intersect, with cusped circles filling in each +space, while the whole window to the top is filled with a veil of small +reticulated tracery. Above the top of the large window there is a band +of reticulated panelling whose shafts run down till they reach the +crocketed hood-mould of the window: and above this an elaborately +pierced and foliated parapet between the square pinnacles of the angle +buttresses, which like these of the apses are remarkable for the +extraordinary number (ten) of offsets and string courses.</p> + +<p>The next five bays of the nave as well as the whole north side (which +has no buttresses) above the cloister are all practically alike; the +buttresses, pinnacles and parapet are just the same as those of the +transept: the windows tall, standing pretty high above the ground, are +all of three lights with tracery evidently founded on that of the large +transept window, but set very far back in the wall with as many as three +shafts on each side, and with each light now filled in with horrid wood +or plaster work. The clerestory windows, also of three lights with +somewhat similar tracery, are separated by narrow buttresses bearing +square pinnacles, between which runs on a pointed corbel table the usual +pierced parapet, and by strong flying buttresses, which at least in the +western bays are doubly cusped, and are, between the arch and the +straight part, pierced with a large foliated circle and other tracery. +The last three bays on the south side are taken up by the Founder's +Chapel (Capella do Fundador), in which are buried King João, Queen +Philippa, and four of their sons. This chapel, which must have been +begun a good deal later than the church, as the church was finished in +1415 when the queen died and was temporarily buried before the high +altar, while the chapel was not yet ready when Dom João made his will in +1426, though it was so in 1434 when he and the queen were there buried, +is an exact square of about 80 feet externally, within which an octagon +of about 38 feet in diameter rises above the flat roof of the square, +rather higher than to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> the top of the aisles. Each exposed side of the +square is divided into three bays, one wider in the centre with one +narrower on each side. The buttresses, pinnacles and corbel table are +much the same as before, but the parapet is much more elaborate and more +like French flamboyant. Of the windows the smaller are of four lights +with very elaborate and unusual flowing tracery in their heads; small +parts of which, such as the tracery at the top of the smaller lights, is +curiously English, while the whole is neither English nor French nor +belonging to any other national school. The same may be said of the +larger eight-light window in the central bay, but that there the tracery +is even more elaborate and extravagant. The octagon above has buttresses +with ordinary pinnacles at each corner, a parapet like that below, and +flying buttresses, all pierced, cusped and crocketed like those at the +west front. On each face is a tall two-light window with flowing tracery +packed in rather tightly at the top.</p> + +<p>As for the west front itself, which has actually been compared to that +of York Minster, the ends of the aisles are much like the sides, with +similar buttresses, pinnacles and parapet, but with the windows not set +back quite so far. On each side of the large central door are square +buttresses, running up to above the level of the aisle roof in six +stories, the four upper of which are panelled with what looks like +English decorated tracery, and ending in large square crocketed and +gabled pinnacles. The door itself between these buttresses is another +strange mixture. In general design and in size it is entirely French: on +either side six large statues stand on corbels and under elaborate +many-sided canopies, while on the arches themselves is the usual French +arrangement of different canopied figures: the tympanum is upheld by a +richly cusped segmental arch, and has on it a curiously archaistic +carving of Our Lord under a canopy surrounded by the four Evangelists. +Above, the crocketed drip-mould is carried up in an ogee leaving room +for the coronation of the Virgin over the apex of the arch. So far all +might be French, but on examining the detail, a great deal of it is +found to be not French but English: the half octagonal corbels with +their panelled and traceried sides, and still more the strips of +panelling on the jambs with their arched heads, are quite English and +might be found in almost any early perpendicular reredos or tomb, nor +are the larger canopies quite French. (<a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span></p> + +<p>Above the finial of the ogee runs a corbel table supporting a pierced +and crested parapet, a little different in design from the rest.</p> + +<p>Above this parapeted gallery is a large window lighting the upper part +of the nave, a window which for extravagance and exuberance of tracery +exceeds all others here or elsewhere. The lower part is evidently +founded on the larger windows of the Capella do Fundador. Like them it +has two larger pointed lights under a big ogee which reaches to the apex +of a pointed arch spanning the whole window, the space between this ogee +and the enclosing arch being filled in with more or less ordinary +flowing tracery. These two main lights are again much subdivided: at the +top is a circle with spiral tracery; below it an arch enclosing an ogee +exactly similar to the larger one above, springing from two sub-lights +which are again subdivided in exactly the same manner, into circle, +sub-arch, ogee and two small lights, so that the whole lower part of the +window is really built up from the one motive repeated three times. The +space between the large arch and the window head is taken up by a large +circle completely filled with minute spiral tracery and two vesicae also +filled in with smaller vesicae and circles. Now such a window could not +have been designed in England, in France, or anywhere else; not only is +it ill arranged, but it is entirely covered from top to bottom with +tracery, which shows that an attempt was being made to adapt forms +suitable in a northern climate to the brilliant summer sun of Portugal, +a sun which a native builder would rather try to keep out than to let +in. Above the window is a band of reticulated tracery like that below, +and the front is finished with a straight line of parapet pierced and +foliated like that below, joining the picturesque clusters of corner +pinnacles. The only other part of the church which calls for notice is +the bell-tower which stands at the north end of a very thick wall +separating the sacristy from the cloister; it is now an octagon +springing strangely from the square below, with a rich parapet, inside +which stands a tall spire; this spire, which has a sort of coronet +rather more than half-way up, consists of eight massive crocketed ribs +ending in a huge finial, and with the space between filled in with very +fine pierced work.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 79.">[79]</a> +From such of the original detail which has</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a> +<a href="images/i023_fig_33.png"> +<img src="images/i023_fig_33_th.png" width="550" height="434" alt="FIG. 33.BatalhaWest Front of Church. + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 33.<br />Batalha<br />West Front of Church.<br /> +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>survived the beautiful alterations of Dom Manoel, the details of the +cloister must have been very like those of the church. The refectory to +the west of the cloister is a plain room roofed with a pointed +barrel-vault; but the chapter-house is constructively the most +remarkable part of the whole convent. It is a great room over sixty feet +square, opening off the east cloister walk by a large pointed door with +a two-light window each side. This great space is covered by an immense +vault, upheld by no central shaft; arches are thrown across the corners +bringing the square to an octagon, and though not very high, it is one +of the boldest Gothic vaults ever attempted; there is nowhere else a +room of such a size vaulted without supporting piers, and probably none +where the buttresses outside, with their small projection, look so +unequal to the work they have to do, yet this vault has successfully +withstood more than one earthquake.</p> + +<p>The inside of the church is in singular contrast to the floridness of +the outside. The clustered piers are exceptionally large and tall; there +is no triforium, and the side windows are set so far back as to be +scarcely seen. The capitals have elaborate Gothic foliage, but are so +square as to look at a distance almost romanesque. In front of each pier +triple vaulting shafts run up, but instead of the side shafts carrying +the diagonal ribs as they should have done, all three carry bold +transverse arches, leaving the vaulting ribs to spring as best they can. +Each bay has horizontal ridge ribs, though their effect is lost by the +too great strength of the transverse arches. The chancel, a little lower +than the nave and transepts, is entered by an acutely pointed and richly +cusped arch, and has a regular Welsh groined vault, with a +well-developed ridge rib. Unfortunately almost all the church furniture +was destroyed during the French retreat, and of the stained glass only +that in the windows of the main apse survives, save in the three-light +window of the chapter-house, a window which can be exactly dated as it +displays the arms of Portugal and Castile quartered. This could only +have been done during the life of Dom Manoel's first wife, Isabel, +eldest daughter and heir of Ferdinand and Isabella. Dom Manoel married +her in 1497, and she died in 1498 leaving a son who, had he lived, would +have inherited the whole Peninsula and so saved Spain from the fatal +connection with the Netherlands inherited by Charles <span class="smcap95">v.</span> from his own +father. (<a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span></p> + +<p>The most elaborate part of the interior is not unnaturally the Capella +do Fundador: though even there, the four beautiful carved and painted +altars and retables on the east side, and the elaborate carved presses +on the west, have all vanished from their places, burned for firewood by +the invaders in 1810. In the centre under the lantern, lie King João who +died in 1433, and on the right Queen Philippa of Lancaster who died +seventeen years before. The high tomb itself is a plain square block of +stone from which on each side there project four lions: at the head are +the royal arms surrounded by the Garter, and on the sides long +inscriptions in honour of the king and queen. The figures of the king +and queen lie side by side with very elaborate canopies at their heads. +King João is in armour, holding a sword in his left hand and with his +other clasping the queen's right hand. The figures are not nearly so +well carved as are those of Dom Pedro and Inez de Castro at Alcobaça, +nor is the tomb nearly as elaborate. On the south wall are the recessed +tombs of four of their younger sons. The eldest, Dom Duarte, intended to +be buried in the great unfinished chapel at the east, but still lies +with his wife before the high altar. Each recess has a pointed arch +richly moulded, and with broad bands of very unusual leaves, while above +it rises a tall ogee canopy, crocketed and ending in a large finial. The +space between arch and canopy and the sills of the windows is covered +with reticulated panelling like that on the west front, and the tombs +are divided by tall pinnacles. The four sons here buried are, beginning +at the west: first, Dom Pedro, duke of Coimbra; next him Dom Henrique, +duke of Vizeu and master of the Order of Christ, famous as Prince Henry +the Navigator; then Dom João, Constable of Portugal; and last, Dom +Fernando, master of the Order of Aviz, who died an unhappy captive in +Morocco. During the reign of his brother Dom Duarte he had taken part in +an expedition to that country, and being taken prisoner was offered his +freedom if the Portuguese would give up Ceuta, captured by King João in +the year in which Queen Philippa died. These terms he indignantly +refused and died after some years of misery. On the front of each tomb +is a large panel on which are two or three shields—one on that of Dom +Henrique being surrounded with the Garter—while all the surface is +covered with beautifully carved foliage. Dom Henrique alone has an</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a> +<a href="images/i024_fig_34.png"> +<img src="images/i024_fig_34_th.png" width="275" height="361" alt="FIG. 34.Church, Batalha.Interior." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 34.<br />Church, Batalha.<br />Interior.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a> +<a href="images/i024_fig_35.png"> +<img src="images/i024_fig_35_th.png" width="275" height="363" alt="FIG. 35.BatalhaCapella Do Fundador and Tomb of Dom João I and Dona Filippa." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 35.<br />Batalha<br />Capella Do Fundador and Tomb of Dom João i and Dona Filippa.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>effigy, the others having only covers raised and panelled, while the +back of the Constable's monument has on it scenes from the Passion.</p> + +<p>The eight piers of the lantern are made up of a great number of shafts +with a moulded angle between each. The capitals are covered with two +tiers of conventional vine-leaves and have octagonal, not as in the +church square abaci, while the arches are highly stilted and are +enriched with most elaborate cusping, each cusp ending in a square +vine-leaf. (<a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>.)</p> + +<p>Such then are the main features of the church, the design of which, +according to most writers, was brought straight from England by the +English queen, an opinion which no one who knows English contemporary +buildings can hold for a moment.</p> + +<p>First, to take the entirely native features. The plan is only an +elaboration of that of many already existing churches. The south +transept door is a copy of a door at Santarem. The heavy transverse +arches and the curious way the diagonal vaulting ribs are left to take +care of themselves have been seen no further away than at Alcobaça; the +flat-paved terraced roofs, whose origin the Visconde di Condeixa in his +monograph on the convent, sought even as far off as in Cyprus, existed +already at Evora and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Secondly, from France might have come the general design of the west +door, and the great height of the nave, though the proportion between +the aisle arcade and the clerestory, and the entire absence of any kind +of triforium, is not at all French.</p> + +<p>Thirdly, several details, as has been seen, appear to be more English +than anything else, but they are none of them very important; the ridge +ribs in the nave, the Welsh groining of the chancel vault, the general +look of the pinnacles, a few pieces of stone panelling on buttresses or +door, a small part of a few of the windows, the moulding of the +chapter-house door, the leaves on the capitals of the Capella do +Fundador, and the shape of the vine-leaves at the ends of the cuspings +of the arches. From a distance the appearance of the church is certainly +more English than anything else, but that is due chiefly to the flat +roof—a thoroughly Portuguese feature—and to the upstanding pinnacles, +which suggest a long perpendicular building such as one of the college +chapels at Oxford.</p> + +<p>Lastly, if the open-work spire is a real copy of that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> destroyed in +1755, and if there ever was another like it on the Capella do +Fundador,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 80.">[80]</a> they suggest German influence, although the earliest +Spanish examples of such German work were not begun at Burgos till 1442, +by which time the church here must have been nearly if not quite +finished.</p> + +<p>It is then not difficult to assign a great many details, with perhaps a +certain amount of truth, to the influence of several foreign countries, +yet as a whole the church is unlike any building existing in any of +these countries or even in Spain, and it remains as difficult, or indeed +as impossible, to discover whence these characteristics came. So far +there had been scarcely any development of window tracery to lead up to +the elaborate and curious examples which are found here; still less had +any such constructive skill been shown in former buildings as to make so +great a vault as that of the chapter-house at all likely, for such a +vault is to be found perhaps nowhere else.</p> + +<p>Probably the plan of the church, and perhaps the eastern chapel and +lower part of the transept, are the work of Affonso Domingues, and all +the peculiarities, the strange windows, the cusped arches, the +English-looking pinnacles, as well as all the constructive skill, are +due to Huguet his successor, who may perhaps have travelled in France +and England, and had come back to Portugal with increased knowledge of +how to build, but with a rather confused idea of the ornamental detail +he had seen abroad.</p> + +<p>When Dom João died in 1433 his eldest son, Dom Duarte or Edward, +determined to build for himself a more splendid tomb-house than his +father's, and so was begun the great octagon to the east.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately Dom Duarte's reign was short; he died in 1438, partly it +is said of distress at the ill success of his expedition to Morocco and +at the captivity there of his youngest brother, so that he had no time +to finish his chapel, and his son Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, the African, was too much +engaged in campaigning against the Moors to be able to give either money +or attention to his father's work; and it was still quite unfinished +when Dom Manoel came to the throne in 1495, and though he did much +towards carrying on the work it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> unfinished when he died in 1521 and +so remains to the present day. It is in designing this chapel that +Huguet showed his greatest originality and constructive daring: a few +feet behind the central apse he planned a great octagon about +seventy-two feet in diameter, surrounded by seven apsidal chapels, one +on each side except that next the church, while between these chapels +are small low chambers where were to be the tombs themselves. There is +nothing to show how this chapel was to be united to the church, as the +great doorway and vaulted hall were added by Dom Manoel some seventy +years later. When Dom Duarte died in 1438, or when Huguet himself died +not long after,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 81.">[81]</a> the work had only been carried out as far as the +tops of the surrounding chapels, and so remained all through his son's +and his grandson's reigns, although in his will the king had specially +asked that the building should be carried on. In all this original part +of the Capellas Imperfeitas there is little that differs from Huguet's +work in the church. The buttresses and corbel table are very similar +(the pinnacles and parapets have been added since 1834), and the apses +quite like those of the church. (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>.)</p> + +<p>The tracery of the chief windows too is not unlike that of the lantern +windows of the founder's chapel except that there is a well-marked +transome half-way up—a feature which has been attributed to English +influence—while the single windows of the tomb chambers are completely +filled with geometric tracery. Inside, the capitals of the chapel arches +as well as their rich cuspings are very like those of the founder's +chapel; the capitals having octagonal abaci and stiff vine-leaves, and +the trefoiled cusps ending in square vine-leaves, while the arch +mouldings are, as in King João's chapel, more English than French in +section. There is nothing now to show how the great central octagon was +to be roofed—for the eight great piers which now rise high above the +chapel were not built till the time of Dom Manoel—but it seems likely +that the vault was meant to be low, and not to rise much above the +chapel roofs, finishing, as everywhere else in the church, in a flat, +paved terrace.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span></p> + +<p>The only important addition made during the reigns of Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> and +of Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> was that of a second cloister, north of the Claustro +Real, and still called the Cloister of Affonso. This cloister is as +plain and wanting in ornament as everything else about the monastery is +rich and elaborate, and it was probably built under the direction of +Fernão d'Evora, who succeeded his uncle Martim Vasques as master of the +works before 1448, and held that position for nearly thirty years. +Unlike the great cloister, whose large openings must, from the first, +have been meant for tracery, the cloister of Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> is so very plain +and simple, that if its date were not known it would readily be +attributed to a period older even than the foundation of the monastery. +On each side are seven square bays separated by perfectly plain +buttresses, each bay consisting of two very plain pointed arches resting +on the moulded capitals of coupled shafts. Except for the buttresses and +the vault the cloister differs in no marked way from those at Guimarães +and elsewhere whose continuous pointed arcades show so little advance +from the usual romanesque manner of cloister-building. Above is a second +story of later date, in which the tiled roof rests on short columns +placed rather far apart, and with no regard to the spacing of the bays +below. Round this are the kitchens and various domestic offices of the +convent, and behind it lay another cloister, now utterly gone, having +been burned by the French in 1810. Such are the church and monastery of +Batalha as planned by Dom João and added to by his son and grandson, and +though it is not possible to say whence Huguet drew his inspiration, it +remains, with all the peculiarities of tracery and detail which make it +seem strange and ungrammatical—if one may so speak—to eyes accustomed +to northern Gothic, one of the most remarkable examples of original +planning and daring construction to be found anywhere. Of the later +additions which give character to the cloister and to the Capellas +Imperfeitas nothing can be said till the time of Dom Manoel is reached.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a> +<a href="images/i025_fig_36.png"> +<img src="images/i025_fig_36_th.png" width="550" height="418" alt="FIG. 36.BatalhaCapellas Imperfeitas. + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 36.<br />Batalha<br />Capellas Imperfeitas.<br /> +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<p class="head">THE EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY</p> + + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Guimarães.</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span>B<span class="smcap95">esides</span> building Batalha, King João dedicated the spoils he had taken at +Aljubarrota to the church of Nossa Senhora da Oliviera at Guimarães, +which he rebuilt from the designs of Juan Garcia of Toledo. The most +important of these spoils is the silver-gilt reredos taken in the +Spanish king's travelling chapel. It is in the shape of a triptych about +four feet high. In the centre is represented the Virgin with the Infant +Christ on a bed, with Joseph seated and leaning wearily on his staff at +the foot, the figures being about fourteen inches high; above two angels +swing censers, and the heads of an ox and an ass appear feeding from a +manger. All the background is richly diapered, and above are four cusped +arches, separated by angels under canopies, while above the arches to +the top there rises a rich mass of tabernacle work, with the window-like +spaces filled in with red or green enamel. At the top are two +half-angels holding the arms of Portugal, added when the reredos was +dedicated to Our Lady by Dom João. The two leaves, each about twenty +inches wide, are divided into two equal stories, each of which has two +cusped and canopied arches enclosing, those on the left above, the +Annunciation, and below the Presentation, and those on the right, the +Angel appearing to the Shepherds above, and the Wise Men below. All the +tabernacle work is most beautifully wrought in silver, but the figures +are less good, that of the Virgin Mary being distinctly too large.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 82.">[82]</a> +(<a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>.)</p> + +<p>Of the other things taken from the defeated king's tent, only one silver +angel now remains of the twelve which were sent to Guimarães.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span></p> + +<p>Of the church rebuilt in commemoration of this great victory, only the +west front has escaped a terrible transformation carried out not so long +ago, and which has made it impossible to see what the inside was once +like. If the builder was a Spaniard, as his name, Juan Garcia de Toledo, +seems to imply, there is nothing Spanish about his design. The door is +like many another door of about the same period, with simple mouldings +ornamented with small bosses, but the deeply recessed window above is +most unusual. The tracery is gone, but the framing of the window +remains, and is far more like that of a French door than of a window. On +either jamb are two stories of three canopied niches, containing +figures, while the arches are covered with small figures under canopies; +all is rather rude, but the whole is most picturesque and original.</p> + +<p>To the left rises the tower, standing forward from the church front: it +is of three stories, with cable moulding at the corners, a picturesque +cornice and battlements at the top; a bell gable in front, and a low +octagonal spire. On the ground floor are two large windows defended by +simple but good iron grilles, and in the upper part are large belfry +windows. This is not the original tower, for that was pulled down in +1515, when the present one was built in its stead by Pedro Esteves +Cogominho. Though of so late a date it is quite uninfluenced, not only +by those numerous buildings of Dom Manoel's time, which are noted for +their fantastic detail, but by the early renaissance which had already +begun to show itself here and there, and it is one of the most +picturesque church towers in the country.</p> + +<p>A few feet to the west of the church there is a small open shrine or +chapel, a square vault resting on four pointed arches which are well +moulded, enriched with dog-tooth and surmounted by gables. This chapel +was built soon after 1342 to commemorate the miracle to which the church +owes its name. Early in the fourteenth century there grew at São +Torquato, a few miles off, an olive-tree which provided the oil for that +saint's lamp. It was transported to Guimarães to fulfil a like office +there for the altar of Our Lady. It naturally died, and so remained for +many years till 1342, when one Pedro Esteves placed on it a cross which +his brother had bought in Normandy. This was the 8th of September, and +three days after the dead olive-tree broke into leaf, a miracle</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a> +<a href="images/i026_fig_37.png"> +<img src="images/i026_fig_37_th.png" width="275" height="308" alt="FIG. 37.Capella of D. Juan of Castille.Taken at the Battle of Aljubarrota by João I, 1385, and now in the +Treasury of N.S. da Oliveira Guimarães." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 37.<br />Capella of D. Juan of Castille.<br />Taken at the Battle of Aljubarrota by João I, 1385, and<br />now in the +Treasury of N.S. da Oliveira Guimarães.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a> +<a href="images/i026_fig_38.png"> +<img src="images/i026_fig_38_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 38.GuardaN. Side of Cathedral." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 38.<br />Guarda +<br />N. Side of Cathedral. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /></span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>greatly to the advantage and wealth of the church and of the town. From +that day the church was called Our Lady of the Olive Tree.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Guarda.</div> + +<p>Far more interesting than this church, because much better preserved and +because it is clearly derived, in part at least, from Batalha, is the +cathedral of Guarda, begun by João <span class="smcap95">i.</span> Guarda is a small town, not far +from the Spanish border, built on a hill rising high above the bleak +surrounding tableland to a height of nearly four thousand feet, and was +founded by Dom Sancho <span class="smcap95">i.</span> in 1197 to guard his frontier against the +Spaniards and the Moors. Begun by João <span class="smcap95">i.</span> the plan and general design of +the whole church must belong to the beginning of the fifteenth century, +though the finishing of the nave, and the insertion of larger transept +windows, were carried out under Dom Manoel, and though the great reredos +is of the time of Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> Yet the few chapels between the nave +buttresses are almost the only real additions made to the church. Though +of but moderate dimensions, it is one of the largest of Portuguese +cathedrals, being 175 feet long by 70 feet wide and 110 feet across the +transepts. It is also unique among the aisled and vaulted churches in +copying Batalha by having a well-developed clerestory and flying +buttresses.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/i027_cath_guarda.png"> +<img src="images/i027_cath_guarda_th.png" width="250" height="377" alt="CATHEDRAL. GUARDA." /></a> +<span class="caption">CATHEDRAL. GUARDA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The plan consists of a nave and aisles of five bays, a transept +projecting one bay beyond the aisles, and three apses to the east. At +the crossing the vault is slightly raised so as to admit of four small +round windows opening above the flat roofs of the central aisle and +transepts. The only peculiarity about the plan lies in the two western +towers, which near the ground are squares set diagonally to the front of +the church and higher up change to octagons, and so rise a few feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span> +above the flat roof. About the end of the fifteenth century two small +chapels were added to the north of the nave, and later still the spaces +between the buttresses were filled in with shallow altar recesses.</p> + +<p>The likeness to Batalha is best seen in the Capella Mor. As the apse has +only three instead of five sides, the windows are rather wider, and +there are none below, but otherwise the resemblance is as great as may +be, when the model is of fine limestone and the copy of granite. The +buttresses have offset string courses, and square crocketed pinnacles +just as at Batalha; there has even been an attempt to copy the parapet, +though only the trefoil corbel table is really like the model, for the +parapet itself is solid with a cresting of rather clumsy fleurs-de-lis. +These pinnacles and this crested parapet are found everywhere all round +the church, though the pinnacles on the aisle walls from which the plain +flying buttresses spring are quite different, being of a Manoelino +design. Again the north transept door has evidently been inspired by the +richness of Batalha. Here the door itself is plain, but well moulded, +with above it an elaborately crocketed ogee drip-mould, which ends in a +large finial; above this rises to a considerable height some arcaded +panelling, ending at the top in a straight band of quatrefoil, and +interrupted by a steep gable. (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>.)</p> + +<p>No other part of the outside calls for much notice except the boat-keel +corbels of the smaller apses, the straight gable-less ends to transept +and nave which show that the roofs are flat and paved, and the western +towers. These are of three stories. The lowest is square at the bottom +and octagonal above, the change being effected by a curved offset at two +corners, while at the third or western corner the curve has been cut +down so as to leave room for an eighteenth-century window, lighting the +small polygonal chapel inside, a chapel originally lit by two narrow +round-headed windows on the diagonal sides. In the second story there +are again windows on the same diagonal sides, but they have been built +up: while on the third or highest division—where the octagon is +complete on all sides—are four belfry windows. The whole is finished by +a crested parapet. The west front between these towers is very plain. At +the top a cresting, simpler than that elsewhere, below a round window +without tracery, lower still two picturesque square rococo windows, and +at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> bottom a rather elaborate Manoelino doorway, built not many +years ago to replace one of the same date as the windows above.</p> + +<p>Throughout the clerestory windows are not large. They are round-headed +of two lights, with simple tracery, and deep splays both inside and out. +The large transept windows with half octagonal heads under a large +trefoil were inserted about the beginning of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>Inside the resemblance to Batalha is less noticeable. The ribs of the +chancel vault are well moulded, as are the arches of the lantern, but in +the nave, which cannot have been finished till the end of the fifteenth +century, the design is quite different. The piers are all a hollow +square set diagonally with a large round shaft at each corner. In the +aisle arches the hollows of the diagonal sides are carried round without +capitals, with which the round shafts alone are provided; while the +shaft in front runs up to a round Manoelino capital with octagonal +abacus from which springs the vaulting at a level higher than the sills +of the clerestory windows.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 83.">[83]</a> The most unusual part of the nave is the +vaulting of all three aisles, where all the ribs, diagonal as well as +transverse, are of exactly the same section and size as is the round +shaft from which they spring, even the wall rib being of the same shape +though a little smaller. At the crossing there are triple shafts on each +side, those of the nave being twisted, which is another Manoelino +feature. The nave then must be about a hundred years later than the +eastern parts of the church, where the capitals are rather long and are +carved with foliage and have square abaci, while those of the nave are +all of the time of King João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> or of King Manoel. At about the same +time some small and picturesque windows were inserted above the smaller +apses on the east side of the transept, and rather later was built the +chapel to the north-east of the nave, which is entered through a +segmental arch whose jambs and head are well carved with early +renaissance foliage and figures, and which contains the simple tomb of a +bishop. The pulpits, organs, and stalls, both in the chancel and in the +western choir gallery, are fantastic and late, but the great reredos +which rises in three divisions to the springing of the vault is the +largest and one of the finest in the country, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> belonging as it does +to a totally different period and school must be left for another +chapter.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo, Lisbon.</div> + +<p>Much need not be said about the Carmo at Lisbon, another church of the +same date, as it has been almost entirely wrecked by the earthquake of +1755. The victory of Aljubarrota was due perhaps even more to the grand +Constable of Portugal, Dom Nuno Alvares Pereira, than to the king +himself, and, like the king, the Constable commemorated the victory by +founding a monastery, a great Carmelite house in Lisbon. The church of +Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo stands high up above the +central valley of Lisbon on the very verge of the steep hill. Begun in +July 1389 the foundations twice gave way, and it was only after the +Constable had dismissed his first master and called in three men of the +same name, Affonso, Gonçalo, and Rodrigo Eannes, that a real beginning +could be made, and it was not finished till 1423, when it was +consecrated; at the same time the founder assumed the habit of a +Carmelite and entered his own monastery to die eight years later, and to +become an object of veneration to the whole people. In plan the church +was almost exactly like that of Batalha, though with a shorter nave of +only five bays.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 84.">[84]</a> To the east of the transept are still five +apses—the best preserved part of the whole building—having windows and +buttresses like those at Batalha. The only other part of the church +which has escaped destruction is the west door, a large simple opening +of six moulded arches springing from twelve shafts whose capitals are +carved with foliage. From what is left it seems that the church was more +like what Batalha was planned to be, rather than what it became under +the direction of Huguet: but the downfall of the nave has been so +complete that it is only possible to make out that there must have been +a well-developed clerestory and a high vaulted central aisle. What makes +this destruction all the more regrettable is the fact that the church +was full of splendid tombs, especially that of the Holy Constable +himself: a magnificent piece of carving in alabaster sent from Flanders +by Dom João's daughter, Isabel, duchess of Flanders.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 85.">[85]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span></a></p> + +<p>After this catastrophe an attempt was made to rebuild the church, but +little was done, and it still remains a complete ruin, having been used +since the suppression of all monasteries in 1834 as an Archæological +Museum where many tombs and other architectural fragments may still be +seen.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Villar de Frades.</div> + +<p>Towards the end of King João's reign a man named João Vicente, noting +the corruption into which the religious orders were falling, determined +to do what he could by preaching and example to bring back a better +state of things. He first began his work in Lisbon, but was driven from +there by the bishop to find a refuge at Braga. There he so impressed the +archbishop that he was given the decayed and ruined monastery of Villar +de Frades in 1425. Soon he had gathered round him a considerable body of +followers, to whom he gave a set of rules and who, after receiving the +papal sanction, were known as the Canons Secular of St. John the +Evangelist or, popularly, Loyos, because their first settlement in +Lisbon was in a monastery formerly dedicated to St. Eloy. The church at +Villar, which is of considerable size, was probably long of building, as +the elliptical-headed west door with its naturalistic treelike posts has +details which did not become common till at least the very end of the +century. Inside the church consists of a nave of five bays, flanked with +chapels but not aisles, transepts which are really only enlarged +chapels, and a chancel like the nave but without chapels. The chief +feature of the inside is the very elaborate vaulting, which with the +number and intricacy of its ribs, is not at all unlike an English +Perpendicular vault, and indeed would need but little change to develop +into a fan vault. Here then there has been a considerable advance from +the imperfect vaulting of the central aisle at Batalha, where the +diagonal ribs had to be squeezed in wherever they could go, although +there are at Villar no side aisles so that the construction of +supporting buttresses was of course easier than at Batalha: and it is +well worth noticing how from so imperfect a beginning as the nave at +Batalha the Portuguese masters soon learned to build elaborate and even +wide vaults, without, as a rule, covering them with innumerable and +meaningless twisting ribs as was usually done in Spain. In the +north-westernmost chapel stands the font, an elaborate work of the early +renaissance; an octagonal bowl with twisted sides resting on a short +twisted base.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Matriz, Alvito.</div> + +<p>Not unlike the vaulting at Villar is that of the Matriz or mother church +of Alvito, a small town in the Alemtejo, nor can it be very much later +in date. Outside it is only remarkable for its west door, an interesting +example of an attempt to use the details of the early French +renaissance, without understanding how to do so—as in the pediment all +the entablature except the architrave has been left out—and for the +short twisted pinnacles which somehow give to it, as to many other +buildings in the Alemtejo, so Oriental a look, and which are seen again +at Belem. Inside, the aisles are divided from the nave by round +chamfered arches springing from rather short octagonal piers, which have +picturesque octagonal capitals and a moulded band half-way up. Only is +the easternmost bay, opening to large transeptal chapels, pointed and +moulded. The vaulting springs from corbels, and although the ribs are +but simply chamfered they are well developed. Curiously, though the +central is so much higher than the side aisles, there is no clerestory, +nor any signs of there ever having been one, while the whole wall +surface is entirely covered with those beautiful tiles which came to be +so much used during the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>In the year 1415 her five sons had sailed straight from the deathbed of +Queen Philippa to the coast of Morocco and had there captured the town +of Ceuta, a town which remained in the hands of the Portuguese till +after their ill-fated union with Spain; for in 1668 it was ceded to +Spain in return for an acknowledgment of Portuguese independence, thus +won after twenty-seven years' more or less continuous fighting. This was +the first time any attempt had been made to carry the Portuguese arms +across the Straits, and to attack their old enemies the Moors in their +own land, where some hundred and seventy years later King João's +descendant, Dom Sebastião, was to lose his life and his country's +freedom.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Tomb in Graça, Santarem.</div> + +<p>The first governor of Ceuta was Dom Pedro de Menezes, count of Viana. +There he died in 1437, after having for twenty-two years bravely +defended and governed the city—then, as is inscribed on his tomb, the +only place in Africa possessed by Christians. This tomb, which was made +at the command of his daughter Dona Leonor, stands in the church of the +Graça at Santarem, a church which had been founded by his grandfather +the count of Ourem in 1376 for canons regular of St. Augustine. Inside +the church itself is not very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span> remarkable,<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 86.">[86]</a> having a nave and aisles +with transepts and three vaulted chapels to the east, built very much in +the same style as is the church at Leça do Balio, except that it has a +fine west front, to be mentioned later, that the roof of the nave was +knocked down by the Devil in 1548 in anger at the extreme piety of Frey +Martinho de Santarem, one of the canons, and that many famous people, +including Pedro Alvares Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil, are therein +buried.</p> + +<p>In general outline the tomb of the count of Viana is not unlike that of +his master Dom João, but it is much more highly decorated. On eight +crouching lions rests a large altar-tomb. It has a well-moulded and +carved base and an elaborately carved cornice, rich with deeply undercut +foliage, while on the top lie Pedro de Menezes and his wife Dona Beatriz +Coutinho, with elaborately carved canopies at their heads, and pedestals +covered with figures and foliage at their feet. Beneath the cornice on +each of the longer sides is cut in Gothic letters a long inscription +telling of Dom Pedro's life, and lower down and on all four sides there +is in the middle a shield, now much damaged, with the Menezes arms. On +each side of these shields are carved spreading branches, knotted round +a circle in the centre in which is cut the word 'Aleo.' Once, when +playing with King João at a game in which some kind of club or mallet +was used, the news came that the Moors were collecting in great numbers +to attack Ceuta. The king, turning to Dom Pedro, asked him what +reinforcements he would need to withstand the attack; the governor +answered: 'This "Aleo," or club, will be enough,' and in fact, returning +at once to his command, he was able without further help to drive back +the enemy. So this word has been carved on his tomb to recall how well +he did his duty.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 87.">[87]</a> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Tomb in São João de Alporão.</div> + +<p>Not far from the Graça church is that of São João de Alporão, of which +something has already been said, and in it now stands the tomb of +another Menezes, who a generation later also died in Africa, fighting to +save the life of his king, Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, grandson of King João. +Notwithstanding the ill-success of the expedition of his father, Dom +Duarte, to Tangier, Dom Affonso, after having got rid of his uncle the +duke of Coimbra, who had governed the country during his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span> minority, and +who fell in battle defending himself against the charge of treason, led +several expeditions to Morocco, taking first Alcazar es Seghir or +Alcacer Seguer, and later Tangier and Arzilla, thereby uselessly +exhausting the strength of the people, and hindering the spread of +maritime exploration which Dom Henrique had done so much to extend.</p> + +<p>This Dom Duarte de Menezes, third count of Viana, was, as an inscription +tells, first governor of Alcacer Seguer, which with five hundred +soldiers he successfully defended against a hundred thousand Moors, +dying at last in the mountains of Bonacofú in defence of his king in +1464.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 88.">[88]</a></p> + +<p>The monument was built by his widow, Dona Isabel de Castro, but so +terribly had Dom Duarte been cut to pieces by the Moors, that only one +finger could be found to be buried there.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 89.">[89]</a> Though much more +elaborate, the tomb is not altogether unlike those of the royal princes +at Batalha. The count lies, armed, with a sword drawn in his right hand, +on an altar-tomb on whose front, between richly traceried panels, are +carved an inscription above, upheld by small figures, and below, in the +middle a flaming cresset, probably a memorial of his watchfulness in +Africa, and on each side a shield.</p> + +<p>Surmounting the altar-tomb is a deeply moulded ogee arch subdivided into +two hanging arches which spring from a pendant in the middle, while the +space between these sub-arches and the ogee above is filled with a +canopied carving of the Crucifixion. At about the level of the pendant +the open space is crossed by a cusped segmental arch supporting +elaborate flowing tracery. The outer sides of the ogee, which ends in a +large finial, are enriched with large vine-leaf crockets. On either side +of the arch is a square pier, moulded at the angles, and with each face +covered with elaborate tracery. Each pier, which ends in a square +crocketed and gabled pinnacle, has half-way</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a> +<a href="images/i028_fig_39.png"> +<img src="images/i028_fig_39_th.png" width="275" height="359" alt="FIG. 39.SantaremChurch of the Graça.Tomb of D. Pedro de Menezes." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 39.<br />Santarem<br />Church of the Graça.Tomb of D. Pedro de Menezes.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a> +<a href="images/i028_fig_40.png"> +<img src="images/i028_fig_40_th.png" width="275" height="364" alt="FIG. 40.SantaremTomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes in S. João de Alporão." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 40.<br />Santarem<br />Tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes in S. João de Alporão.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> +up a small figure standing on an octagonal corbel under an elaborate +canopy. The whole at the top is finished with a cornice running straight +across from pier to pier, and crested with interlacing and cusped +semicircles, while the flat field below the cornice and above the outer +moulding of the great arch is covered with flaming cressets. (<a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>.)</p> + +<p>This is perhaps one of the finest of the tombs of the fifteenth century, +and like those at Alcobaça is made of that very fine limestone which is +found in more than one place in Portugal.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">At Abrantes.</div> + +<p>Farther up the Tagus at Abrantes, in the church of Santa Maria do +Castello, are some more tombs of the same date, more than one of which +is an almost exact copy of the princes' tombs at Batalha, though there +is one whose arch is fringed with curious reversed cusping, almost +Moorish in appearance.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Cloister at Thomar.</div> + +<p>Before turning to the many churches built towards the end of the +fifteenth century, one of the cloisters of the great convent at Thomar +must be mentioned. It is that called 'do Cemiterio,' and was built by +Prince Henry the Navigator, duke of Vizeu, during his grandmastership of +the Order of Christ about the year 1440. Unlike those at Alcobaça or at +Lisbon, which were derived from a Cistercian plan, and were always +intended to be vaulted, this small cloister followed the plan, handed +down from romanesque times, where on each side there is a continuous +arcade resting on coupled shafts. Such cloisters, differing only from +the romanesque in having pointed arches and capitals carved with +fourteenth-century foliage, may still be seen at Santo Thyrso and at São +Domingos, Guimarães, in the north. Here at Thomar the only difference is +that the arches are very much wider, there being but five on each side, +and that the bell-shaped capitals are covered with finely carved +conventional vine-leaves arranged in two rows round the bells. As in the +older cloisters one long abacus unites the two capitals, but the arches +are different, each being moulded as one deep arch instead of two +similar arches set side by side.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<p class="head">LATER GOTHIC</p> + + +<p>D<span class="smcap95">uring</span> the last ten or fifteen years of the fifteenth century there was +great activity in building throughout almost the whole country, but it +now becomes almost impossible to take the different buildings in +chronological order, because at this time so many different schools +began to struggle for supremacy. There was first the Gothic school +which, though increasing in elaboration of detail, went on in some +places almost uninfluenced by any breath of the renaissance, as for +instance in the porch and chancel of Braga Cathedral, not built till +about 1532. Elsewhere this Gothic was affected partly by Spanish and +partly by Moorish influence, and gradually grew into that most curious +and characteristic of styles, commonly called Manoelino, from Dom Manoel +under whom Portugal reached the summit of its prosperity. In other +places, again, Gothic forms and renaissance details came gradually to be +used together, as at Belem.</p> + +<p>To take then first those buildings in which Gothic detail was but little +influenced by the approaching renaissance.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Graça, Santarem.</div> + +<p>One of the earliest of these is the west front, added towards the end of +the fifteenth century to that Augustinian church of the Graça at +Santarem whose roof the Devil knocked down in 1548. Here the ends of the +side aisles are, now at any rate, quite plain, but in the centre there +is a very elaborate doorway with a large rose-window above. It is easy +to see that this doorway has not been uninfluenced by Batalha. From +well-moulded jambs, each of which has four shafts, there springs a large +pointed arch, richly fringed with cusping on its inner side. Two of its +many mouldings are enriched with smaller cuspings, and one, the +outermost, with a line of wavy tracery, while the whole ends in a +crocketed ogee. Above the arch is a strip of shallow panelling, +enclosed, as is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> whole doorway, in a square moulded frame. May it +not be that this square frame is due to the almost universal Moorish +habit of setting an archway in a square frame, as may be seen at Cordoba +and in the palace windows at Cintra? The rest of the gable is perfectly +plain but for the round window, filled with elaborate spiral flowing +tracery. Here, though the details are more French than national, there +is a good example of the excellent result so often reached by later +Portuguese—and Spanish—builders, who concentrated all their elaborate +ornament on one part of the building while leaving the rest absolutely +plain—often as here plastered and whitewashed.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São João Baptista, Thomar.</div> + +<p>Not long after this front was built, Dom Manoel in 1494 began a new +parish church at Thomar, that of São João Baptista. The plan of this +church is that which has already become so familiar: a nave and aisles +with wooden roof and vaulted chancel and chapels to the east, with here, +the addition of a tower and spire to the north of the west front. The +inside calls for little notice: the arches are pointed, and the capitals +carved with not very good foliage, but the west front is far more +interesting. As at the Graça it is plastered and whitewashed, but ends +not in a gable but in a straight line of cresting like Batalha, though +here there is no flat terrace behind, but a sloping tile roof. At the +bottom is a large ogee doorway whose tympanum is pierced with tracery +and whose mouldings are covered with most beautiful and deeply undercut +foliage. The outside of the arch is crocketed, and ends in a tall finial +thrust through the horizontal and crested moulding which, as at the +Graça, sets the whole in a square frame. There are also doorways in the +same style half-way along the north and south sides of the church. The +only other openings on the west front are a plain untraceried circle +above the door, and a simple ogee-headed window at the end of each +aisle.</p> + +<p>The tower, which is not whitewashed, rises as a plain unadorned square +to a little above the aisle roof, then turns to an octagon with, at the +top, a plain belfry window on each face. Above these runs a corbelled +gallery within which springs an octagonal spire cut into three by two +bands of ornament, and ending in a large armillary sphere, that emblem +of all the discoveries made during his reign, which Dom Manoel put on to +every building with which he had anything to do.</p> + +<p>Inside the chapels are as usual overloaded with huge <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>reredoses of +heavily carved and gilt wood, but the original pulpit still survives, a +most beautiful example of the finest late Gothic carving. It consists of +four sides of an octagon, and stands on ribs which curve outwards from a +central shaft. Round the bottom runs a band of foliage most marvellously +undercut, above this are panels separated the one from the other by +slender pinnacles, and the whole ends in a cornice even more delicately +carved than is the base. At the top of each panel is some intricate +tabernacle work, below which there is on one the Cross of the Order of +Christ, on another the royal arms, with a coronet above which stands out +quite clear of the panel, and on a third there has been the armillary +sphere, now unfortunately quite broken off. But even more interesting +than this pulpit itself is the comparison between its details and those +of the nave or Coro added about the same time to the Templar church on +the hill behind. Here all is purely Gothic, there there is a mixture of +Gothic and renaissance details, and towards the west front an exuberance +of carving which cannot be called either Gothic or anything else, so +strange and unusual is it.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Villa do Conde.</div> + +<p>Another church of almost exactly the same date is that of São João +Baptista, the Matriz of Villa do Conde. The plan shows a nave and aisles +of five bays, large transeptal chapels, and an apsidal chancel +projecting beyond the two square chapels by which it is flanked. As +usual the nave and aisles have a wooden roof, only the chancel and +chapels being vaulted. There is also a later tower at the west end of +the north aisle, and a choir gallery across the west end of the church. +Throughout the original windows are very narrow and round-headed, and +there is in the north-western bay a pointed door, differing only from +those of about a hundred years earlier in having twisted shafts. One +curious feature is the parapet of the central aisle, which is like a row +of small classical pedestals, each bearing a stumpy obelisk. By far the +finest feature of the outside is the great west door. On each side are +clusters of square pinnacles ending in square crocketed spirelets, and +running up to a horizontal moulding which, as so often, gives the whole +design a rectangular form. Within comes the doorway itself; a large +trefoiled arch of many mouldings of which the outermost, richly +crocketed, turns up as an ogee, to pierce the horizontal line above with +its finial. Every moulding is filled with foliage, most elaborately and +finely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> cut, considering that it is worked in granite. Across the +trefoil at its springing there runs a horizontal moulding resting on the +flat elliptical arch of the door itself. On the tympanum is a figure of +St. John under a very elaborate canopy with, on his right, a queer +carving of a naked man, and on his left a dragon. The space between the +arch and the top moulding is filled with intricate but shallow +panelling, among which, between two armillary spheres, are set, on the +right, a blank shield crowned—probably prepared for the royal arms—and +on the left the town arms—a galley with all sails set. Lastly, as a +cresting to the horizontal moulding, there is a row of urnlike objects, +the only renaissance features about the whole door. (<a href="#Fig_41">Fig. 41</a>.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<a href="images/i029_sao_joao_sta_maria_dos_anjos.png"> +<img src="images/i029_sao_joao_sta_maria_dos_anjos_th.png" width="550" +height="370" alt="SÃO JOÃO BAPTISTA + +VILLA DO CONDE + +STA MARIA DOS ANJOS + +CAMINHA" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Inside, all the piers are octagonal with a slender shaft at each angle; +these shafts alone having small capitals, while their bases stand on, +and interpenetrate with, the base of the whole pier. All the arches are +round—as are those leading to the chancel and transept chapels—and are +moulded exactly as are the piers. All the vaults have a network of +well-moulded ribs.</p> + +<p>The tower has been added some fifty years later and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> very +picturesque. It is of four stories: of these the lowest has rusticated +masonry; the second, on its western face, a square-headed window opening +beneath a small curly and broken pediment on to a balcony with very fine +balusters all upheld by three large corbels. The third story has only a +clock, and the fourth two plain round-headed belfry windows on each +face. The whole—above a shallow cornice which is no bigger than the +mouldings dividing the different stories—ends in a low stone dome, with +a bell gable in front, square below, and arched above, holding two +bells.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Azurara.</div> + +<p>Scarcely a mile away, across the river Ave, lies Azurara, which was made +a separate parish in 1457 and whose church was built by Dom Manoel in +1498.</p> + +<p>In plan it is almost exactly the same as Villa do Conde, except that +there are no transept chapels nor any flanking the chancel. Outside +almost the only difference lies in the parapet which is of the usual +shape with regular merlons; and in the west door which is an interesting +example of the change to the early renaissance. The door itself is +round-headed, and has Gothic mouldings separated by a broad band covered +with shallow renaissance carving. On each side are twisted shafts which +run up some way above the door to a sort of horizontal entablature, +whose frieze is well carved, and which is cut into by a curious ogee +moulding springing from the door arch. Above this entablature the shafts +are carried up square for some way, and end in Gothic pinnacles. Between +them is a niche surmounted by a large half-Gothic canopy and united to +the side shafts by a broken and twisted treelike moulding. What adds to +the strangeness of this door is that the blank spaces are plastered and +whitewashed, while all the rest of the church is of grey granite. Higher +up there is a round window—heavily moulded—and the whole gable ends in +a queer little round pediment set between two armillary spheres.</p> + +<p>Inside the piers are eight-sided with octagonal bases and caps, and with +a band of ornament half-way up the shaft. The arches are simply +chamfered but are each crossed by three carved voussoirs.</p> + +<p>The tower is exactly like that at Villa do Conde except that the bottom +story is not rusticated, and that instead of a dome there is an +octagonal spire covered with yellow and white tiles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 434px;"> +<a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a> +<a href="images/i030_fig_41.png"> +<img src="images/i030_fig_41_th.png" width="434" height="550" alt="FIG. 41.Villa do Conde. São João Baptista." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 41.<br />Villa do Conde.<br />São João Baptista.</span> +</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Caminha.</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>As at Azurara, the parish church of Santa Maria dos Anjos at Caminha is +in plan very like the Matriz at Villa do Conde. Caminha lies on the +Portuguese side of the estuary of the Minho, close to its mouth, and the +church was begun in 1488, but was not finished till the next century, +the tower indeed not being built till 1556. Like the others, the plan +shows a nave and rather narrow aisles of five bays, and two square +vaulted chapels with an apsidal chancel between to the east. Three large +vaulted chapels and the tower have been added, opening from the north +aisle. Probably the oldest part is the chancel with its flanking +chapels, which are very much more elaborate than any portion of the +churches already described. There are at the angles deep square +buttresses which end in groups of square spire-capped pinnacles all +elaborately crocketed, and not at all unlike those at Batalha. Between +these, in the chancel are narrow round-headed windows, whose mouldings +are enriched with large four-leaved flowers, and on all the walls from +buttress to buttress there runs a rich projecting cornice crowned by a +wonderfully pierced and crested parapet; also not unlike those at +Batalha, but more wonderful in that it is made of granite instead of +fine limestone. The rest of the outside is much plainer, except for the +two doorways, and two tall buttresses at the west end. These two +doorways—which are among the most interesting in the country—must be a +good deal later than the rest of the church, indeed could not have been +designed till after the work of that foreign school of renaissance +carvers at Coimbra had become well known, and so really belong to a +later chapter.</p> + +<p>Inside the columns are round, with caps and bases partly round and +partly eight-sided, the hollow octagons interpenetrating with the +circular mouldings. The arches of the arcade are also round, though +those of the chancel and eastern chapels are pointed. Attached to one of +the piers is a small eight-sided pulpit, at whose angles are Gothic +pinnacles, but whose sides and base are covered with cherubs' heads, +vases, and foliage of early renaissance.</p> + +<p>But the chief glory of the interior are the splendid tiles with which +its walls are entirely covered, and still more the wonderful wooden +roof, one of the finest examples of Moorish carpentry to be found +anywhere, and which, like the doorways, can now only be merely +mentioned.</p> + +<p>The tower, added by Diogo Eannes in 1556, is quite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> plain with one +belfry opening in each face close to the top and just below the low +parapet which, resting on corbels, ends in a row of curious half-classic +battlements.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 90.">[90]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Funchal.</div> + +<p>This plan was not confined only to parish churches, for about 1514 we +find it used by Dom Manoel at Funchal for the cathedral of the newly +founded diocese of Madeira. The only difference of importance is that +there is a well-developed transept entered by arches of the same height +as that of the chancel. Here the piers are clustered, and with rather +poorly carved capitals, the arches pointed and moulded, but rather thin. +As in the other churches of this date, the round-headed clerestory +windows come over the piers, not over the arches. The chancel, which is +rather deeper than usual, is entered by a wide foliated arch, and like +the apsidal chapels is vaulted. As at Caminha, the nave roof is of +Moorish design, but of even greater interest are the reredos and the +choir-stalls. This reredos is three divisions in height and five in +width—each division, except the two lower in the centre where there is +a niche for the image of the Virgin, containing a large picture.</p> + +<p>The divisions are separated perpendicularly by a series of Gothic +pinnacles, and horizontally by a band of Gothic tabernacle work at the +bottom, and above by beautifully carved early renaissance friezes. The +whole ends in a projecting canopy, divided into five bays, each bay +enriched with vaulting ribs, and in front with very delicately carved +hanging tracery. Above the horizontal cornice is a most elaborate +cresting of interlacing trefoils and leaves having in the middle the +royal arms with on each side an armillary sphere. Some of the detail of +the cresting is not all unlike that of the great reredos in the Sé Velha +at Coimbra, and like it has a Flemish look, so that it may have been +made perhaps, if not by Master Vlimer, who finished his work at Coimbra +in 1508, at any rate by one of his pupils. The stalls, which at the back +are separated by Gothic pilasters and pinnacles, have also a continuous +canopy, and a high and splendid cresting, which though Gothic in general +appearance, is quite renaissance in detail.</p> + +<p>Outside, the smaller eastern chapels have an elaborate cresting, and +tall twisted pinnacles. The large plain tower<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> which rises east of the +north transept has a top crowned with battlements, within which stands a +square tile-covered spire.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé, Lamego.</div> + +<p>Before going on to discuss the long-continued influence of the Moors, +three buildings in which Gothic finally came to an end must be +discussed. These are the west front of Lamego, the cathedral of Vizeu, +and the porch and chancel of the Sé at Braga. Except for its romanesque +tower and its west front the cathedral of Lamego has been entirely +rebuilt; and of the west front only the lower part remains uninjured. +This front is divided by rather elaborate buttresses into three nearly +equal parts—for the side aisles are nearly as wide as the central. In +each of these is a large pointed doorway, that in the centre being at +once wider and considerably higher than those of the aisles. The central +door has six moulded shafts on either side, all with elaborately carved +capitals and with deeply undercut foliage in the hollows between, this +foliage being carried round the whole arch between the mouldings. Above +the top of the arch runs a band of flat, early renaissance carving with +a rich Gothic cresting above.</p> + +<p>The side-doors are exactly similar, except that they have fewer shafts, +four instead of six, and that in the hollows between the mouldings the +carving is early renaissance in character and is also flatter than in +the central door. Above runs the same band of carving—but lower +down—and a similar but simpler cresting.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sé, Vizeu.</div> + +<p>Unlike Lamego, while the cathedral of Vizeu has been but little altered +within, scarcely any of the original work is to be seen outside. The +present cathedral was built by Bishop Dom Diego Ortiz de Vilhegas about +the year 1513, and his arms as well as those of Dom Manoel and of two of +his sons are found on the vault. The church is not large, having a nave +and aisles of four bays measuring about 105 feet by 62; square transept +chapels, and a seventeenth-century chancel with flanking chapels. To the +west are two towers, built between the years 1641 and 1671, and on the +south a very fine renaissance cloister of two stories, the lower having +been built, it is said, in 1524,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 91.">[91]</a> and the upper about 1730. A choir +gallery too, with an elaborate Gothic vault below and a fine renaissance +balustrade, crosses the whole west end and extends over the porch +between the two western towers. But if the cathedral in its plan follows +the ordinary type, in design and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> in construction it is quite unique. +Instead of there being a wooden roof as is usual in churches of this +period, the whole is vaulted, and that too in a very unusual and +original manner. Throughout the piers consist of twelve rounded shafts +set together. Of these the five towards the central aisle are several +feet higher than the other seven from which spring the aisle arches as +well as the ribs of the aisle vault. Consequently the vault of the +central aisle is considerably lower at the sides than it is in the +middle, and in this ingenious way its thrust is counteracted by the +vaults of the side aisles; and at the same time these side vaults are +not highly stilted as they would of necessity have been, had the three +aisles been of exactly the same height. All the ribs are of considerable +projection and well moulded, and of all, except the diagonal ribs, the +lowest moulding is twisted like a rope. This rope-moulding is repeated +on all the ridge ribs, and in each it is tied in a knot half-way along, +a knot which is so much admired that the whole vault is called 'a +abobada dos nós' or vault of the knots.</p> + +<p>The capitals are more curious than beautiful; the lower have clumsy, +early-looking foliage and a large and curious abacus. First each capital +has a square abacus of some depth, then comes a large flat circle, one +for each three caps, and at the top a star-shaped moulding of hollow +curves, the points projecting beyond the middle of the square abaci +below. The higher capitals are better. They are carved with more +elaborate foliage and gilt, and the abaci follow more exactly the line +of the caps below and are carved and gilded in the same way. (<a href="#Fig_42">Fig. 42</a>.)</p> + +<p>Perhaps, however, the chief interest of the cathedral is found in the +sacristy, a fine large room opening from the north transept chapel. On +its tiled walls there hang several large and some smaller paintings, of +which the finest is that of St. Peter. Other pictures are found in the +chapter-house, and a fine one of the crucifixion in the Jesus Chapel +below it; but this is not the place to enter into the very difficult +question of Portuguese painting, a question on which popular tradition +throws only a misleading light by attributing everything to a more or +less mythical painter, Grão Vasco, and on which all authorities differ, +agreeing only in considering this St. Peter one of the finest paintings +in the country.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a> +<a href="images/i031_fig_42.png"> +<img src="images/i031_fig_42_th.png" width="275" height="354" alt="FIG. 42.Sé, Vizeu." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 42.<br />Sé, Vizeu.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a> +<a href="images/i031_fig_43.png"> +<img src="images/i031_fig_43_th.png" width="275" height="356" alt="FIG. 43.Braga. W. Porch of Cathedral." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 43.<br />Braga.<br />W. Porch of Cathedral.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Sé, Braga.</div> + +<p>Perhaps the chancel of the cathedral at Braga ought rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> +to be left to a chapter dealing with what is usually called the +Manoelino style—that strange last development of Gothic which is found +only in Portugal—but it is in many respects so like the choir chapels +of the church at Caminha, and has so little of the usual Manoelino +peculiarities, that it were better to describe it now. Whatever may be +thought of the chancel, there is no doubt about the large western porch, +which is quite free of any Manoelino fantasies.</p> + +<p>Both porch and chancel were built by Archbishop Dom Diego de Souza about +the year 1530—a most remarkable date when the purely Gothic work here +is compared with buildings further south, where Manoelino had already +been succeeded by various forms of the classic renaissance. The porch +stretches right across the west end of the church, and is of three bays. +That in the centre, considerably wider than those at the side, is +entered from the west by a round-headed arch, while the arches of the +others are pointed. The bays are separated by buttresses of considerable +projection, and all the arches, which have good late mouldings, are +enriched with a fine feathering of cusps, which stands out well against +the dark interior. Unfortunately the original parapet is gone, only the +elaborate canopies of the niches, of which there are two to each bay, +rise above the level of the flat paved roof. Inside there is a good +vault with many well-moulded ribs, but the finest feature of it all is +the wrought-iron railing which crosses each opening. This, almost the +only piece of wrought-iron work worthy of notice in the whole country, +is very like contemporary screens in Spain. It is made of upright bars, +some larger, twisted from top to bottom, some smaller twisted at the +top, and plain below, alternating with others plain above and twisted +below. At the top runs a frieze of most elaborate hammered and pierced +work—early renaissance in detail in the centre, Gothic in the side +arches, above which comes in the centre a wonderful cresting. In the +middle, over the gate which rises as high as the top of the cresting, is +a large trefoil made of a flat hammered band intertwined with a similar +band after the manner of a Manoelino doorway.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 92.">[92]</a> (<a href="#Fig_43">Fig. 43</a>.)</p> + +<p>Of the chancel little has been left inside but the vault and the tombs +of Dona Theresa (the first independent ruler of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> Portugal) and of her +husband Count Henry of Burgundy—very poor work of about the same date +as the chancel. The outside, however, has been unaltered. Below it is +square in plan, becoming at about twenty feet from the ground a +half-octagon having the eastern a good deal wider than the diagonal +sides. On the angles of the lower square stand tall clustered +buttresses, rising independently of the wall as far as the projecting +cornice, across which their highest pinnacles cut, and united to the +chancel at about a third of the height, by small but elaborate flying +buttresses. On the eastern face there is a simple pointed window, and +there is nothing else to relieve the perfectly plain walls below except +two string courses, and the elaborate side buttresses with their tall +pinnacles and twisted shafts. But if the walling is plain the cornice is +most elaborate. It is of great depth and of considerable projection, the +hollows of the mouldings being filled with square flowers below and +intricate carving above. On this stands a high parapet of traceried +quatrefoils, bearing a horizontal moulding from which springs an +elaborate cresting; all being almost exactly like the cornice and +parapet at Caminha, but larger and richer, and like it, a marvellous +example of carving in granite. At the angles are tall pinnacles, and the +pinnacles of the corner buttresses are united to the parapet by a +curious contorted moulding.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Conceiçao, Braga.</div> + +<p>Opposite the east end of the cathedral there stands a small tower built +in 1512 by Archdeacon João de Coimbra as a chapel. It is of two stories, +with a vaulted chapel below and a belfrey above, lit by round-headed +windows, only one of which retains its tracery. Just above the string +which divides the two stories are statues<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 93.">[93]</a> under canopies, one +projecting on a corbel from each corner, and one from the middle, while +above a cornice, on which stand short pinnacles, six to each side, the +tower ends in a low square tile roof. The chapel on the ground floor is +entered by a porch, whose flat lintel rests on moulded piers at the +angles and on two tall round columns in the centre, while its three +openings are filled with plain iron screens, the upper part of which +blossoms out into large iron flowers and leaves. Inside there is on the +east wall a reredos of early renaissance date, and on the south a large +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>half-classical arch flanked by pilasters under which there is a +life-size group of the Entombment made seemingly of terra cotta and +painted.</p> + +<p>So, rather later than in most other lands, and many years after the +renaissance had made itself felt in other parts of the country, Gothic +comes to an end, curiously enough not far from where the oldest +Christian buildings are found.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<p class="head">THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">t</span> is now time to turn back for a century and a half and to speak of the +traces left by the Moors of their long occupation of the country. +Although they held what is now the northern half of Portugal for over a +hundred years, and part of the south for about five hundred, there is +hardly a single building anywhere of which we can be sure that it was +built by them before the Christian re-conquest of the country. Perhaps +almost the only exceptions are the fortifications at Cintra, known as +the Castello dos Mouros, the city walls at Silves, and possibly the +church at Mertola. In Spain very many of their buildings still exist, +such as the small mosque, now the church of Christo de la Luz, and the +city walls at Toledo, and of course the mosque at Cordoba and the +Alcazar at Seville, not to speak of the Alhambra. Yet it must not be +forgotten that, while Portugal reached its furthest limits by the +capture of the Algarve under Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> about the middle of the +thirteenth century, in Spain the progress was slower. Toledo indeed fell +in 1085, but Cordoba and Seville were only taken a few years before the +capture of the Algarve, and Granada was able to hold out till 1492. +Besides, in what is now Portugal there had been no great capital like +Cordoba. And yet, though this is so, hardly a town or a village exists +in which some slight trace of their art cannot be found, even if it be +but a tile-lining to the walls of church or house. In such towns as +Toledo, Moorish builders were employed not only in the many parish +churches but even in the cathedral, and in Portugal we find Moors at +Thomar even as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century, when such +names as Omar, Mafamedi, Bugimaa, and Bebedim occur in the list of +workmen.</p> + +<p>It is chiefly in three directions that Moorish influence made itself +felt, in actual design, in carpentry, and in tiling,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> and of these the +last two, and especially tiling, are the most general, and long survived +the disappearance of Arab detail.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Cintra.</div> + +<p>Some eighteen miles from Lisbon, several sharp granite peaks rise high +above an undulating tableland. Two of these are encircled by the old +Moorish fortification which climbs up and down over huge granite +boulders, and on a projecting spur near their foot, and to the north, +there stands the old palace of Cintra. As long as the Walis ruled at +Lisbon, it was to Cintra that they came in summer for hunting and cool +air, and some part at least of their palace seems to have survived till +to-day.</p> + +<p>Cintra was first taken by Alfonso <span class="smcap95">vi.</span> of Castile and Leon in 1093—to be +soon lost and retaken by Count Henry of Burgundy sixteen years later, +but was not permanently held by the Christians till Affonso Henriques +expelled the Moors in 1147. The Palace of the Walis was soon granted by +him to Gualdim Paes, the famous grand master of the Templars, and was +held by his successors till it was given to Dom Diniz's queen, St. +Isabel. She died in 1336, when the palace returned to the Order of +Christ—which had meanwhile been formed out of the suppressed Order of +the Temple—only to be granted to Dona Beatriz, the wife of D. Affonso +<span class="smcap95">iv</span>., in exchange for her possessions at Ega and at Torre de Murta. Dom +João <span class="smcap95">i</span>. granted the palace in 1385 to Dom Henrique de Vilhena, but he +soon sided with the Spaniards, for he was of Spanish birth, his +possessions were confiscated and Cintra returned to the Crown. Some of +the previous kings may have done something to the palace, but it was +King João who first made it one of the chief royal residences, and who +built a very large part of it.</p> + +<p>A few of the walls have been examined by taking off the plaster, and +have been found to be built in the usual Arab manner, courses of rubble +bonded at intervals with bands of thin bricks two or three courses deep. +Such are the back wall of the entrance hall and a thick wall near the +kitchen. Outside all the walls are plastered, all the older windows, of +one or two lights, are enclosed in square frames—for the later windows +of Dom Manoel's time are far more elaborate and fantastic—and most of +the walls end in typical Moorish battlements. High above the dark tile +roofs there tower the two strange kitchen chimneys, huge conical spires +ending in round funnels, now all plastered, but once covered with a +pattern of green and white tiles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 366px;"> +<a href="images/i032_plan_paco_cintra.png"> +<img src="images/i032_plan_paco_cintra_th.png" width="366" height="532" +alt="PLAN OF PAÇO, CINTRA" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF PAÇO, CINTRA</span> +</div> + +<p>The whole is so extremely complicated that without a plan it would be +almost useless to attempt a description. Speaking roughly, all that lies +to the west of the Porte Cochère which leads from the entrance court +through to the kitchen court and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> stables beyond is, with certain +alterations and additions, the work of Dom João, and all that lies to +the east is the work of Dom Manoel, added during the first years of the +sixteenth century. Entering through a pointed gateway, one finds oneself +in a long and irregular courtyard, having on the right hand a long low +building in which live the various lesser palace officials, and on the +left, first a comparatively modern projecting building in which live the +ladies-in-waiting, then somewhat further back the rooms of the +controller of the palace and his office. From the front wall of this +office, which itself juts out some feet into the courtyard, there runs +eastwards a high balustraded terrace reaching as far as another slightly +projecting wing, and approached by a great flight of steps at its +western end. Not far beyond the east end of the terrace an inclined road +leads to the Porte Cochère, and beyond it are the large additions made +by Dom Manoel. (<a href="#Fig_44">Fig. 44</a>.)</p> + +<p>On this terrace stands the main front of the palace. Below are four +large pointed arches, and above five beautiful windows lighting the +great Sala dos Cysnes or Swan Hall. Originally these four arches were +open and led into a large vaulted hall; now they are all built +up—perhaps by Dona Maria <span class="smcap95">i.</span> after the great earthquake—three having +small two-light windows, and one a large door, the chief entrance to the +palace. In the back wall of this hall may still be seen three windows +which must have existed before it was built, for what is now their inner +side was evidently at first their outer; and this wall is one of those +found to be built in the Arab manner, so that clearly Dom João's hall +was built in front of a part of the Walis' palace, a part which has +quite disappeared except for this wall.</p> + +<p>From the east end of this lower hall a straight stair, which looks as if +it had once been an outside stair, leads up to a winding stair by which +another hall is reached, whose floor lies at a level of about 26 feet +above the terrace.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 94.">[94]</a> From this hall, which may be of later date than +Dom João's time, a door leads down to the central pateo or courtyard, or +else going up a few steps the way goes through a smaller square room, +once an open verandah, through a wide doorway inserted by Dom Manoel +into the great Swan Hall. This hall, the largest room in the palace, +measuring about 80 feet long by 25 wide, is so called from the swans +painted in the eight-sided panels of its wonderful roof. The story is +that while the palace was still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> building ambassadors came to the king +from the duke of Burgundy asking for the hand of his daughter Isabel. +Among other presents they brought some swans, which so pleased the young +princess that she made them collars of red velvet and persuaded her +father to build for them a long narrow tank in the central court just +under the north windows of this hall. Here she used to feed them till +she went away to Flanders, and from love of his daughter King João had +the swans with their collars painted on the ceiling of the hall. The +swans may still be seen, but not those painted for Dom João, for all the +mouldings clearly show that the present ceiling was reconstructed some +centuries later. The hall is lit by five windows looking south across +the entrance court to the Moorish castle on the hill beyond, and by +three looking over the swan tank into the central pateo.</p> + +<p>These windows, and indeed all those in Dom João's part of the palace, +are very like each other. They are nearly all of two lights—never of +more—and are made of white marble. In every case there is a +square-headed moulded frame enclosing the whole window, the outer +mouldings of this frame resting on small semicircular corbels, and +having Gothic bases. Inside this framework stand three slender shafts, +with simple bases and carved capitals. These capitals are not at all +unlike French capitals of the thirteenth century, but are really of a +common Moorish pattern often found elsewhere, as in the Alhambra. On +them, moulded at the ends, but not in front or behind, rest abaci, from +which spring stilted arches. (<a href="#Fig_45">Fig. 45</a>.)</p> + +<p>Each arch is delicately moulded and elaborately cusped, but, though in +some cases—for the shape varies in almost every window—each individual +cusp may have the look of a Gothic trefoil, the arrangement is not +Gothic at all. There are far more than are ever found in a Gothic +window, sometimes as many as eleven, and they usually begin at the +bottom with a whole instead of a half cusp. From the centre of each +abacus, cutting across the arch mouldings, another moulding runs up, +which being returned across the top encloses the upper part of each +light in a smaller square frame. It is this square frame which more than +anything else gives these windows their Eastern look, and it has been +shown how often, and indeed almost universally a square framing was put +round doorways all through the last Gothic period.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a> +<a href="images/i033_fig_44.png"> +<img src="images/i033_fig_44_th.png" width="275" height="361" alt="FIG. 44.Palace, Cintra.Entrance Court." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 44.<br />Palace, Cintra.<br />Entrance Court.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a> +<a href="images/i033_fig_45.png"> +<img src="images/i033_fig_45_th.png" width="275" height="368" alt="FIG. 45.Palace, Cintra.Window of Sala Das Sereias." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 45.<br />Palace, Cintra.<br />Window of Sala Das Sereias.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span> +In only one instance are the shafts anything but plain, and that +is in the central window overlooking the entrance court, where they are +elaborately twisted, and where also they start at the level of the floor +within instead of standing on a low parapet.</p> + +<p>In the room itself the walls up to a certain height are covered with +tiles, diamonds of white and a beautiful olive green which are much +later than Dom João's time. There is also near the west end of the north +side a large fireplace projecting slightly from the wall; at either end +stands a shaft with cap and base like those of the windows, bearing a +long flat moulded lintel, while on the hearth there rest two very fine +wrought-iron Gothic fire-dogs.</p> + +<p>East of the fireplace a door having a wide flat ogee head leads into a +small porch built in the corner of the pateo to protect the passage to +the Sala das Pegas, the first of the rooms to the south of this pateo.</p> + +<p>In the angle formed by the end wall of the Sala dos Cysnes and the side +of the Sala das Pegas there is a small low room now called the Sala de +Dom Sebastião or do Conselho. It is entered from the west end of the +Swan Hall through a door, which was at first a window just like all the +rest. This Hall of Dom Sebastião or of the Council is so called from the +tradition that it was there that in 1578 that unhappy king held the +council in which it was decided to invade Morocco, an expedition which +cost the king his life and his country her independence. In reality the +final solemn council was held in Lisbon, but some informal meeting may +well have been held there. Now the room is low and rather dark, being +lit only by two small windows opening above the roof of the controller's +office. It is divided into two unequal parts by an arcade of three +arches, the smaller part between the arches and the south wall being +raised a step above the rest. When first built by Dom João this raised +part formed a covered verandah, the rest being, till about the time of +Maria <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, open to the sky and forming a charming and cool retreat during +the heat of summer. The floor is of tiles and marble, and all along the +south wall runs a bench entirely covered with beautiful tiles. At the +eastern end is a large seat, rather higher than the bench and provided +with arms, doubtless for the king, and tiled like the rest.</p> + +<p>Passing again from the Swan Hall the way leads through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span> the porch into +the Sala das Pegas or of the magpies. The door from the porch to the +room is one of the most beautiful parts of Dom João's work. It is framed +as are the windows, and has shafts, capitals, abaci, and bases just like +those already described; but the arch is different. It is beautifully +moulded, but is—if one may so speak—made up of nine reversed cusps, +whose convex sides form the arch: the inner square moulding too is +enriched with ball ornament. Inside the walls are covered to half their +height with exquisite tiles of Moorish pattern, blue, green and brown on +a white ground.</p> + +<p>On the north wall is a great white marble chimney-piece, once a present +from Pope Leo <span class="smcap95">x</span>. to Dom Manoel and brought by the great Marques de +Pombal from the ruined palace of Almeirim opposite Santarem. Two other +doors, with simple pointed heads, lead one into the dining-room, and one +into the Sala das Sereias. The Sala das Pegas, like the Swan Hall, is +called after its ceiling, for on it are painted in 136 triangular +compartments, 136 magpies, each holding in one foot a red rose and in +its beak a scroll inscribed 'Por Bem.' Possibly this ceiling, which on +each side slopes up to a flat parallelogram, is more like that painted +for Dom João than is that of the Swan Hall, but even here some of the +mouldings are clearly renaissance, and the painting has been touched up, +but anyhow it was already called Camera das Pegas in the time of Dom +Duarte; further, tradition tells that the magpies were painted there by +Dom João's orders, and why. It seems that once during the hour of the +midday siesta the king, wandering about his unfinished house, found in +this room one of the maids of honour. Her he kissed, when another maid +immediately went and told the queen, Philippa of Lancaster. She was +angry, but Dom João only said 'Por bem,' meaning much what his queen's +grandfather had meant when he said 'Honi soit qui mal y pense,' and to +remind the maids of honour, whose waiting-room this was, that they must +not tell tales, he had the magpies painted on the ceiling.</p> + +<p>The two windows, one looking west and one into the pateo, are exactly +like those already described.</p> + +<p>From the Sala das Pegas one door leads up a few steps into the Sala das +Sereias, and another to the dining-room. This Sala das Sereias, so +called from the mermaids painted on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> the ceiling, is a small room some +eighteen feet square. It is lit by a two-light window opening towards +the courtyard, a window just like those of the Sala das Pegas and of the +Sala dos Cysnes. Some of its walls, especially that between it and the +Sala das Pegas, are very thick and seem to be older than the time of Dom +João. As usual, the walls are partly covered with beautiful tiles, +mostly embossed with green vine-leaves, but round the door leading to +the long narrow room, used as a servery, is an interlacing pattern of +green and blue tiles, while the spandrils between this and the pointed +doorhead are filled with a true Arabesque pattern, dark on a light +ground, which is said to belong to the Palace of the Walis. There are +altogether four doors, one leading to the servery, one to the Sala das +Pegas, one to a spiral stair in the corner of the pateo, and one to the +dining-room.</p> + +<p>This dining-room projects somewhat to the west so as to leave space for +a window looking south to the mountains, and one looking north across a +small court, as well as one looking west. Of these, the two which look +south and west are like each other, and like the other of Dom João's +time except that the arches are not cusped; that the outer frame is +omitted and that the abaci are moulded in front as well as at the ends; +but the third window looking north is rather different. The framing has +regular late Gothic bases, the capitals of the shafts are quite unlike +the rest, having one large curly leaf at each angle, and the moulding +running up the centre between the arches—which are not cusped—is +plaited instead of being plain. Altogether it looks as if it were later +than Dom João's time, for it is the only window where the capitals are +not of the usual Arab form, and they are not at all like some in the +castle of Sempre Noiva built about the beginning of the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p>The wall-tiles of the dining-room are like those of the Sala das +Sereias, but end in a splendid cresting. The ceiling is modern and +uninteresting.</p> + +<p>Next to the north comes the servery, a room without interest but for its +window which looks west, and is like the two older dining-room windows.</p> + +<p>Returning to the Sala das Sereias, a spiral stair leads down to the +central pateo, which can also be reached from the porch in the +south-west corner. All along the south side runs the tank made by Dom +João for his daughter's swans, and on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span> three sides are beautiful white +marble windows. At the east end of the north side three open arches lead +to the bathroom. As is the case with the windows, the three arches are +enclosed in a square frame. The capitals, however, are different, having +an eight-sided bell on which rests a square block with a bud carved at +each angle, and above an abacus, moulded all round. The arches are +cusped like the windows, but are stilted and segmental. Inside is a +recess framed in an arch of Dom Manoel's time, and from all over the +tiled walls and the ceiling jets of water squirt out, so that the whole +becomes a great shower-bath, delightful and cooling on a hot day but +rather public. In the middle of the pateo there stands a curious +column—not at all unlike the 'pelourinho'<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 95.">[95]</a> of Cintra—which stands +in a basin just before the entrance gate. This column is formed of three +twisted shafts on whose capitals sit a group of boys holding three +shields charged with the royal arms. All round the court is a dado of +white and green tiles arranged in an Arab pattern.</p> + +<p>In the north-west corner and reached by the same spiral stair, but at a +higher level than the Sala das Sereias, is the Sala dos Arabes, so +called because it is commonly believed to be a part of the original +building. The walls may be so, but of the rest, nothing, but perhaps the +shallow round fountain basin in the middle and the square of tiles which +surrounds it, now so worn that little of their glazed surface is left. +The walls half-way up are lined with tiles, squares and parallelograms, +blue, white and green. The doors are framed in different tiles, and all +are finished with an elaborate cresting. The most interesting thing in +the room is the circular basin in the middle—a basin which gives it a +truly Eastern look. Inside a round shallow hollow there stands a +many-sided block of marble about six inches high. The sides are concave +as in a small section of a Doric column, and within it is hollowed into +a beautiful cup, shaped somewhat like a flower of many petals. In the +middle there now is a strange object of gilt metal through which the +water once poured. On a short stem stands a carefully modelled dish on +which rest first leaves, like long acanthus leaves, then between them +birds on whose backs sit small figures of boys. Between the boys and +above the leaves are more figures exactly like seated Indian gods, and +the whole ends in a cone. It is so completely Indian in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> appearance that +there can be little doubt but that it is really of Indian origin, and +perhaps it is not too much to see in it part of the spoils brought to +Dom Manoel by Vasco da Gama after he had in 1498 made his way round +Africa to Calicut and back.</p> + +<p>Returning to the Sala das Sereias and passing through the servery and +another room an open court is reached called the Pateo de Diana, from a +fountain over which Diana presides, and on to which one of the +dining-room windows looks. A beautifully tiled stair—these tiles are +embossed like those of the dining-room, but besides vine-leaves some +have on them bunches of grapes—goes down from the Court of Diana to the +Court of the Lion, the Pateo do Leão, where a lion spouts into a long +tank. But the chief beauty of these two courts is a small window which +overlooks them. This window is only of one light, and like the +dining-room window near it its framing has Gothic bases. The capitals +are smaller than in the other windows, and the framing partly covers the +outer moulding of the window arch, making it look like a segment of a +circle. But the cusps are the most curious part. They form four more or +less trefoiled spaces with wavy outlines, and two of them—not the +remaining one at the top—end in large well-carved vine-leaves, very +like those at the ends of the cusps on the arches in the Capella do +Fundador at Batalha. To add to the charm of the window, the space +between the top of the arch and the framing is filled in with those +beautiful tiles embossed with vine-leaves.</p> + +<p>Going up again to the Sala dos Arabes, a door in the northern wall leads +to a passage running northwards to the chapel. About half-way along the +passage another branches off to the right towards the great kitchen.</p> + +<p>The chapel stands at the northern edge of the palace buildings, having +beyond it a terrace called the Terreiro da Meca or of Mecca; partly from +this name, and partly from the tiles which still cover the middle of the +floor it is believed that the chapel stands exactly on the site of the +Walis' private mosque, with perhaps the chancel added.</p> + +<p>The middle of the nave—the chapel consists of a nave and chancel, two +small transeptal recesses, and two galleries one above the other at the +west end—is paved with tiles once glazed and of varying colours, but +now nearly all worn down till the natural red shows through. The pattern +has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> elaborate; a broad border of diagonal checks surrounding a +narrow oblong in which the checks are crossed by darker lines so as to +form octagons, and between the outer border and the octagons a band of +lighter ground down which in the middle runs a coloured line having on +each side cones of the common Arab pattern exactly like the palace +battlements.</p> + +<p>Now the walls are bare and white, but were once covered with frescoes of +the fifteenth century; the reredos is a clumsy addition of the +eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>The cornice and the long pilasters at the entrance to the chancel seem +to have been added at the same time, but the windows and ceiling are +still those of Dom João's time. The windows—there are now three, a +fourth in the chancel having been turned into a royal pew—are of two or +three lights, have commonplace tracery, and are only interesting as +being one of the few wholly Gothic features in the palace.</p> + +<p>Far more interesting is the ceiling, which is entirely Arab in +construction and in design. In the nave it is an irregular polygon in +section, and in the chancel is nearly a semicircle, having nine equal +sides. The whole of the boarded surface is entirely covered with an +intricate design formed of strips of wood crossing each other in every +direction so as to form stars, triangles, octagons, and figures of every +conceivable shape. The whole still retains its original colouring. At +the centres of the main figures are gilt bosses—the one over the high +altar being a shield with the royal arms—the wooden strips are black +with a white groove down the centre of each, and the ground is either +dark red or light blue. (<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>.)</p> + +<p>The whole is of great interest not only for its own sake, but because it +is the only ceiling in the palace which has remained unchanged since the +end of the fourteenth century, and because it is, as it were, the parent +of the splendid roofs in the Sala dos Cysnes and of the still more +wonderful one in the Sala dos Escudos.</p> + +<p>The kitchen lies at the back of the chapel and at right angles to it. It +is a building about 58 feet long by 25 wide, and is divided into two +equal parts by a large arch. Each of these two parts is covered by a +huge conical chimney so that the inside is more like the nave of St. +Ours at Loches than anything else, while outside these chimneys rise +high above all the rest of the palace. It is lit by small two-light +Gothic windows, and has lately been lined with white tiles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 429px;"> +<a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a> +<a href="images/i034_fig_46.png"> +<img src="images/i034_fig_46_th.png" width="429" height="550" alt="FIG. 46.Palace Chapel Roof.Cintra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 46.<br />Palace Chapel Roof.<br />Cintra.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>Now the chimneys serve only as ventilators, as ordinary iron ranges have been +put in. There seems to be nothing in the country at all like these +chimneys—for the kitchen at Alcobaça, although it has a stream running +through it, is but a poor affair compared with this one, nor is its +chimney in any way remarkable outside.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 96.">[96]</a></p> + +<p>The rest of the palace towards the west, between the west end of the +chapel and the great square tower in which is the Sala dos Escudos, was +probably also built about the time of Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, but except for a few +windows there is little of interest left which belongs to his time.</p> + +<p>The great tower of the Sala dos Escudos was built by Dom Manoel on the +top of an older building then called the Casa da Meca, in which Affonso +<span class="smcap95">v.</span> was born in 1432—the year before his grandfather Dom João died—and +where he himself died forty-nine years later. In another room on a +higher floor—where his feet, as he walked up and down day after day, +have quite worn away the tiles—Affonso <span class="smcap95">vi.</span> was imprisoned. Affonso had +by his wildness proved himself quite unable to govern, and had also made +himself hated by his queen, a French princess. She fell in love with his +brother, so Affonso was deposed, divorced, and banished to the Azores. +After some years it was found that he was there trying to form a party, +so he was brought to Cintra and imprisoned in this room from 1674 till +his death in 1683. These worn-out tiles are worthy of notice for their +own sake since tiles with Moorish patterns, as are these here and those +in the chapel, are very seldom used for flooring, and they are probably +among the oldest in the palace.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Castles, Guimarães and Barcellos.</div> + +<p>Such was the palace from the time of João <span class="smcap95">i.</span> to that of Dom Manoel, a +building thoroughly Eastern in plan as in detail, and absolutely unlike +such contemporary buildings as the palaces of the dukes of Braganza at +Guimarães or at Barcellos, or the castle at Villa da Feira between +Oporto and Aveiro. The Braganza palaces are both in ruins, but their +details are all such as might be found almost anywhere in Christian +Europe. Large pointed doors, traceried windows and tall chimneys—these +last round and of brick—differ only from similar features found +elsewhere, as one dialect may differ from another, whereas Cintra is, as +it were, built in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Villa da Feira.</div> + +<p class="non">totally different language. The castle at Villa da Feira is even more +unlike anything at Cintra. A huge keep of granite, the square turrets +projecting slightly from the corners give it the look of a Norman +castle, for the curious spires of brick now on those turrets were added +later, perhaps under Dom Manoel. Inside there is now but one vast hall +with pointed barrel roof, for all the wooden floors are gone, leaving +only the beam holes in the walls, the Gothic fireplaces, and the small +windows to show where they once were.</p> + +<p>It is then no wonder that Cintra has been called the Alhambra of +Portugal, and it is curious that the same names are found given to +different parts of the two buildings. The Alhambra has a Mirador de +Lindaraxa, Cintra a Jardim de Lindaraya; the Alhambra a Torre de las dos +Hermanas, Cintra a Sala das Irmãs or of the Sisters—the part under the +Sala dos Escudos where Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> was born; while both at the Alhambra +and here there is a garden called de las or das Damas.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<p class="head">OTHER MOORISH BUILDINGS</p> + + +<p>T<span class="smcap95">he</span> old palace at Cintra is perhaps the only complete building to the +north of the Tagus designed and carried out by Moorish workmen scarcely, +if at all, influenced by what the conquering Christians were doing round +them. Further south in the province of Alemtejo Moorish buildings are +more common, and there are many in which, though the design and plan as +well as most of the detail may be Western, yet there is something, the +whitewashed walls, the round conical pinnacles, or the flat roofs which +give them an Eastern look.</p> + +<p>And this is natural. Alemtejo was conquered after the country north of +the Tagus had been for some time Christian, and no large immigration of +Christians ever came to take the place of the Moors, so that those few +who remained continued for long in their own Eastern ways of building +and of agriculture.</p> + +<p>It is especially in and about the town of Evora that this is seen, and +that too although the cathedral built at the end of the twelfth century +is, except for a few unimportant details, a Western building.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Alvito.</div> + +<p>But more completely Eastern than any one building at Evora is the castle +at Alvito, a small town some thirty or forty miles to the south-west. +The town stands at the end of a long low hill and looks south over an +endless plain across to Beja, one of the most extensive and, in its way, +beautiful views in the country.</p> + +<p>At one end of the town on the slope of the hill stands the castle, and +not far off in one of the streets is the town hall whose tower is too +characteristic of the Alemtejo not to be noticed. The building is +whitewashed and perfectly plain, with ordinary square windows. An +outside stair leads to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> upper story, and behind it rises the tower. +It, like the building, is absolutely plain with semicircular openings +near the top irregularly divided by a square pier. Close above these +openings is a simple cornice on which stand rather high and narrow +battlements; within them rises a short eight-sided spire, and at each +corner a short round turret capped by a conical roof. The whole from top +to bottom is plastered and whitewashed, and it is this glaring whiteness +more than anything else which gives to the whole so Eastern a look.</p> + +<p>As to the castle, Haupt in his most interesting book, <i>Die Baukunst der +Renaissance in Portugal</i>, says that, though he had never seen it, yet +from descriptions of its plan he had come to the conclusion that it was +the castle which, according to Vasari, was built by Andrea da Sansovino +for Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> Now it is well known that Sansovino was for nine years +in Portugal and did much work there, but none of it can now be found +except perhaps a beautiful Italian door in the palace at Cintra; Vasari +also states that he did some work in the heavy and native style which +the king liked. Is it possible that the castle of Alvito is one of his +works in this native style?</p> + +<p>Vasari says that Sansovino built for Dom João a beautiful palace with +four towers, and that part of it was decorated by him with paintings, +and it was because Haupt believed that this castle was built round an +arcaded court—a regular Italian feature, but one quite unknown in +Portugal—that he thought it must be Sansovino's lost palace.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact the court is not arcaded—there is only a row of +rough plastered arches along one side; there are five and not four +towers; there is no trace now of any fine painted decoration inside; +and, in short, it is inconceivable that, even to please a king, an +architect of the Italian renaissance could ever have designed such a +building.</p> + +<p>The plan of the castle is roughly square with a round tower at three of +the corners, and at the fourth or southern corner a much larger tower, +rounded in front and projecting further from the walls. The main front +is turned to the south-west, and on that side, as well as on the +south-eastern, are the habitable parts of the castle. Farm buildings run +along inside and outside the north-western, while the north-eastern side +is bounded only by a high wall.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span></p> + +<p>Half-way along the main front is the entrance gate, a plain pointed arch +surmounted by two shields, that on the right charged with the royal +arms, and that on the left with those of the Barão d'Alvito, to whose +descendant, the Marques d'Alvito, the castle still belongs. There is +also an inscription stating that the castle, begun in 1494 by the orders +of Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> and finished in the time of Dom Manoel, was built by Dom +Diogo Lobo, Barão d'Alvito.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 97.">[97]</a></p> + +<p>In the court a stair, carried on arches, goes up to the third floor +where are the chief rooms in the house. None of them, which open one +from the other or from a passage leading to the chapel in the +westernmost corner, are in any way remarkable except for their windows. +The ceilings of the principal rooms are of wood and panelled, but are +clearly of much later date than the building and are not to be compared +with those at Cintra. Most of the original windows—for those on the +main front have been replaced by plain square openings—are even more +Eastern than those at Cintra. They are nearly all of two lights—there +is one of a single light in the passage—but are without the square +framing. Each window has three very slender white marble shafts, with +capitals and with abaci moulded on each side. On some of the capitals +are carved twisted ropes, while others, as in a window in the large +southern tower, are like those at Cintra. As the shafts stand a little +way back from the face of the wall the arches are of two orders, of +which only the inner comes down to the central shaft. (<a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>.)</p> + +<p>These arches, all horseshoe in shape, are built of red brick with very +wide mortar joints, and each brick, in both orders, is beautifully +moulded or cut at the ends so as to form a series of small trefoiled +cusps, each arch having as many as twenty-seven or more. The whole +building is plastered and washed yellow, so that the contrast between +the bare walls and the elaborate red arches and white shafts is +singularly pleasing. All the outer walls are fortified, but the space +between each embrasure is far longer than usual; the four corner towers +rise a good deal above the rest of the buildings, but in none, except +the southern, are there windows above the main roof. It has one, shaped +like the rest, but now all plastered and framed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span> in an ogee moulding. +Half-way along the north-west wall, outside it, stands the keep, which +curiously is not Arab at all. It is a large square tower of no great +height, absolutely plain, and built of unplastered stone or marble. It +has scarcely any windows, and walls of great thickness which, like those +of the smaller round towers, have a slight batter. It seems to be older +than the rest, and now its chief ornament is a large fig-tree growing +near the top on the south side.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 98.">[98]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Evora.</div> + +<p>Of all the towns in the Alemtejo Evora is the one where Eastern +influence is most strongly marked. Indeed the Roman temple and the +cathedral are perhaps the only old buildings which seem to be distinctly +Western, and even the cathedral has some trace of the East in its two +western spires, one round and tiled, and the other eight-sided and +plastered. For long Evora was one of the chief towns of the kingdom, and +was one of those oftenest visited by the kings. Their palace stood close +to the church of São Francisco, and must once have been a beautiful +building.</p> +<div class="sidenoteLT">Paços Reaes.</div> +<p>Unfortunately most of it has disappeared, and what is left, a large hall +partly of the time of Dom Manoel, has been so horribly restored in order +to turn it into a museum as to have lost all character.</p> + +<p>A porch still stands at the south end, but scraped and pointed out of +all beauty. It has in front four square stone piers bearing large +horseshoe brick arches, and these arches are moulded and cusped exactly +like those at Alvito.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Morgado de Cordovis.</div> + +<p>There are no other examples of Moorish brickwork in the town, but there +is more than one marble window resembling those at Alvito in shape. Of +these the most charming are found in the garden of a house belonging to +a 'morgado' or entailed estate called Cordovis. These windows form two +sides of a small square summer-house; their shafts have capitals like +those of the dining-room windows at Cintra, and the horseshoe arches +are, as usual, cusped. A new feature, showing how the pure Arab details +were being gradually combined with Gothic, is an ogee moulding which, +uniting the two arches, ends in a large Gothic finial; other mouldings +run up the cornice at the angles, and the whole, crowned with +battlements, ends in a short round whitewashed spire.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a> +<a href="images/i035_fig_47.png"> +<img src="images/i035_fig_47_th.png" width="275" height="342" alt="FIG. 47.Castle, Alvito.Courtyard." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 47.<br />Castle, Alvito.<br />Courtyard.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a> +<a href="images/i035_fig_48.png"> +<img src="images/i035_fig_48_th.png" width="275" height="350" alt="FIG. 48.EvoraChapter House Door of São João, Evangelista." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 48.<br />Evora<br />Chapter House Door of São João, Evangelista.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sempre Noiva.</div> + +<p>Some miles from Evora among the mountains, Affonso of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> +Portugal, archbishop of Evora, built himself a small country house which +he called Sempre Noiva, or 'Ever New,' about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. It is now a ruin having lost all its woodwork, but +the walls are still well preserved. The plan is simple; a rectangle with +a chapel projecting from the eastern side, and a small wing from the +west end of the south side. All the ground floor is vaulted, as is the +chapel, but the main rooms on the first floor had wooden roofs, except +the one next the chapel which forms the middle floor of a three-storied +tower, which, rising above the rest of the building, has a battlemented +flat roof reached by a spiral stair. This stair, like the round +buttresses of the chapel, is capped by a high conical plastered roof. As +usual the whole, except the windows and the angles, is plastered and has +a sgraffito frieze running round under the cornice. There is a large +porch on the north side covering a stair leading to the upper floor, +where most of the windows are of two lights and very like those of the +pavilion at Evora. Two like them have the ogee moulding, and at the +sides a rounded moulding carried on corbels and finished above the +window with a carved finial. The capitals are again carved with leaves, +but the horseshoe arches have no cusps, and the mouldings, like the +capitals, are entirely Gothic; the union between the two styles, Gothic +and Arab, was already becoming closer.</p> + +<p>Naturally Moorish details are more often found in secular than in +religious buildings: yet there are churches where such details exist +even if the general plan and design is Christian.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São João Evangelista, Evora.</div> + +<p>Just to the north of the cathedral of Evora, Rodrigo Affonso de Mello, +count of Olivença, in 1485 founded a monastery for the Loyos, or Canons +Secular of St. John the Evangelist. The church itself is in no way +notable; the large west door opening under a flat arched porch is one of +these with plain moulded arches and simple shafts which are so common +over all the country, and is only interesting for its late date. At the +left side is a small monument to the founder's memory; on a corbel +stands a short column bearing an inscribed slab, and above the slab is a +shield under a carved curtain. Inside are some tombs—two of them being +Flemish brasses—and great tile pictures covering the walls. These give +the life of São Lorenzo Giustiniani, patriarch of Venice, and canon of +San Giorgio in Alga, where the founder of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span> Loyos had been kindly +received and whence he drew the rules of his order, and are interesting +as being signed and dated 'Antonius ab oliva fecit 1711.'</p> + +<p>The cloisters are also Gothic with vine-covered capitals, but the +entrance to the chapter-house and refectory is quite different. In +general design it is like the windows at Sempre Noiva, two horseshoe +arches springing from the capitals of thin marble shafts and an ogee +moulding above. The three shafts are twisted, the capitals are very +strange; they are round with several mouldings, some fluted, some carved +with leaves, some like pieces of rope: the moulded abaci also have four +curious corbels on two sides. The capitals are carried across the jambs +and the outer moulding, which is of granite, as is the whole except the +three shafts and their caps, and between the shafts and this moulding +there is a broad band of carved foliage. The ogee and the side finials +or pinnacles, which are of the same section as the outer moulding from +which they spring, are made of a bundle of small rolls held together by +a broad twisted ribbon. Lastly, between the arches and the ogee there is +a flat marble disk on which is carved a curious representation of a +stockaded enclosure, supposed to be memorial of the gallant attack made +by Affonso de Mello on Azila in Morocco.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 99.">[99]</a> The whole is a very curious +piece of work, the capitals and bases being, with the exception of some +details at Thomar and at Batalha, the most strange of the details of +that period, though, were the small corbels left out, they would differ +but little from other Manoelino capitals, while the bases may be only an +attempt of a Moorish workman to copy the interpenetration of late +Gothic. (<a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Francisco, Evora.</div> + +<p>Not much need be said here of the church of São Francisco or of the +chapel of São Braz, both begun at about the same time. São Francisco was +long in building, for it was begun by Affonso <span class="smcap95">v</span>. in 1460 and not +finished till 1501. It is a large church close to the ruins of the +palace at Evora, and has a wide nave without aisles, six chapels on each +side, larger transept chapels, and a chancel narrower than the nave. It +is, like most of Evora, built of granite, has a pointed barrel vault cut +into by small groins at the sides and scarcely any windows, for the +outer walls of the side chapels are carried up so as to leave a narrow +space between them and the nave wall. This was probably done to support +the main vault, but the result is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span> that almost the only window is a +large one over the west porch. It is this porch that most strongly shows +the hand of Moorish workmen. It is five bays long and one deep, and most +of the five arches in front, separated by Gothic buttresses and +springing from late Gothic capitals, are horseshoe in shape. The white +marble doorway has two arches springing from a thin central shaft, which +like the arches and the two heavy mouldings, which forming the outer +part of the jambs are curved over them, is made of a number of small +rounds partly straight and partly twisted. At the corners of the church +are large round spiral pinnacles with a continuous row of battlements +between; these battlements interspersed with round pinnacles are even +set all along the ridge of the vault. The reredos and the stalls made by +Olivel of Ghent in 1508 are gone; so are Francisco Henriques' stained +windows, but there are still some good tiles, and in a large square +opening looking into the chancel there is a shaft with a beautiful early +renaissance capital.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São Braz, Evora.</div> + +<p>São Braz stands outside the town near the railway station. It was built +as a pilgrimage chapel soon after 1482, when the saint had been invoked +to stay a terrible plague. It is not large, has an aisleless nave of +four bays, a large porch with three wide pointed arches at the west, and +a sort of domed chancel. Most of the details are indeed Gothic, but +there is little detail, and the whole is entirely Eastern in aspect. It +is all plastered, the buttresses are great rounded projections capped +with conical plastered roofs; there are battlements on the west gable +and on the three sides of the porch, which also has great round +conical-topped buttresses or turrets at the angles.</p> + +<p>Inside there are still fine tiles, but the sgraffito frieze has nearly +disappeared from the outer cornice.</p> + +<p>There is also an interesting church somewhat in the same style as São +Braz, but with aisles and brick flying buttresses at Vianna d'Alemtejo +near Alvito.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<p class="head">MOORISH CARPENTRY</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">f</span> it was only in the south that Moorish masons built in stone or brick, +their carpenters had a much wider range. The wooden ceilings of as late +as the middle of the seventeenth century may show no Eastern detail, yet +in the method of their construction they are all ultimately descended +from Moorish models. Such ceilings are found all over the country, but +curiously enough the finest examples of truly Eastern work are found in +the far north at Caminha and in the island of Madeira at Funchal.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Aguas Santas.</div> + +<p>The old romanesque church at Aguas Santas near Oporto has a roof, simple +and unadorned, the tie-beams of which are coupled in the Moorish manner. +The two beams about a foot apart are joined in the centre by four short +pieces of wood set diagonally so as to form a kind of knot. This is very +common in Moorish roofs, and may be seen at Seville and elsewhere. The +rest of the roof is boarded inside, boards being also fastened to the +underside of the collar beams.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Azurara.</div> + +<p>At Azurara the ties are single, but the whole is boarded as at Aguas +Santas, and this is also the case at Villa do Conde and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>In the palace chapel at Cintra, already described, the boarding is +covered with a pattern of interlacing strips, but later on panelling was +used, usually with simple mouldings. Such is the roof in the nave of the +church of Nossa Senhora do Olival at Thomar, probably of the seventeenth +century, and in many houses, as for instance in the largest hall in the +castle at Alvito. From such simple panelled ceilings the splendid +elaboration of those in the palace at Cintra was derived.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Caminha.</div> + +<p>The roofs at Caminha and at Funchal are rather different. At Caminha the +roof is divided into bays of such a size that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span> each of the three +divisions, the two sloping sides and the flat centre under the collar +ties, is cut into squares. In the sloping sides these squares are +divided from each other by a strip of boarding covering the space +occupied by three rafters. On this boarding are two bands of ornament +separated by a carved chain, while one band, with the chain, is returned +round the top and bottom of the square. Between each strip of boarding +are six exposed rafters, and these are united alternately by small knots +in the middle and at the ends, and by larger and more elaborate knots at +the ends. In the flat centre under the collar ties each square is again +surrounded by the band of ornament and by the chains, but here band and +chain are also carried across the corners, leaving a large octagon in +the centre with four triangles in the angles. Each octagon has a plain +border about a foot wide, and within it a plain moulding surrounding an +eight-sided hollow space. All these spaces are of some depth; each has +in the centre a pendant, and in each the opening is fringed with tracery +or foliation. In some are elaborate Gothic cuspings, in others long +carved leaves curved at the ends; and in one which happens to come +exactly over an iron tie-rod—for the rods are placed quite +irregularly—the pendant is much longer and is joined to the tie by a +small iron bar. At the sides the roof starts from a cornice of some +depth whose mouldings and ornamentation are more classic than Gothic. +(<a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a>.)</p> + +<p>In the side aisles the cornice is similar, but of greater projection, +and the rafters are joined to each other in much the same way, but more +simply.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Funchal.</div> + +<p>At Funchal the roof is on a larger scale: there is no division into +squares, but the rafters are knotted together with much greater +elaboration, and the flat part is like the chapel roof at Cintra, +entirely covered with interlacing strips forming an intricate pattern +round hollow octagons.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sala dos Cysnes, Cintra.</div> + +<p>The simple boarding of the earlier roofs may well have led to the two +wonderful ceilings at Cintra, those in the Sala dos Cysnes, and in the +Sala dos Brazões or dos Escudos, but the idea of the many octagons in +the Sala dos Cysnes may have come from some such roof as that at +Caminha, when the octagons are so important a feature of the design. In +that hall swans may have first been painted for Dom João, but the roof +has clearly been remade since then, possibly under Dom Manoel. The gilt +ornament on the mouldings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> seem even later, but may of course have been +added afterwards, though it is not very unlike some of the carving on +the roof at Caminha, an undoubted work of Dom Manoel's time.</p> + +<p>This great roof in the Swan Hall has a deep and projecting classical +cornice; it is divided into three equal parts, two sloping and one flat, +with the slopes returned at the ends. The whole is made up of +twenty-three large octagons and of four other rather distorted ones in +the corners, all surrounded with elaborate mouldings, carved and gilt +like the cornice. From the square or three-sided spaces left between the +octagons there project from among acanthus leaves richly carved and gilt +pendants.</p> + +<p>In each of the twenty-seven octagons there is painted on a flat-boarded +ground a large swan, each wearing on its neck the red velvet and gold +collar made by Dona Isabel for the real swans in the tank outside. These +paintings, which are very well done, certainly seem to belong to the +seventeenth century, for the trees and water are not at all like the +work of an artist of Dom Manoel's time. (<a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Sala dos Escudos, Cintra.</div> + +<p>Even more remarkable is the roof of the Sala dos Brazões or dos +Escudos—that is 'of the shields'—also built by Dom Manoel, and also +retouched at the same time as that in the Sala dos Cysnes. This other +hall is a large room over forty feet square. The cornice begins about +twelve feet from the ground, the walls being covered with hunting scenes +on blue and white tiles of about the end of the seventeenth century. The +cornice, about three feet deep and of considerable projection, is, like +all the mouldings, painted blue and enriched with elaborate gilt +carving. On the frieze is the following inscription in large gilt +letters:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pois com esforços leais</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Serviços foram ganhadas</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Com estas e outras tais</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Devem de ser comservadas.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 100.">[100]</a></span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The inscription is interrupted by brackets, round which the cornice is +returned, and on which rest round arches thrown across the four corners, +bringing the whole to an equal-sided +octagon.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a> +<a href="images/i036_fig_49.png"> +<img src="images/i036_fig_49_th.png" width="275" height="370" alt="FIG. 49.Caminha. Roof of Matriz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 49.<br />Caminha.<br />Roof of Matriz.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a> +<a href="images/i036_fig_50.png"> +<img src="images/i036_fig_50_th.png" width="275" height="360" alt="FIG. 50.Palace, Cintra. Sala dos Cysnes." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 50.<br />Palace, Cintra.<br />Sala dos Cysnes.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 438px;"> +<a href="images/i037_sala_dos_brazoes.png"> +<img src="images/i037_sala_dos_brazoes_th.png" width="438" height="500" +alt="CINTRA. Portugal. Old Palace. +Sala dos Brazões." /></a> +<span class="caption">CINTRA.<br />Portugal.<br />Old Palace.<br /> +Sala dos Brazões.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non">These triangular spaces are roofed with elaborate wooden +vaults, with carved and gilt ribs leaving spaces painted blue and +covered with gilt ornament. Above the cornice the panelling rises +perpendicularly for about eleven feet; there being on each cardinal side +eight panels, in two rows of four, one above the other, and over each +arch four more—forty-eight panels in all. Above this begins an +octagonal dome with elaborately carved and gilt mouldings, like those +round the panels, in each angle and round the large octagon which comes +in the middle of each side. The next stage is similar, but set at a +different angle, and with smaller<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> and unequal-sided octagons, while the +dome ends in one large flat eight-sided panel forty-five feet above the +floor. All the space between the mouldings and the octagons is filled +with most elaborate gilt carving on a blue ground. Nor does the +decoration stop here, for the whole is a veritable Heralds' College for +all the noblest families of Portugal in the early years of the sixteenth +century. The large flat panel at the top is filled with the royal arms +carved and painted, with a crown above and rich gilt mantling all round. +In the eight panels below are the arms of Dom Manoel's eight children, +and in the eight large octagons lower down are painted large stags with +scrolls between their horns; lastly, in each of the forty-eight panels +at the bottom, and of the six spaces which occur under each of the +vaults in the four corners; in each of these seventy-two panels or +spaces there is painted a stag. Every stag has round its neck a shield +charged with the arms of a noble family, between its horns a crest, and +behind it a scroll on which is written the name of the family.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 101.">[101]</a></p> + +<p>The whole of this is of wood, and for beauty and originality of design, +as well as for richness of colour, cannot be surpassed anywhere. In any +northern country the seven small windows would not let in enough light, +and the whole dome would be in darkness, but the sky and air of Portugal +are clear enough for every detail to be seen, and for the gold on every +moulding and piece of carving to gleam brightly from the blue +background.</p> + +<p>None of the ceilings of later date are in any way to be compared in +beauty or richness with those of these two halls, for in all others the +mouldings are shallower and the panels flatter.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra Misericordia.</div> + +<p>In Coimbra there are two, both good examples of a simpler form of such +ceilings. They are, one in the Misericordia—the headquarters of a +corporation which owns and looks after all the hospitals, asylums and +orphanages in the town—and one in the great hall of the University. The +Misericordia, built by bishop Affonso de Castello Branco about the end +of the sixteenth century, has a good cloister of the later renaissance, +and opening off it two rooms of considerable size with panelled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> +ceilings, of which only one has its original painting. A cornice of some +size, with brackets projecting from the frieze to carry the upper +mouldings, goes round the room, and is carried across the corners so +that at the ends of the room the ceiling has one longer and two quite +short sides. The lower sloping part of the ceiling all round is divided +into square panels with three-sided panels next the squares on the short +canted sides; the upper slope is divided in exactly the same way so that +the flat centre-piece consists of three squares set diagonally and of +four triangles. All the panels are painted with a variety of emblems, +but the colours are dark and the ceiling now looks rather dingy.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Sala dos Capellos University.</div> + +<p>The great hall of the University built by the rector, Manoel de +Saldanha, in 1655 is a very much larger and finer room. A raised seat +runs round the whole room, the lower part of the walls are covered with +tiles, and the upper with red silk brocade on which hang portraits of +all the kings of Portugal, many doubtless as authentic as the early +kings of Scotland at Holyrood. Here only the upper part of the cornice +is carried across the corners, and the three sides at either end are +equal, each being two panels wide.</p> + +<p>As in the Misericordia the section of the roof is five-sided, each two +panels wide. All the panels are square except at the half-octagonal ends +where they diminish in breadth towards the top: they are separated by a +large cable moulding and are painted alternately red and blue with an +elaborate design in darker colour on each. (<a href="#Fig_51">Fig. 51</a>.)</p> + +<p>The effect is surprisingly good, for each panel with its beautiful +design of curling and twisting acanthus, of birds, of mermaids and of +vases has almost the look of beautiful old brocade, for the blues and +reds have grown soft with age.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Santa Clara, Villa do Conde.</div> + +<p>Before finally leaving wood ceilings it were better to speak of another +form or style which was sometimes used for their decoration although +they are even freer from Moorish detail than are those at Coimbra, +though probably like them ultimately derived from the same source. One +of the finest of these ceilings is found in the upper Nuns' Choir in the +church of Santa Clara at Villa do Conde. The church consists of a short +nave with transepts and chancel all roofed with panelled wooden +ceilings, painted grey as is often the case, and in no way remarkable. +The church was founded in 1318, but the ceilings and stalls of both +Nuns' Choirs, which,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Convent, Aveiro.</div> + +<p class="non">one above the other take up much the greater part of the nave, cannot be +earlier than the first half of the seventeenth century. Like the other +ceilings it is polygonal in section, but unlike all Moorish ones is not +returned round the ends. Above a finely carved cornice with elaborate +frieze, the whole ceiling is divided into deeply set panels, large and +small squares with narrow rectangles between: all alike covered with +elaborate carving, as are also the mouldings and the flat surfaces of +the dividing bands. Here the wood is left in its natural colour, but in +the nave of the church of a large convent at Aveiro, where the general +design of the ceiling is almost the same, pictures are painted in the +larger panels, and all the rest is heavily gilt, making the whole most +gorgeous.</p> + +<p>As time went on wooden roofs became less common, stone barrel vaults +taking their place, but where they were used they were designed with a +mass of meaningless ornament, lavished over the whole surface, which was +usually gilt. One of the most remarkable examples of such a roof is +found in the chancel of that same church at Aveiro. It is semicircular +in shape and is all covered with greater and smaller carved and gilt +circles, from the smallest of which in the middle large pendants hang +down.</p> + +<p>These circles are so arranged as to make the roof almost like that of +Henry <span class="smcap95">vii.</span> Chapel, though the two really only resemble each other in +their extreme richness and elaboration. This same extravagance of +gilding and of carving also overtook altar and reredos. Now almost every +church is full of huge masses of gilt wood, in which hardly one square +inch has been left uncarved; sometimes, if there is nothing else, and +the whole church—walls and ceiling alike—is a mass of gilding and +painting, the effect is not bad, but sometimes the contrast is terrible +between the plain grey walls of some old and simple building and the +exuberance behind the high altar.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 427px;"> +<a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a> +<a href="images/i038_fig_51.png"> +<img src="images/i038_fig_51_th.png" width="427" height="550" alt="FIG. 51.Coimbra. Hall of University." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 51.<br />Coimbra.<br />Hall of University.</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<p class="head">EARLY MANOELINO</p> + + +<p>A<span class="smcap95">ffonso</span> <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, the African, had died and been succeeded by his son João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> +in 1487. João tried, not without success, to play the part of Louis <span class="smcap95">xi.</span> +of France and by a judicious choice of victims (he had the duke of +Braganza, the richest noble in the country, arrested by a Cortes at +Evora and executed, and he murdered his cousin the duke of Vizeu with +his own hand) he destroyed the power of the feudal nobility. Enriched by +the confiscation of his victims' possessions, the king was enabled to do +without the help of the Cortes, and so to establish himself as a +despotic ruler. Yet he governed for the benefit of the people at large, +and reversing the policy of his father Affonso directed the energies of +his people towards maritime commerce and exploration instead of wasting +them in quarrelling with Castile or in attempting the conquest of +Morocco. It was he who, following the example of his grand-uncle Prince +Henry, sent out ship after ship to find a way to India round the +continent of Africa. Much had already been done, for in 1471 Fernando Po +had reached the mouth of the Niger, and all the coast southward from +Morocco was well known and visited annually, for slaves used to +cultivate the vast estates in the Alemtejo; but it was not till 1484 +that Diogo Cão, sent out by the king, discovered the mouth of the Congo, +or till 1486 that Bartholomeu Diaz doubled the Cabo Tormentoso, an +ill-omened name which Dom João changed to Good Hope.</p> + +<p>Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> did not live to greet Vasco da Gama on his return from +India, for he died in 1495, but he had already done so much that Dom +Manoel had only to reap the reward of his predecessor's labours. The one +great mistake he made was that in 1493 he dismissed Columbus as a +dreamer, and so left the glory of the discovery of America to Ferdinand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> +and Isabella. Besides doing so much for the trade of his country, Dom +João did what he could to promote literature and art. Andrea da +Sansovino worked for him for nine years from 1491 to 1499, and although +scarcely anything done by him can now be found, he here too set an +example to Dom Manoel, who summoned so many foreign artists to the +country and who sent so many of his own people to study in Italy and in +Flanders.</p> + +<p>Four years before Dom João died, his only son Affonso, riding down from +Almerim to the Tagus to meet his father, who had been bathing, fell from +his horse and was killed. In 1495 he himself died, and was succeeded by +his cousin, Manoel the Fortunate. Dom Manoel indeed deserved the name of +'Venturoso.' He succeeded his cousin just in time to see Vasco da Gama +start on his great voyage which ended in 1497 at Calicut. Three years +later Pedro Alvares Cabral landed in Brazil, and before the king died, +Gôa—the great Portuguese capital of the East—had become the centre of +a vast trade with India, Ormuz<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 102.">[102]</a> in the Persian Gulf of trade with +Persia, while all the spices<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 103.">[103]</a> of the East flowed into Lisbon and +even Pekin<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 104.">[104]</a> had been reached.</p> + +<p>From all these lands, from Africa, from Brazil, and from the East, +endless wealth poured into Lisbon, nearly all of it into the royal +treasury, so that Dom Manoel became the richest sovereign of his time.</p> + +<p>In some other ways he was less happy. To please the Catholic Kings, for +he wished to marry their daughter Isabel, widow of the young Prince +Affonso, he expelled the Jews and many Moors from the country. As they +went they cursed him and his house, and Miguel, the only child born to +him and Queen Isabel, and heir not only to Portugal but to all the +Spains, died when a baby. Isabel had died at her son's birth, and +Manoel, still anxious that the whole peninsula should be united under +his descendants, married her sister Maria. His wish was realised—but +not as he had hoped—for his daughter Isabel married her cousin Charles +<span class="smcap95">v.</span> and so was the mother of Philip <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, who, when Cardinal King Henry +died in 1580, was strong enough to usurp the throne of Portugal.</p> + +<p>Being so immensely rich, Dom Manoel was able to cover<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span> the whole land +with buildings. Damião de Goes, who died in 1570, gives a list of +sixty-two works paid for by him. These include cathedrals, monasteries, +churches, palaces, town walls, fortifications, bridges, arsenals, and +the draining of marshes, and this long list does not take in nearly all +that Dom Manoel is known to have built.</p> + +<p>Nearly all these churches and palaces were built or added to in that +peculiar style now called Manoelino. Some have seen in Manoelino only a +development of the latest phase of Spanish Gothic, but that is not +likely, for in Spain that latest phase lasted for but a short time, and +the two were really almost contemporaneous.</p> + +<p>Manoelino does not always show the same characteristics. Sometimes it is +exuberant Gothic mixed with something else, something peculiar, and this +phase seems to have grown out of a union of late Gothic and Moorish. +Sometimes it is frankly naturalistic, and this seems to have been +developed out of the first; and sometimes Gothic and renaissance are +used together. In this phase, the composition is still always Gothic, +though the details may be renaissance. At times, of course, all phases +are found together, but those which most distinctly deserve the name, +Manoelino, are the first and second.</p> + +<p>The shape of the arches, whether of window or of door, is one of the +most characteristic features of Manoelino. After it had been well +established they were rarely pointed. Some are round, some trefoils; +some have a long line of wavy curves, others a line of sharp angles and +curves together.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 105.">[105]</a> In others, like the door to the Sala das Pegas at +Cintra, and so probably derived from Moorish sources, the arch is made +of three or more convex curves, and in others again the arch is half of +a straight-sided polygon, while in many of the more elaborate all or +many of these may be used together to make one complicated whole of +interlacing mouldings and hanging cusps.</p> + +<p>The capitals too are different from any that have come before. Some are +round, but they are more commonly eight-sided, or have at least an +eight-sided abacus, often with the sides hollow forming a star. If +ornamented with leaves, the leaves do not grow out of the bell but are +laid round it like a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> wreath. But leaf carving is not common; usually +the caps are merely moulded, one or two of the mouldings being often +like a rope; or branches may be set round them sometimes bound together +with a broad ribbon like a bent faggot. The bases too are usually +octagonal with an ogee section.</p> + +<p>Another feature common to all phases is the use of round mouldings, +either one by itself—often forming a kind of twisting broken +hood-mould—or of several together, when they usually form a spiral. +Such a round moulding has already been seen forming an ogee over the +windows at Sempre Noiva and over the chapter-house door at São João +Evangelista, Evora, and there are at Evora two windows side by side, in +one of which this round moulding forms a simple ogee, while in the other +it forms a series of reversed curves after the true Manoelino manner.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">House of Resende, Evora.</div> + +<p>They are in the house of Garcia de Resende, a man of many +accomplishments whose services were much valued both by Dom João and by +Dom Manoel. He seems too to have been an architect of some distinction, +if, as is said, he designed the Torre de São Vicente at Belem.</p> + +<p>This second window in his house is one of the best examples of the +complete union between Gothic and Moorish. It has three shafts, one (in +the centre) with a Moorish capital, and two whose caps are bound round +with a piece of rope. The semicircular arches consist of one round +moulding with round cusps. A hollow mould runs down the two jambs and +over the two arches, turning up as an ogee at the top. Beyond this +hollow are two tall round shafts ending in large crocketed finials, +while tied to them with carved cords is a curious hood-mould, forming +three reversed cusps ending in large finials, one in the centre and one +over each of the arches, and at the two ends curling across the hollow +like a cut-off branch.</p> + +<p>Here then we have an example not only of the use of the round moulding, +but also of naturalistic treatment which was afterwards sometimes +carried to excess.</p> + +<p>Probably this window may be rather later in date than at least the +foundation of the churches of Nossa Senhora do Popolo at Caldas da +Rainha or of the Jesus Convent at Setubal; but it is in itself so good +an example of the change from the simple ogee to the round broken +moulding and of the use of naturalistic features, that it has been taken +first.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Caldas da Rainha.</div> + +<p>In 1485 Queen Leonor, wife of Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, began a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +hospital for poor bathers at the place now called after her, Caldas da +Rainha, or Queen's hot baths. Beside the hospital was built a small +church, now a good deal altered, with simple round-headed windows, and a +curious cresting. Attached to it is a tower, interesting as being the +only Manoelino church tower now existing. The lower part is square and +plain, but the upper is very curious. On one side are two belfry +windows, with depressed trefoil heads—that is the top of the trefoil +has a double curve, exactly like the end of a clover leaf. On the outer +side of each window is a twisted shaft with another between them, and +from the top of these shafts grow round branches forming an arch over +each window, and twining up above them in interlacing curves. The window +on the east side has a very fantastic head of broken curves and straight +lines. A short way above the windows the square is changed to an octagon +by curved offsets. There are clock faces under small gables on each +cardinal side, and at the top of it all rises a short eight-sided spire.</p> + +<p>Probably this was the last part of the church to be built, and so would +not be finished till about the year 1502, when the whole was dedicated.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Jesus, Setubal.</div> + +<p>More interesting than this is the Jesus College at Setubal. Founded by +Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's nurse, in 1487 or 1488 and designed by one +Boutaca or Boitaca,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 106.">[106]</a> it was probably finished sooner than the church +at Caldas, and is the best example in the country of a late Gothic +church modified by the addition of certain Manoelino details. +Unfortunately it was a good deal injured by the great earthquake in +1755, when it lost all pinnacles and parapets. The church consists of a +nave and aisles of three and a half bays and of a square chancel. +Inside, the side aisles are vaulted with a half barrel and the central +with a simple vault having large plain chamfered ribs. The columns, +trefoils in section, are twisted, and have simple moulded caps. The +chancel which is higher than the nave is entered by a large pointed +arch, which like its jambs has one of its mouldings twisted. The chancel +vault has many ribs, most of which are also twisted. All the piers and +jambs as well as the windows are built of Arrabida marble, a red breccia +found in the mountains to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> west of Setubal; the rest is all +whitewashed except the arches and vaulting ribs which are painted in +imitation of the marble piers.</p> + +<p>Outside, the main door, also of Arrabida marble, is large and pointed, +with many mouldings and two empty niches on each side. It has little +trace of Manoelino except in the bent curves of the upturned drip-mould, +and in the broken lines of the two smaller doors which open under the +plain tympanum. The nave window is of two lights with simple tracery, +but in the chancel, which was ready by 1495, the window shows more +Manoelino tendencies. It is of three lights, with flowing tracery at the +head, and with small cusped and crocketed arches thrown across each +light at varying levels. There are niches on the jambs, and the outer +moulding is carried round the window head in broken curves, after the +manner of Resende's house at Evora. Though the chancel is square inside, +the corners outside are cut off by a very broad chamfer, and a very +curious ogee curve unites the two.</p> + +<p>The cloisters to the north are more usual. The arches are round or +slightly pointed, and like the short round columns with their moulded +eight-sided caps and sides, are of Arrabida marble. Half-way along each +walk two of the columns are set more closely together, and between them +is a small round arch, with below it a Manoelino trefoil; there is too +in the north-west corner a lavatory with a good flat vault.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Beja, Conceição.</div> + +<p>At Beja the church of the Conceição, founded by Dom Manoel's father, has +been very much pulled about, but the cornice and parapet with Gothic +details, rope mouldings, and twisted pinnacles still show that it also +was built when the new Manoelino style was first coming into use.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Castle.</div> + +<p>In the ruins of the Castle there is a very picturesque window where two +horseshoe arches are set so close together that the arches meet in such +a way that the cusps at their meeting form a pendant, while another +window in the Rua dos Mercadores, though very like the one in Resende's +house in Evora, is more naturalistic. The outer shafts of the jambs are +carved like tree trunks, and the hood moulding like a thick branch is +bent and interlaced with other branches.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Paço, Cintra.</div> + +<p>The additions made to the palace at Cintra by Dom Manoel are a complete +treasury of Manoelino detail in its earlier phases.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span></p> + +<p>The works were already begun in 1508, and in January of the previous +year André Gonsalves, who was in charge, bought two notebooks for 240 +reis in which to set down expenses, as well as paper for his office and +four bottles of ink. From these books we learn what wages the different +workmen received. Pero de Carnide, the head mason, got 50 reis or about +twopence-halfpenny a day, and his helper only 35 reis. The chief +carpenter, Johan Cordeiro, had 60 reis a day, and so had Gonçalo Gomes, +the head painter. All the workmen are recorded from Pero de Torres, who +was paid 3500 reis, about 14 shillings, for each of the windows he +carved and set up, down to the man who got 35 reis a day for digging +holes for planting orange-trees and for clearing out the place where the +rabbits were kept. André Gonsalves also speaks of a Boitaca, master +mason. He was doubtless the Boitaca or Boutaca of the Jesus Church at +Setubal and afterwards at Belem, though none of his work at Setubal in +any way resembles anything he may have done here.</p> + +<p>The carriage entry which runs under the palace between Dom Manoel's +addition and the earlier part of the palace, has in it some very +characteristic capitals, two which support the entrance arch, while one +belongs to the central column of an arcade which forms a sort of aisle +on the west side. They are all round, though one belongs to an octagonal +shaft. They have no abacus proper, but instead two branches are bent +round, bound together by a wide ribbon. Below these branches are several +short pieces of rope turned in just above the neck-mould, and between +them carved balls, something like two artichokes stuck together face to +face.</p> + +<p>On the east side of the entry a large doorway leads into the newer part +of the palace, in which are now the queen-dowager's private rooms. This +doorhead is most typical of the style. In the centre two flat convex +curves meet at an obtuse angle. At the end of about two feet on either +side of the centre the moulding forming these curves is bent sharply +down for a few inches to a point, and is then united to the jambs by a +curve rather longer than a semicircle. Outside the round moulding +forming these curves and bends is a hollow following the same lines and +filled with branch-work, curved, twisted, and intertwined. Outside the +hollow are shafts, resting on octagonal and interpenetrating bases.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span></p> + +<p>These shafts are half-octagon in section with hollow—not as usual +rounded—sides, ornamented with four-leafed flowers, and are twisted. +Their capitals are formed by three carved wreaths, from which the shafts +rise to curious half-Gothic pinnacles; they are also curved over to form +a hood-mould. Above the central curves this moulding is broken and +turned up to end in most curious cone-shaped horns, while from the +middle there grows a large and elaborate finial.</p> + +<p>In the front of the new part overlooking the entrance court there are +six windows, three in each floor. They are all, except for a slight +variation in detail, exactly alike, and are evidently derived from the +Moorish windows in the other parts of the palace. Like them each has two +round-headed lights, and a framing standing on corbelled-out bases at +the sides. The capitals are various, most are mere wreaths of foliage, +but one belonging to the centre shaft of the middle window on the lower +floor has twisted round it two branches out of which grow the cusps. +While at the sides there is no distinct abacus, in the centre it is +always square and moulded. The cusps end in knobs like thistle-heads, +and are themselves rather branchlike. In the hollow between the shafts +and the framing there are sometimes square or round flowers, sometimes +twisting branches. Branches too form the framing of all, they are +intertwined up the sides, and form above the arches a straight-topped +mass of interlacing twigs, out of which grow three large finials.</p> + +<p>Originally the three windows of the upper floor belonged to a large hall +whose ceiling was like that of the Sala dos Cysnes. Unfortunately the +ceiling was destroyed, and the hall cut up into small rooms some time +ago. (<a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a>.)</p> + +<p>Inside are several Manoelino doorways. One at the end of a passage has a +half-octagonal head, with curved sides. Beyond a hollow moulding +enriched with square flowers are thick twisted shafts, which are carried +up to form a hood-mould following the curves of the opening below, and +having at each angle a large radiating finial.</p> + +<p>Besides these additions Dom Manoel made not a few changes in the older +part of the palace. The main door leading into the Sala dos Cysnes is of +his time, as is too a window in the upper passage leading to the chapel +gallery. Though the walls of the Sala das Duas Irmãs are probably older, +he altered it inside and built the two rows of columns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> and arches which +support the floor of the Sala dos Brazões above. The arches are round +and unmoulded. The thin columns are also round, but the bases are +eight-sided; so are the capitals, but with a round abacus of boughs and +twisted ribbons. The great hall above is also Dom Manoel's work, though +the ceiling may probably have been retouched since. His also are the +two-light windows, with slender shafts and heads more or less trefoil in +shape, but with many small convex curves in the middle. The lower part +of the outer cornice too is interesting, and made of brick plastered. At +the bottom is a large rope moulding, then three courses of tilelike +bricks set diagonally. Above them is a broad frieze divided into squares +by a round moulding; there are two rows of these squares, and in each is +an opening with a triangular head like a pigeon-hole, which has given +rise to the belief that it was added by the Marquez de Pombal after the +great earthquake. Pombal means 'dovecot,' and so it is supposed that the +marquis added a pigeon-house wherever he could. He may have built the +upper part of the cornice, which might belong to the eighteenth century, +but the lower part is certainly older.</p> + +<p>The white marble door leading to the Sala dos Brazões from the upper +passage is part of Dom Manoel's work. It has a flat ogee head with round +projections which give it a roughly trefoil shape, and is framed in rope +mouldings of great size, which end above in three curious finials.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Gollegã.</div> + +<p>There are not very many churches built entirely in this style, though to +many a door or a window may have been added or even a nave, as was done +to the church of the Order of Christ at Thomar and perhaps to the +cathedral of Guarda. Santa Cruz at Coimbra is entirely Manoelino, but is +too large and too full of the work of the foreigners who brought in the +most beautiful features of the French renaissance to be spoken of now. +Another is the church at Gollegã, not far from the Tagus and about +half-way between Santarem and Thomar. It is a small church, with nave +and aisles of five bays and a square chancel. The piers consist of four +half-round shafts round a square. In front the capitals are round next +the neck moulding and square next the moulded abacus, while at the sides +they become eight-sided. The arches are of two orders and only +chamfered. The bases are curious, as each part belonging to a different +member of the pier begins at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> a different level. That of the shaft at +the side begins highest, and of the shaft in front lowest, and both +becoming eight-sided, envelop the base of the square centre. These +eight-sided bases interpenetrate with the mouldings of a lower round +base, and all stand on a large splayed octagon, formed from a square by +curious ogee curves at the corners. The nave is roofed in wood, but the +chancel is vaulted, having ribs enriched like the chancel arch with +cable moulding. The west front has a plain tower at the end of the south +aisle, buttresses with Gothic pinnacles, a large door below and a round +window above. The doorhead is a depressed trefoil, or quatrefoil, as the +central leaf is of two curves. Between the inner and outer round +moulding is as usual a hollow filled with branches. The outer moulding, +on its upper side, throws out the most fantastic curves and cusps, which +with their finials nearly encircle two little round windows, and then in +wilder curves push up through the square framing at the top to a finial +just below the window. At the sides two large twisted shafts standing on +very elaborate bases end in twisted pinnacles. The round window is +surrounded by large rope moulding, out of which grow two little arms, to +support armillary spheres.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Sé, Elvas.</div> + +<p>Dom Manoel also built the cathedral at Elvas, but it has been very much +pulled about. Only the nave—in part at least—and an earlier west tower +survive. Outside the buttresses are square below and three-cornered +above; all the walls are battlemented; the aisle windows are tall and +round-headed. On the north side a good trefoil-headed door leads to the +interior, where the arches are round, the piers clustered with +cable-moulded capitals and starry eight-sided abaci. There is a good +vault springing from corbels, but the clerestory windows have been +replaced by large semicircles.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Marvilla, Santarem.</div> + +<p>All the body of the church of Santa Maria da Marvilla at Santarem is +built in the style of Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, that is, the nave arcade has tall +Ionic columns and round arches. The rebuilding of the church was ordered +by Dom Manoel, but the style called after him is only found in the +chancel and in the west door. The chancel, square and vaulted, is +entered by a wide and high arch, consisting, like the door to the Sala +das Pegas at Cintra, of a series of moulded convex curves. The west door +is not unlike that at Gollegã. It has a trefoiled head; with a round +moulding at the angle resting on the +capitals of thin shafts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a> +<a href="images/i039_fig_52.png"> +<img src="images/i039_fig_52_th.png" width="422" height="550" alt="FIG. 52.Palace, Cintra. Parts added by D. Manoel." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 52.<br />Palace, Cintra.<br />Parts added by D. Manoel.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>Beyond a broad hollow over which straggles a +very realistic and thick-stemmed plant is a large round moulding +springing from larger shafts and concentric with the inner. As at +Gollegã from the outer side of this moulding large cusps project, one on +each side, while in the middle it rises up in two curves forming an +irregular pentagon with curved sides. Each outward projection of this +round moulding ends in a large finial, so that there are five in all, +one to each cusp and three to the pentagon. Beyond this moulding a plain +flat band runs up the jambs and round the top cutting across the base of +the cusps and of the pentagon. The bases of the shafts rest on a moulded +plinth and are eight-sided, as are the capitals round which run small +wreaths of leaves. Here the upright shafts at the sides are not twisted +but run up in three divisions to Gothic pinnacles. (<a href="#Fig_53">Fig. 53</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Madre de Deus.</div> + +<p>Almost exactly the same is a door in the Franciscan nunnery called Madre +de Deus, founded to the east of Lisbon in 1509 by Dona Leonor, the widow +of Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> and sister of Dom Manoel. The only difference is that +the shafts at the sides are both twisted, that the pentagon at the top +is a good deal larger and has in it the royal arms, and that at the +sides are shields, one on the right with the arms of Lisbon—the ship +guided by ravens in which St. Vincent's body floated from the east of +Spain to the cape called after him—and one on the left with a pelican +vulning her breast.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 107.">[107]</a></p> + +<p>The proportions of this door are rather better than those of the door at +Santarem, and it looks less clumsy, but it is impossible to admire +either the design or the execution. The fat round outer moulding with +its projecting curves and cusps is very unpleasing, the shafts at the +sides are singularly purposeless, and the carving is coarse. At Gollegã +the design was even more outrageous, but there it was pulled together +and made into a not displeasing whole by the square framing.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">University Chapel, Coimbra.</div> + +<p>What has been since 1540 the university at Coimbra was originally the +royal palace, and the master of the works there till the time of his +death in 1524 was Marcos Pires, who also planned and carried out most of +the great church of Santa Cruz. Probably the university chapel is his +work, for the windows are not at all unlike those at Santa Cruz. The +door in many ways resembles the three last described, but the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> detail is +smaller and all the proportions better. The door is double with a triple +shaft in the middle; the two openings have very flat trefoil heads with +a small ogee curve to the central leaf. The jambs have on each side two +slender shafts between which there is a delicate twisted branch, and +beyond them is a band of finely carved foliage and then another shaft. +From these side shafts there springs a large trefoil, encompassing both +openings. It is crocketed on the outside and has the two usual ogee +cusps or projections on the outer side; but, instead of a large curved +pentagon in the middle, the mouldings of the projections and of the +trefoil then intertwine and rise up to some height forming a kind of +wide-spreading cross with hollow curves between the arms. The arms of +the cross end in finials, as do the ogee projections; there is a shield +on each side below the cross arms, another crowned and charged with the +royal arms above the central shaft, and on one side of it the Cross of +the Order of Christ, and on the other an armillary sphere. On either +side, as usual, on an octagonal base are tall twisted shafts, with a +crown round the base of the twisted pinnacles which rise just to the +level of the spreading arms of the cross. Like the door at Santarem the +whole would be sprawling and ill-composed but that here the white-wash +of the wall comes down only to the arms of the cross, so as to give +it—built as it is of grey limestone—a simple square outline, broken +only by the upper arm and finial of the cross.</p> + +<p>The heads of the two windows, one on either side of the door, are +half-irregular octagons with convex sides. They are surrounded by a +broad hollow splay framed by thin shafts resting on corbels and bearing +a head, a flat ogee in shape, but broken by two hanging points; one of +the most common shapes for a Manoelino window. (<a href="#Fig_54">Fig. 54</a>.)</p> + +<p>One more doorway before ending this chapter, already too long.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Julião, Setubal.</div> + +<p>The parish church of São Julião at Setubal was built during the early +years of the sixteenth century, but was so shattered by the great +earthquake of 1755 that only two of the doorways survive of the original +building. The western is not of much interest, but that on the +north—probably the work of João Fenacho who is mentioned as being a +well-known carver working at Setubal in 1513—is one of the most +elaborate doorways of that period.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a> +<a href="images/i040_fig_53.png"> +<img src="images/i040_fig_53_th.png" width="275" height="356" alt="FIG. 53.Santarem. W. Door, Marvilla." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 53.<br />Santarem.<br />W. Door, Marvilla.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a> +<a href="images/i040_fig_54.png"> +<img src="images/i040_fig_54_th.png" width="275" height="359" alt="FIG. 54.Coimbra. University Chapel." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 54.<br />Coimbra.<br />University Chapel.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The northern side of the church is now a featureless <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>expanse +of whitewashed plaster, scarcely relieved by a few simple square windows +up near the cornice; but near the west end, in almost incongruous +contrast, the plainness of the plaster is emphasised by the exuberant +mouldings and carving of the door. Though in some features related to +the doors at Santarem or the Madre de Deus the door here is much more +elaborate and even barbaric, but at the same time, being contained +within a simple gable-shaped moulding under a plain round arch, with no +sprawling projections, the whole design—as is the case with the +university chapel at Coimbra—is much more pleasing, and if the large +outer twisted shafts with their ogee trefoiled head had been omitted, +would even have been really beautiful.</p> + +<p>The opening of the door itself has a trefoiled head, whose hollow +moulding is enriched with small well-carved roses and flowers. This +trefoiled head opens under a round arch, springing from delicate round +shafts, shafts and arch-mould being alike enriched with several finely +carved rings, while from ring to ring the rounded surface is beautifully +wrought with wonderful minutely carved spirals. The bases and caps of +these, as of the other larger shafts, are of the usual Manoelino type, +round with a hollow eight-sided abacus. Beyond these shafts and their +arch, rather larger shafts, ringed in the same way and carved with a +delicate diaper, support a larger arch, half-octagonal in shape and with +convex sides, all ornamented like its supports, while all round this and +outside it there runs a broad band of foliage, half Gothic, half +renaissance in character. Beyond these again are the large shafts with +their ogee trefoiled arch, which though they spoil the beauty of the +design, at the same time do more than all the rest to give that strange +character which it possesses. These shafts are much larger than the +others, indeed they are made up of several round mouldings twisted +together each of the same size as the shaft next them. Base and capital +are of course also much larger, and there is only one ring ornament, +above which the twisting is reversed. All the mouldings are carved, some +with spirals, some with bundles of leaves bound round by a rope, with +bunches of grape-like fruit between. The twisted mouldings are carried +up beyond the capitals to form a huge trefoil turning up at the top to a +large and rather clumsy finial. In this case the upright shafts at the +sides are not twisted as in the other doors; they are square in plan,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> +interrupted by a moulding at the level of the capitals, below which they +are carved on each face with large square flowers, while above they have +a round moulding at the angles. At the top are plain Gothic pinnacles; +behind which rises the enclosing arch, due doubtless to the restoration +after the earthquake. The gable-shaped moulding runs from the base of +these pinnacles to the top of the ogee, and forms the boundary between +the stonework and the plaster.</p> + +<p>Such then is the Manoelino in its earlier forms, and there can be little +doubt that it was gradually evolved from a union of late Gothic and +Moorish, owing some peculiarities such as twisted shafts, rounded +mouldings, and coupled windows to Moorish, and to Gothic others such as +its flowery finials. The curious outlines of its openings may have been +derived, the simpler from Gothic, the more complex from Moorish. Steps +are wanting to show whence came the sudden growth of naturalism, but it +too probably came from late Gothic, which had already provided crockets, +finials and carved bands of foliage so that it needed but little change +to connect these into one growing plant. Sometimes these Manoelino +designs, as in the palace at Cintra, are really beautiful when the parts +are small and do not straggle all over the surface, but sometimes as in +the Marvilla door at Santarem, or in that of the convent of the Madre de +Deus at Lisbon, the mouldings are so clumsy and the design so sprawling +and ill-connected, that they can only be looked on as curiosities of +architectural aberration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<p class="head">THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA</p> + + +<p>V<span class="smcap95">asco da</span> G<span class="smcap95">ama</span> set sail from Lisbon in July 1497 with a small fleet to +try and make his way to India by sea, and he arrived at Calicut on the +Malabar coast nearly a year later, in May 1598. He and his men were well +received by the zamorim or ruler of the town—then the most important +trade centre in India—and were much helped in their intercourse by a +renegade native of Seville who acted as interpreter. After a stay of +about two months he started for home with his ships laden with spices, +and with a letter to Dom Manoel in which the zamorim said:—</p> + +<p>'Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of thy household, has visited my kingdom, and +has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom is abundance of cinnamon, +cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones; what I seek from thy +country is gold, silver, coral and scarlet.'<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 108.">[108]</a></p> + +<p>Arriving at Lisbon in July 1499, Vasco da Gama met with a splendid +reception from king and people; was given 20,000 gold cruzados, a +pension of 500 cruzados a year, and the title of Dom; while provision +was also made for the families of those who had perished during the +voyage; for out of one hundred and forty-eight who started two years +earlier only ninety-six lived to see Lisbon again.</p> + +<p>So valuable were spices in those days that the profit to the king on +this expedition, after all expenses had been paid and all losses +deducted, was reckoned as being in the proportion of sixty to one.</p> + +<p>No wonder then that another expedition was immediately organised by Dom +Manoel. This armada—in which the largest ship was of no more than four +hundred tons—sailed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> from Lisbon under the command of Pedro Alvares +Cabral on March 9, 1500. Being driven out of his course, Cabral after +many days saw a high mountain which he took to be an island, but sailing +on found that it was part of a great continent. He landed, erected a +cross, and took possession of it in the name of his king, thus securing +Brazil for Portugal. One ship was sent back to Lisbon with the news, and +the rest turned eastwards to make for the Cape of Good Hope. Four were +sunk by a great gale, but the rest arrived at Calicut on September 13th.</p> + +<p>Here he too was well received by the zamorim and built a factory, but +this excited the anger of the Arab traders, who burned it, killing fifty +Portuguese. Cabral retorted by burning part of the town and sailed south +to Cochin, whose ruler, a vassal of the zamorim, was glad to receive the +strangers and to accept their help against his superior. Thence he soon +sailed homewards with the three ships which remained out of his fleet of +thirteen.</p> + +<p>In 1502 Dom Manoel received from the Pope Alexander <span class="smcap95">vi.</span> the title of +'Lord of Navigation, conquests and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, +and India,' and sent out another great expedition under Vasco da Gama, +who, however, with his lieutenant, Vicente Sodre, found legitimate trade +less profitable than the capture of pilgrim ships going to and from +Mecca, which they rifled and sank with all on board. From the first thus +treated they took 12,000 ducats in money and 10,000 ducats' worth in +goods, and then blew up the ship with 240 men besides women and +children.</p> + +<p>Reaching Calicut, the town was again bombarded and sacked, since the +zamorim would not or could not expel all the Arab merchants, the richest +of his people.</p> + +<p>Other expeditions followed every year till in 1509 a great Mohammedan +fleet led by the 'Mirocem, the Grand Captain of the Sultan of Grand +Cairo and of Babylon,' was defeated off the island of Diu, and next year +the second viceroy, Affonso de Albuquerque, moved the seat of the +government from Cochin to Gôa, which, captured and held with some +difficulty, soon became one of the richest and most splendid cities of +the East.</p> + +<p>Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf and the great depot of Persian +trade had been captured in 1509, and it was not long before the +Portuguese had penetrated to the Straits of Malacca and even to China +and Japan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span></p> + +<p>So within twelve years from the time of Vasco da Gama's voyage the +foundations of the Portuguese empire in the East had been firmly +laid—an empire which, however, existed merely as a great trading +concern in which Dom Manoel was practically sole partner and so soon +became the richest sovereign of his time.</p> + +<p>Seeing therefore how close the intercourse was between Lisbon and +India,<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 109.">[109]</a> it is perhaps no wonder that, in his very interesting book +on the Renaissance Architecture of Portugal, Albrecht Haupt, struck by +the very strange forms used at Thomar and to a lesser degree in the +later additions to Batalha, propounded a theory that this strangeness +was directly due to the importation of Indian details. That the +discovery of a sea route to India had a great influence on the +architecture of Portugal cannot be denied, for the direct result of this +discovery was to fill the coffers of a splendour-loving king with what +was, for the time, untold wealth, and so to enable him to cover the +country with innumerable buildings; but tempting as it would be to +accept Haupt's theory, it is surely more reasonable to look nearer home +for the origin of these peculiar features, and to see in them only the +culmination of the Manoelino style and the product of an even more +exuberant fancy than that possessed by any other contemporary builder. +Of course, when looking for parallels with such a special object in view +it is easy enough to find them, and to see resemblances between the +cloister windows at Batalha and various screens or panels at Ahmedabad; +and when we find that a certain Thomas Fernandes<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 110.">[110]</a> had been sent to +India in 1506 as military engineer and architect; that another +Fernandes, Diogo of Beja, had in 1513 formed part of an embassy sent to +Gujerat and so probably to the capital Ahmedabad; and that Fernandes was +also the name of the architects of Batalha, it becomes difficult not to +connect these separate facts together and to jump to the quite +unwarrantable conclusion that the four men of the same name may have +been related and that one of them, probably Diogo, had given his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> +kinsmen sketches or descriptions on which they founded their +designs.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 111.">[111]</a></p> + +<p>With regard to Thomar, where the detail is even more curious and +Indian-looking, the temptation to look for Indian models is still +stronger, owing to the peculiar position which the Order of Christ at +Thomar now held, for the knights of that order had for some time +possessed complete spiritual jurisdiction over India and all other +foreign conquests.</p> + +<p>This being so, it might have seemed appropriate enough for Dom Manoel to +decorate the additions he made to the old church with actual Indian +detail, as his builder did with corals and other symbols of the strange +discoveries then made. The fact also that on the stalls at Santa Cruz in +Coimbra are carved imaginary scenes from India and from Brazil might +seem to be in favour of the Indian theory, but the towns and forests +there depicted are exactly what a mediæval artist would invent for +himself, and are not at all like what they were supposed to represent, +and so, if they are to be used in the argument at all, would rather go +to show how little was actually known of what India was like.</p> + +<p>There seems also not to be even a tradition that anything of the sort +was done, and if a tradition has survived about the stalls at Coimbra, +surely, had there been one, it might have survived at Thomar as well.</p> + +<p>At the same time it must be admitted that the bases of the jambs inside +the west window in the chapter-house are very unlike anything else, and +are to a Western eye like Indian work. However, a most diligent search +in the Victoria and Albert Museum through endless photographs of Indian +buildings failed to find anything which was really at all like them, and +this helped to confirm the belief that this resemblance is more fancied +than real; besides, the other strange features, the west window outside, +and the south window, now a door, are surely nothing more than Manoelino +realism gone a little mad.</p> + +<p>Thomar has already been seen in the twelfth century when Dom Gualdim +Paes built the sixteen-sided church and the castle, and when he and his +Templars withstood the Moorish invaders with such success.</p> + +<p>As time went on the Templars in other lands became rich<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> and powerful, +and in the fourteenth century Philippe le Bel of France determined to +put an end to them as an order and to confiscate their goods. So in 1307 +the grand master was imprisoned, and five years later the Council of +Vienne, presided over by Clement <span class="smcap95">v.</span>—a Frenchman, Bertrand de +Goth—suppressed the order. Philippe seized their property, and in 1314 +the grand master was burned.</p> + +<p>In Portugal their services against the Moors were still remembered, and +although by this time no part of Portugal was under Mohammedan rule, +Granada was not far off, and Morocco was still to some extent a danger.</p> + +<p>Dom Diniz therefore determined not to exterminate the Templars, but to +change them into a new military order, so in 1319 he obtained a bull +from John <span class="smcap95">xxii.</span> from Avignon constituting the Order of Christ. At first +their headquarters were at Castro-Marim at the mouth of the Guadiana, +but soon they returned to their old Templar stronghold at Thomar and +were re-granted most of their old possessions.</p> + +<p>The Order of Christ soon increased in power, and under the +administration of Prince Henry, 1417 to 1460, took a great part in the +discoveries and explorations which were to bring such wealth and glory +to their country. In 1442, Eugenius <span class="smcap95">iv.</span> confirmed the spiritual +jurisdiction of the order over all conquests in Africa, and Nicholas <span class="smcap95">v.</span> +and Calixtus <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> soon extended this to all other conquests made, or to +be made anywhere, so that the knights had spiritual authority over them +'as if they were in Thomar itself.' This boon was obtained by Dom +Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> at his uncle Prince Henry's wish.</p> + +<p>When Prince Henry died he was succeeded as duke of Vizeu and as governor +of the order by his nephew Fernando, the second son of Dom Duarte. +Fernando died ten years later and was succeeded by his elder son Diogo, +who was murdered fifteen years later by Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> in 1485. Then the +title passed to his brother Dom Manoel, and with it the administration +of the order, a position which he retained when he ascended the throne, +and which has since belonged to all his successors.</p> + +<p>Prince Henry finding that the old Templar church with its central altar +was unsuited to the religious services of the order, built a chapel or +small chancel out from one of the eastern sides and dedicated it to St. +Thomas of Canterbury.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> But as the order advanced in wealth and in power +this addition was found to be far too small, and in a general chapter +held by Dom Manoel in 1492 it was determined to build a new Coro large +enough to hold all the knights and leaving the high altar in its old +place in the centre of the round church.</p> + +<p>In all the Templar churches in England, when more room was wanted, a +chancel was built on to the east, so that the round part, instead of +containing the altar, has now become merely a nave or a vestibule. At +Thomar, however, probably because it was already common to put the +stalls in a gallery over the west door, it was determined to build the +new Coro to the west, and this was done by breaking through the two +westernmost sides of the sixteen-sided building and inserting a large +pointed arch.</p> + +<p>Although it was decided to build in 1492, little or nothing can have +been done for long, if it is true that João de Castilho who did the work +was only born about the year 1490; and that he did it is certain, as he +says himself that he 'built the Coro, the chapter-house—under the +Coro—the great arch of the church, and the principal door.'</p> + +<p>Two stone carvers, Alvaro Rodrigues and Diogo de Arruda, were working +there in 1512 and 1513, and the stalls were begun in July 1511, so that +some progress must have been made by them. If then João de Castilho did +the work he must have been born some time before 1490, as he could +hardly have been entrusted with such a work when a boy of scarcely +twenty.</p> + +<p>João de Castilho, who is said to have been by birth a Biscayan, soon +became the most famous architect of his time. He not only was employed +on this Coro, but was afterwards summoned to superintend the great +Jeronymite monastery of Belem, which he finished. Meanwhile he was +charged by João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> with the building of the vast additions made +necessary at Thomar when in 1523 the military order was turned into a +body of monks. He lived long enough to become a complete convert to the +renaissance, for at Belem the Gothic framework is all overlaid with +renaissance detail, while in his latest additions at Thomar no trace of +Gothic has been left. He died shortly before 1553, as we learn from a +document dated January 1st of that year, which states that his daughter +Maria de Castilho then began, on the death of her father, to receive a +pension of 20,000 reis.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span></p> + +<p>The new Coro is about eighty-five feet long inside by thirty wide, and +is of three bays. Standing, as does the Templars' church, on the highest +point of the hill, it was, till the erection of the surrounding +cloisters, clear of any buildings. Originally the round church, being +part of the fortifications, could only be entered from the north, but +the first thing done by Dom Manoel was to build on the south side a +large platform or terrace reached from the garden on the east by a great +staircase. This terrace is now bounded on the west by the Cloister dos +Filippes, on the south by a high wall and by the chapter-house, begun by +Dom Manoel but never finished, and on the north by the round church and +by one bay of the Coro; and in this bay is now the chief entrance to the +church. The lower part of the two western bays is occupied by the +chapter-house, with one window looking west over the cloister of Santa +Barbara, and one south, now hidden by the upper Cloister dos Filippes +and used as a door. [See plan p. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.]</p> + +<p>Inside, the part over the chapter-house is raised to form the choir, and +there, till they were burned in 1810 by the French for firewood, stood +the splendid stalls begun in July 1511 by Olivel of Ghent who had +already made stalls for São Francisco at Evora.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 112.">[112]</a> The stalls had +large figures carved on their backs, a continuous canopy, and a high and +elaborate cresting, while in the centre on the west side the Master's +stall ended in a spire which ran up with numberless pinnacles, ribs and +finials to a large armillary sphere just under the vaulting.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 113.">[113]</a> Now +the inside is rather bare, with no ornament beyond the intricacy of the +finely moulded ribs and the elaborate corbels from which they spring. +These are a mass of carving, armillary spheres, acanthus leaves, shields +upheld by well-carved figures, crosses, and at the top small cherubs +holding the royal crown.</p> + +<p>The inner side of the door has a segmental head and on either jamb are +tall twisted shafts. A moulded string course running round just above +the level once reached by the top of the stalls turns up over the window +as a hood-mould.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span></p> + +<p>At the same time much was done to enrich the old Templars' church. All +the shafts were covered with gilt diaper and the capitals with gold; +crockets were fixed to the outer sides of the pointed arches of the +central octagon, and inside it were placed figures of saints standing on +Gothic corbels under canopies of beautiful tabernacle work. Similar +statues stand on the vaulting shafts of the outer polygon and between +them, filling in the spaces below the round-headed windows, are large +paintings in the Flemish style common to all Portuguese pictures of that +time—of the Nativity, of the Visit of the Magi, of the Annunciation, +and of the Virgin and Child.</p> + +<p>To-day the only part of the south side visible down to the ground level +is the eastern bay in which opens the great door. This is one of the +works which João de Castilho claims as his, and on one of the jambs +there is carved a strap, held by two lion's paws on which are some +letters supposed to be his signature, and some figures which have been +read as 1515, probably wrongly, for there seems to have been no +renaissance work done in Portugal except by Sansovino till the coming of +Master Nicolas to Belem in 1517 or later.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 114.">[114]</a> If it is 1515 and gives +the date, it must mean the year when the mere building was finished, not +the carving, for the renaissance band can hardly have been done till +after his return from Belem.</p> + +<p>The doorway is one of great beauty, indeed is one of the most beautiful +pieces of work in the kingdom. The opening itself is round-headed with +three bands of carving running all round it, separated by slender shafts +of which the outermost up to the springing of the arch is a beautiful +spiral with four-leaved flowers in the hollows. Of the carved bands the +innermost is purely renaissance, with candelabra, medallions, griffins +and leaves all most beautifully cut in the warm yellow limestone. On the +next band are large curly leaves still Gothic in style and much +undercut; and in the last, four-leaved flowers set some distance one +from the other.</p> + +<p>At the top, the drip-mould grows into a large trefoil with crockets +outside and an armillary sphere within. At the sides tall thin +buttresses end high above the door in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> sharp carved pinnacles and bear +under elaborate canopies many figures of saints.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 115.">[115]</a> Two other +pinnacles rise from the top of the arch, and between them are more +saints. In the middle stands Our Lady, and from her canopy a curious +broken and curving moulding runs across the other pinnacles and canopies +to the sides.</p> + +<p>But that which gives to the whole design its chief beauty is the deep +shadow cast by the large arch thrown across from one main buttress to +the other just under the parapet. This arch, moulded and enriched with +four-leaved flowers, is fringed with elaborate cusps, irregular in size, +which with rounded mouldings are given a trefoil shape by small +beautifully carved crockets. (<a href="#Fig_55">Fig. 55</a>.)</p> + +<p>Except the two round buttresses at the west end and one on the north +side which has Manoelino pinnacles, all are the same, breaking into a +cluster of Gothic pinnacles rather more than half-way up and ending in +one large square crocketed pinnacle very like those at Batalha. The roof +being flat and paved there is no gable at the west end; there is a band +of carving for cornice, then a moulding, and above it a parapet of +flattened quatrefoils, in each of which is an armillary sphere, and at +the top a cresting, alternately of cusped openings and crosses of the +Order of Christ, most of which, however, have been broken away. Of the +windows all are wide and pointed, without tracery and deeply splayed. +The one in the central bay next the porch has niches and canopies at the +side for statues and jambs not unlike those designed some years after at +Belem. There is also a certain resemblance between the door here and the +great south entrance to Belem, though this one is of far greater beauty, +being more free from over-elaboration and greatly helped by the shadow +of the high arch.</p> + +<p>So far the design has shown nothing very abnormal; but for one or two +renaissance details it is all of good late Gothic, with scarcely any +Manoelino features. It is also more pleasing than any other contemporary +building in Portugal, and the detail, though very rich, is more +restrained. This may be due to the nationality of João de Castilho, for +some of the work is almost Spanish, for example the buttresses, the +pinnacles, and the door with its trefoiled drip-mould.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> + +<p>If, however, the two eastern bays are good late Gothic, what can be said +of the western? Here the fancy of the designer seems to have run quite +wild, and here it is that what have been considered to be Indian +features are found.</p> + +<p>It is hard to believe that João de Castilho, who nowhere, except perhaps +in the sacristy door at Alcobaça, shows any love of what is abnormal and +outlandish, should have designed these extraordinary details, and so +perhaps the local tradition may be so far true, according to which the +architect was not João but one Ayres do Quintal. Nothing else seems to +be known of Ayres—though a head carved under the west window of the +chapter-house is said to be his—but in a country so long illiterate as +Portugal, where unwritten stories have been handed down from quite +distant times, it is possible that oral tradition may be as true as +written records.</p> + +<p>Now it is known that João de Castilho was working at Alcobaça in 1519. +In 1522 he was busy at Belem, where he may have been since 1517, when +for the first time some progress seems to have been made with the +building there. What really happened, therefore, may be that when he +left Thomar, the Coro was indeed built, and the eastern buttresses +finished, but that the carving of the western part was still uncut and +so may have been the work of Ayres after João was himself gone.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 116.">[116]</a> +This is, of course, only a conjecture, for Ayres seems to be mentioned +in no document, but whoever it was who carved these buttresses and +windows was a man of extraordinary originality, and almost mad fancy.</p> + +<p>To turn now from the question of the builder to the building itself. The +large round buttresses at the west end are fluted at the bottom; at +about half their height comes a band of carving about six feet deep +seeming to represent a mass of large ropes ending in tasselled fringes +or possibly of roots. On one buttress a large chain binds these +together, on the others a strap and buckle—probably the Order of the +Garter given to Dom Manoel by Henry <span class="smcap95">vii.</span> Above this five large knotty +tree-trunks or branches of coral grow up the buttresses uniting in rough +trefoiled heads at the top, and having statues between them—Dom Affonso +Henriques,</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a> +<a href="images/i042_fig_55.png"> +<img src="images/i042_fig_55_th.png" width="275" height="369" alt="FIG. 55.Thomar.Convent of Christ.S. Door." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 55.<br />Thomar.<br />Convent of Christ.<br />S. Door.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a> +<a href="images/i042_fig_56.png"> +<img src="images/i042_fig_56_th.png" width="275" height="369" alt="FIG. 56.Thomar.Outside of W. Window of Chapter Houseunder high Choir in +Nave." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 56.<br />Thomar.<br />Outside of W. Window of Chapter House<br />under high Choir in +Nave.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>Dom Gualdim Paes, Dom Diniz and Dom Manoel—two on each buttress. Then +the buttress becomes eight-sided and smaller, and, surrounded by five +thick growths, of which not a square inch is unworked and whose +pinnacles are covered with carving, rises with many a strange moulding +to a high round pinnacle bearing the cross of the order—a sign, if one +may take the coral and the trees to be symbolical of the distant seas +crossed and of the new lands visited, of the supreme control exercised +by the order over all missions.</p> + +<p>Coral-like mouldings too run round the western windows on both north and +south sides, and at the bottom these are bound together with basket +work.</p> + +<p>Strange as are the details of these buttresses, still more strange are +the windows of the chapter-house. Since about 1560 the upper cloister of +the Filippes has covered the south side of the church so that the south +chapter-house window, which now serves as a door, is hidden away in the +dark. Still there is light enough to see that in naturalism and in +originality it far surpasses anything elsewhere, except the west window +of the same chapter-house. Up the jambs grow branches bound round by a +broad ribbon. From the spaces between the ribbons there sprout out on +either side thick shoots ending in large thistle heads. The top of the +opening is low, of complicated curves and fine mouldings, on the +outermost of which are cut small curly leaves, but higher up the +branches of the jambs with their thistle heads and ribbons with knotted +ropes and leaves form a mass of inextricable intricacy, of which little +can be seen in the dark except the royal arms.</p> + +<p>Inside the vault is Gothic and segmental, but the west window is even +more strange than the southern; its inner arch is segmental and there +are window seats in the thickness of the wall. The jambs have large +round complicated bases of many mouldings, some enriched with leaves, +some with thistle heads, some with ribbons, and one with curious +projections like small elephants' trunks—in short very much what a +Western mind might imagine some Hindu capital, reversed, to be like. On +the jamb itself and round the head are three upright mouldings held +together by carved basket work of cords, and bearing at intervals +thistle heads in threes; beyond is another band of leaf-covered carving, +and beyond<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> it an upright strip of wavy lines.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 117.">[117]</a> The opening has a +head like that of the other window and is filled with a bronze grille.</p> + +<p>Still more elaborate and extraordinary is the outside of this window, +nor would it be possible to find words to describe it.</p> + +<p>The jambs are of coral branches, with large round shafts beyond, +entirely leaf-covered and budding into thistle heads. Ropes bind them +round at the bottom and half-way up great branches are fastened on by +chains. At the top are long finials with more chains holding corals on +which rest armillary spheres. The head of the window is formed of +twisted masses, from which project downwards three large thistle heads. +Above this is a great wreath of leaves, hung with two large loops of +rope, and twisting up as a sort of cusped ogee trefoil to the royal arms +and a large cross of the Order of Christ. A square frame with flamelike +border rises to the top of the side finials to enclose a field cut into +squares by narrow grooves. Below the window more branches, coral, and +ropes knot each other round the head of Ayres just below the rope +moulding which runs across from buttress to buttress. Above the top of +the opening and about half-way up the whole composition there is an +offset, and on it rests a series of disks, set diagonally and strung on +another rope. (<a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>.)</p> + +<p>Although, were the royal arms and the cross removed, the window might +not look out of place in some wild Indian temple, yet it is much more +likely not to be Indian, but that the shafts at the sides are but the +shafts seen in many Manoelino doors, that the window head is an +elaboration of other heads,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 118.">[118]</a> that the coral jambs are another form +of common naturalism, and that the great wreath is only the hood-mould +rendered more extravagant. In no other work in Portugal or anywhere in +the West are these features carved and treated with such wild +elaboration, nor anywhere else is there seen a base like that of the +jambs inside, but surely there is nothing which a man of imagination +could not have evolved from details already existing in the country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span></p> + +<p>Above the window the details are less strange. A little higher than the +cross a string course traverses the front from north to south, crested +with pointed cusps. Higher up still, a round window, set far back in a +deep splay, lights the church above. Outside the sharp projecting outer +moulding of this window are rich curling leaves, inside a rope, while +other ropes run spirally across the splay, which seems to swell like a +sail, and was perhaps meant to remind all who saw it that it was the sea +that had brought the order and its master such riches and power. At the +top are the royal arms crowned, and above the spheres of the parapet and +the crosses of the cresting another larger cross dominates the whole +front.</p> + +<p>Such is Dom Manoel's addition to the Templars' church, and outlandish +and strange as some of it is, the beautiful rich yellow of the stone +under the blue sky and the dark shadows thrown by the brilliant sun make +the whole a building of real beauty. Even the wild west window is helped +by the compactness of its outline and by the plainness of the wall in +which it is set, and only the great coral branches of the round +buttresses are actually unpleasing. The size too of the windows and the +great thickness of the wall give the Coro a strength and a solidity +which agree well with the old church, despite the richness of the one +and the severe plainness of the other. There is perhaps no building in +Portugal which so well tells of the great increase of wealth which began +under Dom Manoel, or which so well recalls the deeds of his heroic +captains—their long and terrible voyages, and their successful +conquests and discoveries. Well may the emblem of Hope,<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 119.">[119]</a> the +armillary sphere, whereby they found their way across the ocean, be +carved all round the parapet, over the door, and beside the west window +with its wealth of knots and wreaths.</p> + +<p>Whether or not Ayres or João de Castilho meant the branches of coral to +tell of the distant oceans, the trees of the forests of Brazil, and the +ropes of the small ships which underwent such dangers, is of little +consequence. To the present generation which knows that all these +discoveries were only possible because Prince Henry and his Order of +Christ had devoted their time and their wealth to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> one object of +finding the way to the East, Thomar will always be a fitting memorial of +these great deeds, and of the great men, Bartholomeu Diaz, Vasco da +Gama, Affonso de Albuquerque, Pedro Cabral, and Tristão da Cunha, by +whom Prince Henry's great schemes were brought to a successful issue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h3> + +<p class="head">THE ADDITIONS TO BATALHA</p> + + +<p>L<span class="smcap95">ittle</span> had been done to the monastery of Batalha since the death of Dom +Duarte left his great tomb-chapel unfinished. Dom Affonso v., bent on +wasting the lives of the bravest of his people and his country's wealth +in the vain pursuit of conquests in Morocco, could spare no money to +carry out what his father had begun, and so make it possible to move his +parents' bodies from their temporary resting-place before the high altar +to the chapel intended to receive them. Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> himself dying was +laid in a temporary tomb of wood in the chapter-house, as were his wife +and his grandson, the only child of Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>; while a coffin of wood +in one of the side chapels held Dom João himself.</p> + +<p>When João died, his widow Dona Leonor is said to have urged her brother, +the new king, to finish the work begun by their ancestor and so form a +fitting burial-place for her son as well as for himself and his +descendants. Dom Manoel therefore determined to finish the Capellas +Imperfeitas, and the work was given to the elder Matheus Fernandes, who +had till 1480, when he was followed by João Rodrigues, been master of +the royal works at Santarem. The first document which speaks of him at +Batalha is dated 1503, and mentions him as Matheus Fernandes, vassal of +the king, judge in ordinary of the town of Santa Maria da Victoria, and +master of the works of the same monastery, named by the king. He died in +1515, and was buried near the west door.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 120.">[120]</a> He was followed by another +Matheus Fernandes, probably his son, who died in 1528, to be succeeded +by João de Castilho. But by then Dom Manoel was already dead. He had +been buried not here, but in his new foundation of Belem, and his son<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span> +João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> and João de Castilho himself were too much occupied in +finishing Belem and in making great additions to Thomar to be able to do +much to the Capellas Imperfeitas. So after building two beautiful but +incongruous arches, João de Castilho went back to his work elsewhere, +and the chapels remain Imperfeitas to this day.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that the tomb-house begun by Dom Duarte took the +form of a vast octagon some seventy-two feet in diameter surrounded by +seven apsidal chapels—one on each side except that towards the +church—and by eight smaller chapels between the apses. When Matheus +Fernandes began his work most of the seven surrounding chapels were +finished except for their vaulting, but not all, as in two or three the +outer moulding of the entrance arch is enriched by small crosses of the +Order of Christ, and by armillary spheres carved in the hollow; while +the whole building stood isolated and unconnected with the church.</p> + +<p>The first thing, therefore, done by Matheus was to build an entrance +hall or pateo uniting the octagon with the church. Unless the walls of +the Pateo be older than Dom Manoel's time it is impossible now to tell +how Huguet, Dom Duarte's architect, meant to connect the two, perhaps by +a low passage running eastwards from the central apse, perhaps not at +all.</p> + +<p>The plan carried out by Matheus took the form of a rectangular hall +enclosing the central apse and the two smaller apses to the north and +south, but leaving—now at any rate—a space between it and the side +apses. Possibly the original intention may have been to pull down the +two side apses, and so to form a square ambulatory behind the high altar +leading to the great octagon beyond; but if that were the intention it +was never carried out, and now the only entrance is through an +insignificant pointed door on the north side.</p> + +<p>The walls of the Pateo with their buttresses, string courses and parapet +are so exactly like the older work as to suggest that they may really +date from the time of Dom Duarte, and that all that Matheus Fernandes +did was to build the vault, insert the windows, and form the splendid +entrance to the octagon; but in any case the building was well advanced +if not finished in 1509, when over the small entrance door was written, +'Perfectum fuit anno Domini 1509.'</p> + +<p>Two windows light the Pateo, one looking north and one south. They are +both alike, and both are thoroughly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> Manoelino in style. They are of two +lights, with well-moulded jambs, and half-octagonal heads. The +drip-mould, instead or merely surrounding the half octagon, is so broken +and bent as to project across it at four points, being indeed shaped +like half a square with a semicircle on the one complete side, and two +quarter circles on the half sides, all enriched by many a small cusp and +leaf. The mullion is made of two branches twisting upwards, and the +whole window head is filled with curving boughs and leaves forming a +most curious piece of naturalistic tracery, to be compared with the +tracery of some of the openings in the Claustro Real. (<a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>.)</p> + +<p>No doubt, while the Pateo was being built, the great entrance to the +Imperfect chapels, one of the richest as well as one of the largest +doorways in the world, was begun, and it must have taken a long time to +build and to carve, for the lower part, on the chapel side especially, +seems to be rather earlier in style than the upper. The actual opening +to the springing of the arch measures some 17 feet wide by 28 feet high, +while including the jambs the whole is about 24 feet wide on the chapel, +and considerably more on the Pateo side,—since there the splay is much +deeper—by 40 feet high. To take the chapel side first:—Above a +complicated base there is up the middle of each jamb a large hollow, in +which are two niches one above the other, with canopies and bases of the +richest late Gothic; on either side of this hollow are tall thin shafts +entirely carved with minute diaper, two on the inner and one on the +outer side. Next towards the chapel is another slender shaft, bearing +two small statues one above the other, and outside it slender Gothic +pinnacles and tabernacle work rise up to the capital. Up the outer side +of the jambs are carved sharp pointed leaves, like great acanthus whose +stalk bears many large exquisitely carved crockets. On the other side of +the central hollow the diapered shaft is separated from the tiers of +tiny pinnacles which form the inner angle of the jamb by a broad band of +carving, which for beauty of design and for delicacy of carving can +scarcely be anywhere surpassed. On the Pateo side the carving is even +more wonderful.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 121.">[121]</a> There are seven shafts in all on each side, some +diapered, some covered with spirals of leaves, one with panelling and +one with exquisite foliage carved as minutely as on a piece of ivory.</p> + +<p>Between each shaft are narrow mouldings, and between the outer five four +bands of ivy, not as rich or as elaborately<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> undercut as on the chapel +side, but still beautiful, and interesting as the ivy forms many double +circles, two hundred and four in all, in each of which are written the +words 'Tãyas Erey' or 'Tãya Serey,' Dom Manoel's motto. For years this +was a great puzzle. In the seventeenth century the writer of the history +of the Dominican Order in Portugal, Frei Luis de Souza, boldly said they +were Greek, and in this opinion he was supported by 'persons of great +judgment, for "Tanyas" is the accusative of a Greek word "Tanya," which +is the same as region, and "erey" is the imperative of the verb "ereo", +which signifies to seek, inquire, investigate, so that the meaning is, +addressed to Dom Manoel, seek for new regions, new climes.' Of course +whatever the meaning may be it is not Greek, indeed at that time in +Portugal there was hardly any one who could speak Greek, and Senhora de +Vasconcellos—than whom no one has done more for the collecting of +inscriptions in Portugal—has come to the very probable conclusion that +the words are Portuguese. She holds that 'Tãyas erey' or 'Tãya serey' +should be read 'Tanaz serey,' 'I shall be tenacious'—for Tanaz is old +Portuguese for Tenaz—and that the Y is nothing but a rebus or picture +of a tenaz or pair of pincers, and indeed the Y's are very like pincers. +In this opinion she is upheld by the carving of the tenacious ivy round +each word, and the fact that Dom Manoel was not really tenacious at all, +but rather changeable, makes it all the more likely that he would adopt +such a motto.</p> + +<p>The carvers were doubtless quite illiterate and may well have thought +that the pincers in the drawing from which they were working were a +letter and may therefore have mixed them up to the puzzling of future +generations.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 122.">[122]</a> Or since nowhere is 'Tayaz serey' written with the 'z' +may not the first 'y' be the final 'z' of Tanaz misplaced?</p> + +<p>The arched head of the opening is treated differently on the two sides. +Towards the Pateo the two outer mouldings form a large half octagon set +diagonally and with curved sides; the next two form a large trefoil. In +the spandrels between these are larger wreaths enclosing 'Tanyas erey,' +which is also repeated all round these four mouldings.</p> + +<p>The trefoils form large hanging cusps in front of the complicated inner +arch. This too is more or less trefoil in shape,</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;"> +<a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a> +<a href="images/i043_fig_57.png"> +<img src="images/i043_fig_57_th.png" width="437" height="550" alt="Fig. 57. +Batalha Entrance to Capellas Inperfeitas. +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto" /></a> +<span class="caption">Fig. 57.<br />Batalha Entrance to Capellas Inperfeitas.<br />From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>but with smaller curves between the larger, and all elaborately fringed +with cuspings and foliage.</p> + +<p>Four mouldings altogether are of this shape, two on each side, and +beyond them towards the chapel is that arch or moulding which gives to +the whole its most distinctive character. The great trefoil, with large +cusps, which forms the head is crossed by another moulding in such a way +as to become a cinquefoil, while the second moulding, like the hood of +the door at Santarem, forms three large reversed cusps, each ending in +splendid acanthus leaves. Further, the whole of these mouldings are on +the inner side carved with a delicate spiral of ribbon and small balls, +and on the outer with the same acanthus that runs up the jambs.</p> + +<p>Now, on the chapel side especially, from the base to the springing there +is little that might not be found in late French Gothic work, except +perhaps that diapered shafts were not then used in France, and that the +bands of carving are rather different in spirit from French work; but as +for the head, no opening of that size was made in France of so +complicated and, it must be added, so unconstructional a shape. It is +the <i>chef-d'œuvre</i> of the Manoelino style, and although a foreigner +may be inclined at first, from its very strangeness, to call it Eastern, +it is really only a true development in the hands of a real artist of +what Manoelino was; an expression of Portugal's riches and power, and of +the gradual assimilation of such Moors as still remained on this side +the Straits. Of course it is easy to say that it is extravagant, +overloaded and debased; and so it may be. Yet no one who sees it can +help falling a victim to its fascination, for perhaps its only real +fault is that the great cusps and finials are on rather too large a +scale for the rest. Not even the greatest purist could help admiring the +exquisite fineness of the carving—a fineness made possible by the +limestone, very soft when new, which gradually hardens and grows to a +lovely yellow with exposure to the air. No records tell us so, but +considering the difference in style between the upper and the lower part +it may perhaps be conjectured that the elder Matheus designed the lower +part, and the younger the upper, after his father's death in 1515.</p> + +<p>In the great octagon itself the first thing to be done was to build huge +piers, which partly encroach on the small sepulchral chapels between the +larger apses. These piers now rise nearly to the level of the central +aisle of the church where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> they are cut off unfinished; they must be +about 80 or 90 feet in height. On the outer side they are covered with +many circular shafts which are banded together by mouldings at nearly +regular intervals. Haupt has pointed out that in general appearance they +are not unlike the great minar called the Kutub at Old Delhi, and a +lively imagination might see a resemblance to the vast piers, once the +bases of minars, which flank the great entrance archways of some mosques +at Ahmedabad, for example those in the Jumma Musjid. Yet there is no +necessity to go so far afield. Manoelino architects had always been fond +of bundles of round mouldings and so naturally used them here, nor +indeed are the piers at all like either the Kutub or the minars at +Ahmedabad. They have not the batter or the sharp angles of the one, nor +the innumerable breaks and mouldings of the others.</p> + +<p>Between each pier a large window was meant to open, of which +unfortunately nothing has been built but part of the jambs.</p> + +<p>Inside the vaulting of the apsidal chapels was first finished; all the +vaults are elaborate, have well-moulded ribs, and bosses, some carved +with crosses of the Order of Christ, some with armillary spheres, others +with a cross and the words 'In hoc signo vinces,' or with a sphere and +the words 'Espera in Domino.' Where Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> was to be buried is a +pelican vulning herself—for that was his device—and in that intended +for his father Dom Affonso <span class="smcap95">v.</span> a 'rodisio' or mill-wheel. A little above +the entrance arches to the chapels the octagon is surrounded by two +carved string courses separated by a broad plain frieze.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 123.">[123]</a> On the +lower string are the beautifully modelled necks and heads of dragons, +springing from acanthus leaves and so set as to form a series of M's, +and on the upper an exquisite pattern arranged in squares, while on it +rests a most remarkable cresting. In this cresting, which is formed of a +single bud set on branches between two coupled buds, the forms are most +strange and at the same time beautiful.</p> + +<p>Inside, the great piers have been much more highly adorned than without. +The vaulting shafts in the middle—which, formed of several small round +mouldings, have run up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> quite plain from the ground, only interrupted by +shields and their mantling on the frieze—are here broken and twisted. +On either side are niches with Gothic canopies, above which are +interlacing leaves and branches. Beyond the niches are the window jambs, +on which, next the opening, are shafts carved with naturalistic +tree-stems, and between these and the niches two bands of ornament +separated by thin plain shafts.</p> + +<p>In each opening these bands are different. In some is Gothic foliage, in +others semi-classic carving like the string below or realistic like the +cresting. In others are naturalistic branches, and in the opening over +the chapel where Dom Manoel was to lie are cut the letters M in one hand +and R in the other; Manoel Rey. (<a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>.)</p> + +<p>Only the first foot or so of the vaulting has been built, and there is +nothing now to show how the great octagon was to be roofed. Murphy<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 124.">[124]</a> +gives his idea; the eight piers carried high up and capped with spires, +huge Gothic windows between, and the whole covered by a vast pointed +roof—presumably of wood—above the vault. Haupt with his Indian +prepossessions suggests a dome surrounded by eight great domed +pinnacles. Probably neither is right; certainly Murphy's great roof of +wood would never have been made, and as for Haupt's dome nothing domed +was built in Portugal till long after and that at first only on a small +scale.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 125.">[125]</a> Besides, the well-developed Gothic ribs which are seen +springing in each corner clearly show that some kind of Gothic vault was +meant, and not a dome; and that the Portuguese could build wonderful +vaults had been already shown by the chapter-house here and was soon to +be shown by the transept at Belem. So in all probability the roof would +have been a great Gothic vault of which the centre would rise very +considerably above the sides; for there is no sign of stilting the ribs +over the windows. The whole would have been covered with stone slabs, +and would have been surrounded by eight groups of pinnacles, most of +which would no doubt have been twisted.</p> + +<p>Deeply though one must regret that this great chapel has been left +unfinished and open to the sky, yet even in its incomplete state it is a +treasure-house of beautiful ornament, and it is wonderful how well the +more commonplace Gothic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> of Huguet's work agrees with and even enhances +the richness of the detail which Fernandes drew from so many sources, +late Gothic, early renaissance, and naturalistic, and which he knew so +well how to combine into a beautiful whole.</p> + +<p>The great Claustro Real, built by Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, was peculiar among +Portuguese cloisters in having, or at least being prepared for, large +traceried windows. Probably these had remained blank, and for about a +hundred years awaited the tracery which more than any part of the +convent shows the skill of Matheus Fernandes.</p> + +<p>There seems to be no exact record of when the work was done, but it must +have been while additions were being made to the Imperfect chapels, +though more fortunate than they, the work here was successfully +finished.</p> + +<p>The cloister has seven bays on each side, of which the five in the +middle are nearly equal, having either five or six lights. In the +eastern corners the openings have only three lights, in the +south-western they have four, and in the north-western there stands the +square two-bayed lavatory. (<a href="#Fig_60">Fig. 60</a>.)</p> + +<p>In all the openings the shafts are alike. They have tall eight-sided and +round bases, similar capitals and a moulded ring half-way up, while the +whole shaft from ring to base and from ring to capital is carved with +the utmost delicacy, with spirals, with diaper patterns, or with +leaflike scales. Above the capitals the pointed openings are filled in +with veils of tracery of three different patterns. In the central bay, +and in the two next but one on either side of it, and so filling nine +openings, is what at first seems to be a kind of reticulated tracery. +But on looking closer it is found to be built up of leaf-covered curves +and of buds very like those forming the cresting in the Capellas +Imperfeitas. In the corner bays—except where stands the lavatory—there +is another form of reticulated tracery, where the larger curves are +formed by branches, whose leaves make the cusps, while filling in the +larger spaces are budlike growths like those in the first-mentioned +windows.</p> + +<p>On either side of the central openings the tracery is more naturalistic +than elsewhere; here the whole is formed of interlacing and intertwining +branches, with leaves and large fruit-like poppy heads, and in the +centre the Cross of the Order of Christ. But of all, the most successful +is in the lavatory; there the two bays which form each side are high and +narrow,</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a> +<a href="images/i041_fig_58.png"> +<img src="images/i041_fig_58_th.png" width="275" height="385" alt="FIG. 58.BatalhaWindow of Pateo." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 58.<br />Batalha<br />Window of Pateo.<br /> <br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a> +<a href="images/i041_fig_59.png"> +<img src="images/i041_fig_59_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 59.BatalhaCapellas Imperfeitas.Upper Part.From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 59.<br />Batalha<br />Capellas Imperfeitas.<br />Upper Part.From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>with richly cusped pointed arches. Instead of cutting out the cusps and +filling the upper part with tracery, Matheus Fernandes has with +extraordinary skill thrown a crested transome across the opening and +below it woven together a veil of exquisitely carved branches, which, +resting on a central shaft, half hide and half reveal the large marble +fountain within. (<a href="#Fig_61">Fig. 61</a>.)</p> + +<p>At first, perhaps, accustomed to the ordinary forms of Gothic tracery, +these windows seem strange, to some even unpleasing. Soon, however, when +they have been studied more closely, when it has been recognised that +the brilliant sunshine needs closer tracery and smaller openings than +does the cooler North, and that indeed the aim of the designer is to +keep out rather than to let in the direct rays of light, no one can be +anything but thankful that Matheus Fernandes, instead of trying to adapt +Gothic forms to new requirements, as was done by his predecessors in the +church, boldly invented new forms for himself; forms which are entirely +suited to the sun, the clear air and sky, and which with their creamy +lace make a fitting background to the roses and flowers with which the +cloister is now planted.</p> + +<p>Now the question arises, from whence did Matheus Fernandes draw his +inspiration? We have seen that windows with good Gothic tracery are +almost unknown in Portugal, for even in the church here at Batalha the +larger windows nearly all show a want of knowledge, and a wish to shut +out the sun as much as possible, and besides there is really no +resemblance between the tracery in the church and that in the cloister.</p> + +<p>In the lowest floor of the Torre de São Vicente, begun by Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> +and finished by Dom Manoel to defend the channel of the Tagus, the +central hall is divided from a passage by a thin wall whose upper part +is pierced to form a perforated screen. The original plan for the tower +is said to have been furnished by Garcia de Resende, whose house we have +seen at Evora, and if this screen, which is built up of heart-shaped +curves, is older than the cloister windows at Batalha, he may have +suggested to Matheus Fernandes the tracery which has a more or less +reticulated form, though on the other hand it may be later and have been +suggested by them. Most probably, however, Matheus Fernandes thought out +the tracery for himself. He would not have had far to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span> go to see real +reticulated panelling, for the church is covered with it; but an even +more likely source of this reticulation might be found in the beautiful +Moorish panelling which exists on such buildings as the Giralda or the +tower at Rabat, and if we find Moors among the workmen at Thomar there +may well have been some at Batalha as well. As for the naturalistic +tracery, it is clearly only an improvement on such windows as those of +the Pateo behind the church, and there is no need to go to Ahmedabad and +find there pierced screens to which they have a certain resemblance.</p> + +<p>However, whatever may be its origin, this tracery it is which makes the +Claustro Real not only the most beautiful cloister in Portugal, but +even, as that may not seem very great praise, one of the most beautiful +cloisters in the world, and it must have been even more beautiful before +a modern restoration crowned all the walls with a pierced Gothic parapet +and a spiky cresting, whose angular form and sharp mouldings do not +quite harmonise with the rounded and gentle curves of the tracery below.</p> + +<p>After the suppression of the monastic orders in 1834, Batalha, which had +already suffered terribly from the French invasion—for in 1810 during +the retreat under Massena two cloisters were burned and much furniture +destroyed—was for a time left to decay. However, in 1840 the Cortes +decreed an annual expenditure of two contos of reis,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 126.">[126]</a> or about <i>£</i>450 +to keep the buildings in repair and to restore such parts as were +damaged.</p> + +<p>The first director was Senhor Luis d'Albuquerque, and he and his +successors have been singularly successful in their efforts, and have +carried out a restoration with which little fault can be found, except +that they have been too lavish in building pierced parapets, and in +filling the windows of the church with wooden fretwork and with hideous +green, red and blue glass.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a> +<a href="images/i044_fig_60.png"> +<img src="images/i044_fig_60_th.png" width="450" height="352" alt="FIG. 60.BatalhaCloister. + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 60.<br />Batalha<br />Cloister.<br /> +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a> +<a href="images/i044_fig_61.png"> +<img src="images/i044_fig_61_th.png" width="439" height="550" alt="FIG. 61.BatalhaLavatory in Claustro Real." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 61.<br />Batalha<br />Lavatory in Claustro Real.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h3> + +<p class="head">BELEM</p> + + +<p>B<span class="smcap95">elem</span> or Bethlehem lies close to the shore, after the broad estuary of +the Tagus has again grown narrow, about four miles from the centre of +Lisbon, and may best be reached by one of the excellent electric cars +which now so well connect together the different parts of the town and +its wide-spreading suburbs.</p> + +<p>Situated where the river mouth is at its narrowest, it is natural that +it was chosen as the site of one of the forts built to defend the +capital. Here, then, on a sandbank washed once by every high tide, but +now joined to the mainland by so unromantic a feature as the gasworks, a +tower begun by Dom João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, and designed, it is said, by Garcia de +Resende, was finished by Dom Manoel about 1520 and dedicated to São +Vicente, the patron of Lisbon.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 127.">[127]</a></p> + +<p>The tower is not of very great size, perhaps some forty feet square by +about one hundred high. It stands free on three sides, but on the south +towards the water it is protected by a great projecting bastion, which, +rather wider than the tower, ends at the water edge in a polygon.</p> + +<p>The tower contains several stories of one room each, none of which are +in themselves in any way remarkable except the lowest, in which is the +perforated screen mentioned in the last chapter. In the second story the +south window opens on to a long balcony running the whole breadth of the +tower, and the other windows on to smaller balconies. The third story is +finished with a fortified parapet resting on great corbels. The last and +fourth, smaller than those below, is fortified with pointed merlons, and +with a round corbelled turret at each corner.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p> + +<p>On entering, it is found that the bastion contains a sort of cloister +with a flat paved roof on to which opens the door of the tower. Under +the cloister are horrid damp dungeons, last used by Dom Miguel, who +during his usurpation imprisoned in them such of his liberal opponents +as he could catch. The whole bastion is fortified with great merlons, +rising above a rope moulding, each, like those on the tower, bearing a +shield carved with the Cross of the Order of Christ, and by round +turrets corbelled out at the corners. These, like all the turrets, are +capped with melon-shaped stone roofs, and curious finials. Similar +turrets jut out from two corners of the ground floor.</p> + +<p>The parapet also of the cloister is interesting. It is divided into +squares, in each of which a quatrefoil encloses a cross of the Order of +Christ. At intervals down the sides are spiral pinnacles, at the corners +columns bearing spheres, and at the south end a tall niche, elaborately +carved, under whose strange canopy stand a Virgin and Child.</p> + +<p>The most interesting features of the tower are the balconies. That on +the south side, borne on huge corbels, has in front an arcade of seven +round arches, resting on round shafts with typical Manoelino caps. A +continuous sloping stone roof covers the whole, enriched at the bottom +by a rope moulding, and marked with curious nicks at the top. The +parapet is Gothic and very thin. The other balconies are the same, a +pointed tentlike roof ending in a knob, a parapet whose circles enclose +crosses of the order, but with only two arches in front.</p> + +<p>The third story is lit by two light windows on three sides, and on the +south side by two round-headed windows, between which is cut a huge +royal coat-of-arms crowned.</p> + +<p>Altogether the building is most picturesque, the balconies are charming, +and the round turrets and the battlements give it a look of strength and +at the same time add greatly to its appearance. The general outline, +however, is not altogether pleasing owing to the setting back of the top +story. (<a href="#Fig_62">Fig. 62</a>.)</p> + +<p>The detail, however, is most interesting. It is throughout Manoelino, +and that too with hardly an admixture of Gothic. There is no naturalism, +and hardly any suggestion of the renaissance, and as befits a fort it is +without any of the exuberance so common to buildings of this time.</p> + +<p>Now here again, as at Thomar and Batalha, Haupt has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> seen a result of +the intercourse with India; both in the balconies and in the turret +roofs<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 128.">[128]</a> he sees a likeness to a temple in Gujerat; and it must be +admitted that in the example he gives the balconies and roofs are not at +all unlike those at Belem. It might further be urged that Garcia de +Resende who designed the tower, if he was never in India himself, formed +part of Dom Manoel's great embassy to Rome in 1514, when the wonders of +the East were displayed before the Pope, that he might easily be +familiar with Indian carvings or paintings, and that finally there are +no such balconies elsewhere in Portugal. All that may be true, and yet +in his own town of Evora there are still many pavilions more like the +smaller balconies than are those in India, and it surely did not need +very great originality to put such a pavilion on corbels and so give the +tower its most distinctive feature. As for the turrets, in Spain there +are many, at Medina del Campo or at Coca, which are corbelled out in +much the same way, though their roofs are different, and like though the +melon-shaped dome of the turrets may be to some in Gujerat, they are +more like those at Bacalhôa, and surely some proof of connection between +Belem and Gujerat, better than mere likeness, is wanted before the +Indian theory can be accepted. That the son of an Indian viceroy should +roof his turrets at Bacalhôa with Indian domes might seem natural; but +the turrets were certainly built before he bought the Quinta in 1528, +and neither they nor the house shows any other trace of Indian +influence.</p> + +<p>The night of July 7, 1497, the last Vasco da Gama and his captains were +to spend on shore before starting on the momentous voyage which ended at +Calicut, was passed by them in prayer, in a small chapel built by Prince +Henry the Navigator for the use of sailors, and dedicated to Nossa +Senhora do Restello.</p> + +<p>Two years later he landed again in the Tagus, with a wonderful story of +the difficulties overcome and of the vast wealth which he had seen in +the East. As a thankoffering Dom Manoel at once determined to found a +great monastery for the Order of St. Jerome on the spot where stood +Prince Henry's chapel. Little time was lost, and the first stone was +laid on April 1 of the next year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p> + +<p>The first architect was that Boutaca who, about ten years before, had +built the Jesus Church at Setubal for the king's nurse, Justa Rodrigues, +and to him is probably due the plan. Boutaca was succeeded in 1511 by +Lourenço Fernandes, who in turn gave place to João de Castilho in +1517<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 129.">[129]</a> or 1522.</p> + +<p>It is impossible now to say how much each of these different architects +contributed to the building as finished. At Setubal Boutaca had built a +church with three vaulted aisles of about the same height. The idea was +there carried out very clumsily, but it is quite likely that Belem owes +its three aisles of equal height to his initiative even though they were +actually carried out by some one else.</p> + +<p>Judging also from the style, for the windows show many well-known +Manoelino features, while the detail of the great south door is more +purely Gothic, they too and the walls may be the work of Boutaca or of +Lourenço Fernandes, while the great door is almost certainly that of +João de Castilho.</p> + +<p>In any case, when João de Castilho came the building was not nearly +finished, for in 1522 he received a thousand cruzados towards building +columns and the transept vault.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 130.">[130]</a></p> + +<p>But even more important to the decoration of the building than either +Boutaca or João de Castilho was the coming of Master Nicolas, the +Frenchman<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 131.">[131]</a> whom we shall see at work at Coimbra and at São Marcos. +Belem seems to have been the first place to which he came after leaving +home, and we soon find him at work there on the statues of the great +south door, and later on those of the west door, where, with the +exception of the Italian door at Cintra, is carved what is probably the +earliest piece of renaissance detail in the country.</p> + +<p>The south door, except for a band of carving round each entrance, is +free of renaissance detail, and so was probably built before Nicolas +added the statues, but in the western a few such details begin to +appear, and in these, as in the band round the other openings, he may +have had a hand. Inside renaissance detail is more in evidence, but +since the great piers would not be carved till after they were built, it +is more likely that the renaissance work there is due to João de +Castilho himself and to what he had learned either from Nicolas or</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a> +<a href="images/i045_fig_62.png"> +<img src="images/i045_fig_62_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 62.Torre de São Vicente.Belem." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 62.<br />Torre de São Vicente.<br />Belem.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a> +<a href="images/i045_fig_63.png"> +<img src="images/i045_fig_63_th.png" width="275" height="370" alt="FIG. 63.BelemSacristy." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 63.<br />Belem<br />Sacristy.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span>from the growing influence of the Coimbra School. It is, of course, also +possible that when Nicolas went to Coimbra, where he was already at work +in 1524, some French assistant may have stayed behind, yet the carving +on the piers is rather coarser than in most French work, and so was more +probably done by Portuguese working under Castilho's direction.</p> + +<p>The monastic buildings were begun after the church; but although at +first renaissance forms seem supreme in the cloisters, closer inspection +will show that they are practically confined to the carving on the +buttresses and on the parapets of the arches thrown across from buttress +to buttress. All the rest, except the door of the chapter-house—the +refectory, undertaken by Leonardo Vaz, the chapter-house itself, and the +great undercroft of the dormitory stretching 607 feet away opposite the +west door, and scarcely begun in 1521, are purely Manoelino, so that the +date 1544 on the lower cloister must refer to the finishing of the +renaissance additions and not to the actual building, especially as the +upper cloister is even more completely Gothic than the lower.</p> + +<p>The sacristy, adjoining the north transept, must have been one of the +last parts of the original building to be finished, since in it the +vault springs in the centre from a beautiful round shaft covered with +renaissance carving and standing on a curious base. (<a href="#Fig_63">Fig. 63</a>.)</p> + +<p>The first chancel, which in 1523 was nearly ready, was thought to be too +small and so was pulled down, being replaced in 1551 by a rather poor +classic structure designed by Diogo de Torralva. In it now lie Dom +Manoel, his son Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, and the unfortunate Dom Sebastião, his +great-grandson. Vasco da Gama and other national heroes have also found +a resting-place in the church, and the chapter-house is nearly filled +with the tomb of Herculano, the best historian of his country.</p> + +<p>Since the expulsion of the monks in 1834 the monastic buildings have +been turned into an excellent orphanage for boys, who to the number of +about seven hundred are taught some useful trade and who still use the +refectory as their dining-hall. The only other change since 1835 has +been the building of an exceedingly poor domed top to the south-west +tower instead of its original low spire, the erection of an upper story +above the long undercroft, and of a great entrance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> tower half-way +along, with the result that the tower soon fell, destroying the vault +below.</p> + +<div class="figcenter2" style="width: 499px;"> +<a href="images/i046_mto_dos_jeronimos.png"> +<img src="images/i046_mto_dos_jeronimos_th.png" width="499" +height="550" alt="O Mosheiro des Jerónimos de Sta Maria de Belem." /></a> +</div> + +<p class="cap">O Mosheiro des Jerónimos de Sta Maria de Belem.<br /> +fovnded by dom manoel april 21 1500.<br /> +bovtaca architect till 1511. svcceeded by<br /> +lovrenço fernandes. little done till<br /> +1522 when joão de castilho svcceeded.<br /> +lower cloister finished 1544.<br /> +capella mor rebvilt 1551 by diogo de torralva.</p> + +<p>The plan of the church is simple but original. It consists of a nave of +four bays with two oblong towers to the west. The westernmost bay is +divided into two floors by a great choir gallery entered from the upper +cloister and also extending to the west between the towers, which on the +ground floor form chapels. The whole nave with its three aisles of equal +height measures from the west door to the transept some 165 feet long by +77 broad and over 80 high. East of the nave the church spreads out into +an enormous transept 95 feet long by 65 wide, and since the vast vault +is almost barrel-shaped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span> considerably higher than the nave. North and +south of this transept are smaller square chapels, and to the east the +later chancel, the whole church being some 300 feet long inside. North +of the nave is the cloister measuring 175 feet by 185, on its western +side the refectory 125 feet by 30, and on the east next the transept a +sacristy 48 feet square, and north of it a chapter-house of about the +same size, but increased on its northern side by a large apse. In the +thickness of the north wall of the nave a stair leads from the transept +to the upper cloister, and a series of confessionals open alternately, +the one towards the church for the penitent and the next towards the +lower cloister for the father confessor. Lastly, separated from the +church by an open space once forming a covered porch, there stretches +away to the west the great undercroft, 607 feet long by 30 wide.</p> + +<p>Taking the outside of the church first. The walls of the transept and of +the transept chapel are perfectly plain, without buttresses, with but +little cornice and, now at least, without a cresting or parapet. They +are only relieved by an elaborate band of ornament which runs along the +whole south side of the church, by the tall round-headed windows, and in +the main transept by a big rope moulding which carries on the line of +the chapel roof. Plain as it is, this part of the church is singularly +imposing from its very plainness and from its great height, and were the +cornice and cresting complete and the original chancel still standing +would equal if not surpass in beauty the more elaborate nave. The +windows—one of which lights the main transept on each side of the +chancel, and two, facing east and west, the chapel which also has a +smaller round window looking south—are of great size, being about +thirty-four feet high by over six wide; they are deeply set in the thick +wall, are surrounded by two elaborate bands of carving, and have +crocketed ogee hood-moulds.</p> + +<p>The great band of ornament which is interrupted by the lower part of the +windows has a rope moulding at the top above which are carved and +interlacing branches, two rope mouldings at the bottom, and between them +a band of carving consisting of branches twisted into intertwining S's, +ending in leaves at the bottom and buds at the top, the whole being +nearly six feet across.</p> + +<p>The three eastern bays of the nave are separated by buttresses, square +below, polygonal above, and ending in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> round shafts and pinnacles at the +top. The cornice, here complete, is deep with its five carved mouldings, +but not of great projection. On it stands the cresting of elaborately +branched leaves, nearly six feet high.</p> + +<p>The central bay is entirely occupied by the great south door which, with +its niches, statues and pinnacles entirely hides the lower part of the +buttresses. The outer round arch of the door is thrown across between +the two buttresses, which for more than half their height are covered +with carved and twisted mouldings, with niches, canopies, corbels, and +statues all carved with the utmost elaboration. Immediately above the +great arch is a round-headed window, and on either side between it and +the buttresses are two rows of statues and niches in tiers separated by +elaborate statue-bearing shafts and pinnacles. Statues even occupy +niches on the window jamb, and a Virgin and Child stand up in front on +the end of the ogee drip-mould of the great arch. (<a href="#Fig_64">Fig. 64</a>.)</p> + +<p>It will be seen later how poorly Diogo de Castilho at Coimbra finished +off his window on the west front of Santa Cruz. Here the work was +probably finished first, and it is curious that Diogo in copying his +brother's design did not also copy the great canopy which overshadows +the window and which, rising through the cornice to a great pinnacled +niche, so successfully finishes the whole design. Here too the +buttresses carry up the design to the top of the wall, and with the +strong cornice and rich cresting save it from the weakness which at +Coimbra is emphasised by the irregularity of the walling above.</p> + +<p>Luckier than the door at Coimbra this one retains its central jamb, on +which, on a twisting shaft from whose base look out two charming lions, +there stands, most appropriately, Prince Henry the Navigator, without +whose enterprise Vasco da Gama would in all probability never have +sailed to India and so given occasion for the founding of this church. +Round each of the two entrances runs a band of renaissance carving, and +the flat reliefs in the divided tympanum are rather like some that may +be seen in France,<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 132.">[132]</a> but otherwise the detail is all Gothic. Twisted +shafts bearing the corbels, elaborate canopies, crocketed finials, all +are rather Gothic than Manoelino. Since the material—a kind of +marble—is much less fine than the stone used at Batalha or in Coimbra +or Thomar,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span> the carving is naturally less minute and ivory-like than it +is there, and this is especially the case with the foliage, which is +rather coarse. The statues too—except perhaps Prince Henry's—are a +little short and sturdy.</p> + +<p>The tall windows in the bays on either side of this great door are like +those in the transept, except that round them are three bands of carving +instead of two, the one in the centre formed of rods which at intervals +of about a foot are broken to cross each other in the middle, and that +beyond the jambs tall twisted shafts run up to round finials just under +the cornice.</p> + +<p>In the next bay to the west, where is the choir gallery inside, there +are two windows, one above the other, like the larger ones but smaller, +and united by a moulding which runs round both.</p> + +<p>The same is the case with the tower, where, however, the upper window is +divided into two, the lower being a circle and the upper having three +intersecting lights. The drip-mould is also treated in the common +Manoelino way with large spreading finials. Above the cornice, which is +less elaborate than in the nave, was a short octagonal drum capped by a +low spire, now replaced by a poor dome and flying buttresses.</p> + +<p>The west door once opened into a three-aisled porch now gone. It is much +less elaborate than the great south door, but shows great ingenuity in +fitting it in under what was once the porch vault. The twisted and +broken curves of the head follow a common Manoelino form, and below the +top of the broken hood-mould are two flying angels who support a large +corbel on which is grouped the Holy Family. On the jambs are three +narrow bands of foliage, and one of figures standing under renaissance +canopies. On either side are spreading corbels and large niches with +curious bulbous canopies<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 133.">[133]</a> under which kneel Dom Manoel on the left +presented by St. Jerome, and on the right, presented by St. John the +Baptist, his second wife, Queen Maria—like the first, Queen Isabel, a +daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and the aunt of his third wife, +Leonor. These figures are evidently portraits, and even if they were +flattered show that they were not a handsome couple.</p> + +<p>Below these large corbels, on which are carved large angels, are two +smaller niches with figures, one on each side of the twisted shaft. +Renaissance curves form the heads of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> as they do of larger niches, +one on each side of the Holy Family above, which contain the +Annunciation and the Visit of the Wise Men.</p> + +<p>Beyond Dom Manoel and his wife are square shafts with more niches and +figures, and beyond them again flatter niches, half Manoelino, half +renaissance. The rest of the west front above the ruined porch is plain +except for a large round window lighting the choir gallery. The +north-west tower does not rise above the roof.</p> + +<p>Outside, the church as a whole is neither well proportioned nor +graceful. The great mass of the transept is too overwhelming, the nave +not long enough, and above all, the large windows of the nave too large. +It would have looked much better had they been only the size of the +smaller windows lighting the choir gallery—omitting the one below, and +this would further have had the advantage of not cutting up the +beautiful band of ornament. But the weakest part of the whole design are +the towers, which must always have been too low, and yet would have been +too thin for the massive building behind them had they been higher. Now, +of course, the one finished with a dome has nothing to recommend it, +neither height, nor proportion, nor design. Yet the doorway taken by +itself, or together with the bay on either side, is a very successful +composition, and on a brilliantly sunny day so blue is the sky and so +white the stone that hardly any one would venture to criticise it for +being too elaborate and over-charged, though no doubt it might seem so +were the stone dingy and the sky grey and dull.</p> + +<p>The church of Belem may be ill-proportioned and unsatisfactory outside, +but within it is so solemn and vast as to fill one with surprise. +Compared with many churches the actual area is not really very great nor +is it very high, yet there is perhaps no other building which gives such +an impression of space and of freedom. Entering from the brilliant +sunlight it seems far darker than, with large windows, should be the +case, and however hideous the yellow-and-blue checks with which they are +filled may be, they have the advantage of keeping out all brilliant +light; the huge transept too is not well lit and gives that feeling of +vastness and mystery which, as the supports are few and slender, would +otherwise be wanting, while looking westwards the same result is +obtained by the dark cavernous space under the gallery. (<a href="#Fig_65">Fig. 65</a>.)</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a> +<a href="images/i047_fig_64.png"> +<img src="images/i047_fig_64_th.png" width="275" height="360" alt="FIG. 64.BelemSouth Side of Church of Jeronymos." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 64.<br />Belem<br />South Side of Church of Jeronymos.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a> +<a href="images/i047_fig_65.png"> +<img src="images/i047_fig_65_th.png" width="275" height="370" alt="FIG. 65.BelemNave of Church looking West." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 65.<br />Belem<br />Nave of Church looking West.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>On the south side the walls are perfectly plain, broken only by the +windows, whose jambs are enriched with empty niches; on the north the +small windows are placed very high up, the twisted vaulting shafts only +come down a short way to a string course some way below the windows, +leaving a great expanse of cliff-like wall. At the bottom are the +confessional doors, so small that they add greatly to the scale, and +above them tall narrow niches and their canopies. But the nave piers are +the most astonishing part of the whole building. Not more than three +feet thick, they rise up to a height of nearly seventy feet to support a +great stone vault. Four only of the six stand clear from floor to roof, +for the two western are embedded at the bottom in the jambs of the +gallery arches. From their capitals the vaulting ribs spread out in +every direction, being constructively not unlike an English fan vault, +and covering the whole roof with a network of lines. The piers are +round, stand on round moulded pedestals, and are divided into narrow +strips by eight small shafts. The height is divided into four nearly +equal parts by well-moulded rings, encircling the whole pier, and in the +middle of the second of these divisions are corbels and canopies for +statues. The capitals are round and covered with leaves, but scarcely +exceed the piers in diameter. Besides all this each strip between the +eight thin shafts is covered from top to bottom—except where the empty +niches occur—with carving in slight relief, either foliage or, more +usually, renaissance arabesques.</p> + +<p>Larger piers stand next the transept, cross-shaped, formed of four of +the thinner piers set together, and about six feet thick. They are like +the others, except that there are corbels and canopies for statues in +the angles, and that a capital is formed by a large moulding carved with +what is meant for egg and tongue. From this, well moulded and carved +arches, round in the central and pointed in the side aisles, cross the +nave from side to side, dividing its vault from that of the transept.</p> + +<p>This transept vault, perhaps the largest attempted since the days of the +Romans—for it covers a space measuring about ninety-five feet by +sixty-five—is three bays long from north to south and two wide from +east to west; formed of innumerable ribs springing from these points—of +which those at the north and south ends are placed immediately above the +arches leading to the chapels—it practically assumes in the middle the +shape of a flat oblong dome.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span></p> + +<p>Now, though the walls are thick, there are no buttresses, and the skill +and daring required to build a vault sixty-five feet wide and about a +hundred feet high resting on side walls on one side and on piers +scarcely six feet thick on the other must not only excite the admiration +of every one, especially when it is remembered that no damage was caused +by the great earthquake which shook Lisbon to pieces in 1755, but must +also raise the wish that what has been so skilfully done here had been +also done in the Capellas Imperfeitas at Batalha.</p> + +<p>At the north end of the main transept are two doors, one leading to the +cloister and one to the sacristy. A straight and curved moulding +surrounds their trefoil heads under a double twining hood-mould. +Outside, other mouldings rise high above the whole to form a second +large trefoil, whose hood-mould curves into two great crocketed circles +before rising to a second ogee.</p> + +<p>The chancel has a round and the chapels pointed entrance arches, formed, +as are the jambs, of two bands of carving and two thick twisted +mouldings. Tomb recesses, added later, with strapwork pediments line the +chapels, and at the entrance to the chancel are two pulpits, for the +Gospel and Epistle. These are rather like João de Ruão's pulpit at +Coimbra in outline, but supported on a large capital are quite Gothic, +as are the large canopies which rise above them.</p> + +<p>Strong arches with cable mouldings lead to the space under the gallery, +which is supported by an elaborate vault, elliptical in the central and +pointed in the side aisles.</p> + +<p>In the gallery itself—only to be entered from the upper cloister—are +the choir stalls, of Brazil wood, added in 1560, perhaps from the +designs of Diogo da Carta.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 134.">[134]</a></p> + +<p>With the earlier stalls at Santa Cruz and at Funchal, and the later at +Evora, these are almost the only ones left which have not been replaced +by rococo extravagances.</p> + +<p>The back is divided into large panels three stalls wide, each containing +a painting of a saint, and separated by panelled and carved Corinthian +pilasters. Below each painting is an oblong panel with, in the centre, a +beautifully carved head looking out of a circle, and at the sides bold +carvings of leaves, dragons, sirens, or animals, while beautiful figures +of saints stand in round-headed niches under the pilasters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> At the ends +are larger pilasters, and a cornice carried on corbels serves as canopy. +Each of the lower stalls has a carved panel under the upper book-board, +but the small figures which stood between them on the arms are nearly +all gone.</p> + +<p>If 1560 be the real date, the carving is extraordinarily early in +character; the execution too is excellent, though perhaps the heads +under the paintings are on too large a scale for woodwork, still they +are not at all coarse, and would be worthy of the best Spanish or French +sculptors.</p> + +<p>The cloister, nearly, but not quite square, has six bays on each side, +of which the four central bays are of four lights each, while narrower +ones at the ends have no tracery. In the traceried bays the arches are +slightly elliptical, subdivided by two round-headed arches, which in +turn enclose two smaller round arches enriched some with trefoil cusps, +some with curious hanging pieces of tracery which are put, not in the +middle, but a little to the side nearer the central shaft. The shafts +are round, very like those at Batalha, and, like every inch of the arch +and tracery mouldings, are covered with ornament; some are twisted, some +diapered, some covered with renaissance detail. Broad bands too of +carving run round the inside and the outside of the main arches, the +inner being almost renaissance and the outer purely Manoelino. The vault +of many ribs, varying in arrangement in the different walks, is entirely +Gothic, while all the doors—except the double opening leading to the +chapter-house, which has beautifully carved renaissance panels on the +jambs—are Manoelino. The untraceried openings at the ends are fringed +with very extraordinary lobed projections, and on the solid pieces of +walling at the corners are carved very curious and interesting coats of +arms crosses and emblems worked in with beautifully cut leaves and +birds. (Figs. <a href="#Fig_66">66</a> and <a href="#Fig_67">67</a>.)</p> + +<p>Outside, between each bay, wide buttresses project, of which the +front—formed into a square pilaster—is enriched with panels of +beautiful renaissance work, while the back part is fluted or panelled. +From the top mouldings of these pilasters, rather higher than the +capitals of the openings, elliptical arches with a vault behind are +thrown across from pier to pier with excellent effect. Now, the base +mouldings of these panelled pilasters either do not quite fit those of +the fluted strips behind, or else are cut off against them, as are also +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> top mouldings of the fluted part; further, the fluted part runs up +rather awkwardly into the vault, so that it seems reasonable to +conjecture that these square renaissance pilasters and the arches may be +an after-thought, added because it was found that the original +buttresses were not quite strong enough for their work, and this too +would account for the purely renaissance character of the carving on +them, while the rest is almost entirely Gothic or Manoelino. The arches +are carried diagonally across the corners, in a very picturesque manner, +and they all help to keep out the direct sunlight and to throw most +effective shadows.</p> + +<p>The parapet above these arches is carved with very pleasing renaissance +details, and above each pier rise a niche and saint.</p> + +<p>The upper cloister is simpler than the lower. All the arches are round +with a big splay on each side carved with four-leaved flowers. They are +cusped at the top, and at the springing two smaller cusped arches are +thrown across to a pinnacled shaft in the centre. The buttresses between +them are covered with spiral grooves, and are all finished off with +twisted pinnacles. Inside the pointed vault is much simpler than in the +walks below.</p> + +<p>Here the tracery is very much less elaborate than in the Claustro Real +at Batalha, but as scarcely a square inch of the whole cloister is left +uncarved the effect is much more disturbed and so less pleasing.</p> + +<p>Beautiful though most of the ornament is, there is too much of it, and +besides, the depressed shape of the lower arches is bad and ungraceful, +and the attempt at tracery in the upper walks is more curious than +successful.</p> + +<p>The chapter-house too, though a large and splendid room, would have +looked better with a simpler vault and without the elliptical arches of +the apse recesses.</p> + +<p>The refectory, without any other ornament than the bold ribs of its +vaulted roof, and a dado of late tiles, is far more pleasing.</p> + +<p>Altogether, splendid as it is, Belem is far less pleasing, outside at +least, than the contemporary work at Batalha or at Thomar, for, like the +tower of São Vicente near by, it is wanting in those perfect proportions +which more than richness of detail give charm to a building. Inside it +is not so, and though many of the vaulting ribs might be criticised as +useless</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a> +<img src="images/i047a_fig_66.png" width="275" height="392" alt="FIG. 66.BelemCloister." /> +<span class="caption">FIG. 66.<br />Belem<br />Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<img src="images/i047a_fig_67.png" width="275" height="367" alt="FIG. 67.BelemLower Cloister." /> +<span class="caption">FIG. 67.<br />Belem<br />Lower Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>and the whole vault as wanting in simplicity, yet there is no such +impressive interior in Portugal and not many elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The very over-elaboration which spoils the cloister is only one of the +results of all the wealth which flowed in from the East, and so, like +the whole monastery, is a worthy memorial of all that had been done to +further exploration from the time of Prince Henry, till his efforts were +crowned with success by Vasco da Gama.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Conceição, Velha.</div> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the transept front of the church of the +Conceição Velha was also designed by João de Castilho. The church was +built after 1520 on the site of a synagogue, and was almost entirely +destroyed by the earthquake of 1755. Only the transept front has +survived, robbed of its cornice and cresting, and now framed in plain +pilasters and crowned by a pediment. The two windows, very like those at +Belem, have beautiful renaissance details and saints in niches on the +jambs.</p> + +<p>The large door has a round arch with uprights at the sides rising to a +horizontal crested moulding. Below, these uprights have a band of +renaissance carving on the outer side, and in front a canopied niche +with a well-modelled figure. Above they become semicircular and end in +sphere-bearing spirelets. The great round arch is filled with two orders +of mouldings, one a broad strip of arabesque, the other a series of +kneeling angels below and of arabesque above. The actual openings are +formed of two round-headed arches whose outer mouldings cross each other +on the central jamb. Above them are two reversed semicircles, and then a +great tympanum carved with a figure of Our Lady sheltering popes, +bishops, and saints under her robe: a carving which seems to have lately +taken the place of a large window. (<a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>.)</p> + +<p>As it now stands the front is not pleasing. It is too wide, and the +great spreading pediment is very ugly. Of course it ought not to be +judged by its present appearance, and yet it must be admitted that the +windows are too large and come too near the ground, and that much of the +detail is coarse. Still it is of interest if only because it is the only +surviving building closely related to the church of Belem. Built perhaps +to commemorate the expulsion of the Jews, it shared the fate of the +Jesuits who instigated the expulsion, and was destroyed only a few years +before they were driven from the country by the Marques de Pombal.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h3> + +<p class="head">THE COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">f</span> João de Castilho and his brother Diogo were really natives of one of +the Basque provinces, they might rightly be included among the foreign +artists who played such an important part in Portugal towards the end of +Dom Manoel's reign and the beginning of that of his son, Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> +Yet the earlier work of João de Castilho at Thomar shows little trace of +that renaissance influence which the foreigners, and especially the +Frenchmen, were to do so much to introduce.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Santa Cruz, Coimbra.</div> + +<p>A great house of the Canon Regular of St. Augustine had been founded at +Coimbra by Dom Affonso Henriques for his friend São Theotonio in 1131. +But with the passage of centuries the church and monastic building of +Sta. Cruz had become dilapidated, and were no longer deemed worthy of so +wealthy and important a body. So in 1502 Dom Manoel determined to +rebuild them and to adorn the church, and it was for this adorning that +he summoned so many sculptors in stone and in wood to his aid.</p> + +<p>The first architect of the church was Marcos Pires, to whom are due the +cloister and the whole church except the west door, which was finished +by his successor Diogo de Castilho with the help of Master Nicolas, a +Frenchman.</p> + +<p>One Gregorio Lourenço seems to have been what would now be called master +of the works, and from his letters to Dom Manoel we learn how the work +was going on. After Dom Manoel's death in 1521 he writes to Dom João +<span class="smcap95">iii</span>., telling him what, of all the many things his father the late king +had ordered, was already finished and what was still undone.</p> + +<p>The church consists of a nave of four bays, measuring some 105 feet by +39, with flanking chapels, the whole lined with eighteenth-century +tiles, mostly blue and white. There are also a great choir gallery at +the west end, a chancel, polygonal</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"> +<a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a> +<a href="images/i048_fig_68.png"> +<img src="images/i048_fig_68_th.png" width="449" height="550" alt="FIG. 68.LisbonConceição Velha." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 68.<br />Lisbon<br />Conceição Velha.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>within but square outside, 54 feet long by 20 broad, with a +seventeenth-century sacristy to the south, a cloister to the north, and +chapels, one of which was the chapter-house, forming a kind of passage +from sacristy to cloister behind the chancel.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/i049_plan_sta_cruz.png"> +<img src="images/i049_plan_sta_cruz_th.png" width="250" height="336" alt="PLAN OF STA. CRUZ" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF STA. CRUZ</span> +</div> + +<p>By 1518 the church must have been already well advanced, for in January +of that year Gregorio Lourenço writes to Dom Manoel saying that 'the +wall of the dormitory was shaken and therefore I have sent for "Pere +Anes"—Pedro Annes had been master builder of the royal palace, now the +university at Coimbra, and being older may have had more experience than +Marcos Pires, the designer of the monastery—who had it shored up, and +they say that after the vault of the cloister is finished and the wooden +floors in it will be quite safe. Also six days ago came the master of +the reredos from Seville and set to work at once to finish the great +reredos, for which he has worked all the wood—he must surely have +brought it with him from Seville—but the glazier has not yet come to +finish the windows.'</p> + + + +<p>On 22nd July following he writes again that all but one of the vaults of +the cloister were finished—'and Marcos Pirez works well, and the master +of the reredos has finished the tabernacle, and the "cadeiras" [that is +probably, sedilia] and the bishop has come to see them and they are very +good, and the master who is making the tombs of the kings is working at +his job, and has already much stonework.'</p> + +<p>These tombs of the kings are the monuments of Dom Affonso Henriques on +the north wall of the chancel and of Dom Sancho <span class="smcap95">i</span>. on the south. The two +first kings of Portugal had originally been buried in front of the old +church, and were now for the first time given monuments worthy of their +importance in the history of their country.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1521 Dom Manoel died, and next year Gregorio tells his successor what +his father had ordered; after speaking of the pavement, the vault of São +Theotonio's Chapel, the dormitory with its thirty beds and its +fireplace, the refectory, the royal tombs and a great screen twenty-five +palms, or about eighteen feet high, he comes to the pulpit—'This, Sir, +which is finished, all who see it say, that in Spain there is no piece +of stone of better workmanship, for this 20<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 have been paid,' leaving +some money still due.</p> + +<p>He then speaks of the different reredoses, tombs of two priors, silver +candlesticks, a great silver cross made by Eytor Gonsalves, a goldsmith +of Lisbon, much other church plate, and then goes on to say that a +lectern was ordered for the choir but was not made and was much needed, +as was a silver monstrance, and that the monastery had no money to pay +Christovam de Figueiredo for painting the great reredos of the high +altar and those of the other chapels, 'and, Sir, it is necessary that +they should be painted.'</p> + +<p>Besides making so many gifts to Sta. Cruz, Dom Manoel endowed it with +many privileges. The priors were exempt from the jurisdiction of the +bishop, and had themselves complete control over their own dependent +churches. All the canons were chaplains to the king, and after the +university came back to Coimbra from Lisbon in 1539 Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> made +the priors perpetual chancellors.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 135.">[135]</a></p> + +<p>By 1522 then the church must have been practically ready, though some +carving still had to be done.</p> + +<p>Marcos Pires died in 1524 and was succeeded by Diogo de Castilho, and in +a letter dated from Evora in that year the king orders a hundred gold +cruzados to be paid to Diogo and to Master Nicolas<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 136.">[136]</a> for the statues +on the west door which were still wanting, and two years later in +September another letter granted Diogo the privilege of riding on a +mule.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 137.">[137]</a></p> + +<p>The interest of the church itself is very inferior to that of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span> the +different pieces of church furniture, nearly all the work of foreigners, +with which it was adorned, and of which some, though not all, survive to +the present day.</p> + +<p>Inside there is nothing very remarkable in the structure of the church +except the fine vaulting with its many moulded ribs, the large windows +with their broken Manoelino heads, and the choir gallery which occupies +nearly two bays at the west end. Vaulted underneath, it opens to the +church by a large elliptical arch which springs from jambs ornamented +with beautiful candelabrum shafts.</p> + +<p>Of the outside little is to be seen except the west front, one of the +least successful designs of that period.</p> + +<p>In the centre—now partly blocked up by eighteenth-century additions, +and sunk several feet below the street—is a great moulded arch, about +eighteen feet across and once divided into two by a central jamb bearing +a figure of Our Lord, whence the door was called 'Portal da Majestade'; +above the arch a large round-headed window, deeply recessed, lights the +choir gallery, and between it and the top of the arch are three +renaissance niches, divided by pilasters, and containing three +figures—doubtless some of those for which Diogo de Castilho and Master +Nicolas were paid one hundred cruzados in 1524. The window with its +mouldings is much narrower than the door, and is joined to the tall +pinnacles which rise to the right and left of the great opening by +Gothic flying buttresses. Between the side pinnacles and the central +mass of the window a curious rounded and bent shaft rises from the +hood-mould of the door to end in a semi-classic column between two +niches, and from the shaft there grow out two branches to support the +corbels on which the niche statues stand. All this is very like the +great south door of the Jeronymite monastery at Belem, the work of +Diogo's brother João de Castilho; both have a wide door below with a +narrower window above, surrounded by a mass of pinnacles and statues, +but here the lower door is far too wide, and the upper window too small, +and besides the wall is set back a foot or two immediately on each side +of the window so that the surface is more broken up. Again, instead of +the whole rising up with a great pinnacled niche to pierce the cornice +and to dominate parapet and cresting, the drip-mould of the window only +gives a few ugly twists, and leaves a blank space between the window +head and the straight line of the cornice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> and parapet; a line in no way +improved by the tall rustic cross or the four broken pinnacles which +rise above it. Straight crested parapets also crown the wall where it is +set back, but at the sides the two corners grow into eight-sided turrets +ending in low crocketed stone roofs. Of course the whole front has +suffered much from the raising of the street level, but it can never +have been beautiful, for the setting back of part of the wall looks +meaningless, and the turrets are too small for towers and yet far too +large for angle pinnacles. (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>.)</p> + +<p>Although the soft stone is terribly perished, greater praise can be +given to the smaller details, especially to the figures, which show +traces of considerable vigour and skill.</p> + +<p>If the church shows that Marcos Pires was not a great architect, the +cloister still more marks his inferiority to the Fernandes or to João de +Castilho, though with its central fountain and its garden it is +eminently picturesque. Part of it is now, and probably all once was, of +two stories. The buttresses are picturesque, polygonal below, a cluster +of rounded shafts above, and are carried up in front of the upper +cloister to end in a large cross. All the openings have segmental +pointed heads with rather poor mouldings. Each is subdivided into two +lights with segmental round heads, supporting a vesica-like opening. All +the shafts are round, with round moulded bases and round Manoelino caps. +The central shaft has a ring moulding half-way up, and all, including +the flat arches and the vesicae, are either covered with leaves, or are +twisted into ropes, but without any of that wonderful delicacy which is +so striking at Batalha. Across one corner a vault has been thrown +covering a fountain, and though elsewhere the ribs are plainly moulded, +here they are covered with leaf carving, and altogether make this +north-east corner the most picturesque part of the whole cloister. (<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>.)</p> + +<p>The upper walk with its roof of wood is much simpler, there being three +flat arches to each bay upheld by short round shafts.</p> + +<p>Now to turn from the church itself and its native builders to the +beautiful furniture provided for it by foreign skill. Much of it has +vanished. The church plate when it became unfashionable was sent to Gôa, +the great metal screen made by Antonius Fernandes is gone, and so is the +reredos carved by a master from Seville and painted by Christovão de +Figueredo.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a> +<a href="images/i050_fig_69.png"> +<img src="images/i050_fig_69_th.png" width="275" height="357" alt="FIG. 69.CoimbraWest Front of Sta. Cruz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 69.<br />Coimbra<br />West Front of Sta. Cruz.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a> +<a href="images/i050_fig_70.png"> +<img src="images/i050_fig_70_th.png" width="275" height="361" alt="FIG. 70.CoimbraCloister of Sta. Cruz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 70.<br />Coimbra<br />Cloister of Sta. Cruz.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non">There still hang on the wall of the sacristy two or three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> +pictures which may have formed part of this reredos. They are high up +and very dirty, but seem to have considerable merit, especially one of +'Pentecost' which is signed 'Velascus.' The 'Pentecost' still has for +its frame some pieces of beautiful early renaissance moulding not unlike +what may still be seen on the reredos at Funchal, and it is just the +size of a panel for a large reredos. Of course 'Velascus' is not Grão +Vasco, though the name is the same, nor can he be Christovão de +Figueredo, but perhaps the painting spoken of by Gregorio Lourenço as +done by Christovão may only have been of the framing and not necessarily +of the panels.</p> + +<p>These are gone, but there are still left the royal tombs, the choir +stalls, the pulpit, and three beautiful carved altar-pieces in the +cloister.</p> + +<p>The royal tombs are both practically alike. In each the king lies under +a great round arch, on a high altar-tomb, on whose front, under an egg +and tongue moulding a large scroll bearing an inscription is upheld by +winged children. The arch is divided into three bands of carving, +one—the widest—carved with early renaissance designs, the next which +is also carried down the jambs, with very rich Gothic foliage, and the +outermost with more leaves. The back of each tomb is divided into three +by tall Gothic pinnacles, and contains three statues on elaborate +corbels and under very intricate canopies, of which the central rises in +a spire to the top of the arch.</p> + +<p>On the jambs, under the renaissance band of carving, are two statues one +above the other on Gothic corbels but under renaissance canopies.</p> + +<p>Beyond the arch great piers rise up with three faces separated by Gothic +pinnacles. On each face there is at the bottom—above the +interpenetrating bases—a classic medallion encompassed by Manoelino +twisting stems and leaves, and higher up two statues one above the +other. Of these the lower stands on a Gothic corbel under a renaissance +canopy, and the upper, standing on the canopy, has over it another tall +canopy Gothic in style. Higher up the piers rise up to the vault with +many pinnacles and buttresses, and between them, above the arch, are +other figures in niches and two angels holding the royal arms.</p> + +<p>The design of the whole is still very Manoelino, and therefore the +master of the royal tombs spoken of by Gregorio<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span> Lourenço was probably a +Portuguese, but the skill shown in modelling the figures and the +renaissance details are something quite new. (<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>.)</p> + +<p>Many Frenchmen are known to have worked in Santa Cruz. One, Master +Nicolas, has been met already working at Belem and at the west door +here, and others—Longuim, Philipo Uduarte, and finally João de Ruão +(Jean de Rouen)—are spoken of as having worked at the tombs.</p> + +<p>Though the figures are good with well-modelled draperies, their faces, +or those of most of them, are rather expressionless, and some of them +look too short—all indeed being less successful than those on the +pulpit, the work of João de Ruão. It is likely then that the figures are +mostly the work of the lesser known men and not of Master Nicolas or of +João de Ruão, though João, who came later to Portugal, may have been +responsible for some of the renaissance canopies which are not at all +unlike some of his work on the pulpit.</p> + +<p>The pulpit projects from the north wall of the church between two of the +chapels. In shape it is a half-octagon set diagonally, and is upheld by +circular corbelling. It was ready by the time Gregorio Lourenço wrote to +Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> in 1522, but still wanted a suitable finishing to its +door. This Gregorio urged Dom João to add, but it was never done, and +now the entrance is only framed by a simple classic architrave.</p> + +<p>Now Georges d'Amboise, the second archbishop of that name to hold the +see of Rouen, began the beautiful tomb, on which he and his uncle kneel +in prayer, in the year 1520, and the pulpit at Coimbra was finished +before March 1522.</p> + +<p>Among the workmen employed on this tomb a Jean de Rouen is mentioned, +but he left in 1521. The detail of the tomb at Rouen and that of the +pulpit here are alike in their exceeding fineness and beauty, and a man +thought worthy of taking part in the carving of the tomb might well be +able to carry out the pulpit; besides, on it are cut initials or signs +which have been read as J.R.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 138.">[138]</a> The J or I is distinct, the R much +less so, but the carver of the pulpit was certainly a Frenchman well +acquainted with the work of the French renaissance. It may therefore be +accepted with perhaps some likelihood, that the Jean de Rouen who left +Normandy in 1521, came then to Coimbra, carved this pulpit, and is the +same who as João de Ruão is mentioned in later documents as</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a> +<a href="images/i051_fig_71.png"> +<img src="images/i051_fig_71_th.png" width="275" height="390" alt="FIG. 71.Coimbra, Sta. Cruz.Tomb of D. Sancho i." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 71.<br />Coimbra, Sta. Cruz.<br />Tomb of D. Sancho i.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a> +<a href="images/i051_fig_72.png"> +<img src="images/i051_fig_72_th.png" width="275" height="350" alt="FIG. 72.CoimbraSta. Cruz.Pulpit." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 72.<br />Coimbra<br />Sta. Cruz.<br />Pulpit.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>still working for Santa Cruz, where he signed a discharge as late as +1549.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 139.">[139]</a></p> + +<p>The whole pulpit is but small, not more than about five feet high +including the corbelled support, and all carved with a minuteness and +delicacy not to be surpassed and scarcely to be equalled by such a work +as the tomb at Rouen. At the top is a finely moulded cornice enriched +with winged heads, tiny egg and tongue and other carving. Below on each +of the four sides are niches whose shell tops rest on small pilasters +all covered with the finest ornaments, and in each niche sits a Father +of the Western Church, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Gregory, and St. +Ambrose. Their feet rest on slightly projecting bases, on the front of +each of which is a small panel measuring about four inches by two carved +with tiny figures and scenes in slight relief. On the shell heads, which +project a little in the centre, there stand, above St. Augustine three +minute figures of boys with wreaths, the figures being about three or +four inches high, above St. Jerome sit two others, with masks hanging +from their arms, upholding a shield and a cross of the Order of Christ. +Those above St. Gregory support a sphere, and above St. Ambrose one +stands alone with a long-necked bird on each side. At each angle two +figures, one above the other, each about eight inches high, stand under +canopies the delicacy of whose carving could scarcely be surpassed in +ivory. They represent, above, Religion with Faith, Hope, and Charity, +and below, four prophets. The corbelled support is made up of a great +many different mouldings, most of them enriched in different ways.</p> + +<p>Near the top under the angles of the pulpit are beautiful cherubs' +heads. About half-way down creatures with wings and human heads capped +with winged helmets grow out of a mass of flat carving, and at the very +bottom is a kind of winged dragon whose five heads stretch up across the +lower mouldings. (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>.)</p> + +<p>Altogether the pulpit is well worthy of the praise given it by Gregorio; +there may be more elaborate pieces of carving in Spain, but scarcely one +so beautiful in design and in execution, and indeed it may almost be +doubted whether France itself can produce a finer piece of work. The +figure sculpture is worthy of the best French artists, the whole design +is elaborate, but not too much so, considering the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> smallness of the +scale, and the execution is such as could only have been carried out in +alabaster or the finest limestone, such as that found at Ançã not far +off, and used at Coimbra for all delicate work.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 140.">[140]</a></p> + +<p>In the discharge signed by João de Ruão in 1549 reredoses are spoken of +as worked by him. There is nothing in the document to show whether these +are the three great pieces of sculpture in the cloisters each of which +must once have been meant for a reredos. Unfortunately in the +seventeenth century they were walled up, and were only restored to view +not many years ago, and though much destroyed, enough survives to show +that they were once worthy of the pulpit.</p> + +<p>They represent 'Christ shown to the people by Pilate,' the 'Bearing of +the Cross,' and the 'Entombment.'</p> + +<p>In each there is at the bottom a shelf narrower than the carving above, +and uniting the two, a broad band wider at the top than at the bottom, +most exquisitely carved in very slight relief, with lovely early +renaissance scrolls, and with winged boys holding shields or medallions +in the centre. Above is a large square framework, flanked at the sides +by tall candelabrum shafts on corbels, and finished at the top by a +moulding or, above the 'Bearing of the Cross,' by a crested entablature, +with beautifully carved frieze. Within this framework the stone is cut +back with sloping sides, carved with architectural detail, arches, +doors, entablatures in perspective. At the top is a panelled canopy.</p> + +<p>In the 'Ecce Homo' on the left is a flight of steps leading up to the +judgment seat of Pilate, who sits under a large arch, with Our Lord and +a soldier on his right. The other half of the composition has a large +arch in the background, and in front a crowd of people some of whom are +seen coming through the opening in the sloping side.</p> + +<p>In the 'Bearing of the Cross' the background is taken up by the walls +and towers of Jerusalem. Our Lord with a great <b>T</b>-shaped cross is in the +centre, with St. Veronica on the right and a great crowd of people +behind, while other persons look out of the perspective arches at the +side. (<a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a>.)</p> + +<p>In all, especially perhaps in the 'Ecce Homo,' the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>composition is good, +and the modelling of the figures excellent. Unfortunately the faces are +much decayed and perhaps the figures may be rather wanting in repose, +and yet even in their decay they are very beautiful pieces of work, and +show that João de Ruão—if he it was who carved them—was as able to +design a large composition as to carve a small pulpit. Under the 'Ecce +Homo,' in a tablet held by winged boys who grow out of the ends of the +scrolls, there is a date which seems to read 1550. The 'Quitaçam' was +signed on the 11th of September 1549, and if 1550 is the date here +carved it may show when the work was finally completed.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 141.">[141]</a></p> + +<p>There once stood in the refectory a terra cotta group of the 'Last +Supper.' Now nothing is left but a few fragments in the Museum, but +there too the figures of the apostles were well modelled and well +executed.</p> + +<p>Of the other works ordered by Dom Manoel the only one which still +remains are the splendid stalls in the western choir gallery. These in +two tiers of seats run round the three walls of the gallery except where +interrupted by the large west window. They can hardly be the 'cadeiras' +or seats mentioned in Gregorio's letter of July 1518, for it is surely +impossible that they should have been begun in January and finished in +July however active the Seville master may have been, and judging from +their carving they seem more Flemish than Spanish, and we know that +Flemings had been working not very long before on the cathedral reredos. +The lower tier of seats has Gothic panelling below, good Miserere seats, +arms, on each of which sits a monster, and on the top between each and +supporting the book-board of the upper row, small figures of men, with +bowed backs, beggars, pilgrims, men and women all most beautifully +carved. The panels behind the upper tier are divided by twisted +Manoelino shafts bearing Gothic pinnacles, and the upper part of each +panel is enriched with deeply undercut leaves and finials surrounding +armillary spheres. Above the panels, except over the end stalls where +sat the Dom Prior and the other dignitaries, and which have higher +canopies, there runs a continuous canopy panelled with Gothic +quatrefoils, and having in front a fringe of interlacing cusps. Between +this and the cresting is a beautiful carved cornice of leaves and of +crosses of the Order of Christ, and the cresting itself is formed by a +number of carved scenes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> cities, forests, ships, separated by saintly +figures and surmounted by a carved band from which grow up great curling +leaves and finials. These scenes are supposed to represent the great +discoveries of Vasco da Gama and of Pedro Alvares Cabral in India and in +Brazil, but if this is really so the carvers must have been left to +their own imagination, for the towns do not look particularly Indian, +nor do the forests suggest the tropical luxuriance of Brazil: perhaps +the small three-masted ships alone, with their high bows and stern, +represent the reality. (<a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>.)</p> + +<p>As a whole the design is entirely Gothic, only at the ends of each row +of stalls is there anything else, and there the panels are carved with +renaissance arabesque, which, being gilt like all the other carving, +stands out well from the dark brown background.</p> + +<p>These are almost the only mediæval stalls left in the country. Those at +Thomar were burnt by the French, those in the Carmo at Lisbon destroyed +by the earthquake, and those at Alcobaça have disappeared. Only at +Funchal are there stalls of the same date, for those at Vizeu seem +rather later and are certainly poorer, their chief interest now being +derived from the old Chinese stamped paper with which their panels are +covered.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Sé Velha.</div> + +<p>If the stalls at Santa Cruz are the only examples of this period still +left on the mainland, the Sé Velha possesses the only great mediæval +reredos. In Spain great structures are found in almost every cathedral +rising above the altar to the vault in tier upon tier of niche and +panel. Richly gilded, with fine paintings on the panels, with delicate +Gothic pinnacles and tabernacle work, they and the metal screens which +half hide them do much to make Spanish churches the most interesting in +the world. Unfortunately in Portugal the bad taste of the eighteenth +century has replaced all those that may have existed by great and heavy +erections of elaborately carved wood. All covered with gold, the +Corinthian columns, twisted and wreathed with vines, the overloaded +arches and elaborate entablatures are now often sadly out of place in +some old interior, and make one grieve the more over the loss of the +simpler or more appropriate reredos which came before them.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a> +<a href="images/i052_fig_73.png"> +<img src="images/i052_fig_73_th.png" width="275" height="360" alt="FIG. 73.CoimbraSta. Cruz.Reredos in Cloister." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 73.<br />Coimbra<br />Sta. Cruz.<br />Reredos in Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a> +<a href="images/i052_fig_74.png"> +<img src="images/i052_fig_74_th.png" width="275" height="344" alt="FIG. 74.Coimbra. Stalls, Sta Cruz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 74.<br />Coimbra.<br />Stalls, Sta Cruz.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non">Dom Jorge d'Almeida held the see of Coimbra and the countship of +Arganil—for the bishops are always counts of Arganil—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> +from 1481 till 1543, when he died at the age of eighty-five; +during these sixty-two years he did much to beautify his church, and of +these additions the oldest is the reredos put up in 1508. This we learn +from a 'quitaçã' or discharge granted in that year to 'Mestre Vlimer +framengo, ora estante nesta cidada, e seu Parceiro João Dipri,' that is, +to 'Master Vlimer a Fleming, now in this city, and to his partner John +of Ypres.'</p> + +<p>The reredos stands well back in the central apse; it is divided into +five upright parts, of which that in the centre is twice as wide as any +of the others, while the outermost with the strips of panelling and +carving which come beyond them are canted, following the line of the +apse wall. Across these five upright divisions and in a straight line is +thrown a great flattened trefoil arch joined to the back with Gothic +vaulting. In the middle over the large division it is fringed with the +intersecting circles of curved branches, while from the top to the +blue-painted apse vault with its gilded ribs and stars a forest of +pinnacles, arches, twisting and intertwining branches and leaves rises +high above the bishop's arms and mitre and the two angels who uphold +them.</p> + +<p>Below the arch the five parts are separated by pinnacle rising above +pinnacle. At the bottom under long canopies of extraordinary elaboration +are scenes in high relief. Above them in the middle the apostles watch +the Assumption of the Virgin; saints stand in the other divisions, one +in each, and over their heads are immense canopies rising across a +richly cusped background right up to the vaulting of the arch. Though +not so high, the canopy over the Virgin is far more intricate as it +forms a great curve made up of seven little cusped arches with +innumerable pinnacles and spires. (<a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>.)</p> + +<p>Being the work of Flemings, the reredos is naturally full of that +exuberant Flemish detail which may be seen in a Belgian town-hall or in +the work of an early Flemish painter; and if the stalls at Santa Cruz +are not by this same Master Vlimer, the intertwining branches on the +cresting and the sharply carved leaves on the panels show that he had +followers or pupils.</p> + +<p>Like most Flemish productions, the reredos is wanting in grace. Though +it throws a fine deep shadow the great arch is very ugly in shape and +the great canopies are far too large, and yet the mass of gold, well lit +by the windows of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> lantern and rising to the dim blue vault, makes a +singularly fine ending to the old and solemn church.</p> + +<p>More important than the reredos in the art history of the country are +some other changes made by Dom Jorge, which show that the Frenchmen +working at Santa Cruz were soon employed elsewhere.</p> + +<p>On the north side of the nave a door leads out of the church, and this +these Frenchmen entirely transformed.</p> + +<p>At the bottom, between two much decayed Corinthian pilasters, is the +door reached by a flight of steps. The arch is of several orders, one +supported by thin columns, one by square fluted pilasters. Within these, +at right angles to each other, are broad faces carved and resting on +piers at whose corners are tiny round columns, in two stories, with +carved reliefs between the upper pair. In the tympanum is a beautiful +Madonna and Child, and two round medallions with heads adorn the +spandrils above the arch. Beyond each pilaster is a canted side joining +the porch to the wall and having a large niche and figure near the top. +The whole surface has been covered with exquisite arabesques like those +below the reredoses in the cloister at Santa Cruz, but they have now +almost entirely perished.</p> + +<p>Above the entablature a second story rises forming a sort of portico. At +the corners are square fluted Corinthian pilasters; between them in +front runs a balustrading, divided into three by the pedestals of two +slender columns, Corinthian also, and there are others next the +pilasters. The entablature has been most delicate, with the finest +wreaths carved on the frieze. Over the canted sides are built small +round-domed turrets.</p> + +<p>Above this the third story reaches nearly up to the top of the wall. In +the middle is an arch resting on slender columns and supporting a +pediment; on either side are square niches with columns at the sides, +beyond them fan-shaped semicircles, and at the corners vases. Behind +this there rise to the top of the battlements four panelled Doric +pilasters with cornice above, and two deep round-headed niches with +figures, one on each side.</p> + +<p>Inside the church are pilasters and a wealth of delicate relief.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the whole may not be much more fortunate than most attempts to +build up a tall composition by piling columns one above the other, and +the top part is certainly too heavy</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a> +<a href="images/i053_fig_75.png"> +<img src="images/i053_fig_75_th.png" width="275" height="342" alt="FIG. 75.CoimbraSé Velha.Reredos." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 75.<br />Coimbra<br />Sé Velha.<br />Reredos.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a> +<a href="images/i053_fig_76.png"> +<img src="images/i053_fig_76_th.png" width="275" height="365" alt="FIG. 76.Coimbra.Chapel of São Pedro." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 76.<br />Coimbra.<br />Sé Velha.<br />Chapel of São Pedro.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span>for what comes below it. Yet the details are or were beautiful, and the +portico above the door most graceful and pleasing, though, being +unfortunately on the north side, the effect is lost of the deep shadow +the sun would have thrown and the delicacy of the mouldings almost +wasted.</p> + +<p>Less important are the changes made to the north transept door. Fluted +pilasters and Corinthian columns were inserted below, a medallion with a +figure cut on the tympanum, and small coupled shafts resting on the +Doric capitals of the pilasters built to uphold the entablature.</p> + +<p>Inside the most important, as well as the most beautiful addition, was a +reredos built by Dom Jorge as his monument in the chapel of São Pedro, +the small apse to the north of the high altar.</p> + +<p>Just above the altar table—which is of stone supported on one central +shaft—are three panels filled in high relief with sculptured scenes +from the life of St. Peter, the central and widest panel representing +his martyrdom, while on the uprights between them are small figures +under canopies.</p> + +<p>The upper and larger part is arranged somewhat like a Roman triumphal +arch. There are three arches, one larger and higher in the middle, with +a lower and narrower one on each side, separated by most beautiful tall +candelabrum shafts with very delicate half-Ionic capitals. In the +centre, in front of the representation of some town, probably Rome, is +Our Lord bearing His Cross and St. Peter kneeling at His feet—no doubt +the well-known legend 'Domine quo vadis?' In the side arches stand two +figures with books: one is St. Paul with a sword, and the other probably +St. Peter himself. Above each of the side arches there is a small +balustraded loggia, scarcely eighteen inches high, in each of which are +two figures, talking, all marvellously lifelike. Beautiful carvings +enrich the friezes everywhere, and small heads in medallions all the +spandrils. At the top, in a hollow circle upheld by carved supports, +crowned and bearing an orb in His left hand, is God the Father Himself. +(<a href="#Fig_76">Fig. 76</a>.)</p> + +<p>Less elaborate than the pulpit and less pictorial than the altar-pieces +in the cloister of Santa Cruz, this reredos is one of the most +successful of all the French works at Coimbra, and its beauty is +enhanced by the successful lighting through a large window cut on +purpose at the side, and by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span> beautiful tiles—probably +contemporary—with which the chapel is lined.</p> + +<p>In front of the altar lies Dom Jorge d'Almeida, under a flat stone, +bearing his arms, and this inscription in Latin, 'Here lies Jorge +d'Almeida by the goodness of the divine power bishop and count. He lived +eighty-five years, and died eight days before the Kalends of Sextillis +<span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1543, having held both dignities sixty-two years.'<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h3> + +<p class="head">THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNER</p> + + +<p>V<span class="smcap95">ery</span> quickly the fame of these French workers spread across the country, +and they or their pupils were employed to design tombs, altar-pieces, or +chapels outside of Coimbra. Perhaps the da Silvas, lords of Vagos, were +among the very first to employ them, and in their chapel of São Marcos, +some eight or nine miles from Coimbra, more than one example of their +handiwork may still be seen.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Tomb in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes, Thomar.</div> + +<p>However, before visiting São Marcos mention must be made of two tombs, +one in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at Thomar, and one in the Graça church +at Santarem. Both are exceedingly French in design, and both were +erected not long after the coming of the foreigners.</p> + +<p>The tomb in Thomar is the older. It is that of Diogo Pinheiro, the first +bishop of Funchal—which he never visited—who died in 1525. No doubt +the monument was put up soon after. It is placed rather high on the +north wall of the chancel; at the very bottom is a moulding enriched +with egg and tongue, separated by a plain frieze—crossed by a shield +with the bishop's arms—from the plinth and from the pedestals of the +side shafts and their supporting mouldings. On the plinth under a round +arched recess stands a sarcophagus with a tablet in front bearing the +date <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1525, while behind in an elegant shell-topped niche is a +figure kneeling on a beautiful corbel. The front of this arch is adorned +with cherubs' heads, the jambs with arabesques, and heads look out of +circles in the spandrils. At the sides are Corinthian pilasters, and in +front of them beautiful candelabrum shafts. The cornice with a +well-carved frieze is simple, and in the pediment are again carved Dom +Diogo's arms, surmounted by his bishop's hat.</p> + +<p>At the ends are vase-shaped finials, and another supported by dragons +rises from the pediment. (<a href="#Fig_77">Fig. 77</a>.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span></p> + +<p>This monument is indeed one of the most pleasing pieces of renaissance +work in existence, and one would be tempted to attribute it to João de +Castilho were it not that it is more French than any of his work, and +that in 1525 he can hardly have come back to Thomar, where the Claustro +da Micha, the first of the new additions, was only begun in 1528. It +will be safer then to attribute it to one of the Coimbra Frenchmen.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Tomb in Graça, Santarem.</div> + +<p>The same must be said of the tomb in the Graça church at Santarem. It +was built in 1532 in honour of three men already long dead—Pero +Carreiro, Gonzalo Gil Barbosa his son-in-law, and Francisco Barbosa his +grandson. The design is like that of Bishop Pinheiro's monument, +omitting all beneath the plinth, except that the back is plain, the arch +elliptical, and the pediment small and round. The coffer has a long +inscription,<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 142.">[142]</a> the jambs and arch are covered with arabesques, the +side shafts are taller and even more elegant than at Thomar, and in the +round pediment is a coat of arms, and on one side the head of a young +man wearing a helmet, and on the other the splendidly modelled head of +an old man; though much less pleasing as a whole, this head for +excellent realism is better than anything found on the bishop's tomb.</p> + +<p>If we cannot tell which Frenchman designed these tombs, we know the name +of one who worked for the da Silvas at São Marcos, and we can also see +there the work of some of their pupils and successors.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Marcos.</div> + +<p>São Marcos, which lies about two miles to the north of the road leading +from Coimbra through Tentugal to Figueira de Foz at the mouth of the +Mondego, is now unfortunately much ruined. Nothing remains complete but +the church, for the monastic buildings were all burned not so long ago +by some peasantry to injure the landlord to whom they belonged, and with +them perished many a fine piece of carving.</p> + +<p>The da Silvas had long had here a manor-house with a chapel, and in 1452 +Dona Brites de Menezes, the wife of Ayres Gomes da Silva, the fourth +lord of Vagos, founded a small Jeronymite monastery. Of her chapel, +designed by</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a> +<a href="images/i054_fig_77.png"> +<img src="images/i054_fig_77_th.png" width="275" height="371" alt="FIG. 77.Thomar. Sta. Maria dos Olivaes. Tomb of Bp. of Funchal." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 77.<br />Thomar.<br />Sta. Maria dos Olivaes.<br />Tomb of Bp. of Funchal.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a> +<a href="images/i054_fig_78.png"> +<img src="images/i054_fig_78_th.png" width="275" height="347" alt="FIG. 78.São Marcos. Tomb in Chancel. From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., +Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 78.<br />São Marcos.<br />Tomb in Chancel.<br />From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., +Oporto.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>Gil de Souza, little now remains, for the chancel was rebuilt in the +next century and the nave in the seventeenth. Only the tomb of Dona +Brites' second son, Fernão Telles de Menezes, still survives, for the +west door, with a cusped arch, beautifully undercut foliage, and knotted +shafts at the side, was added in 1570.</p> + +<p>The tomb of Fernão Telles, which was erected about the year 1471, is +still quite Gothic. In the wall there opens a large pointed and cusped +arch, within which at the top there hangs a small tent which, passing +through a ring, turns into a great stone curtain upheld by hairy wild +men. Inside this curtain Dom Fernão lies in armour on a tomb whose front +is covered with beautifully carved foliage, and which has a cornice of +roses. On it are three coats of arms, Dom Fernão's, those of his wife, +Maria de Vilhena, and between them his and hers quartered.</p> + +<p>Most of the tombs, five in all, are found in the chancel which was +rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, fifth lord of Vagos, the grandson of Dona +Brites, in 1522 and 1523. These are, on the north side, first, at the +east end, Dona Brites herself, then her son João da Silva in the middle, +and her grandson Ayres at the west, the tombs of Ayres and his father +being practically identical. Opposite Dona Brites lies the second count +of Aveiras, who died in 1672 and whose tomb is without interest, and +opposite Ayres, his son João da Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, who died in +1559. At the east end is a great reredos given by Ayres and containing +figures of himself and of his wife Dona Guiomar de Castro, while opening +from the north side of the nave is a beautiful domed chapel built by +Dona Antonia de Vilhena as a tomb-house for her husband, Diogo da Silva, +who died in 1556. In it also lies his elder brother Lourenço, seventh +lord of Vagos.</p> + +<p>The chancel, which is of two bays, one wide, and one to the east +narrower, has a low vault with many well-moulded ribs springing from +large corbels, some of which are Manoelino, while others have on them +shields and figures of the renaissance. It still retains an original +window on each side, small, round-headed, with a band of beautiful +renaissance carving on the splay.</p> + +<p>Dona Brites lies on a plain tomb in front of which there is a long +inscription. Above her rises a round arch set in a square frame. Large +flowers like Tudor roses are cut on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> spandrils, the ogee hood-mould +is enriched with huge wonderfully undercut curly crockets, all Gothic, +but the band between the two mouldings of the arch is carved with +renaissance arabesques. The tomb of Ayres himself and that of his father +João are much more elaborate. Each, lying like Dona Brites on an +altar-tomb, is clad in full armour. In front are semi-classic mouldings +at the top and bottom, and between them a tablet held by cherubs, that +on Dom João's bearing a long inscription, while Dom Ayres' has been left +blank. The arches over the recumbent figures are slightly elliptical, +and like that of the foundress's tomb each is enriched by a band of +renaissance carving, but with classic mouldings outside, instead of a +simple round, and with a rich fringe of leafy cusps within. At the ends +and between the tombs are square buttresses or pilasters ornamented on +each face with renaissance corbels and canopies. The background of each +recess is covered with delicate flowing leaves in very slight relief, +and has in the centre a niche, with rustic shafts and elaborate Gothic +base and canopy under which stands a figure of Our Lord holding an orb +in His left hand and blessing with His right. The buttresses, on which +stand curious vase-shaped finials, are joined by a straight moulded +cornice, above which rises a rounded pediment floriated on the outer +side. From the pediment there stands out a helmet whose mantling +entirely covers the flat surface, and below it hangs a shield, charged +with the da Silva arms, a lion rampant. (<a href="#Fig_78">Fig. 78</a>.)</p> + +<p>Here, as in the royal tombs at Coimbra, Manoelino and renaissance forms +have been used together, but here the renaissance largely predominates, +for even the cusping is not Gothic, although, as is but natural, the +general design still is after the older style. Though very elaborate, +these tombs cannot be called quite satisfactory. The figure sculpture is +poor, and it is only the arabesques which show skill in execution. +Probably then it was the work not of one of the well-known Frenchmen, +but of one of their pupils.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 143.">[143]</a></p> + +<p>Raczynski<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 144.">[144]</a> thought that here in São Marcos he had found some works +of Sansovino: a battlepiece in relief, a statue of St. Mark, and the +reredos. The first two are gone, but if they were as unlike Italian work +as is the reredos, one may be sure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span> that they were not by him. A +recently found document<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 145.">[145]</a> confirms what its appearance suggests, +namely, that it is French. It was in fact the work of Mestre Nicolas, +the Nicolas Chantranez who worked first at Belem and then on the Portal +da Magestade at Santa Cruz, and who carved an altar-piece in the Pena +chapel at Cintra. Though much larger in general design, it is not +altogether unlike the altar-piece in the Sé Velha. It is divided into +two stories. In the lower are four divisions, with a small tabernacle in +the middle, and in each division, which has either a curly broken +pediment, or a shell at its head, are sculptured scenes from the life of +St. Jerome.</p> + +<p>The upper part contains only three divisions, one broad under an arch in +the centre, and one narrower and lower on each side. As in the +cathedral, slim candelabrum shafts stand between each division and at +the ends, but the entablatures are less refined, and the sharp pediments +at the two sides are unpleasing, as is the small round one and the vases +at the top. The large central arch is filled with a very spirited +carving of the 'Deposition.' In front of the three crosses which rise +behind with the thieves still hanging to the two at the sides, is a +group of people—officials on horseback on the left, and weeping women +on the right. In the division to the left kneels Ayres himself presented +by St. Jerome, and in the other on the right Dona Guiomar de Castro, his +wife, presented by St. Luke. Throughout all the figure sculpture is +excellent, as good as anything at Coimbra, but compared with the reredos +in the Sé Velha, the architecture is poor in the extreme: the central +division is too large, and the different levels of the cornice, rendered +necessary of course by the shape of the vault, is most unpleasing. No +one, however, can now judge of the true effect, as it has all been +carefully and hideously painted with the brightest of colours. (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>.)</p> + +<p>Being architecturally so inferior to the Sé Velha reredos, it is +scarcely possible that they should be by the same hand, and therefore it +seems likely that both the work in St. Peter's chapel and the pulpit in +Santa Cruz may have been executed by the same man, namely by João de +Ruão.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 146.">[146]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Pena Chapel, Cintra.</div> + +<p>Leaving São Marcos for a minute to finish with the works<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> of Nicolas +Chantranez, we turn to the small chapel of Nossa Senhora da Pena, +founded by Dom Manoel in 1503 as a cell of the Jeronymite monastery at +Belem. Here in 1532 his son João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> dedicated a reredos of alabaster +and black marble as a thankoffering for the birth of a son.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 147.">[147]</a></p> + +<p>Like Nicolas' work at São Marcos the altar piece is full of exquisite +carving, more beautiful than in his older work. In the large central +niche, with its fringe of cusps, is the 'Entombment,' where Our Lord is +being laid by angels in a beautiful sarcophagus. Above this niche sit +the Virgin and Child, on the left are the Annunciation above and the +Birth at Bethlehem below, and on the right the Visit of the Magi and the +Flight into Egypt. Nothing can exceed the delicacy of these alabaster +carvings or of the beautiful little reliefs that form the pradella. Many +of the little columns too are beautifully wrought, with good capitals +and exquisitely worked drums, and yet, though the separate details may +be and are fine, the whole is even more unsatisfactory than is his +altar-piece at São Marcos, and one has to look closely and carefully to +see its beauties. As the one at São Marcos is spoiled by paint, this one +is spoiled by the use of different-coloured marble; besides, the +different parts are even worse put together. There is no repose +anywhere, for the little columns are all different, and the bad effect +is increased by the way the different entablatures are broken out over +the many projections.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Marcos.</div> + +<p>Interesting and even beautiful as are the tombs on the north side of the +chancel of São Marcos, the chapel dos Reis Magos is even more important +historically. This chapel, as stated above, was built by Dona Antonia de +Vilhena in 1556 as a monument to her husband. Dona Antonia was in her +time noted for her devotion to her husband's memory, and for her +patriotism in that she sent her six sons to fight in Morocco, from +whence three never returned. Her brother-in-law, Lourenço da Silva, +also, who lies on the east side of the same chapel, fell in Africa in +the fatal battle of Alcacer-Quebir in 1578, where Portugal lost her king +and soon after her independence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span></p> + +<p>The chapel is entered from the nave by a large arch enriched in front +with beautiful cherubs' heads and wreaths of flowers, and on the under +side with coffered panels. This arch springs from a beautifully modelled +entablature borne on either side by a Corinthian pilaster, panelled and +carved, and by a column fluted above, and wreathed with hanging fruits +and flowers below, while similar arches form recesses on the three +remaining sides of the chapel, one—to the north—containing the altar, +and the other two the tombs of Diogo and of Lourenço da Silva.</p> + +<p>On the nave side, outside the columns, there stands on either +side—placed like the columns on a high pedestal—a pilaster, panelled +and carved with exquisite arabesques. These pilasters have no capitals, +but instead well-moulded corbels, carved with griffin heads, uphold the +entablature, and, by a happy innovation, on the projection thus formed +are pedestals bearing short Corinthian columns. These support the main +entablature whose cornice and frieze are enriched, the one with egg and +tongue and with dentils, and the other with strapwork and with leaves. +In the spandrils above the arch are medallions surrounding the heads of +St. Peter and of St. Paul, St. Peter being especially expressive.</p> + +<p>Inside, the background of each tomb recess is covered with strapwork, +surrounding in one case an open and in another a blank window, but +unfortunately the reredos representing the Visit of the Magi is gone, +and its place taken by a very poor picture of Our Lady of Lourdes.</p> + +<p>The pendentives with their cherub heads are carried by corbels in the +corners, and the dome is divided by bold ribs, themselves enriched with +carving, into panels filled with strapwork. (<a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>.)</p> + +<p>This chapel then is of great interest, not only because of the real +beauty of its details but also because it was the first built of a type +which was repeated more than once elsewhere, as, for instance, at +Marceana near Alemquer, on the Tagus, and in the church of Nossa Senhora +dos Anjos at Montemor-o-Velho, not far from São Marcos. Of the chapels +at Montemor one at least was built by the same family, and in another +where the reredos—a very fine piece of carving—represents a Pietà, +small angels are seen to weep as they look from openings high up at the +sides.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most successful feature of the design is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span> happy way in +which corbels take the place of capitals on the lower pilasters of the +front. By this expedient it was possible to keep the upper column short +without having to compare its proportions with those of the pilaster +below, and also by projecting these columns to give the upper part an +importance and an emphasis it would not otherwise have had.</p> + +<p>There is no record of who designed this or the similar chapels, but by +1556 enough time had passed since the coming of the French for native +pupils to have learned much from them. There is in the design something +which seems to show that it is not from the hand of a Frenchman, but +from that of some one who had learned much from Master Nicolas or from +João de Ruão, but who had also learned something from elsewhere. While +the smaller details remain partly French, the dome with its bold ribs +suggests Italy, and it is known that Dom Manoel, and after him Dom João, +sent young men to Italy for study. In any case the result is something +neither Italian nor French.</p> + +<p>Even more Italian is the tomb of Dona Antonia's father-in-law, João da +Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, erected in 1559 and probably by the same +sculptor. João da Silva lies in armour under a round arch carved with +flowers and cherubs. In front of his tomb is a long inscription on a +tablet held by beautifully modelled boys. On each side of the arch is a +Corinthian pilaster, panelled and carved below and having at the top a +shallow niche in which stand saints. On the entablature, enriched with +medallions and strapwork, is a frame supported by boys and containing +the da Silva arms. But the most interesting and beautiful part of the +monument is the back, above the effigy. Here, in the upper part, is a +shallow recess flanked by corbel-carried pilasters, and containing a +relief of the Assumption of the Virgin. Now, the execution of the Virgin +and of the small angels who bear her up may not be of the best, but the +character of the whole design is quite Italian, and could only have been +carved by some one who knew Italian work. On either side of this recess +are round-headed niches containing saints, while boys sit in the +spandrils above the arch.</p> + +<p>Any one seeing this tomb will be at once struck with the Italian +character of the design, especially perhaps with the boys who hold the +tablet and with those who sit in the spandrils.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 148.">[148]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></a></p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a> +<a href="images/i055_fig_79.png"> +<img src="images/i055_fig_79_th.png" width="275" height="342" alt="FIG. 79.São Marcos. Chancel." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 79.<br />São Marcos.<br />Chancel.<br /> <br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a> +<a href="images/i055_fig_80.png"> +<img src="images/i055_fig_80_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 80.São Marcos. Chapel of the "Reyes Magos." From a photograph by E. Biel & +Co., Oporto." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 80.<br />São Marcos.<br />Chapel of the "Reyes Magos."<br />From a photograph by E. Biel & +Co., Oporto.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Even without leaving their country, Portuguese designers would already +have had no great difficulty in finding pieces of real Italian work. Not +to speak of the white marble door in the old palace of Cintra, possibly +the work of Sansovino himself, with its simple mouldings and the +beautiful detail of its architrave, there exist at Evora two doorways +originally belonging to the church of São Domingos, which must either be +the work of Italians or of some man who knew Italy. (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Evora, São Domingos.</div> + +<p>Built of white marble from Estremoz and dating from about 1530, the +panelled jambs have moulded caps on which rests the arch. Like the +jambs, the arch has a splay which is divided into small panels. Above in +the spandrils are ribboned circles enclosing well-carved heads. On +either side are pilasters with Corinthian capitals of the earlier +Italian kind. The entablature is moulded only, and instead of a pediment +two curves lead up to a horizontal moulding supporting a shell, and +above it a cherub's head.</p> + +<p>Such real Italian doors, which would look quite at home in Genoa, seem +almost unique, but there are many examples of work which, like the tomb +and the chapel at São Marcos, seem to have been influenced not only by +the French school at Coimbra, but also by Italian work.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Portalegre.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Tavira.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lagos.</div> + +<p>Not very far from Evora in Portalegre, where a bishop's see was founded +by Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> in 1549, there is a very fine monument of this kind to +a bishop of the Mello family in the seminary, and also a doorway, while +at Tavira in the Algarve the Misericordia has an interesting door, not +unlike that at Evora, but more richly ornamented by having a sculptured +frieze and a band of bold acanthus leaves joining the two capitals above +the arch. There is another somewhat similar, but less successful, in the +church of São Sebastião at Lagos.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Goes.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Trofa.</div> + +<p>Nearer Coimbra there are some fine monuments to the Silveira family at +Goes not far from Louzã, and four less interesting to the Lemos in the +little parish church of Trofa near Agueda. At Trofa there is a pair of +tombs on each side of the chancel, round-arched, with pilasters and with +heads in the spandrils, and covered with arabesques. Each pair is +practically alike except that the tombs on the north side, being placed +closer together leave no room for a central pilaster and have small +shafts instead of panelled jambs, and that the pair on the south have +pediments. The best <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>feature is a figure of the founder of the chancel +kneeling at prayer with his face turned towards the high altar.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Caminha.</div> + +<p>Even in the far north the doors of the church at Caminha show how +important had been the coming of the Frenchmen to Coimbra. They seem +later than the church, but though very picturesque are clearly the work +of some one who was not yet quite familiar with renaissance forms. The +south door is the more interesting and picturesque. The arch and jambs +are splayed, but there are no capitals; heads look out of circles in the +spandrils; and the splay as well as the panels of the side pilasters are +enriched with carvings which, partly perhaps owing to the granite in +which they are cut, are much less delicate than elsewhere. The +Corinthian capitals of the pilasters are distinctly clumsy, as are the +mouldings, but the most interesting part of the whole design is the +frieze, which is so immensely extended as to leave room for four large +niches separated by rather clumsy shafts and containing figures of St. +Mark and St. Luke in the middle and of St. Peter and St. Paul at the +ends. Above in the pediment are a Virgin and Child with kneeling angels. +Besides the innovation of the enlarged frieze, which reminds one of a +door in the Certosa near Pavia, the clumsiness of the mouldings and the +comparative poorness of the sculpture, though the figures are much +better than any previously worked by native artists, suggest that the +designer and workmen were Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The same applies to the west door, which is wider and where the capitals +are of a much better shape, though the pilasters are rather too tall. +The sculpture frieze is a little wider than usual, and instead of a +pediment there is a picturesque cresting, above which are cut four +extraordinary monsters. (<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Moncorvo.</div> + +<p>A somewhat similar but much plainer door has been built against the +older and round-arched entrance of the Misericordia at Moncorvo in Traz +os Montes. The parish church of the same place begun in 1544 is both +outside and in a curious mixture of Gothic and Classic. The three aisles +are of the same height with round-arched Gothic vaults, but the columns +are large and round with bases and capitals evidently copied from Roman +doric, though the abacis have been made circular.</p> + +<p>Outside the buttresses are still Gothic in form, but the west door is of +the fully developed renaissance.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a> +<a href="images/i056_fig_81.png"> +<img src="images/i056_fig_81_th.png" width="275" height="346" alt="FIG. 81.Palace, Cintra.Door by Sansovino." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 81.<br />Palace, Cintra.<br />Door by Sansovino.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a> +<a href="images/i056_fig_82.png"> +<img src="images/i056_fig_82_th.png" width="275" height="356" alt="FIG. 82.W Door, Caminha." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 82.<br />W Door, Caminha.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p class="non">The opening is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> +flanked by coupled columns which support an entablature on which rest +four other shorter columns separating three white marble niches. Above +this is a window flanked by single columns which carry a pediment. +Though built of granite, the detail is good and the whole doorway not +unpleasing.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 149.">[149]</a></p> + +<p>But, that it was not only such details as doors and monuments that began +to show the result of the coming of the Frenchmen is seen in the work of +João de Castilho, after he first left Thomar for Belem. There he had +found Master Nicolas Chantranez already at work, and there he learned, +perhaps from him, so to change his style that by the time he returned to +Thomar to work for Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii</span>. in 1528 he was able to design buildings +practically free from that Gothic spirit which is still found in his +latest work at Belem.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h3> + +<p class="head">LATER WORK OF JOÃO DE CASTILHO AND THE EARLIER CLASSIC</p> + + +<p>T<span class="smcap95">o</span> Dom Manoel, who died in 1521, had succeeded his son Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> The +father had been renowned for his munificence and his splendour, the son +cared more for the Church and for the suppression of heresy. By him the +Inquisition was introduced in 1536 to the gradual crushing of all +independent thought, and so by degrees to the degradation of his +country. He reigned for thirty-six years, a time of wealth and luxury, +but before he died the nation had begun to suffer from this very luxury; +with all freedom of thought forbidden, with the most brave and +adventurous of her sons sailing east to the Indies or west to Brazil, +most of them never to return, Portugal was ready to fall an easy prey to +Philip of Spain when in 1580 there died the old Cardinal King Henry, +last surviving son of Dom Manoel, once called the Fortunate King.</p> + +<p>With the death of Dom Manoel, or at least with the finishing of the +great work which he had begun, the most brilliant and interesting period +in the history of Portuguese architecture comes to an end. When the +younger Fernandes died seven years after his master in 1538, or when +João de Castilho saw the last vault built at Belem, Gothic, even as +represented by Manoelino, disappeared for ever, and renaissance +architecture, taught by the French school at Coimbra, or learned in +Italy by those sent there by Dom Manoel, became universal, to flourish +for a time, and then to fall even lower than in any other country.</p> + +<p>Except the Frenchmen at Coimbra no one played a greater part in this +change than João de Castilho, who, no doubt, first learned about the +renaissance from Master Nicolas at Belem; Thomar also, his own home, +lies about half-way between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> Lisbon and Coimbra, so that he may well +have visited his brother Diogo at Santa Cruz and seen what other +Frenchmen were doing there and so become acquainted with better +architects than Master Nicolas; but in any case, who ever it may have +been who taught him, he planned at Thomar, after his return there, the +first buildings which are wholly in the style of the renaissance and are +not merely decorated with renaissance details.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Alcobaça.</div> + +<p>But before following him back to Thomar, his additions to the abbey of +Alcobaça must be mentioned, as there for the last time, except in some +parts of Belem, he allowed himself to follow the older methods, though +even at this early date—1518 and 1519—renaissance forms are beginning +to creep in.</p> + +<p>On the southern side of the ambulatory one of the radiating chapels was +pulled down in 1519 to form a passage, irregular in shape and roofed +with a vault of many ribs. From this two doors lead, one on the north to +the sacristy, and one on the south to a chapel. Unfortunately both +sacristy and chapel have been rebuilt and now contain nothing of +interest, except, in the sacristy, some fine presses inlaid with ivory, +now fast falling to pieces. The two doors are alike, and show that João +de Castilho was as able as any of his contemporaries to design a piece +of extreme realism. On the jambs is carved renaissance ornament, but +nowhere else is there anything to show that João and Nicolas had met at +Belem some two years before. The head of the arch is wavy and formed +mostly of convex curves. Beyond the strip of carving there grows up on +either side a round tree, with roots and bark all shown; at the top +there are some leaves for capitals, and then each tree grows up to meet +in the centre and so form a great ogee, from which grow out many cut-off +branches, all sprouting into great curly leaves.</p> + +<p>This is realism carried to excess, and yet the leaves are so finely +carved, the whole design so compact, and the surrounding whitewashed +wall with its dado of tiles so plain, that the effect is quite good. +(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>.)</p> + +<p>The year before he had begun for Cardinal Henry, afterwards king, and +then commendator of the abbey, a second story to the great cloister of +Dom Diniz. Reached by a picturesque stair on the south side, the +three-centred arches each enclose two or three smaller round arches, +with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> spandrils merely pierced or sometimes cusped. The mouldings +are simple but not at all classic. The shafts which support these round +arches are all carried down across the parapet through the rope moulding +at the top to the floor level, and are of three or more patterns. Those +at the jambs are plain with hollow chamfered edges, as are also a few of +the others. They are, however, mostly either twisted, having four round +mouldings separated by four hollows, or else shaped like a rather fat +baluster; most of the capitals with curious volutes at the corner are +evidently borrowed from Corinthian capitals, but are quite unorthodox in +their arrangement.</p> + +<p>Though this upper cloister adds much to the picturesqueness of the whole +it is not very pleasing in itself, as the three-centred arches are often +too wide and flat, and yet it is of great interest as showing how João +de Castilho was in 1518 beginning to accept renaissance forms though +still making them assume a Manoelino dress.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Batalha, Santa Cruz.</div> + +<p>But in the door of the little parish church of Sta. Cruz at Batalha, +also built by João de Castilho, Manoelino and renaissance details are +used side by side with the happiest result. On each jamb are three round +shafts and two bands of renaissance carving; of these the inner band is +carried round the broken and curved head of the opening, while the outer +runs high up to form a square framing. Of the three shafts the inner is +carried round the head, the outer round the outside of the framing, +while the one in the centre divides into two, one part running round the +head, while the other forms the inner edge of the framing, and also +forms a great trefoil on the flat field above the opening. In the two +corners between the trefoils and the framing are circles enclosing +shields, one charged with the Cross of the Order of Christ, the other +with the armillary sphere.</p> + +<p>The inner side of the trefoil is cusped, crockets and finials enrich the +outer moulding of the opening, while beyond the jambs are niches, now +empty. (<a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a>.)</p> + +<p>It is not too much to say that, except the great entrance to the +Capellas Imperfeitas, this is the most beautiful of all Manoelino +doorways; in no other is the detail so refined nor has any other so +satisfactory a framing. Unfortunately the construction has not been +good, so that the upper part is now all full of cracks and gaping +joints.</p> + + + + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a> +<a href="images/i057_fig_83.png"> +<img src="images/i057_fig_83_th.png" width="275" height="369" alt="FIG. 83.Alcobaça.Sacristy Door." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 83.<br />Alcobaça.<br />Sacristy Door.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a> +<a href="images/i057_fig_84.png"> +<img src="images/i057_fig_84_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 84.W Door, Sta. Cruz.Batalha." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 84.<br />W Door, Sta. Cruz.<br />Batalha.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> +<div class="sidenoteLT">Thomar.</div> +<p class="non"> +Since Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> was more devoted to the Church than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> +to anything else he determined in 1524 to change the great Order of +Christ from a body of military knights bound, as had been the Templars, +by certain vows, into a monastic order of regulars. This necessitated +great additions to the buildings at Thomar, for the knights had not been +compelled to live in common like monks.</p> + +<p>Accordingly João de Castilho was summoned back from Belem and by 1528 +had got to work.</p> + +<p>All these additions were made to the west of the existing buildings, and +to make room for them Dom João had to buy several houses and gardens, +which together formed a suburb called São Martinho, and some of which +were the property of João de Castilho, who received for them 463<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 or +about <i>£</i>100.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 150.">[150]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 656px;"> +<a href="images/i058_plan_thomar.png"> +<img src="images/i058_plan_thomar_th.png" width="656" height="400" alt="PLAN OF THOMAR" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF THOMAR</span> +</div> + +<p>These great additions, which took quite twenty-five years to build, +cover an immense area, measuring more than 300 feet long by 300 wide and +containing five cloisters. Immediately to the west of the Coro of the +church, then probably scarcely finished, is the small cloister of Sta. +Barbara; to the north of this is the larger Claustro da Hospedaria, +begun about 1539, while to the south and hiding the lower part of the +Coro is the splendid two-storied Claustro, miscalled 'dos Filippes,' +begun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> in its present form in 1557 by Diogo de Torralva some time after +de Castilho's death.</p> + +<p>Further west are two other large cloisters, do Mixo or da Micha to the +north and dos Corvos to the south, and west of the Corvos a sort of +farmyard called the Pateo dos Carrascos—that is of the evergreen oaks, +or since Carrasco also means a hangman, it may be that the executioners +of the Inquisition had their quarters there.</p> + +<p>Between these cloisters, and dividing the three on the east from the two +on the west, is an immense corridor nearly three hundred feet long from +which small cells open on each side; in the centre it is crossed by +another similar corridor stretching over one hundred and fifty feet to +the west, separating the two western cloisters, and with a small chapel +to the east.</p> + +<p>North of all the cloisters are more corridors and rooms extending +eastwards almost to the Templars' castle, but there the outer face dates +mostly from the seventeenth century or later.</p> + +<p>The first part to be begun was the Claustro da Micha, or loaf, so called +from the bread distributed there to the poor. Outside it was begun in +1528, but inside an inscription over the door says it was begun in 1534 +and finished in 1546. Being the kitchen cloister it is very plain, with +simple round-headed arches. Only the entrance door is adorned with a +Corinthian column on either side; its straight head rests on well-carved +corbels, and above it is a large inscribed tablet upheld by small boys.</p> + +<p>Under the pavement of the cloister as well as under the Claustro dos +Corvos is a great cistern. On the south was the kitchen and the oil +cellar, on the east the dispensary, and on the west a great oven and +wood-store with three large halls above, which seem to have been used by +the Inquisition.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 151.">[151]</a> The lodgings of the Dom Prior were above the +cloister to the north.</p> + +<p>Like the Claustro da Micha, the Claustro dos Corvos has plain round +arches resting on round columns and set usually in pairs with a buttress +between each pair. On the south side, below, were the cellars, finished +in 1539, and above the library, on the west, various vaulted stores with +a passage above leading to the library from the dormitory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span></p> + +<p>The whole of the east side is occupied by the refectory, about 100 feet +long by 30 wide. On each of the long sides there is a pulpit, one +bearing the date 1536, enriched with arabesques, angels, and small +columns. At the south end are two windows, and at the north a hatch +communicating with the kitchen.</p> + +<p>The Claustro da Hospedaria, as its name denotes, was where strangers +were lodged; like the Claustro dos Corvos each pair of arches is divided +by a buttress, and the round columns have simple but effective capitals, +in which nothing of the regular Corinthian is left but the abacus, and a +large plain leaf at each corner. Still, though plain, this cloister is +very picturesque. Its floor, like those of all the cloisters, lies deep +below the level of the church, and looking eastward from one of the cell +windows the Coro and the round church are seen towering high above the +brown tile roofs of the rooms beyond the cloister and of the simple +upper cloister, which runs across the eastern walk. (<a href="#Fig_85">Fig. 85</a>.)</p> + +<p>This part of the building, begun about 1539, must have been carried on +during João de Castilho's absence, as in 1541 he was sent to Mazagão on +the Moroccan coast to build fortifications; there he made a bastion 'so +strong as to be able not only to resist the Shariff, but also the Turk, +so strong was it.'<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 152.">[152]</a></p> + +<p>The small cloister of Santa Barbara is the most pleasing of all those +which João de Castilho was able to finish. In order not to hide the west +front of the church its arches had to be kept very low. They are +three-centred and almost flat, while the vault is even flatter, the bays +being divided by a stone beam resting on beautifully carved brackets. +The upper cloister is not carried across the east side next the church; +but in its south-west corner an opening with a good entablature, resting +on two columns with fine Corinthian capitals, leads to one of those +twisting stairs without a newel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> of which builders of this time were so +fond. Going up this stair one reaches the cloister of the Filippes which +João did not live to carry out.</p> + +<p>More interesting than any of these cloisters are the long dormitory +passages. The walls for about one-third of the height are lined with +tiles, which with the red paving tiles were bought for about <i>£</i>33 from +one Aleixo Antunes. The roofs are throughout of dark panelled wood and +semicircular in shape. The only windows—except at the crossing—are at +the ends of the three long arms. There is a small round-headed window +above, and below one, flat-headed, with a column in the centre and one +at each side, the window on the north end having on it the date 1541, +eight years after the chapel in the centre had been built.</p> + +<p>On this chapel at the crossing has been expended far more ornament than +on any other part of the passages. Leading to each arm of the passage an +arch, curiously enriched with narrow bands which twice cross each other +leaving diamond-shaped hollows, rests on Corinthian pilasters, which +have only four flutes, but are adorned with niches, whose elegant +canopies mark the level of the springing of the chapel vault. This +vault, considerably lower than the passage arches, is semicircular and +coffered. Between it and the cornice which runs all round the square +above the passage arches is a large oblong panel, in the middle of which +is a small round window. Beautifully carved figures which, instead of +having legs, end in great acanthus-leaf volutes with dragons in the +centre, hold a beautifully carved wreath round this window. In the +middle of the architrave below, a tablet, held by exquisite little +winged boys, gives the date, 'Era de 1533.' Above the cornice there +rises a simple vault with a narrow round-headed window on each side.</p> + +<p>This carving over the chapel is one of the finest examples of +renaissance work left in the country. It is much bolder than any of the +French work left at Coimbra, being in much higher relief than was usual +in the early French renaissance, and yet the figures and leaves are +carved with the utmost delicacy and refinement. (<a href="#Fig_86">Fig. 86</a>.)</p> + +<p>The same delicacy characterises such small parts of the cloister dos +Filippes as were built by João de Castilho before he retired in 1551. +These are now confined to two stairs leading from the upper to the lower +cloister.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_85" id="Fig_85"></a> +<a href="images/i059_fig_85.png"> +<img src="images/i059_fig_85_th.png" width="275" height="349" alt="FIG. 85.Thomar. +Convent of Christ. +Claustro da Hospedaria." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 85.Thomar.<br />Convent of Christ.<br />Claustro da Hospedaria.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_86" id="Fig_86"></a> +<a href="images/i059_fig_86.png"> +<img src="images/i059_fig_86_th.png" width="275" height="364" alt="FIG. 86.Thomar. +Chapel in Dormitory Passage." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 86.<br />Thomar.<br />Chapel in Dormitory Passage.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non">These stairs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> are adorned with pilasters or thin columns against the walls, delicate +cornices, medallions, figures, and foliage; in one are square-headed +built-up doors or doorlike spaces, with well-moulded architraves, and +always in the centre above the opening small figures are carved, in one +an exquisite little Cupid holding a torch. At the bottom of the eastern +stair, which is decorated with scenes from the life of St. Jerome and +with the head of Frei Antonio of Lisbon, first prior of the reformed +order, a door led into the lower floor of the unfinished chapter-house. +On this same stair there is a date 1545, so the work was probably going +on till the very end of João's tenure of office, and fine as the present +cloister is, it is a pity that he was not able himself to finish it, for +it is the chief cloister in the whole building, and on it he would no +doubt have employed all the resources of his art. (<a href="#Fig_87">Fig. 87</a>.)</p> + +<p>It is not without interest to learn that, like architects of the present +day, João de Castilho often found very great difficulties in carrying +out his work. Till well within the last hundred years Portugal was an +almost roadless country, and four centuries ago, as now, most of the +heavy carting was done by oxen, which are able to drag clumsy carts +heavily laden up and down the most impassable lanes. Several times does +he write to the king of the difficulty of getting oxen. On 4th March +1548 he says:</p> + +<p>'I have written some days ago to Pero Carvalho to tell him of the want +of carts, since those which we had were away carrying stone for the +works at Cardiga and at Almeirim'—a palace now destroyed opposite +Santarem—'the works of Thomar remaining without stone these three +months. And for want of a hundred cart-loads of stone which I had worked +at the quarry—doors and windows—I have not finished the students' +studies'—probably in the noviciate near the Claustro da Micha. 'The +studies are raised to more than half their height and in eight days' +work I shall finish them if only I had oxen, for those I had have died.</p> + +<p>'I would ask 20<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 [about <i>£</i>4, 10s.] to buy five oxen, and with three +which I have I could manage the carriage of a thousand cart-loads of +worked stone, besides that of which I speak of to your Highness, and +since there are no carts the men can bring nothing, even were they given +60 reis [about 3d.] a cartload there is no one to do carting....</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span></p><p>' ... And if your Highness will give me these oxen I shall finish the +work very quickly, that when your Highness comes here you may find +something to see and have contentment of it.'</p> + +<p>Later he again complains of transport difficulties, for the few carts +there were in the town were all being used by the Dom Prior; and in the +year when he retired, 1551, he writes in despair asking the king for 'a +very strong edict [Alvará] that no one of any condition whatever might +be excused, because in this place those who have something of their own +are excused by favour, and the poor men do service, which to them seems +a great aggravation and oppression. May your Highness believe that I +write this as a desperate man, since I cannot serve as I desire, and may +this provision be sent to the magistrate and judge that they may have it +executed by their officer, since the mayor [Alcaide] here is always away +and never in his place.'<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 153.">[153]</a></p> + +<p>These letters make it possible to understand how buildings in those days +took such a long time to finish, and how João de Castilho—though it was +at least begun in 1545—was able to do so little to the Claustro dos +Filippes in the following six years.</p> + +<p>The last letter also seems to show that some at least of the labour was +forced.</p> + +<p>Leaving the Claustro dos Filippes for the present, we must return to +Batalha for a little, and then mention some buildings in which the early +renaissance details recall some of the work at Thomar.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Batalha.</div> + +<p>The younger Fernandes had died in 1528, leaving the Capellas Imperfeitas +very much in the state in which they still remain. Though so much more +interested in his monastery at Thomar, Dom João ordered João de Castilho +to go on with the chapels, and in 1533 the loggia over the great +entrance door had been finished. Beautiful though it is it did not +please the king, and is not in harmony with the older work, and so +nothing more was done.</p> + +<p>In place of the large Manoelino window, which was begun on all the other +seven sides, João de Castilho here built two renaissance arches, each of +two orders, of which the broader springs from the square pilasters and +the narrower from candelabrum shafts. In front there run up to the +cornice three beautiful shafts standing on high pedestals which rest</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_87" id="Fig_87"></a> +<a href="images/i060_fig_87.png"> +<img src="images/i060_fig_87_th.png" width="275" height="359" alt="FIG. 87.Thomar. +Convento de Christo. +Stair in Claustro dos Filippes." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 87.<br />Thomar.<br />Convento de Christo.<br />Stair in Claustro dos Filippes.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_88" id="Fig_88"></a> +<a href="images/i060_fig_88.png"> +<img src="images/i060_fig_88_th.png" width="275" height="365" alt="FIG. 88.Thomar. +Chapel of the Conceição." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 88.<br />Thomar.<br />Chapel of the Conceição.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>on corbels; the frieze of the cornice is carved much after the manner of +the window panel in the dormitory corridor at Thomar, and with long +masks where it projects over the shafts.</p> + +<p>Below, the carved cornice and architrave are carried across the opening +as they are round the whole octagon, but the frieze is open and filled +with balusters. Behind, the whole space is spanned by a three-centred +arch, panelled like the passage arches at Thomar.</p> + +<p>All the work is most exquisite, but it is not easy to see how the +horizontal cornice was to be brought into harmony with the higher +windows intended on the other seven sides, nor does the renaissance +detail, beautiful though it is, agree very well with the exuberant +Manoelino of the rest.</p> + +<p>With the beginning of the Claustro dos Filippes the work of João de +Castilho comes to an end. He had been actively employed for about forty +years, beginning and ending at Thomar, finishing Belem, and adding to +Alcobaça, besides improving the now vanished royal palace and even +fortifying Mazagão on the Moroccan coast, where perhaps his work may +still survive. In these forty years his style went through more than one +complete change. Beginning with late Gothic he was soon influenced by +the surrounding Manoelino; at Belem he first met renaissance artists, at +Alcobaça he either used Manoelino and renaissance side by side or else +treated renaissance in a way of his own, though shortly after, at Belem +again, he came to use renaissance details more and more fully. A little +later at Thomar, having a free hand—for at Belem he had had to follow +out the lines laid down by Boutaca—he discarded Manoelino and Gothic +alike in favour of renaissance.</p> + +<p>In this final adoption of the renaissance he was soon followed by many +others, even before he laid down his charge at Thomar in 1551.</p> + +<p>In most of these buildings, however, it is not so much his work at +Thomar which is followed—except in the case of cloisters—but rather +the chapel of the Conceição, also at Thomar. Like it they are free from +the more exuberant details so common in France and in Spain, and yet +they cannot be called Italian.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Thomar, Conceição.</div> + +<p>There is unfortunately no proof that the Conceição chapel is João's +work; indeed the date inscribed inside is 1572,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> twenty-one years after +his retirement, and nineteen after his death. Still this date is +probably a mistake, and some of the detail is so like what is found in +the great convent on the hill above that probably it was really designed +by him.</p> + +<p>This small chapel stands on a projecting spur of the hill half-way down +between the convent and the town.</p> + +<p>Inside the whole building is about sixty feet long by thirty wide, and +consists of a nave with aisles about thirty feet long, a transept the +width of the central aisle but barely projecting beyond the walls, a +square choir with a chapel on each side, followed by an apse; east of +the north choir chapel is a small sacristy, and east of the south a +newel-less stair—like that in the Claustro de Sta. Barbara—leading up +to the roof and down to some vestries under the choir. Owing to the +sacristy and stair the eastern part of the chancel, which is rather +narrower than the nave, is square, showing outside no signs of the apse.</p> + +<p>The outside is very plain: Ionic pilasters at the angles support a +simple cornice which runs round the whole building; the west end and +transepts have pediments with small semicircular windows. The tile roofs +are surmounted by a low square tower crowned by a flat plastered dome at +the crossing and by the domed stair turret at the south-east corner. The +west door is plain with a simple architrave. The square-headed windows +have a deep splay—the wall being very thick—their architraves as well +as their cornices and pediments rest on small brackets set not at right +angles with the wall, but crooked so as to give an appearance of false +perspective.</p> + +<p>The inside is very much more pleasing, indeed it is one of the most +beautiful interiors to be found anywhere. (<a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>.)</p> + +<p>On each side of the central aisle there are three Corinthian columns, +with very correct proportions, and exquisite capitals, beautifully +carved if not quite orthodox. Corresponding pilasters stand against the +walls, as well as at the entrance to the choir, and at the beginning of +the apse. These and the columns support a beautifully modelled +entablature, enriched only with a dentil course. Central aisle, +transepts and choir are all roofed with a larger and the side aisles +with a smaller barrel vault, divided into bays by shallow arches. In +choir and transepts the vault is coffered, but in the nave each bay is +ornamented with three sets of four square panels, set in the shape of a +cross, each panel having in it another panel set<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span> diagonally to form a +diamond. At the crossing, which is crowned by a square coffered dome, +the spandrils are filled with curious winged heads, while the semi-dome +of the apse is covered with narrow ribs. The windows are exactly like +those outside, but the west door has over it a very refined though plain +pediment.</p> + +<p>So far, beyond the great refinement of the details, there has been +nothing very characteristic of João de Castilho, but when we find that +the pilasters of the choir and apse, as well as the choir and transept +arches, are panelled in that very curious way—with strips crossing each +other at long intervals to form diamonds—which João employed in the +passage arches in the Thomar dormitory and in the loggia at Batalha, it +would be natural enough to conclude that this chapel is his work, and +indeed the best example of what he could do with classic details.</p> + +<p>Now under the west window of the north aisle there is a small tablet +with the following inscription in Portuguese<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 154.">[154]</a>:—'This chapel was +erected in <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1572, but profaned in 1810 was restored in 1848 by L. L. +d'Abreu,' etc.</p> + +<p>Of course in 1572 João de Castilho had been long dead, but the +inscription was put up in 1848, and it is quite likely that by then L. +L. d'Abreu and his friends had forgotten or did not know that even as +late as the sixteenth century dates were sometimes still reckoned by the +era of Cæsar, so finding it recorded that the chapel had been built in +the year 1572 they took for granted that it was <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1572, whereas it +may just as well have been <span class="smcap95">E.C.</span> 1572, that is <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1534, just the very +time when João de Castilho was building the dormitory in the convent and +using there the same curious panelling. Besides in 1572 this form of +renaissance had long been given up and been replaced by a heavier and +more classic style brought from Italy. It seems therefore not +unreasonable to claim this as João de Castilho's work, and to see in it +one of the earliest as well as the most complete example of this form of +renaissance architecture, a form which prevailed side by side with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> +work of the Frenchmen and their pupils for about fifteen years.</p> + +<p>Now in some respects this chapel recalls some of the earlier renaissance +buildings in Italy, and yet no part of it is quite Italian, nor can it +be called Spanish. The barrel vault here and in the dormitory chapel in +the convent are Italian features, but they have not been treated exactly +as was done there, or as was to be done in Portugal some fifty years +later, so that it seems more likely that João de Castilho got his +knowledge of Italian work at second-hand, perhaps from one of the men +sent there by Dom Manoel, and not by having been there himself.</p> + +<p>No other building in this style can be surely ascribed to him, and no +other is quite so pleasing, yet there are several in which refined +classic detail of a similar nature is used, and one of the best of these +is the small church of the Milagre at Santarem. As for the cloisters +which are mentioned later, they have much in common with João de +Castilho's work at Thomar, as, for instance, in the Claustros da Micha, +or the Claustro da Hospedaria; in the latter especially the upper story +suggests the arrangement which became so common.</p> + +<p>This placing of a second story with horizontal architrave on the top of +an arched cloister is very common in Spain, and might have been +suggested by such as are found at Lupiana or at Alcalá de Henares,<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 155.">[155]</a> +but these are not divided into bays by buttresses, so it is more likely +that they were borrowed from such a cloister as that of Sta. Cruz at +Coimbra, where the buttresses run up to the roof of the upper story and +where the arches of that story are almost flat.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Santarem, Milagre.</div> + +<p>The Milagre or Miracle church at Santarem is so called because it stands +near where the body of St. Irene, martyred by the Romans at Nabantia, +now Thomar, after floating down the Nabão, the Zezere, and the Tagus, +came to shore and so gave her name to Santarem.</p> + +<p>The church is small, being about sixty-five feet long by forty wide. It +has three aisles, wooden panelled roofs, an arcade resting on Doric +columns, and at the east a sort of transept followed by an apse. The +piers to the west side<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> of this transept are made up of four pilasters, +all of different heights. The highest, the one on the west side, has a +Corinthian capital and is enriched in front by a statue under a canopy +standing on a corbel upheld by a slender baluster shaft. The second in +height is plain, and supports the arch which crosses the central aisle. +The arches opening from the aisles into the transept chapel are lower +still, and rest, not on capitals, but on corbels. Like the nave arch, on +their spandrels heads are carved looking out of circles. Lowest of +all—owing to the barrel vault which covers the central aisle at the +crossing—are the arches leading north and south to the chapels. They +too spring from corbels and are quite plain.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Santarem, Marvilla.</div> + +<p>Up in the town on the top of the hill the nave of the church of the +Marvilla—whose Manoelino door and chancel have already been +mentioned—is of about the same date. This nave is about one hundred +feet long by fifty-five wide, has three aisles with wooden ceilings; the +arcades of round arches with simple moulded architrave rest on the +beautiful Ionic capitals of columns over twenty-six feet high. These +capitals, of Corinthian rather than of Ionic proportions, with simple +fluting instead of acanthus leaves, have curious double volutes at each +angle, and small winged heads in the middle of each side of the abacus.</p> + +<p>Altogether the arcades are most stately, and the beauty of the church is +further enhanced by the exceptionally fine tiles with which the walls as +well as the spandrels above the arches are lined. Up to about the height +of fifteen feet, above a stone bench, the tiles, blue, yellow, and +orange, are arranged in panels, two different patterns being used +alternatively, with beautiful borders, while in each spandrel towards +the central aisle an Emblem of the Virgin, Tower of Ivory, Star of the +Sea, and so on, is surrounded by blue and yellow intertwining leaves. +Above these, as above the panels on the walls, the whole is covered with +dark and light tiles arranged in checks, and added as stated by a date +over the chancel arch in 1617. The lower tiles are probably of much the +same date or a little earlier.</p> + +<p>Against one of the nave columns there stands a very elegant little +pulpit. It rests on the Corinthian capital of a very bulbous baluster, +is square, and has on each side four beautiful little Corinthian +columns, fluted and surrounded with large acanthus leaves at the bottom. +Almost exactly like it,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span> but round and with balusters instead of +columns, is the pulpit in the church of Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at +Thomar. (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Elvas, São Domingos.</div> + +<p>The most original in plan as well as in decoration of all the buildings +of this time is the church of the nunnery of São Domingos at Elvas, like +nearly all nunneries in the kingdom now fast falling to pieces. In plan +it is an octagon about forty-two feet across with three apses to the +east and a smaller octagonal dome in the middle standing on eight white +marble columns with Doric capitals. The columns, the architrave below +the dome, the arches of the apses and their vaults, are all of white +marble covered with exquisite carved ornament partly gilt, while all the +walls and the other vaults are lined with tiles, blue and yellow +patterns on a white ground. The abacus of each column is set diagonally +to the diameter of the octagon, and between it and the lower side of the +architrave are interposed thin blocks of stone rounded at the ends.</p> + +<p>Like the Conceicão at Thomar this too dates from near the end of Dom +João's reign, having been founded about 1550.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde.</div> + +<p>Capitals very like those in the nave of the Marvilla, but with a ring of +leaves instead of flutes, are found in the cloister of the church at +Penha Longa near Cintra, and in the little round chapel at Penha Verde +not far off, where lies the heart of Dom João de Castro, fourth viceroy +of India. Built about 1535, it is a simple little round building with a +square recess for the altar opposite the door. Inside, the dome springs +from a cornice resting on six columns whose capitals are of the same +kind.</p> + +<p>Others nearly the same are found in the house of the Conde de São +Vicente at Lisbon, only there the volutes are replaced by winged +figures, as is also the case in the arcades of the Misericordia at +Tavira, the door of which has been mentioned above.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Vizeu, Cloister.</div> + +<p>Still more like the Marvilla capitals are those of the lower cloister of +the cathedral of Vizeu. This, the most pleasing of all the renaissance +cloisters in Portugal, has four arches on each side resting on fluted +columns which though taller than usual in cloisters, have no entasis. +The capitals are exactly like those at Santarem, but being of granite +are much coarser, with roses instead of winged heads on the unmoulded +abaci. At the angles two columns are placed together and a shallow strip +is carried up above them all to the cornice. Somewhere in the lower +cloister are the arms of Bishop Miguel da Silva, who is</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_89" id="Fig_89"></a> +<a href="images/i061_fig_89.png"> +<img src="images/i061_fig_89_th.png" width="275" height="368" alt="FIG. 89.SantaremChurch of the Marvilla." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 89.<br />Santarem<br />Church of the Marvilla.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a> +<a href="images/i061_fig_90.png"> +<img src="images/i061_fig_90_th.png" width="275" height="468" alt="FIG. 90.VizeuCathedral Cloister." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 90.<br />Vizeu<br />Cathedral Cloister.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>said to have built it about 1524, but that is an impossibly early date, +as even in far less remote places such classical columns were not used +till at least ten years later. Yet the cloister must probably have been +built some time before 1550. An upper unarched cloister, with an +architrave resting on simple Doric columns, was added, <i>sede vacante</i>, +between 1720 and 1742, and greatly increases the picturesqueness of the +whole. (<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lamego, Cloister.</div> + +<p>A similar but much lower second story was added by Bishop Manoel +Noronha<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 156.">[156]</a> in 1557 to the cloister of Lamego Cathedral. The lower +cloister with its round arches and eight-sided shafts is interesting, as +most of its capitals are late Gothic, some moulded, a few with leaves, +though some have been replaced by very good capitals of the Corinthian +type but retaining the Gothic abacus.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 157.">[157]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Coimbra, São Thomaz.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Carmo.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Cintra, Penha Longa.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Faro, São Bento.</div> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lorvão.</div> + +<p>Most, however, of the cloisters of this period do not have a continuous +arcade like that of Vizeu, but have arches set in pairs in the lower +story with big buttresses between each pair. Such is the cloister of the +college of São Thomaz at Coimbra, founded in 1540, where the arches of +the lower cloister rest on Ionic capitals, while the architrave of the +upper is upheld by thin Doric columns; of the Carmo, also at Coimbra, +founded in 1542, where the cloister is almost exactly like that of São +Thomaz, except that there are twice as many columns in the upper story; +of Penha Longa near Cintra, where the two stories are of equal height +and the lower, with arches, has moulded and the upper, with horizontal +architrave, Ionic capitals, and of São Bento at Faro, where the lower +capitals are like those in the Marvilla, but without volutes, while the +upper are Ionic. In all these the big square buttress is carried right +up to the roof of the upper cloister, as it was also at Lorvão near +Coimbra. There the arches below are much wider, so that above the number +of supports has been doubled.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 158.">[158]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Amarante.</div> + +<p>In one of the cloisters of São Gonçalvo at Amarante on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span> the +Tamega—famous for the battle on the bridge during the French +invasion—there is only one arch to each bay below, and it springs from +jambs, not from columns, and is very plain. The buttresses do not rise +above the lower cornice and have Ionic capitals, as have also the rather +stout columns of the upper story. The lower cloister is roofed with a +beautiful three-centred vault with many ribs, and several of the doors +are good examples of early renaissance.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Santarem, Sta. Clara.</div> + +<p>More like the other cloisters, but probably somewhat later in date, is +that of Sta. Clara at Santarem, fast falling to pieces. In it there are +three arches, here three-centred, to each bay, and instead of projecting +buttresses wide pilasters, like the columns, Doric below, Ionic above.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Guarda, Reredos.</div> + +<p>On first seeing the great reredos in the cathedral of Guarda, the +tendency is to attribute it to a period but little later than the works +of Master Nicolas at São Marcos or of João de Ruão at Coimbra. But on +looking closer it is seen that a good deal of the ornament—the +decoration of the pilasters and of the friezes—as well as the +appearance of the figures, betray a later date—a date perhaps as late +as the end of the reign of Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii</span>. (<a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>.)</p> + +<p>Though the reredos is very much larger and of finer design, the figures +have sufficient resemblance to those in the chapel of the Holy Sacrament +in the Sé Velha at Coimbra, put up in 1566, to show that they must be +more or less contemporary, the Guarda reredos being probably the +older.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 159.">[159]</a></p> + +<p>Filling the whole of the east end of the apse of the Capella Mor, the +structure rises in a curve up to the level of the windows. Without the +beautiful colouring of Master Vlimer's work at Coimbra, or the charm of +the reredos at Funchal, with figures distinctly inferior to those by +Master Nicolas at São Marcos, this Guarda reredos is yet a very fine +piece of work, and is indeed the only large one of its kind which still +survives.</p> + +<p>It is divided into three stories, each about ten feet high, with a +half-story below resting on a plain plinth.</p> + +<p>Each story is divided into large square panels by pilasters or columns +set pretty close together, the topmost story having candelabrum shafts, +the one below it Corinthian columns, the lowest Doric pilasters, and the +half-story below pedestals for these pilasters. Entablatures with +ornamental friezes divide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> each story, while at the top the centre is +raised to admit of an arch, an arrangement probably copied from João de +Ruão's altar-piece.</p> + +<p>In the half-story at the bottom are half-figures of the twelve Apostles, +four under each of the square panels at the sides, and one between each +pair of pilasters.</p> + +<p>Above is represented, on the left the Annunciation, on the right the +Nativity; in the centre, now hidden by a hideous wooden erection, there +is a beautiful little tabernacle between two angels. Between the +pilasters, as between the columns above, stand large figures of +prophets.</p> + +<p>In the next story the scenes are, on the left the Magi, on the right the +Presentation, and in the centre the Assumption of the Virgin.</p> + +<p>The whole of the top is taken up with the Story of the Crucifixion, our +Lord bearing the Cross on the left, the Crucifixion under the arch, and +the Deposition on the right.</p> + +<p>Although the whole is infinitely superior in design to anything by +Master Nicolas, it must be admitted that the sculpture is very inferior +to his, and also to João de Ruão's. The best are the Crucifixion scenes, +where the grouping is better and the action freer, but everywhere the +faces are rather expressionless and the figures stiff.</p> + +<p>As everything is painted, white for the background and an ugly yellow +for the figures and detail, it is not possible to see whether stone or +terra cotta is the material; if terra cotta the sculptor may have been a +pupil of Filipe Eduard, who in the time of Dom Manoel wrought the Last +Supper in terra cotta, fragments of which still survive at Coimbra.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h3> + +<p class="head">THE LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION</p> + + +<p>T<span class="smcap95">his</span> earlier style did not, however, last very long. Even before the +death of Dom João more strictly classical forms began to come in from +Italy, brought by some of the many pupils who had been sent to study +there. Once when staying at Almeirim the king had been much interested +in a model of the Colosseum brought to him by Gonçalo Bayão, whom he +charged to reproduce some of the monuments he had seen in Rome.</p> + +<p>Whether he did reproduce them or not is unknown, but in the Claustro dos +Filippes at Thomar this new and thoroughly Italian style is seen fully +developed.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes.</div> + +<p>Diogo de Torralva had been nominated to direct the works in Thomar in +1554, but did nothing to this cloister till 1557 after Dom João's death, +when his widow, Dona Catharina, regent for her grandson, Dom Sebastião, +ordered him to pull down what was already built, as it was unsafe, and +to build another of the same size about one hundred and fifteen feet +square, but making the lower story rather higher.</p> + +<p>The work must have been carried out quickly, since on the vault of the +upper cloister there is the date 1562—a date which shows that the whole +must have been practically finished some eighteen years before Philip of +Spain secured the throne of Portugal, and that therefore the cloister +should rather be called after Dona Catharina, who ordered it, than after +the 'Reis Intrusos,' whose only connection with Thomar is that the first +was there elected king.</p> + +<p>Between each of the three large arches which form a side of the lower +cloister stand two Roman Doric columns of considerable size. They are +placed some distance apart leaving room between them for an opening, +while another window-like opening occurs above the moulding from which +the arches spring.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_91" id="Fig_91"></a> +<a href="images/i062_fig_91.png"> +<img src="images/i062_fig_91_th.png" width="275" height="339" alt="FIG. 91.GuardaReredos in Cathedral." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 91.<br />Guarda<br />Reredos in Cathedral.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_92" id="Fig_92"></a> +<a href="images/i062_fig_92.png"> +<img src="images/i062_fig_92_th.png" width="275" height="355" alt="FIG. 92.ThomarClaustro dos Filippes." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 92.<br />Thomar<br />Claustro dos Filippes.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>In the four corners the space between the columns, as well as +the entablature, is set diagonally, leaving room in one instance for a +circular stair. The cornice is enriched with dentils and the frieze with +raised squares. On the entablature more columns of about the same height +as those below, but with Ionic capitals, stand in pairs. Stairs lead up +in each corner to the flat roof, above which they rise in a short +dome-bearing drum. In this upper cloister the arches are much narrower, +springing from square Ionic pilasters, two on each side, set one behind +the other, and leaving an open space beyond so that the whole takes the +form of a Venetian window. The small upper window between the columns is +round instead of square, and the cornice is carried on large corbels. In +front of all the openings is a balustrade. Two windows look south down +the hillside over rich orchards and gardens, while immediately below +them a water channel, the end of a great aqueduct built under Philip <span class="smcap95">i</span>. +of Portugal, <span class="smcap95">ii</span>. of Spain, by the Italian Filippo Terzi,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 160.">[160]</a> cools the +air, and, overflowing, clothes the arches with maidenhair fern. Another +window opening on to the Claustro de Sta. Barbara gives a very good view +of the curious west front of the church. There is not and there probably +never was any parapet to the flat paved roof, from where one can look +down on the surrounding cloisters, and on the paved terrace before the +church door where Philip was elected king in April 1580. (<a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>.)</p> + +<p>This cloister, the first example in Portugal of the matured Italian +renaissance, is also, with the exception of the church of São Vicente de +Fora at Lisbon, the most successful, for all is well proportioned, and +shows that Diogo de Torralva really understood classic detail and how to +use it. He was much less successful in the chancel of Belem, while about +the cathedral which he built at Miranda de Douro it is difficult to find +out anything, so remote and inaccessible is it, except that it stands +magnificently on a high rock above the river.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 161.">[161]</a></p> + +<p>The reigns of Dom Sebastião and of his grand-uncle, the Cardinal-King, +were noted for no great activity in building. Only at Evora, where he so +long filled the position of archbishop before succeeding to the throne, +was the cardinal able<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> to do much. The most important architectural +event in Dom Sebastião's reign was the coming of Filippo Terzi from +Italy to build São Roque, the church of the Jesuits in Lisbon, and the +consequent school of architects, the Alvares, Tinouco, Turianno, and +others who were so active during the reign of Philip.</p> + +<p>But before speaking of the work of this school some of Cardinal Henry's +buildings at Evora must be mentioned, and then the story told of how +Philip succeeded in uniting the whole Peninsula under his rule.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Evora, Graça.</div> + +<p>A little to the south of the cathedral of Evora, and a little lower down +the hill, stands the Graça or church of the canons of St. Augustine. +Begun during the reign of Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, the nave and chancel, in which +there is a fine tomb, have many details which recall the Conceicão at +Thomar, such as windows set in sham perspective. But they were long in +building, and the now broken down barrel vault and the curious porch +were not added till the reign of Dom Sebastião, while the monastic +buildings were finished about the same time.</p> + +<p>This porch is most extraordinary. Below, there are in front four +well-proportioned and well-designed Doric columns; beyond them and next +the outer columns are large projecting pilasters forming buttresses, not +unlike the buttresses in some of the earlier cloisters. Above the +entablature, which runs round these buttresses, there stand on the two +central columns two tall Ionic semi-columns, surmounted by an +entablature and pointed pediment, and enclosing a large window set back +in sham perspective. On either side large solid square panels are filled +by huge rosettes several feet across, and above them half-pediments +filled with shields reach up to the central pediment but at a lower +level. Above these pediments another raking moulding runs up supported +on square blocks, while on the top of the upper buttresses there sit +figures of giant boys with globes on their backs; winged figures also +kneel on the central pediment.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that this is one of the most extraordinary erections in +the world. Though built of granite some of the detail is quite fine, and +the lower columns are well proportioned; but the upper part is +ridiculously heavy and out of keeping with the rest, and inconceivably +ill-designed. The different parts also are ill put together and look as +if they had belonged to distinct buildings designed on a totally +different scale.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Evora University.</div> + +<p>Not much need be said of the Jesuit University founded at Evora by the +Cardinal in 1559 and suppressed by the Marques de Pombal. Now partly a +school and partly an orphanage, the great hall for conferring degrees is +in ruins, but the courtyard with its two ranges of galleries still +stands. The court is very large, and the galleries have round arches and +white marble columns, but is somehow wanting in interest. The church too +is very poor, though the private chapel with barrel vault and white +marble dome is better, yet the whole building shows, like the Graça +porch, that classic architecture was not yet fully understood, for Diogo +de Torralva had not yet finished his cloister at Thomar, nor had Terzi +begun to work in Lisbon.</p> + +<p>When Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii</span>. died in 1557 he was succeeded by his grandson +Sebastião, who was then only three years old. At first his grandmother, +Dona Catharina, was regent, but she was thoroughly Spanish, and so +unpopular. For five years she withstood the intrigues of her +brother-in-law, Cardinal Henry, but at last in 1562 retired to Spain in +disgust. The Cardinal then became regent, but the country was really +governed by two brothers, of whom the elder, Luis Gonçalves da Câmara, a +Jesuit, was confessor to the young king.</p> + +<p>Between them Dom Sebastião grew up a dreamy bigot whose one ambition was +to lead a crusade against the Moors—an ambition in which popular rumour +said he was encouraged by the Jesuits at the instigation of his cousin, +Philip of Spain, who would profit so much by his death.</p> + +<p>Since the wealth of the Indies had begun to fill the royal treasury, the +Cortes had not been summoned, so there was no one able to oppose his +will, when at last an expedition sailed in 1578.</p> + +<p>At this time the country had been nearly drained of men by India and +Brazil, so a large part of the army consisted of mercenaries; peculation +too had emptied the treasury, and there was great difficulty in finding +money to pay the troops.</p> + +<p>Yet the expedition started, and landing first at Tangier afterwards +moved on to Azila, which Mulay Ahmed, a pretender to the Moorish +umbrella, had handed over.</p> + +<p>On July 29th, Dom Sebastião rashly started to march inland from Azila. +The army suffered terribly from heat and thirst, and was quite worn out +before it met the reigning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> amir, Abd-el-Melik, at Alcacer-Quebir, or +El-Kasar-el-Kebir, 'the great castle,' on the 3rd of August.</p> + +<p>Next morning the battle began, and though Abd-el-Melik died almost at +once, the Moors, surrounding the small Christian army, were soon +victorious. Nine thousand were killed, and of the rest all were taken +prisoners except fifty. Both the Pretender and Dom Sebastião fell, and +with his death and the destruction of his army the greatness of Portugal +disappeared.</p> + +<p>For two years, till 1580, his feeble old grand-uncle the Cardinal Henry +sat on the throne, but when he died without nominating an heir none of +Dom Manoel's descendants were strong enough to oppose Philip <span class="smcap95">ii</span>. of +Spain. Philip was indeed a grandson of Dom Manoel through his mother +Isabel, but the duchess of Braganza, daughter of Dom Duarte, duke of +Guimarães, Cardinal Henry's youngest brother, had really a better claim.</p> + +<p>But the spirit of the nation was changed, she dared not press her +claims, and few supported the prior of Crato, whose right was at least +as good as had been that of Dom João <span class="smcap95">i</span>., and so Philip was elected at +Thomar in April 1580.</p> + +<p>Besides losing her independence Portugal lost her trade, for Holland and +England both now regarded her as part of their great enemy, Spain, and +so harried her ports and captured her treasure ships. Brazil was nearly +lost to the Dutch, who also succeeded in expelling the Portuguese from +Ceylon and from the islands of the East Indies, so that when the sixty +years' captivity was over and the Spaniards expelled, Portugal found it +impossible to recover the place she had lost.</p> + +<p>It is then no wonder that almost before the end of the century money for +building began to fail, and that some of the churches begun then were +never finished; and yet for about the first twenty or thirty years of +the Spanish occupation building went on actively, especially in Lisbon +and at Coimbra, where many churches were planned by Filippo Terzi, or by +the two Alvares and others. Filippo Terzi seems first to have been +employed at Lisbon by the Jesuits in building their church of São Roque, +begun about 1570.<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 162.">[162]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Lisbon, São Roque.</div> + +<p>Outside the church is as plain as possible; the front is divided into +three by single Doric pilasters set one on each <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>side of the main door +and two at each corner. Similar pilasters stand on these, separated from +them only by a shallow cornice. The main cornice is larger, but the +pediment is perfectly plain. Three windows, one with a pointed and two +with round pediments, occupy the spaces left between the upper +pilasters. The inside is richer; the wooden ceiling is painted, the +shallow chancel and the side chapels vaulted with barrel vaults, of +which those in the chapels are enriched with elaborate strapwork. Above +the chapels are square-headed windows, and then a corbelled cornice. +Even this is plain, and it owes most of its richness to the paintings +and to the beautiful tiles which cover part of the walls.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 163.">[163]</a></p> + +<p>The three other great churches which were probably also designed by +Terzi are Santo Antão, Sta. Maria do Desterro, and São Vicente de Fora.</p> + +<p>Of these the great earthquake of 1755 almost entirely destroyed the +first two and knocked down the dome of the last.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">São Vicente de Fora.</div> + +<p>Though not the first to be built, São Vicente being the least injured +may be taken before the others. It is a large church, being altogether +about 236 feet long by 75 wide, and consists of a nave of three bays +with connected chapels on each side, a transept with the fallen dome at +the crossing, a square chancel, a retro-choir for the monks about 45 +feet deep behind the chancel, and to the west a porch between two tall +towers.</p> + +<p>On the south side are two large square cloisters of no great interest +with a sacristy between—in which all the kings of the House of Braganza +lie in velvet-covered coffins—and the various monastic buildings now +inhabited by the patriarch of Lisbon.</p> + +<p>The outside is plain, except for the west front, which stands at the top +of a great flight of steps. On the west front two orders of pilasters +are placed one above the other. Of these the lower is Doric, of more +slender proportions than usual, while the upper has no true capitals +beyond the projecting entablature and corbels on the frieze. Single +pilasters divide the centre of the front into three equal parts and +coupled pilasters stand at the corners of the towers. In the central +part three plain arches open on to the porch, with a pedimented niche +above each. In the tower the niches are placed lower with oblong +openings above and below.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span></p> + +<p>Above the entablature of the lower order there are three windows in the +middle flanked by Ionic pilasters and surmounted by pediments, while in +the tower are large round-headed niches with pediments. (<a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a>.)</p> + +<p>The entablature of the upper order is carried straight across the whole +front, with nothing above it in the centre but a balustrading +interrupted by obelisk-bearing pedestals,<span class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"> +<a href="images/i063_plan_s_vicente.png"> +<img src="images/i063_plan_s_vicente_th.png" width="250" height="365" alt="PLAN OF SÃO VICENTE" /></a> +<span class="caption"><br />PLAN OF SÃO VICENTE</span> +</span> but at the ends the towers +rise in one more square story flanked with short Doric pilasters. +Round-arched openings for bells occur on each side, and within the +crowning balustrade with its obelisks a stone dome rises to an +eight-sided domed lantern.</p> + +<p>Like all the church, the front is built of beautiful limestone, +rivalling Carrara marble in whiteness, and seen down the narrow street +which runs uphill from across the small <i>praça</i> the whole building is +most imposing. It would have been even more satisfactory had the central +part been a little narrower, and had there been something to mark the +barrel vault within; the omission too of the lower order, which is so +much taller than the upper, would have been an improvement, but even +with these defects the design is most stately, and refreshingly free of +all the fussy over-elaboration and the fantastic piling up of pediments +which soon became too common.</p> + +<p>But if the outside deserves such praise, the inside is worthy of far +more. The great stone barrel vault is simply coffered with square +panels. The chapel arches are singularly plain, and spring from a good +moulding which projects nearly to the face of the pilasters.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +style="margin-top:10%;clear:both;" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_93" id="Fig_93"></a> +<a href="images/i064_fig_93.png"> +<img src="images/i064_fig_93_th.png" width="275" height="364" alt="FIG. 93.LisbonSão Vicente de Fora." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 93.<br />Lisbon<br />São Vicente de Fora.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_94" id="Fig_94"></a> +<a href="images/i064_fig_94.png"> +<img src="images/i064_fig_94_th.png" width="275" height="349" alt="FIG. 94.LisbonSão Vicente de Fora." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 94.<br />Lisbon<br />São Vicente de Fora.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>Two of these stand between each chapel, +and have very beautiful capitals founded on the Doric but with a long +fluted neck ornamented in front by a bunch of crossed arrows and at the +corners with acanthus leaves, and with egg and tongue carved on the +moulding below the Corinthian abacus. Of the entablature, only the +frieze and architrave is broken round the pilasters; for the cornice +with its great mutules runs straight round the whole church, supported +over the chapels by carving out the triglyphs—of which there is one +over each pilaster, and two in the space between each pair of +pilasters—so as to form corbels.</p> + +<p>Only the pendentives of the dome and the panelled drum remain; the rest +was replaced after the earthquake by wooden ceiling pierced with +skylights. (<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>.)</p> + +<p>Though so simple—there is no carved ornament except in the beautiful +capitals—the interior is one of the most imposing to be seen anywhere, +and though not really very large gives a wonderful impression of space +and size, being in this respect one of the most successful of classic +churches. It is only necessary to compare São Vicente de Fora with the +great clumsy cathedral which Herrera had begun to build five years +earlier at Valladolid to see how immensely superior Terzi was to his +Spanish contemporary. Even in his masterpiece, the church of the +Escorial, Herrera did not succeed in giving such spacious greatness, +for, though half as large again, the Escorial church is imposing rather +from its stupendous weight and from the massiveness of its granite piers +than from the beauty of its proportions.</p> + +<p>Philip took a great interest in the building of the Escorial, and also +had the plans of São Vicente submitted to him in 1590. This plan, signed +by him in November 1590, was drawn by João Nunes Tinouco, so that it is +possible that Tinouco was the actual designer and not Terzi, but Tinouco +was still alive sixty years later when he published a plan of Lisbon, +and so must have been very young in 1590. It is probable, therefore, +that tradition is right in assigning São Vicente to Terzi, and even if +it be actually the work of Tinouco, he has here done little but copy +what his master had already done elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lisbon, Santo Antão.</div> + +<p>After São Roque the first church begun by Terzi was Santo Antão, now +attached to the hospital of São José. Begun in 1579 it was not finished +till 1652, only to be destroyed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> the earthquake in 1755. As at São +Vicente, the west front has a lower order of huge Doric pilasters nearly +fifty feet high. There is no porch, but three doors with poor windows +above which look as if they had been built after the earthquake.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, nearly all above the lower entablature is gone, but +enough is left to show that the upper order was Ionic and very short, +and that the towers were to rise behind buttress-like curves descending +from the central part to two obelisks placed above the coupled corner +pilasters.</p> + +<p>The inside was almost exactly like São Vicente, but larger.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Lisbon, Santa Maria do Desterro.</div> + +<p>Santa Maria do Desterro was begun later than either of the last two, in +1591. Unlike them the two orders of the west front are short and of +almost equal size, Doric below and Ionic above. The arches of the porch +reach up to the lower entablature, and the windows above are rather +squat; it looks as if there was to have been a third order above, but it +is all gone.</p> + +<p>The inside was of the usual pattern, except that the pilasters were not +coupled between the chapels, that they were panelled, and that above the +low chapel arches there are square windows looking into a gallery.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Torreão do Paço.</div> + +<p>Besides these churches Terzi built for Philip a large addition to the +royal palace in the shape of a great square tower or pavilion, called +the Torreão. The palace then stood to the west of what is now called the +Praça do Commercio, and the Torreão jutted out over the Tagus. It seems +to have had five windows on the longer and four on the shorter sides, to +have been two stories in height, and to have been covered by a great +square dome-shaped roof, with a lantern at the top and turrets at the +corners. Pilasters stood singly between each window and in pairs at the +corners, and the windows all had pediments. Now, not a stone of it is +left, as it was in the palace square, the Terreno do Paço da Ribeira, +that the earthquake was at its worst, swallowing up the palace and +overwhelming thousands of people in the waves of the river.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Sé Nova.</div> + +<p>Meanwhile the great Jesuit church at Coimbra, now the Sé Nova or new +cathedral, had been gradually rising. Founded by Dom João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> in 1552, +and dedicated to the Onze mil Virgems, it cannot have been begun in its +present form till much later, till about 1580, while the main, or south, +front seems even later still.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 164.">[164]<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></a></p> + +<p>Inside, the church consists of a nave of four bays with side chapels—in +one of which there is a beautiful Manoelino font—transepts and chancel +with a drumless dome over the crossing. In some respects the likeness to +São Vicente is very considerable; there are coupled Doric pilasters +between the chapels, the barrel vault is coffered, and the chapel arches +are extremely plain. But here the likeness ends. The pilasters are +panelled and have very simple moulded capitals; the entablature is quite +ordinary, without triglyphs or mutules, and is broken round each pair of +pilasters; the coffers on the vault are very deep, and are scarcely +moulded; and, above all, the proportions are quite different as the nave +is too wide for its height, and the drum is terribly needed to lift up +the dome. In short, the architect seems to have copied the dispositions +of Santo Antão and has done his best to spoil them, and yet he has at +the same time succeeded in making the interior look large, though with +an almost Herrera-like clumsiness.</p> + +<p>The south front is even more like Santo Antão. As there, three doors +take the place of the porch, and the only difference below is that each +Doric pilaster is flanked by half pilasters. Above the entablature the +front breaks out into a wild up-piling of various pediments, but even +here the likeness to Santo Antão is preserved, in that a great curve +comes down from the outer Ionic pilasters of the central part, to end, +however, not in obelisks, but in a great volute: the small towers too +are set much further back. Above, as below, the central part is divided +into three. Of these the two outer, flanked by Ionic pilasters on +pedestals, are finished off above with curved pediments broken to admit +of obelisks. The part between these has a large window below, a huge +coat of arms above, and rises high above the sides to a pediment so +arranged that while the lower mouldings form an angle the upper form a +curve on which stand two finials and a huge cross. (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Oporto, Collegio Novo.</div> + +<p>Very soon this fantastic way of piling up pieces of pediment and of +entablature became only too popular, being copied for instance in the +Collegio Novo at Oporto, where, however, the design is not quite so bad +as the towers are brought forward and are carried up considerably +higher. But apart from this horrid misuse of classic details the +greatest fault of the façade at Coimbra is the disproportionate size of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> +some of the details; the obelisks and the cherubs' heads on which they +stand, the statues at the ends, and the central cross, and above all the +colossal acanthus leaves in the great scrolls are of such a size as +entirely to dwarf all the rest.</p> + +<p>From what remains of the front of Santo Antão, it looks as if it and the +front of the Sé Velha had been very much alike. Santo Antão was not +quite finished till 1652, so that it is probable that the upper part of +the west front dates from the seventeenth century, long after Terzi's +death, and that the Sé Nova at Coimbra was finished about the same time, +and perhaps copied from it.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Misericordia.</div> + +<p>But it was not only Terzi's churches which were copied at Coimbra. While +the Sé Nova, then, and for nearly two hundred years more, the church of +the Jesuits, was still being built, the architect of the chief pateo of +the Misericordia took Diogo de Torralva's cloister at Thomar as his +model.</p> + +<p>It was in the year 1590 that Cardinal Affonso de Castello Branco began +to build the headquarters of the Misericordia of Coimbra, founded in +1500 as a simple confraternity. The various offices of the institution, +including a church, the halls whose ceilings have been already +mentioned, and hospital dormitories—all now turned into an +orphanage—are built round two courtyards, one only of which calls for +special notice, for nearly everything else has been rebuilt or altered. +In this court or cloister, the plan of the Claustro dos Filippes has +been followed in that there are three wide arches on each side, and +between them—but not in the corners, and further apart than at +Thomar—a pair of columns. In this case the space occupied by one arch +is scarcely wider than that occupied by the two fluted Doric columns and +the square-headed openings between them. Another change is that the +complete entablature with triglyphs and metopes is only found above the +columns, for the arches rise too high to leave room for more than the +cornice. (<a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>.)</p> + +<p>The upper story is quite different, for it has only square-headed +windows, though the line of the columns is carried up by slender and +short Ionic columns; a sloping tile roof rests immediately on the upper +cornice, above which rise small obelisks placed over the columns.</p> +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Episcopal Palace.</div> + +<p>At about the same time the Cardinal built a long loggia on the west side +of the entrance court of his palace at Coimbra. The hill on which the +palace is built being extremely</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0" +style="clear:both;"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a> +<a href="images/i065_fig_95.png"> +<img src="images/i065_fig_95_th.png" width="275" height="342" alt="FIG. 95.Sé Nova, Coimbra." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 95.<br />Sé Nova, Coimbra.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_96" id="Fig_96"></a> +<a href="images/i065_fig_96.png"> +<img src="images/i065_fig_96_th.png" width="275" height="347" alt="FIG. 96.CoimbraMisericordia." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 96.<br />Coimbra<br />Misericordia.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span>steep, an immense retaining wall, some fifty or sixty feet high, bounds +the courtyard on the west, and it is on the top of this wall that the +loggia is built forming a covered way two stories in height and uniting +the Manoelino palace on the north with some offices which bound the yard +on the south. This covered way is formed by two rows of seven arches, +each resting on Doric columns, with a balustrading between the outer +columns on the top of the great wall. The ceiling is of wood and forms +the floor of the upper story, where the columns are Ionic and support a +continuous architrave. The whole is quite simple and unadorned, but at +the same time singularly picturesque, since the view through the arches, +over the old cathedral and the steeply descending town, down to the +convent of Santa Clara and the wooded hills beyond the Mondego, is most +beautiful; besides, the courtyard itself is not without interest. In the +centre stands a fountain, and on the south side a stair, carried on a +flying half-arch, leads up to a small porch whose steep pointed roof +rests on two walls, and on one small column.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Coimbra, Sé Velha Sacristy.</div> + +<p>The same bishop also built the sacristy of the old cathedral. Entered by +a passage from the south transept, and built across the back of the +apse, it is an oblong room with coffered barrel vault, lit by a large +semicircular window at the north end. The cornice, of which the frieze +is adorned with eight masks, rests on corbels. On a black-and-white +marble lavatory is the date 1593 and the Cardinal's arms. The two ends +are divided into three tiled panels by Doric columns, and on the longer +sides are presses.</p> + +<p>Altogether it is very like the sacristy of Santa Cruz built some thirty +years later, but plainer.</p> + +<p>By 1590 or so several Portuguese followers of Terzi had begun to build +churches, founded on his work, but in some respects less like than is +the Sé Nova at Coimbra. Such churches are best seen at Coimbra, where +many were built, all now more or less deserted and turned to base uses. +Three at least of these stand on either side of the long Rua Sophia +which leads northwards from the town.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Coimbra, São Domingos.</div> + +<p>The oldest seems to be the church of São Domingos, founded by the dukes +of Aveiro, but never finished. Only the chancel with its flanking +chapels and the transept have been built. Two of the churches at Lisbon +and the Sé Nova of Coimbra are noted for their extremely long Doric +pilasters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> Here, in the chancel the pilasters and the half columns in +the transept are Ionic, and even more disproportionately tall. The +architrave is unadorned, the frieze has corbels set in pairs, and +between the pairs curious shields and strapwork, and the cornice is +enriched with dentils, egg and tongue and modillions. Most elaborate of +all is the barrel vault, where each coffer is filled with round or +square panels surrounded with strapwork.</p> + +<p>This vault and the cornice were probably not finished till well on in +the seventeenth century, for on the lower, and probably earlier vaults, +of the side chapels the ornamentation is much finer and more delicate.</p> + +<p>The transepts were to have been covered with groined vaults of which +only the springing has been built. In the north transept and in one of +the chapels there still stand great stone reredoses once much gilt, but +now all broken and dusty and almost hidden behind the diligences and +cabs with which the church is filled. The great fault in São Domingos is +the use of the same order both for the tall pilasters in the chancel, +and for the shorter ones in the side chapels; so that the taller, which +are twice as long and of about the same diameter, are ridiculously lanky +and thin.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Carmo.</div> + +<p>Almost opposite São Domingos is the church of the Carmo, begun by Frey +Amador Arraes, bishop of Portalegre about 1597. The church is an oblong +hall about 135 feet long, including the chancel, by nearly 40 wide, +roofed with a coffered barrel vault. On each side of the nave are two +rectangular and one semicircular chapel; the vaults of the chapel are +beautifully enriched with sunk panels of various shapes. The great +reredos covers the whole east wall with two stories of coupled columns, +niches and painted panels.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Graça.</div> + +<p>Almost exactly the same is the Graça church next door, both very plain +and almost devoid of interest outside.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">São Bento.</div> + +<p>Equally plain is the unfinished front of the church of São Bento up on +the hill near the botanical gardens. It was designed by Baltazar Alvares +for Dom Diogo de Murça, rector of the University in 1600, but not +consecrated till thirty-four years later. The church, which inside is +about 164 feet long, consists of a nave with side chapels, measuring 60 +feet by about 35, a transept of the same width, and a square chancel. +Besides there is a deep porch in front between two oblong towers, which +have never been carried up above the roof.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span></p> + +<p>The porch is entered by three arches, one in the middle wider and higher +than the others. Above are three niches with shell heads, and then three +windows, two oblong and one round, all set in rectangular frames. At the +sides there are broad pilasters below, with the usual lanky Doric +pilasters above reaching to the main cornice, above which there now +rises only an unfinished gable end. The inside is much more pleasing. +The barrel vaults of the chapels are beautifully panelled and enriched +with egg and tongue; between each, two pilasters rise only to the +moulding from which the chapel arches spring, and support smaller +pilasters with a niche between. In the spandrels of the arches are +rather badly carved angels holding shields, and on the arches +themselves, as at São Marcos, are cherubs' heads. A plain entablature +runs along immediately above these arches, and from it to the main +cornice, the walls, covered with blue and white tiles, are perfectly +blank, broken only by square-headed windows. Only at the crossing do +pilasters run up to the vault, and they are of the usual attenuated +Doric form. As usual the roof is covered with plain coffers, as is also +the drumless dome.</p> + +<p>This is very like the Carmo and the Graça, which repeat the fault of +leaving a blank tiled wall above the chapels, and it is quite possible +that they too may have been built by Alvares; the plan is evidently +founded on that of one of Terzi's churches, as São Vicente, or on that +of the Sé Nova, but though some of the detail is charming there is a +want of unity between the upper and lower parts which is found in none +of Terzi's work, nor even in the heavier Sé Nova.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 165.">[165]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lisbon, São Bento.</div> + +<p>Baltazar Alvares seems to have been specially employed by the order of +St. Benedict, for not only did he build their monasteries at Coimbra but +also São Bento, now the Cortes in Lisbon, as well as São Bento da +Victoria at Oporto, his greatest and most successful work.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Oporto, São Bento.</div> + +<p>The plan is practically the same as that of São Bento at Coimbra, but +larger. Here, however, there are no windows over the chapel arches, nor +any dome at the crossing. Built of grey granite, a certain heaviness +seems suitable enough, and the great coffered vault is not without +grandeur, while the gloom of the inside is lit up by huge carved and +gilt altar-pieces and by the elaborate stalls in the choir gallery.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h3> + +<p class="head">OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE EXPULSION OF THE +SPANIARDS</p> + + +<p>I<span class="smcap95">n</span> the last chapter the most important works of Terzi and of his pupils +have been described, and it is now necessary to go back and tell of +various buildings which do not conform to his plan of a great +barrel-vaulted nave with flanking chapels, though the designers of some +of these buildings have copied such peculiarities as the tall and narrow +pilasters of which his school was so fond, and which, as will be seen, +ultimately degenerated into mere pilaster strips.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Vianna do Castello, Misericordia.</div> + +<p>But before speaking of the basilican and other churches of this time, +the Misericordia at Vianna do Castello must be described.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 166.">[166]</a></p> + +<p>The Misericordia of Vianna stands on the north side of the chief square +of the town, and was built in 1589 by one João Lopez, whose father had +designed the beautiful fountain which stands near by.</p> + +<p>It is a building of very considerable interest, as there seems to be +nothing else like it in the country. The church of the Misericordia, a +much older building ruined by later alteration, is now only remarkable +for the fine blue and white tile decoration with which its walls are +covered. Just to the west of it, and at the corner of the broad street +in which is a fine Manoelino house belonging to the Visconde de +Carreira, stands the building designed by Lopez. The front towards the +street is plain, but that overlooking the square highly decorated.</p> + +<p>At the two corners are broad rusticated bands which run up uninterrupted +to the cornice; between them the front is divided into three stories of +open loggias. Of these the lowest has five round arches resting on Ionic +columns; in</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"> +<a name="Fig_97" id="Fig_97"></a> +<a href="images/i066_fig_97.png"> +<img src="images/i066_fig_97_th.png" width="449" height="550" alt="FIG. 97.Vianna do Castello.Misericordia." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 97.<br />Vianna do Castello.<br />Misericordia.</span> +</div> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>the second, on a solid parapet, stand four whole and two half 'terms' or +atlantes which support an entablature with wreath-enriched frieze; +corbels above the heads of the figures cross the frieze, and others +above them the low blocking course, and on them are other terms +supporting the main cornice, which is not of great projection. A simple +pediment rises above the four central figures, surmounted by a crucifix +and containing a carving of a sun on a strapwork shield. (<a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a>.)</p> + +<p>The whole is of granite and the figures and mouldings are distinctly +rude, and yet it is eminently picturesque and original, and shows that +Lopez was a skilled designer if but a poor sculptor.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Beja, São Thiago.</div> + +<p>Coming now to the basilican churches. That of São Thiago at Beja was +begun in 1590 by Jorge Rodrigues for Archbishop Theotonio of Evora. It +has a nave and aisles of six bays covered with groined vaults resting on +Doric columns, a transept and three shallow rectangular chapels to the +east. The clerestory windows are round.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Azeitão, São Simão.</div> + +<p>Much the same plan had been followed a little earlier by Affonso de +Albuquerque, son of the great viceroy of India, when about 1570 he built +the church of São Simão close to his country house of Bacalhôa, at +Azeitão not far from Setubal. São Simão is a small church with nave and +aisles of five bays, the latter only being vaulted, with arcades resting +on Doric columns; at first there was a tower at each corner, but they +fell in 1755, and only one has been rebuilt. Most noticeable in the +church are the very fine tiles put up in 1648, with saintly figures over +each arch. They are practically the same as those in the parish church +of Alvito.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Evora, Cartuxa.</div> + +<p>Another basilican church of this date is that of the Cartuxa or Charter +House,<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 167.">[167]</a> founded by the same Archbishop Theotonio in 1587, a few +miles out of Evora. Only the west front, built about 1594 of black and +white marble, deserves mention. Below there is a porch, spreading beyond +the church, and arranged exactly like the lower Claustro dos Filippes at +Thomar, with round arches separated by two Doric columns on pedestals, +but with a continuous entablature carried above the arches on large +corbelled keystones. Behind rises the front in two stories. The lower +has three windows, square-headed and separated by Ionic columns, two on +each side, with niches between. Single Ionic columns also stand at the +outer angles of the aisles. In the upper story<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> the central part is +carried up to a pediment by Corinthian columns resting on the Ionic +below; between them is a large statued niche surrounded by panels.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the simplicity of the design is spoilt by the broken and +curly volutes which sprawl across the aisles, by ugly finials at the +corners, and by a rather clumsy balustrading to the porch.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Beja, Misericordia.</div> + +<p>The interior of the Misericordia at Beja, a square, divided into nine +smaller vaulted squares by arches resting on fine Corinthian columns, +with altar recesses beyond, looks as if it belonged to the time of Dom +João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, but if so the front must have been added later. This is very +simple, but at the same time strong and unique. The triple division +inside is marked by three great rusticated Doric pilasters on which rest +a simple entablature and parapet. Between are three round arches, +enclosing three doors of which the central has a pointed pediment, while +over the others a small round window lights the interior.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Oporto, Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar.</div> + +<p>But by far the most original of all the buildings of this later +renaissance is the monastery of Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar in Villa +Nova de Gaya, the suburb of Oporto which lies south of the Douro. +Standing on a high granite knoll, which rises some fifty feet above the +country to the south, and descends by an abrupt precipice on the north +to the deep-flowing river, here some two hundred yards wide, and running +in a narrow gorge, the monastery and its hill have more than once played +an important part in history. From there Wellington, in 1809, was able +to reconnoitre the French position across the river while his army lay +hidden behind the rocks; and it was from a creek just a little to the +east that the first barges started for the north bank with the men who +seized the unfinished seminary and held it till enough were across to +make Soult see he must retreat or be cut off. Later, in 1832, the +convent, defended for Queen Maria da Gloria, was much knocked about by +the besieging army of Dom Miguel.</p> + +<p>The Augustinians had begun to build on the hill in 1540, but none of the +present monastery can be earlier than the seventeenth century, the date +1602 being found in the cloister.</p> + +<p>The plan of the whole building is most unusual and original: the nave is +a circle some seventy-two feet in diameter, surmounted by a dome, and +surrounded by eight shallow chapels, of which one contains the entrance +and another is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> prolonged to form a narrow chancel. This chancel leads +to a larger square choir behind the high altar, and east of it is a +round cloister sixty-five feet across. The various monastic buildings +are grouped round the choir and cloister, leaving the round nave +standing free. The outside of the circle is two stories in height, +divided by a plain cornice carried round the pilasters which mark the +recessed chapels within. The face of the wall above this cornice is set +a little back, and the pilaster strips are carried up a short distance +to form a kind of pedestal, and are then set back with a volute and +obelisk masking the offset. The main cornice has two large corbels to +each bay, and carries a picturesque balustrading within which rises a +tile roof covering the dome and crowned by a small lantern at the top. +The west door has two Ionic columns on each side; a curious niche with +corbelled sides rises above it to the lower cornice; and the church is +lit by a square-headed window pierced through the upper part of each +bay. Only the pilasters, cornices, door and window dressings are of +granite ashlar, all the rest being of rubble plastered and whitewashed.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a href="images/i067_plan_nos_sen_do_pilar.png"> +<img src="images/i067_plan_nos_sen_do_pilar_th.png" width="250" height="380" alt="PLAN OF NOSSA SENHORA DO PILAR" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF NOSSA SENHORA DO PILAR</span> +</div> + +<p>Now the eucalyptus-trees planted round the church have grown so tall +that only the parapet can be seen rising above the tree-tops.</p> + +<p>Though much of the detail of the outside is far from being classical or +correct, the whole is well proportioned and well put together, but the +same cannot be said of the inside. Pilasters of inordinate height have +been seen in some of the Lisbon churches, but compared with these which +here stand in couples between the chapels they are short and well +proportioned. These pilasters, which are quite seventeen diameters high, +have for capitals coarse copies of those in São Vicente de Fora in +Lisbon. In São Vicente the cornice was carried on corbels crossing the +frieze, and so was continuous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> and unbroken. Here all the lower +mouldings of the cornice are carried round the corbels and the pilasters +so that only the two upper are continuous, an arrangement which is +anything but an improvement. Another unpleasing feature are the three +niches which, with hideous painted figures, are placed one above the +other between the pilasters. The chancel arch reaches up to the main +cornice, but those of the door and chapel recesses are low enough to +leave room for the windows. The dome is divided into panels of various +shapes by broad flat ribs with coarse mouldings. The chancel and choir +beyond have barrel vaults divided into simple square panels.</p> + +<p>The church then, though interesting from its plan, is—inside +especially—remarkably unpleasing, though it is perhaps only fair to +attribute a considerable part of this disagreeable effect to the state +of decay into which it has fallen—a state which has only advanced far +enough to be squalid and dirty without being in the least picturesque. +Far more pleasing than the church is the round cloister behind. In it +the thirty-six Ionic columns are much better proportioned, and the +capitals better carved; on the cornice stands an attic, rendered +necessary by the barrel vault, heavy indeed, but not too heavy for the +columns below. This attic is panelled, and on it stand obelisk-bearing +pedestals, one above each column, and between them pediments of +strapwork. (<a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a>.)</p> + +<p>Had this cloister been square it would have been in no way very +remarkable, but its round shape as well as the fig-trees that now grow +in the garth, and the many plants which sprout from joints in the +cornice, make it one of the most picturesque buildings in the country. +The rest of the monastic buildings have been in ruins since the siege of +1832.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Coimbra, Santa Cruz Sacristy.</div> + +<p>The sacristy of Santa Cruz at Coimbra must have been begun before Nossa +Senhora da Serra had been finished. Though so much later—for it is +dated 1622—the architect of this sacristy has followed much more +closely the good Italian forms introduced by Terzi. Like that of the Sé +Velha, the sacristy of Santa Cruz is a rectangular building, and +measures about 52 feet long by 26 wide; each of the longer sides is +divided into three bays by Doric pilasters which have good capitals, but +are themselves cut up into many small panels. The cornice is partly +carried on corbels as in the Serra church, but here the effect is much +better. There are large semicircular windows, divided into three lights +at each end, and</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_98" id="Fig_98"></a> +<a href="images/i068_fig_98.png"> +<img src="images/i068_fig_98_th.png" width="275" height="390" alt="FIG. 98.OportoCloister, Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 98.<br />Oporto<br />Cloister, Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_99" id="Fig_99"></a> +<a href="images/i068_fig_99.png"> +<img src="images/i068_fig_99_th.png" width="275" height="353" alt="FIG. 99.CoimbraSacristy of Sta. Cruz." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 99.<br />Coimbra<br />Sacristy of Sta. Cruz.<br /> </span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="non"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>the barrel vault is covered with deep eight-sided coffers. One curious +feature is the way the pilasters in the north-east corner are carried on +corbels, so as to leave room for two doors, one of which leads into the +chapter-house behind the chancel. (<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>.)</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Lisbon, Santa Engracia.</div> + +<p>Twenty years later was begun the church of Santa Engracia in Lisbon. It +was planned on a great scale; a vast dome in the centre surrounded by +four equal apses, and by four square towers. It has never been finished, +and now only rises to the level of the main cornice; but had the dome +been built it would undoubtedly have been one of the very finest of the +renaissance buildings in the country.</p> + +<p>Like the Serra church it is, outside, two stories in height having Doric +pilasters below—coupled at the angles of the towers—and Ionic above. +In the western apse, the pilasters are replaced by tall detached Doric +columns, and the Ionic pilasters above by buttresses which grow out of +voluted curves. Large, simply moulded windows are placed between the +upper pilasters, with smaller blank windows above them, while in the +western apse arches with niches set between pediment-bearing pilasters +lead into the church.</p> + +<p>Here, in Santa Engracia, is a church designed in the simplest and most +severe classic form, and absolutely free of all the fantastic misuse of +fragments of classic detail which had by that time become so common, and +which characterise such fronts as those of the Sé Nova at Coimbra or the +Collegio Novo at Oporto. The niches over the entrance arches are severe +but well designed, as are the windows in the towers and all the +mouldings. Perhaps the only fault of the detail is that the Doric +pilasters and columns are too tall.</p> + +<p>Now in its unfinished state the whole is heavy and clumsy, but at the +same time imposing and stately from its great size; but it is scarcely +fair to judge so unfinished a building, which would have been very +different had its dome and four encompassing towers risen high above the +surrounding apses and the red roofs of the houses which climb steeply up +the hillside.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Coimbra, Santa Clara.</div> + +<p>The new convent of Santa Clara at Coimbra was begun about the same +time—in 1640—on the hillside overlooking the Mondego and the old +church which the stream has almost buried; and, more fortunate than +Santa Engracia, it has been finished, but unlike it is a building of +little interest.</p> + +<p>The church is a rectangle with huge Doric pilasters on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> either side +supporting a heavy coffered roof. There are no aisles, but shallow altar +recesses with square-headed windows above. The chancel at the south end +is like the nave but narrower; the two-storied nuns' choir is to the +north. As the convent is still occupied it cannot be visited, but +contains the tomb of St. Isabel, brought from the old church, in the +lower choir, and her silver shrine in the upper. Except for the +cloister, which, designed after the manner of the Claustro dos Filippes +at Thomar, has coupled Doric columns between the arches, and above, +niches flanked by Ionic columns between square windows, the rest of the +nunnery is even heavier and more barrack-like than the church. Indeed +almost the only interest of the church is the use of the huge Doric +pilasters, since from that time onward such pilasters, usually as clumsy +and as large, are found in almost every church.</p> + +<p>This fondness for Doric is probably due to the influence of Terzi, who +seems to have preferred it to all the other orders, though he always +gave his pilasters a beautiful and intricate capital. In any case from +about 1580 onwards scarcely any other order on a large scale is used +either inside or outside, and by 1640 it had grown to the ugly size used +in Santa Clara and in nearly all later buildings, the only real +exception being perhaps in the work of the German who designed Mafra and +rebuilt the Capella Mor at Evora. Such pilasters are found forming piers +in the church built about 1600 to be the cathedral of Leiria, in the +west front of the cathedral of Portalegre, where they are piled above +each other in three stories, huge and tall below, short and thinner +above, and in endless churches all over the country. Later still they +degenerated into mere angle strips, as in the cathedral of Angra do +Heroismo in the Azores and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Such a building as Santa Engracia is the real ending of Architecture in +Portugal, and its unfinished state is typical of the poverty which had +overtaken the country during the Spanish usurpation, when robbed of her +commerce by Holland and by England, united against her will to a +decaying power, she was unable to finish her last great work, while such +buildings as she did herself finish—for it must not be forgotten that +Mafra was designed by a foreigner—show a meanness of invention and +design scarcely to be equalled in any other land, a strange contrast to +the exuberance of fancy lavished on the buildings of a happier age.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h3> + +<p class="head">THE RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</p> + + +<p>W<span class="smcap95">hen</span> elected at Thomar in 1580, Philip <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> of Spain had sworn to govern +Portugal only through Portuguese ministers, a promise which he seems to +have kept. He was fully alive to the importance of commanding the mouth +of the Tagus and the splendid harbour of Lisbon, and had he fixed his +capital there instead of at Madrid it is quite possible that the two +countries might have remained united.</p> + +<p>For sixty years the people endured the ever-growing oppression and +misgovernment. The duque de Lerma, minister to Philip <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, or <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> of +Portugal, and still more the Conde duque de Olivares under Philip <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, +treated Portugal as if it were a conquered province.</p> + +<p>In 1640, the very year in which Santa Engracia was begun, the regent was +Margaret of Savoy, whose ministers, with hardly an exception, were +Spaniards.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that when Philip <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> was elected in 1580, Dona +Catharina, duchess of Braganza and daughter of Dom Manoel's sixth son, +Duarte, duke of Guimarães, had been the real heir to the throne of her +uncle, the Cardinal King. Her Philip had bought off by a promise of the +sovereignty of Brazil, a promise which he never kept, and now in 1640 +her grandson Dom João, eighth duke of Braganza and direct descendant of +Affonso, a bastard son of Dom João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, had succeeded to all her rights.</p> + +<p>He was an unambitious and weak man, fond only of hunting and music, so +Olivares had thought it safe to restore to him his ancestral lands; and +to bind him still closer to Spain had given him a Spanish wife, Luisa +Guzman, daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia. Matters, however, turned +out very differently from what he had expected. A gypsy had once told +Dona Luisa that she would be a queen, and a queen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> she was determined to +be. With difficulty she persuaded her husband to become the nominal head +of the conspiracy for the expulsion of the Spaniards, and on the 1st of +December 1640 the first blow was struck by the capture of the regent and +her ministers in the palace at Lisbon. Next day, December 2nd, the duke +of Braganza was saluted as King Dom João <span class="smcap95">iv.</span> at Villa Viçosa, his +country home beyond Evora.</p> + +<p>The moment of the revolution was well chosen, for Spain was at that time +struggling with a revolt which had broken out in Cataluña, and so was +unable to send any large force to crush Dom João. All the Indian and +African colonies at once drove out the Spaniards, and in Brazil the +Dutch garrisons which had been established there by Count Maurice of +Nassau were soon expelled.</p> + +<p>Though a victory was soon gained over the Spaniards at Montijo, the war +dragged on for twenty-eight years, and it was only some years after Don +John of Austria<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 168.">[168]</a> had been defeated at Almeixial by Schomberg (who +afterwards took service under William of Orange) that peace was finally +made in 1668. Portugal then ceded Ceuta, and Spain acknowledged the +independence of the revolted kingdom, and granted to its sovereign the +title of Majesty.</p> + +<p>It is no great wonder, then, that with such a long-continued war and an +exhausted treasury a building like Santa Engracia should have remained +unfinished, and it would have been well for the architecture of the +country had this state of poverty continued, for then far more old +buildings would have survived unaltered and unspoiled.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately by the end of the seventeenth century trade had revived, +and the discovery of diamonds and of gold in Brazil had again brought +much wealth to the king.</p> + +<p>Of the innumerable churches and palaces built during the eighteenth +century scarcely any are worthy of mention, for perhaps the great +convent palace of Mafra and the Capella Mor of the Sé at Evora are the +only exceptions.</p> + +<p>In the early years of that century King João <span class="smcap95">v.</span> made a vow that if a son +was born to him, he would, on the site of the poorest monastery in the +country, build the largest and the richest. At the same time anxious to +emulate the glories of the Escorial, he determined that his building +should contain a palace as well as a monastery—indeed it may almost be +said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> to contain two palaces, one for the king on the south, and one on +the north for the queen.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Mafra.</div> + +<p>A son was born, and the poorest monastery in the kingdom was found at +Mafra, where a few Franciscans lived in some miserable buildings. Having +found his site, King João had next to find an architect able to carry +out his great scheme, and so low had native talent fallen, that the +architect chosen was a foreigner, Frederic Ludovici or Ludwig, a German.</p> + +<p>The first stone of the vast building was laid in 1717, and the church +was dedicated thirteen years later, in 1730.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 169.">[169]</a></p> + +<p>The whole building may be divided into two main parts. One to the east, +measuring some 560 feet by 350, and built round a large square +courtyard, was devoted to the friars, and contained the convent +entrance, the refectory, chapter-house, kitchen, and cells for two +hundred and eighty brothers, as well as a vast library on the first +floor.</p> + +<p>The other and more extensive part to the west comprises the king's +apartments on the south side, the queen's on the north, and between them +the church.</p> + +<p>It is not without interest to compare the plan of this palace or +monastery with the more famous Escorial. Both cover almost exactly the +same area,<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 170.">[170]</a> but while in the Escorial the church is thrust back at +the end of a vast patio, here it is brought forward to the very front. +There the royal palace occupies only a comparatively small area in the +north-west corner of the site, and the monastic part the whole lying +south of the entrance patio and of the church; here the monastic part is +thrust back almost out of sight, and the palace stretches all along the +west front except where it is interrupted in the middle by the church.</p> + +<p>Indeed the two buildings differ from one another much as did the +characters of their builders. The gloomy fanaticism of Philip of Spain +is exemplified by the preponderance of the monastic buildings no less +than by his own small dark bed-closet opening only to the church close +to the high altar. João <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, pleasure-loving and luxurious, pushed the +friars to the back, and made his own and the queen's rooms the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> +prominent part of the whole building, and one cannot but feel that, +though a monastery had to be built to fulfil a vow, the king was +actuated not so much by religious zeal as by an ostentatious megalomania +which led him to try and surpass the size of the Escorial.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<a href="images/i069_plan_mafra.png"> +<img src="images/i069_plan_mafra_th.png" width="450" height="500" alt="PLAN OF MAFRA" /></a> +<span class="caption">PLAN OF MAFRA</span> +</div> + +<p>To take the plan rather more in detail. The west front, about 740 feet +long, is flanked by huge square projecting pavilions. The king's and the +queen's apartments are each entered by rather low and insignificant +doorways in the middle of the long straight blocks which join these +pavilions to the church. These doors lead under the palace to large +square courtyards, one on each side of the church, and forming on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> the +ground floor a cloister with a well-designed arcading of round arches, +separated by Roman Doric shafts. The king's and the queen's blocks are +practically identical, except that in the king's a great oval hall +called the Sala dos actos takes the place of some smaller rooms between +the cloister and the outer wall.</p> + +<p>Between these blocks stands the church reached by a great flight of +steps. It has a nave and aisles of three large and one small bay, a dome +at the crossing, and transepts and chancel ending in apses. In front, +flanking towers projecting beyond the aisles are united by a long +entrance porch.</p> + +<p>Between the secular and the monastic parts a great corridor runs north +and south, and immediately beyond it a range of great halls, including +the refectory at the north end and the chapter-house at the south. +Further east the great central court with its surrounding cells divides +the monastic entrance and great stair from such domestic buildings as +the kitchen, the bakery, and the lavatory. Four stories of cells occupy +the whole east side.</p> + +<p>Though some parts of the palace and monastery such as the two entrance +courts, the library, and the interior of the church, may be better than +might have been expected from the date, it is quite impossible to speak +at all highly of the building as a whole.</p> + +<p>It is nearly all of the same height with flat paved roofs; indeed the +only breaks are the corner pavilions and the towers and dome of the +church.</p> + +<p>The west side consists of two monotonous blocks, one on each side of the +church, with three stories of windows. At either end is a great square +projecting mass, rusticated on the lowest floor, with short pilaster +strips between the windows on the first, and Corinthian pilasters on the +second. The poor cornice is surmounted by a low attic, within which +rises a hideous ogee plastered roof. (<a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a>.)</p> + +<p>The church in the centre loses much by not rising above the rest of the +front, and the two towers, though graceful enough in outline, are poor +in detail, and are finished off with a very ugly combination of hollow +curves and bulbous domes.</p> + +<p>The centre dome, too, is very poor in outline with a drum and lantern +far too tall for its size; though of course, had the drum been of a +better proportion, it would hardly have shown above the palace roof.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span></p> + +<p>Still more monotonous are the other sides with endless rows of windows +set in a pink plastered wall.</p> + +<p>Very different is the outline of the Escorial, whose very plainness and +want of detail suits well the rugged mountain side in which it is set. +The main front with its high corner towers and their steep slate roofs, +and with its high centre-piece, is far more impressive, and the mere +reiteration of its endless featureless windows gives the Escorial an +appearance of size quite wanting to Mafra. Above all the great church +with massive dome and towers rises high above all the rest, and gives +the whole a sense of unity and completeness which the smaller church of +Mafra, though in a far more prominent place, entirely fails to do.</p> + +<p>Poor though the church at Mafra is outside, inside there is much to +admire, and but little to betray the late date. The porch has an +effective vault of black and white marble, and domes with black and +white panels cover the spaces under the towers. Inside the church is all +built of white marble with panels and pilasters of pink marble from Pero +Pinheiro on the road to Cintra. (<a href="#Fig_101">Fig. 101</a>.)</p> + +<p>The whole church measures about 200 feet long by 100 wide, with a nave +also 100 feet long. The central aisle is over 40 feet wide, and has two +very well-proportioned Corinthian pilasters between each bay. Almost the +only trace of the eighteenth century is found in the mouldings of the +pendentive panels, and in the marble vault, but on the whole the church +is stately and the detail refined and restrained.</p> + +<p>The refectory, a very plain room with plastered barrel vault, 160 feet +long by 40 wide, is remarkable only for the splendid slabs of Brazil +wood which form the tables, and for the beautiful brass lamps which hang +from the ceiling.</p> + +<p>Much more interesting is the library which occupies the central part of +the floor above. Over 200 feet long, it has a dome-surmounted transept +in the middle, and a barrel vault divided into panels. All the walls are +lined with bookcases painted white like the barrel vault and like the +projecting gallery from which the upper shelves are reached. One half is +devoted to religious, and one half to secular books, and in the latter +each country has a space more or less large allotted to it. As scarcely +any books seem to have been added since the building was finished, it +should contain many a rare and valuable volume, and as all seem to be in +excellent condition, +they might well deserve a visit from some learned book-lover.</p> + +<table summary="illustrations" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr + valign="bottom"><td> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_100" id="Fig_100"></a> +<a href="images/i071_fig_100.png"> +<img src="images/i071_fig_100_th.png" width="275" height="352" alt="FIG. 100.MafraW. Front of Palace." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 100.<br />Mafra<br />W. Front of Palace.</span> +</div> +</td><td +style="padding-left:8%;"> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 275px;"> +<a name="Fig_101" id="Fig_101"></a> +<a href="images/i071_fig_101.png"> +<img src="images/i071_fig_101_th.png" width="275" height="357" alt="FIG. 101.MafraInterior of Church." /></a> +<span class="caption">FIG. 101.<br />Mafra<br />Interior of Church.</span> +</div> +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span></p> + +<p>Mafra does not seem to have ever had any interesting history. Within the +lines of Torres Vedras, the palace escaped the worst ravages of the +French invasion. In 1834 the two hundred and eighty friars were turned +out, and since then most of the vast building has been turned into +barracks, while the palace is but occasionally inhabited by the king +when he comes to shoot in the great wooded <i>tapada</i> or enclosure which +stretches back towards the east.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Evora, Capella Mor.</div> + +<p>Just about the time that João <span class="smcap95">v.</span> was beginning his great palace at +Mafra, the chapter of the cathedral of Evora came to the conclusion that +the old Capella Mor was too small, and altogether unworthy of the +dignity of an archiepiscopal see. So they determined to pull it down, +and naturally enough employed Ludovici to design the new one. The first +stone was laid in 1717, and the chancel was consecrated in 1746 at the +cost of about <i>£</i>27,000.</p> + +<p>The outside, of white marble, is enriched with two orders of pilasters, +Corinthian and Composite. Inside, white, pink and black marbles are +used, the columns are composite, but the whole design is far poorer than +anything at Mafra.</p> + +<p>King João <span class="smcap95">v.</span> died in 1750 after a long and prosperous reign. Besides +building Mafra he gave great sums of money to the Pope, and obtained in +return the division of Lisbon into two bishoprics, and the title of +Patriarch for the archbishop of Lisboa Oriental, or Eastern Lisbon.</p> + +<p>When he died he was succeeded by Dom José, whose reign is noted for the +terrible earthquake of 1755, and for the administration of the great +Marques de Pombal.</p> + +<p>It was on the 1st of November, when the population of Lisbon was +assembled in the churches for the services of All Saints' day, that the +first shock was felt. This was soon followed by two others which laid +the city in ruins, killing many people. Most who had escaped rushed to +the river bank, where they with the splendid palace at the water's edge +were all overwhelmed by an immense tidal wave.</p> + +<p>The damage done to the city was almost incalculable. Scarcely a house +remained uninjured, and of the churches nearly all were ruined. The +cathedral was almost entirely destroyed, leaving only the low chapels +and the romanesque nave and transepts standing, and of the later +churches all were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> ruined, and only São Roque and São Vicente de +Fora—which lost its dome—remained to show what manner of churches were +built at the end of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>This is not the place to tell of the administration of the Marques de +Pombal, who rose to eminence owing to the great ability he showed after +this awful calamity, or to give a history of how he expelled the +Jesuits, subdued the nobles, attempted to make Portugal a manufacturing +country, abolished slavery and the differences between the <i>Old</i> and the +<i>New Christians</i>, reformed the administration and the teaching of the +University of Coimbra, and robbed the Inquisition of half its terrors by +making its trials public. In Lisbon he rebuilt the central part of the +town, laying out parallel streets, and surrounding the Praça do +Commercio with great arcaded government offices; buildings remarkable +rather for the fine white stone of which they are made, than for any +architectural beauty. Indeed it is impossible to admire any of the +buildings erected in Portugal since the earthquake; the palaces of the +Necessidades and the Ajuda are but great masses of pink-washed plaster +pierced with endless windows, and without any beauty of detail or of +design.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Lisbon, Estrella.</div> + +<p>Nor does the church of the Coração de Jesus, usually called the +Estrella, call for any admiration. It copies the faults of Mafra, the +tall drum, the poor dome, and the towers with bulbous tops.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteLT">Oporto, Torre dos Clerigos.</div> + +<p>More vicious, indeed, than the Estrella, but much more original and +picturesque, is the Torre dos Clerigos at Oporto, built by the clergy in +1755. It stands at the top of a steep hill leading down to the busiest +part of the town. The tower is a square with rounded corners, and is of +very considerable height. The main part is four stories in height, of +which the lowest is the tallest and the one above it the shortest. All +are adorned with pilasters or pilaster strips, and the third, in which +is a large belfry window, has an elaborate cornice, rising over the +window in a rounded pediment to enclose a great shield of arms. The +fourth story is finished by a globe-bearing parapet, within which the +tower rises to another parapet much corbelled out. The last or sixth +story is set still further back and ends in a fantastic dome-shaped +roof. In short, the tower is a good example of the wonderful and +ingenious way in which the eighteenth-century builders of Portugal often +contrived the strangest results by a use—or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> misuse—of pieces of +classic detail, forming a whole often more Chinese than Western in +appearance, but at the same time not unpicturesque.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor" title="Go to footnote 171.">[171]</a></p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Oporto, Quinta do Freixo.</div> + +<p>A much more pleasing example of the same school—a school doubtless +influenced by the bad example of Churriguera in Spain—is the house +called the Quinta do Freixo on the Douro a mile or so above the town. +Here the four towers with their pointed slate roofs rise in so +picturesque a way at the four corners, and the whole house blends so +well with the parapets and terraces of the garden, that one can almost +forgive the broken pediments which form so strange a gable over the +door, and the still more strange shapes of the windows. Now that factory +chimneys rise close on either side the charm is spoiled, but once the +house, with its turrets, its vase-laden parapets, its rococo windows, +and the slates painted pale blue that cover its walls, must have been a +fit setting for the artificial civilisation of a hundred and fifty years +ago, and for the ladies in dresses of silk brocade and gentlemen in +flowered waistcoats and powdered hair who once must have gone up and +down the terrace steps, or sat in the shell grottoes of the garden.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Queluz.</div> + +<p>Though less picturesque and fantastic, the royal palace at Queluz, +between Lisbon and Cintra, is another really pleasing example of the +more sober rococo. Built by Dom Pedro <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> about 1780, the palace is a +long building with a low tiled roof, and the gardens are rich in +fountains and statues.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Guimarães, Quinta.</div> + +<p>Somewhat similar, but unfinished, and enriched with niches and statues, +is a Quinta near the station at Guimarães. Standing on a slope, the +garden descends northwards in beautiful terraces, whose fronts are +covered with tiles. Being well cared for, it is rich in beautiful trees +and shrubs.</p> + +<div class="sidenoteRT">Oporto, Hospital and Factory.</div> + +<p>Much more correct, and it must be said commonplace, are the hospital and +the English factory—or club-house—in Oporto. The plans of both have +clearly been sent out from England, the hospital especially being +thoroughly English in design. Planned on so vast a scale that it has +never been completed, with the pediment of its Doric portico unfinished, +the hospital is yet a fine building, simple and severe, not unlike what +might have been designed by some pupil of Chambers.</p> + +<p>The main front has a rusticated ground floor with round-headed windows +and doors. On this in the centre stands a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> Doric portico of six columns, +and at the ends narrower colonnades of four shafts each. Between them +stretches a long range of windows with simple, well-designed +architraves. The only thing, apart from its unfinished condition, which +shows that the hospital is not in England, are some colossal figures of +saints which stand above the cornice, and are entirely un-English in +style.</p> + +<p>Of later buildings little can be said. Many country houses are pleasing +from their complete simplicity; plastered, and washed pink, yellow, or +white, they are devoid of all architectural pretension, and their low +roofs of red pantiles look much more natural than do the steep slated +roofs of some of the more modern villas.</p> + +<p>The only unusual point about these Portuguese houses is that, as a rule, +they have sash windows, a form of window so rare in the South that one +is tempted to see in them one of the results of the Methuen Treaty and +of the long intercourse with England. The chimneys, too, are often +interesting. Near Lisbon they are long, narrow oblongs, with a curved +top—not unlike a tombstone in shape—from which the smoke escapes by a +long narrow slit. Elsewhere the smoke escapes through a picturesque +arrangement of tiles, and hardly anywhere is there to be seen a simple +straight shaft with a chimney can at the top.</p> + +<p>For twenty years after the end of the Peninsular War the country was in +a more or less disturbed state. And it was only after Dom Miguel had +been defeated and expelled, and the more liberal party who supported +Dona Maria <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> had won the day, that Portugal again began to revive.</p> + +<p>In 1834, the year which saw Dom Miguel's surrender, all monasteries +throughout the country were suppressed, and the monks turned out. Even +more melancholy was the fate of the nuns, for they were allowed to stay +on till the last should have died. In some cases one or two survived +nearly seventy years, watching the gradual decay of their homes, a decay +they were powerless to arrest, till, when their death at last set the +convents free, they were found, with leaking roofs, and rotten floors, +almost too ruinous to be put to any use.</p> + +<p>The Gothic revival has not been altogether without its effects in +Portugal. Batalha has been, and Alcobaça is being, saved from ruin. The +Sé Velha at Coimbra has been purged—too drastically perhaps—of all the +additions and disfigurements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> of the eighteenth century, and the same is +being done with the cathedral of Lisbon.</p> + +<p>Such new buildings as have been put up are usually much less successful. +Nothing can exceed the ugliness of the new domed tower of the church of +Belem, or of the upper story imposed on the long undercroft. Nor can the +new railway station in the Manoelino style be admired.</p> + +<p>Probably the best of such attempts to copy the art of Portugal's +greatest age is found at Bussaco, where the hotel, with its arcaded +galleries and its great sphere-bearing spire, is not unworthy of the +sixteenth century, and where the carving, usually the spontaneous work +of uninstructed men, shows that some of the mediæval skill, as well as +some of the mediæval methods, have survived till the present century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="BOOKS_CONSULTED" id="BOOKS_CONSULTED"></a>BOOKS CONSULTED</h3> + +<ul> +<li>Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani, Silvensis in Algarviis Episcopi: <i>De +rebus Emmanuelis, etc.</i> Cologne, 1597.</li> + +<li>Padre Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos: <i>Historia de Santarem +Edificada</i>. Lisboa Occidental, 1790.</li> + +<li>J. Murphy: <i>History and Description of the Royal Convent of +Batalha</i>. London, 1792.</li> + +<li>Raczynski: <i>Les Arts en Portugal</i>. Paris, 1846.</li> + +<li>Raczynski: <i>Diccionaire Historico-Artistique du Portugal</i>. Paris, +1847.</li> + +<li>J. C. Robinson: 'Portuguese School of Painting' in the <i>Fine Arts +Quarterly Review</i>. 1866.</li> + +<li>Simões, A. F.: <i>Architectura Religiosa em Coimbra na Idade Meia</i>.</li> + +<li>Ignacio de Vilhena Barbosa: <i>Monumentos de Portugal Historicos, +etc.</i> Lisboa, 1886.</li> + +<li>Oliveira Martims: <i>Historia de Portugal</i>.</li> + +<li>Pinho Leal: <i>Diccionario Geographico de Portugal</i>.</li> + +<li>Albrecht Haupt: <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal</i>. +Frankfurt <span class="smcap95">A.M.</span>, 1890.</li> + +<li>Visconde de Condeixa: <i>O Mosteiro da Batalha em Portugal</i>. Lisboa & +Paris.</li> + +<li>Justi: 'Die Portugiesische Malerei des 16ten Jahrhunderts' in the +<i>Jahrbuch der K. Preuss. Kunstsammlung</i>, vol. ix. Berlin, 1888.</li> + +<li>Joaquim Rasteiro: <i>Quinta e Palacio de Bacalhôa em Azeitão</i>. +Lisboa, 1895.</li> + +<li>Joaquim de Vasconcellos: 'Batalha' & 'São Marcos' from <i>A Arte e a +Natureza em Portugal.</i> Ed. E. Biel e Cie. Porto.</li> + +<li>L. R. D.: <i>Roteiro Illustrado do Viajante em Coimbra</i>. Coimbra, +1894.</li> + +<li>Caetano da Camara Manoel: <i>Atravez a Cidade de Evora, etc.</i> Evora, +1900.</li> + +<li>Conde de Sabugosa: <i>O Paço de Cintra</i>. Lisboa, 1903.</li> + +<li>Augusto Fuschini: <i>A Architectura Religiosa da Edade Média</i>. +Lisboa, 1904.</li> + +<li>José Queiroz: <i>Ceramica Portugueza</i>. Lisboa, 1907.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3> +<ul> +<li class="ltr">A</li> +<li>Abd-el-Melik, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Abrantes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a></li> +<li>Abreu, L. L. d', <a href="#Page_233">233.</a></li> +<li>Abu-Zakariah, the vezir, <a href="#Page_44">44.</a></li> +<li>Affonso <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">vi.</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, Henriques, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> +<li>—— of Portugal, Bishop of Evora, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> +<li>—— son of João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> +<li>—— son of João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Africa, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Aguas Santas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136.</a></li> +<li>Agua de Peixes, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a></li> +<li>Ahmedabad, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180.</a></li> +<li>Albuquerque, Affonso de, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255.</a></li> +<li>—— Luis de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li>Alcacer-Quebir, battle of, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Alcacer Seguer, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a></li> +<li>Alcantara, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></li> +<li>Alcobaça, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75-78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a></li> +<li>Al-Coraxi, emir, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a></li> +<li>Alemquer, <a href="#Page_217">217.</a></li> +<li>Alemtejo, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143.</a></li> +<li>Alexander <span class="smcap95">vi.</span>, Pope, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Alfonso <span class="smcap95">vi.</span> of Castile and Leon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95"><a name="vii" id="vii"></a>vii.</span> of Castile and Leon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">x.</span> of Castile and Leon, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Alga, San Giorgio in, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a></li> +<li>Algarve, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>Alhambra, the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128.</a></li> +<li>Aljubarrota, battle of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98.</a></li> +<li>Almada, Rodrigo Ruy de, <a href="#Page_11">11.</a></li> +<li>Almansor, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42.</a></li> +<li>Almeida, Bishop Jorge d', <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210.</a></li> +<li>Almeirim, palace of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240.</a></li> +<li>Almeixial, battle of, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Almourol, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Almoravides, the, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Alvares, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>—— Baltazar, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li>—— Fernando, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Alvito, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129-132</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255.</a></li> +<li>Amarante, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li>Amaro, Sant', <a href="#Page_27">27.</a></li> +<li>Amboise, Georges d', <a href="#Page_202">202.</a></li> +<li>Ançã, <a href="#Page_204">204.</a></li> +<li>Andalucia, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Andrade, Fernão Peres de, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></li> +<li>Angra do Heroismo, in the Azores, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>Annes, Canon Gonçalo, <a href="#Page_20">20</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>—— Margarida, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>—— Pedro, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li>Antunes, Aleixo, <a href="#Page_228">228.</a></li> +<li>Antwerp, <a href="#Page_11">11.</a></li> +<li>Arabes, Sala dos, Cintra, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></li> +<li>Aragon, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Arganil, Counts of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a></li> +<li>Arraes, Frey Amador, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a></li> +<li>Arruda, Diogo de, <a href="#Page_162">162.</a></li> +<li>Astorga, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Asturias, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>—— Enrique, Prince of the, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Augustus, reign of, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Ave, river, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107.</a></li> +<li>Aveiro, convent at, <a href="#Page_142">142.</a></li> +<li>—— the Duque d', <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> +<li>—— Dukes of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> + + +<li>Avignon, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Aviz, House of, <a href="#Page_8">8.</a></li> +<li>Azeitão, <a href="#Page_255">255.</a></li> +<li>Azila, in Morocco, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Azurara, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">B</li> +<li>Bacalhôa, Quinta de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255.</a></li> +<li>Barbosa, Francisco, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a></li> +<li>—— Gonzalo Gil, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li>Barcellos, <a href="#Page_127">127.</a></li> +<li>Barcelona, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li><a name="Batalha" id="Batalha"></a>Batalha, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80-92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171-181</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230-233</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a></li> +<li>Bayão, Gonçalo, <a href="#Page_240">240.</a></li> +<li>Bayona, in Galicia, <a href="#Page_39">39.</a></li> +<li><a name="Beatriz" id="Beatriz"></a>Beatriz, Dona, wife of Charles <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> of Savoy, <a href="#Page_14">14.</a></li> +<li>—— Queen of Affonso <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> +<li>—— —— Affonso <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Bebedim, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Beckford, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>Beira, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a></li> +<li><a name="Beja" id="Beja"></a>Beja, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256.</a></li> +<li>—— Luis, Duke of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Belem" id="Belem"></a>Belem, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183-195</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271.</a></li> +<li>—— Tower of São Vicente, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181-183</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernardo (of Santiago), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>—— Master, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li>Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>Boelhe, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li>Bonacofú, <a href="#Page_102">102.</a></li> +<li>Boulogne, Countess of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></li> +<li>Boutaca, or Boitaca, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a></li> +<li>Braga, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34-40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112-115</a>.</li> +<li>Braganza, Archbishop José de, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>—— Catherine, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> +<li>—— Duke of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> +<li>—— Dukes of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +<li>—— João, Duke of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Brandão, Francisco, <a href="#Page_11">11.</a></li> +<li>Brazil, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Brazil, Pedro of, <a href="#Page_8">8.</a></li> +<li><a name="Brazotildees" id="Brazotildees"></a>Brazões, Sala dos, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151.</a></li> +<li>Brites, Dona, daughter of Fernando <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li>—— —— mother of D. Manoel, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a> <i>n.</i></li> + +<li>Buchanan, George, <a href="#Page_198">198</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Bugimaa, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>Burgos, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a></li> +<li>Burgundy, Count Henry of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></li> +<li>—— <a name="Isabel_Duchess_of" id="Isabel_Duchess_of"></a>Isabel, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> + +<li>Bussaco, <a href="#Page_271">271.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">C</li> +<li>Cabral, Pedro Alvares, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206.</a></li> +<li>Caldas da Rainha, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147.</a></li> +<li>Cales, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Calicut, Portuguese at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Calixtus <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, Pope, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Câmara, Luis Gonçalves de, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a></li> +<li>Caminha, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></li> +<li>Cantabrian Mountains, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Cantanhede, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Canterbury Cathedral, <a href="#Page_82">82.</a></li> +<li>Canton, Portuguese at, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></li> +<li>Cão, Diogo, <a href="#Page_143">143.</a></li> +<li>Cardiga, <a href="#Page_229">229.</a></li> +<li>Carlos, Frey, painter, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a></li> +<li>Carnide, Pero de, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a></li> +<li>Carreira, house of Visconde de, <a href="#Page_254">254.</a></li> +<li>Carreiro, Pero, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a></li> +<li>Carta, Diogo da, <a href="#Page_192">192.</a></li> +<li>Carvalho, Pero, <a href="#Page_229">229.</a></li> +<li>Castello Branco, Cardinal Affonso de, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250.</a></li> +<li>Castile, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li>—— Constance of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Castilho, Diogo de, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199.</a></li> +<li>—— João de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-239</a>.</li> +<li>—— Maria de, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Castro de Avelans, <a href="#Page_58">58.</a></li> +<li>—— Guiomar de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> +<li>—— Inez de, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76-78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> +<li>—— Isabel de, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Castro-Marim, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Cataluña, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Catharina, queen of João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a></li> +<li>Cavado, river, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></li> +<li>Cellas, <a href="#Page_70">70.</a></li> +<li>Cêras, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a></li> +<li>Cetobriga, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Ceuta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Ceylon, loss of, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Chambers, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a></li> +<li>Chantranez, Nicolas. See <a href="#Nicolas">Nicolas</a>, Master.</li> +<li>Chelb. See <a href="#Silves">Silves</a>.</li> +<li>Chillenden, Prior, <a href="#Page_82">82.</a></li> +<li>Chimneys, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a></li> +<li>China, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Christo de la Luz, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></li> +<li>Churriguera, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a></li> +<li>Cintra, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116-128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136-138</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216.</a></li> +<li>Citania, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Clairvaux, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a></li> +<li>Claustro Real, Batalha, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a>.</li> +<li><a name="Clement" id="Clement"></a>Clement v., Pope, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Coca, in Spain, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Cochin, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Cogominho, Pedro Esteves, <a href="#Page_94">94.</a></li> +<li><a name="Coimbra" id="Coimbra"></a>Coimbra, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>—— Archdeacon João de, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +<li>—— Carmo, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>—— County of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li>—— Episcopal palace, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li>—— Graça, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>—— Misericordia, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li>—— Pedro, Duke of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Bento, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Domingos, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Thomaz, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sta. Clara, 72. New, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sta. Cruz, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-200</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sé Nova, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sé Velha, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49-51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-210</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> +<li>—— University, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143.</a></li> +<li>Condeixa, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>—— Visconde de, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li>Conimbriga, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Conselbo, Sala do, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121.</a></li> +<li>Cordeiro, Johan, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a></li> +<li>Cordoba, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></li> +<li>Coro, the, Thomar, <a href="#Page_161">161-170</a>.</li> +<li>Coutinho, Beatriz, <a href="#Page_101">101.</a></li> +<li>Crato, Prior of, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Cunha, João Lourenço da, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>—— Tristão da, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Page_89">89.</a></li> +<li>Cysnes, Sala de. See <a href="#Swan">Swan Hall</a>.</li> +<li class="ltr">D</li> +<li>Dartmouth, <a href="#Page_44">44.</a></li> +<li>David, Gerhard, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a></li> +<li>Delhi, Old, Kutub at, <a href="#Page_176">176.</a></li> +<li>Diana, Pateo de, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125.</a></li> +<li>Diaz, Bartholomeu, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170.</a></li> +<li>Diniz, Dom, King, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223.</a></li> +<li>—— —— son of Inez de Castro, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li>Diogo, Duke of Vizen, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li><a name="Dipri" id="Dipri"></a>D'ipri, João, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +<li>Diu, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Domingues, Affonso, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90.</a></li> +<li>—— Domingo, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li>Douro, river, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256.</a></li> +<li>Dralia, Johannes, <a href="#Page_13">13.</a></li> +<li>Duarte, Dom, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172.</a></li> +<li>Durando, Bishop of Evora, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a></li> +<li>Dürer, Albert, <a href="#Page_11">11.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">E</li> +<li>Eannes, Affonso, <a href="#Page_98">98.</a></li> +<li>—— Diogo, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> +<li>—— Gonçalo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> +<li>—— Rodrigo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + +<li>Earthquake at Lisbon, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a></li> +<li>Ebro, river, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Eduard, Felipe, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">See <a href="#Uduarte">Uduarte</a>.</span></li> + +<li>Ega, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></li> +<li>Egas Moniz, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Eja, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li>El-Kasar-el-Kebir, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Elsden, William, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a></li> +<li>Elvas, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a></li> +<li>English influence, supposed, <a href="#Page_82">82-92</a>.</li> +<li>Entre Minho e Douro, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30.</a></li> +<li>Escorial, the, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263-266</a>.</li> +<li>Escudos, Sala dos. See <a href="#Brazotildees">Sala dos Brazões</a>.</li> +<li>Espinheiro, <a href="#Page_12">12.</a></li> +<li>Essex, Earl of, <a href="#Page_68">68.</a></li> +<li>Estaço, Gaspar, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Esteves, Pedro, <a href="#Page_94">94.</a></li> +<li>Estrella, Serra d', <a href="#Page_1">1.</a></li> +<li>Estremadura, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64.</a></li> +<li>Estremoz, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>Eugenius <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, Pope, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Evora, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241.</a></li> +<li>—— Cartuxa, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> +<li>—— Fernão d', <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> +<li>—— Graça, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>—— Henrique, Archbishop of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> +<li>—— Monte, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> +<li>—— Morgado de Cordovis, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> +<li>—— Paços Reaes, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> +<li>—— Resende, House of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Braz, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Domingos, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Francisco, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sé, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51-55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> +<li>—— Temple, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> +<li>—— University, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li> + +<li>Eyck, J. van, <a href="#Page_11">11.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">F</li> +<li>Familicão, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li>Faro, <a href="#Page_68">68</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li>Felix, the goldsmith, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a></li> +<li>Fenacho, João, <a href="#Page_154">154.</a></li> +<li>Fernandes, Antonius, <a href="#Page_200">200.</a></li> +<li>—— Diogo, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li>—— Lourenço, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> +<li>—— Matheus, sen., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> +<li>—— Matheus, jun., <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> +<li>—— Thomas, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> +<li>—— Vasco, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Ferdinand and Isabella (the Catholic king), <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189.</a></li> +<li>Fernando <span class="smcap95">i.</span> of Castile and Leon, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, Dom, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> +<li>—— son of João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> +<li>—— —— Dom Duarte, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Figueira de Foz, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a></li> +<li>Figueredo, Christovão de, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201.</a></li> +<li>Flanders, Isabel of. See <a href="#Isabel_Duchess_of">Burgundy, Duchess of</a>.</li> +<li>Fontenay, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71.</a></li> +<li>Fontfroide, <a href="#Page_71">71.</a></li> +<li>Furness, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>Funchal, in Madeira, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">G</li> +<li>Galicia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67.</a></li> +<li>Gama, Vasco da, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206.</a></li> +<li>Gandara, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li>Garcia, King of Galicia, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Gata, Sierra de, <a href="#Page_1">1.</a></li> +<li>Gaunt, John of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81.</a></li> +<li>—— —— Philippa, daughter of. See <a href="#Lancaster_Philippa">Lancaster, Philippa of</a>.</li> + +<li>Gerez, the, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></li> +<li>Gilberto, Bishop. See <a href="#Hastings">Hastings</a>, Gilbert of.</li> +<li>Giraldo, São, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a></li> +<li>Giustiniani, San Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133.</a></li> +<li>Gôa (India), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Goes, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>—— Damião de, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Gollegã, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153.</a></li> +<li>Gomes, Gonçalo, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a></li> +<li>Gonsalves, André, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a></li> +<li>—— Eytor, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> + +<li>Goth, Bertrand de. See <a href="#Clement">Clement</a> <span class="smcap95">v.</span></li> +<li>Granada, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Guadiana, river, <a href="#Page_1">1.</a></li> +<li>Guarda, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238.</a></li> +<li>—— Fernando, Duke of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Guadelete, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Guimarães, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a></li> +<li>—— Duarte, Duke of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Gujerat, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Guntino, Abbot, <a href="#Page_73">73.</a></li> +<li>Guzman, Beatriz de, <a href="#Page_68">68.</a></li> +<li>See <a href="#Beatriz">Beatriz, Queen of Affonso</a> <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>.</li> +<li>—— Luisa, Queen of João <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>H</li> +<li>Haro, Dona Mencia de, <a href="#Page_67">67.</a></li> +<li><a name="Hastings" id="Hastings"></a>Hastings, Gilbert of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a></li> +<li>Haupt, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Henares, Alcalá de, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a></li> +<li>Henriques, Francisco, <a href="#Page_135">135.</a></li> +<li>Henry, Cardinal King, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241-244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>—— Prince, the Navigator, Duke of Vizen, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">vii.</span> of England, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> + +<li>Herculano, <a href="#Page_185">185.</a></li> +<li>Herrera, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a></li> +<li>Hollanda, Antonio de, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17.</a></li> +<li>—— Francisco de, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Holy Constable. See <a href="#Pereira">Pereira, Nuno Alvares</a>.</li> +<li><a name="Huguet" id="Huguet"></a>Huguet (Ouguet, or Huet), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">I</li> +<li>Idacius, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Idanha a Velha, <a href="#Page_57">57.</a></li> +<li>India, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a></li> +<li>Indian influence, supposed, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Inquisition, the, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248.</a></li> +<li>Isabel, St., Queen, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>—— Queen of D. Manoel, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> +<li>—— Queen of Charles <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li> + +<li>Italian influence, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">J</li> +<li>Jantar, Sala de, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123.</a></li> +<li>Japan, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Jeronymo, <a href="#Page_203">203.</a></li> +<li>Jews, expulsion of the, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></li> +<li>João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">iv.</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> +<li>—— Dom, son of Inez de Castro, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> +<li>—— —— son of João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + +<li>John, Don, of Austria, son of Philip of Spain, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>John <span class="smcap95">xxii.</span>, Pope, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>José, Dom, <a href="#Page_267">267.</a></li> +<li>Junot, Marshal, <a href="#Page_8">8.</a></li> +<li>Justi, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">L</li> +<li>Lagos, São Sebastião at, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>Lagrimas, Quinta das, <a href="#Page_76">76.</a></li> +<li>Lamego, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li><a name="Lancaster_Philippa" id="Lancaster_Philippa"></a>Lancaster, Philippa of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a></li> +<li>Leça do Balio, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a></li> +<li>Leiria, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>Leyre, S. Salvador de, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Lemos family, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>Leo <span class="smcap95">x.</span>, Pope, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a></li> +<li>Leon, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li>Leonor, Queen of João <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171.</a></li> +<li>—— Queen of D. Manoel, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li>Lerma, Duque de, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>Lima, river, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></li> +<li>Lis, river, <a href="#Page_69">69.</a></li> +<li>Lisbon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267.</a></li> +<li>—— Ajuda Palace, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li>—— Carmo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> +<li>—— —— Museum, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> +<li>—— Cathedral, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45-47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> +<li>—— Conceição Velha, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> +<li>—— Estrella, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li>—— Madre de Deus, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> +<li>—— Necessidades, Palace, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Bento, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Roque, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Vicente de Fora, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> +<li>—— —— house of Conde de, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li>—— Santo Antão, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247-248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sta. Maria do Desterro, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>—— Torre do Tombo, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>n.</i></li> +<li>—— Torreão do Paço, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>—— University, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> +<li>—— Affonso, Archbishop of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Lobo, Diogo, Barão d'Alvito, <a href="#Page_131">131.</a></li> +<li>Lobos, Ruy de Villa, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></li> +<li>Loches, St. Ours, <a href="#Page_126">126.</a></li> +<li>Lopez, João, <a href="#Page_254">254-255</a>.</li> +<li>Lorvão, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li>Longuim, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a></li> +<li>Lourenço, Gregorio, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a></li> +<li>—— Thereza, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Louzã, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>Loyos, the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>Ludovici, Frederic, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267.</a></li> +<li>Lupiana, Spain, <a href="#Page_234">234</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Lusitania, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">M</li> +<li>Madrid, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>Mafamede, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168.</a></li> +<li>Mafra, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268.</a></li> +<li>Malabar Coast, <a href="#Page_157">157.</a></li> +<li>Malacca, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Manoel, Dom, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117-119</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171-172</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244.</a></li> +<li>Manuel, Jorge, <a href="#Page_226">226</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Marão Mts., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></li> +<li>Marceana, <a href="#Page_217">217.</a></li> +<li>Maria <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, da Gloria, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> +<li>—— Queen of Dom Manoel, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> + +<li>Massena, General, <a href="#Page_180">180.</a></li> +<li>Matsys, Quentin, <a href="#Page_13">13.</a></li> +<li>Mattos, Francisco de, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Mazagão, Morocco, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231.</a></li> +<li>Meca, Terreiro da, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127.</a></li> +<li>Mecca, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Medina del Campo, Spain, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>—— Sidonia, Duke of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Mello, family, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li>—— Rodrigo Affonso de, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + +<li>Melrose, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>Mendes, Hermengildo, Count of Tuy and Porto, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Menendes, Geda, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a></li> +<li>Menezes, Brites de, <a href="#Page_212">212-215</a>.</li> +<li>—— Duarte de, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> +<li>—— Fernão Telles de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> +<li>—— Dona Leonor Telles de, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> +<li>—— Leonor de, daughter of D. Pedro, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> +<li>—— Pedro de, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Merida, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Mertola, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></li> +<li>Miguel, Dom, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a></li> +<li>—— Prince, son of D. Manoel, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> +<li>—— bishop of Coimbra, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li>Minho, river, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109.</a></li> +<li>Miranda de Douro, <a href="#Page_241">241.</a></li> +<li>Moissac, <a href="#Page_72">72.</a></li> +<li>Moncorvo, <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></li> +<li>Mondego, river, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259.</a></li> +<li>Montemor-o-Velho, <a href="#Page_217">217.</a></li> +<li>Montijo, battle of, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Morocco, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171.</a></li> +<li>Mulay-Ahmed, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a></li> +<li>Mumadona, Countess of Tuy and Porto, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Muñoz, assistant of Olivel of Ghent, <a href="#Page_163">163.</a></li> +<li>Murillo, <a href="#Page_10">10.</a></li> +<li>Murça, Diogo de, <a href="#Page_252">252.</a></li> +<li>Murphy, J., <a href="#Page_90">90</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">N</li> +<li>Nabantia. See <a href="#Thomar">Thomar</a>.</li> +<li>Nabão, river, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a></li> +<li><a name="Napier" id="Napier"></a>Napier, Captain Charles, <a href="#Page_9">9.</a></li> +<li>Nassau, Maurice of, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Navarre, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li><a name="Nicolas" id="Nicolas"></a>Nicolas, Master, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a></li> +<li>—— v., Pope, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Noronha, Bishop Manoel, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li>Noya, <a href="#Page_254">254</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li class="ltr">O</li> +<li>Oliva, Antonio ab, <a href="#Page_28">28.</a></li> +<li>Olivares, Conde, Duque de, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>Olivel of Ghent, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163.</a></li> +<li>Oporto, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li>—— Cathedral, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> +<li>—— Cedofeita, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +<li>—— Collegio Novo, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> +<li>—— Hospital and Factory, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> +<li>—— Misericordia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> +<li>—— Nossa Senhors da Serra do Pilar, <a href="#Page_256">256-8</a>.</li> +<li>—— Quinta ado Freixo, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Bento, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Francisco, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> +<li>—— Torre dos Clerigos, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li>Order of Christ, the. See <a href="#Thomar">Thomar</a>.</li> +<li>Orense, in Galicia, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254.</a></li> +<li>Ormuz, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Ouguet. See <a href="#Huguet">Huguet</a>.</li> +<li>Ourem, Count of, <a href="#Page_100">100.</a></li> +<li>Ourique, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a></li> +<li>Ovidio, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_18">18.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">P</li> +<li>Pacheco, Lopo Fernandes, <a href="#Page_75">75.</a></li> +<li>—— Maria Rodrigues, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Paço de Souza, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40.</a></li> +<li>Paes, Gualdim, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167.</a></li> +<li>Palmella, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62.</a></li> +<li>Pax Julia, the. See <a href="#Beja">Beja</a>.</li> +<li>Payo, Bishop, of Evora, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Pedro <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> +<li>—— son of João <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, Duke of Coimbra, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> +<li>—— the Cruel, Constance, daughter of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Pegas, Sala das, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152.</a></li> +<li>Pekin, Portuguese in, <a href="#Page_144">144.</a></li> +<li>Pelayo, Don, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Penafiel, Constança de, <a href="#Page_76">76.</a></li> +<li>Penha Longa, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>.</li> +<li>—— Verde, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Pereira" id="Pereira"></a>Pereira, Nuno Alvares, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98.</a></li> +<li>Pero Pinheiro, <a href="#Page_266">266.</a></li> +<li>Persia, <a href="#Page_124">124.</a></li> +<li>Philip <span class="smcap95">i.</span> and <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240-244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">III.</span> and <span class="smcap95">IV.</span>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li>Philippe le Bel, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Pimentel, Frei Estevão Vasques, <a href="#Page_73">73.</a></li> +<li>Pinhal, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li>Pinheiro, Diogo, Bishop of Funchal, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a></li> +<li>Pires Marcos, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196-198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200.</a></li> +<li>Po, Fernando, <a href="#Page_143">143.</a></li> +<li>Pombal, Marques de, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267.</a></li> +<li>Pombeiro, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62.</a></li> +<li>Ponza, Carlos de. See <a href="#Napier">Captain Napier</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9.</a></li> +<li>Pontigny, <a href="#Page_60">60.</a></li> +<li>Portalegre, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>Ptolomeu, Master, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li class="ltr">Q</li> +<li>Queluz, <a href="#Page_269">269.</a></li> +<li>Quintal, Ayres do, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">R</li> +<li>Rabat, minaret at, <a href="#Page_168">168</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180.</a></li> +<li>Raczynski, Count, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_214">214.</a></li> +<li>Raimundes Alfonso. See <a href="#vii">Alfonso</a> <span class="smcap95">vii.</span></li> +<li>Ranulph, Abbot, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>Rates, São Pedro de, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36.</a></li> +<li>Raymond, Count of Toulouse, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Resende, Garcia de, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Restello, Nossa Senhora do, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Rio Mau, São Christovão do, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a></li> +<li>Robbia, della, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Robert, Master, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50.</a></li> +<li>Roderick, King, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Rodrigues, Alvaro, <a href="#Page_162">162.</a></li> +<li>—— João, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> +<li>—— Jorge, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li> +<li>—— Justa, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + +<li>Roliça, battle of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Romans in Portugal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Rome, embassy to, 1514, <a href="#Page_183">183.</a></li> +<li>Rouen, Jean de. See next.</li> +<li>Ruão, João de, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202-205</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">S</li> +<li>Sabrosa, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Salamanca, <a href="#Page_54">54.</a></li> +<li>Saldanha, Manoel de, <a href="#Page_141">141.</a></li> +<li>Sancha, Dona, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70.</a></li> +<li>Sancho, King of Castile, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Sancho <span class="smcap95">i.</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197.</a></li> +<li>—— <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li>Sansovino, Andrea da, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214.</a></li> +<li>São Marcos, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-216</a>.</li> +<li>—— Theotonio, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> +<li>—— Thiago d'Antas, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> +<li>—— Torquato, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Santa Cruz. See <a href="#Coimbra">Coimbra</a>.</li> +<li>—— Maria da Victoria. See <a href="#Batalha">Batalha</a>.</li> + +<li>Santarem, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229.</a></li> +<li>—— Graça, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> +<li>—— Marvilla, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li> +<li>—— Milagre, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> +<li>—— São Francisco, 57. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> +<li>—— São João de Alporão, <a href="#Page_56">56-57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li>—— Sta. Clara, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> +<li>—— Frey Martinho de, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + +<li>Santiago, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254.</a></li> +<li>Santos, <a href="#Page_227">227</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Santo Thyrso, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103.</a></li> +<li>Sash windows, <a href="#Page_270">270.</a></li> +<li>Savoy, Margaret of, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>Schomberg, Marshal, <a href="#Page_262">262.</a></li> +<li>Sebastião, Dom, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240-244</a>.</li> +<li>Sem Pavor, Giraldo, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a></li> +<li>Sempre Noiva, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146.</a></li> +<li>Sereias, Sala das, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122.</a></li> +<li>Sesnando, Count, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a></li> +<li>Setubal, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154-156</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184.</a></li> +<li>Seville, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197.</a></li> +<li><a name="Silvas" id="Silvas"></a>Silvas, the da, <a href="#Page_211">211-215</a>.</li> +<li>Silva, Ayres Gomes da, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213.</a></li> +<li>—— Miguel da, Bishop of Vizeu, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li>—— Diogo da, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> +<li>—— João da, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> +<li>—— Lourenço da, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> + +<li>Silveira family, <a href="#Page_219">219.</a></li> +<li><a name="Silves" id="Silves"></a>Silves, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></li> +<li>Simão, <a href="#Page_203">203.</a></li> +<li>Sodre, Vicente, <a href="#Page_158">158.</a></li> +<li>Soeire, <a href="#Page_48">48.</a></li> +<li>Soult, Marshal, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256.</a></li> +<li>Soure, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a></li> +<li>Souza, Diogo de, Archbishop of Braga, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113.</a></li> +<li>—— Gil de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Sta. Maria a Velha, <a href="#Page_59">59.</a></li> +<li>St. James, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>St. Vincent, Cape, battle of, <a href="#Page_9">9.</a></li> +<li>Suevi, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li><a name="Swan" id="Swan"></a>Swan Hall, the, Cintra, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">T</li> +<li>Taipas, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Tagus, river, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>Tangier, <a href="#Page_243">243.</a></li> +<li>Tarragona, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55.</a></li> +<li>Tavira, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236.</a></li> +<li>Telles, Maria, <a href="#Page_79">79.</a></li> +<li>Templars, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161.</a></li> +<li>Tentugal, <a href="#Page_212">212.</a></li> +<li>Terzi, Filippo, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-253</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260.</a></li> +<li>Tetuan, in Morocco, <a href="#Page_21">21.</a></li> +<li>Theodomir, Suevic King, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32.</a></li> +<li>Theotonio, Archbishop of Evora, <a href="#Page_255">255.</a></li> +<li>Theresa, Dona, wife of Henry of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114.</a></li> +<li><a name="Thomar" id="Thomar"></a>Thomar, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261.</a></li> +<li>—— Convent of the Order of Christ, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157-170</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224-230</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> +<li>—— Conceição, <a href="#Page_231">231-234</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> +<li>—— Nossa Senhora do Olival, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> +<li>—— São João Baptista, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Tinouco, João Nunes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a></li> +<li>Toledo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116.</a></li> +<li>—— Juan Garcia de, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li>Torralva, Diogo de, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240-243</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250.</a></li> +<li>Torre de Murta, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></li> +<li>—— de São Vicente. See <a href="#Belem">Belem</a>.</li> + +<li>Torres, Pero de, <a href="#Page_149">149.</a></li> +<li>—— Pedro Fernandes de, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> +<li>—— Vedras, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li>Toulouse, St. Sernin at, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47.</a></li> +<li>Trancoso, <a href="#Page_33">33.</a></li> +<li>Trava, Fernando Peres de, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7.</a></li> +<li>Traz os Montes, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></li> +<li>Trofa, near Agueda, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220.</a></li> +<li>Troya, <a href="#Page_3">3.</a></li> +<li>Tua, river, <a href="#Page_2">2.</a></li> +<li>Turianno, <a href="#Page_242">242.</a></li> +<li>Tuy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">U</li> +<li>Urraca, Queen of Castile and Leon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>—— Queen of Affonso <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Uduarte" id="Uduarte"></a>Uduarte, Philipo, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">V</li> +<li>Vagos, Lords. See the <a href="#Silvas">da Silvas</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211.</a></li> +<li>Valladolid, <a href="#Page_247">247.</a></li> +<li>Vandals, the, <a href="#Page_4">4.</a></li> +<li>Varziella, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Vasari, <a href="#Page_130">130.</a></li> +<li>Vasco, Grão, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201.</a></li> +<li>Vasconcellos, Senhora de, <a href="#Page_174">174.</a></li> +<li>Vasquez, Master, <a href="#Page_91">91.</a></li> +<li>Vaz, Leonardo, <a href="#Page_185">185.</a></li> +<li>Velasquez, <a href="#Page_10">10.</a></li> +<li>Vianna d'Alemtejo, <a href="#Page_135">135.</a></li> +<li>—— do Castello, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> + +<li>Vicente, family of goldsmiths, <a href="#Page_20">20.</a></li> +<li>—— João, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + +<li>Vigo, <a href="#Page_9">9.</a></li> +<li>Viegas, Godinho, <a href="#Page_34">34.</a></li> +<li>Vilhegas, Diogo Ortiz de, Bishop of Vizeu, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111.</a></li> +<li>Vilhelmus, Doñus, <a href="#Page_27">27.</a></li> +<li>Vilhena, Antonia de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216.</a></li> +<li>—— Henrique de, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +<li>—— Maria de, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li>Villa do Conde, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142.</a></li> +<li>—— da Feira, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> +<li>—— nova de Gaya, <a href="#Page_256">256-258</a>.</li> + +<li>Villa Viçosa, <a href="#Page_202">202.</a></li> +<li>Villar de Frades, <a href="#Page_34">34-36</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99.</a></li> +<li>Villarinho, <a href="#Page_31">31.</a></li> +<li>Vimaranes, <a href="#Page_41">41.</a></li> +<li>Visigoths, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5.</a></li> +<li>Viterbo, San Martino al Cimino, near <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Vizeu, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237.</a></li> +<li>—— Diogo, Duke of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Vizella, <a href="#Page_31">31.</a></li> +<li>Vlimer, Master, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207.</a></li> +<li>Vouga, river, <a href="#Page_29">29.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">W</li> +<li>Walis, palace of, <a href="#Page_117">117.</a></li> +<li>Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>n.</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256.</a></li> +<li>Windsor, Treaty of, 1386, <a href="#Page_80">80.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">Y</li> +<li>Yakub, Emir of Morocco, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56.</a></li> +<li>Yokes, ox, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> <i>n</i>.</li> +<li>Ypres, John of. See <a href="#Dipri">D'ipri</a>.</li> +<li>Yusuf, Emir of Morocco, <a href="#Page_51">51.</a></li> +<li class="ltr">Z</li> +<li>Zalaca, battle of, <a href="#Page_6">6.</a></li> +<li>Zezere, river, <a href="#Page_234">234.</a></li> +</ul> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<ol> +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The most noticeable difference in pronunciation, the +Castilian guttural soft G and J, and the lisping of the Z or soft C +seems to be of comparatively modern origin. However different such words +as 'chave' and 'llave,' 'filho' and 'hijo,' 'mão' and 'mano' may seem +they are really the same in origin and derived from <i>clavis</i>, <i>filius</i>, +and <i>manus</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> From the name of this dynasty Moabitin, which means +fanatic, is derived the word Maravedi or Morabitino, long given in the +Peninsula to a coin which was first struck in Morocco.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The last nun in a convent at Evora only died in 1903, which +must have been at least seventy years after she had taken the veil.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> A narcissus triandrus with a white perianth and yellow cup +is found near Lamego and at Louzã, not far from Coimbra.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See article by C. Justi, 'Die Portugesische Malerei des +xvi. Jahrhunderts,' in vol. ix. of the <i>Jahrbuch der K. Preussischen +Kunstsammlungen</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Raczynski, <i>Les Arts en Portugal</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> These are the 'Annunciation,' the 'Risen Lord appearing to +His Mother,' the 'Ascension,' the 'Assumption,' the 'Good Shepherd,' and +perhaps a 'Pentecost' and a 'Nativity.'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> V. Guimarães, <i>A Ordem de Christo</i>, p. 155.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> A. Hapt, <i>Die Baukunst, etc., in Portugal</i>, vol. ii. p. +36.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> These may perhaps be by the so-called Master of São Bento, +to whom are attributed a 'Visitation'—in which Chastity, Poverty, and +Humility follow the Virgin—and a 'Presentation,' both now in Lisbon. +Some paintings in São Francisco Evora seem to be by the same hand.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Misericordia=the corporation that owns and manages all the +hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions in the town. There +is one in almost every town in the country.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> She seems almost too old to be Dona Leonor and may be Dona +Maria.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> His first wife was Dona Isabel, eldest daughter and +heiress to the Catholic Kings. She died in 1498 leaving an infant son +Dom Miguel, heir to Castile and Aragon as well as to Portugal. He died +two years later when Dom Manoel married his first wife's sister, Dona +Maria, by whom he had six sons and two daughters. She died in 1517, and +next year he married her niece Dona Leonor, sister of Charles <span class="smcap95">v.</span> and +daughter of Mad Juana. She had at first been betrothed to his eldest son +Dom João. All these marriages were made in the hope of succeeding to the +Spanish throne.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Some authorities doubt the identification of the king and +queen. But there is a distinct likeness between the figures of Dom +Manoel and his queen which adorn the west door of the church at Belem, +and the portrait of the king and queen in this picture.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> It has been reproduced by the Arundel Society, but the +copyist has entirely missed the splendid solemnity of St. Peter's face.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See 'Portuguese School of Painting,' by J. C. Robinson, in +the <i>Fine Arts Quarterly</i> of 1866.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Vieira Guimarães, <i>A Ordem de Christo</i>, p. 150.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 157.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Carriage hire is still cheap in Portugal, for in 1904 only +6<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 was paid for a carriage from Thomar to Leiria, a distance of over +thirty-five miles, though the driver and horses had to stay at Leiria +all night and return next day. 6<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 was then barely over twenty +shillings.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> It was the gift of Bishop Affonso of Portugal who held the +see from 1485 to 1522.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> This monstrance was given by Bishop Dom Jorge d'Almeida +who died in 1543, having governed the see for sixty-two years. (<a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>.)</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Presented by Canon Gonçalo Annes in 1534.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> D. Francisco Simonet, professor of Arabic at Granada. Note +in <i>Paço de Cintra</i>, p. 206.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Miss <span class="smcap95">i.</span> Savory, <i>In the Tail of the Peacock</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A common pattern found at Bacalhôa, near Setubal, in the +Museum at Oporto, and in the Corporation Galleries of Glasgow, where it +is said to have come from Valencia in Spain.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Joaquim Rasteiro, <i>Palacio e Quinta de Bacalhôa em +Azeitão</i>. Lisbon, 1895.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Columns with corbel capitals support a house on the right. +Such capitals were common in Spain, so it is just possible that these +tiles may have been made in Spain.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Antonio ab Oliva=Antonio de Oliveira Bernardes, who also +painted the tiles in São Pedro de Rates.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> in the church of the Misericordia Vianna do +Castello, the cloister at Oporto, the Graça Santarem, Sta. Cruz Coimbra, +the Sé, Lisbon, and in many other places.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Paço de Cintra, <i>Cond. de Sabugosa</i>. Lisbon, 1903.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> These yokes are about 4 or 5 feet long by 18 inches or 2 +feet broad, are made of walnut, and covered with the most intricate +pierced patterns. Each parish or district, though no two are ever +exactly alike, has its own design. The most elaborate, which are also +often painted bright red, green, and yellow are found south of the Douro +near Espinho. Further north at Villa do Conde they are much less +elaborate, the piercings being fewer and larger. Nor do they extend far +up the Douro as in the wine country in Tras-os-Montes the oxen, darker +and with shorter horns, pull not from the shoulder but from the +forehead, to which are fastened large black leather cushions trimmed +with red wool.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Originally there was a bell-gable above the narthex door, +since replaced by a low square tower resting on the north-west corner of +the narthex and capped by a plastered spire.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a> +<a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a></p> +<p class="poem">Theodomir rex gloriosus<br /> +v. erex. & contrux. hoc. monast. can. B. Aug.<br /> +ad. Gl. D. et V.M.G.D. & B. Martini et fecit ita so:<br />lemnit: +sacrari ab Lucrec. ep. Brac. et alliis sub.<br />J. <span class="smcap95">iii</span>. +P. M. Prid. +Idus. Nov. an. D. <span class="smcap95">dlix.</span> Post id. rex<br />in hac eccl. +ab. eod. ep. +palam bapt. et fil. Ariamir<br />cum magnat. suis. omnes conversi ad +fid. ob. v. reg. &<br />mirab. in fil. ex sacr. reliq. B.M. a Galiis eo. +reg. postul<br />translatis & hic asservatis Kal. Jan. An. D. +<span class="smcap95">dlx</span>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> From M. Bernardes, <i>Tratados Varios</i>, vol. ii. p. 4. The +same story is told of the monastery of San Salvador de Leyre in Navarre, +whose abbot, Virila, wondering how it could be possible to listen to the +heavenly choirs for ever without weariness, sat down to rest by a spring +which may still be seen, and there listened, enchanted, to the singing +of a bird for three hundred years.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> the west door of Ste. Croix, Bordeaux, though it is +of course very much more elaborate.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Namely, to give back some Galician towns which had been +captured.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Bayona is one of the most curious and unusual churches in +the north of Spain. Unfortunately, during a restoration made a few years +ago a plaster groined vault was added hiding the old wooden roof.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> +</p><p><br /> +The tomb is inscribed: Hic requiescit Fys:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 11.5em;">Dei: Egas: Monis: Vir:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 11.5em;">Inclitus: era: millesima:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 11.5em;">centesima: <span class="smcap95">lxxxii</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 11.5em;"><i>i.e.</i> Era of Caesar 1182, <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1144.</span><br /> +</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> He died soon after at Medinaceli, and a Christian +contemporary writer records the fact saying: 'This day died Al-Mansor. +He desecrated Santiago, and destroyed Pampluna, Leon and Barcelona. He +was buried in Hell.'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Another cloister-like building of even earlier date is to +be found behind the fourteenth-century church of Leça de Balio: it was +built probably after the decayed church had been granted to the Knights +of St. John of Jerusalem. (<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>.)</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> A careful restoration is now being carried out under the +direction of Senhor Fuschini.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The inscription is mutilated at both ends and seems to +read, 'Ahmed-ben-Ishmael built it strongly by order of ...'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> It is a pity that the difference in date makes it +impossible to identify this Bernardo with the Bernardo who built +Santiago. For the work Dom Miguel gave 500 morabitinos, besides a yoke +of oxen worth 12, also silver altar fronts made by Master Ptolomeu. +Besides the money Bernardo received a suit of clothes worth 3 +morabitinos and food at the episcopal table, while Soeiro his successor +got a suit of clothes, a quintal of wine, and a mora of bread. The +bishop also gave a great deal of church plate showing that the cathedral +was practically finished before his death.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Compare the doorlike window of Nossa Senhora da Oliveira +at Guimarães.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> The small church of São Salvador has also an old door, +plainer and smaller than São Thiago.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The five small shields with the Wounds of Christ on the +Portuguese coat are supposed to have been adopted because on the eve of +this battle Christ crucified appeared to Affonso and promised him +victory, and because five kings were defeated.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Andre de Rezende, a fifteenth-century antiquary, says, +quoting from an old 'book of anniversaries': 'Each year an anniversary +is held in memory of Bishop D. Payo on St. Mark's Day, that is May 21st, +on which day he laid the first stone for the foundation of this +cathedral, on the spot where now is St. Mark's Altar, and he lies behind +the said place and altar in the Chapel of St. John. This church was +founded Era 1224,' <i>i.e.</i> 1186 <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> D. Payo became bishop in 1181. +Another stone in the chancel records the death, in era 1321, <i>i.e.</i> 1283 +<span class="smcap95">A.D.</span>, of Bishop D. Durando, 'who built and enriched this cathedral with +his alms,' but probably he only made some additions, perhaps the central +lantern.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> It was built 1718-1746 by Ludovici or Ludwig the architect +of Mafra and cost 160:000<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 or about <i>£</i>30,000.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> The whole inscription, the first part occurring also on a +stone in the castle, runs thus:— +</p><p><br /> +E (i.e. Era) <span class="smcap95">mc : l<span style="text-decoration:overline;">x</span>. viii</span>. regnant : Afonso : illustrisimo rege Portugalis : magister : galdinus<br /> +: Portugalensium : Militum Templi : cum fratribus suis Primo : die : Marcii : cepit<br /> +edificari : hoc : castellu : n<span style="text-decoration:overline;">m</span>e Thomar : q<span style="text-decoration:overline;">o</span>d : prefatus rex obtulit : Deo : et militibus : Templi<br /> +: <span class="smcap95">e. m. cc. xx. viii : iii</span>. mens. : Julii : venit rex de maroqis ducens : <span class="smcap95">cccc</span> milia equit<span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span> :<br /> +et quingenta milia : pedit<span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span>m : et obsedit castrum istud : per sex Dies : et delevit : quantum extra : murum invenit :<br /> +castell<span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span> : et prefatus : magister : c<span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span> : fratribus suis liberavit Deus : de manibus : suis<br /> +Idem : rex : remeavit : in patri<span style="text-decoration:overline;">a</span> : su<span style="text-decoration:overline;">a</span> : cu : innumerabili : detrimento : homin<span style="text-decoration:overline;">u</span> et bestiarum.<br /> + +</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Cf. Templar church at Segovia, Old Castile, where, +however, the interior octagon is nearly solid with very small openings, +and a vault over the lower story; it has also three eastern apses.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> There is a corbel table like it but more elaborate at +Vezelay in Burgundy.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> in S. Martino al Cimino near Viterbo.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> So says Murray. Vilhena Barbosa says 1676. 1770 seems the +more probable.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Indeed to the end the native builders have been very chary +of building churches with a high-groined vault and a well-developed +clerestory. The nave of Batalha and of the cathedral of Guarda seem to +be almost the only examples which have survived, for Lisbon choir was +destroyed by the great earthquake of 1755, as was also the church of the +Carmo in the same city, which perhaps shows that they were right in +rejecting such a method of construction in a country so liable to be +shaken.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Cf. similar corbel capitals in the nave of the cathedral +of Orense in Galicia.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Before the Black Death, which reduced the number to eight, +there are said to have sometimes been as many as 999 monks!</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> It was a monk of Alcobaça who came to General Wellesley on +the night of 16th August 1808, and told him that if he wished to catch +the French he must be quick as they meant to retire early in the +morning, thus enabling him to win the battle of Roliça, the first fight +of the Peninsular War.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Cf. the clerestory windows of Burgos Cathedral, or those +at Dunblane, where as at Guimarães the circle merely rests on the lights +below without being properly united with them.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> From the north-east corner of the narthex a door leads to +the cloisters, which have a row of coupled shafts and small pointed +arches. From the east walk a good doorway of Dom Manoel's time led into +the chapter-house, now the barrack kitchen, the smoke from which has +entirely blackened alike the doorway and the cloister near.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> Compare the horseshoe moulding on the south door of the +cathedral of Orense, Galicia, begun 1120, where, however, each horseshoe +is separated from the next by a deep groove.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> The town having much decayed owing to fevers and to the +gradual shallowing of the river the see was transferred to Faro in 1579. +The cathedral there, sacked by Essex in 1596, and shattered by the +earthquake of 1755, has little left of its original work except the +stump of a west tower standing on a porch open on three sides with plain +pointed arches, and leading to the church on the fourth by a door only +remarkable for the dog-tooth of its hood-mould.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> The towers stand quite separate from the walls and are +united to them by wide round arches.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" +id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a title="Return to text." +href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> In the dilapidated courtyard of the castle there is one +very picturesque window of Dom Manoel's time (his father the duke of +Beja is buried in the church of the Conceição in the town).</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" +id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a title="Return to text." +href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> An inscription says:— +</p><p class="c"> +'Era 1362 [i.e. A.D. 1324] anos foi<br /> +esta tore co (meçad) a (aos) 8<br /> +dias demaio. é mandou a faze (r<br /> +o muito) nobre Dom Diniz<br /> +rei de P...'<br /> +</p> +</li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" +id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a title="Return to text." +href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Just outside the castle there is a good romanesque door +belonging to a now desecrated church.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Some of the distinctive features of Norman such as cushion +capitals seem to be unknown in Normandy and not to be found any nearer +than Lombardy.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Sub Era <span class="smcap95">mcccxlviii</span>. idus Aprilis, Dnus Nuni Abbas +monasterij de Alcobatie posuit primam lapidem in fundamento Claustri +ejusdem loci. presente Dominico Dominici magistro operis dicti Claustri. +Era 1348 = <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1310.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> It is interesting to notice that the master builder was +called Domingo Domingues, who, if Domingues was already a proper name +and not still merely a patronymic, may have been the ancestor of Affonso +Domingues who built Batalha some eighty years later and died 1402.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> In this cloister are kept in a cage some unhappy ravens in +memory of their ancestors having guided the boat which miraculously +brought St. Vincent's body to the Tagus.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Cf. the aisle windows of Sta. Maria dos Olivaes at +Thomar.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> It was at Leça that Dom Fernando in 1372 announced his +marriage with Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, the wife of João Lourenço +da Cunha, whom he had seen at his sister's wedding, and whom he married +though he was himself betrothed to a daughter of the Castilian king, and +though Dona Leonor's husband was still alive: a marriage which nearly +ruined Portugal, and caused the extinction of the legitimate branch of +the house of Burgundy.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Opening off the north-west corner of the cathedral is an +apsidal chapel of about the same period, entered by a fine pointed door, +one of whose mouldings is enriched by an early-looking chevron, but +whose real date is shown by the leaf-carving of its capitals.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> A note in Sir H. Maxwell's <i>Life of Wellington</i>, vol. i. +p. 215, says of Alcobaça: 'They had burned what they could and destroyed +the remainder with an immense deal of trouble. The embalmed kings and +queens were taken out of their tombs, and I saw them lying in as great +preservation as the day they were interred. The fine tesselated +pavement, from the entrance to the Altar, was picked up, the facings of +the stone pillars were destroyed nearly to the top, scaffolding having +been erected for that purpose. An orderly book found near the place +showed that regular parties had been ordered for the purpose' +(Tomkinson, 77).</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> There is in the Carmo Museum at Lisbon a fine tomb to Dom +Fernando, Dom Pedro's unfortunate successor. It was brought from São +Francisco at Santarem, but is very much less elaborate, having three +panels on each side filled with variously shaped cuspings, enclosing +shields, all beautifully wrought.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Another trophy is now at Alcobaça in the shape of a huge +copper caldron some four feet in diameter.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> This site at Pinhal was bought from one Egas Coelho.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Though a good deal larger than most Portuguese churches, +except of course Alcobaça, the church is not really very large. Its +total length is about 265 feet with a transept of about 109 feet long. +The central aisle is about 25 feet wide by 106 high—an unusual +proportion anywhere.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Albrecht Haupt, <i>Die Baukunst der Renaissance in +Portugal</i>, says that 'Der Plan durchaus englisch ist (Lang-und +Querschiff fast ganz identisch mit dener der Kathedral zu Canterbury, +nur thurmlos).'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> This spire has been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1755, +and so may be quite different from that originally intended.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> In his book on Batalha, Murphy, who stayed in the abbey +for some months towards the end of the eighteenth century, gives an +engraving of an open-work spire on this chapel, saying it had been +destroyed in 1755.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Huguet witnessed a document dated December 7, 1402, +concerning a piece of land belonging to Margarida Annes, servant to +Affonso Domingues, master of the works, and his name also occurs in a +document of 1450 as having had a house granted to him by Dom Duarte, but +he must have been dead some time before that as his successor as master +of the works, Master Vasquez, was already dead before 1448. Probably +Huguet died about 1440.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Caspar Estaço, writing in the sixteenth century, says that +this triptych was made of the silver against which King João weighed +himself, but the story of its capture at Aljubarrota seems the older +tradition.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> These capitals have the distinctive Manoelino feature of +the moulding just under the eight-sided abacus, being twisted like a +rope or like two interlacing branches.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The church was about 236 feet long with a transept of over +100 feet, which is about the length of the Batalha transept.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> She also sent the beautiful bronze tomb in which her +eldest brother Affonso, who died young, lies in the cathedral, Braga. +The bronze effigy lies on the top of an altar-tomb under a canopy upheld +by two slender bronze shafts. Unfortunately it is much damaged and +stands in so dark a corner that it can scarcely be seen.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> In one transept there is a very large blue tile picture.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> The Aleo is still at Ceuta. In the cathedral Our Lady of +Africa holds it in her hand, and it is given to each new governor on his +arrival as a symbol of office.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The inscription is:— +</p><p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Memoria de D. Duarte de Menezes</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Terceiro conde de Viana, Tronco</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">dos condes de Tarouca. Primeiro</span><br /> +Capitão de Alcacer-Seguer, em Africa,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">que com quinhentos soldados defendeu</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">esta praça contra cemmil</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mouros, com os quaes teve</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">muitos encontros, ficando n'elles</span><br /> +com grande honra e gloria. Morreu na<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">serra de Bonacofú per salvar a</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">vida do seu rei D. Affonso o Quinto.</span><br /> +</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> When the tomb was moved from São Francisco, only one +tooth, not a finger, was found inside.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Besides the church there is in Caminha a street in which +most of the houses have charming doors and windows of about the same +date as the church.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> 1524 seems too early by some forty years.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> The rest of the west front was rebuilt and the inside +altered by Archbishop Dom José de Braganza, a son of Dom Pedro <span class="smcap95">ii.</span>, +about two hundred years ago.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> A chapel was added at the back, and at a higher level some +time during the seventeenth century to cover in one of the statues, that +of St. Anthony of Padua, who was then becoming very popular.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> This winding stair was built by Dom Manoel: cf. some +stairs at Thomar.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> A 'pelourinho' is a market cross.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> The kitchens in the houses at Marrakesh and elsewhere in +Morocco have somewhat similar chimneys. See B. Meakin, <i>The Land of the +Moors</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> 'Esta fortaleza se começou a xiij dagosto de mil cccc.l. +P[N. of T. horizonal line through it] iiij por mãdado del Rey dõ Joam o +segundo nosso sõr e acabouse em tpõ del Rey dom Manoel o primeiro nosso +Sñor fela per seus mãdados dom Diogo Lobo baram dalvito.'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> The house of the duke of Cadaval called 'Agua de Peixes,' +not very far off, has several windows in the same Moorish style.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Vilhena Barbosa, <i>Monumentos de Portugal</i>, p. 324.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> +Though the grammar seems a little doubtful this seems to +mean +</p><p class="poem"> +Since these by service were<br /> +And loyal efforts gained,<br /> +By these and others like to them<br /> +They ought to be maintained.<br /> +</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> One blank space in one of the corners is pointed out as +having contained the arms of the Duque d'Aveiro beheaded for conspiracy +in 1758. In reality it was painted with the arms of the Coelhos, but the +old boarding fell out and has never been replaced.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Affonso de Albuquerque took Ormuz in 1509 and Gôa next +year.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Sumatra was visited in 1509.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Fernão Peres de Andrade established himself at Canton in +1517 and reached Pekin in 1521.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Compare the elaborate outlines of some Arab arches at the +Alhambra or in Morocco.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Some have supposed that Boutaca was a foreigner, but +there is a place called Boutaca near Batalha, so he probably came from +there.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Once the Madre de Deus was adorned with several della +Robbia placques. They are now all gone.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> Danver's <i>Portuguese in India</i>, vol. i.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> See in Oliveira Martims' <i>Historia de Portugal</i>, vol. <span class="smcap95">ii.</span> +ch. i., the account of the Embassy sent to Pope Leo <span class="smcap95">ix.</span> by Dom Manoel in +1514. No such procession had been seen since the days of the Roman +Empire. There were besides endless wealth, leopards from India, also an +elephant which, on reaching the Castle of S. Angelo, filled its trunk +with scented water and 'asperged' first the Pope and then the people. +These with a horse from Ormuz represented the East. Unfortunately the +representative of Africa, a rhinoceros, died on the way.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Danver's <i>Portuguese in India</i>, vol. i.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Unfortunately Fernandes was one of the commonest of +names. In his list of Portuguese artists, Count Raczynski mentions an +enormous number.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> In the year 1512 Olivel was paid 25<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000. He had +previously received 12<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 a month. He died soon after and his widow +undertook to finish his work with the help of his assistant Muñoz.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> See the drawing in <i>A Ordem de Christo</i> by Vieira +Guimarães.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> The last two figures look like 15 but the first two are +scarcely legible; it may not be a date at all.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> All the statues are rather Northern in appearance, not +unlike those on the royal tombs in Santa Cruz, Coimbra, and may be the +work of the two Flemings mentioned among those employed at Thomar, +Antonio and Gabriel.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> The door—notwithstanding the supposed date, 1515—was +probably finished by João after 1523.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Cf. the carving on the jambs of the Allah-ud-din gate at +Delhi.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Such heads of many curves may have been derived from such +elaborate Moorish arches as may be seen in the Alhambra, or, for +example, in the Hasan tower at Rabat in Morocco, and it is worth +noticing that there were men with Moorish names among the workmen at +Thomar—Omar, Mafamede, Bugimaa, and Bebedim.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Esp(h)era=<i>sphere</i>; Espera=<i>hope</i>, present imperative.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> The inscription says: 'Aqui jaz Matheus Fernandes mestre +que foi destas obras, e sua mulher Izabel Guilherme e levou-o nosso +Senhor a dez dias de Abril de 1515. Ella levou-a a....'</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Fig. 57.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>As Capellas Imperfeitas e a lenda das devisas Gregas.</i> +Por Caroline Michaëlis de Vasconcellos. Porto, 1905.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> The frieze is now filled up and plastered, but not long +ago was empty and recessed as if prepared for letting in reliefs. Can +these have been of terra cotta of the della Robbia school? Dom Manoel +imported many which are now all gone but one in the Museum at Lisbon. +There are also some della Robbia medallions at the Quinta de Bacalhôa at +Azeitão near Setubal.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> J. Murphy, <i>History of the Royal Convent of Batalha</i>. +London, 1792.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> One of the first was probably the chapel dos Reys Magos +at São Marcos near Coimbra.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> A conto = 1.000<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> It is no use telling a tramway conductor to stop near the +Torre de São Vicente. He has never heard of it, but if one says 'Fabrica +de Gas' the car will stop at the right place.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Similar roofs cap the larger angle turrets in the house +of the Quinta de Bacalhôa near Setubal, built by Dona Brites, mother of +Dom Manoel, about 1490, and rebuilt or altered by the younger +Albuquerque after 1528 when he bought the Quinta.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Raczynski says 1517, Haupt 1522.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> According to Raczynski, João de Castilho in 1517 +undertook to carry on the work for 140<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 per month, at the rate of <img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />50 +per day per man. 140<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000=now about <i>£</i>31.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Nicolas was the first of the French renaissance artists +to come to Portugal.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <i>E.g.</i> on the Hotel Bourgthéroulde, Rouen.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Cf. the top of a turret at St. Wulfram, Abbeville.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Haupt.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The university was first accommodated in Sta. Cruz, till +Dom João gave up the palace where it still is. It was after the return +of the university to Coimbra that George Buchanan was for a time +professor. He got into difficulties with the Inquisition and had to +leave.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Nicolas the Frenchman is first mentioned in 1517 as +working at Belem. He therefore was probably the first to introduce the +renaissance into Portugal, for Sansovino had no lasting influence.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> 'To give room and licence to Dioguo de Castylho, master +of the work of my palace at Coimbra, to ride on a mule and a nag seeing +that he has no horse, and notwithstanding my decrees to the +contrary.'—Sept. 18, 1526.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> <i>Vilhena Barbosa Monumentes de Portugal</i>, p. 411.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Other men from Rouen are also mentioned, Jeronymo and +Simão.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> The stone used at Batalha and at Alcobaça is of similar +fineness, but seems better able to stand exposure, as the front of Santa +Cruz at Coimbra is much more decayed than are any parts of the buildings +at either Batalha or Alcobaça. The stone resembles Caen stone, but is +even finer.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> João de Ruão also made some bookcases for the monastery +library.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> 'Aqui jas o muito honrado Pero Rodrigues Porto Carreiro, +ayo que foy do Conde D. Henrique, Cavalleiro da Ordem de San Tiago, e o +muyto honrado Gonzalo Gil Barbosa seu genro, Cavalleiro da Ordem de<sup>to</sup>, e assim o muito honrado seu filho Francisco Barbosa: os quaes +forão trasladados a esta sepultura no anno de 1532.'—Fr. <i>Historia de +Santarem edificada</i>. By Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos. Lisboa +Occidental, <span class="smcap95">mdccxxxx</span>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> The date 1522 is found on a tablet on Ayres' tomb, so the +three must have been worked while the chancel was being built.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> <i>Les Arts en Portugal:</i> letters to the Berlin Academy of +Arts. Paris, 1846.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>São Marcos:</i> E. Biel. Porto, in <i>A arte e a natureza em +Portugal:</i> text by J. de Vasconcellos.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> There is also a fine reredos of somewhat later date in +the church of Varziella near Cantanhede not far off: but it belongs +rather to the school of the chapel dos Reis Magos; there is another in +the Matriz of Cantanhede itself.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> Johannis <span class="smcap95">iii.</span> Emanuelis filius, Ferdinandi nep. Eduardi +pronep. Johannis <span class="smcap95">i.</span> abnep. Portugal. et Alg. rex. Affric. Aethiop. +arabic. persic. Indi. ob felicem partum Catherinae reginae conjugis +incomparabilis suscepto Emanuele filio principi, aram cum signis pos. +dedicavitque anno <span class="smcap95">mdxxxii</span>. Divae Mariae Virgini et Matri sac.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The only other object of any interest in the São Marcos +is a small early renaissance pulpit on the north side of the nave, not +unlike that at Caminha.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> During the French invasion much church plate was hidden +on the top of capitals and so escaped discovery.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> João then bought a house in the Rua de Corredoura for +80<img src="images/001.png" alt="symbol for escudos" width="8" height="20" style="margin-bottom:-.75%;" />000 or nearly <i>£</i>18.—Vieira Guimarães, <i>A Ordem de Christo</i>, p. 167.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> There is preserved in the Torre do Tombo at Lisbon a long +account of the trial of a 'new Christian' of Thomar, Jorge Manuel, begun +on July 15, 1543, in the office of the Holy Inquisition within the +convent of Thomar.—Vieira Guimarães, p. 179.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> From book 34 of João <span class="smcap95">iii.</span>'s Chancery a 'quitaçã' or +discharge given to João de Castilho for all the work done for Dom João +or for his father, viz.—'In Monastery of Belem; in palace by the +sea—swallowed up by the earthquake in 1755—balconies in hall, stair, +chapel, and rooms of Queen Catherine, chapel of monastery of São +Francisco in Lisbon, foundation of Arsenal Chapel; a balcony at Santos, +and divers other lesser works. Then a door, window, well balustrade, +garden repairs; work in pest house; stone buildings at the arsenal for a +dry dock for the Indian ships; the work he has executed at Thomar, as +well as the work he has done at Alcobaça and Batalha; besides he made a +bastion at Mazagão so strong,' etc.—Raczynski's <i>Les Artistes +Portugais</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Vieira Guimarães, <i>A Ordem de Christo</i>, pp. 184, 185.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> Foi erecta esta cap. No <span class="smcap95">A.D.</span> 1572 sed prof. E. 1810 foi +restaur E. 1848 por L. L. d'Abreu Monis. Serrão, E. P<sup>o</sup>. D Roure, +Pietra concr<sup>a</sup>. Muitas Pessoas ds. cid<sup>eç</sup>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> Ferguson (<i>History of Modern Architecture</i>, vol. ii. p. +287) says that some of the cloisters at Gôa reminded him of Lupiana, so +no doubt they are not unlike those here mentioned.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> An inscription over a door outside says: +</p> +<p class="poem smcap95"> +DNS. EMANVEL<br /> +NORONHA EPVS<br /> +LAMACEN. 1557.<br /> +</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> One chapel, that of São Martin, has an iron screen like a +poor Spanish <i>reja</i>.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> It has been pulled down quite lately. Lorvão, in a +beautiful valley some fifteen miles from Coimbra, was a very famous +nunnery. The church was rebuilt in the eighteenth century, has a dome, a +nuns' choir to the west full of stalls, but in style, except the ruined +cloister, which was older, all is very rococo.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> This reredos is in the chapel on the south of the Capella +Mor.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> This aqueduct begun by Terzi in 1593 was finished in 1613 +by Pedro Fernandes de Torres, who also designed the fountain in the +centre of the cloister.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> It was here that Wellington was slung across the river in +a basket on his way to confer with the Portuguese general during the +advance on Salamanca.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Terzi was taken prisoner at Alcacer-Quebir in 1578 and +ransomed by King Henry, who made him court architect, a position he held +till his death in 1598.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Some of the most elaborate dated 1584 are by Francisco de +Mattos.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> It was handed over to the cathedral chapter on the +expulsion of the Jesuits in 1772.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> São Bento is now used as a store for drain-pipes.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> The Matriz at Vianna has a fifteenth-century pointed +door, with half figures on the voussoirs arranged as are the +four-and-twenty elders on the great door at Santiago, a curious +arrangement found also at Orense and at Noya.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> There was only one other house of this order in Portugal, +at Laveiras.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Not of course the famous son of Charles <span class="smcap95">v.</span>, but a son of +Philip <span class="smcap95">iv.</span></p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> In that year from June to October 45,000 men are +inscribed as working on the building, and 1266 oxen were bought to haul +stones!</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> The area of the Escorial, excluding the many patios and +cloisters, is over 300,000 square feet; that of Mafra, also excluding +all open spaces, is nearly 290,000.</p></li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a title="Return to text." href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Compare also the front of the Misericordia in Oporto.</p></li> +</ol> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Portuguese Architecture, by Walter Crum Watson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 29370-h.htm or 29370-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/3/7/29370/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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/dev/null +++ b/29370.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13733 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Portuguese Architecture, by Walter Crum Watson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Portuguese Architecture + +Author: Walter Crum Watson + +Release Date: July 10, 2009 [EBook #29370] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +[Note of transcriber: $ is used to indicate the cifrao, symbol for +escudos. Where [= ] surrounds a letter it indicates that the letter was +written with a line above it.] + +[Illustration: FROM THE MARVILLA, SANTAREM.] + +[Illustration: FROM THE MARVILLA, SANTAREM; ALSO IN THE MATRIZ, ALVITO, +AND ELSEWHERE.] + + + + +PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE + +BY + +WALTER CRUM WATSON + +_ILLUSTRATED_ + +LONDON + +ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY + +LIMITED + +1908 + +Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty + +AOS MEUS QUERIDOS PARENTES E AMIGOS +A ILL^{MA} E EX^{MA} SN^{RA} +M. L. DOS PRADOS LARGOS +E OS +ILL^{MOS} E EX^{MOS} SNR^{ES} +BARONEZA E BARAO DE SOUTELLINHO +COMO RECONHECIMENTO PELAS AMABILIDADES E ATTENCOES +QUE ME DISPENSARAM NOS BELLOS DIAS QUE PASSEI +NA SUA COMPANHIA +COMO HOMENAGEM RESPEITOSA +O.D.C. +O AUCTOR + + + + +PREFACE + + +The buildings of Portugal, with one or two exceptions, cannot be said to +excel or even to come up to those of other countries. To a large extent +the churches are without the splendid furniture which makes those of +Spain the most romantic in the world, nor are they in themselves so +large or so beautiful. Some apology, then, may seem wanted for imposing +on the public a book whose subject-matter is not of first-class +importance. + +The present book is the outcome of visits to Portugal in April or May of +three successive years; and during these visits the writer became so +fond of the country and of its people, so deeply interested in the +history of its glorious achievements in the past, and in the buildings +which commemorate these great deeds, that it seemed worth while to try +and interest others in them. Another reason for writing about Portugal +instead of about Spain is that the country is so much smaller that it is +no very difficult task to visit every part and see the various buildings +with one's own eyes: besides, in no language does there exist any book +dealing with the architecture of the country as a whole. There are some +interesting monographs in Portuguese about such buildings as the palace +at Cintra, or Batalha, while the Renaissance has been fully treated by +Albrecht Haupt, but no one deals at all adequately with what came before +the time of Dom Manoel. + +Most of the plans in the book were drawn from rough measurements taken +on the spot and do not pretend to minute accuracy. + +For the use of that of the Palace at Cintra the thanks of the writer are +due to Conde de Sabugosa, who allowed it to be copied from his book, +while the plan of Mafra was found in an old magazine. + +Thanks are also due to Senhor Joaquim de Vasconcellos for much valuable +information, to his wife, Senhora Michaelis de Vasconcellos, for her +paper about the puzzling inscriptions at Batalha, and above all the +Baron and the Baroneza de Soutellinho, for their repeated welcome to +Oporto and for the trouble they have taken in getting books and +photographs. + +That the book may be more complete there has been added a short account +of some of the church plate and paintings which still survive, as well +as of the tile work which is so universal and so characteristic. + +As for the buildings, hardly any of any consequence have escaped notice. + +EDINBURGH, 1907. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION + + PAGE + +Portugal separated from Spain by no natural division geographical or +linguistic; does not correspond with Roman Lusitania, nor with the +later Suevic kingdom--Traces of early Celtic inhabitants; Citania, +Sabrosa--Roman Occupation; Temple at Evora--Barbarian Invasions--Arab +Conquest--Beginnings of Christian re-conquest--Sesnando, +first Count of Oporto--Christians defeated at Zalaca--Count +Henry of Burgundy and Dona Theresa--Beginnings of Portuguese +Independence--Affonso Henriques, King of Portugal--Growth of +Portugal--Victory of Aljubarrota--Prince Henry the Navigator--The +Spanish Usurpation--The Great Earthquake--The Peninsular +War--The Miguelite War--The suppression of the Monasteries--Differences +between Portugal and Spain, etc. 1-10 + +PAINTING IN PORTUGAL + +Not very many examples of Portuguese paintings left--Early connection +with Burgundy; and with Antwerp--Great influence of +Flemish school--The myth of Grao Vasco--Pictures at Evora, at +Thomar, at Setubal, in Santa Cruz, Coimbra--'The Fountain of +Mercy' at Oporto--The pictures at Vizeu: 'St. Peter'--Antonio +de Hollanda 10-17 + +CHURCH PLATE + +Much plate lost during the Peninsular War--Treasuries of Braga, +Coimbra, and Evora, and of Guimaraes--Early chalices, etc., at +Braga, Coimbra, and Guimaraes--Crosses at Guimaraes and at +Coimbra--Relics of St. Isabel--Flemish influence seen in later +work--Tomb of St. Isabel, and coffins of sainted abbesses of +Lorvao 17-20 + +TILES + +Due to Arab influence--The word _azulejo_ and its origin--The different +stages in the development of tile making--Early tiles at Cintra +Moorish in pattern and in technique--Tiles at Bacalhoa Moorish in +technique but Renaissance in pattern--Later tiles without Moorish +technique, _e.g._ at Santarem and elsewhere--Della Robbia ware at +Bacalhoa--Pictures in blue and white tiles very common 20-28 + +CHAPTER I + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH + +The oldest buildings are in the North--Very rude and simple--Three +types--Villarinho--Sao Miguel, Guimaraes--Cedo Feita, Oporto--Gandara, +Boelhe, etc., are examples of the simplest--Aguas Santas, +Rio Mau, etc., of the second; and of the third Villar de Frades, +etc.--Legend of Villar--Se, Braga--Se, Oporto--Paco de Souza--Method +of roofing--Tomb of Egas Moniz--Pombeiro--Castle +and Church, Guimaraes 29-43 + +CHAPTER II + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH + +Growth of Christian kingdom under Affonso Henriques--His vow--Capture +of Santarem, of Lisbon--Cathedral, Lisbon, related to Church +of S. Sernin, Toulouse--Ruined by Great Earthquake, and badly +restored--Se Velha, Coimbra, general scheme copied from Santiago +and so from S. Sernin, Toulouse--Other churches at Coimbra--Evora, +its capture--Cathedral founded--Similar in scheme to +Lisbon, but with pointed arches; central lantern; cloister--Thomar +founded by Gualdim Paes; besieged by Moors--Templar Church--Santarem, +Church of Sao Joao de Alporao--Alcobaca; great wealth +of Abbey--Designed by French monks--Same plan as Clairvaux--Has +but little influence on later buildings 44-63 + +CHAPTER III + +THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO +THE BATTLE OF ALJUBARROTA + +The thirteenth century poor in buildings--The Franciscans--Sao +Francisco Guimaraes--Santarem--Santa Maria dos Olivaes at +Thomar--_Cf._ aisle windows at Leca do Balio--Inactivity and +deposition of Dom Sancho II. by Dom Affonso III.--Conquest of +Algarve--Se, Silves--Dom Diniz and the castles at Beja and at +Leiria--Cloisters, Cellas, Coimbra, Alcobaca, Lisbon, and Oporto--St. +Isabel and Sta. Clara at Coimbra--Leca do Balio--The choir +of the cathedral, Lisbon, with tombs--Alcobaca, royal tombs--Dom +Pedro I. and Inez de Castro; her murder, his sorrow--Their tombs + 64-78 + +CHAPTER IV + +BATALHA AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL + +Dom Fernando and Dona Leonor Telles--Her wickedness and unpopularity--Their +daughter, Dona Brites, wife of Don Juan of Castile, rejected--Dom +Joao I. elected king--Battle of Aljubarrota--Dom Joao's +vow--Marriage of Dom Joao and Philippa of Lancaster--Batalha +founded; its plan national, not foreign; some details seem English, +some French, some even German--Huguet the builder did not copy +York or Canterbury--Tracery very curious--Inside very plain--Capella +do Fundador, with the royal tombs--Capellas Imperfeitas 79-92 + +CHAPTER V + +THE EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY + +Nossa Senhora da Oliveira Guimaraes rebuilt as a thankoffering--Silver +reredos captured at Aljubarrota--The cathedral, Guarda--Its likeness +to Batalha--Nave later--Nuno Alvarez Pereira, the Grand +Constable, and the Carmo, Lisbon--Joao Vicente and Villar de +Frades--Alvito, Matriz--Capture of Ceuta--Tombs in the Graca, +Santarem--Dom Pedro de Menezes and his 'Aleo'--Tomb of +Dom Duarte de Menezes in Sao Joao de Alporao--Tombs at +Abrantes cloister--Thomar 93-103 + +CHAPTER VI + +LATER GOTHIC + +Graca, Santarem--Parish churches, Thomar, Villa do Conde, Azurara +and Caminha, all similar in plan--Cathedrals: Funchal, Lamego, +and Vizeu--Porch and chancel of cathedral, Braga--Conceicao, +Braga 104-115 + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS + +Few buildings older than the re-conquest--But many built for Christians +by Moors--The Palace, Cintra--Originally country house of the +Walis--Rebuilt by Dom Joao I.--Plan and details Moorish--Entrance +court--Sala dos Cysnes, why so called, its windows; +Sala do Conselho; Sala das Pegas, its name, chimney-piece; Sala +das Sereias; dining-room; Pateo, baths; Sala dos Arabes; +Pateo de Diana; chapel; kitchen--Castles at Guimaraes and at +Barcellos--Villa de Feira 116-128 + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MOORISH BUILDINGS + +Commoner in Alemtejo--Castle, Alvito--Not Sansovino's Palace--Evora, +Pacos Reaes, Cordovis, Sempre Nova, Sao Joao Evangelista, +Sao Francisco, Sao Braz 129-135 + +CHAPTER IX + +MOORISH CARPENTRY + +Examples found all over the country--At Aguas Santas, Azurara, +Caminha and Funchal--Cintra, Sala dos Cysnes, Sala dos Escudos--Coimbra, +Misericordia, hall of University--Ville do Conde Santa +Clara, Aveiro convent 136-142 + +CHAPTER X + +EARLY MANOELINO + +Joao II. continues the policy of Prince Henry the Navigator--Bartholomeu +Diaz, Vasco da Gama--Accession of Dom Manoel--Discovery +of route to India, and of Brazil--Great wealth of King--Fails +to unite all the kingdoms of the Peninsula--Characteristic +features of Manoelino--House of Garcia de Resende, Evora--Caldas +da Rainha--Setubal, Jesus--Beja, Conceicao, Castle, etc.--Cintra, +Palace--Gollega, Church--Elvas, Cathedral--Santarem, +Marvilla--Lisbon, Madre de Deus--Coimbra, University Chapel--Setubal, +Sao Juliao 143-156 + +CHAPTER XI + +THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA + +Vasco da Gama's successful voyage to Calicut, 1497--Other expeditions +lead to discovery of Brazil--Titles conferred on Dom Manoel +by Pope Alexander VI.--Ormuz taken--Strange forms at Thomar +not Indian--Templars suppressed and Order of Christ founded +instead--Prince Henry Grand Master--Spiritual supremacy of +Thomar over all conquests, made or to be made--Templar church +added to by Prince Henry, and more extensively by Dom Manoel--Joao +de Castilho builds Coro--Stalls burnt by French--South +door, chapter-house and its windows--Much of the detail emblematic +of the discoveries, etc., made in the East and in the West + 157-170 + +CHAPTER XII + +THE ADDITIONS TO BATALHA + +Dom Duarte's tomb-house unfinished--Work resumed by Dom +Manoel--The two Matheus Fernandes, architects--The Pateo--The +great entrance--Meaning of 'Tanyas Erey'--Piers in Octagon--How +was the Octagon to be roofed?--The great Cloister, with +its tracery--Whence derived 171-180 + +CHAPTER XIII + +BELEM + +Torre de Sao Viente built to defend Lisbon--Turrets and balconies +not Indian--Vasco da Gama sails from Belem--The great monastery +built as a thankoffering for the success of his voyage--Begun by +Boutaca, succeeded by Lourenco Fernandes, and then by Joao de +Castilho--Plan due to Boutaca--Master Nicolas, the Frenchman, +the first renaissance artist in Portugal--Plan: exterior; interior +superior to exterior; stalls; cloister, lower and upper--Lisbon, +Conceicao Velha, also by Joao de Castilho 181-195 + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS + +Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, founded by Dom Affonso Henriques, rebuilt by +Dom Manoel, first architect Marcos Pires--Gregorio Lourenco +clerk of the works--Diogo de Castilho succeeds Marcos Pires--West +front, Master Nicolas--Cloister, inferior to that of Belem--Royal +tombs--Other French carvers--Pulpit, reredoses in cloister, +stalls--Se Velha reredos, doors--Chapel of Sao Pedro 196-210 + +CHAPTER XV + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNERS + +Tomb at Thomar of the Bishop of Funchal--Tomb in Graca, Santarem--Sao +Marcos, founded by Dona Brites de Menezes--Tomb of +Fernao Telles--Rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, her grandson--Tombs +in chancel--Reredos, by Master Nicolas--Reredos at Cintra--Pena +Chapel by same--Sao Marcos, Chapel of the Reyes Magos--Sansovino's +door, Cintra--Evora, Sao Domingos--Portalegre, +Tavira, Lagos, Goes, Trofa, Caminha, Moncorvo 211-221 + +CHAPTER XVI + +LATER WORK OF JOAO DE CASTILHO AND EARLIER CLASSIC + +Joao III. cared more for the Church than for anything else--Decay +begins--Later additions to Alcobaca--Batalha, Sta. Cruz--Thomar, +Order of Christ reformed--Knights become regulars--Great +additions, cloisters, dormitory, etc., by Joao de Castilho--His +difficulties, letters to the King--His addition to Batalha--Builds +Conceicao at Thomar like Milagre, Santarem--Marvilla, _ibid._; +Elvas, Sao Domingos--Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde--Vizeu, +Cloister--Lamego, Cloister--Coimbra, Sao +Thomaz--Carmo--Faro--Lorvao--Amarante--Santarem, Santa Clara, and +Guarda, reredos 222-239 + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION + +Diogo de Torralva and Claustro dos Filippes, Thomar--Miranda de +Douro--Reigns of Dom Sebastiao and of the Cardinal King +Henry not noted for much building--Evora, Graca and University--Fatal +expedition by Dom Sebastiao to Morocco--His death and +defeat--Feeble reign of his grand-uncle--Election of Philip--Union +with Spain and consequent loss of trade--Lisbon, Sao +Roque; coming of Terzi--Lisbon, Sao Vicente de Fora; first use +of very long Doric pilasters--Santo Antao, Santa Maria do +Desterro, and Torreao do Paco--Se Nova, Coimbra, like Santo +Antao--Oporto, Collegio Novo--Coimbra, Misericordia, Bishop's +palace; Sacristy of Se Velha, Sao Domingos, Carmo, Graca, Sao +Bento by Alvares--Lisbon, Sao Bento--Oporto, Sao Bento 240-253 + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE +EXPULSION OF THE SPANIARDS + +Vianna do Castello, Misericordia--Beja, Sao Thiago--Azeitao, Sao +Simao--Evora, Cartuxa--Beja, Misericordia--Oporto, Nossa +Senhora da Serra do Pilar--Sheltered Wellington before he crossed +the Douro--Besieged by Dom Miguel--Very original plan--Coimbra, +Sacristy of Santa Cruz--Lisbon, Santa Engracia never +finished--Doric pilasters too tall--Coimbra, Santa Clara, great +abuse of Doric pilasters 254-260 + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +The expulsion of the Spaniards--Long war: final success of Portugal +and recovered prosperity--Mafra founded by Dom Joao V.--Compared +with the Escorial--Designed by a German--Palace, church, +library, etc.--Evora, Capella Mor--Great Earthquake--The +Marques de Pombal--Lisbon, Estrella--Oporto, Torre dos +Clerigos--Oporto, Quinta do Freixo--Queluz--Quinta at +Guimaraes--Oporto, hospital and factory--Defeat of Dom +Miguel and suppression of monasteries 261-271 + +BOOKS CONSULTED 272 + +INDEX 273 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + _To face page_ +1. Guimaraes, House from Sabrosa } 4 +2. Evora, Temple of 'Diana' } +3. Oporto, Fountain of Mercy 14 +4. Vizeu, St. Peter, in Sacristy of Cathedral 16 +5. Coimbra, Cross in Cathedral Treasury } +6. " Chalice " " } 20 +7. " Monstrance " " } +8. Cintra, Palace, Sala dos Arabes } 24 +9. " " Dining-room } +10. Santarem, Marvilla, coloured wall tiles } _frontispiece_. +11. " " } +12. Vallarinho, Parish Church } 32 +13. Villar de Frades, West Door } +14. Paco de Souza, Interior of Church } 40 +15. " " Tomb of Egas Moniz } +16. Guimaraes, N. S. da Oliveira, Chapter-house Entrance } 42 +17. Leca do Balio, Cloister } +18. Coimbra, Se Velha, Interior } 50 +19. " " West Front } +20. Evora, Cathedral, Interior } 54 +21. " " Central Lantern } +22. Evora, Cloister } 56 +23. Thomar, Templar Church } +24. Santarem, Sao Joao de Alporao } 58 +25. Alcobaca, South Transept } +26. Santarem, Sao Francisco, West Door } 66 +27. Silves, Cathedral, Interior } +28. Alcobaca Cloister } 72 +29. Lisbon, Cathedral Cloister } +30. Coimbra, Sta. Clara 74 +31. Alcobaca, Chapel with Royal Tombs } 78 +32. " Tomb of Dom Pedro I. } +33. Batalha, West Front 86 +34. Batalha, Interior } 88 +35. " Capella do Fundador } +36. Batalha, Capellas Imperfeitas 92 +37. Guimaraes, Capella of D. Juan I. of Castile } 94 +38. Guarda, North Side of Cathedral } +39. Santarem, Tomb of Dom Pedro de Menezes } 102 +40. " Tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes } +41. Villa do Conde, West Front of Parish Church 108 +42. Vizeu, Interior of Cathedral } 112 +43. Braga, Cathedral Porch } +44. Cintra, Palace, Main Front } 120 +45. " " Window in 'Sala das Sereias' } +46. Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Chapel 126 +47. Alvito, Castle } 132 +48. Evora, Sao Joao Evangelista, Door to Chapter-house } +49. Caminha, Roof of Matriz } 138 +50. Cintra, Palace, Ceiling of Sala dos Cysnes } +51. Coimbra, University, Ceiling of Sala dos Capellos 142 +52. Cintra, Palace, additions by D. Manoel 152 +53. Santarem, Marvilla, West Door } 154 +54. Coimbra, University Chapel Door } +55. Thomar, Convent of Christ, South Door } 166 +56. " " " Chapter-house Window } +57. Batalha, Entrance to Capellas Imperfeitas 174 +58. Batalha, Window of Pateo } 178 +59. " Upper part of Capellas Imperfeitas } +60. Batalha, Claustro Real } 180 +61. Batalha, Lavatory in Claustro Real } +62. Belem, Torre de Sao Vicente } 184 +63. Belem, Sacristy } +64. Belem, South side of Nave } 190 +65. " Interior, looking west } +66. Belem, Cloister } 194 +67. " Interior of Lower Cloister } +68. Lisbon, Conceicao Velha 196 +69. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, West Front } 200 +70. " " Cloister } +71. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Tomb of D. Sancho I. } 202 +72. " " Pulpit } +73. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Reredos in Cloister } 206 +74. " " Choir Stalls } +75. Coimbra, Se Velha, Reredos } 209 +76. " " Reredos in Chapel of Sao Pedro} +77. Thomar, Sta. Maria dos Olivaes, Tomb of the Bishop of Funchal } 212 +78. Sao Marcos, Tomb of D. Joao da Silva } +79. Sao Marcos, Chancel } 218 +80. " Chapel of the 'Reyes Magos' } +81. Cintra, Palace, Door by Sansovino } 220 +82. Caminha, West Door of Church } +83. Alcobaca, Sacristy Door } 224 +84. Batalha, Door of Sta. Cruz } +85. Thomar, Claustro da Hospedaria } 228 +86. " Chapel in Dormitory Passage } +87. Thomar, Stair in Claustro dos Filippes } 230 +88. " Chapel of the Conceicao } +89. Santarem, Marvilla, Interior } 236 +90. Vizeu, Cathedral Cloister } +91. Guarda, Cathedral Reredos } 240 +92. Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes } +93. Lisbon, Sao Vicente de Fora } 246 +94. " " " Interior } +95. Coimbra, Se Nova } 250 +96. " Misericordia } +97. Vianna do Castello, Misericordia 254 +98. Oporto, N. S. da Serra do Pilar, Cloister} 258 +99. Coimbra, Sta. Cruz, Sacristy } +100. Mafra, West Front } 266 +101. " Interior of Church } + +[Illustration: map of Portugal] + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +No one can look at a map of the Iberian Peninsula without being struck +by the curious way in which it is unequally divided between two +independent countries. Spain occupies by far the larger part of the +Peninsula, leaving to Portugal only a narrow strip on the western +seaboard some one hundred miles wide and three hundred and forty long. +Besides, the two countries are separated the one from the other by +merely artificial boundaries. The two largest rivers of the Peninsula, +the Douro and the Tagus, rise in Spain, but finish their course in +Portugal, and the Guadiana runs for some eighty miles through Portuguese +territory before acting for a second time as a boundary between the two +countries. The same, to a lesser degree, is true of the mountains. The +Gerez and the Marao are only offshoots of the Cantabrian mountains, and +the Serra da Estrella in Beira is but a continuation of the Sierra de +Gata which separates Leon from Spanish Estremadura. Indeed the only +natural frontiers are formed by the last thirty miles of the Minho in +the north, by about eighty miles of the Douro, which in its deep and +narrow gorge really separates Traz os Montes from Leon; by a few miles +of the Tagus, and by the Guadiana both before and after it runs through +a part of Alemtejo. + +If the languages of the two countries were radically unlike this curious +division would be more easy to understand, but in reality Castilian +differs from Portuguese rather in pronunciation than in anything else; +indeed differs less from Portuguese than it does from Catalunan.[1] + +During the Roman dominion none of the divisions of the Peninsula +corresponded exactly with Portugal. Lusitania, which the poets of the +Renaissance took to be the Roman name of their country, only reached up +to the Douro, and took in a large part of Leon and the whole of Spanish +Estremadura. + +In the time of the Visigoths, a Suevic kingdom occupied most of Portugal +to the north of the Tagus, but included also all Galicia and part of +Leon; and during the Moorish occupation there was nothing which at all +corresponded with the modern divisions. + +It was, indeed, only by the gradual Christian re-conquest of the country +from the Moors that Portugal came into existence, and only owing to the +repeated failure of the attempt to unite the two crowns of Portugal and +Castile by marriage that they have remained separated to the present +day. + +Of the original inhabitants of what is now Portugal little is known, but +that they were more Celtic than Iberian seems probable from a few Celtic +words which have survived, such as _Mor_ meaning _great_ as applied to +the _Capella Mor_ of a church or to the title of a court official. The +name too of the Douro has probably nothing to do with gold but is +connected with a Celtic word for water. The Tua may mean the 'gushing' +river, and the Ave recalls the many Avons. _Ebora_, now Evora, is very +like the Roman name of York, Eboracum. _Briga_, too, the common +termination of town names in Roman times as in Conimbriga--Condeixa a +Velha--or Cetobriga, near Setubal--in Celtic means _height_ or +_fortification_. All over the country great rude stone monuments are to +be found, like those erected by primitive peoples in almost every part +of Europe, and the most interesting, the curious buildings found at +various places near Guimaraes, seem to belong to a purely Celtic +civilisation. + +The best-known of these places, now called Citania--from a name of a +native town mentioned by ancient writers--occupies the summit of a hill +about nine hundred feet above the road and nearly half-way between +Guimaraes and Braga. The top of this hill is covered with a number of +structures, some round from fifteen to twenty feet across, and some +square, carefully built of well-cut blocks of granite. The only opening +is a door which is often surrounded by an architrave adorned with rough +carving; the roofs seem to have been of wood and tiles. + +Some, not noticing the three encircling walls and the well-cut +water-channels, and thinking that the round buildings far exceeded the +rectangular in number, have thought that they might have been intended +for granaries where corn might be stored against a time of war. But it +seems far more likely that Citania was a town placed on this high hill +for safety. Though the remains show no other trace of Roman +civilisation, one or two of the houses are inscribed with their owner's +names in Roman character, and from coins found there they seem to have +been inhabited long after the surrounding valleys had been subdued by +the Roman arms, perhaps even after the great baths had been built not +far off at the hot springs of Taipas. Uninfluenced by Rome, Citania was +also untouched by Christianity, though it may have been inhabited after +St. James--if indeed he ever preached in Bracara Augusta, now Braga--and +his disciple Sao Pedro de Rates had begun their mission. + +But if Citania knew nothing of Christianity there still remains one +remarkable monument of the native religion. Among the ruins there long +lay a huge thin slab of granite, now in the museum of Guimaraes, which +certainly has the appearance of having been a sacrificial stone. It is a +rough pentagon with each side measuring about five feet. On one side, in +the middle, a semicircular hollow has been cut out as if to leave room +for the sacrificing priest, while on the surface of the stone a series +of grooves has been cut, all draining to a hole near this hollow and +arranged as if for a human body with outstretched legs and arms. The +rest of the surface is covered with an intricate pattern like what may +often be found on Celtic stones in Scotland. Besides this so-called +Citania similar buildings have been found elsewhere, as at Sabrosa, also +near Guimaraes, but there the Roman influence seems usually to have been +greater. (Fig. 1.) + +The Romans began to occupy the Peninsula after the second Punic war, but +the conquest of the west and north was not completed till the reign of +Augustus more than two hundred years later. The Roman dominion over what +is now Portugal lasted for over four hundred years, and the chief +monument of their occupation is found in the language. More material +memorials are the milestones which still stand in the Gerez, some +tombstones, and some pavements and other remains at Condeixa a Velha, +once Conimbriga, near Coimbra and at the place now called Troya, perhaps +the original Cetobriga, on a sandbank opposite Setubal, a town whose +founders were probably Phoenicians. + +But more important than any of these is the temple at Evora, now without +any reason called the temple of Diana. During the middle ages, crowned +with battlements, with the spaces between the columns built up, it was +later degraded by being turned into a slaughter-house, and was only +cleared of such additions a few years since. Situated near the +cathedral, almost on the highest part of the town, it stands on a +terrace whose great retaining wall still shows the massiveness of Roman +work. + +Of the temple itself there remains about half of the podium, some eleven +feet high, fourteen granite columns, twelve of which still retain their +beautiful Corinthian capitals, and the architrave and part of the frieze +resting on these twelve capitals. Everything is of granite except the +capitals and bases which are of white marble; but instead of the +orthodox twenty-four flutes each column has only twelve, with a +distinctly unpleasing result. The temple seems to have been hexastyle +peripteral, but all trace of the cella has disappeared. Nothing is known +of the temple or who it was that built it, but in Roman times Evora was +one of the chief cities of Lusitania; nothing else is left but the +temple, for the aqueduct has been rebuilt and the so-called Tower of +Sertorius was mediaeval. Yet, although it may have less to show than +Merida, once Augusta Emerita and the capital of the province, this +temple is the best-preserved in the whole peninsula. (Fig. 2.) + +Before the Roman dominion came to an end, in the first quarter of the +fifth century, Christianity had been for some time firmly established. +Religious intolerance also, which nearly a thousand years later made +Spain the first home of the Inquisition, had already made itself +manifest in the burning of the heretical Priscillianists by Idacius, +whose see was at or near Lamego. + +Soon, however, the orthodox were themselves to suffer, for the Vandals, +the Goths, and the Suevi, who swept across the country from 417 A.D., +were Arians, and it was only after many years had passed that the ruling +Goths and Suevi were converted to the Catholic faith. + +The Vandals soon passed on to Africa, leaving their name in Andalucia +and the whole land to the Goths and Suevi, the + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + +HOUSE FROM SABROSA. +NOW IN MUSEUM, GUIMARAES. +] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + +EVORA. +TEMPLE OF "DIANA." +] + +Suevi at first occupying the whole of Portugal north of the Tagus as +well as Galicia and part of Leon. Later they were expelled from the +southern part of their dominion, but they as well as the Goths have left +practically no mark on the country, for the church built at Oporto by +the Suevic king, Theodomir, on his conversion to orthodoxy in 559, has +been rebuilt in the eleventh or twelfth century. + +These Germanic rulers seem never to have been popular with those they +governed, so that when the great Moslem invasion crossed from Morocco in +711 and, defeating King Roderick at Guadalete near Cadiz, swept in an +incredibly short time right up to the northern mountains, the whole +country submitted with scarcely a struggle. + +A few only of the Gothic nobles took refuge on the seaward slopes of the +Cantabrian mountains in the Asturias and there made a successful stand, +electing Don Pelayo as their king. + +As time went on, Pelayo's descendants crossed the mountains, and taking +Leon gradually extended their small kingdom southwards. + +Meanwhile other independent counties or principalities further east were +gradually spreading downwards. The nearest was Castile, so called from +its border castles, then Navarre, then Aragon, and lastly the county of +Barcelona or Cataluna. + +Galicia, in the north-west corner, never having been thoroughly +conquered by the invaders, was soon united with the Asturias and then +with Leon. So all these Christian realms, Leon--including Galicia and +Asturias--Castile, and Aragon, which was soon united to Cataluna, spread +southwards, faster when the Moslems were weakened by division, slower +when they had been united and strengthened by a fresh wave of fanaticism +from Africa. Navarre alone was unable to grow, for the lower Ebro valley +was won by the kings of Aragon, while Castile as she grew barred the way +to the south-west. + +At last in 1037 Fernando I. united Castile and Leon into one kingdom, +extending from the sea in the north to the lower course of the Douro and +to the mountains dividing the upper Douro from the Tagus valley in the +south. Before Fernando died in 1065 he had extended his frontier on the +west as far south as the Mondego, making Sesnando, a converted Moslem, +count of this important marchland. Then followed a new division, for +Castile went to King Sancho, Leon to Alfonso VI., and Galicia, including +the two counties of Porto and of Coimbra, to Garcia. + +Before long, however, Alfonso turned out his brothers and also extended +his borders even to the Tagus by taking Toledo in 1085. But his +successes roused the Moslem powers to fresh fanaticism. A new and +stricter dynasty, the Almoravides,[2] arose in Africa and crossing the +straits inflicted a crushing defeat on the Christians at Zalaca. In +despair at this disaster and at the loss of Santarem and of Lisbon, +Alfonso appealed to Christendom for help. Among those who came were +Count Raymond of Toulouse, who was rewarded with the kingdom of Galicia +and the hand of his daughter and heiress Urraca, and Count Henry of +Burgundy, who was granted the counties of Porto and of Coimbra and who +married another daughter of Alfonso's, Theresa. + +This was really the first beginning of Portugal as an independent state; +for Portugal, derived from two towns Portus and Cales, which lie +opposite each other near the mouth of the Douro, was the name given to +Henry's county. Henry did but little to make himself independent as he +was usually away fighting elsewhere, but his widow Theresa refused to +acknowledge her sister Urraca, now queen of Castile, Leon and Galicia, +as her superior, called herself Infanta and behaved as if she was no +one's vassal. Fortunately for her and her aims, Urraca was far too busy +fighting with her second husband, the king of Aragon, to pay much +attention to what was happening in the west, so that she had time to +consolidate her power and to accustom her people to think of themselves +as being not Galicians but Portuguese. + +The breach with Galicia was increased by the favour which Theresa, after +a time, began to show to her lover, Don Fernando Peres de Trava, a +Galician noble, and by the grants of lands and of honours she made to +him. This made her so unpopular that when Alfonso Raimundes, Urraca's +son, attacked Theresa in 1127, made her acknowledge him as suzerain, and +give up Tuy and Orense, Galician towns she had taken, the people rose +against her and declared her son Affonso Henriques old enough to reign. + +Then took place the famous submission of Egas Moniz, Affonso's governor, +who induced the king to retire from the siege of Guimaraes by promising +that his pupil would agree to the terms forced on his mother. This, +though but seventeen, Affonso refused to do, and next year raising an +army he expelled his mother and Don Fernando, and after four wars with +his cousin of Castile finally succeeded in maintaining his independence, +and even in assuming the title of King. + +These wars with Castile taught him at last that the true way to increase +his realm was to leave Christian territory alone and to direct his +energies southwards, gaining land only at the expense of the Moors. + +So did the kingdom of Portugal come into existence, almost accidentally +and without there being any division of race or of language between its +inhabitants and those of Galicia. + +The youngest of all the Peninsular kingdoms, it is the only one which +still remains separate from the rest of the Spains, for when in 1580 +union was forced on her by Philip II., Portugal had had too glorious a +past, and had become too different in language and in custom easily to +submit to so undesired a union, while Spain, already suffering from +coming weakness and decay, was not able long to hold her in such hated +bondage. + +It is not necessary here to tell the story of each of Affonso Henriques' +descendants. He himself permanently extended the borders of his kingdom +as far as the Tagus, and even raided the Moslem lands of the south as +far as Ourique, beyond Beja. His son, Sancho I., finding the Moors too +strong to make any permanent conquests beyond the Tagus, devoted himself +chiefly--when not fighting with the king of Castile and Leon--to +rebuilding and restoring the towns in Beira, and it was not till the +reign of his grandson, Affonso III., that the southern sea was reached +by the taking of the Algarve in the middle of the thirteenth century. + +Dom Diniz, Affonso III.'s son, carried on the work of settling the +country, building castles and planting pine-trees to stay the blowing +sands along the west coast. + +From that time on Portugal was able to hold her own, and was strong +enough in 1387 to defeat the king of Castile at Aljubarrota when he +tried to seize the throne in right of his wife, only child of the late +Portuguese king, Fernando. + +Under the House of Aviz, whose first king, Joao I., had been elected to +repel this invasion, Portugal rose to the greatest heights of power and +of wealth to which the country was ever to attain. The ceaseless efforts +of Dom Henrique, the Navigator, the third son of Dom Joao, were crowned +with success when Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut in May 1498, and when +Pedro Alvares Cabral first saw the coasts of Brazil in 1500. + +To-day one is too ready to forget that Portugal was the pioneer in +geographical discovery, that the Portuguese were the first Westerns to +reach Japan, and that, had Joao II. listened to Columbus, it would have +been to Portugal and not to Spain that he would have given a new world. + +It was, too, under the House of Aviz that the greatest development in +architecture took place, and that the only original and distinctive +style of architecture was formed. That was also the time when the few +good pictures which the country possesses were painted, and when much of +the splendid church plate which still exists was wrought. + +The sixty years of the Spanish captivity, as it was called, from 1580 to +1640, were naturally comparatively barren of all good work. After the +restoration of peace and a revival of the Brazilian trade had brought +back some of the wealth which the country had lost, the art of building +had fallen so low that of the many churches rebuilt or altered during +the eighteenth century there is scarcely one possessed of the slightest +merit. + +The most important events of the eighteenth century were the great +earthquakes of 1755 and the ministry of the Marques de Pombal. + +Soon after the beginning of the nineteenth century came the invasion led +by Junot, 1807, the flight of the royal family to Brazil, and the +Peninsular War. Terrible damage was done by the invaders, cart-loads of +church plate were carried off, and many a monastery was sacked and +burned. Peace had not long been restored when the struggle broke out +between the constitutional party under Pedro of Brazil, who had resigned +the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter, Maria da Gloria, and +the absolutists under Dom Miguel, his brother. + +The civil war lasted for several years, from May 1828, when Dom Miguel, +then regent for his niece, summoned the Cortes and caused himself to be +elected king, till May 1834, when he was finally defeated at Evora +Monte and forced to leave the country. The chief events of his +usurpation were the siege of Oporto and the defeat of his fleet off Cape +St. Vincent in 1833 by Captain Charles Napier, who fought for Dona Maria +under the name of Carlos de Ponza. + +One of the first acts of the constitutional Cortes was to suppress all +the monasteries in the kingdom in 1834. At the same time the nunneries +were forbidden to receive any new nuns, with the result that in many +places the buildings have gradually fallen into decay, till the last +surviving sister has died, solitary and old, and so at length set free +her home to be turned to some public use.[3] + +Since then the history of Portugal has been quiet and uneventful. Good +roads have been made--but not always well kept up--railways have been +built, and Lisbon, once known as the dirtiest of towns, has become one +of the cleanest, with fine streets, electric lighting, a splendidly +managed system of electric tramways, and with funiculars and lifts to +connect the higher parts of the town with its busy centre. + +It is not uninteresting to notice in how many small matters Portugal now +differs from Spain. Portugal drinks tea, Spain chocolate or coffee; it +lunches and dines early, Spain very late; its beds and pillows are very +hard, in Spain they are much softer. Travelling too in Portugal is much +pleasanter; as the country is so much smaller, trains leave at much more +reasonable hours, run more frequently, and go more quickly. The inns +also, even in small places, are, if not luxurious, usually quite clean +with good food, and the landlord treats his guests with something more +pleasing than that lofty condescension which is so noticeable in Spain. + +Of the more distant countries of Europe, Portugal is now one of the +easiest to reach. Forty-eight hours from Southampton in a boat bound for +South America lands the traveller at Vigo, or three days at Lisbon, +where the brilliant sun and blue sky, the judas-trees in the Avenida, +the roses, the palms, and the sheets of bougainvillia, are such an +unimaginable change from the cold March winds and pinched buds of +England. + +There is perhaps no country in Europe which has so interesting a flora, +especially in spring. In March in the granite north the ground under the +pine-trees is covered with the exquisite flowers of the narcissus +triandrus,[4] while the wet water meadows are yellow with petticoat +daffodils. Other daffodils too abound, but these are the commonest. + +Later the granite rocks are hidden by great trees of white broom, while +from north to south every wild piece of land is starred with the +brilliant blue flowers of the lithospermum. There are also endless +varieties of cistus, from the small yellow annual with rich brown heart +to the large gum cistus that covers so much of the poor soil in the +Alemtejo. These plains of the Alemtejo are supposed to be the least +beautiful part of the country, but no one can cross them in April +without being almost overcome with the beauty of the flowers, cistus, +white, yellow, or red, tall white heaths, red heaths, blue lithospermum, +yellow whin, and most brilliant of all the large pimpernel, whose blue +flowers almost surpass the gentian. A little further on where there is +less heath and cistus, tall yellow and blue Spanish irises stand up out +of the grass, or there may be great heads of blue scilla peruviana or +sheets of small iris of the brightest blue. + +Indeed, sheets of brilliant colour are everywhere most wonderful. There +may be acres of rich purple where the bugloss hides the grass, or of +brilliant yellow where the large golden daisies grow thickly together, +or of sky-blue where the convolvulus has smothered a field of oats. + + +PAINTING IN PORTUGAL.[5] + +From various causes Portugal is far less rich in buildings of interest +than is Spain. The earthquake has destroyed many, but more have perished +through tasteless rebuilding during the eighteenth century when the +country again regained a small part of the trade and wealth lost during +the Spanish usurpation. + +But if this is true of architecture, it is far more true of painting. +During the most flourishing period of Spanish painting, the age of +Velasquez and of Murillo, Portugal was, before 1640, a despised part of +the kingdom, treated as a conquered province, while after the rebellion +the long struggle, which lasted for twenty-eight years, was enough to +prevent any of the arts from flourishing. Besides, many good pictures +which once adorned the royal palaces of Portugal were carried off to +Madrid by Philip or his successors. + +And yet there are scattered about the country not a few paintings of +considerable merit. Most of them have been terribly neglected, are very +dirty, or hang where they can scarcely be seen, while little is really +known about their painters. + +From the time of Dom Joao I., whose daughter, Isabel, married Duke +Philip early in the fifteenth century, the two courts of Portugal and of +Burgundy had been closely united. Isabel sent an alabaster monument for +the tomb of her father's great friend and companion, the Holy Constable, +and one of bronze for that of her eldest brother; while as a member of +the embassy which came to demand her hand, was J. van Eyck himself. +However, if he painted anything in Portugal, it has now vanished. + +There was also a great deal of trade with Antwerp where the Portuguese +merchants had a _lonja_ or exchange as early as 1386, and where a +factory was established in 1503. With the heads of this factory, +Francisco Brandao and Rodrigo Ruy de Almada, Albert Duerer was on +friendly terms, sending them etchings and paintings in return for wine +and southern rarities. He also drew the portrait of Damiao de Goes, Dom +Manoel's friend and chronicler. + +It is natural enough, therefore, that Flanders should have had a great +influence on Portuguese painting, and indeed practically all the +pictures in the country are either by Netherland masters, painted at +home and imported, or painted in Portugal by artists who had been +attracted there by the fame of Dom Manoel's wealth and generosity, or +else by Portuguese pupils sent to study in Flanders. + +During the seventeenth century all memory of these painters had +vanished. Looking at their work, the writers of that date were struck by +what seemed to them, in their natural ignorance of Flemish art, a +strange and peculiar style, and so attributed them all to a certain +half-mythical painter of Vizeu called Vasco, or Grao Vasco, who is first +mentioned in 1630. + +Raczynski,[6] in his letters to the Berlin Academy, says that he had +found Grao Vasco's birth in a register of Vizeu; but Vasco is not an +uncommon name, and besides this child, Vasco Fernandes, was born in +1552--far too late to have painted any of the so-called Grao Vasco's +pictures. + +It is of course possible that some of the pictures now at Vizeu were the +work of a man called Vasco, and one of those at Coimbra, in the sacristy +of Santa Cruz, is signed Velascus--which is only the Spanish form of +Vasco--so that the legendary personage may have been evolved from either +or both of these, for it is scarcely possible that they can have been +the same. + +Turning now to some of the pictures themselves, there are thirteen +representing scenes from the life of the Virgin in the archbishop's +palace at Evora, which are said by Justi, a German critic, to be by +Gerhard David. Twelve of these are in a very bad state of preservation, +but one is still worthy of some admiration. In the centre sits the +Virgin with the Child on her knee: four angels are in the air above her +holding a wreath. On her right three angels are singing, and on her left +one plays an organ while another behind blows the bellows. Below there +are six other angels, three on each side with a lily between them, +playing, those on the right on a violin, a flute, and a zither, those on +the left on a harp, a triangle, and a guitar. Once part of the cathedral +reredos, it was taken down when the new Capella Mor was built in the +eighteenth century. + +Another Netherlander who painted at Evora was Frey Carlos, who came to +Espinheiro close by in 1507. Several of his works are in the Museum at +Lisbon.[7] + +When Dom Manoel was enriching the old Templar church at Thomar with +gilding and with statues of saints, he also caused large paintings to be +placed round the outer wall. Several still remain, but most have +perished, either during the French invasion or during the eleven years +after the expulsion of the monks in 1834 when the church stood open for +any one to go in and do what harm he liked. Some also, including the +'Raising of Lazarus,' the 'Entry into Jerusalem,' the 'Resurrection,' +and the 'Centurion,' are now in Lisbon. Four--the 'Nativity,' the 'Visit +of the Magi,' the 'Annunciation,' and a 'Virgin and Child'--are known to +have been given by Dom Manoel; twenty others, including the four now at +Lisbon, are spoken of by Raczynski in 1843,[8] and some at least of +these, as well as the angels holding the emblems of the Passion, who +stand above the small arches of the inner octagon, may have been painted +by Johannes Dralia of Bruges, who died and was buried at Thomar in +1504.[9] + +Also at Thomar, but in the parish church of Sao Joao Baptista, are some +pictures ascribed by Justi to a pupil of Quentin Matsys. Now it is known +that a Portuguese called _Eduard_ became a pupil of Matsys in 1504, and +four years later a Vrejmeester of the guild. So perhaps they may be by +this Eduard or by some fellow-pupil. + +The Jesus Church at Setubal, built by Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's +nurse, has fifteen paintings in incongruous gilt frames and hung high up +on the north wall of the church, which also have something of the same +style.[10] + +More interesting than these are two pictures in the sacristy of Santa +Cruz at Coimbra, an 'Ecce Homo' and the 'Day of Pentecost.' It is the +'Pentecost' which is signed Velascus, and in it the Apostles in an inner +room are seen through an arcade of three arches like a chapter-house +entrance. Perhaps once part of the great reredos, this picture has +suffered terribly from neglect; but it must once have been a fine work, +and the way in which the Apostles in the inner room are separated by the +arcade from the two spectators is particularly successful. + +In Oporto there exists at least one good picture, 'The Fountain of +Mercy,' now in the board-room of the Misericordia,[11] but painted to be +the reredos of the chapel of Sao Thiago in the Se where the brotherhood +was founded by Dom Manoel in 1499. (Fig. 3.) + +In the centre above, between St. John and the Virgin, stands a crucifix +from which blood flows down to fill a white marble well. + +Below, on one side there kneels Dom Manoel with his six sons--Joao, +afterwards king; Luis, duke of Beja; Fernando, duke of Guarda; Affonso, +afterwards archbishop of Lisbon, with his cardinal's hat; Henrique, +later cardinal archbishop of Evora, and then king; and Duarte, duke of +Guimaraes and ancestor of the present ruling house of Braganza. + +On the other side are Queen Dona Leonor,[12] granddaughter of Ferdinand +and Isabella, Dom Manoel's third wife[13] and her two stepdaughters, +Dona Isabel, the wife of Charles V. and mother of Philip II., who +through her claimed and won the throne of Portugal when his uncle, the +cardinal king, died in 1580, and Dona Beatriz, who married Charles III.. +of Savoy. + +The date of the picture is fixed as between 1518 when Dom Affonso, then +aged nine, received his cardinal's hat, and 1521 when Dom Manoel +died.[14] + +Unfortunately the picture has been somewhat spoiled by restoration, but +it is undoubtedly a very fine piece of work--especially the portraits +below--and would be worthy of admiration anywhere, even in a country +much richer in works of art. + +It has of course been attributed to Grao Vasco, but it is quite +different from either the Velascus pictures at Coimbra or the paintings +at Vizeu; besides, some of the beautifully painted flowers, such as the +columbines, which enrich the grass on which the royal persons kneel, are +not Portuguese flowers, so that it is much more likely to have been the +work of some one from Flanders. + +Equally Flemish are the pictures at Vizeu, whether any of them be by the +Grao Vasco or not. Tradition has it that he was born at a mill not far +off, still called _Moinho do Pintor_, the _Painter's Mill_, and that Dom +Manoel sent him to study in Italy. Now, wherever the painter of the +Vizeu pictures had + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. + +THE FOUNTAIN OF MERCY. +MISERICORDIA, OPORTO. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +studied it can scarcely have been in Italy, as they are all surely much +nearer to the Flemish than to any Italian school. + +There are still in the precincts of the cathedral some thirty-one +pictures of very varied merit, and not all by the same hand. Of these +there are fourteen in the chapter-house, a room opening off the upper +cloister. They are all scenes from the life of Our Lord from the +Annunciation to the day of Pentecost. Larger than any of these is a +damaged 'Crucifixion' in the Jesus Chapel under the chapter-house. The +painting is full, perhaps too full, of movement and of figures. Besides +the scenes usually portrayed in a picture of the Crucifixion, others are +shown in the background, Judas hanging himself on one side, and Joseph +of Arimathea and Nicodemus on the other, coming out from Jerusalem with +their spices. Lastly, in the sacristy there are twelve small paintings +of the Apostles and other saints of no great merit, and four large +pictures, 'St. Sebastian,' the 'Day of Pentecost,' where the room is +divided by three arches, with the Virgin and another saint in the +centre, and six of the Apostles on each side; the 'Baptism of Our Lord,' +and lastly 'St. Peter.' The first three are not very remarkable, but the +'St. Peter' is certainly one of the finest pictures in the country, and +is indeed worthy of ranking among the great pictures of the world.[15] +(Fig. 4.) + +As in the 'Day of Pentecost' there is a triple division; St. Peter's +throne being in the middle with an arch on each side open to show +distant scenes. The throne seems to be of stone, with small boys and +griffins holding shields charged with the Cross Keys on the arms. On the +canopy two other shields supporting triple crowns flank an arch whose +classic ornaments and large shell are more Italian than is any other +part of the painting. On the throne sits St. Peter pontifically robed, +and with the triple crown on his head. His right hand is raised in +blessing, and in his left he holds one very long key while he keeps a +book open upon his knee. + +The cope is of splendid gold brocade of a fine Gothic pattern, with +orfreys or borders richly embroidered with figures of saints, and is +fastened in front by a great square gold and jewelled morse. All the +draperies are very finely modelled and richly coloured, but finest of +all is St. Peter's face, solemn and stern and yet kindly, without any +of that pride and arrogance which would seem but natural to the wearer +of such vestments; it is, with its grey hair and short grey beard, +rather the face of the fisherman of Galilee than that of a Pope. + +Through the arches to the right and left above a low wall are seen the +beginning and the end of his ministry. On the one side he is leaving his +boat and his nets to become a fisher of men, and on the other he kneels +before the vision of Our Lord, when fleeing from Rome he met Him at the +place now called 'Quo Vadis' on the Appian way, and so was turned back +to meet his martyrdom. + +Fortunately this painting has suffered from no restoration, and is still +wonderfully clean, but the wood on which it is painted has split rather +badly in places, one large crack running from top to bottom just beyond +the throne on St. Peter's right. + +This 'St. Peter,' then, is entirely Flemish in the painting of the +drapery and of the scenes behind; especially of the turreted Gothic +walls of Rome. The details of the throne may be classic, but French +renaissance forms were first introduced into the country at Belem in +1517, just the time when the cathedral here was being built by Bishop +Dom Diogo Ortiz de Vilhegas. This, and the other pictures in the +sacristy, were doubtless once parts of the great reredos, which would +not be put up till the church was quite finished, and so may not have +been painted till some time after 1520, or even later. Already in 1522 +much renaissance work was being done at Coimbra, not far off, so it is +possible that the painter of these pictures may have adopted his classic +detail from what he may have seen there. + +It is worth noting, too, that preserved in the sacristy at Vizeu there +is, or was,[16] a cope so like that worn by St. Peter, that the painting +must almost certainly have been copied from it. + +We may therefore conclude that these pictures are the work of some one +who had indeed studied abroad, probably at Antwerp, but who worked at +home. + +Not only to paint religious pictures and portraits did Flemish artists +come to Portugal. One at least, Antonio de + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. + +ST. PETER. +IN THE CATHEDRAL SACRISTY. +VIZEU. +] + +Hollanda, was famous for his illuminations. He lived and worked at +Evora, and is said by his son Francisco to have been the first in +Portugal 'to make known a pleasing manner of painting in black and +white, superior to all processes known in other countries.'[17] + +When the convent of Thomar was being finished by Dom Joao III., some +large books were in November 1533 sent on a mule to Antonio at Evora to +be illuminated. Two of these books were finished and paid for in +February 1535, when he received 63$795 or about L15. The books were +bound at Evora for 4$000 or sixteen shillings. + +By the end of the next year a Psalter was finished which cost 54$605 or +L12, at the rate of 6$000, L1, 6s. 8d. for each of four large headings, +forty illuminated letters with vignettes at 2s. 2d. each, a hundred and +fifteen without vignettes at fivepence-halfpenny, two hundred and three +in red, gold, and blue at fourpence-farthing, eighty-four drawn in black +at twopence, and 2846 small letters at the beginning of each verse at +less than one farthing. Next March this Psalter was brought back to +Thomar on a mule whose hire was two shillings and twopence--a sum small +enough for a journey of well over a hundred miles,[18] but which may +help us the better to estimate the value of the money paid to +Antonio.[19] + + +CHURCH PLATE. + +A very great part of the church plate of Portugal has long since +disappeared, for few chapters had the foresight to hide all that was +most valuable when Soult began his devastating march from the north, and +so he and his men were able to encumber their retreat with cart-loads of +the most beautiful gold and silver ornaments. + +Yet a good deal has survived, either because it was hidden away as at +Guimaraes or at Coimbra--where it is said to have been only found +lately--or because, as at Evora, it lay apart from the course of this +famous plunderer. + +The richest treasuries at the present day are those of Nossa Senhora da +Oliveira at Guimaraes, and of the Ses at Braga, at Coimbra, and at +Evora. + +A silver-gilt chalice and a pastoral staff of the twelfth century in the +sacristy at Braga are among the oldest pieces of plate in the country. +The chalice is about five inches high. The cup, ornamented with animals +and leaves, stands on a plain base inscribed, 'In n[=m]e D[=m]i Menendus +Gundisaluis de Tuda domna sum.' It is called the chalice of Sao Giraldo, +and is supposed to have belonged to that saint, who as archbishop of +Braga baptized Affonso Henriques. + +The staff of copper-gilt is in the form of a snake with a cross in its +mouth, and though almost certainly of the twelfth century is said to +have been found in the tomb of Santo Ovidio, the third archbishop of the +see. + +Another very fine chalice of the same date is in the treasury at +Coimbra. Here the round cup is enriched by an arcade, under each arch of +which stands a saint, while on the base are leaves and medallions with +angels. It is inscribed, 'Geda Menendis me fecit in onore sci. Michaelis +e. MCLXXXX.', that is A.D. 1152. + +It was no doubt given by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see from 1162 to 1176 +and who spent so much on the old cathedral and on its furniture. For him +Master Ptolomeu made silver altar fronts, and the goldsmith Felix a jug +and basin for the service of the altar. He also had a gold chalice made +weighing 4 marks, probably the one made by Geda Menendis, and a gold +cross to enclose some pieces of the Holy Sepulchre and two pieces of the +True Cross. + +At Guimaraes the chalice of Sao Torquato is of the thirteenth century. +The cup is quite plain and small, but on the wide-spreading base are +eight enamels of Our Lady and of seven of the Apostles. + +The finest of all the objects in the Guimaraes treasury is the reredos, +taken by Dom Joao I. from the Spanish king's tent after the victory of +Aljubarrota, and one of the angels which once went with it. + +The same king also gave to the small church of Sao Miguel a silver +processional cross, all embossed with oak leaves, and ending in +fleurs-de-lys, which rises from two superimposed octagons, covered with +Gothic ornament. + +Another beautiful cross now at Coimbra has a 'Virgin and Child' in the +centre under a rich canopy, and enamels of the four Evangelists on the +arms, while the rest of the surface including the foliated ends is +covered with exquisitely pierced flowing tracery. (Fig. 5.) + +Earlier are the treasures which once belonged the Queen St. Isabel who +died in 1327, and which are still preserved at Coimbra. These include a +beautiful and simple cross of agate and silver, a curious reliquary made +of a branch of coral with silver mountings, her staff as abbess of St. +Clara, shaped like the cross of an Eastern bishop, and with heads of +animals at the ends of the arms, and a small ark-shaped reliquary of +silver and coral now set on a high renaissance base. + +But nearly all the surviving church plate dates from the time of Dom +Manoel or his son. + +To Braga Archbishop Diogo de Souza gave a splendid silver-gilt chalice +in 1509. Here the cup is adorned above by six angels holding emblems of +the Passion, and below by six others holding bells. Above them runs an +inscription, _Hic est calix sanguinis mei novi et eter_. The stem is +entirely covered with most elaborate canopy work, with six Apostles in +niches, while on the base are five other Apostles in relief, the +archbishop's arms, and six pieces of enamel. + +Very similar is a splendid chalice in the Misericordia at Oporto, +probably of about the same date, and two at Coimbra. In both of these +the cup is embossed with angels and leafage--in one the angels hold +bells--and the stem is covered with tabernacle work. On the base of the +one is a _pieta_ with mourning angels and other emblems of the Passion +in relief, while that of the other is enriched with filigree work. (Fig. +6.) + +Another at Guimaraes given by Fernando Alvares is less well proportioned +and less beautiful. + +So far the architectural details of the chalices mentioned have been +entirely national, but there is a custodia at Evora, whose interlacing +canopy work seems to betray the influence of the Netherlands. The base +of this custodia[20] or monstrance, in the shape of a chalice seems +later than the upper part, which is surmounted by a rounded canopy whose +hanging cusps and traceried panels strongly recall the Flemish work of +the great reredos in the old cathedral at Coimbra. + +Even more Flemish are a pastoral staff made for Cardinal Henrique, son +of Dom Manoel and afterwards king, a monstrance or reliquary at +Coimbra,[21] and another at Guimaraes.[22] + +Much splendid plate was also given to Santa Cruz at Coimbra by Dom +Manoel, but all--candlesticks, lamps, crosses and a monstrance--have +since vanished, sent to Goa in India when the canons in the eighteenth +century wanted something more fashionable. + +Belem also possessed splendid treasures, among them a cross of silver +filigree and jewels which is still preserved. + +Much filigree work is still done in the north, where the young women +invest their savings in great golden hearts or in beautiful earrings, +though now bunches of coloured flowers on huge lockets of coppery gold +are much more sought after. + +Curiously, many of the most famous goldsmiths of the sixteenth century +were Jews. Among them was the Vicente family, a member of which made a +fine monstrance for Belem in 1505, and which, like other families, was +expelled from Coimbra to Guimaraes between the years 1532 and 1537, and +doubtless wrought some of the beautiful plate for which the treasury of +Nossa Senhora is famous. + +The seventeenth century, besides smaller works, has left the great +silver tomb of the Holy Queen St. Isabel in the new church of Santa +Clara. Made by order of Bishop Dom Affonso de Castello Branco in 1614, +it weighs over 170 lbs., has at the sides and ends Corinthian columns, +leaving panels between them with beautifully chased framing, and a +sloping top. + +Later and less worthy of notice are the coffins of the two first sainted +abbesses of the convent of Lorvao, near Coimbra, in which elaborate +acanthus scrolls in silver are laid over red velvet. + + +TILE WORK OR AZULEJOS. + +The Moors occupied most of what is now Portugal for a considerable +length of time. The extreme north they held for rather less than two +hundred years, the extreme south for more than five hundred. This +occupation by a governing class, so different in religion, in race, and +in customs from + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. + +CROSS AT COIMBRA.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. + +CHALICE AT COIMBRA.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. + +MONSTRANCE AT COIMBRA.] + +those they ruled, has naturally had a strong influence, not only on the +language of Portugal, but also on the art. Though there survive no +important Moorish buildings dating from before the re-conquest--for the +so-called mosque at Cintra is certainly a small Christian church--many +were built after it for Christians by Moorish workmen. + +These, as well as the Arab ceilings, or those derived therefrom, will be +described later, but here must be mentioned the tilework, the most +universally distributed legacy of the Eastern people who once held the +land. There is scarcely a church, certainly scarcely one of any size or +importance which even in the far north has not some lining or dado of +tiles, while others are entirely covered with them from floor to ceiling +or vault. + +The word _azulejo_ applied to these tiles is derived from the Arabic +_azzallaja_ or _azulaich_, meaning _smooth_, or else through the Arabic +from a Low Latin word _azuroticus_ used by a Gaulish writer of the fifth +century to describe mosaic[23] and not from the word _azul_ or _blue_. +At first each different piece or colour in a geometric pattern was cut +before firing to the shape required, and the many different pieces when +coloured and fired were put together so as to form a regular mosaic. +This method of making tiles, though soon given up in most places as +being too troublesome, is still employed at Tetuan in Morocco, where in +caves near the town the whole process may still be seen; for there the +mixing of the clay, the cutting out of the small pieces, the colouring +and the firing are still carried on in the old primitive and traditional +manner.[24] + +Elsewhere, though similar designs long continued to be used in Spain and +Portugal, and are still used in Morocco, the tiles were all made square, +each tile usually forming one quarter of the pattern. In them the +pattern was formed by lines slightly raised above the surface of the +tile so that there was no danger during the firing of the colour running +beyond the place it was intended to occupy. + +For a long time, indeed right up to the end of the fifteenth century, +scarcely anything but Moorish geometric patterns seem to have been used. +Then with the renaissance their place was taken by other patterns of +infinite variety; some have octagons with classic mouldings represented +in colour, surrounding radiating green and blue leaves;[25] some more +strictly classical are not unlike Italian patterns; some again are more +naturalistic, while in others the pattern, though not of the old +geometric form, is still Moorish in design. + +Together with the older tiles of Moorish pattern plain tiles were often +made in which each separate tile, usually square, but at times +rhomboidal or oblong, was of one colour, and such tiles were often used +from quite early times down at least to the end of the seventeenth +century. + +More restricted in use were the beautiful embossed tiles found in the +palace at Cintra, in which each has on it a raised green vine-leaf and +tendril, or more rarely a dark bunch of grapes. + +Towards the middle of the sixteenth century the Moorish technique of +tilemaking, with its patterns marked off by raised edges, began to go +out of fashion, and instead the patterns were outlined in dark blue and +painted on to flat tiles. About the same time large pictures painted on +tiles came into use, at first, as in the work of Francisco de Mattos, +with scenes more or less in their natural colours, and later in the +second half of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the +eighteenth in blue on a white ground. + +Towards the end of the eighteenth century blue seems to have usurped the +place of all other colours, and from that time, especially in or near +Oporto, tiles were used to mask all the exterior rubble walls of houses +and churches, even spires or bulbous domes being sometimes so covered. + +Now in Oporto nearly all the houses are so covered, usually with +blue-and-white tiles, though on the more modern they may be embossed and +pale green or yellow, sometimes even brown. But all the tiles from the +beginning of the nineteenth century to the present day are marked by the +poverty of the colour and of the pattern, and still more by the hard +shiny glaze, which may be technically more perfect, but is infinitely +inferior in beauty to the duller and softer glaze of the previous +centuries. + +When square tiles were used they were throughout singularly uniform in +size, being a little below or a little above five inches square. The +ground is always white with a slightly blueish tinge. In the earlier +tiles of Arab pattern the colours are blue, green, and brown; very +rarely, and that in some of the oldest tiles, the pattern may be in +black; yellow is scarcely ever seen. In those of Moorish technique but +Western pattern, the most usual colours are blue, green, yellow and, +more rarely, brown. + +Later still in the flat tiles scarcely anything but blue and yellow are +used, though the blue and the yellow may be of two shades, light and +dark, golden and orange. Brown and green have almost disappeared, and, +as was said above, so did yellow at last, leaving nothing but blue and +white. + +Although there are few buildings which do not possess some tiles, the +oldest, those of Moorish design, are rare, and, the best collection is +to be found in the old palace at Cintra, of which the greater part was +built by Dom Joao I. towards the end of the fourteenth and the beginning +of the fifteenth century. + +Formerly all the piers of the old cathedral of Coimbra were covered with +such tiles, but they have lately been swept away, and only those left +which line the aisle walls. + +At Cintra there are a few which it is supposed may have belonged to the +palace of the Walis, or perhaps it would be safer to say to the palace +before it was rebuilt by Dom Joao. These are found round a door leading +out of a small room, called from the mermaids on the ceiling the _Sala +das Sereias_. The pointed door is enclosed in a square frame by a band +of narrow dark and light tiles with white squares between, arranged in +checks, while in the spandrels is a very beautiful arabesque pattern in +black on a white ground. + +Of slightly later date are the azulejos of the so-called _Sala dos +Arabes_, where the walls to a height of about six feet are lined with +blue, green, and white tiles, the green being square and the other +rhomboidal. Over the doors, which are pointed, a square framing is +carried up, with tiles of various patterns in the spandrels, and above +these frames, as round the whole walls, runs a very beautiful cresting +two tiles high. On the lower row are interlacing semicircles in high +relief forming foliated cusps and painted blue. In the spandrels formed +by the interlacing of the semicircles are three green leaves growing out +from a brown flower; in short the design is exactly like a Gothic +corbel table such as was used on Dom Joao's church at Batalha turned +upside down, and so probably dates from his time. On the second row of +tiles there are alternately a tall blue fleur-de-lys with a yellow +centre, and a lower bunch of leaves, three blue at the top and one +yellow on each side; the ground throughout is white. (Fig. 8.) + +Also of Dom Joao's time are the tiles in the _Sala das Pegas_, where +they are of the regular Moorish pattern--blue, green and brown on a +white ground, and where four go to make up the pattern. The cresting of +green scrolls and vases is much later. + +Judging from the cresting in the dining-room or _Sala de Jantar_, where, +except that the ground is brown relieved by large white stars, and that +the cusps are green and not blue, the design is exactly the same as in +the _Sala dos Arabes_, the tiles there must be at least as old as these +crestings; for though older tiles might be given a more modern cresting, +the reverse is hardly likely to occur, and if as old as the crestings +they may possibly belong to Dom Joao's time, or at least to the middle +of the fifteenth century. (Fig. 9.) + +These dining-room tiles, and also those in the neighbouring _Sala das +Sereias_, are among the most beautiful in the palace. The ground is as +usual white, and on each is embossed a beautiful green vine-leaf with +branches and tendril. Tiles similar, but with a bunch of grapes added, +line part of the stair in the picturesque little _Pateo de Diana_ near +at hand, and form the top of the back of the tiled bench and throne in +the _Sala do Conselho_, once an open veranda. Most of this bench is +covered with tiles of Moorish design, but on the front each is stamped +with an armillary sphere in which the axis is yellow, the lines of the +equator and tropics green, and the rest blue. These one would certainly +take to be of Dom Manoel's time, for the armillary sphere was his +emblem, but they are said to be older. + +Most of the floor tiles are of unglazed red, except some in the chapel, +which are supposed to have formed the paving of the original mosque, and +some in an upper room, worn smooth by the feet of Dom Affonso VI., who +was imprisoned there for many a year in the seventeenth century. + +When Dom Manoel was making his great addition to the palace in the early +years of the sixteenth century he lined the walls of the _Sala dos +Cysnes_ with tiles forming a check of green + +[Illustration: FIG. 8. + +SALA DOS ARABES. +PALACE, CINTRA. + +_From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. + +DINING-ROOM, OLD PALACE. +CINTRA. + +_From a photograph by L. Oram, Cintra._] + +and white. These are carried up over the doors and windows, and in +places have a curious cresting of green cones like Moorish battlements, +and of castles. + +Much older are the tiles in the central _Pateo_, also green and white, +but forming a very curious pattern. + +Of later tiles the palace also has some good examples, such as the +hunting scenes with which the walls of the _Sala dos Brazoes_ were +covered probably at the end of the seventeenth century, during the reign +of Dom Pedro II. + +The palace at Cintra may possess the finest collection of tiles, Moorish +both in technique and in pattern, but it has few or none of the second +class where the technique remains Moorish but the design is Western. To +see such tiles in their greatest quantity and variety one must cross the +Tagus and visit the Quinta de Bacalhoa not far from Setubal. + +There a country house had been built in the last quarter of the +fifteenth century by Dona Brites, the mother of Dom Manoel.[26] The +house, with melon-roofed corner turrets, simple square windows and two +loggias, has an almost classic appearance, and if built in its present +shape in the time of Dona Brites, must be one of the earliest examples +of the renaissance in the country. It has therefore been thought that +Bacalhoa may be the mysterious palace built for Dom Joao II. by Andrea +da Sansovino, which is mentioned by Vasari, but of which all trace has +been lost. However, it seems more likely that it owes its classic +windows to the younger Affonso de Albuquerque, son of the great Indian +Viceroy, who bought the property in 1528. The house occupies one corner +of a square garden enclosure, while opposite it is a large square tank +with a long pavilion at its southern side. A path runs along the +southern wall of the garden leading from the house to the tank, and all +the way along this wall are tiled seats and tubs for orange-trees. It is +on these tubs and seats that the greatest variety of tiles are found. + +It would be quite impossible to give any detailed description of these +tiles, the patterns are so numerous and so varied. In some the pattern +is quite classical, in others it still shows traces of Moorish +influence, while in some again the design is entirely naturalistic. This +is especially the case in a pattern used in the lake pavilion, where +eight large green leaves are arranged pointing to one centre, and four +smaller brown ones to another, and in a still more beautiful pattern +used on an orange tub in the garden, where yellow and dark flowers, +green and blue leaves are arranged in a circle round eight beautiful +fruits shaped like golden pomegranates with blue seeds set among green +leaves and stalks. + +But these thirty or more patterns do not exhaust the interest of the +Quinta. There are also some very fine tile pictures, especially one of +'Susanna and the Elders,' and a fragment of the 'Quarrel of the Lapithae +and Centaurs' in the pavilion overlooking the tank. 'Susanna and the +Elders' is particularly good, and is interesting in that on a small +temple in the background is the date 1565.[27] Rather later seem the +five river gods in the garden loggia of the house, for their strapwork +frames of blue and yellow can hardly be as early as 1565; besides, a +fragment with similar details has on it the letters TOS, no doubt the +end of the signature 'Francisco Mattos,' who also signed some beautiful +tiles in the church of Sao Roque at Lisbon in 1584. + +It is known that the entrance to the convent of the Madre de Deus at +Lisbon was ornamented by Dom Manoel with some della Robbia reliefs, two +of which are now in the Museum. + +On the west side of the tank at Bacalhoa is a wall nearly a hundred feet +long, and framed with tiles. In the centre the water flows into the tank +from a dolphin above which is an empty niche. There are two other empty +niches, one inscribed _Tempora labuntur more fluentis aquae_, and the +other _Vivite victuri moneo mors omnibus instat_. These niches stand +between four medallions of della Robbia ware, some eighteen inches +across. Two are heads of men and two of women, only one of each being +glazed. The glazed woman's head is white, with yellow hair, a sky-blue +veil, and a loose reddish garment all on a blue ground. All are +beautifully modelled and are surrounded by glazed wreaths of fruit and +leaves. These four must certainly have come from the della Robbia +factory in Florence, for they, and especially the surrounding wreaths, +are exactly like what may be seen so often in North Italy. + +Much less good are six smaller medallions, four of which are much +destroyed, on the wall leading north from the tank to a pavilion named +the _Casa da India_, so called from the beautiful Indian hangings with +which its walls were covered by Albuquerque. In them the modelling is +less good and the wreaths are more conventional. + +Lastly, between the tank and the house are twelve others, one under each +of the globes, which, flanked by obelisks, crown the wall. They are all +of the same size, but in some the head and the blue backing are not in +one place. The wreaths also are inferior even to those of the last six, +though the actual heads are rather better. They all represent famous men +of old, from Alexander the Great to Nero. Two are broken; that of +Augustus is signed with what may perhaps be read Donus Vilhelmus, +'Master William,' who unfortunately is otherwise unknown. + +It seems impossible now to tell where these were made, but they were +certainly inspired by the four genuine Florentine medallions on the tank +wall, and if by a native artist are of great interest as showing how men +so skilled in making beautiful tiles could also copy the work of a great +Italian school with considerable success. + +Of the third class of tiles, those where the patterns are merely painted +and not raised, there are few examples at Bacalhoa--except when some +restoration has been done--for this manner of tile-painting did not +become common till the next century, but there are a few with very good +patterns in the house itself, and close by, the walls of the church of +Sao Simao are covered with excellent examples. These were put up by the +heads of a brotherhood in 1648, and are almost exactly the same as those +in the church of Alvito; even the small saintly figures over the arches +occur in both. The pattern of Alvito is one of the finest, and is found +again at Santarem in the church of the Marvilla, where the lower tiles +are all of singular beauty and splendid colouring, blue and yellow on a +white ground. Other beautiful tiled interiors are those of the Matriz at +Caldas da Rainha, and at Caminha on the Minho. Without seeing these +tiled churches it is impossible to realise how beautiful they really +are, and how different are these tiles from all modern ones, whose hard +smooth glaze and mechanical perfection make them cold and anything but +pleasing. (Figs. 10 and 11, _frontispiece_.) + +Besides the picture-tiles at Bacalhoa there are some very good examples +of similar work in the semicircular porch which surrounds the small +round chapel of Sant' Amaro at Alcantara close to Lisbon. The chapel +was built in 1549, and the tiles added about thirty years later. Here, +as in the Dominican nunnery at Elvas, and in some exquisite framings and +steps at Bacalhoa, the pattern and architectural details are spread all +over the tiles, often making a rich framing to a bishop or saint. Some +are not at all unlike Francisco Mattos' work in Sao Roque, which is also +well worthy of notice. + +Of the latest pictorial tiles, the finest are perhaps those in the +church of Sao Joao Evangelista at Evora, which tell of the life of San +Lorenzo Giustiniani, Venetian Patriarch, and which are signed and dated +'Antoninus ab Oliva fecit 1711.'[28] But these blue picture-tiles are +almost the commonest of all, and were made and used up to the end of the +century.[29] + +Now although some of the patterns used are found also in Spain, as at +Seville or at Valencia, and although tiles from Seville were used at +Thomar by Joao de Castilho, still it is certain that many were of home +manufacture. + +As might be expected from the patterns and technique of the oldest +tiles, the first mentioned tilers are Moors.[30] Later there were as +many as thirteen tilemakers in Lisbon, and many were made in the +twenty-eight ovens of _louca de Veneza_, 'Venetian faience.' The tiles +used by Dom Manoel at Cintra came from Belem, while as for the picture +tiles the novices of the order of Sao Thiago at Palmella formed a school +famous for such work. + +Indeed it may be said that tilework is the most characteristic feature +of Portuguese buildings, and that to it many a church, otherwise poor +and even mean, owes whatever interest or beauty it possesses. Without +tiles, rooms like the _Sala das Sereias_ or the _Sala dos Arabes_ would +be plain whitewashed featureless apartments, with them they have a charm +and a romance not easy to find anywhere but in the East. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE NORTH + + +Portugal, like all the other Christian kingdoms of the Peninsula, having +begun in the north, first as a county or march land subject to the king +of Galicia or of Leon, and later, since 1139, as an independent kingdom, +it is but natural to find nearly all the oldest buildings in those parts +of the country which, earliest freed from the Moslem dominion, formed +the original county. The province of Entre Minho-e-Douro has always been +held by the Portuguese to be the most beautiful part of their country, +and it would be difficult to find anywhere valleys more beautiful than +those of the Lima, the Cavado, or the Ave. Except the mountain range of +the Marao which divides this province from the wilder and drier +Tras-os-Montes, or the Gerez which separates the upper waters of the +Cavado and of the Lima, and at the same time forms part of the northern +frontier of Portugal, the hills are nowhere of great height. They are +all well covered with woods, mostly of pine, and wherever a piece of +tolerably level ground can be found they are cultivated with the care of +a garden. All along the valleys, and even high up the hillsides among +the huge granite boulders, there is a continuous succession of small +villages. Many of these, lying far from railway or highroad, can only be +reached by narrow and uneven paths, along which no carriage can pass +except the heavy creaking carts drawn by the beautiful large long-horned +oxen whose broad and splendidly carved yokes are so remarkable a feature +of the country lying between the Vouga and the Cavado.[31] In many of +these villages may still be seen churches built soon after the +expulsion of the Moors, and long before the establishment of the +Monarchy. Many of them originally belonged to some monastic body. Of +these the larger part have been altered and spoiled during the +seventeenth or eighteenth centuries, when, after the expulsion of the +Spaniards, the country began again to grow rich from trade with the +recovered colony of Brazil. Still enough remains to show that these old +romanesque churches differed in no very striking way from the general +romanesque introduced into Northern Spain from France, except that as a +rule they were smaller and ruder, and were but seldom vaulted. + +That these early churches should be rude is not surprising. They are +built of hard grey granite. When they were built the land was still +liable to incursions, and raids from the south, such as the famous foray +of Almansor, who harried and burned the whole land not sparing even the +shrine of Santiago far north in Galicia. Their builders were still +little more than a race of hardy soldiers with no great skill in the +working of stone. Only towards the end of the twelfth century, long +after the border had been advanced beyond the Mondego and after Coimbra +had become the capital of a new county, did the greater security as well +as the very fine limestone of the lower Mondego valley make it possible +for churches to be built at Coimbra which show a marked advance in +construction as well as in elaboration of detail. Between the Mondego +and the Tagus there are only four or five churches which can be called +romanesque, and south of the Tagus only the cathedral of Evora, begun +about 1186 and consecrated some eighteen years later, is romanesque, +constructively at least, though all its arches have become pointed. + +But to return north to Entre Minho-e-Douro, where the oldest and most +numerous romanesque churches exist and where three types may be seen. Of +these the simplest and probably the oldest is that of an aisleless nave +with simple square chancel. In the second the nave has one or two +aisles, and at the end of these aisles a semicircular apse, but with the +chancel still square: while in the third and latest the plan has been +further developed and enlarged, though even here the main chancel +generally still remains square. + +[Sidenote: Villarinho.] + +There yet exist, not far from Oporto, a considerable number of examples +of the first type, though several by their pointed doorways show that +they actually belong, in part at least, to the period of the Transition. +One of the best-preserved is the small church of Villarinho, not far +from Vizella in the valley of the Ave. Originally the church of a small +monastery, it has long been the parish church of a mountain hamlet, and +till it was lately whitewashed inside had scarcely been touched since +the day it was finished some time before the end of the twelfth century. +It consists of a rather high and narrow nave, a square-ended chancel, +and to the west a lower narthex nearly as large as the chancel. The +church is lit by very small windows which are indeed mere slits, and by +a small round opening in the gable above the narthex.[32] The narthex is +entered by a perfectly plain round-headed door with strong impost and +drip-mould, while above the corbels which once carried the roof of a +lean-to porch, a small circle enclosing a rude unglazed quatrefoil +serves as the only window. The door leading from the narthex to the nave +is much more elaborate; of four orders of mouldings, the two inner are +plain, the two outer have a big roll at the angle, and all are slightly +pointed. Except the outermost, which springs from square jambs, they all +stand on the good romanesque capitals of six shafts, four round and two +octagonal. (Fig. 12.) + +[Sidenote: Sao Miguel, Guimaraes.] + +Exactly similar in plan but without a narthex is the church of Sao +Miguel at Guimaraes, famous as being the church in which Affonso +Henriques, the first king of Portugal, was baptized in 1111. It claims +to have been the _Primaz_ or chief church of the whole archdiocese of +Braga. It is, like Villarinho, a small and very plain church built of +great blocks of granite, with a nave and square chancel lit by narrow +window slits. On the north side there are a plain square-headed doorway +and two bold round arches let into the outer wall over the graves of +some great men of these distant times. The drip-mould of one of these +arches is carved with a shallow zigzag ornament which is repeated on the +western door, a door whose slightly pointed arch may mean a rather later +date than the rest of the church. The wooden roof, as at Villarinho, has +a very gentle slope with eaves of considerable projection resting on +very large plain corbels, while other corbels lower down the wall seem +to show that at one time a veranda or cloister ran round three sides of +the building. The whole is even ruder and simpler than Villarinho, but +has a certain amount of dignity due to the great size of the stones of +which it is built and to the severe plainness of the walling. + +[Sidenote: Cedo Feita, Oporto.] + +Only one other church of this type need be described, and that because +it is the only one which is vaulted throughout. This is the small church +of Sao Martim de Cedo Feita or 'Early made' at Oporto itself. It is so +called because it claims, wrongly indeed, to be the very church which +Theodomir, king of the Suevi, who then occupied the north-west of the +Peninsula, hurriedly built in 559 A.D. This he did in order that, having +been converted from the Arian beliefs he shared with all the Germanic +invaders of the Empire, he might there be baptized into the Catholic +faith, and also that he might provide a suitable resting-place for some +relic of St. Martin of Tours which had been sent to him as a mark of +Orthodox approval. This story[33] is set forth in a long inscription on +the tympanum of the west door stating that it was put there in 1767, a +copy taken in 1557 from an old stone having then been found in the +archives of the church. As a matter of fact no part of the church can be +older than the twelfth century, and it has been much altered, probably +at the date when the inscription was cut. It is a small building, a +barrel-vaulted nave and chancel, with a door on the north side and a +larger one to the west now covered by a large porch. The six capitals of +this door are very like those at Villarinho, but the moulded arches are +round and not as there pointed. + +Other churches of this type are Gandara and Boelhe near Penafiel, and +Eja not far off--a building of rather later date with a fine pointed +chancel arch elaborately carved with foliage--Sao Thiago d'Antas, near +Familicao, a slightly larger church with good capitals to the chancel +arch, a good south door and another later west door with traceried round +window above; + +[Illustration: FIG. 12. + +CHURCH AT VILLARINHO.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. + +VILLAR DE FRADES. + +W. DOOR.] + +and Sao Torquato, near Guimaraes, rather larger, having once had +transepts of which one survives, with square chancel and square chapels +to the east; one of the simplest of all having no ornament beyond the +corbel table and the small slitlike windows. + +South of the Douro, but still built of granite, are a group of three or +four small churches at Trancoso. Another close to Guarda has a much +richer corbel table with a large ball ornament on the cornice and a +round window filled with curiously built-up tracery above the plain, +round-arched west door, while further south on the castle hill at Leiria +are the ruins of the small church of Sao Pedro built of fine limestone +with a good west door. + +[Sidenote: Aguas Santas.] + +Of the second and rather larger type there are fewer examples still +remaining, and of these perhaps the best is the church of Aguas Santas +some seven miles north-east of Oporto. Originally the church consisted +of a nave with rectangular chancel and a north aisle with an eastern +apse roofed with a semi-dome. Later a tower with battlemented top and +low square spire was built at the west end of the aisle, and some thirty +years ago another aisle was added on the south side. As in most of the +smaller churches the chancel is lower than the nave, leaving room above +its roof for a large round window, now filled up except for a small +traceried circle in the centre. The most highly decorated part is the +chancel, which like all the rest of the church has a good corbel table, +and about two-thirds of the way up a string course richly covered with +billet moulding. Interrupting this on the south side are two +round-headed windows, still small but much larger than the slits found +in the older churches. In each case, in a round-headed opening there +stand two small shafts with bases and elaborately carved capitals but +without any abaci, supporting a large roll moulding, and these are all +repeated inside at the inner face of a deep splay. In one of these +windows not only are the capitals covered with intertwined ribbon-work, +but each shaft is covered with interknotted circles enclosing flowers, +and there is a band of interlacing work round the head of the actual +window opening. Inside the church has been more altered. Formerly the +aisle was separated from the nave by two arches, but when the south +aisle was built the central pier was taken out and the two arches thrown +into one large and elliptical arch, but the capitals of the chancel +arch and the few others that remain are all well wrought and well +designed. The west door is a good simple example of the first pointed +period, with plain moulded arches and shafts which bear simple +French-looking capitals. Other churches of the same class are those of +Sao Christovao do Rio Mau not far from Villo do Conde, and Sao Pedro de +Rates, a little further up the Ave at the birthplace of the first bishop +of Braga and earliest martyr of Portugal. Sao Pedro is a little later, +as the aisle arches are all pointed, and is a small basilica of nave and +aisles with short transepts, chancel and eastern chapels. + +[Sidenote: Villar de Frades.] + +The two earliest examples of the third and most highly developed type, +the church of Villar de Frades and the cathedral of Braga, have +unfortunately both suffered so terribly, the one from destruction and +the other from rebuilding, that not much has been left to show what they +were originally like--barely enough to make it clear that they were much +more elaborately decorated, and that their carved work was much better +wrought than in any of the smaller churches already mentioned. A short +distance to the south of the river Cavado and about half-way between +Braga and Barcellos, in a well-watered and well-wooded region, there +existed from very early Christian times a monastery called Villar, and +later Villar de Frades. During the troubles and disorders which followed +the Moslem invasion, this Benedictine monastery had fallen into complete +decay and so remained till it was restored in 1070 by Godinho Viegas. +Although again deserted some centuries later and refounded in 1425 as +the mother house of a new order--the Loyos--the fifteenth-century church +was so built as to leave at least a part of the front of the old ruined +church standing between itself and the monastic building, as well as the +ruins of an apse behind. Probably this old west front was the last part +of Godinho's church to be built, but it is certainly more or less +contemporary with some portions of the cathedral of Braga. + +At some period, which the legend leaves quite uncertain, one of the +monks of this monastery was one day in the choir at matins, when they +came to that Psalm where it is said that 'a thousand years in the sight +of God are but as yesterday when it is gone,' and the old monk wondered +greatly and began to think what that could mean. When matins were over +he remained praying as was his wont, and begged Our Lord to give him +some understanding of that verse. Then there appeared to him a little +bird which, singing most sweetly, flew this way and that, and so little +by little drew him towards a wood which grew near the monastery, and +there rested on a tree while the servant of God stood below to listen. +After what seemed to the monk a short time it took flight, to the great +sorrow of God's servant, who said, 'Bird of my Soul, where art thou gone +so soon?' He waited, and when he saw that it did not return he went back +to the monastery thinking it still that same morning on which he had +come out after matins. When he arrived he found the door, through which +he had come, built up and a new one opened in another place. The porter +asked who he was and what he wanted, and he answered, 'I am the +sacristan who a few hours ago went out, and now returning find all +changed.' He gave too the names of the Abbot and of the Prior, and +wondered much that the porter still would not let him in, and seemed not +to remember these names. At last he was led to the Abbot, but they did +not know one another, so that the good monk was all confused and amazed +at so strange an event. Then the Abbot, enlightened of God, sent for the +annals and histories of the order, found there the names the old man had +given, so making it clear that more than three hundred years had passed +since he had gone out. He told them all that had happened to him, was +received as a brother; and after praising God for the great marvel which +had befallen him, asked for the sacraments and soon passed from this +life in great peace.[34] + +Whether the ruined west front of the older church be that which existed +when the bird flew out through the door or not, it is or has been of +very considerable beauty. Built, like everything else in the north, of +granite, all that is now left is a high wall of carefully wrought stone. +Below is a fine round arched door of considerable size, now roughly +blocked up. It has three square orders covered with carving and a plain +inner one. First is a wide drip-mould carved on the outer side with a +zigzag threefold ribbon, and on the inner with three rows of what looks +like a rude attempt to copy the classic bead-moulding; then the first +order, of thirteen voussoirs, each with the curious figure of a +strangely dressed man or with a distorted monster. This with the +drip-mould springs from a billet-moulded abacus resting on broad square +piers. Of the two inner carved orders, the outer is covered on both +faces with innumerable animals and birds, and the other with a delicate +pattern of interlacing bands. These two spring from strange square abaci +resting on the carved capitals of round shafts, two on each side. A few +feet above the door runs a billet-moulded string course, and two or +three feet higher another and slighter course. On this stands a large +window of two orders. Of these the outer covered with animals springs +from shafts and capitals very like those of the doorway, and the inner +has a billet-moulded edge and an almost Celtic ornament on the face. Now +whether Villar be older than the smaller buildings in the neighbourhood +or not, it is undoubtedly quite different not only in style but in +execution. It is not only much larger and higher, but it is better built +and the carving is finer and more carefully wrought. (Fig. 13.) + +It is known that the great cathedral of Santiago in Galicia was begun in +1078, just about the time Villar must have been building, and Santiago +is an almost exact copy in granite of what the great abbey church of S. +Sernin at Toulouse was intended to be, so that it may be assumed that +Bernardo who built the cathedral was, if not a native of Toulouse, at +any rate very well acquainted with what was being done there. If, then, +a native of Languedoc was called in to plan so important a church in +Galicia, it is not unlikely that other foreigners were also employed in +the county of Portugal--at that time still a part of Galicia; and in +fact many churches in the south-west of what is now France have doorways +and windows whose general design is very like that at Villar de Frades, +if allowance be made for the difference of material, granite here, fine +limestone there, and for a comparative want of skill in the workmen.[35] + +[Sidenote: Se, Braga.] + +Probably these foreigners were not invited to Portugal for the sake of +the church of a remote abbey like Villar, but to work at the +metropolitan cathedral of Braga. The see of Braga is said to have been +founded by Sao Pedro de Rates, a disciple of St. James himself, and in +consequence of so distinguished an origin its archbishops claim the +primacy not only of all Portugal, but even of all the Spains, a claim +which is of course disputed by the patriarch of Lisbon, not to speak of +the archbishops of Toledo and of Tarragona. However that may be, the +cathedral of Braga is not now, and can never have been, quite worthy of +such high pretensions. It is now a church with a nave and aisles of six +bays, a transept with four square chapels to the east, a chancel +projecting beyond the chapels, and at the west two towers with the main +door between and a fine porch beyond. + +Count Henry of Burgundy married Dona Theresa and received the earldom of +Portugal from his father-in-law, Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon, in +1095, and he and his wife rebuilt the cathedral--where they now lie +buried--before the end of the century. By that time it may well have +become usual, if the churches were important, to call in a foreigner to +oversee its erection. Of the original building little now remains but +the plan and two doorways, the chancel having been rebuilt and the porch +added in the sixteenth, and the whole interior beplastered and bepainted +in the worst possible style in the seventeenth, century. Of the two +doors the western has been very like that at Villar. It has only two +orders left, of which the outer, though under a deep arch, has a +billet-moulded drip-mould, and its voussoirs each carved with a figure +on the outer and delicate flutings on the under side, while the inner +has on both faces animals and monsters which, better wrought than those +at Villar, are even more like so many in the south-west of France. The +other doorway, on the south side next the south-west tower, is far +better preserved. It has three shafts on each side, all with good +capitals and abaci, from which spring two carved and one plain arch. The +outer has a rich drip-mould covered with a curious triple arrangement of +circles, has flutings on the one face and a twisting ribbon on the +other, while the next has leaf flutings on both faces, and both a +roll-moulding on the angle. The inner order is quite plain, but the +tympanum has in the centre a circle enclosing a cross with expanding +arms, the spaces between the arms and the circle being pierced and the +whole surrounded with intertwining ribbons. + +[Sidenote: Se, Oporto.] + +Another foundation of Count Henry's was the cathedral of Oporto, which, +judging from its plan, must have been very like that of Braga, but it +has been so horribly transformed during the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries that nothing now remains of the original building but part of +the walls; for the fine western rose window must have been inserted +about the middle of the thirteenth century. + +[Sidenote: Paco de Souza.] + +Except the tragedy of Inez de Castro, there is no story in Portuguese +history more popular or more often represented in the engravings which +adorn a country inn dining-room than that of the surrender of Egas Moniz +to Alfonso VII. of Castile and Leon, when his pupil Affonso Henriques, +beginning to govern for himself, refused to fulfil the agreement[36] +whereby Egas had induced Alfonso to raise the siege of the castle of +Guimaraes. And it is the fact that the church of Sao Salvador at Paco de +Souza contains his tomb, which adds not a little to the interest of the +best-preserved of the churches of the third type. Egas Moniz died in +1144, and at least the eastern part of the church may have existed +before then. The chancel, where the tomb first stood, is rather long and +has as usual a square east end while the two flanking chapels are +apsidal. The rest of the church, which may be a little later, as all the +larger arches are pointed, consists of a nave and aisles of three bays, +a transept, and a later tower standing on the westernmost bay of the +south aisle. The constructive scheme of the inside is interesting, +though a modern boarded vault has done its best to hide what it formerly +was. The piers are cross-shaped with a big semicircular shaft on each +face, and a large roll-moulding on each angle which is continued up +above the abacus to form an outer order for both the aisle and the main +arches, for large arches are carried across the nave and aisles from +north to south as if it had been intended to roof the church with an +ordinary groined vault. However, it is clear that this was not really +the case, and indeed it could hardly have been so as practically no +vaults had yet been built in the country except a few small barrels. +Indeed, though later the Portuguese became very skilful at vaulting, +they were at no time fond of a nave with high groined vault upheld by +flying buttresses, and low aisles, for there seems to have been never +more than three or four in the country, one of which, the choir of +Lisbon Cathedral, fell in 1755. Instead of groined vaults, barrel vaults +continued to be used where a stone roof was wanted, even till the middle +of the fourteenth century and later, long after they had been given up +elsewhere, but usually a roof of wood was thought sufficient, sometimes +resting, as was formerly the case here, on transverse arches thrown +across the nave and aisles. This was the system adopted in the +cathedrals of Braga and of Oporto before they were altered, in this +church and in that of Pombeiro not far off, and in that of Bayona near +Vigo in Galicia.[37] (Fig. 14.) + +All the details are extremely refined--almost Byzantine in their +delicacy--especially the capitals, and the abaci against the walls, +which are carried along as a beautiful string course from pier to pier. +The bases too are all carved, some with animals' heads and some with +small seated figures at the angles, while the faces of the square blocks +below are covered with beautiful leaf ornament. But the most curious +thing in the whole church is the tomb of Egas Moniz himself.[38] (Fig. +15.) Till the eighteenth century it stood in the middle of the chancel, +then it was cut in two and put half against the wall of the south aisle, +and half against that of the north. It has on it three bands of +ornament. Of these the lowest is a rudely carved chevron with what are +meant for leaves between, the next, a band of small figures including +Egas on his deathbed and what is supposed to be three of his children +riding side by side on an elongated horse with a camel-like head, and +that on the top, larger figures showing him starting on his fateful +journey to the court of Alfonso of Castile and Leon and parting from his +weeping wife. Although very rude,--all the horses except that of Egas +himself having most unhorselike heads and legs,--some of the figures are +carved with a certain not unpleasing vigour, especially that of a +spear-bearing attendant who marches with swinging skirts behind his +master's horse. Outside the most remarkable feature is the fine west +door, with its eight shafts, four on each side, some round and some +octagonal, the octagonal being enriched with an ornament like the +English dog-tooth, with their finely carved cubical capitals and rich +abaci, and with the four orders of mouldings, two of which are enriched +with ball ornament. Outside, instead of a drip-mould, runs a broad band +covered with plaited ribbon. On the tympanum, which rests on corbels +supported on one side by the head of an ox and on the other by that of a +man, are a large circle enclosing a modern inscription, and two smaller +circles in which are the symbols of the Sun and Moon upheld by curious +little half-figures. The two apses east of the transept are of the +pattern universal in Southern Europe, being divided into three equal +parts by half-shafts with capitals and crowned with an overhanging +corbel table. + +[Sidenote: Pombeiro.] + +The abbey church of Pombeiro, near Guimaraes, must once have been very +similar to Sao Salvador at Paco de Souza, except that the nave is a good +deal longer, and that it once had a large narthex, destroyed about a +hundred and fifty years ago by an abbot who wished to add to the west +front the two towers and square spires which still exist. So full was +this narthex of tombs that from the arms on them it had become a sort of +Heralds' College for the whole of the north of Portugal, but now only +two remain in the shallow renaissance porch between the towers. As at +Paco de Souza, the oldest part of the church is the east end, where the +two apses flanking the square chancel remain unaltered. They are divided +as usual by semicircular shafts bearing good romanesque capitals, and +crowned by a cornice of three small arches to each division, each cut +out of one stone, and resting on corbels and on the capitals. Of the +west front only the fine doorway is left unchanged; pointed in shape, +but romanesque in detail; having three of the five orders, carved one +with grotesque animals and two with leafage. Above the shallow porch is +a large round window with renaissance tracery, but retaining its +original framing of a round arch resting on tall shafts with romanesque +capitals. Everything else has been altered, the inside being covered +with elaborate rococo painted and gilt plaster-work, and the outside +disfigured by shapeless rococo windows. + +Although some, and especially the last two of the buildings described +above belong, in part at least, to the time of transition from +romanesque to first pointed, and although the group of churches at +Coimbra are wholly romanesque, it would be better to have done with all +that can be ascribed to a period older than the beginning of the +Portuguese monarchy before following Affonso Henriques in his successful +efforts to extend his kingdom southwards to the Tagus. + +Although Braga was the ecclesiastical capital of their fief, + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. + +CHURCH, PACO DE SOUZA. + +NAVE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. + +PACO DE SOUZA. + +TOMB OF EGAS MONIZ.] + +[Sidenote: Guimaraes, Castle.] + +Count Henry and his wife lived usually at Guimaraes, a small town some +fifteen miles to the south. Towards the beginning of the tenth century +there died D. Hermengildo Goncalves Mendes, count of Tuy and Porto, who +by his will left Vimaranes, as it was then called, to his widow, +Mumadona. About 927 she there founded a monastery and built a castle for +its defence, and this castle, which had twice suffered from Moslem +invaders, was restored or rebuilt by Count Henry, and there in 1111 was +born his son Affonso Henriques, who was later to become the first king +of the new and independent kingdom of Portugal. Henry died soon after, +in 1114, at Astorga, perhaps poisoned by his sister-in-law, Urraca, +queen of Castile and Leon, and for several years his widow governed his +lands as guardian for their son. + +Thirteen years after Count Henry's death, in 1127, the castle was the +scene of the famous submission of Egas Moniz to the Spanish king, and +this, together with the fact that Affonso Henriques was born there, has +given it a place in the romantic history of Portugal which is rather +higher than what would seem due to a not very important building. The +castle stands to the north of the town on a height which commands all +the surrounding country. Its walls, defended at intervals by square +towers, are built among and on the top of enormous granite boulders, and +enclose an irregular space in which stands the keep. The inhabited part +of the castle ran along the north-western wall where it stood highest +above the land below, but it has mostly perished, leaving only a few +windows which are too large to date from the beginning of the twelfth +century. The square keep stands within a few feet of the western wall, +rises high above it, and was reached by a drawbridge from the walk on +the top of the castle walls. Its wooden floors are gone, its windows are +mere slits, and like the rest of the castle it owes its distinctive +appearance to the battlements which crown the whole building, and whose +merlons are plain blocks of stone brought to a sharp point at the top. +This feature, which is found in all the oldest Portuguese castles such +as that of Almourol on an island in the Tagus near Abrantes, and even on +some churches such as the old cathedral at Coimbra and the later church +at Leca de Balio, is one of the most distinct legacies left by the +Moors: here the front of each merlon is perpendicular to the top, but +more usually it is finished in a small sharp pyramid. + +[Sidenote: Church.] + +The other foundation of Mumadona, the monastery of Nossa Senhora and Sao +Salvador in the town of Guimaraes, had since her day twice suffered +destruction at the hands of the Moors, once in 967 when the castle was +taken by Al-Coraxi, emir of Seville, and thirty years later when +Almansor[39] in 998 swept northwards towards Galicia, sacking and +burning as he went. At the time when Count Henry and Dona Teresa were +living in the castle, the double Benedictine monastery for men and women +had fallen into decay, and in 1109 Count Henry got a Papal Bull changing +the foundation into a royal collegiate church under a Dom Prior, and at +once began to rebuild it, a restoration which was not finished till +1172. Since then the church has been wholly and the cloisters partly +rebuilt by Joao I. at the end of the fourteenth century, but some arches +of the cloister and the entrance to the chapter-house may very likely +date from Count Henry's time. These cloisters occupy a very unusual +position. Starting from the north transept they run round the back of +the chancel, along the south side of the church outside the transept, +and finally join the church again near the west front. The large round +arches have chamfered edges; the columns are monoliths of granite about +eighteen inches thick; the bases and the abaci all romanesque in form, +though many of the capitals, as can be seen from their shape and +carving, are of the fourteenth or even fifteenth century, showing how +Juan Garcia de Toledo, who rebuilt the church for Dom Joao I., tried, in +restoring the cloister, to copy the already existing features and as +usual betrayed the real date by his later details. A few of the old +capitals still remain, and are of good romanesque form such as may be +seen in any part of southern France or in Spain.[40] To the +chapter-house, a plain oblong room with a panelled wood ceiling, there +leads, from the east cloister walk, an unaltered archway, flanked as +usual by two openings, one on either side. The doorway arch is plain, +slightly horseshoe in shape, and is carried by short strong half-columns +whose capitals are elaborately carved with animals and twisting +branches, the animals, as is often the case, + +[Illustration: FIG. 16. + +DOOR OF CHAPTER HOUSE, N.S. DA OLIVEIRA. + +GUIMARAES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17. + +CLOISTER. + +LECA DO BALIO.] + +being set back to back at the angles so that one head does duty for each +pair. Above is a large hollow hood-mould exactly similar to those which +enclose the side windows. The two lights of these windows are separated +by short coupled shafts whose capitals, derived from the Corinthian or +Composite, have stiff leaves covering the change from the round to the +square, and between them broad tendrils which end in very carefully cut +volutes at the angles. The heads themselves are markedly horseshoe in +shape, which at first sight suggests some Moorish influence, but in +everything else the details are so thoroughly Western, and by 1109 such +a long time, over a hundred years, had passed since the Moors had been +permanently expelled from that part of the country, that it were better +to see in these horseshoes an unskilled attempt at stilting, rather than +the work of some one familiar with Eastern forms. (Fig. 16.) + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE EARLY BUILDINGS IN THE SOUTH + + +In 1057 Fernando, king of Castile, Leon and Galicia crossed the Douro, +took Lamego, where the lower part of the tower is all that is left of +the romanesque cathedral, and is indeed the only romanesque tower in the +country. Vizeu fell soon after, and seven years later he advanced his +borders to the Mondego by the capture of Coimbra. The Mondego, the only +large river whose source and mouth are both in Portugal, long remained +the limit of the Christian dominion, and nearly a hundred years were to +pass before any further advance was made. In 1147 Affonso Henriques, who +had but lately assumed the title of king, convinced at last that he was +wasting his strength in trying to seize part of his cousin's dominions +of Galicia, determined to turn south and extend his new kingdom in that +direction. Accordingly in March of that year he secretly led his army +against Santarem, one of the strongest of the Moorish cities standing +high above the Tagus on an isolated hill. The vezir, Abu-Zakariah, was +surprised before he could provision the town, so that the garrison were +able to offer but a feeble resistance, and the Christians entered after +the attack had lasted only a few days. Before starting the king had +vowed that if successful he would found a monastery in token of his +gratitude, and though its vast domestic buildings are now but barracks +and court-houses, the great Cistercian abbey of Alcobaca still stands to +show how well his vow was fulfilled. + +Although Santarem was taken in 1147, the first stone of Alcobaca was not +laid till 1153, and the building was carried out very slowly and in a +style, imported directly from France, quite foreign to any previous work +in Portugal. It were better, therefore, before coming to this, the +largest church and the richest foundation in the whole country, to have +done with the other churches which though contemporary with Alcobaca +are not the work of French but of native workmen, or at least of such as +had not gone further than to Galicia for their models. + +[Sidenote: Se, Lisbon.] + +The same year that saw the fall of Santarem saw also the more important +capture of Lisbon. Taken by the Moors in 714, it had long been their +capital, and although thrice captured by the Christians had always been +recovered. In this enterprise Affonso Henriques was helped by a body of +Crusaders, mostly English, who sailing from Dartmouth were persuaded by +the bishop of Oporto to begin their Holy War in Portugal, and when +Lisbon fell, one of them, Gilbert of Hastings, was rewarded by being +made its first bishop. Of the cathedral, begun three years later, in +1150, little but the plan of the nave and transept has survived. Much +injured by an earthquake in 1344, the whole choir was rebuilt on a +French model by Affonso IV. only to be again destroyed in 1755. The +original plan must have been very like that of Braga, an aisleless +transept, a nave and aisles of six bays, and two square towers beyond +with a porch between. The two towers are now very plain with large +belfry windows near the top, but there are traces here and there of old +built-up round-headed openings which show that the walls at least are +really old. The outer arch of the porch has been rebuilt since the +earthquake, but the original door remains inside, with a carved +hood-mould, rich abacus, and four orders of mouldings enriched with +small balls in their hollows. The eight plain shafts stand on unusually +high pedestals and have rather long capitals, some carved with flat +acanthus leaves and some with small figures of men and animals. + +Like that of the cathedral of Coimbra, which was being built about the +same time, the inside is clearly founded on the great cathedral of +Santiago, itself a copy of S. Sernin at Toulouse, and quite uninfluenced +by the French design of Alcobaca. The piers are square with a half-shaft +on each face, the arches are round, and the aisles covered with plain +unribbed fourpart vaulting, while the main aisle is roofed with a round +barrel. Instead of the large open gallery, which at Santiago allows the +quadrant vault supporting the central barrel to be seen, there is here a +low blind arcade of small round arches. Unfortunately, when restored +after the disaster of 1755 the whole inside was plastered, all the +capitals both of the main + +[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, LISBON] + +piers and of the gallery were converted into a semblance of gilt +Corinthian capitals, and large skylights were cut through the vault. +Only the inside of the low octagonal lantern remains to show that the +church must have been at least as interesting, if not more so, than the +Se Velha or old cathedral at Coimbra. If the nave has suffered such a +transformation the fourteenth-century choir has been even worse +treated. The whole upper part, which once was as high as the top of the +lantern, fell and was re-roofed in a most miserable manner, having only +the ambulatory and its chapels uninjured. But these, the cloister and a +rather fine chapel to the north-west of the nave, had better be left for +another chapter.[41] + +[Sidenote: Se Velha, Coimbra.] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF CATHEDRAL, COIMBRA] + +Smaller but much better preserved than Lisbon Cathedral is the Se Velha +or old cathedral of Coimbra. According to the local tradition, the +cathedral is but a mosque turned into a church after the Christian +conquest, and it may well be that in the time of Dom Sesnando, the first +governor of Coimbra--a Moor who, becoming a Christian, was made count of +Coimbra by King Fernando, and whose tomb, broken open by the French, may +still be seen outside the north wall of the church--the chief mosque of +the town was used as the cathedral. But although an Arab inscription[42] +is built into the outer wall of the nave, there can be no doubt that the +present building is as Christian in plan and design as any church can +be. If the nave of the cathedral of Lisbon is like Santiago in +construction, the nave here is, on a reduced scale, undoubtedly a copy +of Santiago not only constructively but also in its general details. The +piers are shorter but of the same plan, the great triforium gallery +looks towards the nave, as at Santiago and at Toulouse, by a double +opening whose arches spring from single shafts at the sides to rest on +double shafts in the centre, both being enclosed under one larger arch, +while the barrel vault and the supporting vaults of the gallery are +exactly similar. Now Santiago was practically finished in 1128, and +there still exists a book called the _Livro Preto_ in which is given a +list of the gifts made by Dom Miguel, who ruled the see of Coimbra from +1162 to 1176, towards the building and adorning of the church. Nothing +is said as to when the church was begun, but we are told that Dom Miguel +gave 124 morabitinos to Master Bernardo[43] who had directed the +building for ten years; the presents too of bread and wine made to his +successor Soeiro are also mentioned, so that it seems probable that the +church may have been begun soon after Dom Miguel became bishop, and that +it was finished some time before the end of his episcopate. + +Though the nave is like that of Santiago, the transepts and choir are +much simpler. There the transept is long and has an aisle on each side; +here it is short and aisleless. There the choir is deep with a +surrounding aisle and radiating chapels, here it is a simple apse +flanked by two smaller apses. Indeed throughout the whole of the +Peninsula the French east end was seldom used except in churches of a +distinctly foreign origin, such as Santiago, Leon or Toledo in Spain, or +Alcobaca in Portugal, and so it is natural here to find Bernardo +rejecting the elaboration and difficult construction of his model, and +returning to the simpler plan which had already been so often used in +the north. (Fig. 18.) + +Inside the piers are square with four half-shafts, one of which runs up +in front to carry the barrel vault, which is about sixty feet high. All +the capitals are well carved, and a moulded string which runs along +under the gallery is curiously returned against the vaulting shafts as +if it had once been carried round them and had afterwards been cut off. +Almost the only light in the nave comes from small openings in the +galleries, the aisle windows being nearly all blocked up by later +altars, and from a large window at the west end. The transept on the +other hand is very light, with several windows at either end, and eight +in the square lantern, so that the effect is extremely good of the dark +nave followed by the brilliant transept and ending in a great carved and +gilt reredos. This reredos, reaching up to the blue-and-gold apse vault, +was given to the cathedral in 1508 by Bishop D. Jorge d'Almeida, and was +the work of 'Master Vlimer a Framengo,' that is, a Fleming, and of his +partner, Joao D'ipri, or of Ypres, two of the many foreigners who at +that time worked for King D. Manoel. There are several picturesque tombs +in the church, especially two in the north-east corner of the transept, +whose recesses still retain their original tile decoration. Later tiles +still cover the aisle walls and altar recesses, but beautiful examples +of the Mozarabe or Moorish style which once covered the piers of the +nave, as well as the wooden choir gallery with its finely panelled under +side, have been swept away by a recent well-meaning if mistaken +restoration. The outside of the church is more unusual than the inside. +The two remaining original apses are much hidden by the sacristy, built +probably by Bishop Jorge de Castello Branco in 1593, but in their +details they are greatly like those of the church of San Isidoro at +Leon, and being like it built of fine limestone, are much more +delicately ornamented than are those of any of the granite churches +further north. The side aisles are but little lower than the central +aisle or than the transepts, and are all crowned with battlements very +like those on the castle of Guimaraes. The buttresses are only shallow +strips, which in the transepts are united by round arches, but in the +aisles end among the battlements in a larger merlon. The west front is +the most striking and original part of the whole church. Below, at the +sides, a perfectly plain window lights the aisles, some feet above it +runs a string course, on which stands a small two-light window for the +gallery, flanked by larger blind arches, and then many feet of blank +walling ending in battlements. Between these two aisle ends there +projects about ten feet a large doorway or porch. This doorway is of +considerable size; some of its eight shafts are curiously twisted and +carved, its capitals are very refined and elaborate, and its arches well +moulded with, as at Lisbon, small bosses in the hollows. The abacus is +plain, and the broad pilasters which carry the outermost order are +beautifully carved on the broader face with a small running pattern of +leaves. The same 'black book' which tells of the bishop's gifts to the +church, tells how a certain Master Robert came four times from Lisbon to +perfect the work of the door, and how each time he received seven +morabitinos, besides ten for his expenses, as well as bread, wine and +meat for his four apprentices and food for his four asses. It is not +often that the name of a man who worked on a mediaeval church has been +so preserved, and it is worth noticing that the west door at Lisbon has +on it exactly the same ball ornament as that with which Master Robert +and his four helpers enriched the archway here. Above the door runs an +arched corbel table on which stands the one large window which the +church possesses. This window,[44] which is much more like a door than a +window, is deeply recessed within four orders of mouldings, resting on +shafts and capitals, four on each side, all very like the door below. +Above, the whole projection is carried up higher than the battlements in +an oblong embattled belfry, having two arched openings in front and one +at the side, added in 1837 to take the place of a detached belfry which +once stood to the south of the church, and to hold some bells brought +from Thomar after that rich convent had been suppressed. (Fig. 19.) + +Of the two other doorways, that at the end of the north transept, which +has a simple archway on either side, and is surmounted by an arcade of +five arches, has been altered in the early sixteenth century with good +details of the first French renaissance, while the larger doorway in the +third bay of the nave has at the same time been rebuilt as a beautiful +three-storied porch, reaching right up to the battlements. To the south +lie the cloisters, added about the end of the thirteenth century, but +now very much mutilated. They are of the usual Portuguese type of +vaulted cloister, a large arch, here pointed, enclosing two round arches +below with a circular opening above. + +The central lantern--the only romanesque example surviving except that +of Lisbon Cathedral--is square, and not as there octagonal. It has two +round-headed windows on each side whose sills are but little above the +level of the flat roof--for, like almost all vaulted churches in +Portugal, the roofs are flat and paved--and is now crowned by a +picturesque dome covered with many-coloured tiles. + +Somewhat older than the cathedral, but not unlike it, was the church of +Sao Christovao now destroyed, while Sao Thiago still has a west door +whose shafts are even more elaborately carved and twisted than are those +at the Se Velha.[45] + +There is more than one building, such as the Templar + +[Illustration: FIG. 18. + +COIMBRA. + +SE VELHA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. + +COIMBRA. + +WEST FRONT OF SE VELHA.] + +church at Thomar, older than the cathedral of Evora, and indeed older +than the Se Velha at Coimbra; but Evora, except that its arches are +pointed instead of round, is so clearly derived directly from the Se at +Lisbon that it must be mentioned next in order. + +[Sidenote: Se, Evora.] + +Although the great province of Alemtejo, which reaches from the south +bank of the Tagus to within about twenty-five or thirty miles of the +Southern Sea, had more than once been entered by the victorious +Portuguese king Affonso Henriques, it was not till after his death in +1185, indeed not till the beginning of the thirteenth century, that it +could be called a part of Portugal. As early as 1139 Affonso Henriques +had met and defeated five kings at Ourique not far from Beja, a victory +which was long supposed to have secured his country's independence, and +which was therefore believed to have been much greater and more +important than was really the case.[46] Evora, the Roman capital of the +district, did not fall into the hands of the Christians till 1166, when +it is said to have been taken by stratagem by Giraldo Sem Pavor, or 'the +Fearless,' an outlaw who by this capture regained the favour of the +king. But soon the Moors returned, first in 1174 when they won back the +whole of the province, and again in 1184 when Dom Sancho, Affonso's son, +utterly defeated and killed their leader, Yusuf. Yusuf's son, Yakub, +returned to meet defeat in 1188 and 1190 when he was repulsed from +Thomar, but when he led a third army across the Straits in 1192 he found +that the Crusaders who had formerly helped Dom Sancho had sailed on to +Palestine, and with his huge army was able to drive the Christians back +beyond the Tagus and compel the king to come to terms, nor did the +Christian borders advance again for several years. It is said that the +cathedral begun in 1185 or 1186[47] was dedicated in 1204, so it must +have been still incomplete when Yakub's successful invasion took place, +and only finished after the Christians had again recovered the town, +though it is difficult to see how the church can have been dedicated in +that year as the town remained in Moorish power till after Dom Sancho's +death in 1211. Except the Se Velha at Coimbra, Evora is the +best-preserved of all the older Portuguese cathedrals, and must always +have been one of the largest. The plan is evidently founded on those of +the cathedrals of Lisbon and Braga; a nave of eight bays 155 feet long +by 75 wide, leads to an aisleless transept 125 by 30, with lantern at +the crossing, to the east of which were five chapels. Unfortunately in +1718 the Capella Mor or main chancel was pulled down as being too small +for the dignity of an archiepiscopal see, and a new one of many-coloured +marbles built in its stead, measuring 75 feet by 30.[48] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF SE, EVORA] + +To the west are two large square towers; to the south a cloister added +in 1376; and at the end of the north transept a chapel built at the end +of the fifteenth century and entered by a large archway well carved with +rich early renaissance ornament. If there is no advance from the +romanesque plan of older churches, there is none in construction. All +the arches are pointed, but that is the only direction in which any +change has been made. The piers are all cross-shaped with a large +half-shaft on each of the four main faces and a smaller round shaft in +each angle. The capitals have square moulded abaci, and are rather +rudely carved with budlike curled leaves; the pointed arches of the +arcade are well moulded, and above them runs a continuous triforium +gallery like that in the nave at Lisbon, but with small pointed arches. +The main vault is a pointed barrel with bold ribs; it is held up by a +half-barrel over the aisles, which have groined vaults with very large +transverse arches. The galleries over the aisles are lit by small +pointed windows of two lights with a cusped circle between, but except +in the lantern which has similar windows, in the transept ends and the +west front, these are the only original openings which survive. (Fig. +20.) Both transepts have large rose windows, the northern filled with +tracery, like that, common in Champagne, radiating towards and not from +the centre. The southern is more interesting. The whole, well moulded, +is enclosed in a curious square framing. In the centre a doubly cusped +circle is surrounded by twelve radiating openings, whose trefoiled heads +abut against twelve other broad trefoils, which are rather curiously run +into the mouldings of the containing circle. Over the west porch is a +curious eight-light window. There are four equal two-light openings +below; on the two in the centre rests a large plain circle, and the +space between it and the enclosing arch is very clumsily filled by a rib +which, springing from the apex of either light, runs concentrically with +the enclosing arch till it meets the larger circle. The whole building +is surmounted by brick battlements, everything else being of granite, +resting on a good trefoil corbel table, and, as the roofs are perfectly +flat, there are no gables. + +The two western towers are very picturesque. The northern, without +buttresses, has its several windows arranged without any regard to +symmetry, and finishes in a round spire covered with green and white +glazed tiles. In the southern plain buttresses run up to the belfry +stage which has round-headed openings, and above it is a low octagonal +spire set diagonally and surrounded by eight pinnacles. + +The most unusual feature of the whole cathedral is the fine octagonal +lantern at the crossing. Each face has a two-light window, pointed +outside, with a round-headed arch within, leaving a passage between the +two walls. At each angle are plain buttresses, weathered back a few feet +below the corbel table, above which stand eight octagonal pinnacles each +with eight smaller pinnacles surrounding a conical stone spire. The +whole lantern is covered by a steep stone roof which, passing +imperceptibly from the octagonal to the round, is covered, as are all +the other pinnacles, with scales carved in imitation of tiles. Inside +the well-moulded vaulting ribs do not rise higher than the windows, +leaving therefore a large space between the vault and the outer stone +capping. (Fig. 21.) + +Lanterns, especially octagonal lanterns, are particularly common in +Spain, and at Salamanca and its neighbourhood were very early developed +and attained to a remarkable degree of perfection before the end of the +twelfth century. It is strange, therefore, that they should be so rare +in Portugal where there seem now to be only three: one, square, at +Coimbra, an octagonal at Lisbon, and one here, where however there is +nothing of the internal dome which is so striking at Salamanca. Probably +this lantern was one of the enrichments added to the church by Bishop +Durando who died in 1283, for the capitals of the west door look +considerably later. + +This door is built entirely of white marble with shafts which look, as +do those of the south transept door, almost like Cipollino, taken +perhaps from some Roman building. It has well-moulded arches and abaci; +capitals richly carved with realistic foliage, and on each side six of +the apostles, all very like each other, large-headed, long-bearded, and +long-haired, with rather good drapery but bodies and legs which look far +too short. St. Peter alone, with short curly hair and beard, has any +individuality, but is even less prepossessing than his companions. They +are, however, among the earliest specimens of large figure sculpture +which survive, and by their want of grace make it easier to understand +why Dom Manoel employed so many foreign artists in the early years of +the sixteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. + +EVORA. + +SE. INTERIOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. + +EVORA. + +SE. FROM CLOISTERS. + +SHEWING CENTRAL LANTERN.] + +The large cloister to the south must once have been one of the best in +the country. Here the main arches alone survive, having lost whatever +subsidiary arches or tracery they may once have contained, but higher up +under the corbel table are large open circles, not as everywhere else +enclosed under the large arch, but quite independent of it. Many of +these circles are still filled with thin slabs of granite all pierced +with most beautiful patterns, some quite Gothic, but the majority almost +Moorish in design, not unlike the slabs in the circles over the cloister +arcades at Alcobaca, but though this is probably only a coincidence, +still more like those at Tarragona in Cataluna. (Fig. 22.) + +[Sidenote: Templar Church, Thomar.] + +Like the cathedral at Evora, some of the arches in the Templar Church at +Thomar are pointed, yet like it again, it is entirely romanesque both in +construction and in detail. + +The Knights Templars were already established in Portugal in 1126. With +their headquarters at Soure, a little to the south of Coimbra, they had +been foremost in helping Affonso Henriques in his attacks on the Moors, +and when Santerem was taken in 1147 they were given the ecclesiastical +superiority of the town. This led to a quarrel with Dom Gilberto, the +English bishop of Lisbon, which was settled in 1150, when Dom Gualdim +Paes, the most famous member the order ever produced in Portugal, was +chosen to be Grand Master. He at once gave up all Santarem to the +bishop, except the church of Sao Thiago, and received instead the +territory of Ceras some forty or fifty miles to the north-east. There on +the banks of the river Nabao, on a site famous for the martyrdom under +Roman rule of Sant' Iria or Irene, Dom Gualdim built a church, and began +a castle which was soon abandoned for a far stronger position on a steep +hill some few hundred yards to the west across the river. This second +castle, begun in 1160, still survives in part but in a very ruinous +condition; the walls and the keep alike have lost their battlements and +their original openings, though a little further west, and once forming +part of the fortified enclosure, the church, begun in 1162, still +remains as a high tower-like bastion crowned with battlements. Dom +Gualdim had the laudable habit of carving inscriptions telling of any +striking event, so that we may still read, not only how the castle was +founded, but how 'In the year of the Era of Caesar, 1228 (that is 1190 +A.D., on the 3rd of July), came the King of Morocco, leading four +hundred thousand horsemen and five hundred thousand foot and besieged +this castle for six days, destroying everything he found outside the +walls. God delivered from his hands the castle, the aforesaid Master and +his brethren. The same king returned to his country with innumerable +loss of men and of animals.'[49] Doubtless the size of Yakub the +Almohade leader's army is here much exaggerated, but that he was forced +to retire from Thomar, and by pestilence from Santarem is certain, and +though he made a more successful invasion two years later the Moors +never again gained a footing to the north of the Tagus. + +Dom Gualdim's church, since then enlarged by the addition of a nave to +the west, was originally a polygon of sixteen sides with a circular +barrel-vaulted aisle surrounding a small octagon, which with its two +stories of slightly pointed arches contains the high altar.[50] (Fig. +23.) + +The round-headed windows come up high, and till it was so richly adorned +by Dom Manoel during his grand mastership of the Order of Christ more +than three hundred years later, the church must have been extremely +simple. Outside the most noticeable feature is the picturesque grouping +of the bell-towers and gable, added probably in the seventeenth century, +which now rise on the eastern side of the polygon, and which, seen above +the orange and medlar trees of a garden reaching eastwards towards the +castle, forms one of the most pleasing views in the whole country. + +[Sidenote: Sao Joao de Alporao, Santarem.] + +If Evora and the Templar church at Thomar show one form of transition, +where the arches are pointed, but the construction and detail is +romanseque, Sao Joao de Alporao at Santarem shows another, where the +construction is Gothic but the arches are still all round. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22. + +EVORA. + +SE. CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 23. + +THOMAR. + +TEMPLARS' CHURCH.] + +This church is said to stand on the site of a mosque and to have been at +first called Al Koran, since corrupted into Alporao, but the present +building can hardly have been begun till the early years of the +thirteenth century. The church consists of an aisleless nave with good +groined vaulting and a five-sided apsidal chancel. The round-arched west +door stands under a pointed gable, but seems to have lost by decay and +consequent restoration whatever ornament its rather flat mouldings may +once have had. Above is a good wheel window, with a cusped circle in the +centre, surrounded by eight radiating two-arched lights separated by +eight radiating columns. The two arches of each light spring from a +detached capital which seems to have lost its shaft, but as there is no +trace of bases for these missing shafts on the central circle they +probably never existed. All the other nave windows are mere slits; and +above them runs a rich corbel table of slightly stilted arches with +their edges covered with ball ornament resting on projecting corbels. In +the apse the five windows are tall and narrow with square heads, and the +corbel table of a form common in Portugal but rare elsewhere, where each +corbel is something like the bows of a boat.[51] + +The inside, now turned into a museum, is much more interesting. The +chancel is entered, under a circular cusped window, by a wide round +arch, whose outer moulding is curiously carried by shafts with capitals +set across the angle as if to carry a vaulting rib; in the chancel +itself the walls are double, the outer having the plain square-headed +windows seen outside, and the inner very elegant two-light round-headed +openings resting on very thin and delicate shafts, with a doubly cusped +circle above. The vault, whose wall arches are stilted and slightly +pointed, has strong well-moulded ribs springing from the well-wrought +capitals of tall angle shafts. It will be seen that this is a very great +advance on any older vaulting, since previously, except in the French +Church at Alcobaca, groined vaults had only been attempted over square +spaces. The finest of the many objects preserved in the museum is the +tomb of Dom Duarte de Menezes, who was killed in Africa in 1464 and +buried in the church of Sao Francisco, whence, Sao Francisco having +become a cavalry stable, it was brought here not many years ago. (Fig. +24.) + +Such are, except for the church at Idanha a Velha and that of Castro de +Avelans near Braganza, nearly all the early buildings in the country. +Castro de Avelans is interesting and unique as having on the outside +brick arcades, like those on the many Mozarabic churches at Toledo, a +form of decoration not found elsewhere in Portugal. The church of +Alcobaca is of course, in part, a good deal older than are some of those +mentioned above; but the whole, the romanesque choir as well as the +early pointed nave, is so unlike anything that has come before or +anything that has come after, that it seemed better to take it by itself +without regard to strict chronological order. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF ALCOBACA] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24. + +SANTAREM. + +APSE, SAO JOAO DE ALPORAO.] + + +[Illustration: FIG. 25. + +TRANSEPT. + +ALCOBACA.] + +[Sidenote: Alcobaca.] + +The first stone was laid in 1158, but the church was barely finished +when King Sancho I. died in 1211 and was not dedicated till 1220, while +the monastic buildings were not ready till 1223, when the monks migrated +from Sta. Maria a Velha, their temporary home. The abbey was immensely +wealthy: it had complete jurisdiction over fourteen villages whose +inhabitants were in fact its serfs: it or its abbot was visitor to all +Benedictine abbeys in the country and was, for over three hundred years, +till the reign of Cardinal King Henry, the superior of the great +military Order of Christ. It early became one of the first centres of +learning in Portugal, having begun to teach in 1269. It helped Dom Diniz +to found the University of Lisbon, now finally settled at Coimbra, with +presents of books and of money, and it only acknowledged the king in so +far as to give him a pair of boots or shoes when he chanced to come to +Alcobaca. All these possessions and privileges of the monks were +confirmed by Dom Joao IV. (1640-56) after the supremacy of the Spaniards +had come to an end, and were still theirs when Beckford paid them his +memorable visit near the end of the eighteenth century and was so +splendidly entertained with feastings and even with plays and operas +performed by some of the younger brothers. Much harm was of course done +by the French invasion, and at last in 1834 the brothers were turned +out, their house made into barracks, and their church and cloister left +to fall into decay--a decay from which they are only being slowly +rescued at the present time. + +The first abbot, Ranulph, was sent by St. Bernard of Clairvaux himself +at the king's special request, and he must have brought with him the +plan of the abbey or at least of the church. Nearly all Cistercian +churches, which have not been altered, are of two types which resemble +each other in being very simple, having no towers and very little +ornament of any kind. In the simpler of these forms, the one which +prevailed in England, the transept is aisleless, with five or more +chapels, usually square, to the east, of which the largest, in the +centre, contains the main altar. Such are Fontenay near Monbart and +Furness in Lancashire, and even Melrose, though there the church has +been rebuilt more or less on the old plan but with a wealth of detail +and size of window quite foreign to the original rule. In the other, a +more complex type, the transept may have a western aisle, and instead of +a plain square chancel there is an apse with surrounding aisle and +beyond it a series of four-sided chapels. Pontigny, famous for the +shelter it gave to Thomas-a-Becket, and begun in 1114, is of this type, +and so was Clairvaux itself, begun in 1115 and rebuilt in the eighteenth +century. Now this is the type followed by Alcobaca, and it is worthy of +notice that, as far as the plan of choir and transept goes, Alcobaca and +Clairvaux are practically identical. Pontigny has a choir of three bays +between the transept and the apse and seven encircling chapels; +Clairvaux had, and Alcobaca still has, a choir of but one bay and nine +instead of seven chapels. Both had long naves, Clairvaux of eleven and +Alcobaca of thirteen bays, but at the west end there is a change, due +probably to the length of time which passed before it was reached, for +there is no trace of the large porch or narthex found in most early +Cistercian churches. + +The church is by far the largest in Portugal. It is altogether about 365 +feet long, the nave alone being about 250 feet by 75, while the transept +measures about 155 feet from north to south. Except in the choir all the +aisles are of the same height, about 68 feet. + +The east end is naturally the oldest part and most closely resembled its +French original; the eight round columns of the apse have good plain +capitals like those found in so many early Cistercian churches, even in +Italy;[52] the round-headed clerestory windows are high and narrow, and +there are well-developed flying buttresses. Unfortunately all else has +been changed: in the apse itself everything up to the clerestory level +has been hidden by two rows of classic columns and a huge reredos, and +all the choir chapels have been filled with rococo woodwork and gilding, +the work of an Englishman, William Elsden, who was employed to beautify +the church in 1770.[53] Why except for the choir aisle, and the chapels +in choir and transept, the whole church should be of the same height, it +is difficult to say, for such a method of building was unknown in France +and equally unknown in Spain or Portugal. Possibly by the time the nave +was reached the Frenchmen who had planned the church were dead, and the +native workmen, being quite unused to such a method of construction, for +all the older vaulted churches have their central barrel upheld by the +half-barrel vault of the galleries, could think of no other way of +supporting the groining of the main aisle. They had of course the flying +buttresses of the choir apse to guide them, but there the points of +support come so much closer together, and the weight to be upheld is +consequently so much less than could be the case in the nave, that they +may well have thought that to copy them was too dangerous an experiment +as well as being too foreign to their traditional manner of +construction.[54] Whatever may be the reason, the west aisle of the +transept and the side aisles of the nave rise to the full height of the +building. Their arches are naturally very much stilted, and with the +main vault rest on piers of quite unusual size and strength. The +transverse arches are so large as almost to hide the diagonal ribs and +to give the impression that the nave has, after all, a pointed barrel +vault. The piers are throughout cross-shaped with a half-shaft on each +cardinal face: at the crossing there is also a shaft in the angle, but +elsewhere this shaft is replaced by a kind of corbel capital[55] at the +very top which carries the diagonal ribs--another proof, as is the size +of the transverse arches, that such a ribbed vault was still a +half-understood novelty. The most peculiar point about nave piers is the +way in which not only the front vaulting shafts but even that portion of +the piers to which they are attached is, except in the two western bays, +cut off at varying heights from the ground. In the six eastern bays, +where the corbels are all at the same level, this was done to leave room +for the monks' stalls,[56] but it is difficult to see why, in the case +of the following five piers, against which, as at Clairvaux, stood the +stalls of the lay brothers, the level of the corbels should vary so +much. Now all stalls are gone and the church is very bare and desolate, +with nothing but the horrible reredos to detract from that severity and +sternness which was what St. Bernard wished to see in all churches of +the Order. (Fig. 25.) + +The small chapel to the west of the south transept is the only part of +the church, except the later sixteenth-century sacristy, where there is +any richness of detail, and there it is confined to the tombs of some of +the earlier kings and queens, and especially to those of D. Pedro and +the unfortunate Inez de Castro which belongs of course to a much later +date. + +The windows which are high up the aisle walls are large, round-headed, +and perfectly plain. At the transept ends are large round windows filled +with plain uncusped circles, and there is another over the west door +filled with a rococo attempt at Gothic tracery, which agrees well with +the two domed western towers whose details are not even good rococo. +Between these towers still opens the huge west door, a very plainly +moulded pointed arch of seven orders, resting on the simple capitals of +sixteen shafts: a form of door which became very common throughout the +fourteenth century. The great cloister was rebuilt later in the time of +Dom Diniz, leaving only the chapter-house entrance, which seems even +older than the nave. As usual there is one door in the centre, with a +large two-light opening on each side: all the arches are round and well +moulded, and the capitals simply carved with stiff foliage showing a +gradual transition from the earlier romanesque. In the monastery itself, +now a barrack, there are still a few vaulted passages which must belong +to the original building, but nearly all else has been rebuilt, the main +cloister in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries and the greater part +of the domestic buildings in the eighteenth, so that except for the +cloister and sacristy, which will be spoken of later on, there is little +worthy of attention.[57] + +Now none of these buildings may show any very great originality or +differ to any marked degree from contemporary buildings in Spain or even +in the south of France, yet to a great extent they fixed a type which in +many ways was followed down to the end of the Gothic period. The plan of +Braga, Pombeiro, Evora or Coimbra is reproduced with but little change +at Guarda, and if the western towers be omitted, at Batalha, some two +hundred years later, and the flat paved roofs of Evora occur again at +Batalha and at Guarda. The barrel-vaulted nave also long survived, being +found as late as the beginning of the fourteenth century in the church +of Santa Clara at Coimbra, and even about seventy years later in the +church of the Knights of Sao Thiago at Palmella. + +The battlements also of the castle at Guimaraes are found not only at +Coimbra, but as late as 1336 in the church of Leca do Balio near Oporto, +and, modified in shape by the renaissance even in the sixteenth-century +churches of Villa do Conde and of Azurara. + +Although the distinctively French features of Alcobaca seem to have had +but little influence on the further development of building in Portugal, +a few peculiarities are found there which are repeated again. For +example, the unusually large transverse arches of the nave occur at +Batalha, and the large plain western door is clearly related to such +later doors as those at Leca do Balio or of Sao Francisco at Oporto. +Again the vaulting of the apse in Sao Joao de Alporao is arranged very +much in the way which was almost universal during the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries in the chancels and side chapels of many a church, +such as Santa Maria do Olival at Thomar, or the Graca at Santarem +itself, and the curious boat-like corbels of Sao Joao are found more +than once, as in the choir of the old church, formerly the cathedral of +Silves, far south in the Algarve. The large round windows at Evora do +not seem to be related to the window at Sao Joao, but to be of some +independent origin; probably, like the similar windows at Leca and at +Oporto, they too belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES DOWN TO THE BATTLE OF +ALJUBARROTA + + +In Portugal the twelfth century is marked by a very considerable +activity in building, but the thirteenth, which in France and England +saw Gothic architecture rise to a height of perfection both in +construction and in ornament which was never afterwards excelled, when +more great churches and cathedrals were built than almost ever before or +since, seems here to have been the least productive period in the whole +history of the country. In the thirteenth century, indeed, Portugal +reached its widest European limits, but the energies, alike of the kings +and of the people, seem to have been expended rather in consolidating +their conquests and in cultivating and inhabiting the large regions of +land left waste by the long-continued struggle. Although Dom Sancho's +kingdom only extended from the Minho to the Tagus, in the early years of +the thirteenth century the rich provinces of Beira, and still more of +Estremadura, were very thinly peopled: the inhabitants lived only in +walled towns, and their one occupation was fighting, and plunder almost +their only way of gaining a living. It is natural then that so few +buildings should remain which date from the reigns of Dom Sancho's +successors, Affonso II. (1211-1223), Sancho II. (1223-1248), and Affonso +III. (1248-1279): the necessary churches and castles had been built at +once after the conquest, and the people had neither the leisure nor the +means to replace them by larger and more refined structures as was being +done elsewhere. Of course some churches described in the last chapter +may be actually of that period though belonging artistically and +constructionally to an earlier time, as for instance a large part of the +cathedral of Evora or the church of Sao Joao at Santarem. + +[Sidenote: Sao Francisco, Guimaraes.] + +The Franciscans had been introduced into Portugal by Dona Sancha, the +daughter of Dom Sancho I., and houses were built for them by Dona +Urraca, the wife of Dom Affonso II., at Lisbon and at Guimaraes. Their +church at Guimaraes has been very much altered at different times, +mostly in the eighteenth century, but the west door may very well belong +to Dona Urraca's building. It has a drip-mould covered with closely set +balls, and four orders of mouldings of which the second is a broad +chamfer with a row of flat four-leaved flowers; the abacus is well +moulded, but the capitals, which are somewhat bell-shaped, have the bell +covered with rude animals or foliage which are still very romanesque in +design. The entrance to the chapter-house is probably not much later in +date: from the south walk of the simple but picturesque renaissance +cloister a plain pointed doorway leads into the chapter-house, with, on +either side, an opening of about equal size and shape. In these openings +there stand three pairs of round coupled shafts with plain bases, rudely +carved capitals and large square overhanging abaci, from which spring +two pointed arches moulded only on the under side: resting on these, but +connected with them or with the enclosing arch by no moulding or fillet, +is a small circle, moulded like the arches only on one side and +containing a small quatrefoil.[58] This is one of the earliest attempts +at window tracery in the country, for the west window at Evora seems +later, but like it, it shows that tracery was not really understood in +the country, and that the Portuguese builders were not yet able so to +unite the different parts as to make such a window one complete and +beautiful whole. Indeed so unsuccessful are their attempts throughout +that whenever, as at Batalha, a better result is seen, it may be put +down to foreign influence. Much better as a rule are the round windows, +mostly of the fourteenth century, but they are all very like one +another, and are probably mostly derived from the same source, perhaps +from one of the transept windows at Evora, or from the now empty circle +over the west door at Lisbon. + +[Sidenote: Sao Francisco, Santarem.] + +Much more refined than this granite church at Guimaraes has been Sao +Francisco at Santarem, now unfortunately degraded into being the stable +of a cavalry barracks. There the best-preserved and most interesting +part is the west door, which does not lead directly into the church but +into a low porch or narthex. The narthex itself has central and side +aisles, all of the same height, is two bays in length and is covered by +a fine strong vault resting on short clustered piers.[59] The doorway +itself, which is not acutely pointed, stands under a gable which reaches +up to the plain battlemented parapet of the flat narthex roof. There are +four shafts on each side with a ring-moulding rather less than half-way +up, which at once distinguishes them from any romanesque predecessors; +the capitals are round with a projecting moulding half-way up and +another one at the top with a curious projection or claw to unite the +round cap and the square moulded abacus. Of the different orders of the +arch, all well moulded, the outer has a hood with billet-mould; the +second a well-developed chevron or zigzag; and the innermost a series of +small horseshoes, which like the chevron stretch across the hollow so as +to hold in the large roll at the angle.[60] (Fig. 26.) + +[Sidenote: Santa Maria dos Olivaes, Thomar.] + +In a previous chapter the building of a church at Thomar by Dom Gualdim +Paes, Grand Master of the Templars, has been mentioned. Of this church +and the castle built at the same time, both of which stood on the east +or flat bank of the river Nabao, nothing now remains except perhaps the +lower part of the detached bell-tower. This church, Santa Maria dos +Olivaes, was the Matriz or mother church of all those held, first by the +Templars and later by their successors, the Order of Christ, not only in +Portugal but even in Africa, Brazil, and in India. Of so high a dignity +it is scarcely worthy, being but a very simple building neither large +nor richly ornamented. A nave and aisles of five bays, three polygonal +apses to the east and later square chapels beyond the aisles, make up +the whole building. The roofs are all of panelled wood of the sixteenth +century except in the three vaulted apses, of which the central is +entered by an arch, which, rising no higher than the aisle arches, +leaves room for a large window under the roof. All the arches of the +aisle arcade spring from the simple moulded capitals of piers whose +section is that of four half-octagons placed together. In the + +[Illustration: FIG. 26. + +SANTAREM. + +W. DOOR, SAO FRANCISCO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27. + +SE SILVES.] + +clerestory are windows of one small light, in the aisles of two larger +lights, and in the apses single lancets. The great simplicity of the +building notwithstanding it can scarcely be as old as the thirteenth +century: the curious way in which the two lancet lights of the aisle +windows are enclosed under one larger trefoiled arch recalls the similar +windows in the church at Leca do Balio near Oporto begun in 1336, though +there the elliptical head of the enclosing arch is much less +satisfactory than the trefoiled head here used. The only part of the +church which can possibly have been built in the thirteenth century is +the central part of the west front. The pointed door below stands under +a projecting gable like that at Sao Francisco Santarem, except that +there is a five-foiled circle above the arch containing a pentalpha, put +there perhaps to keep out witches. The door itself has three large +shafts on each side with good but much-decayed capitals of foliage, and +a moulded jamb next the door. The arch itself is terribly decayed, but +one of its orders still has the remains of a series of large cusps, +arranged like the horseshoe cusps at Santarem but much larger. Above the +door gable is a circular window of almost disproportionate size. It has +twelve trefoil-headed lights radiating from a small circle, and +curiously crossing a larger circle some distance from the smaller. +Unfortunately the spaces between the trefoils and the outer mouldings +have been filled up with plaster and the lights themselves subdivided +with meaningless wood tracery to hold the horrible blue-and-red glass +now so popular in Portugal. Though Santa Maria dos Olivaes cannot be +nearly as old as has usually been believed, it is one of the earliest +churches built on the plan derived perhaps first from Braga Cathedral or +from the Franciscan and Dominican churches in Galicia, of a wooden +roofed basilica with or without transept, and with three or more apses +to the east; a form which to the end of the Gothic period was the most +common and which is found even in cathedrals as at Silves or at Funchal +in Madeira. + +Dom Sancho II., whose reign had begun with brilliant attacks on the +Moors, had, because of his connection with Dona Mencia de Haro, the +widow of a Castilian nobleman, and his consequent inactivity, become +extremely unpopular, so was supplanted in 1246 by his brother Dom +Affonso III. The first care of the new king was to carry on the +conquest + +[Sidenote: Silves.] + +of the Algarve, which his brother had given up when he fell under the +evil influence of Dona Mencia, and by about 1260 he had overrun the +whole country. At first Alfonso x., the Wise, king of Castile and Leon, +was much displeased at this extension of Portuguese power, but on Dom +Affonso agreeing to marry his daughter Beatriz de Guzman, the Spanish +king allowed his son-in-law to retain his conquests and to assume the +title of King of the Algarve, a title which his descendants still bear. +The countess of Boulogne, Affonso's first wife, was indeed still alive, +but that seems to have troubled neither Dona Beatriz nor her father. At +Silves or Chelb, for so the Moorish capital had been called, a bishopric +was soon founded, but the cathedral,[61] though many of its details seem +to proclaim an early origin, was probably not begun till the early, and +certainly not finished till near the later, years of the fourteenth +century. It is a church of the same type as Santa Maria at Thomar but +with a transept. The west door, a smaller edition of that at Alcobaca, +leads to a nave and aisles of four bays, with plain octagonal columns, +whose bases exactly resemble the capitals reversed--an octagon brought +to a square by a curved chamfer. The nave has a wooden roof, transepts a +pointed barrel vault, and the crossing and chancel with its side chapels +a ribbed vault. Though some of the capitals at the east end look almost +romanesque, the really late date is shown by the cusped fringing of the +chancel arch, a feature very common at Batalha, which was begun at the +end of the fourteenth century, and by the window tracery, where in the +two-light windows the head is filled by a flat pierced slab. Outside, +the chancel has good buttresses at the angles, and is crowned by that +curious boat-like corbel table seen at Santarem and by a row of +pyramidal battlements. The church is only about 150 feet long, but with +its two picturesque and dilapidated towers, and the wonderful deep +purple of its sandstone walls rising above the whitewashed houses and +palms of the older Silves and backed by the Moorish citadel, it makes a +most picturesque and even striking centre to the town, which, standing +high above the river, preserves the memory of its Moslem builders in +its remarkable and many-towered city walls.[62] (Fig. 27.) + +[Sidenote: Beja.] + +King Diniz the Labourer, so called for his energy in settling and +reclaiming the land and in fixing the moving sands along the west coast +by plantations of pine-trees, and the son of Dom Affonso and Dona +Beatriz, was a more active builder than any of his immediate +predecessors. Of the many castles built by him the best preserved is +that of Beja, the second town of Alemtejo and the Pax Julia of Roman +times. The keep, built about 1310, is a great square tower over a +hundred feet high. Some distance from the top it becomes octagonal, with +the square fortified by corbelled balconies projecting far out over the +corners. Inside are several stories of square halls finely vaulted with +massive octagonal vaults; below, the windows are little more than slits, +but on one floor there are larger two-light pointed openings.[63] + +[Sidenote: Leiria.] + +Far finer and larger has been the castle of Leiria, some fifty miles +south of Coimbra: it or the keep was begun by Dom Diniz in 1324.[64] The +rock on which it stands, in steepness and in height recalls that of +Edinburgh Castle, but without the long slope of the old town leading +nearly to the summit: towering high above Leiria it is further defended +on the only accessible quarter by the river Lis which runs round two +sides not far from the bottom of the steep descent. Unfortunately all is +ruined, only enough remaining to show that on the steepest edge of the +rock there stood a palace with large pointed windows looking out over +the town to the green wooded hills beyond. On the highest part stands +what is left of the keep, and a little lower the castle-church whose +bell-tower, built over the gate, served to defend the only access to the +inner fortification. This church, built about the same time, with a now +roofless nave which was never vaulted, is entered by a door on the +south, and has a polygonal vaulted apse. The mouldings of the door as +well as the apse vault and its tall two-light windows show a greater +delicacy and refinement than is seen in almost any earlier building, and +some of the carving has once been of great beauty, especially of the +boss at the centre of the apse.[65] + +But besides those two castles there is another building of this period +which had a greater and more lasting effect on the work of this +fourteenth century. In England the arrival of the Cistercians and the +new style introduced or rather developed by them seems almost more than +anything else to have determined the direction of the change from what +is usually, perhaps wrongly,[66] called Norman to Early English, but in +Portugal the great foundation of Alcobaca was apparently powerless to +have any such marked effect except in the one case of cloisters. Now +with the exception of the anomalous and much later Claustro Real at +Batalha, all cloisters in Portugal, before the renaissance, follow two +types: one, which is clearly only a modification of the continuous +romanesque arcades resting on coupled shafts, has usually a wooden roof, +and consists of a row of coupled shafts bearing pointed arches, and +sometimes interrupted at intervals by square piers; this form of +cloister is found at Santo Thyrso near Guimaraes, at Sao Domingos in +Guimaraes itself, and in the Cemetery cloister built by Prince Henry the +Navigator at Thomar in the fifteenth century. + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Cellas.] + +The most remarkable of all the cloisters of the first type is that of +the nunnery of Cellas near Coimbra. Founded in 1210 by Dona Sancha, +daughter of Sancho I., the nunnery is now a blind asylum. The cloister, +with round arches and coupled columns, seems thoroughly romanesque in +character, as are also the capitals. It is only on looking closer that +the real date is seen, for the figures on the capitals, which are carved +with scenes such as the beheading of St. John the Baptist, are all +dressed in the fashion that prevailed under Dom Diniz--about 1300--while +the foliage on others, though still romanesque in arrangement, is much +later in detail. More than half of the arcades were rebuilt in the +seventeenth century, but enough remains to make the cloister of Cellas +one of the most striking examples of the survival of old forms and +methods of building which in less remote countries had been given up +more than a hundred years before. + +The church, though small, is not without interest. It has a round nave +of Dom Manoel's time with a nuns' choir to the west and a chancel to the +east, and is entered by a picturesque door of the later sixteenth +century. + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Coimbra.] + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Alcobaca.] + +More interesting is the second type which was commonly used when a +cloister with a vault was wanted; and of it there are still examples to +be seen at the Se Velha Coimbra, at Alcobaca, Lisbon Cathedral, Evora, +and Oporto. None of these five examples are exactly alike, but they +resemble each other sufficiently to make it probable that they are all, +ultimately at least, derived from one common source, and there can be no +doubt that that source was Cistercian. In France what was perhaps its +very first beginnings may be seen in the Cistercian abbey of Fontenay +near Monbart, where in each bay there are two round arches enclosed +under one larger round arch. This was further developed at Fontfroide +near Narbonne, where an arcade of four small round arches under a large +pointed arch carries a thin wall pierced by a large round circle. Of the +different Portuguese examples the oldest may very well be that at +Coimbra which differs only from Fontfroide in having an arcade of two +arches in each bay instead of one of four, but even though it may be a +little older than the large cloister of Alcobaca, it must have been due +to Cistercian influence. The great Claustro do Silencio at Alcobaca was, +as an inscription tells, begun in the year 1310,[67] when on April 13th +the first stone was laid by the abbot in the presence of the master +builder Domingo Domingues.[68] In this case each bay has an arcade of +two or three pointed arches resting on coupled columns with strong +buttresses between each bay, but the enclosing arch is not pointed as at +Coimbra or Fontfroide but segmental and springs from square jambs at the +level of the top of the buttresses, and the circles have been all filled +with pierced slabs, some of which have ordinary quatrefoils and some +much more intricate patterns, though in no case do they show the Moorish +influence which is so noticeable at Evora. On the north side projects +the lavatory, an apsidal building with two stories of windows and with +what in France would be regarded as details of the thirteenth century +and not, as is really the case, of the fourteenth. A few bays on the +west walk seem rather later than the rest, as the arches of the arcade +are trefoil-headed, while the upper part of a small projection on the +south side which now contains a stair, as well as the upper cloister to +which it leads, were added by Joao de Castilho for Cardinal Prince +Henry, son of Dom Manoel, and commendator of the abbey in 1518. (Fig. +28.) + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Lisbon.] + +In the cloister at Lisbon which seems to be of about the same date, and +which, owing to the nature of the site, runs round the back of the +choir, there is no outer containing arch, and in some bays there are two +large circles instead of one, but in every other respect, except that +some of the round openings are adorned with a ring of dog-tooth +moulding, the details are very similar, the capitals and bases being all +of good thirteenth-century French form.[69] (Fig. 29.) + +[Sidenote: Cloister, Oporto.] + +If the cloister at Evora, which was built in 1376 and has already been +described, is the one which departs furthest from the original type, +retaining only the round opening, that of the cathedral of Oporto, built +in 1385, comes nearer to Fontfroide than any of the others. Here each +bay is designed exactly like the French example except that the small +arches are pointed, that the large openings are chamfered instead of +moulded, and that there are buttresses between each bay. The capitals +which are rather tall are carved with rather shallow leaves, but the +most noticeable features are the huge square moulded abaci which are so +large as to be more like those of the romanesque cloisters at Moissac or +of Sta. Maria del Sar at Santiago than any fourteenth-century work. + +[Sidenote: Sta. Clara, Coimbra.] + +The most important church of the time of Dom Diniz is, or rather was, +that of the convent of Poor Clares founded at Coimbra by his wife St. +Isabel. Although a good king, Diniz had not been a good husband, and the +queen's sorrows had been still further increased by the rebellion of + +[Illustration: FIG 28. + +ALCOBACA. + +CLOISTER OF DOM DINIZ, OR DO SILENCIO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 29. + +LISBON. + +CATHEDRAL CLOISTER.] + +her son, afterwards Affonso IV., a rebellion to which Isabel was able to +put an end by interposing between her husband and her son. When St. +Isabel died in 1327, two years after her husband, the church was not yet +quite finished, but it must have been so soon after. Unfortunately the +annual floods of the Mondego and the sands which they bring down led to +the abandonment of the church in the seventeenth century, and have so +buried it that the floor of the barn--for that is the use to which it is +now put--is almost level with the springing of the aisle arches, but +enough is left to show what the church was like, and were not its date +well assured no one would believe it to be later than the end of the +twelfth century. The chancel, which was aisleless and lower than the +rest of the church, is gone, but the nave and its aisles are still in a +tolerable state of preservation, though outside all the detail has been +destroyed except one round window on the south side filled in with white +marble tracery of a distinctly Italian type, and the corbel table of the +boat-keel shape. The inside is most unusual for a church of the +fourteenth century. The central aisle has a pointed barrel vault +springing from a little above the aisle arches, while the aisles +themselves have an ordinary cross vault. All the capitals too look +early, and the buttresses broad and rather shallow. (Fig. 30.) + +[Sidenote: Leca do Balio.] + +A few miles north of Oporto on the banks of the clear stream of the Leca +a monastery for men and women had been founded in 986. In the course of +the next hundred years it had several times fallen into decay and been +restored, till about the year 1115 when it was handed over to the +Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem and so became their +headquarters in Portugal. The church had been rebuilt by Abbot Guntino +some years before the transfer took place, and had in time become +ruinous, so that in 1336 it was rebuilt by Dom Frei Estevao Vasques +Pimentel, the head of the Order. This church still stands but little +altered since the fourteenth century, and though not a large or splendid +building it is the most complete and unaltered example of that +thoroughly national plan and style which, developed in the previous +century, was seen at Thomar and will be seen again in many later +examples. The church consists of a nave and aisles of four bays, +transepts higher than the side but lower than the centre aisle of the +nave, three vaulted apses to the east, and at the south-west corner a +square tower. Like many Portuguese buildings Sta. Maria de Leca do Balio +looks at first sight a good deal earlier than is really the case. The +west and the south doors, which are almost exactly alike, except that +the south door is surmounted by a gable, have three shafts on each side +with early-looking capitals and plain moulded archivolts, and within +these, jambs moulded at the angles bearing an inner order whose flat +face is carved with a series of circles enclosing four and five-leaved +flowers. Above the west door runs a projecting gallery whose parapet, +like all the other parapets of the church, is defended by a close-set +row of pointed battlements. Above the gallery is a large rose-window in +which twelve spokes radiate from a cusped circle in the middle to the +circumference, where the lights so formed are further enriched by cusped +semicircles. The aisle and clerestory windows show an unusual attempt to +include two lancets into one window by carrying on the outer framing of +the window till it meets above the mullion in a kind of pendant +arch.[70] + +The square tower is exceedingly plain, without string course or buttress +to mitigate its severity. Half-way up on the west side is a small window +with a battlemented balcony in front projecting out on three great +corbels; higher up are plain belfry windows. At the top, square +balconies or bartizans project diagonally from the corners; the whole, +though there are but three pyramidal battlements on each side, being +even more strongly fortified than the rest of the church. Now in the +fourteenth century such fortification of a church can hardly have been +necessary, and they were probably built rather to show that the church +belonged to a military order than with any idea of defence. The inside +is less interesting, the pointed arches are rather thin and the capitals +poor, the only thing much worthy of notice being the font, belonging to +the time of change from Gothic to Renaissance, and given in 1512.[71] + +[Sidenote: Chancel, Se, Lisbon.] + +Of the other buildings of the time of Dom Affonso IV. who succeeded his +father Diniz in 1328 the most important + +[Illustration: FIG. 30. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CLARA.] + +has been the choir of the cathedral at Lisbon; the church had been much +injured by an earthquake in 1344 and the whole east end was at once +rebuilt on the French plan, otherwise unexampled in Portugal except by +the twelfth-century choir at Alcobaca. Unfortunately the later and more +terrible earthquake of 1755 so ruined the whole building that of Dom +Affonso's work only the surrounding aisle and its chapels remain. The +only point which calls for notice is that the chapels are considerably +lower than the aisle so as to admit of a window between the chapel arch +and the aisle vault. All the chapels have good vaulting and simple +two-light windows, and capitals well carved with naturalistic foliage. +In one chapel, that of SS. Cosmo and Damiao, screened off by a very good +early wrought-iron grill, are the tombs of Lopo Fernandes Pacheco and of +his second wife Maria Rodrigues. Dona Maria, lying on a stone +sarcophagus, which stands on four short columns, and whose sides are +adorned with four shields with the arms of her father, Ruy di Villa +Lobos, has her head protected by a carved canopy and holds up in her +hands an open book which, from her position, she could scarcely hope to +read.[72] + +[Sidenote: Royal tombs, Alcobaca. (Fig. 31.)] + +Far more interesting both historically and artistically than these +memorials at Lisbon are the royal tombs in the small chapel opening off +the south transepts of the abbey church at Alcobaca. This vaulted +chapel, two bays deep and three wide, was probably built about the same +time as the cloister, and has good clustered piers and well-carved +capitals. On the floor stand three large royal tombs and two smaller for +royal children, and in deep recesses in the north and south walls, four +others. Only the three larger standing clear of the walls call for +notice; and of these one is that of Dona Beatriz, the wife of Dom +Affonso III., who died in 1279, the same lady who married Dom Affonso +while his wife the countess of Boulogne was still alive. Her tomb, which +stands high above the ground on square columns with circular ringed +shafts at the corners, was clearly not made for Dona Beatriz herself, +but for some one else at least a hundred years before. It is of a white +marble, sadly mutilated at one corner by French treasure-seekers, and +has on each side a romanesque arcade with an apostle, in quite archaic +style, seated under each arch; at the ends are large groups of seated +figures, and on the sloping lid Dona Beatriz herself, in very shallow +relief, evidently carved out of the old roof-shaped cover, which not +being very thick did not admit of any deep cutting. Far richer, indeed +more elaborate than almost any other fourteenth-century tombs, are those +of Dom Pedro I. who died in 1367, and of Inez de Castro who was murdered +in 1355. When only sixteen years old Dom Pedro, to strengthen his father +Affonso the Fourth's alliance with Castile, had been married to Dona +Costanca, daughter of the duke of Penafiel. In her train there came as a +lady-in-waiting Dona Inez de Castro, the daughter of the high +chamberlain of Castile, and with her Dom Pedro soon fell in love. As +long as his wife, who was the mother of King Fernando, lived no one +thought much of his connection with Dona Inez, or of that with Dona +Thereza Lourenco, whose son afterwards became the great liberator, King +Joao I., but after Dona Costanca's death it was soon seen that he loved +Dona Inez more than any one had imagined, and he was believed even to +have married her. This, and his refusal to accept any of the royal +princesses chosen by his father, so enraged Dom Affonso that he +determined to have Dona Inez killed, and this was done by three knights +on 7th January 1355 in the Quinta das Lagrimas--that is, the Garden of +Tears--near Coimbra. Dom Pedro, who was away hunting in the south, would +have rebelled against his father, but was persuaded by the queen to +submit after he had devastated all the province of Minho. Two years +later Dom Affonso died, and after Dom Pedro had caught and tortured to +death two of the murderers--the third escaped to Castile--he in 1361 had +Dona Inez's body removed from its grave, dressed in the royal robes and +crowned, and swearing that he had really married her, he compelled all +the court to pay her homage and to kiss her hand: then the body was +placed on a bier and carried by night to the place prepared for it at +Alcobaca, some seventy miles away. When six years later, in 1367, he +came to die himself he left directions that they should be buried with +their feet towards one another, that at the resurrection the first thing +he should see should be Dona Inez rising from her tomb. Unfortunately +the French soldiers in 1810 broke open both tombs, smashing away much +fine carved work and scattering their bones.[73] The two tombs are much +alike in design and differ only in detail; both rest on four lions; the +sides, above a narrow border of sunk quatrefoils, are divided by tiny +buttresses rising from behind the gables of small niches into six parts, +each of which has an arch under a gable whose tympanum is filled with +the most minute tracery. Each of these arches is cusped and foliated +differently according to the nature of the figure subject it contains. +Behind the tops of the gables and pinnacles of the buttresses runs a +small arcade with beautiful little figures only a few inches high: above +this a still more delicate arcade runs round the whole tomb, interrupted +at regular intervals by shields, charged on Dom Pedro's tomb with the +arms of Portugal and on that of Dona Inez with the same and with those +of the Castros alternately. At the foot of Dom Pedro's is represented +the Crucifixion, and facing it on that of Dona Inez the Last Judgment. +Nothing can exceed the delicacy and beauty of the figure sculpture, the +drapery is all good, and the smallest heads and hands are worked with a +care not to be surpassed in any country. (Fig. 32.) + +On the top of one lies King Pedro with his head to the north, on the +other Dona Inez with hers to the south; both are life size and are as +well wrought as are the smaller details below. Both have on each side +three angels who seem to be just about to lift them from where they lie +or to have just laid them down. These angels, especially those near Dom +Pedro's head, are perhaps the finest parts of either tomb, with their +beautiful drapery, their well-modelled wings, and above all with the +outstretching of their arms towards the king and Dona Inez. There seems +to be no record as to who worked or designed these tombs, but there can +be little or no doubt that he was a Frenchman, the whole feeling, alike +of the architectural detail and the figures themselves, is absolutely +French; there had been no previous figure sculpture in the country in +any way good enough to lead up to the skill in design and in execution +here shown, nor, with regard to the mere architectural detail, had +Gothic tracery and ornament yet been sufficiently developed for a native +workman to have invented the elaborate cuspings, mouldings, and other +enrichments which make both tombs so pre-eminent above all that came +before them.[74] These tombs, as indeed the whole church, as well as the +neighbouring convent of Batalha, are constructed of a wonderfully fine +limestone, which seems to be practically the same as Caen Stone, and +which, soft and easy to cut when first quarried, grows harder with +exposure and in time, when not in a too shady or damp position, where it +gets black, takes on a most beautiful rich yellow colour. + +These tombs, beautiful as they are, do not seem to have any very direct +influence on the work of the next century: it is true that a distinct +advance was made in modelling the effigies of those who lay below, but +apart from that the decoration of these high tombs is in no case even +remotely related to that of the later monuments at Batalha; nor, except +that the national method of church planning was more firmly established +than ever, and that some occasional features such as the cuspings on the +arch-mould of the door of Sao Francisco Santarem, which are copied on an +archaistic door at Batalha, are found in later work, is there much to +point to the great advance that was soon to be made alike in detail and +in construction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31. + +ALCOBACA. + +CHAPEL WITH ROYAL TOMBS. + +(DOM PEDRO AND DONA BEATRIZ.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32. + +ALCOBACA. + +TOMB OF DOM PEDRO I.] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +BATALHA AND THE DELIVERANCE OF PORTUGAL + + +Towards the end of the fourteenth century came the most important and +critical years that Portugal had yet known. Dom Pedro, dying after a +reign of only ten years, was succeeded by his only legitimate son, +Fernando, in 1367. Unfortunately the new king at his sister's wedding +saw and fell in love with the wife of a northern nobleman, and soon +openly married this Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, though he was himself +already betrothed to a Castilian princess, and though her own husband +was still alive. At the first court or Beja Manos held by Dona Leonor at +Leca near Oporto, all the Portuguese nobility except Dom Diniz, the +king's half-brother and a son of Inez de Castro, acknowledged her as +queen. But soon the evil influence she exercised over the king and the +stories of her cruelty made her extremely unpopular and even hated by +the whole nation. The memory of the vengeance she took on her own +sister, Dona Maria Telles, is preserved by an interesting old house in +Coimbra which has indeed been rebuilt since, in the early sixteenth +century, but is still called the House of the Telles. To the dislike +Queen Leonor felt for the sons of Inez de Castro, owing to Dom Diniz's +refusal to kiss her hand, was added the hatred she had borne her sister, +who was married to Dom Joao, another son of Dona Inez, ever since this +sister Dona Maria had warned her to have nothing to do with the king; +she was also jealous because Dona Maria had had a son while her own two +eldest children had died. So plotting to be rid of them both, she at +last persuaded Dom Joao that his wife was not faithful to him, and sent +him full of anger to that house at Coimbra where Dona Maria was living +and where, without even giving his wife time to speak, he stabbed her to +death. Soon after Dona Leonor came in and laughed at him for having +believed her lies so as to kill his own wife. Failing to kill the queen, +Dom Joao fled to Castile. + +When Dom Fernando himself died in 1383 he left his widow as regent of +the kingdom on behalf of their only daughter, Dona Brites, whom they had +married to Don Juan I. of Castile. It was of course bad enough for the +nation to find itself under the regency of such a woman, but to be +absorbed by Castile and Leon was more than could be endured. So a great +Cortes was held at Coimbra, and Dom Joao, grand master of the Order of +Aviz, and the son of Dom Pedro and Dona Thereza Lourenco, was elected +king. The new king at once led his people against the invaders, and +after twice defeating them met them for the final struggle at +Aljubarrota, near Alcobaca, on 14th August 1385. The battle raged all +day till at last the Castilian king fled with all his army, leaving his +tent with its rich furniture and all his baggage. Before the enemy had +been driven from the little town of Aljubarrota, the wife of the village +baker made herself famous by killing nine Spaniards with her wooden +baking shovel--a shovel which may still be seen on the town arms. When +all was over Dom Joao dedicated the spoil he had taken in the Castilian +king's tent to Our Lady of the Olive Tree at Guimaraes where may still +be seen, with many other treasures, a large silver-gilt triptych of the +Nativity and one of the silver angels from off the royal altar.[75] +Besides this, he had promised if victorious to rebuild the church at +Guimaraes and to found where the victory had been won a monastery as a +thankoffering for his success. + +[Sidenote: Batalha.] + +This vow was fulfilled two years later in 1387 by building the great +convent of Sta. Maria da Victoria or Batalha, that is Battle, at a place +then called Pinhal[76] in a narrow valley some nine or ten miles north +of Aljubarrota and seven south of Leiria. Meanwhile John of Gaunt had +landed in Galicia with a large army to try and win Castile and Leon, +which he claimed for his wife Constance, elder daughter of Pedro the +Cruel; marching through Galicia he met Dom Joao at Oporto in February +1387, and then the Treaty of Windsor, which had been signed the year +before and which had declared the closest union of friendship and +alliance to exist between England and Portugal, was further strengthened +by the marriage of King Joao to Philippa, the daughter of John of Gaunt +and of his first wife, Blanche of Lancaster. Soon after, the peace of +the Peninsula was assured by the marriage of Catherine, the only child +of John of Gaunt and of Constance of Castile, to Enrique, Prince of the +Asturias and heir to the throne of Castile. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF BATALHA] + +But it is time now to turn from the history of the foundation of Batalha +to the buildings themselves, and surely no more puzzling building than +the church is to be found anywhere. The plan, indeed, of the church, +omitting the Capella do Fundador and the great Capellas Imperfeitas, +presents no difficulty as it is only a repetition of the already +well-known and national arrangement of nave with aisles, an aisleless +transept, with in this case five apsidal chapels to the east. Now in all +this there is nothing the least unusual or different from what might be +expected, except perhaps that the nave, of eight bays, is rather longer +than in any previous example. But the church was built to commemorate a +great national deliverance, and by a king who had just won immense booty +from his defeated enemy, and so was naturally built on a great and +imposing scale.[77] + +The first architect, Affonso Domingues, perhaps a grandson of the +Domingo Domingues who built the cloister at Alcobaca, is said to have +been born at Lisbon and so, as might have been expected, his plan shows +no trace at all of foreign influence. And yet even this ordinary plan +has been compared by a German writer to that of the nave and transepts +of Canterbury Cathedral, a most unlikely model to be followed, as +Chillenden, who there carried out the transformation of Lanfranc's nave, +did not become prior till 1390, three years after Batalha had been +begun.[78] But though it is easy enough to show that the plan is not +English but quite national and Portuguese, it is not so easy to say what +the building itself is. Affonso Domingues died in 1402, and was +succeeded by a man whose name is spelt in a great variety of ways, +Ouguet, Huguet, or Huet, and to whom most of the building apart from the +plan must have been due. His name sounds more French than anything else, +but the building is not at all French except in a few details. +Altogether it is not at all easy to say whence those peculiarities of +tracery and detail which make Batalha so strange and unusual a building +were derived, except that there had been in Portugal nothing to lead up +to such tracery or to such elaboration of detail, or to the constructive +skill needed to build the high groined vaults of the nave or the +enormous span required to cover the chapter-house. Perhaps it may be +better to describe the church first outside and then in, and then see if +it is possible to discover from the details themselves whence they can +have come. + +The five eastern apses, of which the largest in the centre is also twice +as high as the other four, are probably the oldest part of the building, +but all, except the two outer apses and the upper part of the central, +have been concealed by the Pateo built by Dom Manoel to unite the +church with the Capellas Imperfeitas, or unfinished chapels, beyond. +Here there is nothing very unusual: the smaller chapels all end in +three-sided apses, at whose angles are buttresses, remarkable only for +the great number of string courses, five in all, which divide them +horizontally; these buttresses are finished by two offsets just below a +plain corbel table which is now crowned by an elaborately pierced and +cusped parapet which may well have been added later. Each side of the +apse has one tall narrow single-light window which, filled at some later +date from top to bottom with elaborate stone tracery, has two thin +shafts at each side and a rather bluntly-pointed head. The central apse +has been much the same but with five sides, and two stories of similar +windows one above the other. So far there is nothing unexpected or what +could not easily have been developed from already existing buildings, +such as the church at Thomar or the Franciscan and Dominican churches no +further away than Pontevedra in Galicia. + +Coming to the south transept, there is a large doorway below under a +crocketed gable flanked by a tall pinnacle on either side. This door +with its thirteenth-century mouldings is one of the most curious and +unexpected features of the whole building. Excepting that the capitals +are well carved with leaves, it is a close copy of the west door of Sao +Francisco at Santarem. Here the horseshoe cuspings are on the out-most +of the five orders of mouldings, and the chevron on the fourth, while +there is also a series of pointed cusps on the second. Only the +innermost betrays its really late origin by the curious crossing and +interpenetrating of the mouldings of its large trefoiled head. All this +is thoroughly Portuguese and clearly derived from what had gone before; +but the same cannot be said for the crockets or for the pinnacles with +their square and gabled spirelets. These crockets are of the common +vine-leaf shape such as was used in England and also in France early in +the fourteenth century, while the two-storied pinnacles with shallow +traceried panels on each face, and still more the square spirelets with +rather large crockets and a large bunchy finial, are not at all French, +but a not bad imitation of contemporary English work. On the gable above +the door are two square panels, each containing a coat-of-arms set in a +cusped quatrefoil, while the vine-leaves which fill in the surface +between the quatrefoils and the outer mouldings of the square, as also +those on the crowns which surmount the coats, are also quite English. +The elaborate many-sided canopies above are not so much so in form +though they might well have been evolved from English detail. Above the +gable comes another English feature, a very large three-light window +running up to the very vault; at the top the mullions of each light are +carried up so as to intersect, with cusped circles filling in each +space, while the whole window to the top is filled with a veil of small +reticulated tracery. Above the top of the large window there is a band +of reticulated panelling whose shafts run down till they reach the +crocketed hood-mould of the window: and above this an elaborately +pierced and foliated parapet between the square pinnacles of the angle +buttresses, which like these of the apses are remarkable for the +extraordinary number (ten) of offsets and string courses. + +The next five bays of the nave as well as the whole north side (which +has no buttresses) above the cloister are all practically alike; the +buttresses, pinnacles and parapet are just the same as those of the +transept: the windows tall, standing pretty high above the ground, are +all of three lights with tracery evidently founded on that of the large +transept window, but set very far back in the wall with as many as three +shafts on each side, and with each light now filled in with horrid wood +or plaster work. The clerestory windows, also of three lights with +somewhat similar tracery, are separated by narrow buttresses bearing +square pinnacles, between which runs on a pointed corbel table the usual +pierced parapet, and by strong flying buttresses, which at least in the +western bays are doubly cusped, and are, between the arch and the +straight part, pierced with a large foliated circle and other tracery. +The last three bays on the south side are taken up by the Founder's +Chapel (Capella do Fundador), in which are buried King Joao, Queen +Philippa, and four of their sons. This chapel, which must have been +begun a good deal later than the church, as the church was finished in +1415 when the queen died and was temporarily buried before the high +altar, while the chapel was not yet ready when Dom Joao made his will in +1426, though it was so in 1434 when he and the queen were there buried, +is an exact square of about 80 feet externally, within which an octagon +of about 38 feet in diameter rises above the flat roof of the square, +rather higher than to the top of the aisles. Each exposed side of the +square is divided into three bays, one wider in the centre with one +narrower on each side. The buttresses, pinnacles and corbel table are +much the same as before, but the parapet is much more elaborate and more +like French flamboyant. Of the windows the smaller are of four lights +with very elaborate and unusual flowing tracery in their heads; small +parts of which, such as the tracery at the top of the smaller lights, is +curiously English, while the whole is neither English nor French nor +belonging to any other national school. The same may be said of the +larger eight-light window in the central bay, but that there the tracery +is even more elaborate and extravagant. The octagon above has buttresses +with ordinary pinnacles at each corner, a parapet like that below, and +flying buttresses, all pierced, cusped and crocketed like those at the +west front. On each face is a tall two-light window with flowing tracery +packed in rather tightly at the top. + +As for the west front itself, which has actually been compared to that +of York Minster, the ends of the aisles are much like the sides, with +similar buttresses, pinnacles and parapet, but with the windows not set +back quite so far. On each side of the large central door are square +buttresses, running up to above the level of the aisle roof in six +stories, the four upper of which are panelled with what looks like +English decorated tracery, and ending in large square crocketed and +gabled pinnacles. The door itself between these buttresses is another +strange mixture. In general design and in size it is entirely French: on +either side six large statues stand on corbels and under elaborate +many-sided canopies, while on the arches themselves is the usual French +arrangement of different canopied figures: the tympanum is upheld by a +richly cusped segmental arch, and has on it a curiously archaistic +carving of Our Lord under a canopy surrounded by the four Evangelists. +Above, the crocketed drip-mould is carried up in an ogee leaving room +for the coronation of the Virgin over the apex of the arch. So far all +might be French, but on examining the detail, a great deal of it is +found to be not French but English: the half octagonal corbels with +their panelled and traceried sides, and still more the strips of +panelling on the jambs with their arched heads, are quite English and +might be found in almost any early perpendicular reredos or tomb, nor +are the larger canopies quite French. (Fig. 33.) + +Above the finial of the ogee runs a corbel table supporting a pierced +and crested parapet, a little different in design from the rest. + +Above this parapeted gallery is a large window lighting the upper part +of the nave, a window which for extravagance and exuberance of tracery +exceeds all others here or elsewhere. The lower part is evidently +founded on the larger windows of the Capella do Fundador. Like them it +has two larger pointed lights under a big ogee which reaches to the apex +of a pointed arch spanning the whole window, the space between this ogee +and the enclosing arch being filled in with more or less ordinary +flowing tracery. These two main lights are again much subdivided: at the +top is a circle with spiral tracery; below it an arch enclosing an ogee +exactly similar to the larger one above, springing from two sub-lights +which are again subdivided in exactly the same manner, into circle, +sub-arch, ogee and two small lights, so that the whole lower part of the +window is really built up from the one motive repeated three times. The +space between the large arch and the window head is taken up by a large +circle completely filled with minute spiral tracery and two vesicae also +filled in with smaller vesicae and circles. Now such a window could not +have been designed in England, in France, or anywhere else; not only is +it ill arranged, but it is entirely covered from top to bottom with +tracery, which shows that an attempt was being made to adapt forms +suitable in a northern climate to the brilliant summer sun of Portugal, +a sun which a native builder would rather try to keep out than to let +in. Above the window is a band of reticulated tracery like that below, +and the front is finished with a straight line of parapet pierced and +foliated like that below, joining the picturesque clusters of corner +pinnacles. The only other part of the church which calls for notice is +the bell-tower which stands at the north end of a very thick wall +separating the sacristy from the cloister; it is now an octagon +springing strangely from the square below, with a rich parapet, inside +which stands a tall spire; this spire, which has a sort of coronet +rather more than half-way up, consists of eight massive crocketed ribs +ending in a huge finial, and with the space between filled in with very +fine pierced work.[79] From such of the original detail which has + +[Illustration: FIG. 33. + +BATALHA. + +WEST FRONT OF CHURCH. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +survived the beautiful alterations of Dom Manoel, the details of the +cloister must have been very like those of the church. The refectory to +the west of the cloister is a plain room roofed with a pointed +barrel-vault; but the chapter-house is constructively the most +remarkable part of the whole convent. It is a great room over sixty feet +square, opening off the east cloister walk by a large pointed door with +a two-light window each side. This great space is covered by an immense +vault, upheld by no central shaft; arches are thrown across the corners +bringing the square to an octagon, and though not very high, it is one +of the boldest Gothic vaults ever attempted; there is nowhere else a +room of such a size vaulted without supporting piers, and probably none +where the buttresses outside, with their small projection, look so +unequal to the work they have to do, yet this vault has successfully +withstood more than one earthquake. + +The inside of the church is in singular contrast to the floridness of +the outside. The clustered piers are exceptionally large and tall; there +is no triforium, and the side windows are set so far back as to be +scarcely seen. The capitals have elaborate Gothic foliage, but are so +square as to look at a distance almost romanesque. In front of each pier +triple vaulting shafts run up, but instead of the side shafts carrying +the diagonal ribs as they should have done, all three carry bold +transverse arches, leaving the vaulting ribs to spring as best they can. +Each bay has horizontal ridge ribs, though their effect is lost by the +too great strength of the transverse arches. The chancel, a little lower +than the nave and transepts, is entered by an acutely pointed and richly +cusped arch, and has a regular Welsh groined vault, with a +well-developed ridge rib. Unfortunately almost all the church furniture +was destroyed during the French retreat, and of the stained glass only +that in the windows of the main apse survives, save in the three-light +window of the chapter-house, a window which can be exactly dated as it +displays the arms of Portugal and Castile quartered. This could only +have been done during the life of Dom Manoel's first wife, Isabel, +eldest daughter and heir of Ferdinand and Isabella. Dom Manoel married +her in 1497, and she died in 1498 leaving a son who, had he lived, would +have inherited the whole Peninsula and so saved Spain from the fatal +connection with the Netherlands inherited by Charles V. from his own +father. (Fig. 34.) + +The most elaborate part of the interior is not unnaturally the Capella +do Fundador: though even there, the four beautiful carved and painted +altars and retables on the east side, and the elaborate carved presses +on the west, have all vanished from their places, burned for firewood by +the invaders in 1810. In the centre under the lantern, lie King Joao who +died in 1433, and on the right Queen Philippa of Lancaster who died +seventeen years before. The high tomb itself is a plain square block of +stone from which on each side there project four lions: at the head are +the royal arms surrounded by the Garter, and on the sides long +inscriptions in honour of the king and queen. The figures of the king +and queen lie side by side with very elaborate canopies at their heads. +King Joao is in armour, holding a sword in his left hand and with his +other clasping the queen's right hand. The figures are not nearly so +well carved as are those of Dom Pedro and Inez de Castro at Alcobaca, +nor is the tomb nearly as elaborate. On the south wall are the recessed +tombs of four of their younger sons. The eldest, Dom Duarte, intended to +be buried in the great unfinished chapel at the east, but still lies +with his wife before the high altar. Each recess has a pointed arch +richly moulded, and with broad bands of very unusual leaves, while above +it rises a tall ogee canopy, crocketed and ending in a large finial. The +space between arch and canopy and the sills of the windows is covered +with reticulated panelling like that on the west front, and the tombs +are divided by tall pinnacles. The four sons here buried are, beginning +at the west: first, Dom Pedro, duke of Coimbra; next him Dom Henrique, +duke of Vizeu and master of the Order of Christ, famous as Prince Henry +the Navigator; then Dom Joao, Constable of Portugal; and last, Dom +Fernando, master of the Order of Aviz, who died an unhappy captive in +Morocco. During the reign of his brother Dom Duarte he had taken part in +an expedition to that country, and being taken prisoner was offered his +freedom if the Portuguese would give up Ceuta, captured by King Joao in +the year in which Queen Philippa died. These terms he indignantly +refused and died after some years of misery. On the front of each tomb +is a large panel on which are two or three shields--one on that of Dom +Henrique being surrounded with the Garter--while all the surface is +covered with beautifully carved foliage. Dom Henrique alone has an + +[Illustration: FIG. 34. + +CHURCH, BATALHA. + +INTERIOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 35. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLA DO FUNDADOR AND TOMB OF DOM JOAO I AND DONA FILIPPA.] + +effigy, the others having only covers raised and panelled, while the +back of the Constable's monument has on it scenes from the Passion. + +The eight piers of the lantern are made up of a great number of shafts +with a moulded angle between each. The capitals are covered with two +tiers of conventional vine-leaves and have octagonal, not as in the +church square abaci, while the arches are highly stilted and are +enriched with most elaborate cusping, each cusp ending in a square +vine-leaf. (Fig. 35.) + +Such then are the main features of the church, the design of which, +according to most writers, was brought straight from England by the +English queen, an opinion which no one who knows English contemporary +buildings can hold for a moment. + +First, to take the entirely native features. The plan is only an +elaboration of that of many already existing churches. The south +transept door is a copy of a door at Santarem. The heavy transverse +arches and the curious way the diagonal vaulting ribs are left to take +care of themselves have been seen no further away than at Alcobaca; the +flat-paved terraced roofs, whose origin the Visconde di Condeixa in his +monograph on the convent, sought even as far off as in Cyprus, existed +already at Evora and elsewhere. + +Secondly, from France might have come the general design of the west +door, and the great height of the nave, though the proportion between +the aisle arcade and the clerestory, and the entire absence of any kind +of triforium, is not at all French. + +Thirdly, several details, as has been seen, appear to be more English +than anything else, but they are none of them very important; the ridge +ribs in the nave, the Welsh groining of the chancel vault, the general +look of the pinnacles, a few pieces of stone panelling on buttresses or +door, a small part of a few of the windows, the moulding of the +chapter-house door, the leaves on the capitals of the Capella do +Fundador, and the shape of the vine-leaves at the ends of the cuspings +of the arches. From a distance the appearance of the church is certainly +more English than anything else, but that is due chiefly to the flat +roof--a thoroughly Portuguese feature--and to the upstanding pinnacles, +which suggest a long perpendicular building such as one of the college +chapels at Oxford. + +Lastly, if the open-work spire is a real copy of that destroyed in +1755, and if there ever was another like it on the Capella do +Fundador,[80] they suggest German influence, although the earliest +Spanish examples of such German work were not begun at Burgos till 1442, +by which time the church here must have been nearly if not quite +finished. + +It is then not difficult to assign a great many details, with perhaps a +certain amount of truth, to the influence of several foreign countries, +yet as a whole the church is unlike any building existing in any of +these countries or even in Spain, and it remains as difficult, or indeed +as impossible, to discover whence these characteristics came. So far +there had been scarcely any development of window tracery to lead up to +the elaborate and curious examples which are found here; still less had +any such constructive skill been shown in former buildings as to make so +great a vault as that of the chapter-house at all likely, for such a +vault is to be found perhaps nowhere else. + +Probably the plan of the church, and perhaps the eastern chapel and +lower part of the transept, are the work of Affonso Domingues, and all +the peculiarities, the strange windows, the cusped arches, the +English-looking pinnacles, as well as all the constructive skill, are +due to Huguet his successor, who may perhaps have travelled in France +and England, and had come back to Portugal with increased knowledge of +how to build, but with a rather confused idea of the ornamental detail +he had seen abroad. + +When Dom Joao died in 1433 his eldest son, Dom Duarte or Edward, +determined to build for himself a more splendid tomb-house than his +father's, and so was begun the great octagon to the east. + +Unfortunately Dom Duarte's reign was short; he died in 1438, partly it +is said of distress at the ill success of his expedition to Morocco and +at the captivity there of his youngest brother, so that he had no time +to finish his chapel, and his son Affonso V., the African, was too much +engaged in campaigning against the Moors to be able to give either money +or attention to his father's work; and it was still quite unfinished +when Dom Manoel came to the throne in 1495, and though he did much +towards carrying on the work it was unfinished when he died in 1521 and +so remains to the present day. It is in designing this chapel that +Huguet showed his greatest originality and constructive daring: a few +feet behind the central apse he planned a great octagon about +seventy-two feet in diameter, surrounded by seven apsidal chapels, one +on each side except that next the church, while between these chapels +are small low chambers where were to be the tombs themselves. There is +nothing to show how this chapel was to be united to the church, as the +great doorway and vaulted hall were added by Dom Manoel some seventy +years later. When Dom Duarte died in 1438, or when Huguet himself died +not long after,[81] the work had only been carried out as far as the +tops of the surrounding chapels, and so remained all through his son's +and his grandson's reigns, although in his will the king had specially +asked that the building should be carried on. In all this original part +of the Capellas Imperfeitas there is little that differs from Huguet's +work in the church. The buttresses and corbel table are very similar +(the pinnacles and parapets have been added since 1834), and the apses +quite like those of the church. (Fig. 36.) + +The tracery of the chief windows too is not unlike that of the lantern +windows of the founder's chapel except that there is a well-marked +transome half-way up--a feature which has been attributed to English +influence--while the single windows of the tomb chambers are completely +filled with geometric tracery. Inside, the capitals of the chapel arches +as well as their rich cuspings are very like those of the founder's +chapel; the capitals having octagonal abaci and stiff vine-leaves, and +the trefoiled cusps ending in square vine-leaves, while the arch +mouldings are, as in King Joao's chapel, more English than French in +section. There is nothing now to show how the great central octagon was +to be roofed--for the eight great piers which now rise high above the +chapel were not built till the time of Dom Manoel--but it seems likely +that the vault was meant to be low, and not to rise much above the +chapel roofs, finishing, as everywhere else in the church, in a flat, +paved terrace. + +The only important addition made during the reigns of Dom Affonso V. and +of Dom Joao II. was that of a second cloister, north of the Claustro +Real, and still called the Cloister of Affonso. This cloister is as +plain and wanting in ornament as everything else about the monastery is +rich and elaborate, and it was probably built under the direction of +Fernao d'Evora, who succeeded his uncle Martim Vasques as master of the +works before 1448, and held that position for nearly thirty years. +Unlike the great cloister, whose large openings must, from the first, +have been meant for tracery, the cloister of Affonso V. is so very plain +and simple, that if its date were not known it would readily be +attributed to a period older even than the foundation of the monastery. +On each side are seven square bays separated by perfectly plain +buttresses, each bay consisting of two very plain pointed arches resting +on the moulded capitals of coupled shafts. Except for the buttresses and +the vault the cloister differs in no marked way from those at Guimaraes +and elsewhere whose continuous pointed arcades show so little advance +from the usual romanesque manner of cloister-building. Above is a second +story of later date, in which the tiled roof rests on short columns +placed rather far apart, and with no regard to the spacing of the bays +below. Round this are the kitchens and various domestic offices of the +convent, and behind it lay another cloister, now utterly gone, having +been burned by the French in 1810. Such are the church and monastery of +Batalha as planned by Dom Joao and added to by his son and grandson, and +though it is not possible to say whence Huguet drew his inspiration, it +remains, with all the peculiarities of tracery and detail which make it +seem strange and ungrammatical--if one may so speak--to eyes accustomed +to northern Gothic, one of the most remarkable examples of original +planning and daring construction to be found anywhere. Of the later +additions which give character to the cloister and to the Capellas +Imperfeitas nothing can be said till the time of Dom Manoel is reached. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLAS IMPERFEITAS. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE EARLIER FIFTEENTH CENTURY + + +[Sidenote: Guimaraes.] + +Besides building Batalha, King Joao dedicated the spoils he had taken at +Aljubarrota to the church of Nossa Senhora da Oliviera at Guimaraes, +which he rebuilt from the designs of Juan Garcia of Toledo. The most +important of these spoils is the silver-gilt reredos taken in the +Spanish king's travelling chapel. It is in the shape of a triptych about +four feet high. In the centre is represented the Virgin with the Infant +Christ on a bed, with Joseph seated and leaning wearily on his staff at +the foot, the figures being about fourteen inches high; above two angels +swing censers, and the heads of an ox and an ass appear feeding from a +manger. All the background is richly diapered, and above are four cusped +arches, separated by angels under canopies, while above the arches to +the top there rises a rich mass of tabernacle work, with the window-like +spaces filled in with red or green enamel. At the top are two +half-angels holding the arms of Portugal, added when the reredos was +dedicated to Our Lady by Dom Joao. The two leaves, each about twenty +inches wide, are divided into two equal stories, each of which has two +cusped and canopied arches enclosing, those on the left above, the +Annunciation, and below the Presentation, and those on the right, the +Angel appearing to the Shepherds above, and the Wise Men below. All the +tabernacle work is most beautifully wrought in silver, but the figures +are less good, that of the Virgin Mary being distinctly too large.[82] +(Fig. 37.) + +Of the other things taken from the defeated king's tent, only one silver +angel now remains of the twelve which were sent to Guimaraes. + +Of the church rebuilt in commemoration of this great victory, only the +west front has escaped a terrible transformation carried out not so long +ago, and which has made it impossible to see what the inside was once +like. If the builder was a Spaniard, as his name, Juan Garcia de Toledo, +seems to imply, there is nothing Spanish about his design. The door is +like many another door of about the same period, with simple mouldings +ornamented with small bosses, but the deeply recessed window above is +most unusual. The tracery is gone, but the framing of the window +remains, and is far more like that of a French door than of a window. On +either jamb are two stories of three canopied niches, containing +figures, while the arches are covered with small figures under canopies; +all is rather rude, but the whole is most picturesque and original. + +To the left rises the tower, standing forward from the church front: it +is of three stories, with cable moulding at the corners, a picturesque +cornice and battlements at the top; a bell gable in front, and a low +octagonal spire. On the ground floor are two large windows defended by +simple but good iron grilles, and in the upper part are large belfry +windows. This is not the original tower, for that was pulled down in +1515, when the present one was built in its stead by Pedro Esteves +Cogominho. Though of so late a date it is quite uninfluenced, not only +by those numerous buildings of Dom Manoel's time, which are noted for +their fantastic detail, but by the early renaissance which had already +begun to show itself here and there, and it is one of the most +picturesque church towers in the country. + +A few feet to the west of the church there is a small open shrine or +chapel, a square vault resting on four pointed arches which are well +moulded, enriched with dog-tooth and surmounted by gables. This chapel +was built soon after 1342 to commemorate the miracle to which the church +owes its name. Early in the fourteenth century there grew at Sao +Torquato, a few miles off, an olive-tree which provided the oil for that +saint's lamp. It was transported to Guimaraes to fulfil a like office +there for the altar of Our Lady. It naturally died, and so remained for +many years till 1342, when one Pedro Esteves placed on it a cross which +his brother had bought in Normandy. This was the 8th of September, and +three days after the dead olive-tree broke into leaf, a miracle + +[Illustration: FIG. 37. + +CAPELLA OF D. JUAN OF CASTILLE. + +TAKEN AT THE BATTLE OF ALJUBARROTA BY JOAO I, 1385, AND NOW IN THE +TREASURY OF N.S. DA OLIVEIRA GUIMARAES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 38. + +GUARDA. + +N. SIDE OF CATHEDRAL.] + +greatly to the advantage and wealth of the church and of the town. From +that day the church was called Our Lady of the Olive Tree. + +[Sidenote: Guarda.] + +Far more interesting than this church, because much better preserved and +because it is clearly derived, in part at least, from Batalha, is the +cathedral of Guarda, begun by Joao I. Guarda is a small town, not far +from the Spanish border, built on a hill rising high above the bleak +surrounding tableland to a height of nearly four thousand feet, and was +founded by Dom Sancho I. in 1197 to guard his frontier against the +Spaniards and the Moors. Begun by Joao I. the plan and general design of +the whole church must belong to the beginning of the fifteenth century, +though the finishing of the nave, and the insertion of larger transept +windows, were carried out under Dom Manoel, and though the great reredos +is of the time of Dom Joao III. Yet the few chapels between the nave +buttresses are almost the only real additions made to the church. Though +of but moderate dimensions, it is one of the largest of Portuguese +cathedrals, being 175 feet long by 70 feet wide and 110 feet across the +transepts. It is also unique among the aisled and vaulted churches in +copying Batalha by having a well-developed clerestory and flying +buttresses. + +[Illustration: CATHEDRAL. GUARDA.] + +The plan consists of a nave and aisles of five bays, a transept +projecting one bay beyond the aisles, and three apses to the east. At +the crossing the vault is slightly raised so as to admit of four small +round windows opening above the flat roofs of the central aisle and +transepts. The only peculiarity about the plan lies in the two western +towers, which near the ground are squares set diagonally to the front of +the church and higher up change to octagons, and so rise a few feet +above the flat roof. About the end of the fifteenth century two small +chapels were added to the north of the nave, and later still the spaces +between the buttresses were filled in with shallow altar recesses. + +The likeness to Batalha is best seen in the Capella Mor. As the apse has +only three instead of five sides, the windows are rather wider, and +there are none below, but otherwise the resemblance is as great as may +be, when the model is of fine limestone and the copy of granite. The +buttresses have offset string courses, and square crocketed pinnacles +just as at Batalha; there has even been an attempt to copy the parapet, +though only the trefoil corbel table is really like the model, for the +parapet itself is solid with a cresting of rather clumsy fleurs-de-lis. +These pinnacles and this crested parapet are found everywhere all round +the church, though the pinnacles on the aisle walls from which the plain +flying buttresses spring are quite different, being of a Manoelino +design. Again the north transept door has evidently been inspired by the +richness of Batalha. Here the door itself is plain, but well moulded, +with above it an elaborately crocketed ogee drip-mould, which ends in a +large finial; above this rises to a considerable height some arcaded +panelling, ending at the top in a straight band of quatrefoil, and +interrupted by a steep gable. (Fig. 38.) + +No other part of the outside calls for much notice except the boat-keel +corbels of the smaller apses, the straight gable-less ends to transept +and nave which show that the roofs are flat and paved, and the western +towers. These are of three stories. The lowest is square at the bottom +and octagonal above, the change being effected by a curved offset at two +corners, while at the third or western corner the curve has been cut +down so as to leave room for an eighteenth-century window, lighting the +small polygonal chapel inside, a chapel originally lit by two narrow +round-headed windows on the diagonal sides. In the second story there +are again windows on the same diagonal sides, but they have been built +up: while on the third or highest division--where the octagon is +complete on all sides--are four belfry windows. The whole is finished by +a crested parapet. The west front between these towers is very plain. At +the top a cresting, simpler than that elsewhere, below a round window +without tracery, lower still two picturesque square rococo windows, and +at the bottom a rather elaborate Manoelino doorway, built not many +years ago to replace one of the same date as the windows above. + +Throughout the clerestory windows are not large. They are round-headed +of two lights, with simple tracery, and deep splays both inside and out. +The large transept windows with half octagonal heads under a large +trefoil were inserted about the beginning of the sixteenth century. + +Inside the resemblance to Batalha is less noticeable. The ribs of the +chancel vault are well moulded, as are the arches of the lantern, but in +the nave, which cannot have been finished till the end of the fifteenth +century, the design is quite different. The piers are all a hollow +square set diagonally with a large round shaft at each corner. In the +aisle arches the hollows of the diagonal sides are carried round without +capitals, with which the round shafts alone are provided; while the +shaft in front runs up to a round Manoelino capital with octagonal +abacus from which springs the vaulting at a level higher than the sills +of the clerestory windows.[83] The most unusual part of the nave is the +vaulting of all three aisles, where all the ribs, diagonal as well as +transverse, are of exactly the same section and size as is the round +shaft from which they spring, even the wall rib being of the same shape +though a little smaller. At the crossing there are triple shafts on each +side, those of the nave being twisted, which is another Manoelino +feature. The nave then must be about a hundred years later than the +eastern parts of the church, where the capitals are rather long and are +carved with foliage and have square abaci, while those of the nave are +all of the time of King Joao II. or of King Manoel. At about the same +time some small and picturesque windows were inserted above the smaller +apses on the east side of the transept, and rather later was built the +chapel to the north-east of the nave, which is entered through a +segmental arch whose jambs and head are well carved with early +renaissance foliage and figures, and which contains the simple tomb of a +bishop. The pulpits, organs, and stalls, both in the chancel and in the +western choir gallery, are fantastic and late, but the great reredos +which rises in three divisions to the springing of the vault is the +largest and one of the finest in the country, but belonging as it does +to a totally different period and school must be left for another +chapter. + +[Sidenote: Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo, Lisbon.] + +Much need not be said about the Carmo at Lisbon, another church of the +same date, as it has been almost entirely wrecked by the earthquake of +1755. The victory of Aljubarrota was due perhaps even more to the grand +Constable of Portugal, Dom Nuno Alvares Pereira, than to the king +himself, and, like the king, the Constable commemorated the victory by +founding a monastery, a great Carmelite house in Lisbon. The church of +Nossa Senhora do Vencimento do Monte do Carmo stands high up above the +central valley of Lisbon on the very verge of the steep hill. Begun in +July 1389 the foundations twice gave way, and it was only after the +Constable had dismissed his first master and called in three men of the +same name, Affonso, Goncalo, and Rodrigo Eannes, that a real beginning +could be made, and it was not finished till 1423, when it was +consecrated; at the same time the founder assumed the habit of a +Carmelite and entered his own monastery to die eight years later, and to +become an object of veneration to the whole people. In plan the church +was almost exactly like that of Batalha, though with a shorter nave of +only five bays.[84] To the east of the transept are still five +apses--the best preserved part of the whole building--having windows and +buttresses like those at Batalha. The only other part of the church +which has escaped destruction is the west door, a large simple opening +of six moulded arches springing from twelve shafts whose capitals are +carved with foliage. From what is left it seems that the church was more +like what Batalha was planned to be, rather than what it became under +the direction of Huguet: but the downfall of the nave has been so +complete that it is only possible to make out that there must have been +a well-developed clerestory and a high vaulted central aisle. What makes +this destruction all the more regrettable is the fact that the church +was full of splendid tombs, especially that of the Holy Constable +himself: a magnificent piece of carving in alabaster sent from Flanders +by Dom Joao's daughter, Isabel, duchess of Flanders.[85] + +After this catastrophe an attempt was made to rebuild the church, but +little was done, and it still remains a complete ruin, having been used +since the suppression of all monasteries in 1834 as an Archaeological +Museum where many tombs and other architectural fragments may still be +seen. + +[Sidenote: Villar de Frades.] + +Towards the end of King Joao's reign a man named Joao Vicente, noting +the corruption into which the religious orders were falling, determined +to do what he could by preaching and example to bring back a better +state of things. He first began his work in Lisbon, but was driven from +there by the bishop to find a refuge at Braga. There he so impressed the +archbishop that he was given the decayed and ruined monastery of Villar +de Frades in 1425. Soon he had gathered round him a considerable body of +followers, to whom he gave a set of rules and who, after receiving the +papal sanction, were known as the Canons Secular of St. John the +Evangelist or, popularly, Loyos, because their first settlement in +Lisbon was in a monastery formerly dedicated to St. Eloy. The church at +Villar, which is of considerable size, was probably long of building, as +the elliptical-headed west door with its naturalistic treelike posts has +details which did not become common till at least the very end of the +century. Inside the church consists of a nave of five bays, flanked with +chapels but not aisles, transepts which are really only enlarged +chapels, and a chancel like the nave but without chapels. The chief +feature of the inside is the very elaborate vaulting, which with the +number and intricacy of its ribs, is not at all unlike an English +Perpendicular vault, and indeed would need but little change to develop +into a fan vault. Here then there has been a considerable advance from +the imperfect vaulting of the central aisle at Batalha, where the +diagonal ribs had to be squeezed in wherever they could go, although +there are at Villar no side aisles so that the construction of +supporting buttresses was of course easier than at Batalha: and it is +well worth noticing how from so imperfect a beginning as the nave at +Batalha the Portuguese masters soon learned to build elaborate and even +wide vaults, without, as a rule, covering them with innumerable and +meaningless twisting ribs as was usually done in Spain. In the +north-westernmost chapel stands the font, an elaborate work of the early +renaissance; an octagonal bowl with twisted sides resting on a short +twisted base. + +[Sidenote: Matriz, Alvito.] + +Not unlike the vaulting at Villar is that of the Matriz or mother church +of Alvito, a small town in the Alemtejo, nor can it be very much later +in date. Outside it is only remarkable for its west door, an interesting +example of an attempt to use the details of the early French +renaissance, without understanding how to do so--as in the pediment all +the entablature except the architrave has been left out--and for the +short twisted pinnacles which somehow give to it, as to many other +buildings in the Alemtejo, so Oriental a look, and which are seen again +at Belem. Inside, the aisles are divided from the nave by round +chamfered arches springing from rather short octagonal piers, which have +picturesque octagonal capitals and a moulded band half-way up. Only is +the easternmost bay, opening to large transeptal chapels, pointed and +moulded. The vaulting springs from corbels, and although the ribs are +but simply chamfered they are well developed. Curiously, though the +central is so much higher than the side aisles, there is no clerestory, +nor any signs of there ever having been one, while the whole wall +surface is entirely covered with those beautiful tiles which came to be +so much used during the seventeenth century. + +In the year 1415 her five sons had sailed straight from the deathbed of +Queen Philippa to the coast of Morocco and had there captured the town +of Ceuta, a town which remained in the hands of the Portuguese till +after their ill-fated union with Spain; for in 1668 it was ceded to +Spain in return for an acknowledgment of Portuguese independence, thus +won after twenty-seven years' more or less continuous fighting. This was +the first time any attempt had been made to carry the Portuguese arms +across the Straits, and to attack their old enemies the Moors in their +own land, where some hundred and seventy years later King Joao's +descendant, Dom Sebastiao, was to lose his life and his country's +freedom. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Graca, Santarem.] + +The first governor of Ceuta was Dom Pedro de Menezes, count of Viana. +There he died in 1437, after having for twenty-two years bravely +defended and governed the city--then, as is inscribed on his tomb, the +only place in Africa possessed by Christians. This tomb, which was made +at the command of his daughter Dona Leonor, stands in the church of the +Graca at Santarem, a church which had been founded by his grandfather +the count of Ourem in 1376 for canons regular of St. Augustine. Inside +the church itself is not very remarkable,[86] having a nave and aisles +with transepts and three vaulted chapels to the east, built very much in +the same style as is the church at Leca do Balio, except that it has a +fine west front, to be mentioned later, that the roof of the nave was +knocked down by the Devil in 1548 in anger at the extreme piety of Frey +Martinho de Santarem, one of the canons, and that many famous people, +including Pedro Alvares Cabral, the discoverer of Brazil, are therein +buried. + +In general outline the tomb of the count of Viana is not unlike that of +his master Dom Joao, but it is much more highly decorated. On eight +crouching lions rests a large altar-tomb. It has a well-moulded and +carved base and an elaborately carved cornice, rich with deeply undercut +foliage, while on the top lie Pedro de Menezes and his wife Dona Beatriz +Coutinho, with elaborately carved canopies at their heads, and pedestals +covered with figures and foliage at their feet. Beneath the cornice on +each of the longer sides is cut in Gothic letters a long inscription +telling of Dom Pedro's life, and lower down and on all four sides there +is in the middle a shield, now much damaged, with the Menezes arms. On +each side of these shields are carved spreading branches, knotted round +a circle in the centre in which is cut the word 'Aleo.' Once, when +playing with King Joao at a game in which some kind of club or mallet +was used, the news came that the Moors were collecting in great numbers +to attack Ceuta. The king, turning to Dom Pedro, asked him what +reinforcements he would need to withstand the attack; the governor +answered: 'This "Aleo," or club, will be enough,' and in fact, returning +at once to his command, he was able without further help to drive back +the enemy. So this word has been carved on his tomb to recall how well +he did his duty.[87] (Fig. 39.) + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Sao Joao de Alporao.] + +Not far from the Graca church is that of Sao Joao de Alporao, of which +something has already been said, and in it now stands the tomb of +another Menezes, who a generation later also died in Africa, fighting to +save the life of his king, Dom Affonso V., grandson of King Joao. +Notwithstanding the ill-success of the expedition of his father, Dom +Duarte, to Tangier, Dom Affonso, after having got rid of his uncle the +duke of Coimbra, who had governed the country during his minority, and +who fell in battle defending himself against the charge of treason, led +several expeditions to Morocco, taking first Alcazar es Seghir or +Alcacer Seguer, and later Tangier and Arzilla, thereby uselessly +exhausting the strength of the people, and hindering the spread of +maritime exploration which Dom Henrique had done so much to extend. + +This Dom Duarte de Menezes, third count of Viana, was, as an inscription +tells, first governor of Alcacer Seguer, which with five hundred +soldiers he successfully defended against a hundred thousand Moors, +dying at last in the mountains of Bonacofu in defence of his king in +1464.[88] + +The monument was built by his widow, Dona Isabel de Castro, but so +terribly had Dom Duarte been cut to pieces by the Moors, that only one +finger could be found to be buried there.[89] Though much more +elaborate, the tomb is not altogether unlike those of the royal princes +at Batalha. The count lies, armed, with a sword drawn in his right hand, +on an altar-tomb on whose front, between richly traceried panels, are +carved an inscription above, upheld by small figures, and below, in the +middle a flaming cresset, probably a memorial of his watchfulness in +Africa, and on each side a shield. + +Surmounting the altar-tomb is a deeply moulded ogee arch subdivided into +two hanging arches which spring from a pendant in the middle, while the +space between these sub-arches and the ogee above is filled with a +canopied carving of the Crucifixion. At about the level of the pendant +the open space is crossed by a cusped segmental arch supporting +elaborate flowing tracery. The outer sides of the ogee, which ends in a +large finial, are enriched with large vine-leaf crockets. On either side +of the arch is a square pier, moulded at the angles, and with each face +covered with elaborate tracery. Each pier, which ends in a square +crocketed and gabled pinnacle, has half-way + +[Illustration: FIG. 39. + +SANTAREM. + +CHURCH OF THE GRACA. + +TOMB OF D. PEDRO DE MENEZES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 40. + +SANTAREM. + +TOMB OF DOM DUARTE DE MENEZES IN S. JOAO DE ALPORAO.] + +up a small figure standing on an octagonal corbel under an elaborate +canopy. The whole at the top is finished with a cornice running straight +across from pier to pier, and crested with interlacing and cusped +semicircles, while the flat field below the cornice and above the outer +moulding of the great arch is covered with flaming cressets. (Fig. 40.) + +This is perhaps one of the finest of the tombs of the fifteenth century, +and like those at Alcobaca is made of that very fine limestone which is +found in more than one place in Portugal. + +[Sidenote: At Abrantes.] + +Farther up the Tagus at Abrantes, in the church of Santa Maria do +Castello, are some more tombs of the same date, more than one of which +is an almost exact copy of the princes' tombs at Batalha, though there +is one whose arch is fringed with curious reversed cusping, almost +Moorish in appearance. + +[Sidenote: Cloister at Thomar.] + +Before turning to the many churches built towards the end of the +fifteenth century, one of the cloisters of the great convent at Thomar +must be mentioned. It is that called 'do Cemiterio,' and was built by +Prince Henry the Navigator, duke of Vizeu, during his grandmastership of +the Order of Christ about the year 1440. Unlike those at Alcobaca or at +Lisbon, which were derived from a Cistercian plan, and were always +intended to be vaulted, this small cloister followed the plan, handed +down from romanesque times, where on each side there is a continuous +arcade resting on coupled shafts. Such cloisters, differing only from +the romanesque in having pointed arches and capitals carved with +fourteenth-century foliage, may still be seen at Santo Thyrso and at Sao +Domingos, Guimaraes, in the north. Here at Thomar the only difference is +that the arches are very much wider, there being but five on each side, +and that the bell-shaped capitals are covered with finely carved +conventional vine-leaves arranged in two rows round the bells. As in the +older cloisters one long abacus unites the two capitals, but the arches +are different, each being moulded as one deep arch instead of two +similar arches set side by side. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +LATER GOTHIC + + +During the last ten or fifteen years of the fifteenth century there was +great activity in building throughout almost the whole country, but it +now becomes almost impossible to take the different buildings in +chronological order, because at this time so many different schools +began to struggle for supremacy. There was first the Gothic school +which, though increasing in elaboration of detail, went on in some +places almost uninfluenced by any breath of the renaissance, as for +instance in the porch and chancel of Braga Cathedral, not built till +about 1532. Elsewhere this Gothic was affected partly by Spanish and +partly by Moorish influence, and gradually grew into that most curious +and characteristic of styles, commonly called Manoelino, from Dom Manoel +under whom Portugal reached the summit of its prosperity. In other +places, again, Gothic forms and renaissance details came gradually to be +used together, as at Belem. + +To take then first those buildings in which Gothic detail was but little +influenced by the approaching renaissance. + +[Sidenote: Graca, Santarem.] + +One of the earliest of these is the west front, added towards the end of +the fifteenth century to that Augustinian church of the Graca at +Santarem whose roof the Devil knocked down in 1548. Here the ends of the +side aisles are, now at any rate, quite plain, but in the centre there +is a very elaborate doorway with a large rose-window above. It is easy +to see that this doorway has not been uninfluenced by Batalha. From +well-moulded jambs, each of which has four shafts, there springs a large +pointed arch, richly fringed with cusping on its inner side. Two of its +many mouldings are enriched with smaller cuspings, and one, the +outermost, with a line of wavy tracery, while the whole ends in a +crocketed ogee. Above the arch is a strip of shallow panelling, +enclosed, as is the whole doorway, in a square moulded frame. May it +not be that this square frame is due to the almost universal Moorish +habit of setting an archway in a square frame, as may be seen at Cordoba +and in the palace windows at Cintra? The rest of the gable is perfectly +plain but for the round window, filled with elaborate spiral flowing +tracery. Here, though the details are more French than national, there +is a good example of the excellent result so often reached by later +Portuguese--and Spanish--builders, who concentrated all their elaborate +ornament on one part of the building while leaving the rest absolutely +plain--often as here plastered and whitewashed. + +[Sidenote: Sao Joao Baptista, Thomar.] + +Not long after this front was built, Dom Manoel in 1494 began a new +parish church at Thomar, that of Sao Joao Baptista. The plan of this +church is that which has already become so familiar: a nave and aisles +with wooden roof and vaulted chancel and chapels to the east, with here, +the addition of a tower and spire to the north of the west front. The +inside calls for little notice: the arches are pointed, and the capitals +carved with not very good foliage, but the west front is far more +interesting. As at the Graca it is plastered and whitewashed, but ends +not in a gable but in a straight line of cresting like Batalha, though +here there is no flat terrace behind, but a sloping tile roof. At the +bottom is a large ogee doorway whose tympanum is pierced with tracery +and whose mouldings are covered with most beautiful and deeply undercut +foliage. The outside of the arch is crocketed, and ends in a tall finial +thrust through the horizontal and crested moulding which, as at the +Graca, sets the whole in a square frame. There are also doorways in the +same style half-way along the north and south sides of the church. The +only other openings on the west front are a plain untraceried circle +above the door, and a simple ogee-headed window at the end of each +aisle. + +The tower, which is not whitewashed, rises as a plain unadorned square +to a little above the aisle roof, then turns to an octagon with, at the +top, a plain belfry window on each face. Above these runs a corbelled +gallery within which springs an octagonal spire cut into three by two +bands of ornament, and ending in a large armillary sphere, that emblem +of all the discoveries made during his reign, which Dom Manoel put on to +every building with which he had anything to do. + +Inside the chapels are as usual overloaded with huge reredoses of +heavily carved and gilt wood, but the original pulpit still survives, a +most beautiful example of the finest late Gothic carving. It consists of +four sides of an octagon, and stands on ribs which curve outwards from a +central shaft. Round the bottom runs a band of foliage most marvellously +undercut, above this are panels separated the one from the other by +slender pinnacles, and the whole ends in a cornice even more delicately +carved than is the base. At the top of each panel is some intricate +tabernacle work, below which there is on one the Cross of the Order of +Christ, on another the royal arms, with a coronet above which stands out +quite clear of the panel, and on a third there has been the armillary +sphere, now unfortunately quite broken off. But even more interesting +than this pulpit itself is the comparison between its details and those +of the nave or Coro added about the same time to the Templar church on +the hill behind. Here all is purely Gothic, there there is a mixture of +Gothic and renaissance details, and towards the west front an exuberance +of carving which cannot be called either Gothic or anything else, so +strange and unusual is it. + +[Sidenote: Villa do Conde.] + +Another church of almost exactly the same date is that of Sao Joao +Baptista, the Matriz of Villa do Conde. The plan shows a nave and aisles +of five bays, large transeptal chapels, and an apsidal chancel +projecting beyond the two square chapels by which it is flanked. As +usual the nave and aisles have a wooden roof, only the chancel and +chapels being vaulted. There is also a later tower at the west end of +the north aisle, and a choir gallery across the west end of the church. +Throughout the original windows are very narrow and round-headed, and +there is in the north-western bay a pointed door, differing only from +those of about a hundred years earlier in having twisted shafts. One +curious feature is the parapet of the central aisle, which is like a row +of small classical pedestals, each bearing a stumpy obelisk. By far the +finest feature of the outside is the great west door. On each side are +clusters of square pinnacles ending in square crocketed spirelets, and +running up to a horizontal moulding which, as so often, gives the whole +design a rectangular form. Within comes the doorway itself; a large +trefoiled arch of many mouldings of which the outermost, richly +crocketed, turns up as an ogee, to pierce the horizontal line above with +its finial. Every moulding is filled with foliage, most elaborately and +finely cut, considering that it is worked in granite. Across the +trefoil at its springing there runs a horizontal moulding resting on the +flat elliptical arch of the door itself. On the tympanum is a figure of +St. John under a very elaborate canopy with, on his right, a queer +carving of a naked man, and on his left a dragon. The space between the +arch and the top moulding is filled with intricate but shallow +panelling, among which, between two armillary spheres, are set, on the +right, a blank shield crowned--probably prepared for the royal arms--and +on the left the town arms--a galley with all sails set. Lastly, as a +cresting to the horizontal moulding, there is a row of urnlike objects, +the only renaissance features about the whole door. (Fig. 41.) + +[Illustration: SAO JOAO BAPTISTA VILLA DO CONDE + +S^TA MARIA DOS ANJOS CAMINHA] + +Inside, all the piers are octagonal with a slender shaft at each angle; +these shafts alone having small capitals, while their bases stand on, +and interpenetrate with, the base of the whole pier. All the arches are +round--as are those leading to the chancel and transept chapels--and are +moulded exactly as are the piers. All the vaults have a network of +well-moulded ribs. + +The tower has been added some fifty years later and is very +picturesque. It is of four stories: of these the lowest has rusticated +masonry; the second, on its western face, a square-headed window opening +beneath a small curly and broken pediment on to a balcony with very fine +balusters all upheld by three large corbels. The third story has only a +clock, and the fourth two plain round-headed belfry windows on each +face. The whole--above a shallow cornice which is no bigger than the +mouldings dividing the different stories--ends in a low stone dome, with +a bell gable in front, square below, and arched above, holding two +bells. + +[Sidenote: Azurara.] + +Scarcely a mile away, across the river Ave, lies Azurara, which was made +a separate parish in 1457 and whose church was built by Dom Manoel in +1498. + +In plan it is almost exactly the same as Villa do Conde, except that +there are no transept chapels nor any flanking the chancel. Outside +almost the only difference lies in the parapet which is of the usual +shape with regular merlons; and in the west door which is an interesting +example of the change to the early renaissance. The door itself is +round-headed, and has Gothic mouldings separated by a broad band covered +with shallow renaissance carving. On each side are twisted shafts which +run up some way above the door to a sort of horizontal entablature, +whose frieze is well carved, and which is cut into by a curious ogee +moulding springing from the door arch. Above this entablature the shafts +are carried up square for some way, and end in Gothic pinnacles. Between +them is a niche surmounted by a large half-Gothic canopy and united to +the side shafts by a broken and twisted treelike moulding. What adds to +the strangeness of this door is that the blank spaces are plastered and +whitewashed, while all the rest of the church is of grey granite. Higher +up there is a round window--heavily moulded--and the whole gable ends in +a queer little round pediment set between two armillary spheres. + +Inside the piers are eight-sided with octagonal bases and caps, and with +a band of ornament half-way up the shaft. The arches are simply +chamfered but are each crossed by three carved voussoirs. + +The tower is exactly like that at Villa do Conde except that the bottom +story is not rusticated, and that instead of a dome there is an +octagonal spire covered with yellow and white tiles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41. + +VILLA DO CONDE. SAO JOAO BAPTISTA.] + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +As at Azurara, the parish church of Santa Maria dos Anjos at Caminha is +in plan very like the Matriz at Villa do Conde. Caminha lies on the +Portuguese side of the estuary of the Minho, close to its mouth, and the +church was begun in 1488, but was not finished till the next century, +the tower indeed not being built till 1556. Like the others, the plan +shows a nave and rather narrow aisles of five bays, and two square +vaulted chapels with an apsidal chancel between to the east. Three large +vaulted chapels and the tower have been added, opening from the north +aisle. Probably the oldest part is the chancel with its flanking +chapels, which are very much more elaborate than any portion of the +churches already described. There are at the angles deep square +buttresses which end in groups of square spire-capped pinnacles all +elaborately crocketed, and not at all unlike those at Batalha. Between +these, in the chancel are narrow round-headed windows, whose mouldings +are enriched with large four-leaved flowers, and on all the walls from +buttress to buttress there runs a rich projecting cornice crowned by a +wonderfully pierced and crested parapet; also not unlike those at +Batalha, but more wonderful in that it is made of granite instead of +fine limestone. The rest of the outside is much plainer, except for the +two doorways, and two tall buttresses at the west end. These two +doorways--which are among the most interesting in the country--must be a +good deal later than the rest of the church, indeed could not have been +designed till after the work of that foreign school of renaissance +carvers at Coimbra had become well known, and so really belong to a +later chapter. + +Inside the columns are round, with caps and bases partly round and +partly eight-sided, the hollow octagons interpenetrating with the +circular mouldings. The arches of the arcade are also round, though +those of the chancel and eastern chapels are pointed. Attached to one of +the piers is a small eight-sided pulpit, at whose angles are Gothic +pinnacles, but whose sides and base are covered with cherubs' heads, +vases, and foliage of early renaissance. + +But the chief glory of the interior are the splendid tiles with which +its walls are entirely covered, and still more the wonderful wooden +roof, one of the finest examples of Moorish carpentry to be found +anywhere, and which, like the doorways, can now only be merely +mentioned. + +The tower, added by Diogo Eannes in 1556, is quite plain with one +belfry opening in each face close to the top and just below the low +parapet which, resting on corbels, ends in a row of curious half-classic +battlements.[90] + +[Sidenote: Funchal.] + +This plan was not confined only to parish churches, for about 1514 we +find it used by Dom Manoel at Funchal for the cathedral of the newly +founded diocese of Madeira. The only difference of importance is that +there is a well-developed transept entered by arches of the same height +as that of the chancel. Here the piers are clustered, and with rather +poorly carved capitals, the arches pointed and moulded, but rather thin. +As in the other churches of this date, the round-headed clerestory +windows come over the piers, not over the arches. The chancel, which is +rather deeper than usual, is entered by a wide foliated arch, and like +the apsidal chapels is vaulted. As at Caminha, the nave roof is of +Moorish design, but of even greater interest are the reredos and the +choir-stalls. This reredos is three divisions in height and five in +width--each division, except the two lower in the centre where there is +a niche for the image of the Virgin, containing a large picture. + +The divisions are separated perpendicularly by a series of Gothic +pinnacles, and horizontally by a band of Gothic tabernacle work at the +bottom, and above by beautifully carved early renaissance friezes. The +whole ends in a projecting canopy, divided into five bays, each bay +enriched with vaulting ribs, and in front with very delicately carved +hanging tracery. Above the horizontal cornice is a most elaborate +cresting of interlacing trefoils and leaves having in the middle the +royal arms with on each side an armillary sphere. Some of the detail of +the cresting is not all unlike that of the great reredos in the Se Velha +at Coimbra, and like it has a Flemish look, so that it may have been +made perhaps, if not by Master Vlimer, who finished his work at Coimbra +in 1508, at any rate by one of his pupils. The stalls, which at the back +are separated by Gothic pilasters and pinnacles, have also a continuous +canopy, and a high and splendid cresting, which though Gothic in general +appearance, is quite renaissance in detail. + +Outside, the smaller eastern chapels have an elaborate cresting, and +tall twisted pinnacles. The large plain tower which rises east of the +north transept has a top crowned with battlements, within which stands a +square tile-covered spire. + +[Sidenote: Se, Lamego.] + +Before going on to discuss the long-continued influence of the Moors, +three buildings in which Gothic finally came to an end must be +discussed. These are the west front of Lamego, the cathedral of Vizeu, +and the porch and chancel of the Se at Braga. Except for its romanesque +tower and its west front the cathedral of Lamego has been entirely +rebuilt; and of the west front only the lower part remains uninjured. +This front is divided by rather elaborate buttresses into three nearly +equal parts--for the side aisles are nearly as wide as the central. In +each of these is a large pointed doorway, that in the centre being at +once wider and considerably higher than those of the aisles. The central +door has six moulded shafts on either side, all with elaborately carved +capitals and with deeply undercut foliage in the hollows between, this +foliage being carried round the whole arch between the mouldings. Above +the top of the arch runs a band of flat, early renaissance carving with +a rich Gothic cresting above. + +The side-doors are exactly similar, except that they have fewer shafts, +four instead of six, and that in the hollows between the mouldings the +carving is early renaissance in character and is also flatter than in +the central door. Above runs the same band of carving--but lower +down--and a similar but simpler cresting. + +[Sidenote: Se, Vizeu.] + +Unlike Lamego, while the cathedral of Vizeu has been but little altered +within, scarcely any of the original work is to be seen outside. The +present cathedral was built by Bishop Dom Diego Ortiz de Vilhegas about +the year 1513, and his arms as well as those of Dom Manoel and of two of +his sons are found on the vault. The church is not large, having a nave +and aisles of four bays measuring about 105 feet by 62; square transept +chapels, and a seventeenth-century chancel with flanking chapels. To the +west are two towers, built between the years 1641 and 1671, and on the +south a very fine renaissance cloister of two stories, the lower having +been built, it is said, in 1524,[91] and the upper about 1730. A choir +gallery too, with an elaborate Gothic vault below and a fine renaissance +balustrade, crosses the whole west end and extends over the porch +between the two western towers. But if the cathedral in its plan follows +the ordinary type, in design and in construction it is quite unique. +Instead of there being a wooden roof as is usual in churches of this +period, the whole is vaulted, and that too in a very unusual and +original manner. Throughout the piers consist of twelve rounded shafts +set together. Of these the five towards the central aisle are several +feet higher than the other seven from which spring the aisle arches as +well as the ribs of the aisle vault. Consequently the vault of the +central aisle is considerably lower at the sides than it is in the +middle, and in this ingenious way its thrust is counteracted by the +vaults of the side aisles; and at the same time these side vaults are +not highly stilted as they would of necessity have been, had the three +aisles been of exactly the same height. All the ribs are of considerable +projection and well moulded, and of all, except the diagonal ribs, the +lowest moulding is twisted like a rope. This rope-moulding is repeated +on all the ridge ribs, and in each it is tied in a knot half-way along, +a knot which is so much admired that the whole vault is called 'a +abobada dos nos' or vault of the knots. + +The capitals are more curious than beautiful; the lower have clumsy, +early-looking foliage and a large and curious abacus. First each capital +has a square abacus of some depth, then comes a large flat circle, one +for each three caps, and at the top a star-shaped moulding of hollow +curves, the points projecting beyond the middle of the square abaci +below. The higher capitals are better. They are carved with more +elaborate foliage and gilt, and the abaci follow more exactly the line +of the caps below and are carved and gilded in the same way. (Fig. 42.) + +Perhaps, however, the chief interest of the cathedral is found in the +sacristy, a fine large room opening from the north transept chapel. On +its tiled walls there hang several large and some smaller paintings, of +which the finest is that of St. Peter. Other pictures are found in the +chapter-house, and a fine one of the crucifixion in the Jesus Chapel +below it; but this is not the place to enter into the very difficult +question of Portuguese painting, a question on which popular tradition +throws only a misleading light by attributing everything to a more or +less mythical painter, Grao Vasco, and on which all authorities differ, +agreeing only in considering this St. Peter one of the finest paintings +in the country. + +[Sidenote: Se, Braga.] + +Perhaps the chancel of the cathedral at Braga ought rather + +[Illustration: FIG. 42. + +SE, VIZEU.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 43. + +BRAGA. W. PORCH OF CATHEDRAL.] + +to be left to a chapter dealing with what is usually called the +Manoelino style--that strange last development of Gothic which is found +only in Portugal--but it is in many respects so like the choir chapels +of the church at Caminha, and has so little of the usual Manoelino +peculiarities, that it were better to describe it now. Whatever may be +thought of the chancel, there is no doubt about the large western porch, +which is quite free of any Manoelino fantasies. + +Both porch and chancel were built by Archbishop Dom Diego de Souza about +the year 1530--a most remarkable date when the purely Gothic work here +is compared with buildings further south, where Manoelino had already +been succeeded by various forms of the classic renaissance. The porch +stretches right across the west end of the church, and is of three bays. +That in the centre, considerably wider than those at the side, is +entered from the west by a round-headed arch, while the arches of the +others are pointed. The bays are separated by buttresses of considerable +projection, and all the arches, which have good late mouldings, are +enriched with a fine feathering of cusps, which stands out well against +the dark interior. Unfortunately the original parapet is gone, only the +elaborate canopies of the niches, of which there are two to each bay, +rise above the level of the flat paved roof. Inside there is a good +vault with many well-moulded ribs, but the finest feature of it all is +the wrought-iron railing which crosses each opening. This, almost the +only piece of wrought-iron work worthy of notice in the whole country, +is very like contemporary screens in Spain. It is made of upright bars, +some larger, twisted from top to bottom, some smaller twisted at the +top, and plain below, alternating with others plain above and twisted +below. At the top runs a frieze of most elaborate hammered and pierced +work--early renaissance in detail in the centre, Gothic in the side +arches, above which comes in the centre a wonderful cresting. In the +middle, over the gate which rises as high as the top of the cresting, is +a large trefoil made of a flat hammered band intertwined with a similar +band after the manner of a Manoelino doorway.[92] (Fig. 43.) + +Of the chancel little has been left inside but the vault and the tombs +of Dona Theresa (the first independent ruler of Portugal) and of her +husband Count Henry of Burgundy--very poor work of about the same date +as the chancel. The outside, however, has been unaltered. Below it is +square in plan, becoming at about twenty feet from the ground a +half-octagon having the eastern a good deal wider than the diagonal +sides. On the angles of the lower square stand tall clustered +buttresses, rising independently of the wall as far as the projecting +cornice, across which their highest pinnacles cut, and united to the +chancel at about a third of the height, by small but elaborate flying +buttresses. On the eastern face there is a simple pointed window, and +there is nothing else to relieve the perfectly plain walls below except +two string courses, and the elaborate side buttresses with their tall +pinnacles and twisted shafts. But if the walling is plain the cornice is +most elaborate. It is of great depth and of considerable projection, the +hollows of the mouldings being filled with square flowers below and +intricate carving above. On this stands a high parapet of traceried +quatrefoils, bearing a horizontal moulding from which springs an +elaborate cresting; all being almost exactly like the cornice and +parapet at Caminha, but larger and richer, and like it, a marvellous +example of carving in granite. At the angles are tall pinnacles, and the +pinnacles of the corner buttresses are united to the parapet by a +curious contorted moulding. + +[Sidenote: Conceicao, Braga.] + +Opposite the east end of the cathedral there stands a small tower built +in 1512 by Archdeacon Joao de Coimbra as a chapel. It is of two stories, +with a vaulted chapel below and a belfrey above, lit by round-headed +windows, only one of which retains its tracery. Just above the string +which divides the two stories are statues[93] under canopies, one +projecting on a corbel from each corner, and one from the middle, while +above a cornice, on which stand short pinnacles, six to each side, the +tower ends in a low square tile roof. The chapel on the ground floor is +entered by a porch, whose flat lintel rests on moulded piers at the +angles and on two tall round columns in the centre, while its three +openings are filled with plain iron screens, the upper part of which +blossoms out into large iron flowers and leaves. Inside there is on the +east wall a reredos of early renaissance date, and on the south a large +half-classical arch flanked by pilasters under which there is a +life-size group of the Entombment made seemingly of terra cotta and +painted. + +So, rather later than in most other lands, and many years after the +renaissance had made itself felt in other parts of the country, Gothic +comes to an end, curiously enough not far from where the oldest +Christian buildings are found. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE MOORS + + +It is now time to turn back for a century and a half and to speak of the +traces left by the Moors of their long occupation of the country. +Although they held what is now the northern half of Portugal for over a +hundred years, and part of the south for about five hundred, there is +hardly a single building anywhere of which we can be sure that it was +built by them before the Christian re-conquest of the country. Perhaps +almost the only exceptions are the fortifications at Cintra, known as +the Castello dos Mouros, the city walls at Silves, and possibly the +church at Mertola. In Spain very many of their buildings still exist, +such as the small mosque, now the church of Christo de la Luz, and the +city walls at Toledo, and of course the mosque at Cordoba and the +Alcazar at Seville, not to speak of the Alhambra. Yet it must not be +forgotten that, while Portugal reached its furthest limits by the +capture of the Algarve under Affonso III. about the middle of the +thirteenth century, in Spain the progress was slower. Toledo indeed fell +in 1085, but Cordoba and Seville were only taken a few years before the +capture of the Algarve, and Granada was able to hold out till 1492. +Besides, in what is now Portugal there had been no great capital like +Cordoba. And yet, though this is so, hardly a town or a village exists +in which some slight trace of their art cannot be found, even if it be +but a tile-lining to the walls of church or house. In such towns as +Toledo, Moorish builders were employed not only in the many parish +churches but even in the cathedral, and in Portugal we find Moors at +Thomar even as late as the beginning of the sixteenth century, when such +names as Omar, Mafamedi, Bugimaa, and Bebedim occur in the list of +workmen. + +It is chiefly in three directions that Moorish influence made itself +felt, in actual design, in carpentry, and in tiling, and of these the +last two, and especially tiling, are the most general, and long survived +the disappearance of Arab detail. + +[Sidenote: Cintra.] + +Some eighteen miles from Lisbon, several sharp granite peaks rise high +above an undulating tableland. Two of these are encircled by the old +Moorish fortification which climbs up and down over huge granite +boulders, and on a projecting spur near their foot, and to the north, +there stands the old palace of Cintra. As long as the Walis ruled at +Lisbon, it was to Cintra that they came in summer for hunting and cool +air, and some part at least of their palace seems to have survived till +to-day. + +Cintra was first taken by Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon in 1093--to be +soon lost and retaken by Count Henry of Burgundy sixteen years later, +but was not permanently held by the Christians till Affonso Henriques +expelled the Moors in 1147. The Palace of the Walis was soon granted by +him to Gualdim Paes, the famous grand master of the Templars, and was +held by his successors till it was given to Dom Diniz's queen, St. +Isabel. She died in 1336, when the palace returned to the Order of +Christ--which had meanwhile been formed out of the suppressed Order of +the Temple--only to be granted to Dona Beatriz, the wife of D. Affonso +IV., in exchange for her possessions at Ega and at Torre de Murta. Dom +Joao I. granted the palace in 1385 to Dom Henrique de Vilhena, but he +soon sided with the Spaniards, for he was of Spanish birth, his +possessions were confiscated and Cintra returned to the Crown. Some of +the previous kings may have done something to the palace, but it was +King Joao who first made it one of the chief royal residences, and who +built a very large part of it. + +A few of the walls have been examined by taking off the plaster, and +have been found to be built in the usual Arab manner, courses of rubble +bonded at intervals with bands of thin bricks two or three courses deep. +Such are the back wall of the entrance hall and a thick wall near the +kitchen. Outside all the walls are plastered, all the older windows, of +one or two lights, are enclosed in square frames--for the later windows +of Dom Manoel's time are far more elaborate and fantastic--and most of +the walls end in typical Moorish battlements. High above the dark tile +roofs there tower the two strange kitchen chimneys, huge conical spires +ending in round funnels, now all plastered, but once covered with a +pattern of green and white tiles. + +[Illustration: + +1. _Entrance Court._ +2. _Sala dos Cysnes._ +3. _Central Pateo._ +4. _Sala das Pegas._ +5. " " _Sereias._ +5a. " _do Conselho._ +6. _Sala da Jantar._ +7. _Servery._ +8. _Sala dos Arabes._ +9. _Chapel._ +10. _Kitchen._ +11. _Sala dos Brazoes._ +12. _Pateo de Diana._ +13. _Wing or Dom Manoel._ + +PLAN OF PACO, CINTRA] + +The whole is so extremely complicated that without a plan it would be +almost useless to attempt a description. Speaking roughly, all that lies +to the west of the Porte Cochere which leads from the entrance court +through to the kitchen court and stables beyond is, with certain +alterations and additions, the work of Dom Joao, and all that lies to +the east is the work of Dom Manoel, added during the first years of the +sixteenth century. Entering through a pointed gateway, one finds oneself +in a long and irregular courtyard, having on the right hand a long low +building in which live the various lesser palace officials, and on the +left, first a comparatively modern projecting building in which live the +ladies-in-waiting, then somewhat further back the rooms of the +controller of the palace and his office. From the front wall of this +office, which itself juts out some feet into the courtyard, there runs +eastwards a high balustraded terrace reaching as far as another slightly +projecting wing, and approached by a great flight of steps at its +western end. Not far beyond the east end of the terrace an inclined road +leads to the Porte Cochere, and beyond it are the large additions made +by Dom Manoel. (Fig. 44.) + +On this terrace stands the main front of the palace. Below are four +large pointed arches, and above five beautiful windows lighting the +great Sala dos Cysnes or Swan Hall. Originally these four arches were +open and led into a large vaulted hall; now they are all built +up--perhaps by Dona Maria I. after the great earthquake--three having +small two-light windows, and one a large door, the chief entrance to the +palace. In the back wall of this hall may still be seen three windows +which must have existed before it was built, for what is now their inner +side was evidently at first their outer; and this wall is one of those +found to be built in the Arab manner, so that clearly Dom Joao's hall +was built in front of a part of the Walis' palace, a part which has +quite disappeared except for this wall. + +From the east end of this lower hall a straight stair, which looks as if +it had once been an outside stair, leads up to a winding stair by which +another hall is reached, whose floor lies at a level of about 26 feet +above the terrace.[94] From this hall, which may be of later date than +Dom Joao's time, a door leads down to the central pateo or courtyard, or +else going up a few steps the way goes through a smaller square room, +once an open verandah, through a wide doorway inserted by Dom Manoel +into the great Swan Hall. This hall, the largest room in the palace, +measuring about 80 feet long by 25 wide, is so called from the swans +painted in the eight-sided panels of its wonderful roof. The story is +that while the palace was still building ambassadors came to the king +from the duke of Burgundy asking for the hand of his daughter Isabel. +Among other presents they brought some swans, which so pleased the young +princess that she made them collars of red velvet and persuaded her +father to build for them a long narrow tank in the central court just +under the north windows of this hall. Here she used to feed them till +she went away to Flanders, and from love of his daughter King Joao had +the swans with their collars painted on the ceiling of the hall. The +swans may still be seen, but not those painted for Dom Joao, for all the +mouldings clearly show that the present ceiling was reconstructed some +centuries later. The hall is lit by five windows looking south across +the entrance court to the Moorish castle on the hill beyond, and by +three looking over the swan tank into the central pateo. + +These windows, and indeed all those in Dom Joao's part of the palace, +are very like each other. They are nearly all of two lights--never of +more--and are made of white marble. In every case there is a +square-headed moulded frame enclosing the whole window, the outer +mouldings of this frame resting on small semicircular corbels, and +having Gothic bases. Inside this framework stand three slender shafts, +with simple bases and carved capitals. These capitals are not at all +unlike French capitals of the thirteenth century, but are really of a +common Moorish pattern often found elsewhere, as in the Alhambra. On +them, moulded at the ends, but not in front or behind, rest abaci, from +which spring stilted arches. (Fig. 45.) + +Each arch is delicately moulded and elaborately cusped, but, though in +some cases--for the shape varies in almost every window--each individual +cusp may have the look of a Gothic trefoil, the arrangement is not +Gothic at all. There are far more than are ever found in a Gothic +window, sometimes as many as eleven, and they usually begin at the +bottom with a whole instead of a half cusp. From the centre of each +abacus, cutting across the arch mouldings, another moulding runs up, +which being returned across the top encloses the upper part of each +light in a smaller square frame. It is this square frame which more than +anything else gives these windows their Eastern look, and it has been +shown how often, and indeed almost universally a square framing was put +round doorways all through the last Gothic + +[Illustration: FIG. 44. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +ENTRANCE COURT.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 45. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +WINDOW OF SALA DAS SEREIAS.] + +period. In only one instance are the shafts anything but plain, and that +is in the central window overlooking the entrance court, where they are +elaborately twisted, and where also they start at the level of the floor +within instead of standing on a low parapet. + +In the room itself the walls up to a certain height are covered with +tiles, diamonds of white and a beautiful olive green which are much +later than Dom Joao's time. There is also near the west end of the north +side a large fireplace projecting slightly from the wall; at either end +stands a shaft with cap and base like those of the windows, bearing a +long flat moulded lintel, while on the hearth there rest two very fine +wrought-iron Gothic fire-dogs. + +East of the fireplace a door having a wide flat ogee head leads into a +small porch built in the corner of the pateo to protect the passage to +the Sala das Pegas, the first of the rooms to the south of this pateo. + +In the angle formed by the end wall of the Sala dos Cysnes and the side +of the Sala das Pegas there is a small low room now called the Sala de +Dom Sebastiao or do Conselho. It is entered from the west end of the +Swan Hall through a door, which was at first a window just like all the +rest. This Hall of Dom Sebastiao or of the Council is so called from the +tradition that it was there that in 1578 that unhappy king held the +council in which it was decided to invade Morocco, an expedition which +cost the king his life and his country her independence. In reality the +final solemn council was held in Lisbon, but some informal meeting may +well have been held there. Now the room is low and rather dark, being +lit only by two small windows opening above the roof of the controller's +office. It is divided into two unequal parts by an arcade of three +arches, the smaller part between the arches and the south wall being +raised a step above the rest. When first built by Dom Joao this raised +part formed a covered verandah, the rest being, till about the time of +Maria I., open to the sky and forming a charming and cool retreat during +the heat of summer. The floor is of tiles and marble, and all along the +south wall runs a bench entirely covered with beautiful tiles. At the +eastern end is a large seat, rather higher than the bench and provided +with arms, doubtless for the king, and tiled like the rest. + +Passing again from the Swan Hall the way leads through the porch into +the Sala das Pegas or of the magpies. The door from the porch to the +room is one of the most beautiful parts of Dom Joao's work. It is framed +as are the windows, and has shafts, capitals, abaci, and bases just like +those already described; but the arch is different. It is beautifully +moulded, but is--if one may so speak--made up of nine reversed cusps, +whose convex sides form the arch: the inner square moulding too is +enriched with ball ornament. Inside the walls are covered to half their +height with exquisite tiles of Moorish pattern, blue, green and brown on +a white ground. + +On the north wall is a great white marble chimney-piece, once a present +from Pope Leo X. to Dom Manoel and brought by the great Marques de +Pombal from the ruined palace of Almeirim opposite Santarem. Two other +doors, with simple pointed heads, lead one into the dining-room, and one +into the Sala das Sereias. The Sala das Pegas, like the Swan Hall, is +called after its ceiling, for on it are painted in 136 triangular +compartments, 136 magpies, each holding in one foot a red rose and in +its beak a scroll inscribed 'Por Bem.' Possibly this ceiling, which on +each side slopes up to a flat parallelogram, is more like that painted +for Dom Joao than is that of the Swan Hall, but even here some of the +mouldings are clearly renaissance, and the painting has been touched up, +but anyhow it was already called Camera das Pegas in the time of Dom +Duarte; further, tradition tells that the magpies were painted there by +Dom Joao's orders, and why. It seems that once during the hour of the +midday siesta the king, wandering about his unfinished house, found in +this room one of the maids of honour. Her he kissed, when another maid +immediately went and told the queen, Philippa of Lancaster. She was +angry, but Dom Joao only said 'Por bem,' meaning much what his queen's +grandfather had meant when he said 'Honi soit qui mal y pense,' and to +remind the maids of honour, whose waiting-room this was, that they must +not tell tales, he had the magpies painted on the ceiling. + +The two windows, one looking west and one into the pateo, are exactly +like those already described. + +From the Sala das Pegas one door leads up a few steps into the Sala das +Sereias, and another to the dining-room. This Sala das Sereias, so +called from the mermaids painted on the ceiling, is a small room some +eighteen feet square. It is lit by a two-light window opening towards +the courtyard, a window just like those of the Sala das Pegas and of the +Sala dos Cysnes. Some of its walls, especially that between it and the +Sala das Pegas, are very thick and seem to be older than the time of Dom +Joao. As usual, the walls are partly covered with beautiful tiles, +mostly embossed with green vine-leaves, but round the door leading to +the long narrow room, used as a servery, is an interlacing pattern of +green and blue tiles, while the spandrils between this and the pointed +doorhead are filled with a true Arabesque pattern, dark on a light +ground, which is said to belong to the Palace of the Walis. There are +altogether four doors, one leading to the servery, one to the Sala das +Pegas, one to a spiral stair in the corner of the pateo, and one to the +dining-room. + +This dining-room projects somewhat to the west so as to leave space for +a window looking south to the mountains, and one looking north across a +small court, as well as one looking west. Of these, the two which look +south and west are like each other, and like the other of Dom Joao's +time except that the arches are not cusped; that the outer frame is +omitted and that the abaci are moulded in front as well as at the ends; +but the third window looking north is rather different. The framing has +regular late Gothic bases, the capitals of the shafts are quite unlike +the rest, having one large curly leaf at each angle, and the moulding +running up the centre between the arches--which are not cusped--is +plaited instead of being plain. Altogether it looks as if it were later +than Dom Joao's time, for it is the only window where the capitals are +not of the usual Arab form, and they are not at all like some in the +castle of Sempre Noiva built about the beginning of the sixteenth +century. + +The wall-tiles of the dining-room are like those of the Sala das +Sereias, but end in a splendid cresting. The ceiling is modern and +uninteresting. + +Next to the north comes the servery, a room without interest but for its +window which looks west, and is like the two older dining-room windows. + +Returning to the Sala das Sereias, a spiral stair leads down to the +central pateo, which can also be reached from the porch in the +south-west corner. All along the south side runs the tank made by Dom +Joao for his daughter's swans, and on three sides are beautiful white +marble windows. At the east end of the north side three open arches lead +to the bathroom. As is the case with the windows, the three arches are +enclosed in a square frame. The capitals, however, are different, having +an eight-sided bell on which rests a square block with a bud carved at +each angle, and above an abacus, moulded all round. The arches are +cusped like the windows, but are stilted and segmental. Inside is a +recess framed in an arch of Dom Manoel's time, and from all over the +tiled walls and the ceiling jets of water squirt out, so that the whole +becomes a great shower-bath, delightful and cooling on a hot day but +rather public. In the middle of the pateo there stands a curious +column--not at all unlike the 'pelourinho'[95] of Cintra--which stands +in a basin just before the entrance gate. This column is formed of three +twisted shafts on whose capitals sit a group of boys holding three +shields charged with the royal arms. All round the court is a dado of +white and green tiles arranged in an Arab pattern. + +In the north-west corner and reached by the same spiral stair, but at a +higher level than the Sala das Sereias, is the Sala dos Arabes, so +called because it is commonly believed to be a part of the original +building. The walls may be so, but of the rest, nothing, but perhaps the +shallow round fountain basin in the middle and the square of tiles which +surrounds it, now so worn that little of their glazed surface is left. +The walls half-way up are lined with tiles, squares and parallelograms, +blue, white and green. The doors are framed in different tiles, and all +are finished with an elaborate cresting. The most interesting thing in +the room is the circular basin in the middle--a basin which gives it a +truly Eastern look. Inside a round shallow hollow there stands a +many-sided block of marble about six inches high. The sides are concave +as in a small section of a Doric column, and within it is hollowed into +a beautiful cup, shaped somewhat like a flower of many petals. In the +middle there now is a strange object of gilt metal through which the +water once poured. On a short stem stands a carefully modelled dish on +which rest first leaves, like long acanthus leaves, then between them +birds on whose backs sit small figures of boys. Between the boys and +above the leaves are more figures exactly like seated Indian gods, and +the whole ends in a cone. It is so completely Indian in appearance that +there can be little doubt but that it is really of Indian origin, and +perhaps it is not too much to see in it part of the spoils brought to +Dom Manoel by Vasco da Gama after he had in 1498 made his way round +Africa to Calicut and back. + +Returning to the Sala das Sereias and passing through the servery and +another room an open court is reached called the Pateo de Diana, from a +fountain over which Diana presides, and on to which one of the +dining-room windows looks. A beautifully tiled stair--these tiles are +embossed like those of the dining-room, but besides vine-leaves some +have on them bunches of grapes--goes down from the Court of Diana to the +Court of the Lion, the Pateo do Leao, where a lion spouts into a long +tank. But the chief beauty of these two courts is a small window which +overlooks them. This window is only of one light, and like the +dining-room window near it its framing has Gothic bases. The capitals +are smaller than in the other windows, and the framing partly covers the +outer moulding of the window arch, making it look like a segment of a +circle. But the cusps are the most curious part. They form four more or +less trefoiled spaces with wavy outlines, and two of them--not the +remaining one at the top--end in large well-carved vine-leaves, very +like those at the ends of the cusps on the arches in the Capella do +Fundador at Batalha. To add to the charm of the window, the space +between the top of the arch and the framing is filled in with those +beautiful tiles embossed with vine-leaves. + +Going up again to the Sala dos Arabes, a door in the northern wall leads +to a passage running northwards to the chapel. About half-way along the +passage another branches off to the right towards the great kitchen. + +The chapel stands at the northern edge of the palace buildings, having +beyond it a terrace called the Terreiro da Meca or of Mecca; partly from +this name, and partly from the tiles which still cover the middle of the +floor it is believed that the chapel stands exactly on the site of the +Walis' private mosque, with perhaps the chancel added. + +The middle of the nave--the chapel consists of a nave and chancel, two +small transeptal recesses, and two galleries one above the other at the +west end--is paved with tiles once glazed and of varying colours, but +now nearly all worn down till the natural red shows through. The pattern +has been elaborate; a broad border of diagonal checks surrounding a +narrow oblong in which the checks are crossed by darker lines so as to +form octagons, and between the outer border and the octagons a band of +lighter ground down which in the middle runs a coloured line having on +each side cones of the common Arab pattern exactly like the palace +battlements. + +Now the walls are bare and white, but were once covered with frescoes of +the fifteenth century; the reredos is a clumsy addition of the +eighteenth century. + +The cornice and the long pilasters at the entrance to the chancel seem +to have been added at the same time, but the windows and ceiling are +still those of Dom Joao's time. The windows--there are now three, a +fourth in the chancel having been turned into a royal pew--are of two or +three lights, have commonplace tracery, and are only interesting as +being one of the few wholly Gothic features in the palace. + +Far more interesting is the ceiling, which is entirely Arab in +construction and in design. In the nave it is an irregular polygon in +section, and in the chancel is nearly a semicircle, having nine equal +sides. The whole of the boarded surface is entirely covered with an +intricate design formed of strips of wood crossing each other in every +direction so as to form stars, triangles, octagons, and figures of every +conceivable shape. The whole still retains its original colouring. At +the centres of the main figures are gilt bosses--the one over the high +altar being a shield with the royal arms--the wooden strips are black +with a white groove down the centre of each, and the ground is either +dark red or light blue. (Fig. 46.) + +The whole is of great interest not only for its own sake, but because it +is the only ceiling in the palace which has remained unchanged since the +end of the fourteenth century, and because it is, as it were, the parent +of the splendid roofs in the Sala dos Cysnes and of the still more +wonderful one in the Sala dos Escudos. + +The kitchen lies at the back of the chapel and at right angles to it. It +is a building about 58 feet long by 25 wide, and is divided into two +equal parts by a large arch. Each of these two parts is covered by a +huge conical chimney so that the inside is more like the nave of St. +Ours at Loches than anything else, while outside these chimneys rise +high above all the rest of the palace. It is lit by small two-light +Gothic windows, and has lately been lined with white tiles. Now the + +[Illustration: FIG. 46. + +PALACE CHAPEL ROOF. + +CINTRA.] + +chimneys serve only as ventilators, as ordinary iron ranges have been +put in. There seems to be nothing in the country at all like these +chimneys--for the kitchen at Alcobaca, although it has a stream running +through it, is but a poor affair compared with this one, nor is its +chimney in any way remarkable outside.[96] + +The rest of the palace towards the west, between the west end of the +chapel and the great square tower in which is the Sala dos Escudos, was +probably also built about the time of Dom Joao I., but except for a few +windows there is little of interest left which belongs to his time. + +The great tower of the Sala dos Escudos was built by Dom Manoel on the +top of an older building then called the Casa da Meca, in which Affonso +V. was born in 1432--the year before his grandfather Dom Joao died--and +where he himself died forty-nine years later. In another room on a +higher floor--where his feet, as he walked up and down day after day, +have quite worn away the tiles--Affonso VI. was imprisoned. Affonso had +by his wildness proved himself quite unable to govern, and had also made +himself hated by his queen, a French princess. She fell in love with his +brother, so Affonso was deposed, divorced, and banished to the Azores. +After some years it was found that he was there trying to form a party, +so he was brought to Cintra and imprisoned in this room from 1674 till +his death in 1683. These worn-out tiles are worthy of notice for their +own sake since tiles with Moorish patterns, as are these here and those +in the chapel, are very seldom used for flooring, and they are probably +among the oldest in the palace. + +[Sidenote: Castles, Guimaraes and Barcellos.] + +Such was the palace from the time of Joao I. to that of Dom Manoel, a +building thoroughly Eastern in plan as in detail, and absolutely unlike +such contemporary buildings as the palaces of the dukes of Braganza at +Guimaraes or at Barcellos, or the castle at Villa da Feira between +Oporto and Aveiro. The Braganza palaces are both in ruins, but their +details are all such as might be found almost anywhere in Christian +Europe. Large pointed doors, traceried windows and tall chimneys--these +last round and of brick--differ only from similar features found +elsewhere, as one dialect may differ from another, whereas Cintra is, as +it were, built in a + +[Sidenote: Villa da Feira.] + +totally different language. The castle at Villa da Feira is even more +unlike anything at Cintra. A huge keep of granite, the square turrets +projecting slightly from the corners give it the look of a Norman +castle, for the curious spires of brick now on those turrets were added +later, perhaps under Dom Manoel. Inside there is now but one vast hall +with pointed barrel roof, for all the wooden floors are gone, leaving +only the beam holes in the walls, the Gothic fireplaces, and the small +windows to show where they once were. + +It is then no wonder that Cintra has been called the Alhambra of +Portugal, and it is curious that the same names are found given to +different parts of the two buildings. The Alhambra has a Mirador de +Lindaraxa, Cintra a Jardim de Lindaraya; the Alhambra a Torre de las dos +Hermanas, Cintra a Sala das Irmas or of the Sisters--the part under the +Sala dos Escudos where Affonso V. was born; while both at the Alhambra +and here there is a garden called de las or das Damas. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +OTHER MOORISH BUILDINGS + + +The old palace at Cintra is perhaps the only complete building to the +north of the Tagus designed and carried out by Moorish workmen scarcely, +if at all, influenced by what the conquering Christians were doing round +them. Further south in the province of Alemtejo Moorish buildings are +more common, and there are many in which, though the design and plan as +well as most of the detail may be Western, yet there is something, the +whitewashed walls, the round conical pinnacles, or the flat roofs which +give them an Eastern look. + +And this is natural. Alemtejo was conquered after the country north of +the Tagus had been for some time Christian, and no large immigration of +Christians ever came to take the place of the Moors, so that those few +who remained continued for long in their own Eastern ways of building +and of agriculture. + +It is especially in and about the town of Evora that this is seen, and +that too although the cathedral built at the end of the twelfth century +is, except for a few unimportant details, a Western building. + +[Sidenote: Alvito.] + +But more completely Eastern than any one building at Evora is the castle +at Alvito, a small town some thirty or forty miles to the south-west. +The town stands at the end of a long low hill and looks south over an +endless plain across to Beja, one of the most extensive and, in its way, +beautiful views in the country. + +At one end of the town on the slope of the hill stands the castle, and +not far off in one of the streets is the town hall whose tower is too +characteristic of the Alemtejo not to be noticed. The building is +whitewashed and perfectly plain, with ordinary square windows. An +outside stair leads to the upper story, and behind it rises the tower. +It, like the building, is absolutely plain with semicircular openings +near the top irregularly divided by a square pier. Close above these +openings is a simple cornice on which stand rather high and narrow +battlements; within them rises a short eight-sided spire, and at each +corner a short round turret capped by a conical roof. The whole from top +to bottom is plastered and whitewashed, and it is this glaring whiteness +more than anything else which gives to the whole so Eastern a look. + +As to the castle, Haupt in his most interesting book, _Die Baukunst der +Renaissance in Portugal_, says that, though he had never seen it, yet +from descriptions of its plan he had come to the conclusion that it was +the castle which, according to Vasari, was built by Andrea da Sansovino +for Dom Joao II. Now it is well known that Sansovino was for nine years +in Portugal and did much work there, but none of it can now be found +except perhaps a beautiful Italian door in the palace at Cintra; Vasari +also states that he did some work in the heavy and native style which +the king liked. Is it possible that the castle of Alvito is one of his +works in this native style? + +Vasari says that Sansovino built for Dom Joao a beautiful palace with +four towers, and that part of it was decorated by him with paintings, +and it was because Haupt believed that this castle was built round an +arcaded court--a regular Italian feature, but one quite unknown in +Portugal--that he thought it must be Sansovino's lost palace. + +As a matter of fact the court is not arcaded--there is only a row of +rough plastered arches along one side; there are five and not four +towers; there is no trace now of any fine painted decoration inside; +and, in short, it is inconceivable that, even to please a king, an +architect of the Italian renaissance could ever have designed such a +building. + +The plan of the castle is roughly square with a round tower at three of +the corners, and at the fourth or southern corner a much larger tower, +rounded in front and projecting further from the walls. The main front +is turned to the south-west, and on that side, as well as on the +south-eastern, are the habitable parts of the castle. Farm buildings run +along inside and outside the north-western, while the north-eastern side +is bounded only by a high wall. + +Half-way along the main front is the entrance gate, a plain pointed arch +surmounted by two shields, that on the right charged with the royal +arms, and that on the left with those of the Barao d'Alvito, to whose +descendant, the Marques d'Alvito, the castle still belongs. There is +also an inscription stating that the castle, begun in 1494 by the orders +of Dom Joao II. and finished in the time of Dom Manoel, was built by Dom +Diogo Lobo, Barao d'Alvito.[97] + +In the court a stair, carried on arches, goes up to the third floor +where are the chief rooms in the house. None of them, which open one +from the other or from a passage leading to the chapel in the +westernmost corner, are in any way remarkable except for their windows. +The ceilings of the principal rooms are of wood and panelled, but are +clearly of much later date than the building and are not to be compared +with those at Cintra. Most of the original windows--for those on the +main front have been replaced by plain square openings--are even more +Eastern than those at Cintra. They are nearly all of two lights--there +is one of a single light in the passage--but are without the square +framing. Each window has three very slender white marble shafts, with +capitals and with abaci moulded on each side. On some of the capitals +are carved twisted ropes, while others, as in a window in the large +southern tower, are like those at Cintra. As the shafts stand a little +way back from the face of the wall the arches are of two orders, of +which only the inner comes down to the central shaft. (Fig. 47.) + +These arches, all horseshoe in shape, are built of red brick with very +wide mortar joints, and each brick, in both orders, is beautifully +moulded or cut at the ends so as to form a series of small trefoiled +cusps, each arch having as many as twenty-seven or more. The whole +building is plastered and washed yellow, so that the contrast between +the bare walls and the elaborate red arches and white shafts is +singularly pleasing. All the outer walls are fortified, but the space +between each embrasure is far longer than usual; the four corner towers +rise a good deal above the rest of the buildings, but in none, except +the southern, are there windows above the main roof. It has one, shaped +like the rest, but now all plastered and framed in an ogee moulding. +Half-way along the north-west wall, outside it, stands the keep, which +curiously is not Arab at all. It is a large square tower of no great +height, absolutely plain, and built of unplastered stone or marble. It +has scarcely any windows, and walls of great thickness which, like those +of the smaller round towers, have a slight batter. It seems to be older +than the rest, and now its chief ornament is a large fig-tree growing +near the top on the south side.[98] + +[Sidenote: Evora.] + +[Sidenote: Pacos Reaes.] + +Of all the towns in the Alemtejo Evora is the one where Eastern +influence is most strongly marked. Indeed the Roman temple and the +cathedral are perhaps the only old buildings which seem to be distinctly +Western, and even the cathedral has some trace of the East in its two +western spires, one round and tiled, and the other eight-sided and +plastered. For long Evora was one of the chief towns of the kingdom, and +was one of those oftenest visited by the kings. Their palace stood close +to the church of Sao Francisco, and must once have been a beautiful +building. + +Unfortunately most of it has disappeared, and what is left, a large hall +partly of the time of Dom Manoel, has been so horribly restored in order +to turn it into a museum as to have lost all character. + +A porch still stands at the south end, but scraped and pointed out of +all beauty. It has in front four square stone piers bearing large +horseshoe brick arches, and these arches are moulded and cusped exactly +like those at Alvito. + +[Sidenote: Morgado de Cordovis.] + +There are no other examples of Moorish brickwork in the town, but there +is more than one marble window resembling those at Alvito in shape. Of +these the most charming are found in the garden of a house belonging to +a 'morgado' or entailed estate called Cordovis. These windows form two +sides of a small square summer-house; their shafts have capitals like +those of the dining-room windows at Cintra, and the horseshoe arches +are, as usual, cusped. A new feature, showing how the pure Arab details +were being gradually combined with Gothic, is an ogee moulding which, +uniting the two arches, ends in a large Gothic finial; other mouldings +run up the cornice at the angles, and the whole, crowned with +battlements, ends in a short round whitewashed spire. + +Some miles from Evora among the mountains, Affonso of + +[Illustration: FIG. 47. + +CASTLE, ALVITO. + +COURTYARD.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 48. + +EVORA. + +CHAPTER HOUSE DOOR OF SAO JOAO, EVANGELISTA.] + +[Sidenote: Sempre Noiva.] + +Portugal, archbishop of Evora, built himself a small country house which +he called Sempre Noiva, or 'Ever New,' about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. It is now a ruin having lost all its woodwork, but +the walls are still well preserved. The plan is simple; a rectangle with +a chapel projecting from the eastern side, and a small wing from the +west end of the south side. All the ground floor is vaulted, as is the +chapel, but the main rooms on the first floor had wooden roofs, except +the one next the chapel which forms the middle floor of a three-storied +tower, which, rising above the rest of the building, has a battlemented +flat roof reached by a spiral stair. This stair, like the round +buttresses of the chapel, is capped by a high conical plastered roof. As +usual the whole, except the windows and the angles, is plastered and has +a sgraffito frieze running round under the cornice. There is a large +porch on the north side covering a stair leading to the upper floor, +where most of the windows are of two lights and very like those of the +pavilion at Evora. Two like them have the ogee moulding, and at the +sides a rounded moulding carried on corbels and finished above the +window with a carved finial. The capitals are again carved with leaves, +but the horseshoe arches have no cusps, and the mouldings, like the +capitals, are entirely Gothic; the union between the two styles, Gothic +and Arab, was already becoming closer. + +Naturally Moorish details are more often found in secular than in +religious buildings: yet there are churches where such details exist +even if the general plan and design is Christian. + +[Sidenote: Sao Joao Evangelista, Evora.] + +Just to the north of the cathedral of Evora, Rodrigo Affonso de Mello, +count of Olivenca, in 1485 founded a monastery for the Loyos, or Canons +Secular of St. John the Evangelist. The church itself is in no way +notable; the large west door opening under a flat arched porch is one of +these with plain moulded arches and simple shafts which are so common +over all the country, and is only interesting for its late date. At the +left side is a small monument to the founder's memory; on a corbel +stands a short column bearing an inscribed slab, and above the slab is a +shield under a carved curtain. Inside are some tombs--two of them being +Flemish brasses--and great tile pictures covering the walls. These give +the life of Sao Lorenzo Giustiniani, patriarch of Venice, and canon of +San Giorgio in Alga, where the founder of the Loyos had been kindly +received and whence he drew the rules of his order, and are interesting +as being signed and dated 'Antonius ab oliva fecit 1711.' + +The cloisters are also Gothic with vine-covered capitals, but the +entrance to the chapter-house and refectory is quite different. In +general design it is like the windows at Sempre Noiva, two horseshoe +arches springing from the capitals of thin marble shafts and an ogee +moulding above. The three shafts are twisted, the capitals are very +strange; they are round with several mouldings, some fluted, some carved +with leaves, some like pieces of rope: the moulded abaci also have four +curious corbels on two sides. The capitals are carried across the jambs +and the outer moulding, which is of granite, as is the whole except the +three shafts and their caps, and between the shafts and this moulding +there is a broad band of carved foliage. The ogee and the side finials +or pinnacles, which are of the same section as the outer moulding from +which they spring, are made of a bundle of small rolls held together by +a broad twisted ribbon. Lastly, between the arches and the ogee there is +a flat marble disk on which is carved a curious representation of a +stockaded enclosure, supposed to be memorial of the gallant attack made +by Affonso de Mello on Azila in Morocco.[99] The whole is a very curious +piece of work, the capitals and bases being, with the exception of some +details at Thomar and at Batalha, the most strange of the details of +that period, though, were the small corbels left out, they would differ +but little from other Manoelino capitals, while the bases may be only an +attempt of a Moorish workman to copy the interpenetration of late +Gothic. (Fig. 48.) + +[Sidenote: Sao Francisco, Evora.] + +Not much need be said here of the church of Sao Francisco or of the +chapel of Sao Braz, both begun at about the same time. Sao Francisco was +long in building, for it was begun by Affonso V. in 1460 and not +finished till 1501. It is a large church close to the ruins of the +palace at Evora, and has a wide nave without aisles, six chapels on each +side, larger transept chapels, and a chancel narrower than the nave. It +is, like most of Evora, built of granite, has a pointed barrel vault cut +into by small groins at the sides and scarcely any windows, for the +outer walls of the side chapels are carried up so as to leave a narrow +space between them and the nave wall. This was probably done to support +the main vault, but the result is that almost the only window is a +large one over the west porch. It is this porch that most strongly shows +the hand of Moorish workmen. It is five bays long and one deep, and most +of the five arches in front, separated by Gothic buttresses and +springing from late Gothic capitals, are horseshoe in shape. The white +marble doorway has two arches springing from a thin central shaft, which +like the arches and the two heavy mouldings, which forming the outer +part of the jambs are curved over them, is made of a number of small +rounds partly straight and partly twisted. At the corners of the church +are large round spiral pinnacles with a continuous row of battlements +between; these battlements interspersed with round pinnacles are even +set all along the ridge of the vault. The reredos and the stalls made by +Olivel of Ghent in 1508 are gone; so are Francisco Henriques' stained +windows, but there are still some good tiles, and in a large square +opening looking into the chancel there is a shaft with a beautiful early +renaissance capital. + +[Sidenote: Sao Braz, Evora.] + +Sao Braz stands outside the town near the railway station. It was built +as a pilgrimage chapel soon after 1482, when the saint had been invoked +to stay a terrible plague. It is not large, has an aisleless nave of +four bays, a large porch with three wide pointed arches at the west, and +a sort of domed chancel. Most of the details are indeed Gothic, but +there is little detail, and the whole is entirely Eastern in aspect. It +is all plastered, the buttresses are great rounded projections capped +with conical plastered roofs; there are battlements on the west gable +and on the three sides of the porch, which also has great round +conical-topped buttresses or turrets at the angles. + +Inside there are still fine tiles, but the sgraffito frieze has nearly +disappeared from the outer cornice. + +There is also an interesting church somewhat in the same style as Sao +Braz, but with aisles and brick flying buttresses at Vianna d'Alemtejo +near Alvito. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +MOORISH CARPENTRY + + +If it was only in the south that Moorish masons built in stone or brick, +their carpenters had a much wider range. The wooden ceilings of as late +as the middle of the seventeenth century may show no Eastern detail, yet +in the method of their construction they are all ultimately descended +from Moorish models. Such ceilings are found all over the country, but +curiously enough the finest examples of truly Eastern work are found in +the far north at Caminha and in the island of Madeira at Funchal. + +[Sidenote: Aguas Santas.] + +The old romanesque church at Aguas Santas near Oporto has a roof, simple +and unadorned, the tie-beams of which are coupled in the Moorish manner. +The two beams about a foot apart are joined in the centre by four short +pieces of wood set diagonally so as to form a kind of knot. This is very +common in Moorish roofs, and may be seen at Seville and elsewhere. The +rest of the roof is boarded inside, boards being also fastened to the +underside of the collar beams. + +[Sidenote: Azurara.] + +At Azurara the ties are single, but the whole is boarded as at Aguas +Santas, and this is also the case at Villa do Conde and elsewhere. + +In the palace chapel at Cintra, already described, the boarding is +covered with a pattern of interlacing strips, but later on panelling was +used, usually with simple mouldings. Such is the roof in the nave of the +church of Nossa Senhora do Olival at Thomar, probably of the seventeenth +century, and in many houses, as for instance in the largest hall in the +castle at Alvito. From such simple panelled ceilings the splendid +elaboration of those in the palace at Cintra was derived. + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +The roofs at Caminha and at Funchal are rather different. At Caminha the +roof is divided into bays of such a size that each of the three +divisions, the two sloping sides and the flat centre under the collar +ties, is cut into squares. In the sloping sides these squares are +divided from each other by a strip of boarding covering the space +occupied by three rafters. On this boarding are two bands of ornament +separated by a carved chain, while one band, with the chain, is returned +round the top and bottom of the square. Between each strip of boarding +are six exposed rafters, and these are united alternately by small knots +in the middle and at the ends, and by larger and more elaborate knots at +the ends. In the flat centre under the collar ties each square is again +surrounded by the band of ornament and by the chains, but here band and +chain are also carried across the corners, leaving a large octagon in +the centre with four triangles in the angles. Each octagon has a plain +border about a foot wide, and within it a plain moulding surrounding an +eight-sided hollow space. All these spaces are of some depth; each has +in the centre a pendant, and in each the opening is fringed with tracery +or foliation. In some are elaborate Gothic cuspings, in others long +carved leaves curved at the ends; and in one which happens to come +exactly over an iron tie-rod--for the rods are placed quite +irregularly--the pendant is much longer and is joined to the tie by a +small iron bar. At the sides the roof starts from a cornice of some +depth whose mouldings and ornamentation are more classic than Gothic. +(Fig. 49.) + +In the side aisles the cornice is similar, but of greater projection, +and the rafters are joined to each other in much the same way, but more +simply. + +[Sidenote: Funchal.] + +At Funchal the roof is on a larger scale: there is no division into +squares, but the rafters are knotted together with much greater +elaboration, and the flat part is like the chapel roof at Cintra, +entirely covered with interlacing strips forming an intricate pattern +round hollow octagons. + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Cysnes, Cintra.] + +The simple boarding of the earlier roofs may well have led to the two +wonderful ceilings at Cintra, those in the Sala dos Cysnes, and in the +Sala dos Brazoes or dos Escudos, but the idea of the many octagons in +the Sala dos Cysnes may have come from some such roof as that at +Caminha, when the octagons are so important a feature of the design. In +that hall swans may have first been painted for Dom Joao, but the roof +has clearly been remade since then, possibly under Dom Manoel. The gilt +ornament on the mouldings seem even later, but may of course have been +added afterwards, though it is not very unlike some of the carving on +the roof at Caminha, an undoubted work of Dom Manoel's time. + +This great roof in the Swan Hall has a deep and projecting classical +cornice; it is divided into three equal parts, two sloping and one flat, +with the slopes returned at the ends. The whole is made up of +twenty-three large octagons and of four other rather distorted ones in +the corners, all surrounded with elaborate mouldings, carved and gilt +like the cornice. From the square or three-sided spaces left between the +octagons there project from among acanthus leaves richly carved and gilt +pendants. + +In each of the twenty-seven octagons there is painted on a flat-boarded +ground a large swan, each wearing on its neck the red velvet and gold +collar made by Dona Isabel for the real swans in the tank outside. These +paintings, which are very well done, certainly seem to belong to the +seventeenth century, for the trees and water are not at all like the +work of an artist of Dom Manoel's time. (Fig. 50.) + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Escudos, Cintra.] + +Even more remarkable is the roof of the Sala dos Brazoes or dos +Escudos--that is 'of the shields'--also built by Dom Manoel, and also +retouched at the same time as that in the Sala dos Cysnes. This other +hall is a large room over forty feet square. The cornice begins about +twelve feet from the ground, the walls being covered with hunting scenes +on blue and white tiles of about the end of the seventeenth century. The +cornice, about three feet deep and of considerable projection, is, like +all the mouldings, painted blue and enriched with elaborate gilt +carving. On the frieze is the following inscription in large gilt +letters: + + Pois com esforcos leais + Servicos foram ganhadas + Com estas e outras tais + Devem de ser comservadas.[100] + +The inscription is interrupted by brackets, round which the cornice is +returned, and on which rest round arches thrown across the four corners, +bringing the whole to an equal-sided + +[Illustration: FIG. 49. + +CAMINHA. ROOF OF MATRIZ.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50. + +PALACE, CINTRA. SALA DOS CYSNES.] + +[Illustration: CINTRA. + +Portugal. + +Old Palace. + +Sala dos Brazoes.] + +octagon. These triangular spaces are roofed with elaborate wooden +vaults, with carved and gilt ribs leaving spaces painted blue and +covered with gilt ornament. Above the cornice the panelling rises +perpendicularly for about eleven feet; there being on each cardinal side +eight panels, in two rows of four, one above the other, and over each +arch four more--forty-eight panels in all. Above this begins an +octagonal dome with elaborately carved and gilt mouldings, like those +round the panels, in each angle and round the large octagon which comes +in the middle of each side. The next stage is similar, but set at a +different angle, and with smaller and unequal-sided octagons, while the +dome ends in one large flat eight-sided panel forty-five feet above the +floor. All the space between the mouldings and the octagons is filled +with most elaborate gilt carving on a blue ground. Nor does the +decoration stop here, for the whole is a veritable Heralds' College for +all the noblest families of Portugal in the early years of the sixteenth +century. The large flat panel at the top is filled with the royal arms +carved and painted, with a crown above and rich gilt mantling all round. +In the eight panels below are the arms of Dom Manoel's eight children, +and in the eight large octagons lower down are painted large stags with +scrolls between their horns; lastly, in each of the forty-eight panels +at the bottom, and of the six spaces which occur under each of the +vaults in the four corners; in each of these seventy-two panels or +spaces there is painted a stag. Every stag has round its neck a shield +charged with the arms of a noble family, between its horns a crest, and +behind it a scroll on which is written the name of the family.[101] + +The whole of this is of wood, and for beauty and originality of design, +as well as for richness of colour, cannot be surpassed anywhere. In any +northern country the seven small windows would not let in enough light, +and the whole dome would be in darkness, but the sky and air of Portugal +are clear enough for every detail to be seen, and for the gold on every +moulding and piece of carving to gleam brightly from the blue +background. + +None of the ceilings of later date are in any way to be compared in +beauty or richness with those of these two halls, for in all others the +mouldings are shallower and the panels flatter. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra Misericordia.] + +In Coimbra there are two, both good examples of a simpler form of such +ceilings. They are, one in the Misericordia--the headquarters of a +corporation which owns and looks after all the hospitals, asylums and +orphanages in the town--and one in the great hall of the University. The +Misericordia, built by bishop Affonso de Castello Branco about the end +of the sixteenth century, has a good cloister of the later renaissance, +and opening off it two rooms of considerable size with panelled +ceilings, of which only one has its original painting. A cornice of some +size, with brackets projecting from the frieze to carry the upper +mouldings, goes round the room, and is carried across the corners so +that at the ends of the room the ceiling has one longer and two quite +short sides. The lower sloping part of the ceiling all round is divided +into square panels with three-sided panels next the squares on the short +canted sides; the upper slope is divided in exactly the same way so that +the flat centre-piece consists of three squares set diagonally and of +four triangles. All the panels are painted with a variety of emblems, +but the colours are dark and the ceiling now looks rather dingy. + +[Sidenote: Sala dos Capellos University.] + +The great hall of the University built by the rector, Manoel de +Saldanha, in 1655 is a very much larger and finer room. A raised seat +runs round the whole room, the lower part of the walls are covered with +tiles, and the upper with red silk brocade on which hang portraits of +all the kings of Portugal, many doubtless as authentic as the early +kings of Scotland at Holyrood. Here only the upper part of the cornice +is carried across the corners, and the three sides at either end are +equal, each being two panels wide. + +As in the Misericordia the section of the roof is five-sided, each two +panels wide. All the panels are square except at the half-octagonal ends +where they diminish in breadth towards the top: they are separated by a +large cable moulding and are painted alternately red and blue with an +elaborate design in darker colour on each. (Fig. 51.) + +The effect is surprisingly good, for each panel with its beautiful +design of curling and twisting acanthus, of birds, of mermaids and of +vases has almost the look of beautiful old brocade, for the blues and +reds have grown soft with age. + +[Sidenote: Santa Clara, Villa do Conde.] + +Before finally leaving wood ceilings it were better to speak of another +form or style which was sometimes used for their decoration although +they are even freer from Moorish detail than are those at Coimbra, +though probably like them ultimately derived from the same source. One +of the finest of these ceilings is found in the upper Nuns' Choir in the +church of Santa Clara at Villa do Conde. The church consists of a short +nave with transepts and chancel all roofed with panelled wooden +ceilings, painted grey as is often the case, and in no way remarkable. +The church was founded in 1318, but the ceilings and stalls of both +Nuns' Choirs, which, + +[Sidenote: Convent, Aveiro.] + +one above the other take up much the greater part of the nave, cannot be +earlier than the first half of the seventeenth century. Like the other +ceilings it is polygonal in section, but unlike all Moorish ones is not +returned round the ends. Above a finely carved cornice with elaborate +frieze, the whole ceiling is divided into deeply set panels, large and +small squares with narrow rectangles between: all alike covered with +elaborate carving, as are also the mouldings and the flat surfaces of +the dividing bands. Here the wood is left in its natural colour, but in +the nave of the church of a large convent at Aveiro, where the general +design of the ceiling is almost the same, pictures are painted in the +larger panels, and all the rest is heavily gilt, making the whole most +gorgeous. + +As time went on wooden roofs became less common, stone barrel vaults +taking their place, but where they were used they were designed with a +mass of meaningless ornament, lavished over the whole surface, which was +usually gilt. One of the most remarkable examples of such a roof is +found in the chancel of that same church at Aveiro. It is semicircular +in shape and is all covered with greater and smaller carved and gilt +circles, from the smallest of which in the middle large pendants hang +down. + +These circles are so arranged as to make the roof almost like that of +Henry VII. Chapel, though the two really only resemble each other in +their extreme richness and elaboration. This same extravagance of +gilding and of carving also overtook altar and reredos. Now almost every +church is full of huge masses of gilt wood, in which hardly one square +inch has been left uncarved; sometimes, if there is nothing else, and +the whole church--walls and ceiling alike--is a mass of gilding and +painting, the effect is not bad, but sometimes the contrast is terrible +between the plain grey walls of some old and simple building and the +exuberance behind the high altar. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51. + +COIMBRA. HALL OF UNIVERSITY.] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EARLY MANOELINO + + +Affonso V., the African, had died and been succeeded by his son Joao II. +in 1487. Joao tried, not without success, to play the part of Louis XI. +of France and by a judicious choice of victims (he had the duke of +Braganza, the richest noble in the country, arrested by a Cortes at +Evora and executed, and he murdered his cousin the duke of Vizeu with +his own hand) he destroyed the power of the feudal nobility. Enriched by +the confiscation of his victims' possessions, the king was enabled to do +without the help of the Cortes, and so to establish himself as a +despotic ruler. Yet he governed for the benefit of the people at large, +and reversing the policy of his father Affonso directed the energies of +his people towards maritime commerce and exploration instead of wasting +them in quarrelling with Castile or in attempting the conquest of +Morocco. It was he who, following the example of his grand-uncle Prince +Henry, sent out ship after ship to find a way to India round the +continent of Africa. Much had already been done, for in 1471 Fernando Po +had reached the mouth of the Niger, and all the coast southward from +Morocco was well known and visited annually, for slaves used to +cultivate the vast estates in the Alemtejo; but it was not till 1484 +that Diogo Cao, sent out by the king, discovered the mouth of the Congo, +or till 1486 that Bartholomeu Diaz doubled the Cabo Tormentoso, an +ill-omened name which Dom Joao changed to Good Hope. + +Dom Joao II. did not live to greet Vasco da Gama on his return from +India, for he died in 1495, but he had already done so much that Dom +Manoel had only to reap the reward of his predecessor's labours. The one +great mistake he made was that in 1493 he dismissed Columbus as a +dreamer, and so left the glory of the discovery of America to Ferdinand +and Isabella. Besides doing so much for the trade of his country, Dom +Joao did what he could to promote literature and art. Andrea da +Sansovino worked for him for nine years from 1491 to 1499, and although +scarcely anything done by him can now be found, he here too set an +example to Dom Manoel, who summoned so many foreign artists to the +country and who sent so many of his own people to study in Italy and in +Flanders. + +Four years before Dom Joao died, his only son Affonso, riding down from +Almerim to the Tagus to meet his father, who had been bathing, fell from +his horse and was killed. In 1495 he himself died, and was succeeded by +his cousin, Manoel the Fortunate. Dom Manoel indeed deserved the name of +'Venturoso.' He succeeded his cousin just in time to see Vasco da Gama +start on his great voyage which ended in 1497 at Calicut. Three years +later Pedro Alvares Cabral landed in Brazil, and before the king died, +Goa--the great Portuguese capital of the East--had become the centre of +a vast trade with India, Ormuz[102] in the Persian Gulf of trade with +Persia, while all the spices[103] of the East flowed into Lisbon and +even Pekin[104] had been reached. + +From all these lands, from Africa, from Brazil, and from the East, +endless wealth poured into Lisbon, nearly all of it into the royal +treasury, so that Dom Manoel became the richest sovereign of his time. + +In some other ways he was less happy. To please the Catholic Kings, for +he wished to marry their daughter Isabel, widow of the young Prince +Affonso, he expelled the Jews and many Moors from the country. As they +went they cursed him and his house, and Miguel, the only child born to +him and Queen Isabel, and heir not only to Portugal but to all the +Spains, died when a baby. Isabel had died at her son's birth, and +Manoel, still anxious that the whole peninsula should be united under +his descendants, married her sister Maria. His wish was realised--but +not as he had hoped--for his daughter Isabel married her cousin Charles +V. and so was the mother of Philip II., who, when Cardinal King Henry +died in 1580, was strong enough to usurp the throne of Portugal. + +Being so immensely rich, Dom Manoel was able to cover the whole land +with buildings. Damiao de Goes, who died in 1570, gives a list of +sixty-two works paid for by him. These include cathedrals, monasteries, +churches, palaces, town walls, fortifications, bridges, arsenals, and +the draining of marshes, and this long list does not take in nearly all +that Dom Manoel is known to have built. + +Nearly all these churches and palaces were built or added to in that +peculiar style now called Manoelino. Some have seen in Manoelino only a +development of the latest phase of Spanish Gothic, but that is not +likely, for in Spain that latest phase lasted for but a short time, and +the two were really almost contemporaneous. + +Manoelino does not always show the same characteristics. Sometimes it is +exuberant Gothic mixed with something else, something peculiar, and this +phase seems to have grown out of a union of late Gothic and Moorish. +Sometimes it is frankly naturalistic, and this seems to have been +developed out of the first; and sometimes Gothic and renaissance are +used together. In this phase, the composition is still always Gothic, +though the details may be renaissance. At times, of course, all phases +are found together, but those which most distinctly deserve the name, +Manoelino, are the first and second. + +The shape of the arches, whether of window or of door, is one of the +most characteristic features of Manoelino. After it had been well +established they were rarely pointed. Some are round, some trefoils; +some have a long line of wavy curves, others a line of sharp angles and +curves together.[105] In others, like the door to the Sala das Pegas at +Cintra, and so probably derived from Moorish sources, the arch is made +of three or more convex curves, and in others again the arch is half of +a straight-sided polygon, while in many of the more elaborate all or +many of these may be used together to make one complicated whole of +interlacing mouldings and hanging cusps. + +The capitals too are different from any that have come before. Some are +round, but they are more commonly eight-sided, or have at least an +eight-sided abacus, often with the sides hollow forming a star. If +ornamented with leaves, the leaves do not grow out of the bell but are +laid round it like a wreath. But leaf carving is not common; usually +the caps are merely moulded, one or two of the mouldings being often +like a rope; or branches may be set round them sometimes bound together +with a broad ribbon like a bent faggot. The bases too are usually +octagonal with an ogee section. + +Another feature common to all phases is the use of round mouldings, +either one by itself--often forming a kind of twisting broken +hood-mould--or of several together, when they usually form a spiral. +Such a round moulding has already been seen forming an ogee over the +windows at Sempre Noiva and over the chapter-house door at Sao Joao +Evangelista, Evora, and there are at Evora two windows side by side, in +one of which this round moulding forms a simple ogee, while in the other +it forms a series of reversed curves after the true Manoelino manner. + +[Sidenote: House of Resende, Evora.] + +They are in the house of Garcia de Resende, a man of many +accomplishments whose services were much valued both by Dom Joao and by +Dom Manoel. He seems too to have been an architect of some distinction, +if, as is said, he designed the Torre de Sao Vicente at Belem. + +This second window in his house is one of the best examples of the +complete union between Gothic and Moorish. It has three shafts, one (in +the centre) with a Moorish capital, and two whose caps are bound round +with a piece of rope. The semicircular arches consist of one round +moulding with round cusps. A hollow mould runs down the two jambs and +over the two arches, turning up as an ogee at the top. Beyond this +hollow are two tall round shafts ending in large crocketed finials, +while tied to them with carved cords is a curious hood-mould, forming +three reversed cusps ending in large finials, one in the centre and one +over each of the arches, and at the two ends curling across the hollow +like a cut-off branch. + +Here then we have an example not only of the use of the round moulding, +but also of naturalistic treatment which was afterwards sometimes +carried to excess. + +Probably this window may be rather later in date than at least the +foundation of the churches of Nossa Senhora do Popolo at Caldas da +Rainha or of the Jesus Convent at Setubal; but it is in itself so good +an example of the change from the simple ogee to the round broken +moulding and of the use of naturalistic features, that it has been taken +first. + +In 1485 Queen Leonor, wife of Dom Joao II., began a + +[Sidenote: Caldas da Rainha.] + +hospital for poor bathers at the place now called after her, Caldas da +Rainha, or Queen's hot baths. Beside the hospital was built a small +church, now a good deal altered, with simple round-headed windows, and a +curious cresting. Attached to it is a tower, interesting as being the +only Manoelino church tower now existing. The lower part is square and +plain, but the upper is very curious. On one side are two belfry +windows, with depressed trefoil heads--that is the top of the trefoil +has a double curve, exactly like the end of a clover leaf. On the outer +side of each window is a twisted shaft with another between them, and +from the top of these shafts grow round branches forming an arch over +each window, and twining up above them in interlacing curves. The window +on the east side has a very fantastic head of broken curves and straight +lines. A short way above the windows the square is changed to an octagon +by curved offsets. There are clock faces under small gables on each +cardinal side, and at the top of it all rises a short eight-sided spire. + +Probably this was the last part of the church to be built, and so would +not be finished till about the year 1502, when the whole was dedicated. + +[Sidenote: Jesus, Setubal.] + +More interesting than this is the Jesus College at Setubal. Founded by +Justa Rodrigues, Dom Manoel's nurse, in 1487 or 1488 and designed by one +Boutaca or Boitaca,[106] it was probably finished sooner than the church +at Caldas, and is the best example in the country of a late Gothic +church modified by the addition of certain Manoelino details. +Unfortunately it was a good deal injured by the great earthquake in +1755, when it lost all pinnacles and parapets. The church consists of a +nave and aisles of three and a half bays and of a square chancel. +Inside, the side aisles are vaulted with a half barrel and the central +with a simple vault having large plain chamfered ribs. The columns, +trefoils in section, are twisted, and have simple moulded caps. The +chancel which is higher than the nave is entered by a large pointed +arch, which like its jambs has one of its mouldings twisted. The chancel +vault has many ribs, most of which are also twisted. All the piers and +jambs as well as the windows are built of Arrabida marble, a red breccia +found in the mountains to the west of Setubal; the rest is all +whitewashed except the arches and vaulting ribs which are painted in +imitation of the marble piers. + +Outside, the main door, also of Arrabida marble, is large and pointed, +with many mouldings and two empty niches on each side. It has little +trace of Manoelino except in the bent curves of the upturned drip-mould, +and in the broken lines of the two smaller doors which open under the +plain tympanum. The nave window is of two lights with simple tracery, +but in the chancel, which was ready by 1495, the window shows more +Manoelino tendencies. It is of three lights, with flowing tracery at the +head, and with small cusped and crocketed arches thrown across each +light at varying levels. There are niches on the jambs, and the outer +moulding is carried round the window head in broken curves, after the +manner of Resende's house at Evora. Though the chancel is square inside, +the corners outside are cut off by a very broad chamfer, and a very +curious ogee curve unites the two. + +The cloisters to the north are more usual. The arches are round or +slightly pointed, and like the short round columns with their moulded +eight-sided caps and sides, are of Arrabida marble. Half-way along each +walk two of the columns are set more closely together, and between them +is a small round arch, with below it a Manoelino trefoil; there is too +in the north-west corner a lavatory with a good flat vault. + +[Sidenote: Beja, Conceicao.] + +At Beja the church of the Conceicao, founded by Dom Manoel's father, has +been very much pulled about, but the cornice and parapet with Gothic +details, rope mouldings, and twisted pinnacles still show that it also +was built when the new Manoelino style was first coming into use. + +[Sidenote: Castle.] + +In the ruins of the Castle there is a very picturesque window where two +horseshoe arches are set so close together that the arches meet in such +a way that the cusps at their meeting form a pendant, while another +window in the Rua dos Mercadores, though very like the one in Resende's +house in Evora, is more naturalistic. The outer shafts of the jambs are +carved like tree trunks, and the hood moulding like a thick branch is +bent and interlaced with other branches. + +[Sidenote: Paco, Cintra.] + +The additions made to the palace at Cintra by Dom Manoel are a complete +treasury of Manoelino detail in its earlier phases. + +The works were already begun in 1508, and in January of the previous +year Andre Gonsalves, who was in charge, bought two notebooks for 240 +reis in which to set down expenses, as well as paper for his office and +four bottles of ink. From these books we learn what wages the different +workmen received. Pero de Carnide, the head mason, got 50 reis or about +twopence-halfpenny a day, and his helper only 35 reis. The chief +carpenter, Johan Cordeiro, had 60 reis a day, and so had Goncalo Gomes, +the head painter. All the workmen are recorded from Pero de Torres, who +was paid 3500 reis, about 14 shillings, for each of the windows he +carved and set up, down to the man who got 35 reis a day for digging +holes for planting orange-trees and for clearing out the place where the +rabbits were kept. Andre Gonsalves also speaks of a Boitaca, master +mason. He was doubtless the Boitaca or Boutaca of the Jesus Church at +Setubal and afterwards at Belem, though none of his work at Setubal in +any way resembles anything he may have done here. + +The carriage entry which runs under the palace between Dom Manoel's +addition and the earlier part of the palace, has in it some very +characteristic capitals, two which support the entrance arch, while one +belongs to the central column of an arcade which forms a sort of aisle +on the west side. They are all round, though one belongs to an octagonal +shaft. They have no abacus proper, but instead two branches are bent +round, bound together by a wide ribbon. Below these branches are several +short pieces of rope turned in just above the neck-mould, and between +them carved balls, something like two artichokes stuck together face to +face. + +On the east side of the entry a large doorway leads into the newer part +of the palace, in which are now the queen-dowager's private rooms. This +doorhead is most typical of the style. In the centre two flat convex +curves meet at an obtuse angle. At the end of about two feet on either +side of the centre the moulding forming these curves is bent sharply +down for a few inches to a point, and is then united to the jambs by a +curve rather longer than a semicircle. Outside the round moulding +forming these curves and bends is a hollow following the same lines and +filled with branch-work, curved, twisted, and intertwined. Outside the +hollow are shafts, resting on octagonal and interpenetrating bases. + +These shafts are half-octagon in section with hollow--not as usual +rounded--sides, ornamented with four-leafed flowers, and are twisted. +Their capitals are formed by three carved wreaths, from which the shafts +rise to curious half-Gothic pinnacles; they are also curved over to form +a hood-mould. Above the central curves this moulding is broken and +turned up to end in most curious cone-shaped horns, while from the +middle there grows a large and elaborate finial. + +In the front of the new part overlooking the entrance court there are +six windows, three in each floor. They are all, except for a slight +variation in detail, exactly alike, and are evidently derived from the +Moorish windows in the other parts of the palace. Like them each has two +round-headed lights, and a framing standing on corbelled-out bases at +the sides. The capitals are various, most are mere wreaths of foliage, +but one belonging to the centre shaft of the middle window on the lower +floor has twisted round it two branches out of which grow the cusps. +While at the sides there is no distinct abacus, in the centre it is +always square and moulded. The cusps end in knobs like thistle-heads, +and are themselves rather branchlike. In the hollow between the shafts +and the framing there are sometimes square or round flowers, sometimes +twisting branches. Branches too form the framing of all, they are +intertwined up the sides, and form above the arches a straight-topped +mass of interlacing twigs, out of which grow three large finials. + +Originally the three windows of the upper floor belonged to a large hall +whose ceiling was like that of the Sala dos Cysnes. Unfortunately the +ceiling was destroyed, and the hall cut up into small rooms some time +ago. (Fig. 52.) + +Inside are several Manoelino doorways. One at the end of a passage has a +half-octagonal head, with curved sides. Beyond a hollow moulding +enriched with square flowers are thick twisted shafts, which are carried +up to form a hood-mould following the curves of the opening below, and +having at each angle a large radiating finial. + +Besides these additions Dom Manoel made not a few changes in the older +part of the palace. The main door leading into the Sala dos Cysnes is of +his time, as is too a window in the upper passage leading to the chapel +gallery. Though the walls of the Sala das Duas Irmas are probably older, +he altered it inside and built the two rows of columns and arches which +support the floor of the Sala dos Brazoes above. The arches are round +and unmoulded. The thin columns are also round, but the bases are +eight-sided; so are the capitals, but with a round abacus of boughs and +twisted ribbons. The great hall above is also Dom Manoel's work, though +the ceiling may probably have been retouched since. His also are the +two-light windows, with slender shafts and heads more or less trefoil in +shape, but with many small convex curves in the middle. The lower part +of the outer cornice too is interesting, and made of brick plastered. At +the bottom is a large rope moulding, then three courses of tilelike +bricks set diagonally. Above them is a broad frieze divided into squares +by a round moulding; there are two rows of these squares, and in each is +an opening with a triangular head like a pigeon-hole, which has given +rise to the belief that it was added by the Marquez de Pombal after the +great earthquake. Pombal means 'dovecot,' and so it is supposed that the +marquis added a pigeon-house wherever he could. He may have built the +upper part of the cornice, which might belong to the eighteenth century, +but the lower part is certainly older. + +The white marble door leading to the Sala dos Brazoes from the upper +passage is part of Dom Manoel's work. It has a flat ogee head with round +projections which give it a roughly trefoil shape, and is framed in rope +mouldings of great size, which end above in three curious finials. + +[Sidenote: Gollega.] + +There are not very many churches built entirely in this style, though to +many a door or a window may have been added or even a nave, as was done +to the church of the Order of Christ at Thomar and perhaps to the +cathedral of Guarda. Santa Cruz at Coimbra is entirely Manoelino, but is +too large and too full of the work of the foreigners who brought in the +most beautiful features of the French renaissance to be spoken of now. +Another is the church at Gollega, not far from the Tagus and about +half-way between Santarem and Thomar. It is a small church, with nave +and aisles of five bays and a square chancel. The piers consist of four +half-round shafts round a square. In front the capitals are round next +the neck moulding and square next the moulded abacus, while at the sides +they become eight-sided. The arches are of two orders and only +chamfered. The bases are curious, as each part belonging to a different +member of the pier begins at a different level. That of the shaft at +the side begins highest, and of the shaft in front lowest, and both +becoming eight-sided, envelop the base of the square centre. These +eight-sided bases interpenetrate with the mouldings of a lower round +base, and all stand on a large splayed octagon, formed from a square by +curious ogee curves at the corners. The nave is roofed in wood, but the +chancel is vaulted, having ribs enriched like the chancel arch with +cable moulding. The west front has a plain tower at the end of the south +aisle, buttresses with Gothic pinnacles, a large door below and a round +window above. The doorhead is a depressed trefoil, or quatrefoil, as the +central leaf is of two curves. Between the inner and outer round +moulding is as usual a hollow filled with branches. The outer moulding, +on its upper side, throws out the most fantastic curves and cusps, which +with their finials nearly encircle two little round windows, and then in +wilder curves push up through the square framing at the top to a finial +just below the window. At the sides two large twisted shafts standing on +very elaborate bases end in twisted pinnacles. The round window is +surrounded by large rope moulding, out of which grow two little arms, to +support armillary spheres. + +[Sidenote: Se, Elvas.] + +Dom Manoel also built the cathedral at Elvas, but it has been very much +pulled about. Only the nave--in part at least--and an earlier west tower +survive. Outside the buttresses are square below and three-cornered +above; all the walls are battlemented; the aisle windows are tall and +round-headed. On the north side a good trefoil-headed door leads to the +interior, where the arches are round, the piers clustered with +cable-moulded capitals and starry eight-sided abaci. There is a good +vault springing from corbels, but the clerestory windows have been +replaced by large semicircles. + +[Sidenote: Marvilla, Santarem.] + +All the body of the church of Santa Maria da Marvilla at Santarem is +built in the style of Dom Joao III., that is, the nave arcade has tall +Ionic columns and round arches. The rebuilding of the church was ordered +by Dom Manoel, but the style called after him is only found in the +chancel and in the west door. The chancel, square and vaulted, is +entered by a wide and high arch, consisting, like the door to the Sala +das Pegas at Cintra, of a series of moulded convex curves. The west door +is not unlike that at Gollega. It has a trefoiled head; with a round +moulding at the angle resting on the + +[Illustration: FIG. 52. + +PALACE, CINTRA. PARTS ADDED BY D. MANOEL.] + +capitals of thin shafts. Beyond a broad hollow over which straggles a +very realistic and thick-stemmed plant is a large round moulding +springing from larger shafts and concentric with the inner. As at +Gollega from the outer side of this moulding large cusps project, one on +each side, while in the middle it rises up in two curves forming an +irregular pentagon with curved sides. Each outward projection of this +round moulding ends in a large finial, so that there are five in all, +one to each cusp and three to the pentagon. Beyond this moulding a plain +flat band runs up the jambs and round the top cutting across the base of +the cusps and of the pentagon. The bases of the shafts rest on a moulded +plinth and are eight-sided, as are the capitals round which run small +wreaths of leaves. Here the upright shafts at the sides are not twisted +but run up in three divisions to Gothic pinnacles. (Fig. 53.) + +[Sidenote: Madre de Deus.] + +Almost exactly the same is a door in the Franciscan nunnery called Madre +de Deus, founded to the east of Lisbon in 1509 by Dona Leonor, the widow +of Dom Joao II. and sister of Dom Manoel. The only difference is that +the shafts at the sides are both twisted, that the pentagon at the top +is a good deal larger and has in it the royal arms, and that at the +sides are shields, one on the right with the arms of Lisbon--the ship +guided by ravens in which St. Vincent's body floated from the east of +Spain to the cape called after him--and one on the left with a pelican +vulning her breast.[107] + +The proportions of this door are rather better than those of the door at +Santarem, and it looks less clumsy, but it is impossible to admire +either the design or the execution. The fat round outer moulding with +its projecting curves and cusps is very unpleasing, the shafts at the +sides are singularly purposeless, and the carving is coarse. At Gollega +the design was even more outrageous, but there it was pulled together +and made into a not displeasing whole by the square framing. + +[Sidenote: University Chapel, Coimbra.] + +What has been since 1540 the university at Coimbra was originally the +royal palace, and the master of the works there till the time of his +death in 1524 was Marcos Pires, who also planned and carried out most of +the great church of Santa Cruz. Probably the university chapel is his +work, for the windows are not at all unlike those at Santa Cruz. The +door in many ways resembles the three last described, but the detail is +smaller and all the proportions better. The door is double with a triple +shaft in the middle; the two openings have very flat trefoil heads with +a small ogee curve to the central leaf. The jambs have on each side two +slender shafts between which there is a delicate twisted branch, and +beyond them is a band of finely carved foliage and then another shaft. +From these side shafts there springs a large trefoil, encompassing both +openings. It is crocketed on the outside and has the two usual ogee +cusps or projections on the outer side; but, instead of a large curved +pentagon in the middle, the mouldings of the projections and of the +trefoil then intertwine and rise up to some height forming a kind of +wide-spreading cross with hollow curves between the arms. The arms of +the cross end in finials, as do the ogee projections; there is a shield +on each side below the cross arms, another crowned and charged with the +royal arms above the central shaft, and on one side of it the Cross of +the Order of Christ, and on the other an armillary sphere. On either +side, as usual, on an octagonal base are tall twisted shafts, with a +crown round the base of the twisted pinnacles which rise just to the +level of the spreading arms of the cross. Like the door at Santarem the +whole would be sprawling and ill-composed but that here the white-wash +of the wall comes down only to the arms of the cross, so as to give +it--built as it is of grey limestone--a simple square outline, broken +only by the upper arm and finial of the cross. + +The heads of the two windows, one on either side of the door, are +half-irregular octagons with convex sides. They are surrounded by a +broad hollow splay framed by thin shafts resting on corbels and bearing +a head, a flat ogee in shape, but broken by two hanging points; one of +the most common shapes for a Manoelino window. (Fig. 54.) + +One more doorway before ending this chapter, already too long. + +[Sidenote: Sao Juliao, Setubal.] + +The parish church of Sao Juliao at Setubal was built during the early +years of the sixteenth century, but was so shattered by the great +earthquake of 1755 that only two of the doorways survive of the original +building. The western is not of much interest, but that on the +north--probably the work of Joao Fenacho who is mentioned as being a +well-known carver working at Setubal in 1513--is one of the most +elaborate doorways of that period. + +The northern side of the church is now a featureless expanse + +[Illustration: FIG. 53. + +SANTAREM. W. DOOR, MARVILLA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 54. + +COIMBRA. UNIVERSITY CHAPEL.] + +of whitewashed plaster, scarcely relieved by a few simple square windows +up near the cornice; but near the west end, in almost incongruous +contrast, the plainness of the plaster is emphasised by the exuberant +mouldings and carving of the door. Though in some features related to +the doors at Santarem or the Madre de Deus the door here is much more +elaborate and even barbaric, but at the same time, being contained +within a simple gable-shaped moulding under a plain round arch, with no +sprawling projections, the whole design--as is the case with the +university chapel at Coimbra--is much more pleasing, and if the large +outer twisted shafts with their ogee trefoiled head had been omitted, +would even have been really beautiful. + +The opening of the door itself has a trefoiled head, whose hollow +moulding is enriched with small well-carved roses and flowers. This +trefoiled head opens under a round arch, springing from delicate round +shafts, shafts and arch-mould being alike enriched with several finely +carved rings, while from ring to ring the rounded surface is beautifully +wrought with wonderful minutely carved spirals. The bases and caps of +these, as of the other larger shafts, are of the usual Manoelino type, +round with a hollow eight-sided abacus. Beyond these shafts and their +arch, rather larger shafts, ringed in the same way and carved with a +delicate diaper, support a larger arch, half-octagonal in shape and with +convex sides, all ornamented like its supports, while all round this and +outside it there runs a broad band of foliage, half Gothic, half +renaissance in character. Beyond these again are the large shafts with +their ogee trefoiled arch, which though they spoil the beauty of the +design, at the same time do more than all the rest to give that strange +character which it possesses. These shafts are much larger than the +others, indeed they are made up of several round mouldings twisted +together each of the same size as the shaft next them. Base and capital +are of course also much larger, and there is only one ring ornament, +above which the twisting is reversed. All the mouldings are carved, some +with spirals, some with bundles of leaves bound round by a rope, with +bunches of grape-like fruit between. The twisted mouldings are carried +up beyond the capitals to form a huge trefoil turning up at the top to a +large and rather clumsy finial. In this case the upright shafts at the +sides are not twisted as in the other doors; they are square in plan, +interrupted by a moulding at the level of the capitals, below which they +are carved on each face with large square flowers, while above they have +a round moulding at the angles. At the top are plain Gothic pinnacles; +behind which rises the enclosing arch, due doubtless to the restoration +after the earthquake. The gable-shaped moulding runs from the base of +these pinnacles to the top of the ogee, and forms the boundary between +the stonework and the plaster. + +Such then is the Manoelino in its earlier forms, and there can be little +doubt that it was gradually evolved from a union of late Gothic and +Moorish, owing some peculiarities such as twisted shafts, rounded +mouldings, and coupled windows to Moorish, and to Gothic others such as +its flowery finials. The curious outlines of its openings may have been +derived, the simpler from Gothic, the more complex from Moorish. Steps +are wanting to show whence came the sudden growth of naturalism, but it +too probably came from late Gothic, which had already provided crockets, +finials and carved bands of foliage so that it needed but little change +to connect these into one growing plant. Sometimes these Manoelino +designs, as in the palace at Cintra, are really beautiful when the parts +are small and do not straggle all over the surface, but sometimes as in +the Marvilla door at Santarem, or in that of the convent of the Madre de +Deus at Lisbon, the mouldings are so clumsy and the design so sprawling +and ill-connected, that they can only be looked on as curiosities of +architectural aberration. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THOMAR AND THE CONQUEST OF INDIA + + +Vasco da Gama set sail from Lisbon in July 1497 with a small fleet to +try and make his way to India by sea, and he arrived at Calicut on the +Malabar coast nearly a year later, in May 1598. He and his men were well +received by the zamorim or ruler of the town--then the most important +trade centre in India--and were much helped in their intercourse by a +renegade native of Seville who acted as interpreter. After a stay of +about two months he started for home with his ships laden with spices, +and with a letter to Dom Manoel in which the zamorim said:-- + +'Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of thy household, has visited my kingdom, and +has given me great pleasure. In my kingdom is abundance of cinnamon, +cloves, ginger, pepper, and precious stones; what I seek from thy +country is gold, silver, coral and scarlet.'[108] + +Arriving at Lisbon in July 1499, Vasco da Gama met with a splendid +reception from king and people; was given 20,000 gold cruzados, a +pension of 500 cruzados a year, and the title of Dom; while provision +was also made for the families of those who had perished during the +voyage; for out of one hundred and forty-eight who started two years +earlier only ninety-six lived to see Lisbon again. + +So valuable were spices in those days that the profit to the king on +this expedition, after all expenses had been paid and all losses +deducted, was reckoned as being in the proportion of sixty to one. + +No wonder then that another expedition was immediately organised by Dom +Manoel. This armada--in which the largest ship was of no more than four +hundred tons--sailed from Lisbon under the command of Pedro Alvares +Cabral on March 9, 1500. Being driven out of his course, Cabral after +many days saw a high mountain which he took to be an island, but sailing +on found that it was part of a great continent. He landed, erected a +cross, and took possession of it in the name of his king, thus securing +Brazil for Portugal. One ship was sent back to Lisbon with the news, and +the rest turned eastwards to make for the Cape of Good Hope. Four were +sunk by a great gale, but the rest arrived at Calicut on September 13th. + +Here he too was well received by the zamorim and built a factory, but +this excited the anger of the Arab traders, who burned it, killing fifty +Portuguese. Cabral retorted by burning part of the town and sailed south +to Cochin, whose ruler, a vassal of the zamorim, was glad to receive the +strangers and to accept their help against his superior. Thence he soon +sailed homewards with the three ships which remained out of his fleet of +thirteen. + +In 1502 Dom Manoel received from the Pope Alexander VI. the title of +'Lord of Navigation, conquests and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, +and India,' and sent out another great expedition under Vasco da Gama, +who, however, with his lieutenant, Vicente Sodre, found legitimate trade +less profitable than the capture of pilgrim ships going to and from +Mecca, which they rifled and sank with all on board. From the first thus +treated they took 12,000 ducats in money and 10,000 ducats' worth in +goods, and then blew up the ship with 240 men besides women and +children. + +Reaching Calicut, the town was again bombarded and sacked, since the +zamorim would not or could not expel all the Arab merchants, the richest +of his people. + +Other expeditions followed every year till in 1509 a great Mohammedan +fleet led by the 'Mirocem, the Grand Captain of the Sultan of Grand +Cairo and of Babylon,' was defeated off the island of Diu, and next year +the second viceroy, Affonso de Albuquerque, moved the seat of the +government from Cochin to Goa, which, captured and held with some +difficulty, soon became one of the richest and most splendid cities of +the East. + +Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf and the great depot of Persian +trade had been captured in 1509, and it was not long before the +Portuguese had penetrated to the Straits of Malacca and even to China +and Japan. + +So within twelve years from the time of Vasco da Gama's voyage the +foundations of the Portuguese empire in the East had been firmly +laid--an empire which, however, existed merely as a great trading +concern in which Dom Manoel was practically sole partner and so soon +became the richest sovereign of his time. + +Seeing therefore how close the intercourse was between Lisbon and +India,[109] it is perhaps no wonder that, in his very interesting book +on the Renaissance Architecture of Portugal, Albrecht Haupt, struck by +the very strange forms used at Thomar and to a lesser degree in the +later additions to Batalha, propounded a theory that this strangeness +was directly due to the importation of Indian details. That the +discovery of a sea route to India had a great influence on the +architecture of Portugal cannot be denied, for the direct result of this +discovery was to fill the coffers of a splendour-loving king with what +was, for the time, untold wealth, and so to enable him to cover the +country with innumerable buildings; but tempting as it would be to +accept Haupt's theory, it is surely more reasonable to look nearer home +for the origin of these peculiar features, and to see in them only the +culmination of the Manoelino style and the product of an even more +exuberant fancy than that possessed by any other contemporary builder. +Of course, when looking for parallels with such a special object in view +it is easy enough to find them, and to see resemblances between the +cloister windows at Batalha and various screens or panels at Ahmedabad; +and when we find that a certain Thomas Fernandes[110] had been sent to +India in 1506 as military engineer and architect; that another +Fernandes, Diogo of Beja, had in 1513 formed part of an embassy sent to +Gujerat and so probably to the capital Ahmedabad; and that Fernandes was +also the name of the architects of Batalha, it becomes difficult not to +connect these separate facts together and to jump to the quite +unwarrantable conclusion that the four men of the same name may have +been related and that one of them, probably Diogo, had given his +kinsmen sketches or descriptions on which they founded their +designs.[111] + +With regard to Thomar, where the detail is even more curious and +Indian-looking, the temptation to look for Indian models is still +stronger, owing to the peculiar position which the Order of Christ at +Thomar now held, for the knights of that order had for some time +possessed complete spiritual jurisdiction over India and all other +foreign conquests. + +This being so, it might have seemed appropriate enough for Dom Manoel to +decorate the additions he made to the old church with actual Indian +detail, as his builder did with corals and other symbols of the strange +discoveries then made. The fact also that on the stalls at Santa Cruz in +Coimbra are carved imaginary scenes from India and from Brazil might +seem to be in favour of the Indian theory, but the towns and forests +there depicted are exactly what a mediaeval artist would invent for +himself, and are not at all like what they were supposed to represent, +and so, if they are to be used in the argument at all, would rather go +to show how little was actually known of what India was like. + +There seems also not to be even a tradition that anything of the sort +was done, and if a tradition has survived about the stalls at Coimbra, +surely, had there been one, it might have survived at Thomar as well. + +At the same time it must be admitted that the bases of the jambs inside +the west window in the chapter-house are very unlike anything else, and +are to a Western eye like Indian work. However, a most diligent search +in the Victoria and Albert Museum through endless photographs of Indian +buildings failed to find anything which was really at all like them, and +this helped to confirm the belief that this resemblance is more fancied +than real; besides, the other strange features, the west window outside, +and the south window, now a door, are surely nothing more than Manoelino +realism gone a little mad. + +Thomar has already been seen in the twelfth century when Dom Gualdim +Paes built the sixteen-sided church and the castle, and when he and his +Templars withstood the Moorish invaders with such success. + +As time went on the Templars in other lands became rich and powerful, +and in the fourteenth century Philippe le Bel of France determined to +put an end to them as an order and to confiscate their goods. So in 1307 +the grand master was imprisoned, and five years later the Council of +Vienne, presided over by Clement V.--a Frenchman, Bertrand de +Goth--suppressed the order. Philippe seized their property, and in 1314 +the grand master was burned. + +In Portugal their services against the Moors were still remembered, and +although by this time no part of Portugal was under Mohammedan rule, +Granada was not far off, and Morocco was still to some extent a danger. + +Dom Diniz therefore determined not to exterminate the Templars, but to +change them into a new military order, so in 1319 he obtained a bull +from John XXII. from Avignon constituting the Order of Christ. At first +their headquarters were at Castro-Marim at the mouth of the Guadiana, +but soon they returned to their old Templar stronghold at Thomar and +were re-granted most of their old possessions. + +The Order of Christ soon increased in power, and under the +administration of Prince Henry, 1417 to 1460, took a great part in the +discoveries and explorations which were to bring such wealth and glory +to their country. In 1442, Eugenius IV. confirmed the spiritual +jurisdiction of the order over all conquests in Africa, and Nicholas V. +and Calixtus III. soon extended this to all other conquests made, or to +be made anywhere, so that the knights had spiritual authority over them +'as if they were in Thomar itself.' This boon was obtained by Dom +Affonso V. at his uncle Prince Henry's wish. + +When Prince Henry died he was succeeded as duke of Vizeu and as governor +of the order by his nephew Fernando, the second son of Dom Duarte. +Fernando died ten years later and was succeeded by his elder son Diogo, +who was murdered fifteen years later by Dom Joao II. in 1485. Then the +title passed to his brother Dom Manoel, and with it the administration +of the order, a position which he retained when he ascended the throne, +and which has since belonged to all his successors. + +Prince Henry finding that the old Templar church with its central altar +was unsuited to the religious services of the order, built a chapel or +small chancel out from one of the eastern sides and dedicated it to St. +Thomas of Canterbury. But as the order advanced in wealth and in power +this addition was found to be far too small, and in a general chapter +held by Dom Manoel in 1492 it was determined to build a new Coro large +enough to hold all the knights and leaving the high altar in its old +place in the centre of the round church. + +In all the Templar churches in England, when more room was wanted, a +chancel was built on to the east, so that the round part, instead of +containing the altar, has now become merely a nave or a vestibule. At +Thomar, however, probably because it was already common to put the +stalls in a gallery over the west door, it was determined to build the +new Coro to the west, and this was done by breaking through the two +westernmost sides of the sixteen-sided building and inserting a large +pointed arch. + +Although it was decided to build in 1492, little or nothing can have +been done for long, if it is true that Joao de Castilho who did the work +was only born about the year 1490; and that he did it is certain, as he +says himself that he 'built the Coro, the chapter-house--under the +Coro--the great arch of the church, and the principal door.' + +Two stone carvers, Alvaro Rodrigues and Diogo de Arruda, were working +there in 1512 and 1513, and the stalls were begun in July 1511, so that +some progress must have been made by them. If then Joao de Castilho did +the work he must have been born some time before 1490, as he could +hardly have been entrusted with such a work when a boy of scarcely +twenty. + +Joao de Castilho, who is said to have been by birth a Biscayan, soon +became the most famous architect of his time. He not only was employed +on this Coro, but was afterwards summoned to superintend the great +Jeronymite monastery of Belem, which he finished. Meanwhile he was +charged by Joao III. with the building of the vast additions made +necessary at Thomar when in 1523 the military order was turned into a +body of monks. He lived long enough to become a complete convert to the +renaissance, for at Belem the Gothic framework is all overlaid with +renaissance detail, while in his latest additions at Thomar no trace of +Gothic has been left. He died shortly before 1553, as we learn from a +document dated January 1st of that year, which states that his daughter +Maria de Castilho then began, on the death of her father, to receive a +pension of 20,000 reis. + +The new Coro is about eighty-five feet long inside by thirty wide, and +is of three bays. Standing, as does the Templars' church, on the highest +point of the hill, it was, till the erection of the surrounding +cloisters, clear of any buildings. Originally the round church, being +part of the fortifications, could only be entered from the north, but +the first thing done by Dom Manoel was to build on the south side a +large platform or terrace reached from the garden on the east by a great +staircase. This terrace is now bounded on the west by the Cloister dos +Filippes, on the south by a high wall and by the chapter-house, begun by +Dom Manoel but never finished, and on the north by the round church and +by one bay of the Coro; and in this bay is now the chief entrance to the +church. The lower part of the two western bays is occupied by the +chapter-house, with one window looking west over the cloister of Santa +Barbara, and one south, now hidden by the upper Cloister dos Filippes +and used as a door. [See plan p. 225.] + +Inside, the part over the chapter-house is raised to form the choir, and +there, till they were burned in 1810 by the French for firewood, stood +the splendid stalls begun in July 1511 by Olivel of Ghent who had +already made stalls for Sao Francisco at Evora.[112] The stalls had +large figures carved on their backs, a continuous canopy, and a high and +elaborate cresting, while in the centre on the west side the Master's +stall ended in a spire which ran up with numberless pinnacles, ribs and +finials to a large armillary sphere just under the vaulting.[113] Now +the inside is rather bare, with no ornament beyond the intricacy of the +finely moulded ribs and the elaborate corbels from which they spring. +These are a mass of carving, armillary spheres, acanthus leaves, shields +upheld by well-carved figures, crosses, and at the top small cherubs +holding the royal crown. + +The inner side of the door has a segmental head and on either jamb are +tall twisted shafts. A moulded string course running round just above +the level once reached by the top of the stalls turns up over the window +as a hood-mould. + +At the same time much was done to enrich the old Templars' church. All +the shafts were covered with gilt diaper and the capitals with gold; +crockets were fixed to the outer sides of the pointed arches of the +central octagon, and inside it were placed figures of saints standing on +Gothic corbels under canopies of beautiful tabernacle work. Similar +statues stand on the vaulting shafts of the outer polygon and between +them, filling in the spaces below the round-headed windows, are large +paintings in the Flemish style common to all Portuguese pictures of that +time--of the Nativity, of the Visit of the Magi, of the Annunciation, +and of the Virgin and Child. + +To-day the only part of the south side visible down to the ground level +is the eastern bay in which opens the great door. This is one of the +works which Joao de Castilho claims as his, and on one of the jambs +there is carved a strap, held by two lion's paws on which are some +letters supposed to be his signature, and some figures which have been +read as 1515, probably wrongly, for there seems to have been no +renaissance work done in Portugal except by Sansovino till the coming of +Master Nicolas to Belem in 1517 or later.[114] If it is 1515 and gives +the date, it must mean the year when the mere building was finished, not +the carving, for the renaissance band can hardly have been done till +after his return from Belem. + +The doorway is one of great beauty, indeed is one of the most beautiful +pieces of work in the kingdom. The opening itself is round-headed with +three bands of carving running all round it, separated by slender shafts +of which the outermost up to the springing of the arch is a beautiful +spiral with four-leaved flowers in the hollows. Of the carved bands the +innermost is purely renaissance, with candelabra, medallions, griffins +and leaves all most beautifully cut in the warm yellow limestone. On the +next band are large curly leaves still Gothic in style and much +undercut; and in the last, four-leaved flowers set some distance one +from the other. + +At the top, the drip-mould grows into a large trefoil with crockets +outside and an armillary sphere within. At the sides tall thin +buttresses end high above the door in sharp carved pinnacles and bear +under elaborate canopies many figures of saints.[115] Two other +pinnacles rise from the top of the arch, and between them are more +saints. In the middle stands Our Lady, and from her canopy a curious +broken and curving moulding runs across the other pinnacles and canopies +to the sides. + +But that which gives to the whole design its chief beauty is the deep +shadow cast by the large arch thrown across from one main buttress to +the other just under the parapet. This arch, moulded and enriched with +four-leaved flowers, is fringed with elaborate cusps, irregular in size, +which with rounded mouldings are given a trefoil shape by small +beautifully carved crockets. (Fig. 55.) + +Except the two round buttresses at the west end and one on the north +side which has Manoelino pinnacles, all are the same, breaking into a +cluster of Gothic pinnacles rather more than half-way up and ending in +one large square crocketed pinnacle very like those at Batalha. The roof +being flat and paved there is no gable at the west end; there is a band +of carving for cornice, then a moulding, and above it a parapet of +flattened quatrefoils, in each of which is an armillary sphere, and at +the top a cresting, alternately of cusped openings and crosses of the +Order of Christ, most of which, however, have been broken away. Of the +windows all are wide and pointed, without tracery and deeply splayed. +The one in the central bay next the porch has niches and canopies at the +side for statues and jambs not unlike those designed some years after at +Belem. There is also a certain resemblance between the door here and the +great south entrance to Belem, though this one is of far greater beauty, +being more free from over-elaboration and greatly helped by the shadow +of the high arch. + +So far the design has shown nothing very abnormal; but for one or two +renaissance details it is all of good late Gothic, with scarcely any +Manoelino features. It is also more pleasing than any other contemporary +building in Portugal, and the detail, though very rich, is more +restrained. This may be due to the nationality of Joao de Castilho, for +some of the work is almost Spanish, for example the buttresses, the +pinnacles, and the door with its trefoiled drip-mould. + +If, however, the two eastern bays are good late Gothic, what can be said +of the western? Here the fancy of the designer seems to have run quite +wild, and here it is that what have been considered to be Indian +features are found. + +It is hard to believe that Joao de Castilho, who nowhere, except perhaps +in the sacristy door at Alcobaca, shows any love of what is abnormal and +outlandish, should have designed these extraordinary details, and so +perhaps the local tradition may be so far true, according to which the +architect was not Joao but one Ayres do Quintal. Nothing else seems to +be known of Ayres--though a head carved under the west window of the +chapter-house is said to be his--but in a country so long illiterate as +Portugal, where unwritten stories have been handed down from quite +distant times, it is possible that oral tradition may be as true as +written records. + +Now it is known that Joao de Castilho was working at Alcobaca in 1519. +In 1522 he was busy at Belem, where he may have been since 1517, when +for the first time some progress seems to have been made with the +building there. What really happened, therefore, may be that when he +left Thomar, the Coro was indeed built, and the eastern buttresses +finished, but that the carving of the western part was still uncut and +so may have been the work of Ayres after Joao was himself gone.[116] +This is, of course, only a conjecture, for Ayres seems to be mentioned +in no document, but whoever it was who carved these buttresses and +windows was a man of extraordinary originality, and almost mad fancy. + +To turn now from the question of the builder to the building itself. The +large round buttresses at the west end are fluted at the bottom; at +about half their height comes a band of carving about six feet deep +seeming to represent a mass of large ropes ending in tasselled fringes +or possibly of roots. On one buttress a large chain binds these +together, on the others a strap and buckle--probably the Order of the +Garter given to Dom Manoel by Henry VII. Above this five large knotty +tree-trunks or branches of coral grow up the buttresses uniting in rough +trefoiled heads at the top, and having statues between them--Dom Affonso +Henriques, + +[Illustration: FIG. 55. + +THOMAR. CONVENT OF CHRIST. S. DOOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 56. + +THOMAR. OUTSIDE OF W. WINDOW OF CHAPTER HOUSE UNDER HIGH CHOIR IN +NAVE.] + +Dom Gualdim Paes, Dom Diniz and Dom Manoel--two on each buttress. Then +the buttress becomes eight-sided and smaller, and, surrounded by five +thick growths, of which not a square inch is unworked and whose +pinnacles are covered with carving, rises with many a strange moulding +to a high round pinnacle bearing the cross of the order--a sign, if one +may take the coral and the trees to be symbolical of the distant seas +crossed and of the new lands visited, of the supreme control exercised +by the order over all missions. + +Coral-like mouldings too run round the western windows on both north and +south sides, and at the bottom these are bound together with basket +work. + +Strange as are the details of these buttresses, still more strange are +the windows of the chapter-house. Since about 1560 the upper cloister of +the Filippes has covered the south side of the church so that the south +chapter-house window, which now serves as a door, is hidden away in the +dark. Still there is light enough to see that in naturalism and in +originality it far surpasses anything elsewhere, except the west window +of the same chapter-house. Up the jambs grow branches bound round by a +broad ribbon. From the spaces between the ribbons there sprout out on +either side thick shoots ending in large thistle heads. The top of the +opening is low, of complicated curves and fine mouldings, on the +outermost of which are cut small curly leaves, but higher up the +branches of the jambs with their thistle heads and ribbons with knotted +ropes and leaves form a mass of inextricable intricacy, of which little +can be seen in the dark except the royal arms. + +Inside the vault is Gothic and segmental, but the west window is even +more strange than the southern; its inner arch is segmental and there +are window seats in the thickness of the wall. The jambs have large +round complicated bases of many mouldings, some enriched with leaves, +some with thistle heads, some with ribbons, and one with curious +projections like small elephants' trunks--in short very much what a +Western mind might imagine some Hindu capital, reversed, to be like. On +the jamb itself and round the head are three upright mouldings held +together by carved basket work of cords, and bearing at intervals +thistle heads in threes; beyond is another band of leaf-covered carving, +and beyond it an upright strip of wavy lines.[117] The opening has a +head like that of the other window and is filled with a bronze grille. + +Still more elaborate and extraordinary is the outside of this window, +nor would it be possible to find words to describe it. + +The jambs are of coral branches, with large round shafts beyond, +entirely leaf-covered and budding into thistle heads. Ropes bind them +round at the bottom and half-way up great branches are fastened on by +chains. At the top are long finials with more chains holding corals on +which rest armillary spheres. The head of the window is formed of +twisted masses, from which project downwards three large thistle heads. +Above this is a great wreath of leaves, hung with two large loops of +rope, and twisting up as a sort of cusped ogee trefoil to the royal arms +and a large cross of the Order of Christ. A square frame with flamelike +border rises to the top of the side finials to enclose a field cut into +squares by narrow grooves. Below the window more branches, coral, and +ropes knot each other round the head of Ayres just below the rope +moulding which runs across from buttress to buttress. Above the top of +the opening and about half-way up the whole composition there is an +offset, and on it rests a series of disks, set diagonally and strung on +another rope. (Fig. 56.) + +Although, were the royal arms and the cross removed, the window might +not look out of place in some wild Indian temple, yet it is much more +likely not to be Indian, but that the shafts at the sides are but the +shafts seen in many Manoelino doors, that the window head is an +elaboration of other heads,[118] that the coral jambs are another form +of common naturalism, and that the great wreath is only the hood-mould +rendered more extravagant. In no other work in Portugal or anywhere in +the West are these features carved and treated with such wild +elaboration, nor anywhere else is there seen a base like that of the +jambs inside, but surely there is nothing which a man of imagination +could not have evolved from details already existing in the country. + +Above the window the details are less strange. A little higher than the +cross a string course traverses the front from north to south, crested +with pointed cusps. Higher up still, a round window, set far back in a +deep splay, lights the church above. Outside the sharp projecting outer +moulding of this window are rich curling leaves, inside a rope, while +other ropes run spirally across the splay, which seems to swell like a +sail, and was perhaps meant to remind all who saw it that it was the sea +that had brought the order and its master such riches and power. At the +top are the royal arms crowned, and above the spheres of the parapet and +the crosses of the cresting another larger cross dominates the whole +front. + +Such is Dom Manoel's addition to the Templars' church, and outlandish +and strange as some of it is, the beautiful rich yellow of the stone +under the blue sky and the dark shadows thrown by the brilliant sun make +the whole a building of real beauty. Even the wild west window is helped +by the compactness of its outline and by the plainness of the wall in +which it is set, and only the great coral branches of the round +buttresses are actually unpleasing. The size too of the windows and the +great thickness of the wall give the Coro a strength and a solidity +which agree well with the old church, despite the richness of the one +and the severe plainness of the other. There is perhaps no building in +Portugal which so well tells of the great increase of wealth which began +under Dom Manoel, or which so well recalls the deeds of his heroic +captains--their long and terrible voyages, and their successful +conquests and discoveries. Well may the emblem of Hope,[119] the +armillary sphere, whereby they found their way across the ocean, be +carved all round the parapet, over the door, and beside the west window +with its wealth of knots and wreaths. + +Whether or not Ayres or Joao de Castilho meant the branches of coral to +tell of the distant oceans, the trees of the forests of Brazil, and the +ropes of the small ships which underwent such dangers, is of little +consequence. To the present generation which knows that all these +discoveries were only possible because Prince Henry and his Order of +Christ had devoted their time and their wealth to the one object of +finding the way to the East, Thomar will always be a fitting memorial of +these great deeds, and of the great men, Bartholomeu Diaz, Vasco da +Gama, Affonso de Albuquerque, Pedro Cabral, and Tristao da Cunha, by +whom Prince Henry's great schemes were brought to a successful issue. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE ADDITIONS TO BATALHA + + +Little had been done to the monastery of Batalha since the death of Dom +Duarte left his great tomb-chapel unfinished. Dom Affonso v., bent on +wasting the lives of the bravest of his people and his country's wealth +in the vain pursuit of conquests in Morocco, could spare no money to +carry out what his father had begun, and so make it possible to move his +parents' bodies from their temporary resting-place before the high altar +to the chapel intended to receive them. Affonso V. himself dying was +laid in a temporary tomb of wood in the chapter-house, as were his wife +and his grandson, the only child of Dom Joao II.; while a coffin of wood +in one of the side chapels held Dom Joao himself. + +When Joao died, his widow Dona Leonor is said to have urged her brother, +the new king, to finish the work begun by their ancestor and so form a +fitting burial-place for her son as well as for himself and his +descendants. Dom Manoel therefore determined to finish the Capellas +Imperfeitas, and the work was given to the elder Matheus Fernandes, who +had till 1480, when he was followed by Joao Rodrigues, been master of +the royal works at Santarem. The first document which speaks of him at +Batalha is dated 1503, and mentions him as Matheus Fernandes, vassal of +the king, judge in ordinary of the town of Santa Maria da Victoria, and +master of the works of the same monastery, named by the king. He died in +1515, and was buried near the west door.[120] He was followed by another +Matheus Fernandes, probably his son, who died in 1528, to be succeeded +by Joao de Castilho. But by then Dom Manoel was already dead. He had +been buried not here, but in his new foundation of Belem, and his son +Joao III. and Joao de Castilho himself were too much occupied in +finishing Belem and in making great additions to Thomar to be able to do +much to the Capellas Imperfeitas. So after building two beautiful but +incongruous arches, Joao de Castilho went back to his work elsewhere, +and the chapels remain Imperfeitas to this day. + +It will be remembered that the tomb-house begun by Dom Duarte took the +form of a vast octagon some seventy-two feet in diameter surrounded by +seven apsidal chapels--one on each side except that towards the +church--and by eight smaller chapels between the apses. When Matheus +Fernandes began his work most of the seven surrounding chapels were +finished except for their vaulting, but not all, as in two or three the +outer moulding of the entrance arch is enriched by small crosses of the +Order of Christ, and by armillary spheres carved in the hollow; while +the whole building stood isolated and unconnected with the church. + +The first thing, therefore, done by Matheus was to build an entrance +hall or pateo uniting the octagon with the church. Unless the walls of +the Pateo be older than Dom Manoel's time it is impossible now to tell +how Huguet, Dom Duarte's architect, meant to connect the two, perhaps by +a low passage running eastwards from the central apse, perhaps not at +all. + +The plan carried out by Matheus took the form of a rectangular hall +enclosing the central apse and the two smaller apses to the north and +south, but leaving--now at any rate--a space between it and the side +apses. Possibly the original intention may have been to pull down the +two side apses, and so to form a square ambulatory behind the high altar +leading to the great octagon beyond; but if that were the intention it +was never carried out, and now the only entrance is through an +insignificant pointed door on the north side. + +The walls of the Pateo with their buttresses, string courses and parapet +are so exactly like the older work as to suggest that they may really +date from the time of Dom Duarte, and that all that Matheus Fernandes +did was to build the vault, insert the windows, and form the splendid +entrance to the octagon; but in any case the building was well advanced +if not finished in 1509, when over the small entrance door was written, +'Perfectum fuit anno Domini 1509.' + +Two windows light the Pateo, one looking north and one south. They are +both alike, and both are thoroughly Manoelino in style. They are of two +lights, with well-moulded jambs, and half-octagonal heads. The +drip-mould, instead or merely surrounding the half octagon, is so broken +and bent as to project across it at four points, being indeed shaped +like half a square with a semicircle on the one complete side, and two +quarter circles on the half sides, all enriched by many a small cusp and +leaf. The mullion is made of two branches twisting upwards, and the +whole window head is filled with curving boughs and leaves forming a +most curious piece of naturalistic tracery, to be compared with the +tracery of some of the openings in the Claustro Real. (Fig. 58.) + +No doubt, while the Pateo was being built, the great entrance to the +Imperfect chapels, one of the richest as well as one of the largest +doorways in the world, was begun, and it must have taken a long time to +build and to carve, for the lower part, on the chapel side especially, +seems to be rather earlier in style than the upper. The actual opening +to the springing of the arch measures some 17 feet wide by 28 feet high, +while including the jambs the whole is about 24 feet wide on the chapel, +and considerably more on the Pateo side,--since there the splay is much +deeper--by 40 feet high. To take the chapel side first:--Above a +complicated base there is up the middle of each jamb a large hollow, in +which are two niches one above the other, with canopies and bases of the +richest late Gothic; on either side of this hollow are tall thin shafts +entirely carved with minute diaper, two on the inner and one on the +outer side. Next towards the chapel is another slender shaft, bearing +two small statues one above the other, and outside it slender Gothic +pinnacles and tabernacle work rise up to the capital. Up the outer side +of the jambs are carved sharp pointed leaves, like great acanthus whose +stalk bears many large exquisitely carved crockets. On the other side of +the central hollow the diapered shaft is separated from the tiers of +tiny pinnacles which form the inner angle of the jamb by a broad band of +carving, which for beauty of design and for delicacy of carving can +scarcely be anywhere surpassed. On the Pateo side the carving is even +more wonderful.[121] There are seven shafts in all on each side, some +diapered, some covered with spirals of leaves, one with panelling and +one with exquisite foliage carved as minutely as on a piece of ivory. + +Between each shaft are narrow mouldings, and between the outer five four +bands of ivy, not as rich or as elaborately undercut as on the chapel +side, but still beautiful, and interesting as the ivy forms many double +circles, two hundred and four in all, in each of which are written the +words 'Tayas Erey' or 'Taya Serey,' Dom Manoel's motto. For years this +was a great puzzle. In the seventeenth century the writer of the history +of the Dominican Order in Portugal, Frei Luis de Souza, boldly said they +were Greek, and in this opinion he was supported by 'persons of great +judgment, for "Tanyas" is the accusative of a Greek word "Tanya," which +is the same as region, and "erey" is the imperative of the verb "ereo", +which signifies to seek, inquire, investigate, so that the meaning is, +addressed to Dom Manoel, seek for new regions, new climes.' Of course +whatever the meaning may be it is not Greek, indeed at that time in +Portugal there was hardly any one who could speak Greek, and Senhora de +Vasconcellos--than whom no one has done more for the collecting of +inscriptions in Portugal--has come to the very probable conclusion that +the words are Portuguese. She holds that 'Tayas erey' or 'Taya serey' +should be read 'Tanaz serey,' 'I shall be tenacious'--for Tanaz is old +Portuguese for Tenaz--and that the Y is nothing but a rebus or picture +of a tenaz or pair of pincers, and indeed the Y's are very like pincers. +In this opinion she is upheld by the carving of the tenacious ivy round +each word, and the fact that Dom Manoel was not really tenacious at all, +but rather changeable, makes it all the more likely that he would adopt +such a motto. + +The carvers were doubtless quite illiterate and may well have thought +that the pincers in the drawing from which they were working were a +letter and may therefore have mixed them up to the puzzling of future +generations.[122] Or since nowhere is 'Tayaz serey' written with the 'z' +may not the first 'y' be the final 'z' of Tanaz misplaced? + +The arched head of the opening is treated differently on the two sides. +Towards the Pateo the two outer mouldings form a large half octagon set +diagonally and with curved sides; the next two form a large trefoil. In +the spandrels between these are larger wreaths enclosing 'Tanyas erey,' +which is also repeated all round these four mouldings. + +The trefoils form large hanging cusps in front of the complicated inner +arch. This too is more or less trefoil in shape, + +[Illustration: Fig. 57. + +BATALHA ENTRANCE TO CAPELLAS INPERFEITAS. + +From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto] + +but with smaller curves between the larger, and all elaborately fringed +with cuspings and foliage. + +Four mouldings altogether are of this shape, two on each side, and +beyond them towards the chapel is that arch or moulding which gives to +the whole its most distinctive character. The great trefoil, with large +cusps, which forms the head is crossed by another moulding in such a way +as to become a cinquefoil, while the second moulding, like the hood of +the door at Santarem, forms three large reversed cusps, each ending in +splendid acanthus leaves. Further, the whole of these mouldings are on +the inner side carved with a delicate spiral of ribbon and small balls, +and on the outer with the same acanthus that runs up the jambs. + +Now, on the chapel side especially, from the base to the springing there +is little that might not be found in late French Gothic work, except +perhaps that diapered shafts were not then used in France, and that the +bands of carving are rather different in spirit from French work; but as +for the head, no opening of that size was made in France of so +complicated and, it must be added, so unconstructional a shape. It is +the _chef-d'oeuvre_ of the Manoelino style, and although a foreigner +may be inclined at first, from its very strangeness, to call it Eastern, +it is really only a true development in the hands of a real artist of +what Manoelino was; an expression of Portugal's riches and power, and of +the gradual assimilation of such Moors as still remained on this side +the Straits. Of course it is easy to say that it is extravagant, +overloaded and debased; and so it may be. Yet no one who sees it can +help falling a victim to its fascination, for perhaps its only real +fault is that the great cusps and finials are on rather too large a +scale for the rest. Not even the greatest purist could help admiring the +exquisite fineness of the carving--a fineness made possible by the +limestone, very soft when new, which gradually hardens and grows to a +lovely yellow with exposure to the air. No records tell us so, but +considering the difference in style between the upper and the lower part +it may perhaps be conjectured that the elder Matheus designed the lower +part, and the younger the upper, after his father's death in 1515. + +In the great octagon itself the first thing to be done was to build huge +piers, which partly encroach on the small sepulchral chapels between the +larger apses. These piers now rise nearly to the level of the central +aisle of the church where they are cut off unfinished; they must be +about 80 or 90 feet in height. On the outer side they are covered with +many circular shafts which are banded together by mouldings at nearly +regular intervals. Haupt has pointed out that in general appearance they +are not unlike the great minar called the Kutub at Old Delhi, and a +lively imagination might see a resemblance to the vast piers, once the +bases of minars, which flank the great entrance archways of some mosques +at Ahmedabad, for example those in the Jumma Musjid. Yet there is no +necessity to go so far afield. Manoelino architects had always been fond +of bundles of round mouldings and so naturally used them here, nor +indeed are the piers at all like either the Kutub or the minars at +Ahmedabad. They have not the batter or the sharp angles of the one, nor +the innumerable breaks and mouldings of the others. + +Between each pier a large window was meant to open, of which +unfortunately nothing has been built but part of the jambs. + +Inside the vaulting of the apsidal chapels was first finished; all the +vaults are elaborate, have well-moulded ribs, and bosses, some carved +with crosses of the Order of Christ, some with armillary spheres, others +with a cross and the words 'In hoc signo vinces,' or with a sphere and +the words 'Espera in Domino.' Where Dom Joao II. was to be buried is a +pelican vulning herself--for that was his device--and in that intended +for his father Dom Affonso V. a 'rodisio' or mill-wheel. A little above +the entrance arches to the chapels the octagon is surrounded by two +carved string courses separated by a broad plain frieze.[123] On the +lower string are the beautifully modelled necks and heads of dragons, +springing from acanthus leaves and so set as to form a series of M's, +and on the upper an exquisite pattern arranged in squares, while on it +rests a most remarkable cresting. In this cresting, which is formed of a +single bud set on branches between two coupled buds, the forms are most +strange and at the same time beautiful. + +Inside, the great piers have been much more highly adorned than without. +The vaulting shafts in the middle--which, formed of several small round +mouldings, have run up quite plain from the ground, only interrupted by +shields and their mantling on the frieze--are here broken and twisted. +On either side are niches with Gothic canopies, above which are +interlacing leaves and branches. Beyond the niches are the window jambs, +on which, next the opening, are shafts carved with naturalistic +tree-stems, and between these and the niches two bands of ornament +separated by thin plain shafts. + +In each opening these bands are different. In some is Gothic foliage, in +others semi-classic carving like the string below or realistic like the +cresting. In others are naturalistic branches, and in the opening over +the chapel where Dom Manoel was to lie are cut the letters M in one hand +and R in the other; Manoel Rey. (Fig. 59.) + +Only the first foot or so of the vaulting has been built, and there is +nothing now to show how the great octagon was to be roofed. Murphy[124] +gives his idea; the eight piers carried high up and capped with spires, +huge Gothic windows between, and the whole covered by a vast pointed +roof--presumably of wood--above the vault. Haupt with his Indian +prepossessions suggests a dome surrounded by eight great domed +pinnacles. Probably neither is right; certainly Murphy's great roof of +wood would never have been made, and as for Haupt's dome nothing domed +was built in Portugal till long after and that at first only on a small +scale.[125] Besides, the well-developed Gothic ribs which are seen +springing in each corner clearly show that some kind of Gothic vault was +meant, and not a dome; and that the Portuguese could build wonderful +vaults had been already shown by the chapter-house here and was soon to +be shown by the transept at Belem. So in all probability the roof would +have been a great Gothic vault of which the centre would rise very +considerably above the sides; for there is no sign of stilting the ribs +over the windows. The whole would have been covered with stone slabs, +and would have been surrounded by eight groups of pinnacles, most of +which would no doubt have been twisted. + +Deeply though one must regret that this great chapel has been left +unfinished and open to the sky, yet even in its incomplete state it is a +treasure-house of beautiful ornament, and it is wonderful how well the +more commonplace Gothic of Huguet's work agrees with and even enhances +the richness of the detail which Fernandes drew from so many sources, +late Gothic, early renaissance, and naturalistic, and which he knew so +well how to combine into a beautiful whole. + +The great Claustro Real, built by Dom Joao I., was peculiar among +Portuguese cloisters in having, or at least being prepared for, large +traceried windows. Probably these had remained blank, and for about a +hundred years awaited the tracery which more than any part of the +convent shows the skill of Matheus Fernandes. + +There seems to be no exact record of when the work was done, but it must +have been while additions were being made to the Imperfect chapels, +though more fortunate than they, the work here was successfully +finished. + +The cloister has seven bays on each side, of which the five in the +middle are nearly equal, having either five or six lights. In the +eastern corners the openings have only three lights, in the +south-western they have four, and in the north-western there stands the +square two-bayed lavatory. (Fig. 60.) + +In all the openings the shafts are alike. They have tall eight-sided and +round bases, similar capitals and a moulded ring half-way up, while the +whole shaft from ring to base and from ring to capital is carved with +the utmost delicacy, with spirals, with diaper patterns, or with +leaflike scales. Above the capitals the pointed openings are filled in +with veils of tracery of three different patterns. In the central bay, +and in the two next but one on either side of it, and so filling nine +openings, is what at first seems to be a kind of reticulated tracery. +But on looking closer it is found to be built up of leaf-covered curves +and of buds very like those forming the cresting in the Capellas +Imperfeitas. In the corner bays--except where stands the lavatory--there +is another form of reticulated tracery, where the larger curves are +formed by branches, whose leaves make the cusps, while filling in the +larger spaces are budlike growths like those in the first-mentioned +windows. + +On either side of the central openings the tracery is more naturalistic +than elsewhere; here the whole is formed of interlacing and intertwining +branches, with leaves and large fruit-like poppy heads, and in the +centre the Cross of the Order of Christ. But of all, the most successful +is in the lavatory; there the two bays which form each side are high and +narrow, + +[Illustration: FIG. 58. + +BATALHA. + +WINDOW OF PATEO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 59. + +BATALHA. + +CAPELLAS IMPERFEITAS. + +UPPER PART. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +with richly cusped pointed arches. Instead of cutting out the cusps and +filling the upper part with tracery, Matheus Fernandes has with +extraordinary skill thrown a crested transome across the opening and +below it woven together a veil of exquisitely carved branches, which, +resting on a central shaft, half hide and half reveal the large marble +fountain within. (Fig. 61.) + +At first, perhaps, accustomed to the ordinary forms of Gothic tracery, +these windows seem strange, to some even unpleasing. Soon, however, when +they have been studied more closely, when it has been recognised that +the brilliant sunshine needs closer tracery and smaller openings than +does the cooler North, and that indeed the aim of the designer is to +keep out rather than to let in the direct rays of light, no one can be +anything but thankful that Matheus Fernandes, instead of trying to adapt +Gothic forms to new requirements, as was done by his predecessors in the +church, boldly invented new forms for himself; forms which are entirely +suited to the sun, the clear air and sky, and which with their creamy +lace make a fitting background to the roses and flowers with which the +cloister is now planted. + +Now the question arises, from whence did Matheus Fernandes draw his +inspiration? We have seen that windows with good Gothic tracery are +almost unknown in Portugal, for even in the church here at Batalha the +larger windows nearly all show a want of knowledge, and a wish to shut +out the sun as much as possible, and besides there is really no +resemblance between the tracery in the church and that in the cloister. + +In the lowest floor of the Torre de Sao Vicente, begun by Dom Joao II. +and finished by Dom Manoel to defend the channel of the Tagus, the +central hall is divided from a passage by a thin wall whose upper part +is pierced to form a perforated screen. The original plan for the tower +is said to have been furnished by Garcia de Resende, whose house we have +seen at Evora, and if this screen, which is built up of heart-shaped +curves, is older than the cloister windows at Batalha, he may have +suggested to Matheus Fernandes the tracery which has a more or less +reticulated form, though on the other hand it may be later and have been +suggested by them. Most probably, however, Matheus Fernandes thought out +the tracery for himself. He would not have had far to go to see real +reticulated panelling, for the church is covered with it; but an even +more likely source of this reticulation might be found in the beautiful +Moorish panelling which exists on such buildings as the Giralda or the +tower at Rabat, and if we find Moors among the workmen at Thomar there +may well have been some at Batalha as well. As for the naturalistic +tracery, it is clearly only an improvement on such windows as those of +the Pateo behind the church, and there is no need to go to Ahmedabad and +find there pierced screens to which they have a certain resemblance. + +However, whatever may be its origin, this tracery it is which makes the +Claustro Real not only the most beautiful cloister in Portugal, but +even, as that may not seem very great praise, one of the most beautiful +cloisters in the world, and it must have been even more beautiful before +a modern restoration crowned all the walls with a pierced Gothic parapet +and a spiky cresting, whose angular form and sharp mouldings do not +quite harmonise with the rounded and gentle curves of the tracery below. + +After the suppression of the monastic orders in 1834, Batalha, which had +already suffered terribly from the French invasion--for in 1810 during +the retreat under Massena two cloisters were burned and much furniture +destroyed--was for a time left to decay. However, in 1840 the Cortes +decreed an annual expenditure of two contos of reis,[126] or about L450 +to keep the buildings in repair and to restore such parts as were +damaged. + +The first director was Senhor Luis d'Albuquerque, and he and his +successors have been singularly successful in their efforts, and have +carried out a restoration with which little fault can be found, except +that they have been too lavish in building pierced parapets, and in +filling the windows of the church with wooden fretwork and with hideous +green, red and blue glass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60. + +BATALHA. + +CLOISTER. + +_From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., Oporto._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 61. + +BATALHA. + +LAVATORY IN CLAUSTRO REAL.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +BELEM + + +Belem or Bethlehem lies close to the shore, after the broad estuary of +the Tagus has again grown narrow, about four miles from the centre of +Lisbon, and may best be reached by one of the excellent electric cars +which now so well connect together the different parts of the town and +its wide-spreading suburbs. + +Situated where the river mouth is at its narrowest, it is natural that +it was chosen as the site of one of the forts built to defend the +capital. Here, then, on a sandbank washed once by every high tide, but +now joined to the mainland by so unromantic a feature as the gasworks, a +tower begun by Dom Joao II., and designed, it is said, by Garcia de +Resende, was finished by Dom Manoel about 1520 and dedicated to Sao +Vicente, the patron of Lisbon.[127] + +The tower is not of very great size, perhaps some forty feet square by +about one hundred high. It stands free on three sides, but on the south +towards the water it is protected by a great projecting bastion, which, +rather wider than the tower, ends at the water edge in a polygon. + +The tower contains several stories of one room each, none of which are +in themselves in any way remarkable except the lowest, in which is the +perforated screen mentioned in the last chapter. In the second story the +south window opens on to a long balcony running the whole breadth of the +tower, and the other windows on to smaller balconies. The third story is +finished with a fortified parapet resting on great corbels. The last and +fourth, smaller than those below, is fortified with pointed merlons, and +with a round corbelled turret at each corner. + +On entering, it is found that the bastion contains a sort of cloister +with a flat paved roof on to which opens the door of the tower. Under +the cloister are horrid damp dungeons, last used by Dom Miguel, who +during his usurpation imprisoned in them such of his liberal opponents +as he could catch. The whole bastion is fortified with great merlons, +rising above a rope moulding, each, like those on the tower, bearing a +shield carved with the Cross of the Order of Christ, and by round +turrets corbelled out at the corners. These, like all the turrets, are +capped with melon-shaped stone roofs, and curious finials. Similar +turrets jut out from two corners of the ground floor. + +The parapet also of the cloister is interesting. It is divided into +squares, in each of which a quatrefoil encloses a cross of the Order of +Christ. At intervals down the sides are spiral pinnacles, at the corners +columns bearing spheres, and at the south end a tall niche, elaborately +carved, under whose strange canopy stand a Virgin and Child. + +The most interesting features of the tower are the balconies. That on +the south side, borne on huge corbels, has in front an arcade of seven +round arches, resting on round shafts with typical Manoelino caps. A +continuous sloping stone roof covers the whole, enriched at the bottom +by a rope moulding, and marked with curious nicks at the top. The +parapet is Gothic and very thin. The other balconies are the same, a +pointed tentlike roof ending in a knob, a parapet whose circles enclose +crosses of the order, but with only two arches in front. + +The third story is lit by two light windows on three sides, and on the +south side by two round-headed windows, between which is cut a huge +royal coat-of-arms crowned. + +Altogether the building is most picturesque, the balconies are charming, +and the round turrets and the battlements give it a look of strength and +at the same time add greatly to its appearance. The general outline, +however, is not altogether pleasing owing to the setting back of the top +story. (Fig. 62.) + +The detail, however, is most interesting. It is throughout Manoelino, +and that too with hardly an admixture of Gothic. There is no naturalism, +and hardly any suggestion of the renaissance, and as befits a fort it is +without any of the exuberance so common to buildings of this time. + +Now here again, as at Thomar and Batalha, Haupt has seen a result of +the intercourse with India; both in the balconies and in the turret +roofs[128] he sees a likeness to a temple in Gujerat; and it must be +admitted that in the example he gives the balconies and roofs are not at +all unlike those at Belem. It might further be urged that Garcia de +Resende who designed the tower, if he was never in India himself, formed +part of Dom Manoel's great embassy to Rome in 1514, when the wonders of +the East were displayed before the Pope, that he might easily be +familiar with Indian carvings or paintings, and that finally there are +no such balconies elsewhere in Portugal. All that may be true, and yet +in his own town of Evora there are still many pavilions more like the +smaller balconies than are those in India, and it surely did not need +very great originality to put such a pavilion on corbels and so give the +tower its most distinctive feature. As for the turrets, in Spain there +are many, at Medina del Campo or at Coca, which are corbelled out in +much the same way, though their roofs are different, and like though the +melon-shaped dome of the turrets may be to some in Gujerat, they are +more like those at Bacalhoa, and surely some proof of connection between +Belem and Gujerat, better than mere likeness, is wanted before the +Indian theory can be accepted. That the son of an Indian viceroy should +roof his turrets at Bacalhoa with Indian domes might seem natural; but +the turrets were certainly built before he bought the Quinta in 1528, +and neither they nor the house shows any other trace of Indian +influence. + +The night of July 7, 1497, the last Vasco da Gama and his captains were +to spend on shore before starting on the momentous voyage which ended at +Calicut, was passed by them in prayer, in a small chapel built by Prince +Henry the Navigator for the use of sailors, and dedicated to Nossa +Senhora do Restello. + +Two years later he landed again in the Tagus, with a wonderful story of +the difficulties overcome and of the vast wealth which he had seen in +the East. As a thankoffering Dom Manoel at once determined to found a +great monastery for the Order of St. Jerome on the spot where stood +Prince Henry's chapel. Little time was lost, and the first stone was +laid on April 1 of the next year. + +The first architect was that Boutaca who, about ten years before, had +built the Jesus Church at Setubal for the king's nurse, Justa Rodrigues, +and to him is probably due the plan. Boutaca was succeeded in 1511 by +Lourenco Fernandes, who in turn gave place to Joao de Castilho in +1517[129] or 1522. + +It is impossible now to say how much each of these different architects +contributed to the building as finished. At Setubal Boutaca had built a +church with three vaulted aisles of about the same height. The idea was +there carried out very clumsily, but it is quite likely that Belem owes +its three aisles of equal height to his initiative even though they were +actually carried out by some one else. + +Judging also from the style, for the windows show many well-known +Manoelino features, while the detail of the great south door is more +purely Gothic, they too and the walls may be the work of Boutaca or of +Lourenco Fernandes, while the great door is almost certainly that of +Joao de Castilho. + +In any case, when Joao de Castilho came the building was not nearly +finished, for in 1522 he received a thousand cruzados towards building +columns and the transept vault.[130] + +But even more important to the decoration of the building than either +Boutaca or Joao de Castilho was the coming of Master Nicolas, the +Frenchman[131] whom we shall see at work at Coimbra and at Sao Marcos. +Belem seems to have been the first place to which he came after leaving +home, and we soon find him at work there on the statues of the great +south door, and later on those of the west door, where, with the +exception of the Italian door at Cintra, is carved what is probably the +earliest piece of renaissance detail in the country. + +The south door, except for a band of carving round each entrance, is +free of renaissance detail, and so was probably built before Nicolas +added the statues, but in the western a few such details begin to +appear, and in these, as in the band round the other openings, he may +have had a hand. Inside renaissance detail is more in evidence, but +since the great piers would not be carved till after they were built, it +is more likely that the renaissance work there is due to Joao de +Castilho himself and to what he had learned either from Nicolas or + +[Illustration: FIG. 62. + +TORRE DE SAO VICENTE. + +BELEM.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 63. + +BELEM. + +SACRISTY.] + +from the growing influence of the Coimbra School. It is, of course, also +possible that when Nicolas went to Coimbra, where he was already at work +in 1524, some French assistant may have stayed behind, yet the carving +on the piers is rather coarser than in most French work, and so was more +probably done by Portuguese working under Castilho's direction. + +The monastic buildings were begun after the church; but although at +first renaissance forms seem supreme in the cloisters, closer inspection +will show that they are practically confined to the carving on the +buttresses and on the parapets of the arches thrown across from buttress +to buttress. All the rest, except the door of the chapter-house--the +refectory, undertaken by Leonardo Vaz, the chapter-house itself, and the +great undercroft of the dormitory stretching 607 feet away opposite the +west door, and scarcely begun in 1521, are purely Manoelino, so that the +date 1544 on the lower cloister must refer to the finishing of the +renaissance additions and not to the actual building, especially as the +upper cloister is even more completely Gothic than the lower. + +The sacristy, adjoining the north transept, must have been one of the +last parts of the original building to be finished, since in it the +vault springs in the centre from a beautiful round shaft covered with +renaissance carving and standing on a curious base. (Fig. 63.) + +The first chancel, which in 1523 was nearly ready, was thought to be too +small and so was pulled down, being replaced in 1551 by a rather poor +classic structure designed by Diogo de Torralva. In it now lie Dom +Manoel, his son Dom Joao III., and the unfortunate Dom Sebastiao, his +great-grandson. Vasco da Gama and other national heroes have also found +a resting-place in the church, and the chapter-house is nearly filled +with the tomb of Herculano, the best historian of his country. + +Since the expulsion of the monks in 1834 the monastic buildings have +been turned into an excellent orphanage for boys, who to the number of +about seven hundred are taught some useful trade and who still use the +refectory as their dining-hall. The only other change since 1835 has +been the building of an exceedingly poor domed top to the south-west +tower instead of its original low spire, the erection of an upper story +above the long undercroft, and of a great entrance tower half-way +along, with the result that the tower soon fell, destroying the vault +below. + +[Illustration: O Mosheiro des Jeronimos de Sta Maria de Belem. + +1. CHAPTER HOVSE +2. SACRISTY +3. REFECTORY +4. CHOIR GALLERY +5. INTENDED ENTRANCE PORCH +6. VNDERCROFT OF DORMITORY +607 FEET LONG + +FOVNDED BY DOM MANOEL APRIL 21 1500. +BOVTACA ARCHITECT TILL 1511. SVCCEEDED BY +LOVRENCO FERNANDES. LITTLE DONE TILL +1522 WHEN JOAO DE CASTILHO SVCCEEDED. +LOWER CLOISTER FINISHED 1544. +CAPELLA MOR REBVILT 1551 BY DIOGO DE +TORRALVA. +] + +The plan of the church is simple but original. It consists of a nave of +four bays with two oblong towers to the west. The westernmost bay is +divided into two floors by a great choir gallery entered from the upper +cloister and also extending to the west between the towers, which on the +ground floor form chapels. The whole nave with its three aisles of equal +height measures from the west door to the transept some 165 feet long by +77 broad and over 80 high. East of the nave the church spreads out into +an enormous transept 95 feet long by 65 wide, and since the vast vault +is almost barrel-shaped considerably higher than the nave. North and +south of this transept are smaller square chapels, and to the east the +later chancel, the whole church being some 300 feet long inside. North +of the nave is the cloister measuring 175 feet by 185, on its western +side the refectory 125 feet by 30, and on the east next the transept a +sacristy 48 feet square, and north of it a chapter-house of about the +same size, but increased on its northern side by a large apse. In the +thickness of the north wall of the nave a stair leads from the transept +to the upper cloister, and a series of confessionals open alternately, +the one towards the church for the penitent and the next towards the +lower cloister for the father confessor. Lastly, separated from the +church by an open space once forming a covered porch, there stretches +away to the west the great undercroft, 607 feet long by 30 wide. + +Taking the outside of the church first. The walls of the transept and of +the transept chapel are perfectly plain, without buttresses, with but +little cornice and, now at least, without a cresting or parapet. They +are only relieved by an elaborate band of ornament which runs along the +whole south side of the church, by the tall round-headed windows, and in +the main transept by a big rope moulding which carries on the line of +the chapel roof. Plain as it is, this part of the church is singularly +imposing from its very plainness and from its great height, and were the +cornice and cresting complete and the original chancel still standing +would equal if not surpass in beauty the more elaborate nave. The +windows--one of which lights the main transept on each side of the +chancel, and two, facing east and west, the chapel which also has a +smaller round window looking south--are of great size, being about +thirty-four feet high by over six wide; they are deeply set in the thick +wall, are surrounded by two elaborate bands of carving, and have +crocketed ogee hood-moulds. + +The great band of ornament which is interrupted by the lower part of the +windows has a rope moulding at the top above which are carved and +interlacing branches, two rope mouldings at the bottom, and between them +a band of carving consisting of branches twisted into intertwining S's, +ending in leaves at the bottom and buds at the top, the whole being +nearly six feet across. + +The three eastern bays of the nave are separated by buttresses, square +below, polygonal above, and ending in round shafts and pinnacles at the +top. The cornice, here complete, is deep with its five carved mouldings, +but not of great projection. On it stands the cresting of elaborately +branched leaves, nearly six feet high. + +The central bay is entirely occupied by the great south door which, with +its niches, statues and pinnacles entirely hides the lower part of the +buttresses. The outer round arch of the door is thrown across between +the two buttresses, which for more than half their height are covered +with carved and twisted mouldings, with niches, canopies, corbels, and +statues all carved with the utmost elaboration. Immediately above the +great arch is a round-headed window, and on either side between it and +the buttresses are two rows of statues and niches in tiers separated by +elaborate statue-bearing shafts and pinnacles. Statues even occupy +niches on the window jamb, and a Virgin and Child stand up in front on +the end of the ogee drip-mould of the great arch. (Fig. 64.) + +It will be seen later how poorly Diogo de Castilho at Coimbra finished +off his window on the west front of Santa Cruz. Here the work was +probably finished first, and it is curious that Diogo in copying his +brother's design did not also copy the great canopy which overshadows +the window and which, rising through the cornice to a great pinnacled +niche, so successfully finishes the whole design. Here too the +buttresses carry up the design to the top of the wall, and with the +strong cornice and rich cresting save it from the weakness which at +Coimbra is emphasised by the irregularity of the walling above. + +Luckier than the door at Coimbra this one retains its central jamb, on +which, on a twisting shaft from whose base look out two charming lions, +there stands, most appropriately, Prince Henry the Navigator, without +whose enterprise Vasco da Gama would in all probability never have +sailed to India and so given occasion for the founding of this church. +Round each of the two entrances runs a band of renaissance carving, and +the flat reliefs in the divided tympanum are rather like some that may +be seen in France,[132] but otherwise the detail is all Gothic. Twisted +shafts bearing the corbels, elaborate canopies, crocketed finials, all +are rather Gothic than Manoelino. Since the material--a kind of +marble--is much less fine than the stone used at Batalha or in Coimbra +or Thomar, the carving is naturally less minute and ivory-like than it +is there, and this is especially the case with the foliage, which is +rather coarse. The statues too--except perhaps Prince Henry's--are a +little short and sturdy. + +The tall windows in the bays on either side of this great door are like +those in the transept, except that round them are three bands of carving +instead of two, the one in the centre formed of rods which at intervals +of about a foot are broken to cross each other in the middle, and that +beyond the jambs tall twisted shafts run up to round finials just under +the cornice. + +In the next bay to the west, where is the choir gallery inside, there +are two windows, one above the other, like the larger ones but smaller, +and united by a moulding which runs round both. + +The same is the case with the tower, where, however, the upper window is +divided into two, the lower being a circle and the upper having three +intersecting lights. The drip-mould is also treated in the common +Manoelino way with large spreading finials. Above the cornice, which is +less elaborate than in the nave, was a short octagonal drum capped by a +low spire, now replaced by a poor dome and flying buttresses. + +The west door once opened into a three-aisled porch now gone. It is much +less elaborate than the great south door, but shows great ingenuity in +fitting it in under what was once the porch vault. The twisted and +broken curves of the head follow a common Manoelino form, and below the +top of the broken hood-mould are two flying angels who support a large +corbel on which is grouped the Holy Family. On the jambs are three +narrow bands of foliage, and one of figures standing under renaissance +canopies. On either side are spreading corbels and large niches with +curious bulbous canopies[133] under which kneel Dom Manoel on the left +presented by St. Jerome, and on the right, presented by St. John the +Baptist, his second wife, Queen Maria--like the first, Queen Isabel, a +daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and the aunt of his third wife, +Leonor. These figures are evidently portraits, and even if they were +flattered show that they were not a handsome couple. + +Below these large corbels, on which are carved large angels, are two +smaller niches with figures, one on each side of the twisted shaft. +Renaissance curves form the heads of these as they do of larger niches, +one on each side of the Holy Family above, which contain the +Annunciation and the Visit of the Wise Men. + +Beyond Dom Manoel and his wife are square shafts with more niches and +figures, and beyond them again flatter niches, half Manoelino, half +renaissance. The rest of the west front above the ruined porch is plain +except for a large round window lighting the choir gallery. The +north-west tower does not rise above the roof. + +Outside, the church as a whole is neither well proportioned nor +graceful. The great mass of the transept is too overwhelming, the nave +not long enough, and above all, the large windows of the nave too large. +It would have looked much better had they been only the size of the +smaller windows lighting the choir gallery--omitting the one below, and +this would further have had the advantage of not cutting up the +beautiful band of ornament. But the weakest part of the whole design are +the towers, which must always have been too low, and yet would have been +too thin for the massive building behind them had they been higher. Now, +of course, the one finished with a dome has nothing to recommend it, +neither height, nor proportion, nor design. Yet the doorway taken by +itself, or together with the bay on either side, is a very successful +composition, and on a brilliantly sunny day so blue is the sky and so +white the stone that hardly any one would venture to criticise it for +being too elaborate and over-charged, though no doubt it might seem so +were the stone dingy and the sky grey and dull. + +The church of Belem may be ill-proportioned and unsatisfactory outside, +but within it is so solemn and vast as to fill one with surprise. +Compared with many churches the actual area is not really very great nor +is it very high, yet there is perhaps no other building which gives such +an impression of space and of freedom. Entering from the brilliant +sunlight it seems far darker than, with large windows, should be the +case, and however hideous the yellow-and-blue checks with which they are +filled may be, they have the advantage of keeping out all brilliant +light; the huge transept too is not well lit and gives that feeling of +vastness and mystery which, as the supports are few and slender, would +otherwise be wanting, while looking westwards the same result is +obtained by the dark cavernous space under the gallery. (Fig. 65.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 64. + +BELEM. + +SOUTH SIDE OF CHURCH OF JERONYMOS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 65. + +BELEM. + +NAVE OF CHURCH LOOKING WEST.] + +On the south side the walls are perfectly plain, broken only by the +windows, whose jambs are enriched with empty niches; on the north the +small windows are placed very high up, the twisted vaulting shafts only +come down a short way to a string course some way below the windows, +leaving a great expanse of cliff-like wall. At the bottom are the +confessional doors, so small that they add greatly to the scale, and +above them tall narrow niches and their canopies. But the nave piers are +the most astonishing part of the whole building. Not more than three +feet thick, they rise up to a height of nearly seventy feet to support a +great stone vault. Four only of the six stand clear from floor to roof, +for the two western are embedded at the bottom in the jambs of the +gallery arches. From their capitals the vaulting ribs spread out in +every direction, being constructively not unlike an English fan vault, +and covering the whole roof with a network of lines. The piers are +round, stand on round moulded pedestals, and are divided into narrow +strips by eight small shafts. The height is divided into four nearly +equal parts by well-moulded rings, encircling the whole pier, and in the +middle of the second of these divisions are corbels and canopies for +statues. The capitals are round and covered with leaves, but scarcely +exceed the piers in diameter. Besides all this each strip between the +eight thin shafts is covered from top to bottom--except where the empty +niches occur--with carving in slight relief, either foliage or, more +usually, renaissance arabesques. + +Larger piers stand next the transept, cross-shaped, formed of four of +the thinner piers set together, and about six feet thick. They are like +the others, except that there are corbels and canopies for statues in +the angles, and that a capital is formed by a large moulding carved with +what is meant for egg and tongue. From this, well moulded and carved +arches, round in the central and pointed in the side aisles, cross the +nave from side to side, dividing its vault from that of the transept. + +This transept vault, perhaps the largest attempted since the days of the +Romans--for it covers a space measuring about ninety-five feet by +sixty-five--is three bays long from north to south and two wide from +east to west; formed of innumerable ribs springing from these points--of +which those at the north and south ends are placed immediately above the +arches leading to the chapels--it practically assumes in the middle the +shape of a flat oblong dome. + +Now, though the walls are thick, there are no buttresses, and the skill +and daring required to build a vault sixty-five feet wide and about a +hundred feet high resting on side walls on one side and on piers +scarcely six feet thick on the other must not only excite the admiration +of every one, especially when it is remembered that no damage was caused +by the great earthquake which shook Lisbon to pieces in 1755, but must +also raise the wish that what has been so skilfully done here had been +also done in the Capellas Imperfeitas at Batalha. + +At the north end of the main transept are two doors, one leading to the +cloister and one to the sacristy. A straight and curved moulding +surrounds their trefoil heads under a double twining hood-mould. +Outside, other mouldings rise high above the whole to form a second +large trefoil, whose hood-mould curves into two great crocketed circles +before rising to a second ogee. + +The chancel has a round and the chapels pointed entrance arches, formed, +as are the jambs, of two bands of carving and two thick twisted +mouldings. Tomb recesses, added later, with strapwork pediments line the +chapels, and at the entrance to the chancel are two pulpits, for the +Gospel and Epistle. These are rather like Joao de Ruao's pulpit at +Coimbra in outline, but supported on a large capital are quite Gothic, +as are the large canopies which rise above them. + +Strong arches with cable mouldings lead to the space under the gallery, +which is supported by an elaborate vault, elliptical in the central and +pointed in the side aisles. + +In the gallery itself--only to be entered from the upper cloister--are +the choir stalls, of Brazil wood, added in 1560, perhaps from the +designs of Diogo da Carta.[134] + +With the earlier stalls at Santa Cruz and at Funchal, and the later at +Evora, these are almost the only ones left which have not been replaced +by rococo extravagances. + +The back is divided into large panels three stalls wide, each containing +a painting of a saint, and separated by panelled and carved Corinthian +pilasters. Below each painting is an oblong panel with, in the centre, a +beautifully carved head looking out of a circle, and at the sides bold +carvings of leaves, dragons, sirens, or animals, while beautiful figures +of saints stand in round-headed niches under the pilasters. At the ends +are larger pilasters, and a cornice carried on corbels serves as canopy. +Each of the lower stalls has a carved panel under the upper book-board, +but the small figures which stood between them on the arms are nearly +all gone. + +If 1560 be the real date, the carving is extraordinarily early in +character; the execution too is excellent, though perhaps the heads +under the paintings are on too large a scale for woodwork, still they +are not at all coarse, and would be worthy of the best Spanish or French +sculptors. + +The cloister, nearly, but not quite square, has six bays on each side, +of which the four central bays are of four lights each, while narrower +ones at the ends have no tracery. In the traceried bays the arches are +slightly elliptical, subdivided by two round-headed arches, which in +turn enclose two smaller round arches enriched some with trefoil cusps, +some with curious hanging pieces of tracery which are put, not in the +middle, but a little to the side nearer the central shaft. The shafts +are round, very like those at Batalha, and, like every inch of the arch +and tracery mouldings, are covered with ornament; some are twisted, some +diapered, some covered with renaissance detail. Broad bands too of +carving run round the inside and the outside of the main arches, the +inner being almost renaissance and the outer purely Manoelino. The vault +of many ribs, varying in arrangement in the different walks, is entirely +Gothic, while all the doors--except the double opening leading to the +chapter-house, which has beautifully carved renaissance panels on the +jambs--are Manoelino. The untraceried openings at the ends are fringed +with very extraordinary lobed projections, and on the solid pieces of +walling at the corners are carved very curious and interesting coats of +arms crosses and emblems worked in with beautifully cut leaves and +birds. (Figs. 66 and 67.) + +Outside, between each bay, wide buttresses project, of which the +front--formed into a square pilaster--is enriched with panels of +beautiful renaissance work, while the back part is fluted or panelled. +From the top mouldings of these pilasters, rather higher than the +capitals of the openings, elliptical arches with a vault behind are +thrown across from pier to pier with excellent effect. Now, the base +mouldings of these panelled pilasters either do not quite fit those of +the fluted strips behind, or else are cut off against them, as are also +the top mouldings of the fluted part; further, the fluted part runs up +rather awkwardly into the vault, so that it seems reasonable to +conjecture that these square renaissance pilasters and the arches may be +an after-thought, added because it was found that the original +buttresses were not quite strong enough for their work, and this too +would account for the purely renaissance character of the carving on +them, while the rest is almost entirely Gothic or Manoelino. The arches +are carried diagonally across the corners, in a very picturesque manner, +and they all help to keep out the direct sunlight and to throw most +effective shadows. + +The parapet above these arches is carved with very pleasing renaissance +details, and above each pier rise a niche and saint. + +The upper cloister is simpler than the lower. All the arches are round +with a big splay on each side carved with four-leaved flowers. They are +cusped at the top, and at the springing two smaller cusped arches are +thrown across to a pinnacled shaft in the centre. The buttresses between +them are covered with spiral grooves, and are all finished off with +twisted pinnacles. Inside the pointed vault is much simpler than in the +walks below. + +Here the tracery is very much less elaborate than in the Claustro Real +at Batalha, but as scarcely a square inch of the whole cloister is left +uncarved the effect is much more disturbed and so less pleasing. + +Beautiful though most of the ornament is, there is too much of it, and +besides, the depressed shape of the lower arches is bad and ungraceful, +and the attempt at tracery in the upper walks is more curious than +successful. + +The chapter-house too, though a large and splendid room, would have +looked better with a simpler vault and without the elliptical arches of +the apse recesses. + +The refectory, without any other ornament than the bold ribs of its +vaulted roof, and a dado of late tiles, is far more pleasing. + +Altogether, splendid as it is, Belem is far less pleasing, outside at +least, than the contemporary work at Batalha or at Thomar, for, like the +tower of Sao Vicente near by, it is wanting in those perfect proportions +which more than richness of detail give charm to a building. Inside it +is not so, and though many of the vaulting ribs might be criticised as +useless + +[Illustration: FIG. 66. + +BELEM. + +CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 67. + +BELEM. + +LOWER CLOISTER.] + +and the whole vault as wanting in simplicity, yet there is no such +impressive interior in Portugal and not many elsewhere. + +The very over-elaboration which spoils the cloister is only one of the +results of all the wealth which flowed in from the East, and so, like +the whole monastery, is a worthy memorial of all that had been done to +further exploration from the time of Prince Henry, till his efforts were +crowned with success by Vasco da Gama. + +[Sidenote: Conceicao, Velha.] + +There can be little doubt that the transept front of the church of the +Conceicao Velha was also designed by Joao de Castilho. The church was +built after 1520 on the site of a synagogue, and was almost entirely +destroyed by the earthquake of 1755. Only the transept front has +survived, robbed of its cornice and cresting, and now framed in plain +pilasters and crowned by a pediment. The two windows, very like those at +Belem, have beautiful renaissance details and saints in niches on the +jambs. + +The large door has a round arch with uprights at the sides rising to a +horizontal crested moulding. Below, these uprights have a band of +renaissance carving on the outer side, and in front a canopied niche +with a well-modelled figure. Above they become semicircular and end in +sphere-bearing spirelets. The great round arch is filled with two orders +of mouldings, one a broad strip of arabesque, the other a series of +kneeling angels below and of arabesque above. The actual openings are +formed of two round-headed arches whose outer mouldings cross each other +on the central jamb. Above them are two reversed semicircles, and then a +great tympanum carved with a figure of Our Lady sheltering popes, +bishops, and saints under her robe: a carving which seems to have lately +taken the place of a large window. (Fig. 68.) + +As it now stands the front is not pleasing. It is too wide, and the +great spreading pediment is very ugly. Of course it ought not to be +judged by its present appearance, and yet it must be admitted that the +windows are too large and come too near the ground, and that much of the +detail is coarse. Still it is of interest if only because it is the only +surviving building closely related to the church of Belem. Built perhaps +to commemorate the expulsion of the Jews, it shared the fate of the +Jesuits who instigated the expulsion, and was destroyed only a few years +before they were driven from the country by the Marques de Pombal. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE COMING OF THE FOREIGN ARTISTS + + +If Joao de Castilho and his brother Diogo were really natives of one of +the Basque provinces, they might rightly be included among the foreign +artists who played such an important part in Portugal towards the end of +Dom Manoel's reign and the beginning of that of his son, Dom Joao III. +Yet the earlier work of Joao de Castilho at Thomar shows little trace of +that renaissance influence which the foreigners, and especially the +Frenchmen, were to do so much to introduce. + +[Sidenote: Santa Cruz, Coimbra.] + +A great house of the Canon Regular of St. Augustine had been founded at +Coimbra by Dom Affonso Henriques for his friend Sao Theotonio in 1131. +But with the passage of centuries the church and monastic building of +Sta. Cruz had become dilapidated, and were no longer deemed worthy of so +wealthy and important a body. So in 1502 Dom Manoel determined to +rebuild them and to adorn the church, and it was for this adorning that +he summoned so many sculptors in stone and in wood to his aid. + +The first architect of the church was Marcos Pires, to whom are due the +cloister and the whole church except the west door, which was finished +by his successor Diogo de Castilho with the help of Master Nicolas, a +Frenchman. + +One Gregorio Lourenco seems to have been what would now be called master +of the works, and from his letters to Dom Manoel we learn how the work +was going on. After Dom Manoel's death in 1521 he writes to Dom Joao +III., telling him what, of all the many things his father the late king +had ordered, was already finished and what was still undone. + +The church consists of a nave of four bays, measuring some 105 feet by +39, with flanking chapels, the whole lined with eighteenth-century +tiles, mostly blue and white. There are also a great choir gallery at +the west end, a chancel, polygonal + +[Illustration: FIG. 68. + +LISBON. + +CONCEICAO VELHA.] + +within but square outside, 54 feet long by 20 broad, with a +seventeenth-century sacristy to the south, a cloister to the north, and +chapels, one of which was the chapter-house, forming a kind of passage +from sacristy to cloister behind the chancel. + +By 1518 the church must have been already well advanced, for in January +of that year Gregorio Lourenco writes to Dom Manoel saying that 'the +wall of the dormitory was shaken and therefore I have sent for "Pere +Anes"--Pedro Annes had been master builder of the royal palace, now the +university at Coimbra, and being older may have had more experience than +Marcos Pires, the designer of the monastery--who had it shored up, and +they say that after the vault of the cloister is finished and the wooden +floors in it will be quite safe. Also six days ago came the master of +the reredos from Seville and set to work at once to finish the great +reredos, for which he has worked all the wood--he must surely have +brought it with him from Seville--but the glazier has not yet come to +finish the windows.' + +[Illustration: PLAN OF STA. CRUZ] + +On 22nd July following he writes again that all but one of the vaults of +the cloister were finished--'and Marcos Pirez works well, and the master +of the reredos has finished the tabernacle, and the "cadeiras" [that is +probably, sedilia] and the bishop has come to see them and they are very +good, and the master who is making the tombs of the kings is working at +his job, and has already much stonework.' + +These tombs of the kings are the monuments of Dom Affonso Henriques on +the north wall of the chancel and of Dom Sancho I. on the south. The two +first kings of Portugal had originally been buried in front of the old +church, and were now for the first time given monuments worthy of their +importance in the history of their country. + +In 1521 Dom Manoel died, and next year Gregorio tells his successor what +his father had ordered; after speaking of the pavement, the vault of Sao +Theotonio's Chapel, the dormitory with its thirty beds and its +fireplace, the refectory, the royal tombs and a great screen twenty-five +palms, or about eighteen feet high, he comes to the pulpit--'This, Sir, +which is finished, all who see it say, that in Spain there is no piece +of stone of better workmanship, for this 20$000 have been paid,' leaving +some money still due. + +He then speaks of the different reredoses, tombs of two priors, silver +candlesticks, a great silver cross made by Eytor Gonsalves, a goldsmith +of Lisbon, much other church plate, and then goes on to say that a +lectern was ordered for the choir but was not made and was much needed, +as was a silver monstrance, and that the monastery had no money to pay +Christovam de Figueiredo for painting the great reredos of the high +altar and those of the other chapels, 'and, Sir, it is necessary that +they should be painted.' + +Besides making so many gifts to Sta. Cruz, Dom Manoel endowed it with +many privileges. The priors were exempt from the jurisdiction of the +bishop, and had themselves complete control over their own dependent +churches. All the canons were chaplains to the king, and after the +university came back to Coimbra from Lisbon in 1539 Dom Joao III. made +the priors perpetual chancellors.[135] + +By 1522 then the church must have been practically ready, though some +carving still had to be done. + +Marcos Pires died in 1524 and was succeeded by Diogo de Castilho, and in +a letter dated from Evora in that year the king orders a hundred gold +cruzados to be paid to Diogo and to Master Nicolas[136] for the statues +on the west door which were still wanting, and two years later in +September another letter granted Diogo the privilege of riding on a +mule.[137] + +The interest of the church itself is very inferior to that of the +different pieces of church furniture, nearly all the work of foreigners, +with which it was adorned, and of which some, though not all, survive to +the present day. + +Inside there is nothing very remarkable in the structure of the church +except the fine vaulting with its many moulded ribs, the large windows +with their broken Manoelino heads, and the choir gallery which occupies +nearly two bays at the west end. Vaulted underneath, it opens to the +church by a large elliptical arch which springs from jambs ornamented +with beautiful candelabrum shafts. + +Of the outside little is to be seen except the west front, one of the +least successful designs of that period. + +In the centre--now partly blocked up by eighteenth-century additions, +and sunk several feet below the street--is a great moulded arch, about +eighteen feet across and once divided into two by a central jamb bearing +a figure of Our Lord, whence the door was called 'Portal da Majestade'; +above the arch a large round-headed window, deeply recessed, lights the +choir gallery, and between it and the top of the arch are three +renaissance niches, divided by pilasters, and containing three +figures--doubtless some of those for which Diogo de Castilho and Master +Nicolas were paid one hundred cruzados in 1524. The window with its +mouldings is much narrower than the door, and is joined to the tall +pinnacles which rise to the right and left of the great opening by +Gothic flying buttresses. Between the side pinnacles and the central +mass of the window a curious rounded and bent shaft rises from the +hood-mould of the door to end in a semi-classic column between two +niches, and from the shaft there grow out two branches to support the +corbels on which the niche statues stand. All this is very like the +great south door of the Jeronymite monastery at Belem, the work of +Diogo's brother Joao de Castilho; both have a wide door below with a +narrower window above, surrounded by a mass of pinnacles and statues, +but here the lower door is far too wide, and the upper window too small, +and besides the wall is set back a foot or two immediately on each side +of the window so that the surface is more broken up. Again, instead of +the whole rising up with a great pinnacled niche to pierce the cornice +and to dominate parapet and cresting, the drip-mould of the window only +gives a few ugly twists, and leaves a blank space between the window +head and the straight line of the cornice and parapet; a line in no way +improved by the tall rustic cross or the four broken pinnacles which +rise above it. Straight crested parapets also crown the wall where it is +set back, but at the sides the two corners grow into eight-sided turrets +ending in low crocketed stone roofs. Of course the whole front has +suffered much from the raising of the street level, but it can never +have been beautiful, for the setting back of part of the wall looks +meaningless, and the turrets are too small for towers and yet far too +large for angle pinnacles. (Fig. 69.) + +Although the soft stone is terribly perished, greater praise can be +given to the smaller details, especially to the figures, which show +traces of considerable vigour and skill. + +If the church shows that Marcos Pires was not a great architect, the +cloister still more marks his inferiority to the Fernandes or to Joao de +Castilho, though with its central fountain and its garden it is +eminently picturesque. Part of it is now, and probably all once was, of +two stories. The buttresses are picturesque, polygonal below, a cluster +of rounded shafts above, and are carried up in front of the upper +cloister to end in a large cross. All the openings have segmental +pointed heads with rather poor mouldings. Each is subdivided into two +lights with segmental round heads, supporting a vesica-like opening. All +the shafts are round, with round moulded bases and round Manoelino caps. +The central shaft has a ring moulding half-way up, and all, including +the flat arches and the vesicae, are either covered with leaves, or are +twisted into ropes, but without any of that wonderful delicacy which is +so striking at Batalha. Across one corner a vault has been thrown +covering a fountain, and though elsewhere the ribs are plainly moulded, +here they are covered with leaf carving, and altogether make this +north-east corner the most picturesque part of the whole cloister. (Fig. +70.) + +The upper walk with its roof of wood is much simpler, there being three +flat arches to each bay upheld by short round shafts. + +Now to turn from the church itself and its native builders to the +beautiful furniture provided for it by foreign skill. Much of it has +vanished. The church plate when it became unfashionable was sent to Goa, +the great metal screen made by Antonius Fernandes is gone, and so is the +reredos carved by a master from Seville and painted by Christovao de +Figueredo. There still hang on the wall of the sacristy two or three + +[Illustration: FIG. 69. + +COIMBRA. + +WEST FRONT OF STA. CRUZ.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 70. + +COIMBRA. + +CLOISTER OF STA. CRUZ.] + +pictures which may have formed part of this reredos. They are high up +and very dirty, but seem to have considerable merit, especially one of +'Pentecost' which is signed 'Velascus.' The 'Pentecost' still has for +its frame some pieces of beautiful early renaissance moulding not unlike +what may still be seen on the reredos at Funchal, and it is just the +size of a panel for a large reredos. Of course 'Velascus' is not Grao +Vasco, though the name is the same, nor can he be Christovao de +Figueredo, but perhaps the painting spoken of by Gregorio Lourenco as +done by Christovao may only have been of the framing and not necessarily +of the panels. + +These are gone, but there are still left the royal tombs, the choir +stalls, the pulpit, and three beautiful carved altar-pieces in the +cloister. + +The royal tombs are both practically alike. In each the king lies under +a great round arch, on a high altar-tomb, on whose front, under an egg +and tongue moulding a large scroll bearing an inscription is upheld by +winged children. The arch is divided into three bands of carving, +one--the widest--carved with early renaissance designs, the next which +is also carried down the jambs, with very rich Gothic foliage, and the +outermost with more leaves. The back of each tomb is divided into three +by tall Gothic pinnacles, and contains three statues on elaborate +corbels and under very intricate canopies, of which the central rises in +a spire to the top of the arch. + +On the jambs, under the renaissance band of carving, are two statues one +above the other on Gothic corbels but under renaissance canopies. + +Beyond the arch great piers rise up with three faces separated by Gothic +pinnacles. On each face there is at the bottom--above the +interpenetrating bases--a classic medallion encompassed by Manoelino +twisting stems and leaves, and higher up two statues one above the +other. Of these the lower stands on a Gothic corbel under a renaissance +canopy, and the upper, standing on the canopy, has over it another tall +canopy Gothic in style. Higher up the piers rise up to the vault with +many pinnacles and buttresses, and between them, above the arch, are +other figures in niches and two angels holding the royal arms. + +The design of the whole is still very Manoelino, and therefore the +master of the royal tombs spoken of by Gregorio Lourenco was probably a +Portuguese, but the skill shown in modelling the figures and the +renaissance details are something quite new. (Fig. 71.) + +Many Frenchmen are known to have worked in Santa Cruz. One, Master +Nicolas, has been met already working at Belem and at the west door +here, and others--Longuim, Philipo Uduarte, and finally Joao de Ruao +(Jean de Rouen)--are spoken of as having worked at the tombs. + +Though the figures are good with well-modelled draperies, their faces, +or those of most of them, are rather expressionless, and some of them +look too short--all indeed being less successful than those on the +pulpit, the work of Joao de Ruao. It is likely then that the figures are +mostly the work of the lesser known men and not of Master Nicolas or of +Joao de Ruao, though Joao, who came later to Portugal, may have been +responsible for some of the renaissance canopies which are not at all +unlike some of his work on the pulpit. + +The pulpit projects from the north wall of the church between two of the +chapels. In shape it is a half-octagon set diagonally, and is upheld by +circular corbelling. It was ready by the time Gregorio Lourenco wrote to +Dom Joao III. in 1522, but still wanted a suitable finishing to its +door. This Gregorio urged Dom Joao to add, but it was never done, and +now the entrance is only framed by a simple classic architrave. + +Now Georges d'Amboise, the second archbishop of that name to hold the +see of Rouen, began the beautiful tomb, on which he and his uncle kneel +in prayer, in the year 1520, and the pulpit at Coimbra was finished +before March 1522. + +Among the workmen employed on this tomb a Jean de Rouen is mentioned, +but he left in 1521. The detail of the tomb at Rouen and that of the +pulpit here are alike in their exceeding fineness and beauty, and a man +thought worthy of taking part in the carving of the tomb might well be +able to carry out the pulpit; besides, on it are cut initials or signs +which have been read as J.R.[138] The J or I is distinct, the R much +less so, but the carver of the pulpit was certainly a Frenchman well +acquainted with the work of the French renaissance. It may therefore be +accepted with perhaps some likelihood, that the Jean de Rouen who left +Normandy in 1521, came then to Coimbra, carved this pulpit, and is the +same who as Joao de Ruao is mentioned in later documents as + +[Illustration: FIG. 71. + +COIMBRA, STA. CRUZ. + +TOMB OF D. SANCHO I.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 72. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CRUZ. + +PULPIT.] + +still working for Santa Cruz, where he signed a discharge as late as +1549.[139] + +The whole pulpit is but small, not more than about five feet high +including the corbelled support, and all carved with a minuteness and +delicacy not to be surpassed and scarcely to be equalled by such a work +as the tomb at Rouen. At the top is a finely moulded cornice enriched +with winged heads, tiny egg and tongue and other carving. Below on each +of the four sides are niches whose shell tops rest on small pilasters +all covered with the finest ornaments, and in each niche sits a Father +of the Western Church, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Gregory, and St. +Ambrose. Their feet rest on slightly projecting bases, on the front of +each of which is a small panel measuring about four inches by two carved +with tiny figures and scenes in slight relief. On the shell heads, which +project a little in the centre, there stand, above St. Augustine three +minute figures of boys with wreaths, the figures being about three or +four inches high, above St. Jerome sit two others, with masks hanging +from their arms, upholding a shield and a cross of the Order of Christ. +Those above St. Gregory support a sphere, and above St. Ambrose one +stands alone with a long-necked bird on each side. At each angle two +figures, one above the other, each about eight inches high, stand under +canopies the delicacy of whose carving could scarcely be surpassed in +ivory. They represent, above, Religion with Faith, Hope, and Charity, +and below, four prophets. The corbelled support is made up of a great +many different mouldings, most of them enriched in different ways. + +Near the top under the angles of the pulpit are beautiful cherubs' +heads. About half-way down creatures with wings and human heads capped +with winged helmets grow out of a mass of flat carving, and at the very +bottom is a kind of winged dragon whose five heads stretch up across the +lower mouldings. (Fig. 72.) + +Altogether the pulpit is well worthy of the praise given it by Gregorio; +there may be more elaborate pieces of carving in Spain, but scarcely one +so beautiful in design and in execution, and indeed it may almost be +doubted whether France itself can produce a finer piece of work. The +figure sculpture is worthy of the best French artists, the whole design +is elaborate, but not too much so, considering the smallness of the +scale, and the execution is such as could only have been carried out in +alabaster or the finest limestone, such as that found at Anca not far +off, and used at Coimbra for all delicate work.[140] + +In the discharge signed by Joao de Ruao in 1549 reredoses are spoken of +as worked by him. There is nothing in the document to show whether these +are the three great pieces of sculpture in the cloisters each of which +must once have been meant for a reredos. Unfortunately in the +seventeenth century they were walled up, and were only restored to view +not many years ago, and though much destroyed, enough survives to show +that they were once worthy of the pulpit. + +They represent 'Christ shown to the people by Pilate,' the 'Bearing of +the Cross,' and the 'Entombment.' + +In each there is at the bottom a shelf narrower than the carving above, +and uniting the two, a broad band wider at the top than at the bottom, +most exquisitely carved in very slight relief, with lovely early +renaissance scrolls, and with winged boys holding shields or medallions +in the centre. Above is a large square framework, flanked at the sides +by tall candelabrum shafts on corbels, and finished at the top by a +moulding or, above the 'Bearing of the Cross,' by a crested entablature, +with beautifully carved frieze. Within this framework the stone is cut +back with sloping sides, carved with architectural detail, arches, +doors, entablatures in perspective. At the top is a panelled canopy. + +In the 'Ecce Homo' on the left is a flight of steps leading up to the +judgment seat of Pilate, who sits under a large arch, with Our Lord and +a soldier on his right. The other half of the composition has a large +arch in the background, and in front a crowd of people some of whom are +seen coming through the opening in the sloping side. + +In the 'Bearing of the Cross' the background is taken up by the walls +and towers of Jerusalem. Our Lord with a great T-shaped cross is in the +centre, with St. Veronica on the right and a great crowd of people +behind, while other persons look out of the perspective arches at the +side. (Fig. 73.) + +In all, especially perhaps in the 'Ecce Homo,' the composition is good, +and the modelling of the figures excellent. Unfortunately the faces are +much decayed and perhaps the figures may be rather wanting in repose, +and yet even in their decay they are very beautiful pieces of work, and +show that Joao de Ruao--if he it was who carved them--was as able to +design a large composition as to carve a small pulpit. Under the 'Ecce +Homo,' in a tablet held by winged boys who grow out of the ends of the +scrolls, there is a date which seems to read 1550. The 'Quitacam' was +signed on the 11th of September 1549, and if 1550 is the date here +carved it may show when the work was finally completed.[141] + +There once stood in the refectory a terra cotta group of the 'Last +Supper.' Now nothing is left but a few fragments in the Museum, but +there too the figures of the apostles were well modelled and well +executed. + +Of the other works ordered by Dom Manoel the only one which still +remains are the splendid stalls in the western choir gallery. These in +two tiers of seats run round the three walls of the gallery except where +interrupted by the large west window. They can hardly be the 'cadeiras' +or seats mentioned in Gregorio's letter of July 1518, for it is surely +impossible that they should have been begun in January and finished in +July however active the Seville master may have been, and judging from +their carving they seem more Flemish than Spanish, and we know that +Flemings had been working not very long before on the cathedral reredos. +The lower tier of seats has Gothic panelling below, good Miserere seats, +arms, on each of which sits a monster, and on the top between each and +supporting the book-board of the upper row, small figures of men, with +bowed backs, beggars, pilgrims, men and women all most beautifully +carved. The panels behind the upper tier are divided by twisted +Manoelino shafts bearing Gothic pinnacles, and the upper part of each +panel is enriched with deeply undercut leaves and finials surrounding +armillary spheres. Above the panels, except over the end stalls where +sat the Dom Prior and the other dignitaries, and which have higher +canopies, there runs a continuous canopy panelled with Gothic +quatrefoils, and having in front a fringe of interlacing cusps. Between +this and the cresting is a beautiful carved cornice of leaves and of +crosses of the Order of Christ, and the cresting itself is formed by a +number of carved scenes, cities, forests, ships, separated by saintly +figures and surmounted by a carved band from which grow up great curling +leaves and finials. These scenes are supposed to represent the great +discoveries of Vasco da Gama and of Pedro Alvares Cabral in India and in +Brazil, but if this is really so the carvers must have been left to +their own imagination, for the towns do not look particularly Indian, +nor do the forests suggest the tropical luxuriance of Brazil: perhaps +the small three-masted ships alone, with their high bows and stern, +represent the reality. (Fig. 74.) + +As a whole the design is entirely Gothic, only at the ends of each row +of stalls is there anything else, and there the panels are carved with +renaissance arabesque, which, being gilt like all the other carving, +stands out well from the dark brown background. + +These are almost the only mediaeval stalls left in the country. Those at +Thomar were burnt by the French, those in the Carmo at Lisbon destroyed +by the earthquake, and those at Alcobaca have disappeared. Only at +Funchal are there stalls of the same date, for those at Vizeu seem +rather later and are certainly poorer, their chief interest now being +derived from the old Chinese stamped paper with which their panels are +covered. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Se Velha.] + +If the stalls at Santa Cruz are the only examples of this period still +left on the mainland, the Se Velha possesses the only great mediaeval +reredos. In Spain great structures are found in almost every cathedral +rising above the altar to the vault in tier upon tier of niche and +panel. Richly gilded, with fine paintings on the panels, with delicate +Gothic pinnacles and tabernacle work, they and the metal screens which +half hide them do much to make Spanish churches the most interesting in +the world. Unfortunately in Portugal the bad taste of the eighteenth +century has replaced all those that may have existed by great and heavy +erections of elaborately carved wood. All covered with gold, the +Corinthian columns, twisted and wreathed with vines, the overloaded +arches and elaborate entablatures are now often sadly out of place in +some old interior, and make one grieve the more over the loss of the +simpler or more appropriate reredos which came before them. + +Dom Jorge d'Almeida held the see of Coimbra and the countship of +Arganil--for the bishops are always counts of + +[Illustration: FIG. 73. + +COIMBRA. + +STA. CRUZ. + +REREDOS IN CLOISTER.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 74. + +COIMBRA. + +STALLS, STA. CRUZ.] + +Arganil--from 1481 till 1543, when he died at the age of eighty-five; +during these sixty-two years he did much to beautify his church, and of +these additions the oldest is the reredos put up in 1508. This we learn +from a 'quitaca' or discharge granted in that year to 'Mestre Vlimer +framengo, ora estante nesta cidada, e seu Parceiro Joao Dipri,' that is, +to 'Master Vlimer a Fleming, now in this city, and to his partner John +of Ypres.' + +The reredos stands well back in the central apse; it is divided into +five upright parts, of which that in the centre is twice as wide as any +of the others, while the outermost with the strips of panelling and +carving which come beyond them are canted, following the line of the +apse wall. Across these five upright divisions and in a straight line is +thrown a great flattened trefoil arch joined to the back with Gothic +vaulting. In the middle over the large division it is fringed with the +intersecting circles of curved branches, while from the top to the +blue-painted apse vault with its gilded ribs and stars a forest of +pinnacles, arches, twisting and intertwining branches and leaves rises +high above the bishop's arms and mitre and the two angels who uphold +them. + +Below the arch the five parts are separated by pinnacle rising above +pinnacle. At the bottom under long canopies of extraordinary elaboration +are scenes in high relief. Above them in the middle the apostles watch +the Assumption of the Virgin; saints stand in the other divisions, one +in each, and over their heads are immense canopies rising across a +richly cusped background right up to the vaulting of the arch. Though +not so high, the canopy over the Virgin is far more intricate as it +forms a great curve made up of seven little cusped arches with +innumerable pinnacles and spires. (Fig. 75.) + +Being the work of Flemings, the reredos is naturally full of that +exuberant Flemish detail which may be seen in a Belgian town-hall or in +the work of an early Flemish painter; and if the stalls at Santa Cruz +are not by this same Master Vlimer, the intertwining branches on the +cresting and the sharply carved leaves on the panels show that he had +followers or pupils. + +Like most Flemish productions, the reredos is wanting in grace. Though +it throws a fine deep shadow the great arch is very ugly in shape and +the great canopies are far too large, and yet the mass of gold, well lit +by the windows of the lantern and rising to the dim blue vault, makes a +singularly fine ending to the old and solemn church. + +More important than the reredos in the art history of the country are +some other changes made by Dom Jorge, which show that the Frenchmen +working at Santa Cruz were soon employed elsewhere. + +On the north side of the nave a door leads out of the church, and this +these Frenchmen entirely transformed. + +At the bottom, between two much decayed Corinthian pilasters, is the +door reached by a flight of steps. The arch is of several orders, one +supported by thin columns, one by square fluted pilasters. Within these, +at right angles to each other, are broad faces carved and resting on +piers at whose corners are tiny round columns, in two stories, with +carved reliefs between the upper pair. In the tympanum is a beautiful +Madonna and Child, and two round medallions with heads adorn the +spandrils above the arch. Beyond each pilaster is a canted side joining +the porch to the wall and having a large niche and figure near the top. +The whole surface has been covered with exquisite arabesques like those +below the reredoses in the cloister at Santa Cruz, but they have now +almost entirely perished. + +Above the entablature a second story rises forming a sort of portico. At +the corners are square fluted Corinthian pilasters; between them in +front runs a balustrading, divided into three by the pedestals of two +slender columns, Corinthian also, and there are others next the +pilasters. The entablature has been most delicate, with the finest +wreaths carved on the frieze. Over the canted sides are built small +round-domed turrets. + +Above this the third story reaches nearly up to the top of the wall. In +the middle is an arch resting on slender columns and supporting a +pediment; on either side are square niches with columns at the sides, +beyond them fan-shaped semicircles, and at the corners vases. Behind +this there rise to the top of the battlements four panelled Doric +pilasters with cornice above, and two deep round-headed niches with +figures, one on each side. + +Inside the church are pilasters and a wealth of delicate relief. + +Perhaps the whole may not be much more fortunate than most attempts to +build up a tall composition by piling columns one above the other, and +the top part is certainly too heavy + +[Illustration: FIG. 75. + +COIMBRA. + +SE VELHA. + +REREDOS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 76. + +COIMBRA. + +SE VELHA. + +CHAPEL OF SAO PEDRO.] + +for what comes below it. Yet the details are or were beautiful, and the +portico above the door most graceful and pleasing, though, being +unfortunately on the north side, the effect is lost of the deep shadow +the sun would have thrown and the delicacy of the mouldings almost +wasted. + +Less important are the changes made to the north transept door. Fluted +pilasters and Corinthian columns were inserted below, a medallion with a +figure cut on the tympanum, and small coupled shafts resting on the +Doric capitals of the pilasters built to uphold the entablature. + +Inside the most important, as well as the most beautiful addition, was a +reredos built by Dom Jorge as his monument in the chapel of Sao Pedro, +the small apse to the north of the high altar. + +Just above the altar table--which is of stone supported on one central +shaft--are three panels filled in high relief with sculptured scenes +from the life of St. Peter, the central and widest panel representing +his martyrdom, while on the uprights between them are small figures +under canopies. + +The upper and larger part is arranged somewhat like a Roman triumphal +arch. There are three arches, one larger and higher in the middle, with +a lower and narrower one on each side, separated by most beautiful tall +candelabrum shafts with very delicate half-Ionic capitals. In the +centre, in front of the representation of some town, probably Rome, is +Our Lord bearing His Cross and St. Peter kneeling at His feet--no doubt +the well-known legend 'Domine quo vadis?' In the side arches stand two +figures with books: one is St. Paul with a sword, and the other probably +St. Peter himself. Above each of the side arches there is a small +balustraded loggia, scarcely eighteen inches high, in each of which are +two figures, talking, all marvellously lifelike. Beautiful carvings +enrich the friezes everywhere, and small heads in medallions all the +spandrils. At the top, in a hollow circle upheld by carved supports, +crowned and bearing an orb in His left hand, is God the Father Himself. +(Fig. 76.) + +Less elaborate than the pulpit and less pictorial than the altar-pieces +in the cloister of Santa Cruz, this reredos is one of the most +successful of all the French works at Coimbra, and its beauty is +enhanced by the successful lighting through a large window cut on +purpose at the side, and by the beautiful tiles--probably +contemporary--with which the chapel is lined. + +In front of the altar lies Dom Jorge d'Almeida, under a flat stone, +bearing his arms, and this inscription in Latin, 'Here lies Jorge +d'Almeida by the goodness of the divine power bishop and count. He lived +eighty-five years, and died eight days before the Kalends of Sextillis +A.D. 1543, having held both dignities sixty-two years.' + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE INFLUENCE OF THE FOREIGNER + + +Very quickly the fame of these French workers spread across the country, +and they or their pupils were employed to design tombs, altar-pieces, or +chapels outside of Coimbra. Perhaps the da Silvas, lords of Vagos, were +among the very first to employ them, and in their chapel of Sao Marcos, +some eight or nine miles from Coimbra, more than one example of their +handiwork may still be seen. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes, Thomar.] + +However, before visiting Sao Marcos mention must be made of two tombs, +one in Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at Thomar, and one in the Graca church +at Santarem. Both are exceedingly French in design, and both were +erected not long after the coming of the foreigners. + +The tomb in Thomar is the older. It is that of Diogo Pinheiro, the first +bishop of Funchal--which he never visited--who died in 1525. No doubt +the monument was put up soon after. It is placed rather high on the +north wall of the chancel; at the very bottom is a moulding enriched +with egg and tongue, separated by a plain frieze--crossed by a shield +with the bishop's arms--from the plinth and from the pedestals of the +side shafts and their supporting mouldings. On the plinth under a round +arched recess stands a sarcophagus with a tablet in front bearing the +date A.D. 1525, while behind in an elegant shell-topped niche is a +figure kneeling on a beautiful corbel. The front of this arch is adorned +with cherubs' heads, the jambs with arabesques, and heads look out of +circles in the spandrils. At the sides are Corinthian pilasters, and in +front of them beautiful candelabrum shafts. The cornice with a +well-carved frieze is simple, and in the pediment are again carved Dom +Diogo's arms, surmounted by his bishop's hat. + +At the ends are vase-shaped finials, and another supported by dragons +rises from the pediment. (Fig. 77.) + +This monument is indeed one of the most pleasing pieces of renaissance +work in existence, and one would be tempted to attribute it to Joao de +Castilho were it not that it is more French than any of his work, and +that in 1525 he can hardly have come back to Thomar, where the Claustro +da Micha, the first of the new additions, was only begun in 1528. It +will be safer then to attribute it to one of the Coimbra Frenchmen. + +[Sidenote: Tomb in Graca, Santarem.] + +The same must be said of the tomb in the Graca church at Santarem. It +was built in 1532 in honour of three men already long dead--Pero +Carreiro, Gonzalo Gil Barbosa his son-in-law, and Francisco Barbosa his +grandson. The design is like that of Bishop Pinheiro's monument, +omitting all beneath the plinth, except that the back is plain, the arch +elliptical, and the pediment small and round. The coffer has a long +inscription,[142] the jambs and arch are covered with arabesques, the +side shafts are taller and even more elegant than at Thomar, and in the +round pediment is a coat of arms, and on one side the head of a young +man wearing a helmet, and on the other the splendidly modelled head of +an old man; though much less pleasing as a whole, this head for +excellent realism is better than anything found on the bishop's tomb. + +If we cannot tell which Frenchman designed these tombs, we know the name +of one who worked for the da Silvas at Sao Marcos, and we can also see +there the work of some of their pupils and successors. + +[Sidenote: Sao Marcos.] + +Sao Marcos, which lies about two miles to the north of the road leading +from Coimbra through Tentugal to Figueira de Foz at the mouth of the +Mondego, is now unfortunately much ruined. Nothing remains complete but +the church, for the monastic buildings were all burned not so long ago +by some peasantry to injure the landlord to whom they belonged, and with +them perished many a fine piece of carving. + +The da Silvas had long had here a manor-house with a chapel, and in 1452 +Dona Brites de Menezes, the wife of Ayres Gomes da Silva, the fourth +lord of Vagos, founded a small Jeronymite monastery. Of her chapel, +designed by + +[Illustration: FIG. 77. + +THOMAR. STA. MARIA DOS OLIVAES. TOMB OF BP. OF FUNCHAL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 78. + +SAO MARCOS. TOMB IN CHANCEL. _From a photograph by E. Biel & Co., +Oporto._] + +Gil de Souza, little now remains, for the chancel was rebuilt in the +next century and the nave in the seventeenth. Only the tomb of Dona +Brites' second son, Fernao Telles de Menezes, still survives, for the +west door, with a cusped arch, beautifully undercut foliage, and knotted +shafts at the side, was added in 1570. + +The tomb of Fernao Telles, which was erected about the year 1471, is +still quite Gothic. In the wall there opens a large pointed and cusped +arch, within which at the top there hangs a small tent which, passing +through a ring, turns into a great stone curtain upheld by hairy wild +men. Inside this curtain Dom Fernao lies in armour on a tomb whose front +is covered with beautifully carved foliage, and which has a cornice of +roses. On it are three coats of arms, Dom Fernao's, those of his wife, +Maria de Vilhena, and between them his and hers quartered. + +Most of the tombs, five in all, are found in the chancel which was +rebuilt by Ayres da Silva, fifth lord of Vagos, the grandson of Dona +Brites, in 1522 and 1523. These are, on the north side, first, at the +east end, Dona Brites herself, then her son Joao da Silva in the middle, +and her grandson Ayres at the west, the tombs of Ayres and his father +being practically identical. Opposite Dona Brites lies the second count +of Aveiras, who died in 1672 and whose tomb is without interest, and +opposite Ayres, his son Joao da Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, who died in +1559. At the east end is a great reredos given by Ayres and containing +figures of himself and of his wife Dona Guiomar de Castro, while opening +from the north side of the nave is a beautiful domed chapel built by +Dona Antonia de Vilhena as a tomb-house for her husband, Diogo da Silva, +who died in 1556. In it also lies his elder brother Lourenco, seventh +lord of Vagos. + +The chancel, which is of two bays, one wide, and one to the east +narrower, has a low vault with many well-moulded ribs springing from +large corbels, some of which are Manoelino, while others have on them +shields and figures of the renaissance. It still retains an original +window on each side, small, round-headed, with a band of beautiful +renaissance carving on the splay. + +Dona Brites lies on a plain tomb in front of which there is a long +inscription. Above her rises a round arch set in a square frame. Large +flowers like Tudor roses are cut on the spandrils, the ogee hood-mould +is enriched with huge wonderfully undercut curly crockets, all Gothic, +but the band between the two mouldings of the arch is carved with +renaissance arabesques. The tomb of Ayres himself and that of his father +Joao are much more elaborate. Each, lying like Dona Brites on an +altar-tomb, is clad in full armour. In front are semi-classic mouldings +at the top and bottom, and between them a tablet held by cherubs, that +on Dom Joao's bearing a long inscription, while Dom Ayres' has been left +blank. The arches over the recumbent figures are slightly elliptical, +and like that of the foundress's tomb each is enriched by a band of +renaissance carving, but with classic mouldings outside, instead of a +simple round, and with a rich fringe of leafy cusps within. At the ends +and between the tombs are square buttresses or pilasters ornamented on +each face with renaissance corbels and canopies. The background of each +recess is covered with delicate flowing leaves in very slight relief, +and has in the centre a niche, with rustic shafts and elaborate Gothic +base and canopy under which stands a figure of Our Lord holding an orb +in His left hand and blessing with His right. The buttresses, on which +stand curious vase-shaped finials, are joined by a straight moulded +cornice, above which rises a rounded pediment floriated on the outer +side. From the pediment there stands out a helmet whose mantling +entirely covers the flat surface, and below it hangs a shield, charged +with the da Silva arms, a lion rampant. (Fig. 78.) + +Here, as in the royal tombs at Coimbra, Manoelino and renaissance forms +have been used together, but here the renaissance largely predominates, +for even the cusping is not Gothic, although, as is but natural, the +general design still is after the older style. Though very elaborate, +these tombs cannot be called quite satisfactory. The figure sculpture is +poor, and it is only the arabesques which show skill in execution. +Probably then it was the work not of one of the well-known Frenchmen, +but of one of their pupils.[143] + +Raczynski[144] thought that here in Sao Marcos he had found some works +of Sansovino: a battlepiece in relief, a statue of St. Mark, and the +reredos. The first two are gone, but if they were as unlike Italian work +as is the reredos, one may be sure that they were not by him. A +recently found document[145] confirms what its appearance suggests, +namely, that it is French. It was in fact the work of Mestre Nicolas, +the Nicolas Chantranez who worked first at Belem and then on the Portal +da Magestade at Santa Cruz, and who carved an altar-piece in the Pena +chapel at Cintra. Though much larger in general design, it is not +altogether unlike the altar-piece in the Se Velha. It is divided into +two stories. In the lower are four divisions, with a small tabernacle in +the middle, and in each division, which has either a curly broken +pediment, or a shell at its head, are sculptured scenes from the life of +St. Jerome. + +The upper part contains only three divisions, one broad under an arch in +the centre, and one narrower and lower on each side. As in the +cathedral, slim candelabrum shafts stand between each division and at +the ends, but the entablatures are less refined, and the sharp pediments +at the two sides are unpleasing, as is the small round one and the vases +at the top. The large central arch is filled with a very spirited +carving of the 'Deposition.' In front of the three crosses which rise +behind with the thieves still hanging to the two at the sides, is a +group of people--officials on horseback on the left, and weeping women +on the right. In the division to the left kneels Ayres himself presented +by St. Jerome, and in the other on the right Dona Guiomar de Castro, his +wife, presented by St. Luke. Throughout all the figure sculpture is +excellent, as good as anything at Coimbra, but compared with the reredos +in the Se Velha, the architecture is poor in the extreme: the central +division is too large, and the different levels of the cornice, rendered +necessary of course by the shape of the vault, is most unpleasing. No +one, however, can now judge of the true effect, as it has all been +carefully and hideously painted with the brightest of colours. (Fig. +79.) + +Being architecturally so inferior to the Se Velha reredos, it is +scarcely possible that they should be by the same hand, and therefore it +seems likely that both the work in St. Peter's chapel and the pulpit in +Santa Cruz may have been executed by the same man, namely by Joao de +Ruao.[146] + +[Sidenote: Pena Chapel, Cintra.] + +Leaving Sao Marcos for a minute to finish with the works of Nicolas +Chantranez, we turn to the small chapel of Nossa Senhora da Pena, +founded by Dom Manoel in 1503 as a cell of the Jeronymite monastery at +Belem. Here in 1532 his son Joao III. dedicated a reredos of alabaster +and black marble as a thankoffering for the birth of a son.[147] + +Like Nicolas' work at Sao Marcos the altar piece is full of exquisite +carving, more beautiful than in his older work. In the large central +niche, with its fringe of cusps, is the 'Entombment,' where Our Lord is +being laid by angels in a beautiful sarcophagus. Above this niche sit +the Virgin and Child, on the left are the Annunciation above and the +Birth at Bethlehem below, and on the right the Visit of the Magi and the +Flight into Egypt. Nothing can exceed the delicacy of these alabaster +carvings or of the beautiful little reliefs that form the pradella. Many +of the little columns too are beautifully wrought, with good capitals +and exquisitely worked drums, and yet, though the separate details may +be and are fine, the whole is even more unsatisfactory than is his +altar-piece at Sao Marcos, and one has to look closely and carefully to +see its beauties. As the one at Sao Marcos is spoiled by paint, this one +is spoiled by the use of different-coloured marble; besides, the +different parts are even worse put together. There is no repose +anywhere, for the little columns are all different, and the bad effect +is increased by the way the different entablatures are broken out over +the many projections. + +[Sidenote: Sao Marcos.] + +Interesting and even beautiful as are the tombs on the north side of the +chancel of Sao Marcos, the chapel dos Reis Magos is even more important +historically. This chapel, as stated above, was built by Dona Antonia de +Vilhena in 1556 as a monument to her husband. Dona Antonia was in her +time noted for her devotion to her husband's memory, and for her +patriotism in that she sent her six sons to fight in Morocco, from +whence three never returned. Her brother-in-law, Lourenco da Silva, +also, who lies on the east side of the same chapel, fell in Africa in +the fatal battle of Alcacer-Quebir in 1578, where Portugal lost her king +and soon after her independence. + +The chapel is entered from the nave by a large arch enriched in front +with beautiful cherubs' heads and wreaths of flowers, and on the under +side with coffered panels. This arch springs from a beautifully modelled +entablature borne on either side by a Corinthian pilaster, panelled and +carved, and by a column fluted above, and wreathed with hanging fruits +and flowers below, while similar arches form recesses on the three +remaining sides of the chapel, one--to the north--containing the altar, +and the other two the tombs of Diogo and of Lourenco da Silva. + +On the nave side, outside the columns, there stands on either +side--placed like the columns on a high pedestal--a pilaster, panelled +and carved with exquisite arabesques. These pilasters have no capitals, +but instead well-moulded corbels, carved with griffin heads, uphold the +entablature, and, by a happy innovation, on the projection thus formed +are pedestals bearing short Corinthian columns. These support the main +entablature whose cornice and frieze are enriched, the one with egg and +tongue and with dentils, and the other with strapwork and with leaves. +In the spandrils above the arch are medallions surrounding the heads of +St. Peter and of St. Paul, St. Peter being especially expressive. + +Inside, the background of each tomb recess is covered with strapwork, +surrounding in one case an open and in another a blank window, but +unfortunately the reredos representing the Visit of the Magi is gone, +and its place taken by a very poor picture of Our Lady of Lourdes. + +The pendentives with their cherub heads are carried by corbels in the +corners, and the dome is divided by bold ribs, themselves enriched with +carving, into panels filled with strapwork. (Fig. 80.) + +This chapel then is of great interest, not only because of the real +beauty of its details but also because it was the first built of a type +which was repeated more than once elsewhere, as, for instance, at +Marceana near Alemquer, on the Tagus, and in the church of Nossa Senhora +dos Anjos at Montemor-o-Velho, not far from Sao Marcos. Of the chapels +at Montemor one at least was built by the same family, and in another +where the reredos--a very fine piece of carving--represents a Pieta, +small angels are seen to weep as they look from openings high up at the +sides. + +Perhaps the most successful feature of the design is the happy way in +which corbels take the place of capitals on the lower pilasters of the +front. By this expedient it was possible to keep the upper column short +without having to compare its proportions with those of the pilaster +below, and also by projecting these columns to give the upper part an +importance and an emphasis it would not otherwise have had. + +There is no record of who designed this or the similar chapels, but by +1556 enough time had passed since the coming of the French for native +pupils to have learned much from them. There is in the design something +which seems to show that it is not from the hand of a Frenchman, but +from that of some one who had learned much from Master Nicolas or from +Joao de Ruao, but who had also learned something from elsewhere. While +the smaller details remain partly French, the dome with its bold ribs +suggests Italy, and it is known that Dom Manoel, and after him Dom Joao, +sent young men to Italy for study. In any case the result is something +neither Italian nor French. + +Even more Italian is the tomb of Dona Antonia's father-in-law, Joao da +Silva, sixth lord of Vagos, erected in 1559 and probably by the same +sculptor. Joao da Silva lies in armour under a round arch carved with +flowers and cherubs. In front of his tomb is a long inscription on a +tablet held by beautifully modelled boys. On each side of the arch is a +Corinthian pilaster, panelled and carved below and having at the top a +shallow niche in which stand saints. On the entablature, enriched with +medallions and strapwork, is a frame supported by boys and containing +the da Silva arms. But the most interesting and beautiful part of the +monument is the back, above the effigy. Here, in the upper part, is a +shallow recess flanked by corbel-carried pilasters, and containing a +relief of the Assumption of the Virgin. Now, the execution of the Virgin +and of the small angels who bear her up may not be of the best, but the +character of the whole design is quite Italian, and could only have been +carved by some one who knew Italian work. On either side of this recess +are round-headed niches containing saints, while boys sit in the +spandrils above the arch. + +Any one seeing this tomb will be at once struck with the Italian +character of the design, especially perhaps with the boys who hold the +tablet and with those who sit in the spandrils.[148] + +[Illustration: FIG. 79. + +SAO MARCOS. CHANCEL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 80. + +SAO MARCOS. CHAPEL OF THE "REYES MAGOS." _From a photograph by E. Biel & +Co., Oporto._] + +Even without leaving their country, Portuguese designers would already +have had no great difficulty in finding pieces of real Italian work. Not +to speak of the white marble door in the old palace of Cintra, possibly +the work of Sansovino himself, with its simple mouldings and the +beautiful detail of its architrave, there exist at Evora two doorways +originally belonging to the church of Sao Domingos, which must either be +the work of Italians or of some man who knew Italy. (Fig. 81.) + +[Sidenote: Evora, Sao Domingos.] + +Built of white marble from Estremoz and dating from about 1530, the +panelled jambs have moulded caps on which rests the arch. Like the +jambs, the arch has a splay which is divided into small panels. Above in +the spandrils are ribboned circles enclosing well-carved heads. On +either side are pilasters with Corinthian capitals of the earlier +Italian kind. The entablature is moulded only, and instead of a pediment +two curves lead up to a horizontal moulding supporting a shell, and +above it a cherub's head. + +Such real Italian doors, which would look quite at home in Genoa, seem +almost unique, but there are many examples of work which, like the tomb +and the chapel at Sao Marcos, seem to have been influenced not only by +the French school at Coimbra, but also by Italian work. + +[Sidenote: Portalegre.] + +[Sidenote: Tavira.] + +[Sidenote: Lagos.] + +Not very far from Evora in Portalegre, where a bishop's see was founded +by Dom Joao III. in 1549, there is a very fine monument of this kind to +a bishop of the Mello family in the seminary, and also a doorway, while +at Tavira in the Algarve the Misericordia has an interesting door, not +unlike that at Evora, but more richly ornamented by having a sculptured +frieze and a band of bold acanthus leaves joining the two capitals above +the arch. There is another somewhat similar, but less successful, in the +church of Sao Sebastiao at Lagos. + +[Sidenote: Goes.] + +[Sidenote: Trofa.] + +Nearer Coimbra there are some fine monuments to the Silveira family at +Goes not far from Louza, and four less interesting to the Lemos in the +little parish church of Trofa near Agueda. At Trofa there is a pair of +tombs on each side of the chancel, round-arched, with pilasters and with +heads in the spandrils, and covered with arabesques. Each pair is +practically alike except that the tombs on the north side, being placed +closer together leave no room for a central pilaster and have small +shafts instead of panelled jambs, and that the pair on the south have +pediments. The best feature is a figure of the founder of the chancel +kneeling at prayer with his face turned towards the high altar. + +[Sidenote: Caminha.] + +Even in the far north the doors of the church at Caminha show how +important had been the coming of the Frenchmen to Coimbra. They seem +later than the church, but though very picturesque are clearly the work +of some one who was not yet quite familiar with renaissance forms. The +south door is the more interesting and picturesque. The arch and jambs +are splayed, but there are no capitals; heads look out of circles in the +spandrils; and the splay as well as the panels of the side pilasters are +enriched with carvings which, partly perhaps owing to the granite in +which they are cut, are much less delicate than elsewhere. The +Corinthian capitals of the pilasters are distinctly clumsy, as are the +mouldings, but the most interesting part of the whole design is the +frieze, which is so immensely extended as to leave room for four large +niches separated by rather clumsy shafts and containing figures of St. +Mark and St. Luke in the middle and of St. Peter and St. Paul at the +ends. Above in the pediment are a Virgin and Child with kneeling angels. +Besides the innovation of the enlarged frieze, which reminds one of a +door in the Certosa near Pavia, the clumsiness of the mouldings and the +comparative poorness of the sculpture, though the figures are much +better than any previously worked by native artists, suggest that the +designer and workmen were Portuguese. + +The same applies to the west door, which is wider and where the capitals +are of a much better shape, though the pilasters are rather too tall. +The sculpture frieze is a little wider than usual, and instead of a +pediment there is a picturesque cresting, above which are cut four +extraordinary monsters. (Fig. 82.) + +[Sidenote: Moncorvo.] + +A somewhat similar but much plainer door has been built against the +older and round-arched entrance of the Misericordia at Moncorvo in Traz +os Montes. The parish church of the same place begun in 1544 is both +outside and in a curious mixture of Gothic and Classic. The three aisles +are of the same height with round-arched Gothic vaults, but the columns +are large and round with bases and capitals evidently copied from Roman +doric, though the abacis have been made circular. + +Outside the buttresses are still Gothic in form, but the west door is of +the fully developed renaissance. The opening is + +[Illustration: FIG. 81. + +PALACE, CINTRA. + +DOOR BY SANSOVINO.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 82. + +W. DOOR, CAMINHA.] + +flanked by coupled columns which support an entablature on which rest +four other shorter columns separating three white marble niches. Above +this is a window flanked by single columns which carry a pediment. +Though built of granite, the detail is good and the whole doorway not +unpleasing.[149] + +But, that it was not only such details as doors and monuments that began +to show the result of the coming of the Frenchmen is seen in the work of +Joao de Castilho, after he first left Thomar for Belem. There he had +found Master Nicolas Chantranez already at work, and there he learned, +perhaps from him, so to change his style that by the time he returned to +Thomar to work for Dom Joao III. in 1528 he was able to design buildings +practically free from that Gothic spirit which is still found in his +latest work at Belem. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +LATER WORK OF JOAO DE CASTILHO AND THE EARLIER CLASSIC + + +To Dom Manoel, who died in 1521, had succeeded his son Dom Joao III. The +father had been renowned for his munificence and his splendour, the son +cared more for the Church and for the suppression of heresy. By him the +Inquisition was introduced in 1536 to the gradual crushing of all +independent thought, and so by degrees to the degradation of his +country. He reigned for thirty-six years, a time of wealth and luxury, +but before he died the nation had begun to suffer from this very luxury; +with all freedom of thought forbidden, with the most brave and +adventurous of her sons sailing east to the Indies or west to Brazil, +most of them never to return, Portugal was ready to fall an easy prey to +Philip of Spain when in 1580 there died the old Cardinal King Henry, +last surviving son of Dom Manoel, once called the Fortunate King. + +With the death of Dom Manoel, or at least with the finishing of the +great work which he had begun, the most brilliant and interesting period +in the history of Portuguese architecture comes to an end. When the +younger Fernandes died seven years after his master in 1538, or when +Joao de Castilho saw the last vault built at Belem, Gothic, even as +represented by Manoelino, disappeared for ever, and renaissance +architecture, taught by the French school at Coimbra, or learned in +Italy by those sent there by Dom Manoel, became universal, to flourish +for a time, and then to fall even lower than in any other country. + +Except the Frenchmen at Coimbra no one played a greater part in this +change than Joao de Castilho, who, no doubt, first learned about the +renaissance from Master Nicolas at Belem; Thomar also, his own home, +lies about half-way between Lisbon and Coimbra, so that he may well +have visited his brother Diogo at Santa Cruz and seen what other +Frenchmen were doing there and so become acquainted with better +architects than Master Nicolas; but in any case, who ever it may have +been who taught him, he planned at Thomar, after his return there, the +first buildings which are wholly in the style of the renaissance and are +not merely decorated with renaissance details. + +[Sidenote: Alcobaca.] + +But before following him back to Thomar, his additions to the abbey of +Alcobaca must be mentioned, as there for the last time, except in some +parts of Belem, he allowed himself to follow the older methods, though +even at this early date--1518 and 1519--renaissance forms are beginning +to creep in. + +On the southern side of the ambulatory one of the radiating chapels was +pulled down in 1519 to form a passage, irregular in shape and roofed +with a vault of many ribs. From this two doors lead, one on the north to +the sacristy, and one on the south to a chapel. Unfortunately both +sacristy and chapel have been rebuilt and now contain nothing of +interest, except, in the sacristy, some fine presses inlaid with ivory, +now fast falling to pieces. The two doors are alike, and show that Joao +de Castilho was as able as any of his contemporaries to design a piece +of extreme realism. On the jambs is carved renaissance ornament, but +nowhere else is there anything to show that Joao and Nicolas had met at +Belem some two years before. The head of the arch is wavy and formed +mostly of convex curves. Beyond the strip of carving there grows up on +either side a round tree, with roots and bark all shown; at the top +there are some leaves for capitals, and then each tree grows up to meet +in the centre and so form a great ogee, from which grow out many cut-off +branches, all sprouting into great curly leaves. + +This is realism carried to excess, and yet the leaves are so finely +carved, the whole design so compact, and the surrounding whitewashed +wall with its dado of tiles so plain, that the effect is quite good. +(Fig. 83.) + +The year before he had begun for Cardinal Henry, afterwards king, and +then commendator of the abbey, a second story to the great cloister of +Dom Diniz. Reached by a picturesque stair on the south side, the +three-centred arches each enclose two or three smaller round arches, +with the spandrils merely pierced or sometimes cusped. The mouldings +are simple but not at all classic. The shafts which support these round +arches are all carried down across the parapet through the rope moulding +at the top to the floor level, and are of three or more patterns. Those +at the jambs are plain with hollow chamfered edges, as are also a few of +the others. They are, however, mostly either twisted, having four round +mouldings separated by four hollows, or else shaped like a rather fat +baluster; most of the capitals with curious volutes at the corner are +evidently borrowed from Corinthian capitals, but are quite unorthodox in +their arrangement. + +Though this upper cloister adds much to the picturesqueness of the whole +it is not very pleasing in itself, as the three-centred arches are often +too wide and flat, and yet it is of great interest as showing how Joao +de Castilho was in 1518 beginning to accept renaissance forms though +still making them assume a Manoelino dress. + +[Sidenote: Batalha, Santa Cruz.] + +But in the door of the little parish church of Sta. Cruz at Batalha, +also built by Joao de Castilho, Manoelino and renaissance details are +used side by side with the happiest result. On each jamb are three round +shafts and two bands of renaissance carving; of these the inner band is +carried round the broken and curved head of the opening, while the outer +runs high up to form a square framing. Of the three shafts the inner is +carried round the head, the outer round the outside of the framing, +while the one in the centre divides into two, one part running round the +head, while the other forms the inner edge of the framing, and also +forms a great trefoil on the flat field above the opening. In the two +corners between the trefoils and the framing are circles enclosing +shields, one charged with the Cross of the Order of Christ, the other +with the armillary sphere. + +The inner side of the trefoil is cusped, crockets and finials enrich the +outer moulding of the opening, while beyond the jambs are niches, now +empty. (Fig. 84.) + +It is not too much to say that, except the great entrance to the +Capellas Imperfeitas, this is the most beautiful of all Manoelino +doorways; in no other is the detail so refined nor has any other so +satisfactory a framing. Unfortunately the construction has not been +good, so that the upper part is now all full of cracks and gaping +joints. + +[Sidenote: Thomar.] + +Since Dom Joao III. was more devoted to the Church than + +[Illustration: FIG. 83. + +ALCOBACA. + +SACRISTY DOOR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 84. + +W. DOOR, STA. CRUZ. + +BATALHA.] + +to anything else he determined in 1524 to change the great Order of +Christ from a body of military knights bound, as had been the Templars, +by certain vows, into a monastic order of regulars. This necessitated +great additions to the buildings at Thomar, for the knights had not been +compelled to live in common like monks. + +Accordingly Joao de Castilho was summoned back from Belem and by 1528 +had got to work. + +All these additions were made to the west of the existing buildings, and +to make room for them Dom Joao had to buy several houses and gardens, +which together formed a suburb called Sao Martinho, and some of which +were the property of Joao de Castilho, who received for them 463$000 or +about L100.[150] + +[Illustration: PLAN OF THOMAR] + +These great additions, which took quite twenty-five years to build, +cover an immense area, measuring more than 300 feet long by 300 wide and +containing five cloisters. Immediately to the west of the Coro of the +church, then probably scarcely finished, is the small cloister of Sta. +Barbara; to the north of this is the larger Claustro da Hospedaria, +begun about 1539, while to the south and hiding the lower part of the +Coro is the splendid two-storied Claustro, miscalled 'dos Filippes,' +begun in its present form in 1557 by Diogo de Torralva some time after +de Castilho's death. + +Further west are two other large cloisters, do Mixo or da Micha to the +north and dos Corvos to the south, and west of the Corvos a sort of +farmyard called the Pateo dos Carrascos--that is of the evergreen oaks, +or since Carrasco also means a hangman, it may be that the executioners +of the Inquisition had their quarters there. + +Between these cloisters, and dividing the three on the east from the two +on the west, is an immense corridor nearly three hundred feet long from +which small cells open on each side; in the centre it is crossed by +another similar corridor stretching over one hundred and fifty feet to +the west, separating the two western cloisters, and with a small chapel +to the east. + +North of all the cloisters are more corridors and rooms extending +eastwards almost to the Templars' castle, but there the outer face dates +mostly from the seventeenth century or later. + +The first part to be begun was the Claustro da Micha, or loaf, so called +from the bread distributed there to the poor. Outside it was begun in +1528, but inside an inscription over the door says it was begun in 1534 +and finished in 1546. Being the kitchen cloister it is very plain, with +simple round-headed arches. Only the entrance door is adorned with a +Corinthian column on either side; its straight head rests on well-carved +corbels, and above it is a large inscribed tablet upheld by small boys. + +Under the pavement of the cloister as well as under the Claustro dos +Corvos is a great cistern. On the south was the kitchen and the oil +cellar, on the east the dispensary, and on the west a great oven and +wood-store with three large halls above, which seem to have been used by +the Inquisition.[151] The lodgings of the Dom Prior were above the +cloister to the north. + +Like the Claustro da Micha, the Claustro dos Corvos has plain round +arches resting on round columns and set usually in pairs with a buttress +between each pair. On the south side, below, were the cellars, finished +in 1539, and above the library, on the west, various vaulted stores with +a passage above leading to the library from the dormitory. + +The whole of the east side is occupied by the refectory, about 100 feet +long by 30 wide. On each of the long sides there is a pulpit, one +bearing the date 1536, enriched with arabesques, angels, and small +columns. At the south end are two windows, and at the north a hatch +communicating with the kitchen. + +The Claustro da Hospedaria, as its name denotes, was where strangers +were lodged; like the Claustro dos Corvos each pair of arches is divided +by a buttress, and the round columns have simple but effective capitals, +in which nothing of the regular Corinthian is left but the abacus, and a +large plain leaf at each corner. Still, though plain, this cloister is +very picturesque. Its floor, like those of all the cloisters, lies deep +below the level of the church, and looking eastward from one of the cell +windows the Coro and the round church are seen towering high above the +brown tile roofs of the rooms beyond the cloister and of the simple +upper cloister, which runs across the eastern walk. (Fig. 85.) + +This part of the building, begun about 1539, must have been carried on +during Joao de Castilho's absence, as in 1541 he was sent to Mazagao on +the Moroccan coast to build fortifications; there he made a bastion 'so +strong as to be able not only to resist the Shariff, but also the Turk, +so strong was it.'[152] + +The small cloister of Santa Barbara is the most pleasing of all those +which Joao de Castilho was able to finish. In order not to hide the west +front of the church its arches had to be kept very low. They are +three-centred and almost flat, while the vault is even flatter, the bays +being divided by a stone beam resting on beautifully carved brackets. +The upper cloister is not carried across the east side next the church; +but in its south-west corner an opening with a good entablature, resting +on two columns with fine Corinthian capitals, leads to one of those +twisting stairs without a newel of which builders of this time were so +fond. Going up this stair one reaches the cloister of the Filippes which +Joao did not live to carry out. + +More interesting than any of these cloisters are the long dormitory +passages. The walls for about one-third of the height are lined with +tiles, which with the red paving tiles were bought for about L33 from +one Aleixo Antunes. The roofs are throughout of dark panelled wood and +semicircular in shape. The only windows--except at the crossing--are at +the ends of the three long arms. There is a small round-headed window +above, and below one, flat-headed, with a column in the centre and one +at each side, the window on the north end having on it the date 1541, +eight years after the chapel in the centre had been built. + +On this chapel at the crossing has been expended far more ornament than +on any other part of the passages. Leading to each arm of the passage an +arch, curiously enriched with narrow bands which twice cross each other +leaving diamond-shaped hollows, rests on Corinthian pilasters, which +have only four flutes, but are adorned with niches, whose elegant +canopies mark the level of the springing of the chapel vault. This +vault, considerably lower than the passage arches, is semicircular and +coffered. Between it and the cornice which runs all round the square +above the passage arches is a large oblong panel, in the middle of which +is a small round window. Beautifully carved figures which, instead of +having legs, end in great acanthus-leaf volutes with dragons in the +centre, hold a beautifully carved wreath round this window. In the +middle of the architrave below, a tablet, held by exquisite little +winged boys, gives the date, 'Era de 1533.' Above the cornice there +rises a simple vault with a narrow round-headed window on each side. + +This carving over the chapel is one of the finest examples of +renaissance work left in the country. It is much bolder than any of the +French work left at Coimbra, being in much higher relief than was usual +in the early French renaissance, and yet the figures and leaves are +carved with the utmost delicacy and refinement. (Fig. 86.) + +The same delicacy characterises such small parts of the cloister dos +Filippes as were built by Joao de Castilho before he retired in 1551. +These are now confined to two stairs leading from the upper to the lower +cloister. These stairs + +[Illustration: FIG. 85. + +THOMAR. + +CONVENT OF CHRIST. + +CLAUSTRO DA HOSPEDARIA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 86. + +THOMAR. + +CHAPEL IN DORMITORY PASSAGE.] + +are adorned with pilasters or thin columns against the walls, delicate +cornices, medallions, figures, and foliage; in one are square-headed +built-up doors or doorlike spaces, with well-moulded architraves, and +always in the centre above the opening small figures are carved, in one +an exquisite little Cupid holding a torch. At the bottom of the eastern +stair, which is decorated with scenes from the life of St. Jerome and +with the head of Frei Antonio of Lisbon, first prior of the reformed +order, a door led into the lower floor of the unfinished chapter-house. +On this same stair there is a date 1545, so the work was probably going +on till the very end of Joao's tenure of office, and fine as the present +cloister is, it is a pity that he was not able himself to finish it, for +it is the chief cloister in the whole building, and on it he would no +doubt have employed all the resources of his art. (Fig. 87.) + +It is not without interest to learn that, like architects of the present +day, Joao de Castilho often found very great difficulties in carrying +out his work. Till well within the last hundred years Portugal was an +almost roadless country, and four centuries ago, as now, most of the +heavy carting was done by oxen, which are able to drag clumsy carts +heavily laden up and down the most impassable lanes. Several times does +he write to the king of the difficulty of getting oxen. On 4th March +1548 he says: + +'I have written some days ago to Pero Carvalho to tell him of the want +of carts, since those which we had were away carrying stone for the +works at Cardiga and at Almeirim'--a palace now destroyed opposite +Santarem--'the works of Thomar remaining without stone these three +months. And for want of a hundred cart-loads of stone which I had worked +at the quarry--doors and windows--I have not finished the students' +studies'--probably in the noviciate near the Claustro da Micha. 'The +studies are raised to more than half their height and in eight days' +work I shall finish them if only I had oxen, for those I had have died. + +'I would ask 20$000 [about L4, 10s.] to buy five oxen, and with three +which I have I could manage the carriage of a thousand cart-loads of +worked stone, besides that of which I speak of to your Highness, and +since there are no carts the men can bring nothing, even were they given +60 reis [about 3d.] a cartload there is no one to do carting.... + +' ... And if your Highness will give me these oxen I shall finish the +work very quickly, that when your Highness comes here you may find +something to see and have contentment of it.' + +Later he again complains of transport difficulties, for the few carts +there were in the town were all being used by the Dom Prior; and in the +year when he retired, 1551, he writes in despair asking the king for 'a +very strong edict [Alvara] that no one of any condition whatever might +be excused, because in this place those who have something of their own +are excused by favour, and the poor men do service, which to them seems +a great aggravation and oppression. May your Highness believe that I +write this as a desperate man, since I cannot serve as I desire, and may +this provision be sent to the magistrate and judge that they may have it +executed by their officer, since the mayor [Alcaide] here is always away +and never in his place.'[153] + +These letters make it possible to understand how buildings in those days +took such a long time to finish, and how Joao de Castilho--though it was +at least begun in 1545--was able to do so little to the Claustro dos +Filippes in the following six years. + +The last letter also seems to show that some at least of the labour was +forced. + +Leaving the Claustro dos Filippes for the present, we must return to +Batalha for a little, and then mention some buildings in which the early +renaissance details recall some of the work at Thomar. + +[Sidenote: Batalha.] + +The younger Fernandes had died in 1528, leaving the Capellas Imperfeitas +very much in the state in which they still remain. Though so much more +interested in his monastery at Thomar, Dom Joao ordered Joao de Castilho +to go on with the chapels, and in 1533 the loggia over the great +entrance door had been finished. Beautiful though it is it did not +please the king, and is not in harmony with the older work, and so +nothing more was done. + +In place of the large Manoelino window, which was begun on all the other +seven sides, Joao de Castilho here built two renaissance arches, each of +two orders, of which the broader springs from the square pilasters and +the narrower from candelabrum shafts. In front there run up to the +cornice three beautiful shafts standing on high pedestals which rest + +[Illustration: FIG. 87. + +THOMAR. + +CONVENTO DE CHRISTO. + +STAIR IN CLAUSTRO DOS FILIPPES.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 88. + +THOMAR. + +CHAPEL OF THE CONCEICAO.] + +on corbels; the frieze of the cornice is carved much after the manner of +the window panel in the dormitory corridor at Thomar, and with long +masks where it projects over the shafts. + +Below, the carved cornice and architrave are carried across the opening +as they are round the whole octagon, but the frieze is open and filled +with balusters. Behind, the whole space is spanned by a three-centred +arch, panelled like the passage arches at Thomar. + +All the work is most exquisite, but it is not easy to see how the +horizontal cornice was to be brought into harmony with the higher +windows intended on the other seven sides, nor does the renaissance +detail, beautiful though it is, agree very well with the exuberant +Manoelino of the rest. + +With the beginning of the Claustro dos Filippes the work of Joao de +Castilho comes to an end. He had been actively employed for about forty +years, beginning and ending at Thomar, finishing Belem, and adding to +Alcobaca, besides improving the now vanished royal palace and even +fortifying Mazagao on the Moroccan coast, where perhaps his work may +still survive. In these forty years his style went through more than one +complete change. Beginning with late Gothic he was soon influenced by +the surrounding Manoelino; at Belem he first met renaissance artists, at +Alcobaca he either used Manoelino and renaissance side by side or else +treated renaissance in a way of his own, though shortly after, at Belem +again, he came to use renaissance details more and more fully. A little +later at Thomar, having a free hand--for at Belem he had had to follow +out the lines laid down by Boutaca--he discarded Manoelino and Gothic +alike in favour of renaissance. + +In this final adoption of the renaissance he was soon followed by many +others, even before he laid down his charge at Thomar in 1551. + +In most of these buildings, however, it is not so much his work at +Thomar which is followed--except in the case of cloisters--but rather +the chapel of the Conceicao, also at Thomar. Like it they are free from +the more exuberant details so common in France and in Spain, and yet +they cannot be called Italian. + +[Sidenote: Thomar, Conceicao.] + +There is unfortunately no proof that the Conceicao chapel is Joao's +work; indeed the date inscribed inside is 1572, twenty-one years after +his retirement, and nineteen after his death. Still this date is +probably a mistake, and some of the detail is so like what is found in +the great convent on the hill above that probably it was really designed +by him. + +This small chapel stands on a projecting spur of the hill half-way down +between the convent and the town. + +Inside the whole building is about sixty feet long by thirty wide, and +consists of a nave with aisles about thirty feet long, a transept the +width of the central aisle but barely projecting beyond the walls, a +square choir with a chapel on each side, followed by an apse; east of +the north choir chapel is a small sacristy, and east of the south a +newel-less stair--like that in the Claustro de Sta. Barbara--leading up +to the roof and down to some vestries under the choir. Owing to the +sacristy and stair the eastern part of the chancel, which is rather +narrower than the nave, is square, showing outside no signs of the apse. + +The outside is very plain: Ionic pilasters at the angles support a +simple cornice which runs round the whole building; the west end and +transepts have pediments with small semicircular windows. The tile roofs +are surmounted by a low square tower crowned by a flat plastered dome at +the crossing and by the domed stair turret at the south-east corner. The +west door is plain with a simple architrave. The square-headed windows +have a deep splay--the wall being very thick--their architraves as well +as their cornices and pediments rest on small brackets set not at right +angles with the wall, but crooked so as to give an appearance of false +perspective. + +The inside is very much more pleasing, indeed it is one of the most +beautiful interiors to be found anywhere. (Fig. 88.) + +On each side of the central aisle there are three Corinthian columns, +with very correct proportions, and exquisite capitals, beautifully +carved if not quite orthodox. Corresponding pilasters stand against the +walls, as well as at the entrance to the choir, and at the beginning of +the apse. These and the columns support a beautifully modelled +entablature, enriched only with a dentil course. Central aisle, +transepts and choir are all roofed with a larger and the side aisles +with a smaller barrel vault, divided into bays by shallow arches. In +choir and transepts the vault is coffered, but in the nave each bay is +ornamented with three sets of four square panels, set in the shape of a +cross, each panel having in it another panel set diagonally to form a +diamond. At the crossing, which is crowned by a square coffered dome, +the spandrils are filled with curious winged heads, while the semi-dome +of the apse is covered with narrow ribs. The windows are exactly like +those outside, but the west door has over it a very refined though plain +pediment. + +So far, beyond the great refinement of the details, there has been +nothing very characteristic of Joao de Castilho, but when we find that +the pilasters of the choir and apse, as well as the choir and transept +arches, are panelled in that very curious way--with strips crossing each +other at long intervals to form diamonds--which Joao employed in the +passage arches in the Thomar dormitory and in the loggia at Batalha, it +would be natural enough to conclude that this chapel is his work, and +indeed the best example of what he could do with classic details. + +Now under the west window of the north aisle there is a small tablet +with the following inscription in Portuguese[154]:--'This chapel was +erected in A.D. 1572, but profaned in 1810 was restored in 1848 by L. L. +d'Abreu,' etc. + +Of course in 1572 Joao de Castilho had been long dead, but the +inscription was put up in 1848, and it is quite likely that by then L. +L. d'Abreu and his friends had forgotten or did not know that even as +late as the sixteenth century dates were sometimes still reckoned by the +era of Caesar, so finding it recorded that the chapel had been built in +the year 1572 they took for granted that it was A.D. 1572, whereas it +may just as well have been E.C. 1572, that is A.D. 1534, just the very +time when Joao de Castilho was building the dormitory in the convent and +using there the same curious panelling. Besides in 1572 this form of +renaissance had long been given up and been replaced by a heavier and +more classic style brought from Italy. It seems therefore not +unreasonable to claim this as Joao de Castilho's work, and to see in it +one of the earliest as well as the most complete example of this form of +renaissance architecture, a form which prevailed side by side with the +work of the Frenchmen and their pupils for about fifteen years. + +Now in some respects this chapel recalls some of the earlier renaissance +buildings in Italy, and yet no part of it is quite Italian, nor can it +be called Spanish. The barrel vault here and in the dormitory chapel in +the convent are Italian features, but they have not been treated exactly +as was done there, or as was to be done in Portugal some fifty years +later, so that it seems more likely that Joao de Castilho got his +knowledge of Italian work at second-hand, perhaps from one of the men +sent there by Dom Manoel, and not by having been there himself. + +No other building in this style can be surely ascribed to him, and no +other is quite so pleasing, yet there are several in which refined +classic detail of a similar nature is used, and one of the best of these +is the small church of the Milagre at Santarem. As for the cloisters +which are mentioned later, they have much in common with Joao de +Castilho's work at Thomar, as, for instance, in the Claustros da Micha, +or the Claustro da Hospedaria; in the latter especially the upper story +suggests the arrangement which became so common. + +This placing of a second story with horizontal architrave on the top of +an arched cloister is very common in Spain, and might have been +suggested by such as are found at Lupiana or at Alcala de Henares,[155] +but these are not divided into bays by buttresses, so it is more likely +that they were borrowed from such a cloister as that of Sta. Cruz at +Coimbra, where the buttresses run up to the roof of the upper story and +where the arches of that story are almost flat. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Milagre.] + +The Milagre or Miracle church at Santarem is so called because it stands +near where the body of St. Irene, martyred by the Romans at Nabantia, +now Thomar, after floating down the Nabao, the Zezere, and the Tagus, +came to shore and so gave her name to Santarem. + +The church is small, being about sixty-five feet long by forty wide. It +has three aisles, wooden panelled roofs, an arcade resting on Doric +columns, and at the east a sort of transept followed by an apse. The +piers to the west side of this transept are made up of four pilasters, +all of different heights. The highest, the one on the west side, has a +Corinthian capital and is enriched in front by a statue under a canopy +standing on a corbel upheld by a slender baluster shaft. The second in +height is plain, and supports the arch which crosses the central aisle. +The arches opening from the aisles into the transept chapel are lower +still, and rest, not on capitals, but on corbels. Like the nave arch, on +their spandrels heads are carved looking out of circles. Lowest of +all--owing to the barrel vault which covers the central aisle at the +crossing--are the arches leading north and south to the chapels. They +too spring from corbels and are quite plain. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Marvilla.] + +Up in the town on the top of the hill the nave of the church of the +Marvilla--whose Manoelino door and chancel have already been +mentioned--is of about the same date. This nave is about one hundred +feet long by fifty-five wide, has three aisles with wooden ceilings; the +arcades of round arches with simple moulded architrave rest on the +beautiful Ionic capitals of columns over twenty-six feet high. These +capitals, of Corinthian rather than of Ionic proportions, with simple +fluting instead of acanthus leaves, have curious double volutes at each +angle, and small winged heads in the middle of each side of the abacus. + +Altogether the arcades are most stately, and the beauty of the church is +further enhanced by the exceptionally fine tiles with which the walls as +well as the spandrels above the arches are lined. Up to about the height +of fifteen feet, above a stone bench, the tiles, blue, yellow, and +orange, are arranged in panels, two different patterns being used +alternatively, with beautiful borders, while in each spandrel towards +the central aisle an Emblem of the Virgin, Tower of Ivory, Star of the +Sea, and so on, is surrounded by blue and yellow intertwining leaves. +Above these, as above the panels on the walls, the whole is covered with +dark and light tiles arranged in checks, and added as stated by a date +over the chancel arch in 1617. The lower tiles are probably of much the +same date or a little earlier. + +Against one of the nave columns there stands a very elegant little +pulpit. It rests on the Corinthian capital of a very bulbous baluster, +is square, and has on each side four beautiful little Corinthian +columns, fluted and surrounded with large acanthus leaves at the bottom. +Almost exactly like it, but round and with balusters instead of +columns, is the pulpit in the church of Nossa Senhora dos Olivaes at +Thomar. (Fig. 89.) + +[Sidenote: Elvas, Sao Domingos.] + +The most original in plan as well as in decoration of all the buildings +of this time is the church of the nunnery of Sao Domingos at Elvas, like +nearly all nunneries in the kingdom now fast falling to pieces. In plan +it is an octagon about forty-two feet across with three apses to the +east and a smaller octagonal dome in the middle standing on eight white +marble columns with Doric capitals. The columns, the architrave below +the dome, the arches of the apses and their vaults, are all of white +marble covered with exquisite carved ornament partly gilt, while all the +walls and the other vaults are lined with tiles, blue and yellow +patterns on a white ground. The abacus of each column is set diagonally +to the diameter of the octagon, and between it and the lower side of the +architrave are interposed thin blocks of stone rounded at the ends. + +Like the Conceicao at Thomar this too dates from near the end of Dom +Joao's reign, having been founded about 1550. + +[Sidenote: Cintra, Penha Longa and Penha Verde.] + +Capitals very like those in the nave of the Marvilla, but with a ring of +leaves instead of flutes, are found in the cloister of the church at +Penha Longa near Cintra, and in the little round chapel at Penha Verde +not far off, where lies the heart of Dom Joao de Castro, fourth viceroy +of India. Built about 1535, it is a simple little round building with a +square recess for the altar opposite the door. Inside, the dome springs +from a cornice resting on six columns whose capitals are of the same +kind. + +Others nearly the same are found in the house of the Conde de Sao +Vicente at Lisbon, only there the volutes are replaced by winged +figures, as is also the case in the arcades of the Misericordia at +Tavira, the door of which has been mentioned above. + +[Sidenote: Vizeu, Cloister.] + +Still more like the Marvilla capitals are those of the lower cloister of +the cathedral of Vizeu. This, the most pleasing of all the renaissance +cloisters in Portugal, has four arches on each side resting on fluted +columns which though taller than usual in cloisters, have no entasis. +The capitals are exactly like those at Santarem, but being of granite +are much coarser, with roses instead of winged heads on the unmoulded +abaci. At the angles two columns are placed together and a shallow strip +is carried up above them all to the cornice. Somewhere in the lower +cloister are the arms of Bishop Miguel da Silva, who is + +[Illustration: FIG. 89. + +SANTAREM. + +CHURCH OF THE MARVILLA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 90. + +VIZEU. + +CATHEDRAL CLOISTER.] + +said to have built it about 1524, but that is an impossibly early date, +as even in far less remote places such classical columns were not used +till at least ten years later. Yet the cloister must probably have been +built some time before 1550. An upper unarched cloister, with an +architrave resting on simple Doric columns, was added, _sede vacante_, +between 1720 and 1742, and greatly increases the picturesqueness of the +whole. (Fig. 90.) + +[Sidenote: Lamego, Cloister.] + +A similar but much lower second story was added by Bishop Manoel +Noronha[156] in 1557 to the cloister of Lamego Cathedral. The lower +cloister with its round arches and eight-sided shafts is interesting, as +most of its capitals are late Gothic, some moulded, a few with leaves, +though some have been replaced by very good capitals of the Corinthian +type but retaining the Gothic abacus.[157] + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Sao Thomaz.] + +[Sidenote: Carmo.] + +[Sidenote: Cintra, Penha Longa.] + +[Sidenote: Faro, Sao Bento.] + +[Sidenote: Lorvao.] + +Most, however, of the cloisters of this period do not have a continuous +arcade like that of Vizeu, but have arches set in pairs in the lower +story with big buttresses between each pair. Such is the cloister of the +college of Sao Thomaz at Coimbra, founded in 1540, where the arches of +the lower cloister rest on Ionic capitals, while the architrave of the +upper is upheld by thin Doric columns; of the Carmo, also at Coimbra, +founded in 1542, where the cloister is almost exactly like that of Sao +Thomaz, except that there are twice as many columns in the upper story; +of Penha Longa near Cintra, where the two stories are of equal height +and the lower, with arches, has moulded and the upper, with horizontal +architrave, Ionic capitals, and of Sao Bento at Faro, where the lower +capitals are like those in the Marvilla, but without volutes, while the +upper are Ionic. In all these the big square buttress is carried right +up to the roof of the upper cloister, as it was also at Lorvao near +Coimbra. There the arches below are much wider, so that above the number +of supports has been doubled.[158] + +[Sidenote: Amarante.] + +In one of the cloisters of Sao Goncalvo at Amarante on the +Tamega--famous for the battle on the bridge during the French +invasion--there is only one arch to each bay below, and it springs from +jambs, not from columns, and is very plain. The buttresses do not rise +above the lower cornice and have Ionic capitals, as have also the rather +stout columns of the upper story. The lower cloister is roofed with a +beautiful three-centred vault with many ribs, and several of the doors +are good examples of early renaissance. + +[Sidenote: Santarem, Sta. Clara.] + +More like the other cloisters, but probably somewhat later in date, is +that of Sta. Clara at Santarem, fast falling to pieces. In it there are +three arches, here three-centred, to each bay, and instead of projecting +buttresses wide pilasters, like the columns, Doric below, Ionic above. + +[Sidenote: Guarda, Reredos.] + +On first seeing the great reredos in the cathedral of Guarda, the +tendency is to attribute it to a period but little later than the works +of Master Nicolas at Sao Marcos or of Joao de Ruao at Coimbra. But on +looking closer it is seen that a good deal of the ornament--the +decoration of the pilasters and of the friezes--as well as the +appearance of the figures, betray a later date--a date perhaps as late +as the end of the reign of Dom Joao III. (Fig. 91.) + +Though the reredos is very much larger and of finer design, the figures +have sufficient resemblance to those in the chapel of the Holy Sacrament +in the Se Velha at Coimbra, put up in 1566, to show that they must be +more or less contemporary, the Guarda reredos being probably the +older.[159] + +Filling the whole of the east end of the apse of the Capella Mor, the +structure rises in a curve up to the level of the windows. Without the +beautiful colouring of Master Vlimer's work at Coimbra, or the charm of +the reredos at Funchal, with figures distinctly inferior to those by +Master Nicolas at Sao Marcos, this Guarda reredos is yet a very fine +piece of work, and is indeed the only large one of its kind which still +survives. + +It is divided into three stories, each about ten feet high, with a +half-story below resting on a plain plinth. + +Each story is divided into large square panels by pilasters or columns +set pretty close together, the topmost story having candelabrum shafts, +the one below it Corinthian columns, the lowest Doric pilasters, and the +half-story below pedestals for these pilasters. Entablatures with +ornamental friezes divide each story, while at the top the centre is +raised to admit of an arch, an arrangement probably copied from Joao de +Ruao's altar-piece. + +In the half-story at the bottom are half-figures of the twelve Apostles, +four under each of the square panels at the sides, and one between each +pair of pilasters. + +Above is represented, on the left the Annunciation, on the right the +Nativity; in the centre, now hidden by a hideous wooden erection, there +is a beautiful little tabernacle between two angels. Between the +pilasters, as between the columns above, stand large figures of +prophets. + +In the next story the scenes are, on the left the Magi, on the right the +Presentation, and in the centre the Assumption of the Virgin. + +The whole of the top is taken up with the Story of the Crucifixion, our +Lord bearing the Cross on the left, the Crucifixion under the arch, and +the Deposition on the right. + +Although the whole is infinitely superior in design to anything by +Master Nicolas, it must be admitted that the sculpture is very inferior +to his, and also to Joao de Ruao's. The best are the Crucifixion scenes, +where the grouping is better and the action freer, but everywhere the +faces are rather expressionless and the figures stiff. + +As everything is painted, white for the background and an ugly yellow +for the figures and detail, it is not possible to see whether stone or +terra cotta is the material; if terra cotta the sculptor may have been a +pupil of Filipe Eduard, who in the time of Dom Manoel wrought the Last +Supper in terra cotta, fragments of which still survive at Coimbra. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE LATER RENAISSANCE AND THE SPANISH USURPATION + + +This earlier style did not, however, last very long. Even before the +death of Dom Joao more strictly classical forms began to come in from +Italy, brought by some of the many pupils who had been sent to study +there. Once when staying at Almeirim the king had been much interested +in a model of the Colosseum brought to him by Goncalo Bayao, whom he +charged to reproduce some of the monuments he had seen in Rome. + +Whether he did reproduce them or not is unknown, but in the Claustro dos +Filippes at Thomar this new and thoroughly Italian style is seen fully +developed. + +[Sidenote: Thomar, Claustro dos Filippes.] + +Diogo de Torralva had been nominated to direct the works in Thomar in +1554, but did nothing to this cloister till 1557 after Dom Joao's death, +when his widow, Dona Catharina, regent for her grandson, Dom Sebastiao, +ordered him to pull down what was already built, as it was unsafe, and +to build another of the same size about one hundred and fifteen feet +square, but making the lower story rather higher. + +The work must have been carried out quickly, since on the vault of the +upper cloister there is the date 1562--a date which shows that the whole +must have been practically finished some eighteen years before Philip of +Spain secured the throne of Portugal, and that therefore the cloister +should rather be called after Dona Catharina, who ordered it, than after +the 'Reis Intrusos,' whose only connection with Thomar is that the first +was there elected king. + +Between each of the three large arches which form a side of the lower +cloister stand two Roman Doric columns of considerable size. They are +placed some distance apart leaving room between them for an opening, +while another window-like opening occurs above the moulding from which +the arches + +[Illustration: FIG. 91. + +GUARDA. + +REREDOS IN CATHEDRAL.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 92. + +THOMAR. + +CLAUSTRO DOS FILIPPES.] + +spring. In the four corners the space between the columns, as well as +the entablature, is set diagonally, leaving room in one instance for a +circular stair. The cornice is enriched with dentils and the frieze with +raised squares. On the entablature more columns of about the same height +as those below, but with Ionic capitals, stand in pairs. Stairs lead up +in each corner to the flat roof, above which they rise in a short +dome-bearing drum. In this upper cloister the arches are much narrower, +springing from square Ionic pilasters, two on each side, set one behind +the other, and leaving an open space beyond so that the whole takes the +form of a Venetian window. The small upper window between the columns is +round instead of square, and the cornice is carried on large corbels. In +front of all the openings is a balustrade. Two windows look south down +the hillside over rich orchards and gardens, while immediately below +them a water channel, the end of a great aqueduct built under Philip I. +of Portugal, II. of Spain, by the Italian Filippo Terzi,[160] cools the +air, and, overflowing, clothes the arches with maidenhair fern. Another +window opening on to the Claustro de Sta. Barbara gives a very good view +of the curious west front of the church. There is not and there probably +never was any parapet to the flat paved roof, from where one can look +down on the surrounding cloisters, and on the paved terrace before the +church door where Philip was elected king in April 1580. (Fig. 92.) + +This cloister, the first example in Portugal of the matured Italian +renaissance, is also, with the exception of the church of Sao Vicente de +Fora at Lisbon, the most successful, for all is well proportioned, and +shows that Diogo de Torralva really understood classic detail and how to +use it. He was much less successful in the chancel of Belem, while about +the cathedral which he built at Miranda de Douro it is difficult to find +out anything, so remote and inaccessible is it, except that it stands +magnificently on a high rock above the river.[161] + +The reigns of Dom Sebastiao and of his grand-uncle, the Cardinal-King, +were noted for no great activity in building. Only at Evora, where he so +long filled the position of archbishop before succeeding to the throne, +was the cardinal able to do much. The most important architectural +event in Dom Sebastiao's reign was the coming of Filippo Terzi from +Italy to build Sao Roque, the church of the Jesuits in Lisbon, and the +consequent school of architects, the Alvares, Tinouco, Turianno, and +others who were so active during the reign of Philip. + +But before speaking of the work of this school some of Cardinal Henry's +buildings at Evora must be mentioned, and then the story told of how +Philip succeeded in uniting the whole Peninsula under his rule. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Graca.] + +A little to the south of the cathedral of Evora, and a little lower down +the hill, stands the Graca or church of the canons of St. Augustine. +Begun during the reign of Dom Joao III., the nave and chancel, in which +there is a fine tomb, have many details which recall the Conceicao at +Thomar, such as windows set in sham perspective. But they were long in +building, and the now broken down barrel vault and the curious porch +were not added till the reign of Dom Sebastiao, while the monastic +buildings were finished about the same time. + +This porch is most extraordinary. Below, there are in front four +well-proportioned and well-designed Doric columns; beyond them and next +the outer columns are large projecting pilasters forming buttresses, not +unlike the buttresses in some of the earlier cloisters. Above the +entablature, which runs round these buttresses, there stand on the two +central columns two tall Ionic semi-columns, surmounted by an +entablature and pointed pediment, and enclosing a large window set back +in sham perspective. On either side large solid square panels are filled +by huge rosettes several feet across, and above them half-pediments +filled with shields reach up to the central pediment but at a lower +level. Above these pediments another raking moulding runs up supported +on square blocks, while on the top of the upper buttresses there sit +figures of giant boys with globes on their backs; winged figures also +kneel on the central pediment. + +It will be seen that this is one of the most extraordinary erections in +the world. Though built of granite some of the detail is quite fine, and +the lower columns are well proportioned; but the upper part is +ridiculously heavy and out of keeping with the rest, and inconceivably +ill-designed. The different parts also are ill put together and look as +if they had belonged to distinct buildings designed on a totally +different scale. + +[Sidenote: Evora University.] + +Not much need be said of the Jesuit University founded at Evora by the +Cardinal in 1559 and suppressed by the Marques de Pombal. Now partly a +school and partly an orphanage, the great hall for conferring degrees is +in ruins, but the courtyard with its two ranges of galleries still +stands. The court is very large, and the galleries have round arches and +white marble columns, but is somehow wanting in interest. The church too +is very poor, though the private chapel with barrel vault and white +marble dome is better, yet the whole building shows, like the Graca +porch, that classic architecture was not yet fully understood, for Diogo +de Torralva had not yet finished his cloister at Thomar, nor had Terzi +begun to work in Lisbon. + +When Dom Joao III. died in 1557 he was succeeded by his grandson +Sebastiao, who was then only three years old. At first his grandmother, +Dona Catharina, was regent, but she was thoroughly Spanish, and so +unpopular. For five years she withstood the intrigues of her +brother-in-law, Cardinal Henry, but at last in 1562 retired to Spain in +disgust. The Cardinal then became regent, but the country was really +governed by two brothers, of whom the elder, Luis Goncalves da Camara, a +Jesuit, was confessor to the young king. + +Between them Dom Sebastiao grew up a dreamy bigot whose one ambition was +to lead a crusade against the Moors--an ambition in which popular rumour +said he was encouraged by the Jesuits at the instigation of his cousin, +Philip of Spain, who would profit so much by his death. + +Since the wealth of the Indies had begun to fill the royal treasury, the +Cortes had not been summoned, so there was no one able to oppose his +will, when at last an expedition sailed in 1578. + +At this time the country had been nearly drained of men by India and +Brazil, so a large part of the army consisted of mercenaries; peculation +too had emptied the treasury, and there was great difficulty in finding +money to pay the troops. + +Yet the expedition started, and landing first at Tangier afterwards +moved on to Azila, which Mulay Ahmed, a pretender to the Moorish +umbrella, had handed over. + +On July 29th, Dom Sebastiao rashly started to march inland from Azila. +The army suffered terribly from heat and thirst, and was quite worn out +before it met the reigning amir, Abd-el-Melik, at Alcacer-Quebir, or +El-Kasar-el-Kebir, 'the great castle,' on the 3rd of August. + +Next morning the battle began, and though Abd-el-Melik died almost at +once, the Moors, surrounding the small Christian army, were soon +victorious. Nine thousand were killed, and of the rest all were taken +prisoners except fifty. Both the Pretender and Dom Sebastiao fell, and +with his death and the destruction of his army the greatness of Portugal +disappeared. + +For two years, till 1580, his feeble old grand-uncle the Cardinal Henry +sat on the throne, but when he died without nominating an heir none of +Dom Manoel's descendants were strong enough to oppose Philip II. of +Spain. Philip was indeed a grandson of Dom Manoel through his mother +Isabel, but the duchess of Braganza, daughter of Dom Duarte, duke of +Guimaraes, Cardinal Henry's youngest brother, had really a better claim. + +But the spirit of the nation was changed, she dared not press her +claims, and few supported the prior of Crato, whose right was at least +as good as had been that of Dom Joao I., and so Philip was elected at +Thomar in April 1580. + +Besides losing her independence Portugal lost her trade, for Holland and +England both now regarded her as part of their great enemy, Spain, and +so harried her ports and captured her treasure ships. Brazil was nearly +lost to the Dutch, who also succeeded in expelling the Portuguese from +Ceylon and from the islands of the East Indies, so that when the sixty +years' captivity was over and the Spaniards expelled, Portugal found it +impossible to recover the place she had lost. + +It is then no wonder that almost before the end of the century money for +building began to fail, and that some of the churches begun then were +never finished; and yet for about the first twenty or thirty years of +the Spanish occupation building went on actively, especially in Lisbon +and at Coimbra, where many churches were planned by Filippo Terzi, or by +the two Alvares and others. Filippo Terzi seems first to have been +employed at Lisbon by the Jesuits in building their church of Sao Roque, +begun about 1570.[162] + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Sao Roque.] + +Outside the church is as plain as possible; the front is divided into +three by single Doric pilasters set one on each side of the main door +and two at each corner. Similar pilasters stand on these, separated from +them only by a shallow cornice. The main cornice is larger, but the +pediment is perfectly plain. Three windows, one with a pointed and two +with round pediments, occupy the spaces left between the upper +pilasters. The inside is richer; the wooden ceiling is painted, the +shallow chancel and the side chapels vaulted with barrel vaults, of +which those in the chapels are enriched with elaborate strapwork. Above +the chapels are square-headed windows, and then a corbelled cornice. +Even this is plain, and it owes most of its richness to the paintings +and to the beautiful tiles which cover part of the walls.[163] + +The three other great churches which were probably also designed by +Terzi are Santo Antao, Sta. Maria do Desterro, and Sao Vicente de Fora. + +Of these the great earthquake of 1755 almost entirely destroyed the +first two and knocked down the dome of the last. + +[Sidenote: Sao Vicente de Fora.] + +Though not the first to be built, Sao Vicente being the least injured +may be taken before the others. It is a large church, being altogether +about 236 feet long by 75 wide, and consists of a nave of three bays +with connected chapels on each side, a transept with the fallen dome at +the crossing, a square chancel, a retro-choir for the monks about 45 +feet deep behind the chancel, and to the west a porch between two tall +towers. + +On the south side are two large square cloisters of no great interest +with a sacristy between--in which all the kings of the House of Braganza +lie in velvet-covered coffins--and the various monastic buildings now +inhabited by the patriarch of Lisbon. + +The outside is plain, except for the west front, which stands at the top +of a great flight of steps. On the west front two orders of pilasters +are placed one above the other. Of these the lower is Doric, of more +slender proportions than usual, while the upper has no true capitals +beyond the projecting entablature and corbels on the frieze. Single +pilasters divide the centre of the front into three equal parts and +coupled pilasters stand at the corners of the towers. In the central +part three plain arches open on to the porch, with a pedimented niche +above each. In the tower the niches are placed lower with oblong +openings above and below. + +Above the entablature of the lower order there are three windows in the +middle flanked by Ionic pilasters and surmounted by pediments, while in +the tower are large round-headed niches with pediments. (Fig. 93.) + +[Illustration: PLAN OF SAO VICENTE] + +The entablature of the upper order is carried straight across the whole +front, with nothing above it in the centre but a balustrading +interrupted by obelisk-bearing pedestals, but at the ends the towers +rise in one more square story flanked with short Doric pilasters. +Round-arched openings for bells occur on each side, and within the +crowning balustrade with its obelisks a stone dome rises to an +eight-sided domed lantern. + +Like all the church, the front is built of beautiful limestone, +rivalling Carrara marble in whiteness, and seen down the narrow street +which runs uphill from across the small _praca_ the whole building is +most imposing. It would have been even more satisfactory had the central +part been a little narrower, and had there been something to mark the +barrel vault within; the omission too of the lower order, which is so +much taller than the upper, would have been an improvement, but even +with these defects the design is most stately, and refreshingly free of +all the fussy over-elaboration and the fantastic piling up of pediments +which soon became too common. + +But if the outside deserves such praise, the inside is worthy of far +more. The great stone barrel vault is simply coffered with square +panels. The chapel arches are singularly plain, and spring from a good +moulding which projects nearly + +[Illustration: FIG. 93. + +LISBON. + +SAO VICENTE DE FORA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 94. + +LISBON. + +SAO VICENTE DE FORA.] + +to the face of the pilasters. Two of these stand between each chapel, +and have very beautiful capitals founded on the Doric but with a long +fluted neck ornamented in front by a bunch of crossed arrows and at the +corners with acanthus leaves, and with egg and tongue carved on the +moulding below the Corinthian abacus. Of the entablature, only the +frieze and architrave is broken round the pilasters; for the cornice +with its great mutules runs straight round the whole church, supported +over the chapels by carving out the triglyphs--of which there is one +over each pilaster, and two in the space between each pair of +pilasters--so as to form corbels. + +Only the pendentives of the dome and the panelled drum remain; the rest +was replaced after the earthquake by wooden ceiling pierced with +skylights. (Fig. 94.) + +Though so simple--there is no carved ornament except in the beautiful +capitals--the interior is one of the most imposing to be seen anywhere, +and though not really very large gives a wonderful impression of space +and size, being in this respect one of the most successful of classic +churches. It is only necessary to compare Sao Vicente de Fora with the +great clumsy cathedral which Herrera had begun to build five years +earlier at Valladolid to see how immensely superior Terzi was to his +Spanish contemporary. Even in his masterpiece, the church of the +Escorial, Herrera did not succeed in giving such spacious greatness, +for, though half as large again, the Escorial church is imposing rather +from its stupendous weight and from the massiveness of its granite piers +than from the beauty of its proportions. + +Philip took a great interest in the building of the Escorial, and also +had the plans of Sao Vicente submitted to him in 1590. This plan, signed +by him in November 1590, was drawn by Joao Nunes Tinouco, so that it is +possible that Tinouco was the actual designer and not Terzi, but Tinouco +was still alive sixty years later when he published a plan of Lisbon, +and so must have been very young in 1590. It is probable, therefore, +that tradition is right in assigning Sao Vicente to Terzi, and even if +it be actually the work of Tinouco, he has here done little but copy +what his master had already done elsewhere. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santo Antao.] + +After Sao Roque the first church begun by Terzi was Santo Antao, now +attached to the hospital of Sao Jose. Begun in 1579 it was not finished +till 1652, only to be destroyed by the earthquake in 1755. As at Sao +Vicente, the west front has a lower order of huge Doric pilasters nearly +fifty feet high. There is no porch, but three doors with poor windows +above which look as if they had been built after the earthquake. + +Unfortunately, nearly all above the lower entablature is gone, but +enough is left to show that the upper order was Ionic and very short, +and that the towers were to rise behind buttress-like curves descending +from the central part to two obelisks placed above the coupled corner +pilasters. + +The inside was almost exactly like Sao Vicente, but larger. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santa Maria do Desterro.] + +Santa Maria do Desterro was begun later than either of the last two, in +1591. Unlike them the two orders of the west front are short and of +almost equal size, Doric below and Ionic above. The arches of the porch +reach up to the lower entablature, and the windows above are rather +squat; it looks as if there was to have been a third order above, but it +is all gone. + +The inside was of the usual pattern, except that the pilasters were not +coupled between the chapels, that they were panelled, and that above the +low chapel arches there are square windows looking into a gallery. + +[Sidenote: Torreao do Paco.] + +Besides these churches Terzi built for Philip a large addition to the +royal palace in the shape of a great square tower or pavilion, called +the Torreao. The palace then stood to the west of what is now called the +Praca do Commercio, and the Torreao jutted out over the Tagus. It seems +to have had five windows on the longer and four on the shorter sides, to +have been two stories in height, and to have been covered by a great +square dome-shaped roof, with a lantern at the top and turrets at the +corners. Pilasters stood singly between each window and in pairs at the +corners, and the windows all had pediments. Now, not a stone of it is +left, as it was in the palace square, the Terreno do Paco da Ribeira, +that the earthquake was at its worst, swallowing up the palace and +overwhelming thousands of people in the waves of the river. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Se Nova.] + +Meanwhile the great Jesuit church at Coimbra, now the Se Nova or new +cathedral, had been gradually rising. Founded by Dom Joao III. in 1552, +and dedicated to the Onze mil Virgems, it cannot have been begun in its +present form till much later, till about 1580, while the main, or south, +front seems even later still.[164] + +Inside, the church consists of a nave of four bays with side chapels--in +one of which there is a beautiful Manoelino font--transepts and chancel +with a drumless dome over the crossing. In some respects the likeness to +Sao Vicente is very considerable; there are coupled Doric pilasters +between the chapels, the barrel vault is coffered, and the chapel arches +are extremely plain. But here the likeness ends. The pilasters are +panelled and have very simple moulded capitals; the entablature is quite +ordinary, without triglyphs or mutules, and is broken round each pair of +pilasters; the coffers on the vault are very deep, and are scarcely +moulded; and, above all, the proportions are quite different as the nave +is too wide for its height, and the drum is terribly needed to lift up +the dome. In short, the architect seems to have copied the dispositions +of Santo Antao and has done his best to spoil them, and yet he has at +the same time succeeded in making the interior look large, though with +an almost Herrera-like clumsiness. + +The south front is even more like Santo Antao. As there, three doors +take the place of the porch, and the only difference below is that each +Doric pilaster is flanked by half pilasters. Above the entablature the +front breaks out into a wild up-piling of various pediments, but even +here the likeness to Santo Antao is preserved, in that a great curve +comes down from the outer Ionic pilasters of the central part, to end, +however, not in obelisks, but in a great volute: the small towers too +are set much further back. Above, as below, the central part is divided +into three. Of these the two outer, flanked by Ionic pilasters on +pedestals, are finished off above with curved pediments broken to admit +of obelisks. The part between these has a large window below, a huge +coat of arms above, and rises high above the sides to a pediment so +arranged that while the lower mouldings form an angle the upper form a +curve on which stand two finials and a huge cross. (Fig. 95.) + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Collegio Novo.] + +Very soon this fantastic way of piling up pieces of pediment and of +entablature became only too popular, being copied for instance in the +Collegio Novo at Oporto, where, however, the design is not quite so bad +as the towers are brought forward and are carried up considerably +higher. But apart from this horrid misuse of classic details the +greatest fault of the facade at Coimbra is the disproportionate size of +some of the details; the obelisks and the cherubs' heads on which they +stand, the statues at the ends, and the central cross, and above all the +colossal acanthus leaves in the great scrolls are of such a size as +entirely to dwarf all the rest. + +From what remains of the front of Santo Antao, it looks as if it and the +front of the Se Velha had been very much alike. Santo Antao was not +quite finished till 1652, so that it is probable that the upper part of +the west front dates from the seventeenth century, long after Terzi's +death, and that the Se Nova at Coimbra was finished about the same time, +and perhaps copied from it. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Misericordia.] + +But it was not only Terzi's churches which were copied at Coimbra. While +the Se Nova, then, and for nearly two hundred years more, the church of +the Jesuits, was still being built, the architect of the chief pateo of +the Misericordia took Diogo de Torralva's cloister at Thomar as his +model. + +It was in the year 1590 that Cardinal Affonso de Castello Branco began +to build the headquarters of the Misericordia of Coimbra, founded in +1500 as a simple confraternity. The various offices of the institution, +including a church, the halls whose ceilings have been already +mentioned, and hospital dormitories--all now turned into an +orphanage--are built round two courtyards, one only of which calls for +special notice, for nearly everything else has been rebuilt or altered. +In this court or cloister, the plan of the Claustro dos Filippes has +been followed in that there are three wide arches on each side, and +between them--but not in the corners, and further apart than at +Thomar--a pair of columns. In this case the space occupied by one arch +is scarcely wider than that occupied by the two fluted Doric columns and +the square-headed openings between them. Another change is that the +complete entablature with triglyphs and metopes is only found above the +columns, for the arches rise too high to leave room for more than the +cornice. (Fig. 96.) + +The upper story is quite different, for it has only square-headed +windows, though the line of the columns is carried up by slender and +short Ionic columns; a sloping tile roof rests immediately on the upper +cornice, above which rise small obelisks placed over the columns. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Episcopal Palace.] + +At about the same time the Cardinal built a long loggia on the west side +of the entrance court of his palace at Coimbra. The hill on which the +palace is built being extremely + +[Illustration: FIG. 95. + +SE NOVA, COIMBRA.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 96 + +COIMBRA. + +MISERICORDIA.] + +steep, an immense retaining wall, some fifty or sixty feet high, bounds +the courtyard on the west, and it is on the top of this wall that the +loggia is built forming a covered way two stories in height and uniting +the Manoelino palace on the north with some offices which bound the yard +on the south. This covered way is formed by two rows of seven arches, +each resting on Doric columns, with a balustrading between the outer +columns on the top of the great wall. The ceiling is of wood and forms +the floor of the upper story, where the columns are Ionic and support a +continuous architrave. The whole is quite simple and unadorned, but at +the same time singularly picturesque, since the view through the arches, +over the old cathedral and the steeply descending town, down to the +convent of Santa Clara and the wooded hills beyond the Mondego, is most +beautiful; besides, the courtyard itself is not without interest. In the +centre stands a fountain, and on the south side a stair, carried on a +flying half-arch, leads up to a small porch whose steep pointed roof +rests on two walls, and on one small column. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Se Velha Sacristy.] + +The same bishop also built the sacristy of the old cathedral. Entered by +a passage from the south transept, and built across the back of the +apse, it is an oblong room with coffered barrel vault, lit by a large +semicircular window at the north end. The cornice, of which the frieze +is adorned with eight masks, rests on corbels. On a black-and-white +marble lavatory is the date 1593 and the Cardinal's arms. The two ends +are divided into three tiled panels by Doric columns, and on the longer +sides are presses. + +Altogether it is very like the sacristy of Santa Cruz built some thirty +years later, but plainer. + +By 1590 or so several Portuguese followers of Terzi had begun to build +churches, founded on his work, but in some respects less like than is +the Se Nova at Coimbra. Such churches are best seen at Coimbra, where +many were built, all now more or less deserted and turned to base uses. +Three at least of these stand on either side of the long Rua Sophia +which leads northwards from the town. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Sao Domingos.] + +The oldest seems to be the church of Sao Domingos, founded by the dukes +of Aveiro, but never finished. Only the chancel with its flanking +chapels and the transept have been built. Two of the churches at Lisbon +and the Se Nova of Coimbra are noted for their extremely long Doric +pilasters. Here, in the chancel the pilasters and the half columns in +the transept are Ionic, and even more disproportionately tall. The +architrave is unadorned, the frieze has corbels set in pairs, and +between the pairs curious shields and strapwork, and the cornice is +enriched with dentils, egg and tongue and modillions. Most elaborate of +all is the barrel vault, where each coffer is filled with round or +square panels surrounded with strapwork. + +This vault and the cornice were probably not finished till well on in +the seventeenth century, for on the lower, and probably earlier vaults, +of the side chapels the ornamentation is much finer and more delicate. + +The transepts were to have been covered with groined vaults of which +only the springing has been built. In the north transept and in one of +the chapels there still stand great stone reredoses once much gilt, but +now all broken and dusty and almost hidden behind the diligences and +cabs with which the church is filled. The great fault in Sao Domingos is +the use of the same order both for the tall pilasters in the chancel, +and for the shorter ones in the side chapels; so that the taller, which +are twice as long and of about the same diameter, are ridiculously lanky +and thin. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Carmo.] + +Almost opposite Sao Domingos is the church of the Carmo, begun by Frey +Amador Arraes, bishop of Portalegre about 1597. The church is an oblong +hall about 135 feet long, including the chancel, by nearly 40 wide, +roofed with a coffered barrel vault. On each side of the nave are two +rectangular and one semicircular chapel; the vaults of the chapel are +beautifully enriched with sunk panels of various shapes. The great +reredos covers the whole east wall with two stories of coupled columns, +niches and painted panels. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Graca.] + +Almost exactly the same is the Graca church next door, both very plain +and almost devoid of interest outside. + +[Sidenote: Sao Bento.] + +Equally plain is the unfinished front of the church of Sao Bento up on +the hill near the botanical gardens. It was designed by Baltazar Alvares +for Dom Diogo de Murca, rector of the University in 1600, but not +consecrated till thirty-four years later. The church, which inside is +about 164 feet long, consists of a nave with side chapels, measuring 60 +feet by about 35, a transept of the same width, and a square chancel. +Besides there is a deep porch in front between two oblong towers, which +have never been carried up above the roof. + +The porch is entered by three arches, one in the middle wider and higher +than the others. Above are three niches with shell heads, and then three +windows, two oblong and one round, all set in rectangular frames. At the +sides there are broad pilasters below, with the usual lanky Doric +pilasters above reaching to the main cornice, above which there now +rises only an unfinished gable end. The inside is much more pleasing. +The barrel vaults of the chapels are beautifully panelled and enriched +with egg and tongue; between each, two pilasters rise only to the +moulding from which the chapel arches spring, and support smaller +pilasters with a niche between. In the spandrels of the arches are +rather badly carved angels holding shields, and on the arches +themselves, as at Sao Marcos, are cherubs' heads. A plain entablature +runs along immediately above these arches, and from it to the main +cornice, the walls, covered with blue and white tiles, are perfectly +blank, broken only by square-headed windows. Only at the crossing do +pilasters run up to the vault, and they are of the usual attenuated +Doric form. As usual the roof is covered with plain coffers, as is also +the drumless dome. + +This is very like the Carmo and the Graca, which repeat the fault of +leaving a blank tiled wall above the chapels, and it is quite possible +that they too may have been built by Alvares; the plan is evidently +founded on that of one of Terzi's churches, as Sao Vicente, or on that +of the Se Nova, but though some of the detail is charming there is a +want of unity between the upper and lower parts which is found in none +of Terzi's work, nor even in the heavier Se Nova.[165] + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Sao Bento.] + +Baltazar Alvares seems to have been specially employed by the order of +St. Benedict, for not only did he build their monasteries at Coimbra but +also Sao Bento, now the Cortes in Lisbon, as well as Sao Bento da +Victoria at Oporto, his greatest and most successful work. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Sao Bento.] + +The plan is practically the same as that of Sao Bento at Coimbra, but +larger. Here, however, there are no windows over the chapel arches, nor +any dome at the crossing. Built of grey granite, a certain heaviness +seems suitable enough, and the great coffered vault is not without +grandeur, while the gloom of the inside is lit up by huge carved and +gilt altar-pieces and by the elaborate stalls in the choir gallery. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +OTHER BUILDINGS OF THE LATER RENAISSANCE, TILL THE EXPULSION OF THE +SPANIARDS + + +In the last chapter the most important works of Terzi and of his pupils +have been described, and it is now necessary to go back and tell of +various buildings which do not conform to his plan of a great +barrel-vaulted nave with flanking chapels, though the designers of some +of these buildings have copied such peculiarities as the tall and narrow +pilasters of which his school was so fond, and which, as will be seen, +ultimately degenerated into mere pilaster strips. + +[Sidenote: Vianna do Castello, Misericordia.] + +But before speaking of the basilican and other churches of this time, +the Misericordia at Vianna do Castello must be described.[166] + +The Misericordia of Vianna stands on the north side of the chief square +of the town, and was built in 1589 by one Joao Lopez, whose father had +designed the beautiful fountain which stands near by. + +It is a building of very considerable interest, as there seems to be +nothing else like it in the country. The church of the Misericordia, a +much older building ruined by later alteration, is now only remarkable +for the fine blue and white tile decoration with which its walls are +covered. Just to the west of it, and at the corner of the broad street +in which is a fine Manoelino house belonging to the Visconde de +Carreira, stands the building designed by Lopez. The front towards the +street is plain, but that overlooking the square highly decorated. + +At the two corners are broad rusticated bands which run up uninterrupted +to the cornice; between them the front is divided into three stories of +open loggias. Of these the lowest has five round arches resting on Ionic +columns; in + +[Illustration: FIG. 97. + +VIANNA DO CASTELLO. + +MISERICORDIA.] + +the second, on a solid parapet, stand four whole and two half 'terms' or +atlantes which support an entablature with wreath-enriched frieze; +corbels above the heads of the figures cross the frieze, and others +above them the low blocking course, and on them are other terms +supporting the main cornice, which is not of great projection. A simple +pediment rises above the four central figures, surmounted by a crucifix +and containing a carving of a sun on a strapwork shield. (Fig. 97.) + +The whole is of granite and the figures and mouldings are distinctly +rude, and yet it is eminently picturesque and original, and shows that +Lopez was a skilled designer if but a poor sculptor. + +[Sidenote: Beja, Sao Thiago.] + +Coming now to the basilican churches. That of Sao Thiago at Beja was +begun in 1590 by Jorge Rodrigues for Archbishop Theotonio of Evora. It +has a nave and aisles of six bays covered with groined vaults resting on +Doric columns, a transept and three shallow rectangular chapels to the +east. The clerestory windows are round. + +[Sidenote: Azeitao, Sao Simao.] + +Much the same plan had been followed a little earlier by Affonso de +Albuquerque, son of the great viceroy of India, when about 1570 he built +the church of Sao Simao close to his country house of Bacalhoa, at +Azeitao not far from Setubal. Sao Simao is a small church with nave and +aisles of five bays, the latter only being vaulted, with arcades resting +on Doric columns; at first there was a tower at each corner, but they +fell in 1755, and only one has been rebuilt. Most noticeable in the +church are the very fine tiles put up in 1648, with saintly figures over +each arch. They are practically the same as those in the parish church +of Alvito. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Cartuxa.] + +Another basilican church of this date is that of the Cartuxa or Charter +House,[167] founded by the same Archbishop Theotonio in 1587, a few +miles out of Evora. Only the west front, built about 1594 of black and +white marble, deserves mention. Below there is a porch, spreading beyond +the church, and arranged exactly like the lower Claustro dos Filippes at +Thomar, with round arches separated by two Doric columns on pedestals, +but with a continuous entablature carried above the arches on large +corbelled keystones. Behind rises the front in two stories. The lower +has three windows, square-headed and separated by Ionic columns, two on +each side, with niches between. Single Ionic columns also stand at the +outer angles of the aisles. In the upper story the central part is +carried up to a pediment by Corinthian columns resting on the Ionic +below; between them is a large statued niche surrounded by panels. + +Unfortunately the simplicity of the design is spoilt by the broken and +curly volutes which sprawl across the aisles, by ugly finials at the +corners, and by a rather clumsy balustrading to the porch. + +[Sidenote: Beja, Misericordia.] + +The interior of the Misericordia at Beja, a square, divided into nine +smaller vaulted squares by arches resting on fine Corinthian columns, +with altar recesses beyond, looks as if it belonged to the time of Dom +Joao III., but if so the front must have been added later. This is very +simple, but at the same time strong and unique. The triple division +inside is marked by three great rusticated Doric pilasters on which rest +a simple entablature and parapet. Between are three round arches, +enclosing three doors of which the central has a pointed pediment, while +over the others a small round window lights the interior. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar.] + +But by far the most original of all the buildings of this later +renaissance is the monastery of Nossa Senhora da Serra do Pilar in Villa +Nova de Gaya, the suburb of Oporto which lies south of the Douro. +Standing on a high granite knoll, which rises some fifty feet above the +country to the south, and descends by an abrupt precipice on the north +to the deep-flowing river, here some two hundred yards wide, and running +in a narrow gorge, the monastery and its hill have more than once played +an important part in history. From there Wellington, in 1809, was able +to reconnoitre the French position across the river while his army lay +hidden behind the rocks; and it was from a creek just a little to the +east that the first barges started for the north bank with the men who +seized the unfinished seminary and held it till enough were across to +make Soult see he must retreat or be cut off. Later, in 1832, the +convent, defended for Queen Maria da Gloria, was much knocked about by +the besieging army of Dom Miguel. + +The Augustinians had begun to build on the hill in 1540, but none of the +present monastery can be earlier than the seventeenth century, the date +1602 being found in the cloister. + +The plan of the whole building is most unusual and original: the nave is +a circle some seventy-two feet in diameter, surmounted by a dome, and +surrounded by eight shallow chapels, of which one contains the entrance +and another is prolonged to form a narrow chancel. This chancel leads +to a larger square choir behind the high altar, and east of it is a +round cloister sixty-five feet across. The various monastic buildings +are grouped round the choir and cloister, leaving the round nave +standing free. The outside of the circle is two stories in height, +divided by a plain cornice carried round the pilasters which mark the +recessed chapels within. The face of the wall above this cornice is set +a little back, and the pilaster strips are carried up a short distance +to form a kind of pedestal, and are then set back with a volute and +obelisk masking the offset. The main cornice has two large corbels to +each bay, and carries a picturesque balustrading within which rises a +tile roof covering the dome and crowned by a small lantern at the top. +The west door has two Ionic columns on each side; a curious niche with +corbelled sides rises above it to the lower cornice; and the church is +lit by a square-headed window pierced through the upper part of each +bay. Only the pilasters, cornices, door and window dressings are of +granite ashlar, all the rest being of rubble plastered and whitewashed. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF NOSSA SENHORA DO PILAR] + +Now the eucalyptus-trees planted round the church have grown so tall +that only the parapet can be seen rising above the tree-tops. + +Though much of the detail of the outside is far from being classical or +correct, the whole is well proportioned and well put together, but the +same cannot be said of the inside. Pilasters of inordinate height have +been seen in some of the Lisbon churches, but compared with these which +here stand in couples between the chapels they are short and well +proportioned. These pilasters, which are quite seventeen diameters high, +have for capitals coarse copies of those in Sao Vicente de Fora in +Lisbon. In Sao Vicente the cornice was carried on corbels crossing the +frieze, and so was continuous and unbroken. Here all the lower +mouldings of the cornice are carried round the corbels and the pilasters +so that only the two upper are continuous, an arrangement which is +anything but an improvement. Another unpleasing feature are the three +niches which, with hideous painted figures, are placed one above the +other between the pilasters. The chancel arch reaches up to the main +cornice, but those of the door and chapel recesses are low enough to +leave room for the windows. The dome is divided into panels of various +shapes by broad flat ribs with coarse mouldings. The chancel and choir +beyond have barrel vaults divided into simple square panels. + +The church then, though interesting from its plan, is--inside +especially--remarkably unpleasing, though it is perhaps only fair to +attribute a considerable part of this disagreeable effect to the state +of decay into which it has fallen--a state which has only advanced far +enough to be squalid and dirty without being in the least picturesque. +Far more pleasing than the church is the round cloister behind. In it +the thirty-six Ionic columns are much better proportioned, and the +capitals better carved; on the cornice stands an attic, rendered +necessary by the barrel vault, heavy indeed, but not too heavy for the +columns below. This attic is panelled, and on it stand obelisk-bearing +pedestals, one above each column, and between them pediments of +strapwork. (Fig. 98.) + +Had this cloister been square it would have been in no way very +remarkable, but its round shape as well as the fig-trees that now grow +in the garth, and the many plants which sprout from joints in the +cornice, make it one of the most picturesque buildings in the country. +The rest of the monastic buildings have been in ruins since the siege of +1832. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Santa Cruz Sacristy.] + +The sacristy of Santa Cruz at Coimbra must have been begun before Nossa +Senhora da Serra had been finished. Though so much later--for it is +dated 1622--the architect of this sacristy has followed much more +closely the good Italian forms introduced by Terzi. Like that of the Se +Velha, the sacristy of Santa Cruz is a rectangular building, and +measures about 52 feet long by 26 wide; each of the longer sides is +divided into three bays by Doric pilasters which have good capitals, but +are themselves cut up into many small panels. The cornice is partly +carried on corbels as in the Serra church, but here the effect is much +better. There are large semicircular windows, divided into three lights +at each end, and + +[Illustration: FIG. 98. + +OPORTO. + +CLOISTER, NOSSA SENHORA DA SERRA DO PILAR.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 99. + +COIMBRA. + +SACRISTY OF STA. CRUZ.] + +the barrel vault is covered with deep eight-sided coffers. One curious +feature is the way the pilasters in the north-east corner are carried on +corbels, so as to leave room for two doors, one of which leads into the +chapter-house behind the chancel. (Fig. 99.) + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Santa Engracia.] + +Twenty years later was begun the church of Santa Engracia in Lisbon. It +was planned on a great scale; a vast dome in the centre surrounded by +four equal apses, and by four square towers. It has never been finished, +and now only rises to the level of the main cornice; but had the dome +been built it would undoubtedly have been one of the very finest of the +renaissance buildings in the country. + +Like the Serra church it is, outside, two stories in height having Doric +pilasters below--coupled at the angles of the towers--and Ionic above. +In the western apse, the pilasters are replaced by tall detached Doric +columns, and the Ionic pilasters above by buttresses which grow out of +voluted curves. Large, simply moulded windows are placed between the +upper pilasters, with smaller blank windows above them, while in the +western apse arches with niches set between pediment-bearing pilasters +lead into the church. + +Here, in Santa Engracia, is a church designed in the simplest and most +severe classic form, and absolutely free of all the fantastic misuse of +fragments of classic detail which had by that time become so common, and +which characterise such fronts as those of the Se Nova at Coimbra or the +Collegio Novo at Oporto. The niches over the entrance arches are severe +but well designed, as are the windows in the towers and all the +mouldings. Perhaps the only fault of the detail is that the Doric +pilasters and columns are too tall. + +Now in its unfinished state the whole is heavy and clumsy, but at the +same time imposing and stately from its great size; but it is scarcely +fair to judge so unfinished a building, which would have been very +different had its dome and four encompassing towers risen high above the +surrounding apses and the red roofs of the houses which climb steeply up +the hillside. + +[Sidenote: Coimbra, Santa Clara.] + +The new convent of Santa Clara at Coimbra was begun about the same +time--in 1640--on the hillside overlooking the Mondego and the old +church which the stream has almost buried; and, more fortunate than +Santa Engracia, it has been finished, but unlike it is a building of +little interest. + +The church is a rectangle with huge Doric pilasters on either side +supporting a heavy coffered roof. There are no aisles, but shallow altar +recesses with square-headed windows above. The chancel at the south end +is like the nave but narrower; the two-storied nuns' choir is to the +north. As the convent is still occupied it cannot be visited, but +contains the tomb of St. Isabel, brought from the old church, in the +lower choir, and her silver shrine in the upper. Except for the +cloister, which, designed after the manner of the Claustro dos Filippes +at Thomar, has coupled Doric columns between the arches, and above, +niches flanked by Ionic columns between square windows, the rest of the +nunnery is even heavier and more barrack-like than the church. Indeed +almost the only interest of the church is the use of the huge Doric +pilasters, since from that time onward such pilasters, usually as clumsy +and as large, are found in almost every church. + +This fondness for Doric is probably due to the influence of Terzi, who +seems to have preferred it to all the other orders, though he always +gave his pilasters a beautiful and intricate capital. In any case from +about 1580 onwards scarcely any other order on a large scale is used +either inside or outside, and by 1640 it had grown to the ugly size used +in Santa Clara and in nearly all later buildings, the only real +exception being perhaps in the work of the German who designed Mafra and +rebuilt the Capella Mor at Evora. Such pilasters are found forming piers +in the church built about 1600 to be the cathedral of Leiria, in the +west front of the cathedral of Portalegre, where they are piled above +each other in three stories, huge and tall below, short and thinner +above, and in endless churches all over the country. Later still they +degenerated into mere angle strips, as in the cathedral of Angra do +Heroismo in the Azores and elsewhere. + +Such a building as Santa Engracia is the real ending of Architecture in +Portugal, and its unfinished state is typical of the poverty which had +overtaken the country during the Spanish usurpation, when robbed of her +commerce by Holland and by England, united against her will to a +decaying power, she was unable to finish her last great work, while such +buildings as she did herself finish--for it must not be forgotten that +Mafra was designed by a foreigner--show a meanness of invention and +design scarcely to be equalled in any other land, a strange contrast to +the exuberance of fancy lavished on the buildings of a happier age. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE RESTORATION AND THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + + +When elected at Thomar in 1580, Philip II. of Spain had sworn to govern +Portugal only through Portuguese ministers, a promise which he seems to +have kept. He was fully alive to the importance of commanding the mouth +of the Tagus and the splendid harbour of Lisbon, and had he fixed his +capital there instead of at Madrid it is quite possible that the two +countries might have remained united. + +For sixty years the people endured the ever-growing oppression and +misgovernment. The duque de Lerma, minister to Philip III., or II. of +Portugal, and still more the Conde duque de Olivares under Philip IV., +treated Portugal as if it were a conquered province. + +In 1640, the very year in which Santa Engracia was begun, the regent was +Margaret of Savoy, whose ministers, with hardly an exception, were +Spaniards. + +It will be remembered that when Philip II. was elected in 1580, Dona +Catharina, duchess of Braganza and daughter of Dom Manoel's sixth son, +Duarte, duke of Guimaraes, had been the real heir to the throne of her +uncle, the Cardinal King. Her Philip had bought off by a promise of the +sovereignty of Brazil, a promise which he never kept, and now in 1640 +her grandson Dom Joao, eighth duke of Braganza and direct descendant of +Affonso, a bastard son of Dom Joao I., had succeeded to all her rights. + +He was an unambitious and weak man, fond only of hunting and music, so +Olivares had thought it safe to restore to him his ancestral lands; and +to bind him still closer to Spain had given him a Spanish wife, Luisa +Guzman, daughter of the duke of Medina Sidonia. Matters, however, turned +out very differently from what he had expected. A gypsy had once told +Dona Luisa that she would be a queen, and a queen she was determined to +be. With difficulty she persuaded her husband to become the nominal head +of the conspiracy for the expulsion of the Spaniards, and on the 1st of +December 1640 the first blow was struck by the capture of the regent and +her ministers in the palace at Lisbon. Next day, December 2nd, the duke +of Braganza was saluted as King Dom Joao IV. at Villa Vicosa, his +country home beyond Evora. + +The moment of the revolution was well chosen, for Spain was at that time +struggling with a revolt which had broken out in Cataluna, and so was +unable to send any large force to crush Dom Joao. All the Indian and +African colonies at once drove out the Spaniards, and in Brazil the +Dutch garrisons which had been established there by Count Maurice of +Nassau were soon expelled. + +Though a victory was soon gained over the Spaniards at Montijo, the war +dragged on for twenty-eight years, and it was only some years after Don +John of Austria[168] had been defeated at Almeixial by Schomberg (who +afterwards took service under William of Orange) that peace was finally +made in 1668. Portugal then ceded Ceuta, and Spain acknowledged the +independence of the revolted kingdom, and granted to its sovereign the +title of Majesty. + +It is no great wonder, then, that with such a long-continued war and an +exhausted treasury a building like Santa Engracia should have remained +unfinished, and it would have been well for the architecture of the +country had this state of poverty continued, for then far more old +buildings would have survived unaltered and unspoiled. + +Unfortunately by the end of the seventeenth century trade had revived, +and the discovery of diamonds and of gold in Brazil had again brought +much wealth to the king. + +Of the innumerable churches and palaces built during the eighteenth +century scarcely any are worthy of mention, for perhaps the great +convent palace of Mafra and the Capella Mor of the Se at Evora are the +only exceptions. + +In the early years of that century King Joao V. made a vow that if a son +was born to him, he would, on the site of the poorest monastery in the +country, build the largest and the richest. At the same time anxious to +emulate the glories of the Escorial, he determined that his building +should contain a palace as well as a monastery--indeed it may almost be +said to contain two palaces, one for the king on the south, and one on +the north for the queen. + +[Sidenote: Mafra.] + +A son was born, and the poorest monastery in the kingdom was found at +Mafra, where a few Franciscans lived in some miserable buildings. Having +found his site, King Joao had next to find an architect able to carry +out his great scheme, and so low had native talent fallen, that the +architect chosen was a foreigner, Frederic Ludovici or Ludwig, a German. + +The first stone of the vast building was laid in 1717, and the church +was dedicated thirteen years later, in 1730.[169] + +The whole building may be divided into two main parts. One to the east, +measuring some 560 feet by 350, and built round a large square +courtyard, was devoted to the friars, and contained the convent +entrance, the refectory, chapter-house, kitchen, and cells for two +hundred and eighty brothers, as well as a vast library on the first +floor. + +The other and more extensive part to the west comprises the king's +apartments on the south side, the queen's on the north, and between them +the church. + +It is not without interest to compare the plan of this palace or +monastery with the more famous Escorial. Both cover almost exactly the +same area,[170] but while in the Escorial the church is thrust back at +the end of a vast patio, here it is brought forward to the very front. +There the royal palace occupies only a comparatively small area in the +north-west corner of the site, and the monastic part the whole lying +south of the entrance patio and of the church; here the monastic part is +thrust back almost out of sight, and the palace stretches all along the +west front except where it is interrupted in the middle by the church. + +Indeed the two buildings differ from one another much as did the +characters of their builders. The gloomy fanaticism of Philip of Spain +is exemplified by the preponderance of the monastic buildings no less +than by his own small dark bed-closet opening only to the church close +to the high altar. Joao V., pleasure-loving and luxurious, pushed the +friars to the back, and made his own and the queen's rooms the most +prominent part of the whole building, and one cannot but feel that, +though a monastery had to be built to fulfil a vow, the king was +actuated not so much by religious zeal as by an ostentatious megalomania +which led him to try and surpass the size of the Escorial. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF MAFRA] + +To take the plan rather more in detail. The west front, about 740 feet +long, is flanked by huge square projecting pavilions. The king's and the +queen's apartments are each entered by rather low and insignificant +doorways in the middle of the long straight blocks which join these +pavilions to the church. These doors lead under the palace to large +square courtyards, one on each side of the church, and forming on the +ground floor a cloister with a well-designed arcading of round arches, +separated by Roman Doric shafts. The king's and the queen's blocks are +practically identical, except that in the king's a great oval hall +called the Sala dos actos takes the place of some smaller rooms between +the cloister and the outer wall. + +Between these blocks stands the church reached by a great flight of +steps. It has a nave and aisles of three large and one small bay, a dome +at the crossing, and transepts and chancel ending in apses. In front, +flanking towers projecting beyond the aisles are united by a long +entrance porch. + +Between the secular and the monastic parts a great corridor runs north +and south, and immediately beyond it a range of great halls, including +the refectory at the north end and the chapter-house at the south. +Further east the great central court with its surrounding cells divides +the monastic entrance and great stair from such domestic buildings as +the kitchen, the bakery, and the lavatory. Four stories of cells occupy +the whole east side. + +Though some parts of the palace and monastery such as the two entrance +courts, the library, and the interior of the church, may be better than +might have been expected from the date, it is quite impossible to speak +at all highly of the building as a whole. + +It is nearly all of the same height with flat paved roofs; indeed the +only breaks are the corner pavilions and the towers and dome of the +church. + +The west side consists of two monotonous blocks, one on each side of the +church, with three stories of windows. At either end is a great square +projecting mass, rusticated on the lowest floor, with short pilaster +strips between the windows on the first, and Corinthian pilasters on the +second. The poor cornice is surmounted by a low attic, within which +rises a hideous ogee plastered roof. (Fig. 100.) + +The church in the centre loses much by not rising above the rest of the +front, and the two towers, though graceful enough in outline, are poor +in detail, and are finished off with a very ugly combination of hollow +curves and bulbous domes. + +The centre dome, too, is very poor in outline with a drum and lantern +far too tall for its size; though of course, had the drum been of a +better proportion, it would hardly have shown above the palace roof. + +Still more monotonous are the other sides with endless rows of windows +set in a pink plastered wall. + +Very different is the outline of the Escorial, whose very plainness and +want of detail suits well the rugged mountain side in which it is set. +The main front with its high corner towers and their steep slate roofs, +and with its high centre-piece, is far more impressive, and the mere +reiteration of its endless featureless windows gives the Escorial an +appearance of size quite wanting to Mafra. Above all the great church +with massive dome and towers rises high above all the rest, and gives +the whole a sense of unity and completeness which the smaller church of +Mafra, though in a far more prominent place, entirely fails to do. + +Poor though the church at Mafra is outside, inside there is much to +admire, and but little to betray the late date. The porch has an +effective vault of black and white marble, and domes with black and +white panels cover the spaces under the towers. Inside the church is all +built of white marble with panels and pilasters of pink marble from Pero +Pinheiro on the road to Cintra. (Fig. 101.) + +The whole church measures about 200 feet long by 100 wide, with a nave +also 100 feet long. The central aisle is over 40 feet wide, and has two +very well-proportioned Corinthian pilasters between each bay. Almost the +only trace of the eighteenth century is found in the mouldings of the +pendentive panels, and in the marble vault, but on the whole the church +is stately and the detail refined and restrained. + +The refectory, a very plain room with plastered barrel vault, 160 feet +long by 40 wide, is remarkable only for the splendid slabs of Brazil +wood which form the tables, and for the beautiful brass lamps which hang +from the ceiling. + +Much more interesting is the library which occupies the central part of +the floor above. Over 200 feet long, it has a dome-surmounted transept +in the middle, and a barrel vault divided into panels. All the walls are +lined with bookcases painted white like the barrel vault and like the +projecting gallery from which the upper shelves are reached. One half is +devoted to religious, and one half to secular books, and in the latter +each country has a space more or less large allotted to it. As scarcely +any books seem to have been added since the building was finished, it +should contain many a rare and valuable volume, and as all seem to be in +excellent condition, + +[Illustration: FIG. 100. + +MAFRA. + +W. FRONT OF PALACE.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 101. + +MAFRA. + +INTERIOR OF CHURCH.] + +they might well deserve a visit from some learned book-lover. + +Mafra does not seem to have ever had any interesting history. Within the +lines of Torres Vedras, the palace escaped the worst ravages of the +French invasion. In 1834 the two hundred and eighty friars were turned +out, and since then most of the vast building has been turned into +barracks, while the palace is but occasionally inhabited by the king +when he comes to shoot in the great wooded _tapada_ or enclosure which +stretches back towards the east. + +[Sidenote: Evora, Capella Mor.] + +Just about the time that Joao V. was beginning his great palace at +Mafra, the chapter of the cathedral of Evora came to the conclusion that +the old Capella Mor was too small, and altogether unworthy of the +dignity of an archiepiscopal see. So they determined to pull it down, +and naturally enough employed Ludovici to design the new one. The first +stone was laid in 1717, and the chancel was consecrated in 1746 at the +cost of about L27,000. + +The outside, of white marble, is enriched with two orders of pilasters, +Corinthian and Composite. Inside, white, pink and black marbles are +used, the columns are composite, but the whole design is far poorer than +anything at Mafra. + +King Joao V. died in 1750 after a long and prosperous reign. Besides +building Mafra he gave great sums of money to the Pope, and obtained in +return the division of Lisbon into two bishoprics, and the title of +Patriarch for the archbishop of Lisboa Oriental, or Eastern Lisbon. + +When he died he was succeeded by Dom Jose, whose reign is noted for the +terrible earthquake of 1755, and for the administration of the great +Marques de Pombal. + +It was on the 1st of November, when the population of Lisbon was +assembled in the churches for the services of All Saints' day, that the +first shock was felt. This was soon followed by two others which laid +the city in ruins, killing many people. Most who had escaped rushed to +the river bank, where they with the splendid palace at the water's edge +were all overwhelmed by an immense tidal wave. + +The damage done to the city was almost incalculable. Scarcely a house +remained uninjured, and of the churches nearly all were ruined. The +cathedral was almost entirely destroyed, leaving only the low chapels +and the romanesque nave and transepts standing, and of the later +churches all were ruined, and only Sao Roque and Sao Vicente de +Fora--which lost its dome--remained to show what manner of churches were +built at the end of the sixteenth century. + +This is not the place to tell of the administration of the Marques de +Pombal, who rose to eminence owing to the great ability he showed after +this awful calamity, or to give a history of how he expelled the +Jesuits, subdued the nobles, attempted to make Portugal a manufacturing +country, abolished slavery and the differences between the _Old_ and the +_New Christians_, reformed the administration and the teaching of the +University of Coimbra, and robbed the Inquisition of half its terrors by +making its trials public. In Lisbon he rebuilt the central part of the +town, laying out parallel streets, and surrounding the Praca do +Commercio with great arcaded government offices; buildings remarkable +rather for the fine white stone of which they are made, than for any +architectural beauty. Indeed it is impossible to admire any of the +buildings erected in Portugal since the earthquake; the palaces of the +Necessidades and the Ajuda are but great masses of pink-washed plaster +pierced with endless windows, and without any beauty of detail or of +design. + +[Sidenote: Lisbon, Estrella.] + +Nor does the church of the Coracao de Jesus, usually called the +Estrella, call for any admiration. It copies the faults of Mafra, the +tall drum, the poor dome, and the towers with bulbous tops. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Torre dos Clerigos.] + +More vicious, indeed, than the Estrella, but much more original and +picturesque, is the Torre dos Clerigos at Oporto, built by the clergy in +1755. It stands at the top of a steep hill leading down to the busiest +part of the town. The tower is a square with rounded corners, and is of +very considerable height. The main part is four stories in height, of +which the lowest is the tallest and the one above it the shortest. All +are adorned with pilasters or pilaster strips, and the third, in which +is a large belfry window, has an elaborate cornice, rising over the +window in a rounded pediment to enclose a great shield of arms. The +fourth story is finished by a globe-bearing parapet, within which the +tower rises to another parapet much corbelled out. The last or sixth +story is set still further back and ends in a fantastic dome-shaped +roof. In short, the tower is a good example of the wonderful and +ingenious way in which the eighteenth-century builders of Portugal often +contrived the strangest results by a use--or misuse--of pieces of +classic detail, forming a whole often more Chinese than Western in +appearance, but at the same time not unpicturesque.[171] + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Quinta do Freixo.] + +A much more pleasing example of the same school--a school doubtless +influenced by the bad example of Churriguera in Spain--is the house +called the Quinta do Freixo on the Douro a mile or so above the town. +Here the four towers with their pointed slate roofs rise in so +picturesque a way at the four corners, and the whole house blends so +well with the parapets and terraces of the garden, that one can almost +forgive the broken pediments which form so strange a gable over the +door, and the still more strange shapes of the windows. Now that factory +chimneys rise close on either side the charm is spoiled, but once the +house, with its turrets, its vase-laden parapets, its rococo windows, +and the slates painted pale blue that cover its walls, must have been a +fit setting for the artificial civilisation of a hundred and fifty years +ago, and for the ladies in dresses of silk brocade and gentlemen in +flowered waistcoats and powdered hair who once must have gone up and +down the terrace steps, or sat in the shell grottoes of the garden. + +[Sidenote: Queluz.] + +Though less picturesque and fantastic, the royal palace at Queluz, +between Lisbon and Cintra, is another really pleasing example of the +more sober rococo. Built by Dom Pedro III. about 1780, the palace is a +long building with a low tiled roof, and the gardens are rich in +fountains and statues. + +[Sidenote: Guimaraes, Quinta.] + +Somewhat similar, but unfinished, and enriched with niches and statues, +is a Quinta near the station at Guimaraes. Standing on a slope, the +garden descends northwards in beautiful terraces, whose fronts are +covered with tiles. Being well cared for, it is rich in beautiful trees +and shrubs. + +[Sidenote: Oporto, Hospital and Factory.] + +Much more correct, and it must be said commonplace, are the hospital and +the English factory--or club-house--in Oporto. The plans of both have +clearly been sent out from England, the hospital especially being +thoroughly English in design. Planned on so vast a scale that it has +never been completed, with the pediment of its Doric portico unfinished, +the hospital is yet a fine building, simple and severe, not unlike what +might have been designed by some pupil of Chambers. + +The main front has a rusticated ground floor with round-headed windows +and doors. On this in the centre stands a Doric portico of six columns, +and at the ends narrower colonnades of four shafts each. Between them +stretches a long range of windows with simple, well-designed +architraves. The only thing, apart from its unfinished condition, which +shows that the hospital is not in England, are some colossal figures of +saints which stand above the cornice, and are entirely un-English in +style. + +Of later buildings little can be said. Many country houses are pleasing +from their complete simplicity; plastered, and washed pink, yellow, or +white, they are devoid of all architectural pretension, and their low +roofs of red pantiles look much more natural than do the steep slated +roofs of some of the more modern villas. + +The only unusual point about these Portuguese houses is that, as a rule, +they have sash windows, a form of window so rare in the South that one +is tempted to see in them one of the results of the Methuen Treaty and +of the long intercourse with England. The chimneys, too, are often +interesting. Near Lisbon they are long, narrow oblongs, with a curved +top--not unlike a tombstone in shape--from which the smoke escapes by a +long narrow slit. Elsewhere the smoke escapes through a picturesque +arrangement of tiles, and hardly anywhere is there to be seen a simple +straight shaft with a chimney can at the top. + +For twenty years after the end of the Peninsular War the country was in +a more or less disturbed state. And it was only after Dom Miguel had +been defeated and expelled, and the more liberal party who supported +Dona Maria II. had won the day, that Portugal again began to revive. + +In 1834, the year which saw Dom Miguel's surrender, all monasteries +throughout the country were suppressed, and the monks turned out. Even +more melancholy was the fate of the nuns, for they were allowed to stay +on till the last should have died. In some cases one or two survived +nearly seventy years, watching the gradual decay of their homes, a decay +they were powerless to arrest, till, when their death at last set the +convents free, they were found, with leaking roofs, and rotten floors, +almost too ruinous to be put to any use. + +The Gothic revival has not been altogether without its effects in +Portugal. Batalha has been, and Alcobaca is being, saved from ruin. The +Se Velha at Coimbra has been purged--too drastically perhaps--of all the +additions and disfigurements of the eighteenth century, and the same is +being done with the cathedral of Lisbon. + +Such new buildings as have been put up are usually much less successful. +Nothing can exceed the ugliness of the new domed tower of the church of +Belem, or of the upper story imposed on the long undercroft. Nor can the +new railway station in the Manoelino style be admired. + +Probably the best of such attempts to copy the art of Portugal's +greatest age is found at Bussaco, where the hotel, with its arcaded +galleries and its great sphere-bearing spire, is not unworthy of the +sixteenth century, and where the carving, usually the spontaneous work +of uninstructed men, shows that some of the mediaeval skill, as well as +some of the mediaeval methods, have survived till the present century. + + + + +BOOKS CONSULTED + + + +Hieronymi Osorii Lusitani, Silvensis in Algarviis Episcopi: _De +rebus Emmanuelis, etc._ Cologne, 1597. + +Padre Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos: _Historia de Santarem +Edificada_. Lisboa Occidental, 1790. + +J. Murphy: _History and Description of the Royal Convent of +Batalha_. London, 1792. + +Raczynski: _Les Arts en Portugal_. Paris, 1846. + +Raczynski: _Diccionaire Historico-Artistique du Portugal_. Paris, +1847. + +J. C. Robinson: 'Portuguese School of Painting' in the _Fine Arts +Quarterly Review_. 1866. + +Simoes, A. F.: _Architectura Religiosa em Coimbra na Idade Meia_. + +Ignacio de Vilhena Barbosa: _Monumentos de Portugal Historicos, +etc._ Lisboa, 1886. + +Oliveira Martims: _Historia de Portugal_. + +Pinho Leal: _Diccionario Geographico de Portugal_. + +Albrecht Haupt: _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal_. +Frankfurt A.M., 1890. + +Visconde de Condeixa: _O Mosteiro da Batalha em Portugal_. Lisboa & +Paris. + +Justi: 'Die Portugiesische Malerei des 16ten Jahrhunderts' in the +_Jahrbuch der K. Preuss. Kunstsammlung_, vol. ix. Berlin, 1888. + +Joaquim Rasteiro: _Quinta e Palacio de Bacalhoa em Azeitao_. +Lisboa, 1895. + +Joaquim de Vasconcellos: 'Batalha' & 'Sao Marcos' from _A Arte e a +Natureza em Portugal._ Ed. E. Biel e Cie. Porto. + +L. R. D.: _Roteiro Illustrado do Viajante em Coimbra_. Coimbra, +1894. + +Caetano da Camara Manoel: _Atravez a Cidade de Evora, etc._ Evora, +1900. + +Conde de Sabugosa: _O Paco de Cintra_. Lisboa, 1903. + +Augusto Fuschini: _A Architectura Religiosa da Edade Media_. +Lisboa, 1904. + +Jose Queiroz: _Ceramica Portugueza_. Lisboa, 1907. + + + + +INDEX + + +A + +Abd-el-Melik, 244. + +Abrantes, 41, 103. + +Abreu, L. L. d', 233. + +Abu-Zakariah, the vezir, 44. + +Affonso II., 64, 65. + ---- III., 7, 64, 67, 68, 75, 116. + ---- IV., 43, 73, 74, 76. + ---- V., 92, 101, 102, 127, 134, 143, 161, 171, 176. + ---- VI., 24, 127. + ---- I., Henriques, 6, 31, 38, 40, 41, 44, 51, 117, 166, 196, 197. + ---- of Portugal, Bishop of Evora, 19. + ---- son of Joao I., 261. + ---- son of Joao II., 144. + +Africa, 66, 144, 161. + +Aguas Santas, 33, 136. + +Agua de Peixes, 131. + +Ahmedabad, 159, 176, 180. + +Albuquerque, Affonso de, 25, 144, 158, 170, 183, 255. + ---- Luis de, 180, 183 _n._ + +Alcacer-Quebir, battle of, 216, 244. + +Alcacer Seguer, 102. + +Alcantara, 28. + +Alcobaca, 44, 45, 48, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 68, 70, 71, +75-78, 82, 166, 204, 206, 223, 227, 231, 270. + +Al-Coraxi, emir, 42. + +Alemquer, 217. + +Alemtejo, 1, 10, 51, 100, 129, 143. + +Alexander VI., Pope, 158. + +Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon, 6, 117. + ---- VII. of Castile and Leon, 6, 7, 38, 39. + ---- X. of Castile and Leon, 68. + +Alga, San Giorgio in, 133. + +Algarve, the, 7, 67, 68, 116, 219. + +Alhambra, the, 120, 128. + +Aljubarrota, battle of, 7, 18, 80, 93, 98. + +Almada, Rodrigo Ruy de, 11. + +Almansor, 30, 42. + +Almeida, Bishop Jorge d', 21, 48, 206, 208, 209, 210. + +Almeirim, palace of, 122, 144, 229, 240. + +Almeixial, battle of, 262. + +Almourol, 41. + +Almoravides, the, 6. + +Alvares, the, 49, 242, 244. + ---- Baltazar, 252, 253. + ---- Fernando, 19. + +Alvito, 27, 100, 129-132, 255. + +Amarante, 237. + +Amaro, Sant', 27. + +Amboise, Georges d', 202. + +Anca, 204. + +Andalucia, 4. + +Andrade, Fernao Peres de, 144. + +Angra do Heroismo, in the Azores, 260. + +Annes, Canon Goncalo, 20 _n._ + ---- Margarida, 91 _n._ + ---- Pedro, 197. + +Antunes, Aleixo, 228. + +Antwerp, 11. + +Arabes, Sala dos, Cintra, 23, 24, 124. + +Aragon, 5. + +Arganil, Counts of, 206, 207. + +Arraes, Frey Amador, 252. + +Arruda, Diogo de, 162. + +Astorga, 41. + +Asturias, 5. + ---- Enrique, Prince of the, 81. + +Augustus, reign of, 3. + +Ave, river, 2, 29, 31, 107. + +Aveiro, convent at, 142. + ---- the Duque d', 140. + ---- Dukes of, 251. + +Avignon, 161. + +Aviz, House of, 8. + +Azeitao, 255. + +Azila, in Morocco, 134, 243, 244. + +Azurara, 63, 107, 108, 136. + + +B + +Bacalhoa, Quinta de, 22, 25, 27, 176 _n._, 183, 255. + +Barbosa, Francisco, 212. + ---- Gonzalo Gil, 212. + +Barcellos, 127. + +Barcelona, 5. + +Batalha, 24, 61 _n._, 62, 63, 65, 70, 78, 80-92, 95, 96, +97, 99, 109, 159, 171-181, 193, 194, 204, 224, 227, 230-233, 270. + +Bayao, Goncalo, 240. + +Bayona, in Galicia, 39. + +Beatriz, Dona, wife of Charles III. of Savoy, 14. + ---- Queen of Affonso III., 68, 75. + ---- ---- Affonso IV., 117. + +Bebedim, 116, 168 _n._ + +Beckford, 59. + +Beira, 1, 7, 64. + +Beja, 7, 51, 69, 148, 255, 256. + ---- Luis, Duke of, 14. + +Belem, 14, 15, 16, 20, 28, 100, 104, 162, 164, 166, 171, 172, 177, +183-195, 221, 222, 227, 231, 241, 271. + + ---- Tower of Sao Vicente, 146, 179, 181-183, 194. + +Bernardo (of Santiago), 36, 48 _n._ + ---- Master, 48. + +Bernard, St., of Clairvaux, 59. + +Boelhe, 32. + +Bonacofu, 102. + +Boulogne, Countess of, 68, 75. + +Boutaca, or Boitaca, 147, 149, 184, 231. + +Braga, 2, 3, 18, 19, 31, 34-40, 52, 62, 67, 98, 99, 104, 112-115. + +Braganza, Archbishop Jose de, 114 _n._ + ---- Catherine, Duchess of, 244, 261. + ---- Duke of, 143. + ---- Dukes of, 127. + ---- Joao, Duke of, 261. + +Brandao, Francisco, 11. + +Brazil, 8, 66, 144, 158, 160, 222, 243, 244, 261, 262. + +Brazil, Pedro of, 8. + +Brazoes, Sala dos, Cintra, 24, 126, 138, 151. + +Brites, Dona, daughter of Fernando I., 80. + ---- ---- mother of D. Manoel, 25, 183 _n._ + +Buchanan, George, 198 _n._ + +Bugimaa, 116, 168 _n._ + +Burgos, 90. + +Burgundy, Count Henry of, 6, 37, 41, 42, 114, 117. + ---- Isabel, Duchess of, 11, 98 _n._, 120. + +Bussaco, 271. + + +C + +Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 8, 101, 144, 158, 170, 206. + +Caldas da Rainha, 27, 146, 147. + +Cales, 6. + +Calicut, Portuguese at, 8, 144, 157, 158, 183. + +Calixtus III., Pope, 161. + +Camara, Luis Goncalves de, 243. + +Caminha, 27, 109, 110, 136, 137, 218, 220. + +Cantabrian Mountains, 1, 5. + +Cantanhede, 215 _n._ + +Canterbury Cathedral, 82. + +Canton, Portuguese at, 144. + +Cao, Diogo, 143. + +Cardiga, 229. + +Carlos, Frey, painter, 12. + +Carnide, Pero de, 149. + +Carreira, house of Visconde de, 254. + +Carreiro, Pero, 212. + +Carta, Diogo da, 192. + +Carvalho, Pero, 229. + +Castello Branco, Cardinal Affonso de, 19, 20, 140, 250. + +Castile, 5, 6, 7, 44, 80. + ---- Constance of, 80, 81. + +Castilho, Diogo de, 188, 196, 198, 199. + ---- Joao de, 22, 28, 72, 162, 164-166, 169, 171, 172, 184, 195, 196, 199, + 200, 212, 222-239. + ---- Maria de, 162. + +Castro de Avelans, 58. + ---- Guiomar de, 213, 215. + ---- Inez de, 38, 62, 76-78, 88. + ---- Isabel de, 102. + +Castro-Marim, 161. + +Cataluna, 5, 262. + +Catharina, queen of Joao III., 240, 243. + +Cavado, river, 29. + +Cellas, 70. + +Ceras, 55. + +Cetobriga, 2, 4. + +Ceuta, 88, 100, 101, 262. + +Ceylon, loss of, 244. + +Chambers, 269. + +Chantranez, Nicolas. See Nicolas, Master. + +Chelb. See Silves. + +Chillenden, Prior, 82. + +Chimneys, 270. + +China, Portuguese in, 158. + +Christo de la Luz, 116. + +Churriguera, 269. + +Cintra, 21, 22, 23, 28, 116-128, 130, 136-138, 148, 184, 215, 216. + +Citania, 2, 3. + +Clairvaux, 59, 60. + +Claustro Real, Batalha, 178-180. + +Clement v., Pope, 161. + +Coca, in Spain, 183. + +Cochin, Portuguese in, 158. + +Cogominho, Pedro Esteves, 94. + +Coimbra, 16, 17, 19, 30, 40, 44, 79, 80, 109, 184, 239, 244. + ---- Archdeacon Joao de, 114. + ---- Carmo, 252. + ---- County of, 6. + ---- Episcopal palace, 250. + ---- Graca, 252. + ---- Misericordia, 140, 250. + ---- Pedro, Duke of, 88, 101. + ---- Sao Bento, 252. + ---- Sao Domingos, 251. + ---- Sao Thomaz, 237. + ---- Sta. Clara, 72. New, 259. + ---- Sta. Cruz, 12, 13, 20, 151, 153, 160, 188, 192, 196-200, 214, 215, 234, + 258. + ---- Se Nova, 248, 253, 259. + ---- Se Velha, 19, 23, 41, 45, 49-51, 54, 62, 63, 71, 110, + 206-210, 251, 270. + ---- University, 59, 141, 153, 198, 268. + +Columbus, Christopher, 8, 143. + +Condeixa, 2, 3. + ---- Visconde de, 89. + +Conimbriga, 2, 3. + +Conselbo, Sala do, Cintra, 24, 121. + +Cordeiro, Johan, 149. + +Cordoba, 116. + +Coro, the, Thomar, 161-170. + +Coutinho, Beatriz, 101. + +Crato, Prior of, 244. + +Cunha, Joao Lourenco da, 74 _n._ + ---- Tristao da, 170. + +Cyprus, 89. + +Cysnes, Sala de. See Swan Hall. + + +D + +Dartmouth, 44. + +David, Gerhard, 12. + +Delhi, Old, Kutub at, 176. + +Diana, Pateo de, Cintra, 24, 125. + +Diaz, Bartholomeu, 143, 170. + +Diniz, Dom, King, 7, 59, 62, 69, 72, 117, 161, 167, 223. + ---- ---- son of Inez de Castro, 79. + +Diogo, Duke of Vizen, 143, 161. + +D'ipri, Joao, 49, 287. + +Diu, 158. + +Domingues, Affonso, 71, 82, 90. + ---- Domingo, 71, 82. + +Douro, river, 1, 2, 5, 6, 44, 256. + +Dralia, Johannes, 13. + +Duarte, Dom, 88, 91, 101, 122, 171, 172. + +Durando, Bishop of Evora, 51, 54. + +Duerer, Albert, 11. + + +E + +Eannes, Affonso, 98. + ---- Diogo, 109. + ---- Goncalo, 98. + ---- Rodrigo, 98. + +Earthquake at Lisbon, 8, 98, 192, 267, 268. + +Ebro, river, 5. + +Eduard, Felipe, 239. + See Uduarte. + +Ega, 117. + +Egas Moniz, 7, 38, 39, 41. + +Eja, 32. + +El-Kasar-el-Kebir, 244. + +Elsden, William, 60. + +Elvas, 28, 152, 236. + +English influence, supposed, 82-92. + +Entre Minho e Douro, 29, 30. + +Escorial, the, 247, 263-266. + +Escudos, Sala dos. See Sala dos Brazoes. + +Espinheiro, 12. + +Essex, Earl of, 68. + +Estaco, Gaspar, 93 _n._ + +Esteves, Pedro, 94. + +Estrella, Serra d', 1. + +Estremadura, 1, 2, 64. + +Estremoz, 219. + +Eugenius IV., Pope, 161. + +Evora, 2, 9 _n._, 12, 51, 129, 143, 183, 198, 241. + ---- Cartuxa, 255. + ---- Fernao d', 92. + ---- Graca, 242. + ---- Henrique, Archbishop of, 14, 20. + ---- Monte, 9. + ---- Morgado de Cordovis, 132. + ---- Pacos Reaes, 132. + ---- Resende, House of, 146, 148, 179. + ---- Sao Braz, 135. + ---- Sao Domingos, 219. + ---- Sao Francisco, 134, 163. + ---- Se, 17, 19, 30, 51-55, 62, 64, 71, 72, 89, 192, 260, 262, 267. + ---- Temple, 4. + ---- University, 243. + +Eyck, J. van, 11. + + +F + +Familicao, 32. + +Faro, 68 _n._, 237. + +Felix, the goldsmith, 18. + +Fenacho, Joao, 154. + +Fernandes, Antonius, 200. + ---- Diogo, 159. + ---- Lourenco, 184. + ---- Matheus, sen., 171, 172, 175, 200, 222, 230. + ---- Matheus, jun., 171, 175, 178, 179, 200, 222, 230. + ---- Thomas, 159. + ---- Vasco, 12. + +Ferdinand and Isabella (the Catholic king), 87, 144, 189. + +Fernando I. of Castile and Leon, 5, 6, 44, 47. + ---- I., Dom, 7, 74, 76, 78, 79. + ---- son of Joao I., 88. + ---- ---- Dom Duarte, 161. + +Figueira de Foz, 212. + +Figueredo, Christovao de, 198, 200, 201. + +Flanders, Isabel of. See Burgundy, Duchess of. + +Fontenay, 59, 71. + +Fontfroide, 71. + +Furness, 59. + +Funchal, in Madeira, 67, 110, 136, 137, 192, 206, 211. + + +G + +Galicia, 2, 5, 6, 7, 29, 42, 44, 67. + +Gama, Vasco da, 8, 125, 143, 144, 157, 170, 183, 185, 188, 195, 206. + +Gandara, 32. + +Garcia, King of Galicia, 6. + +Gata, Sierra de, 1. + +Gaunt, John of, 80, 81. + ---- ---- Philippa, daughter of. See Lancaster, Philippa of. + +Gerez, the, 1, 3, 29. + +Gilberto, Bishop. See Hastings, Gilbert of. + +Giraldo, Sao, 18. + +Giustiniani, San Lorenzo, 28, 133. + +Goa (India), 20, 144, 158, 200, 234 _n._ + +Goes, 219. + ---- Damiao de, 11, 145. + +Gollega, 151, 152, 153. + +Gomes, Goncalo, 149. + +Gonsalves, Andre, 149. + ---- Eytor, 198. + +Goth, Bertrand de. See Clement V. + +Granada, 116, 161. + +Guadiana, river, 1. + +Guarda, 33, 61 _n._, 62, 95-99, 151, 238. + ---- Fernando, Duke of, 14. + +Guadelete, 5. + +Guimaraes, 2, 3, 7, 17, 18, 19, 20, 31, 38, 41, 42, 63, +65, 70, 80, 93, 94, 103, 127, 269. + ---- Duarte, Duke of, 14, 244, 261. + +Gujerat, 159, 183. + +Guntino, Abbot, 73. + +Guzman, Beatriz de, 68. + See Beatriz, Queen of Affonso III. + ---- Luisa, Queen of Joao IV., 261. + + +H + +Haro, Dona Mencia de, 67. + +Hastings, Gilbert of, 45, 55. + +Haupt, Albrecht, 82, 85, 130, 159, 176, 177, 183. + +Henares, Alcala de, 234. + +Henriques, Francisco, 135. + +Henry, Cardinal King, 14, 20, 59, 72, 144, 222, 223, 241-244, 261. + ---- Prince, the Navigator, Duke of Vizen, 8, 70, 88, + 102, 103, 161, 169, 170, 183, 188, 195. + ---- VII. of England, 166. + +Herculano, 185. + +Herrera, 247. + +Hollanda, Antonio de, 16, 17. + ---- Francisco de, 17. + +Holy Constable. See Pereira, Nuno Alvares. + +Huguet (Ouguet, or Huet), 82, 90, 91, 98, 178. + + +I + +Idacius, 4. + +Idanha a Velha, 57. + +India, 66, 144, 159, 243. + +Indian influence, supposed, 159, 183. + +Inquisition, the, 222, 248. + +Isabel, St., Queen, 19, 20, 72, 117, 260. + ---- Queen of D. Manoel, 87, 144, 189. + ---- Queen of Charles V., 14, 244. + +Italian influence, 219. + + +J + +Jantar, Sala de, Cintra, 24, 123. + +Japan, Portuguese in, 158. + +Jeronymo, 203. + +Jews, expulsion of the, 144. + +Joao I., 1, 8, 11, 18, 23, 24, 42, 80, 81, 84, 88, 93, 95, +101, 117, 122, 123, 178, 244. + ---- II., 8, 25, 92, 97, 93, 130, 131, 143, 144, 161, 171, 176, 179, 181. + ---- III., 17, 95, 162, 185, 196, 198, 216, 218, 219, + 221, 222, 224, 225, 236, 242, 243, 248, 251, 256. + ---- IV., 59, 261, 262. + ---- V., 262, 263, 267. + ---- Dom, son of Inez de Castro, 79, 80. + ---- ---- son of Joao I., 88. + +John, Don, of Austria, son of Philip of Spain, 262. + +John XXII., Pope, 161. + +Jose, Dom, 267. + +Junot, Marshal, 8. + +Justi, 12, 13. + + +L + +Lagos, Sao Sebastiao at, 219. + +Lagrimas, Quinta das, 76. + +Lamego, 4, 9 _n._, 44, 111, 237. + +Lancaster, Philippa of, 81, 84, 88, 89, 100, 122. + +Leca do Balio, 41, 42 _n._, 63, 67, 73, 74, 79. + +Leiria, 33, 69, 260. + +Leyre, S. Salvador de, 35 _n._ + +Lemos family, 219. + +Leo X., Pope, 122. + +Leon, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 29, 44, 80. + +Leonor, Queen of Joao II., 146, 153, 171. + ---- Queen of D. Manoel, 14, 189. + +Lerma, Duque de, 261. + +Lima, river, 29. + +Lis, river, 69. + +Lisbon, 6, 9, 65, 157, 158, 159, 192, 227, 251, 261, 267. + ---- Ajuda Palace, 268. + ---- Carmo, 98, 99, 206. + ---- ---- Museum, 78, 99. + + ---- Cathedral, 38, 45-47, 49, 50, 52, 54, 61 _n._, 71, 72, 74, 271. + ---- Conceicao Velha, 195. + ---- Estrella, 268. + ---- Madre de Deus, 26, 153, 155, 156. + ---- Necessidades, Palace, 268. + ---- Sao Bento, 253. + ---- Sao Roque, 26, 242, 244, 245, 268. + ---- Sao Vicente de Fora, 241, 245, 247, 253, 257, 268. + ---- ---- house of Conde de, 236. + ---- Santo Antao, 245, 247-248, 249, 250. + ---- Sta. Maria do Desterro, 245, 248. + ---- Torre do Tombo, 226 _n._ + ---- Torreao do Paco, 248. + ---- University, 248. + ---- Affonso, Archbishop of, 14. + +Lobo, Diogo, Barao d'Alvito, 131. + +Lobos, Ruy de Villa, 75. + +Loches, St. Ours, 126. + +Lopez, Joao, 254-255. + +Lorvao, 20, 237. + +Longuim, 202. + +Lourenco, Gregorio, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202. + ---- Thereza, 76, 80. + +Louza, 10 _n._, 219. + +Loyos, the, 99, 133, 260. + +Ludovici, Frederic, 263, 267. + +Lupiana, Spain, 234 _n._ + +Lusitania, 1, 4. + + +M + +Madrid, 10, 261. + +Mafamede, 116, 168. + +Mafra, 52, 260, 262, 263, 268. + +Malabar Coast, 157. + +Malacca, 158. + +Manoel, Dom, 11, 12, 14, 20, 24, 26, 54, 56, 71, 83, 87, 95, 97, 104, +105, 108-111, 117-119, 144, 157, 159, 162-169, 171-172, 189, 196, 198, +199, 205, 216, 218, 222, 244. + +Manuel, Jorge, 226 _n._ + +Marao Mts., 1, 29. + +Marceana, 217. + +Maria I., 119, 121. + ---- II., da Gloria, 8, 256, 270. + ---- Queen of Dom Manoel, 144, 189. + +Massena, General, 180. + +Matsys, Quentin, 13. + +Mattos, Francisco de, 22, 26, 28, 245 _n._ + +Mazagao, Morocco, 227, 231. + +Meca, Terreiro da, 125, 127. + +Mecca, 158. + +Medina del Campo, Spain, 183. + ---- Sidonia, Duke of, 261. + +Mello, family, 219. + ---- Rodrigo Affonso de, 133, 134. + +Melrose, 59. + +Mendes, Hermengildo, Count of Tuy and Porto, 41. + +Menendes, Geda, 18. + +Menezes, Brites de, 212-215. + ---- Duarte de, 57, 101, 102. + ---- Fernao Telles de, 213. + ---- Dona Leonor Telles de, 74 _n._, 79. + ---- Leonor de, daughter of D. Pedro, 100. + ---- Pedro de, 100, 101. + +Merida, 4. + +Mertola, 116. + +Miguel, Dom, 8, 182, 256, 270. + ---- Prince, son of D. Manoel, 144. + ---- bishop of Coimbra, 18, 47, 48. + +Minho, river, 1, 64, 109. + +Miranda de Douro, 241. + +Moissac, 72. + +Moncorvo, 220. + +Mondego, river, 5, 30, 44, 73, 212, 251, 259. + +Montemor-o-Velho, 217. + +Montijo, battle of, 262. + +Morocco, 5, 21, 55, 88, 100, 121, 143, 171. + +Mulay-Ahmed, 243. + +Mumadona, Countess of Tuy and Porto, 41. + +Munoz, assistant of Olivel of Ghent, 163. + +Murillo, 10. + +Murca, Diogo de, 252. + +Murphy, J., 90 _n._, 177. + + +N + +Nabantia. See Thomar. + +Nabao, river, 66, 234. + +Napier, Captain Charles, 9. + +Nassau, Maurice of, 262. + +Navarre, 5, 35 _n._ + +Nicolas, Master, 164, 184, 196, 198, 199, 200, 215, 216, 218, 221, 222, +223, 238, 239. + ---- V., Pope, 161. + +Noronha, Bishop Manoel, 237. + +Noya, 254 _n._ + + +O + +Oliva, Antonio ab, 28. + +Olivares, Conde, Duque de, 261. + +Olivel of Ghent, 135, 163. + +Oporto, 6, 9, 22, 41, 73, 80. + ---- Cathedral, 37, 39, 71, 72. + ---- Cedofeita, 5, 32. + ---- Collegio Novo, 249, 259. + ---- Hospital and Factory, 269, + ---- Misericordia, 13, 19. + ---- Nossa Senhors da Serra do Pilar, 256-8. + ---- Quinta ado Freixo, 269. + ---- Sao Bento, 253. + ---- Sao Francisco, 63. + ---- Torre dos Clerigos, 268. + +Order of Christ, the. See Thomar. + +Orense, in Galicia, 6, 66 _n._, 254. + +Ormuz, Portuguese in, 144, 158. + +Ouguet. See Huguet. + +Ourem, Count of, 100. + +Ourique, 7, 51. + +Ovidio, Archbishop, 18. + + +P + +Pacheco, Lopo Fernandes, 75. + ---- Maria Rodrigues, 75. + +Paco de Souza, 38, 40. + +Paes, Gualdim, 55, 56, 66, 117, 160, 167. + +Palmella, 28, 62. + +Pax Julia, the. See Beja. + +Payo, Bishop, of Evora, 51 _n._ + +Pedro I., 62, 76, 77, 79, 88. + ---- II., 25. + ---- III., 269. + ---- son of Joao I., Duke of Coimbra, 88. + ---- the Cruel, Constance, daughter of, 80. + +Pegas, Sala das, Cintra, 24, 122, 145, 152. + +Pekin, Portuguese in, 144. + +Pelayo, Don, 5. + +Penafiel, Constanca de, 76. + +Penha Longa, 236-237. + ---- Verde, 236. + +Pereira, Nuno Alvares, 11, 98. + +Pero Pinheiro, 266. + +Persia, 124. + +Philip I. and II., 7, 14, 144, 222, 240-244, 261, 263. + ---- III. and IV., 261. + +Philippe le Bel, 161. + +Pimentel, Frei Estevao Vasques, 73. + +Pinhal, 80. + +Pinheiro, Diogo, Bishop of Funchal, 211, 212. + +Pires Marcos, 153, 196-198, 200. + +Po, Fernando, 143. + +Pombal, Marques de, 8, 122, 151, 195, 243, 267. + +Pombeiro, 39, 40, 62. + +Ponza, Carlos de. See Captain Napier, 9. + +Pontigny, 60. + +Portalegre, 219, 260. + +Ptolomeu, Master, 18, 48 _n._ + + +Q + +Queluz, 269. + +Quintal, Ayres do, 166, 168, 169. + + +R + +Rabat, minaret at, 168 _n._, 180. + +Raczynski, Count, 11, 13, 160 _n._, 214. + +Raimundes Alfonso. See Alfonso VII. + +Ranulph, Abbot, 59. + +Rates, Sao Pedro de, 3, 34, 36. + +Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 6. + +Resende, Garcia de, 146, 179, 181, 183. + +Restello, Nossa Senhora do, 183. + +Rio Mau, Sao Christovao do, 34. + +Robbia, della, 26, 176 _n._ + +Robert, Master, 49, 50. + +Roderick, King, 5. + +Rodrigues, Alvaro, 162. + ---- Joao, 171. + ---- Jorge, 255. + ---- Justa, 13, 147, 184. + +Rolica, battle of, 62 _n._ + +Romans in Portugal, 2, 3, 4. + +Rome, embassy to, 1514, 183. + +Rouen, Jean de. See next. + +Ruao, Joao de, 192, 202-205, 215, 218, 238, 239. + + +S + +Sabrosa, 3. + +Salamanca, 54. + +Saldanha, Manoel de, 141. + +Sancha, Dona, 64, 70. + +Sancho, King of Castile, 6. + +Sancho I., 7, 51, 52, 59, 64, 95, 197. + ---- II., 64, 67. + +Sansovino, Andrea da, 25, 130, 144, 164, 198, 214. + +Sao Marcos, 177, 184, 185, 211-216. + ---- Theotonio, 196. + ---- Thiago d'Antas, 32. + ---- Torquato, 18, 33, 94. + +Santa Cruz. See Coimbra. + ---- Maria da Victoria. See Batalha. + +Santarem, 6, 44, 55, 56, 229. + ---- Graca, 53, 100, 104, 105, 211, 212. + ---- Marvilla, 27, 152, 153, 156, 235. + ---- Milagre, 234. + ---- Sao Francisco, 57. 65, 67, 78, 83. + ---- Sao Joao de Alporao, 56-57, 63, 64, 101. + ---- Sta. Clara, 238. + ---- Frey Martinho de, 101. + +Santiago, 36, 45, 47, 72, 254. + +Santos, 227 _n._ + +Santo Thyrso, 70, 103. + +Sash windows, 270. + +Savoy, Margaret of, 261. + +Schomberg, Marshal, 262. + +Sebastiao, Dom, 100, 121, 185, 240-244. + +Sem Pavor, Giraldo, 51. + +Sempre Noiva, 123, 133, 146. + +Sereias, Sala das, Cintra, 24, 122. + +Sesnando, Count, 5, 47. + +Setubal, 2, 4, 13, 147, 148, 154-156, 184. + +Seville, 42, 116, 157, 197. + +Silvas, the da, 211-215. + +Silva, Ayres Gomes da, 212, 213. + ---- Miguel da, Bishop of Vizeu, 236. + ---- Diogo da, 213, 217. + ---- Joao da, 213, 218. + ---- Lourenco da, 213, 216, 217. + +Silveira family, 219. + +Silves, 63, 67, 68, 116. + +Simao, 203. + +Sodre, Vicente, 158. + +Soeire, 48. + +Soult, Marshal, 17, 256. + +Soure, 55. + +Souza, Diogo de, Archbishop of Braga, 19, 113. + ---- Gil de, 213. + +Sta. Maria a Velha, 59. + +St. James, 3. + +St. Vincent, Cape, battle of, 9. + +Suevi, 2, 4, 5, 32. + +Swan Hall, the, Cintra, 24, 119, 120, 137. + + +T + +Taipas, 3. + +Tagus, river, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 30, 51, 72 _n._, 129, 144, 261. + +Tangier, 243. + +Tarragona, 37, 55. + +Tavira, 219, 236. + +Telles, Maria, 79. + +Templars, the, 55, 117, 160, 161. + +Tentugal, 212. + +Terzi, Filippo, 241, 242, 243, 244-253, 258, 260. + +Tetuan, in Morocco, 21. + +Theodomir, Suevic King, 5, 32. + +Theotonio, Archbishop of Evora, 255. + +Theresa, Dona, wife of Henry of Burgundy, 6, 37, 114. + +Thomar, 56, 116, 222, 244, 261. + ---- Convent of the Order of Christ, 12, 17, 28, 50, 51, + 55, 70, 103, 151, 157-170, 194, 206, 224-230, 240, 250, 255, 260. + ---- Conceicao, 231-234, 242. + ---- Nossa Senhora do Olival, 63, 66, 68, 73, 74 _n._, 211. + ---- Sao Joao Baptista, 13, 105. + +Tinouco, Joao Nunes, 242, 247. + +Toledo, 6, 37, 48, 58, 116. + ---- Juan Garcia de, 42, 93, 94. + +Torralva, Diogo de, 185, 226, 240-243, 250. + +Torre de Murta, 117. + ---- de Sao Vicente. See Belem. + +Torres, Pero de, 149. + ---- Pedro Fernandes de, 241. + ---- Vedras, 267. + +Toulouse, St. Sernin at, 36, 45, 47. + +Trancoso, 33. + +Trava, Fernando Peres de, 6, 7. + +Traz os Montes, 1, 29, 220. + +Trofa, near Agueda, 219, 220. + +Troya, 3. + +Tua, river, 2. + +Turianno, 242. + +Tuy, 6, 41. + + +U + +Urraca, Queen of Castile and Leon, 6, 41. + ---- Queen of Affonso II., 11, 65. + +Uduarte, Philipo, 202. + + +V + +Vagos, Lords. See the da Silvas, 211. + +Valladolid, 247. + +Vandals, the, 4. + +Varziella, 215 _n._ + +Vasari, 130. + +Vasco, Grao, 11, 12, 14, 112, 201. + +Vasconcellos, Senhora de, 174. + +Vasquez, Master, 91. + +Vaz, Leonardo, 185. + +Velasquez, 10. + +Vianna d'Alemtejo, 135. + ---- do Castello, 254. + +Vicente, family of goldsmiths, 20. + ---- Joao, 99. + +Vigo, 9. + +Viegas, Godinho, 34. + +Vilhegas, Diogo Ortiz de, Bishop of Vizeu, 16, 111. + +Vilhelmus, Donus, 27. + +Vilhena, Antonia de, 213, 216. + ---- Henrique de, 117. + ---- Maria de, 213. + +Villa do Conde, 29 _n._, 63, 106-108, 109, 136, 141, 142. + ---- da Feira, 127, 128. + ---- nova de Gaya, 256-258. + +Villa Vicosa, 202. + +Villar de Frades, 34-36, 99. + +Villarinho, 31. + +Vimaranes, 41. + +Visigoths, 1, 4, 5. + +Viterbo, San Martino al Cimino, near 60 _n._ + +Vizeu, 11, 14, 16, 44, 111, 112, 143, 161, 206, 236, 237. + ---- Diogo, Duke of, 143, 161. + +Vizella, 31. + +Vlimer, Master, 49, 110, 207. + +Vouga, river, 29. + + +W + +Walis, palace of, 117. + +Wellington, Duke of, 62, 77 _n._, 241, 256. + +Windsor, Treaty of, 1386, 80. + + +Y + +Yakub, Emir of Morocco, 51, 56. + +Yokes, ox, 29 _n._ + +Ypres, John of. See D'ipri. + +Yusuf, Emir of Morocco, 51. + + +Z + +Zalaca, battle of, 6. + +Zezere, river, 234. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] The most noticeable difference in pronunciation, the Castilian +guttural soft G and J, and the lisping of the Z or soft C seems to be of +comparatively modern origin. However different such words as 'chave' and +'llave,' 'filho' and 'hijo,' 'mao' and 'mano' may seem they are really +the same in origin and derived from _clavis_, _filius_, and _manus_. + +[2] From the name of this dynasty Moabitin, which means fanatic, is +derived the word Maravedi or Morabitino, long given in the Peninsula to +a coin which was first struck in Morocco. + +[3] The last nun in a convent at Evora only died in 1903, which must +have been at least seventy years after she had taken the veil. + +[4] A narcissus triandrus with a white perianth and yellow cup is found +near Lamego and at Louza, not far from Coimbra. + +[5] See article by C. Justi, 'Die Portugesische Malerei des xvi. +Jahrhunderts,' in vol. ix. of the _Jahrbuch der K. Preussischen +Kunstsammlungen_. + +[6] Raczynski, _Les Arts en Portugal_. + +[7] These are the 'Annunciation,' the 'Risen Lord appearing to His +Mother,' the 'Ascension,' the 'Assumption,' the 'Good Shepherd,' and +perhaps a 'Pentecost' and a 'Nativity.' + +[8] V. Guimaraes, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 155. + +[9] A. Hapt, _Die Baukunst, etc., in Portugal_, vol. ii. p. 36. + +[10] These may perhaps be by the so-called Master of Sao Bento, to whom +are attributed a 'Visitation'--in which Chastity, Poverty, and Humility +follow the Virgin--and a 'Presentation,' both now in Lisbon. Some +paintings in Sao Francisco Evora seem to be by the same hand. + +[11] Misericordia=the corporation that owns and manages all the +hospitals, asylums, and other charitable institutions in the town. There +is one in almost every town in the country. + +[12] She seems almost too old to be Dona Leonor and may be Dona Maria. + +[13] His first wife was Dona Isabel, eldest daughter and heiress to the +Catholic Kings. She died in 1498 leaving an infant son Dom Miguel, heir +to Castile and Aragon as well as to Portugal. He died two years later +when Dom Manoel married his first wife's sister, Dona Maria, by whom he +had six sons and two daughters. She died in 1517, and next year he +married her niece Dona Leonor, sister of Charles V. and daughter of Mad +Juana. She had at first been betrothed to his eldest son Dom Joao. All +these marriages were made in the hope of succeeding to the Spanish +throne. + +[14] Some authorities doubt the identification of the king and queen. +But there is a distinct likeness between the figures of Dom Manoel and +his queen which adorn the west door of the church at Belem, and the +portrait of the king and queen in this picture. + +[15] It has been reproduced by the Arundel Society, but the copyist has +entirely missed the splendid solemnity of St. Peter's face. + +[16] See 'Portuguese School of Painting,' by J. C. Robinson, in the +_Fine Arts Quarterly_ of 1866. + +[17] Vieira Guimaraes, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 150. + +[18] _Ibid._, p. 157. + +[19] Carriage hire is still cheap in Portugal, for in 1904 only 6$000 +was paid for a carriage from Thomar to Leiria, a distance of over +thirty-five miles, though the driver and horses had to stay at Leiria +all night and return next day. 6$000 was then barely over twenty +shillings. + +[20] It was the gift of Bishop Affonso of Portugal who held the see from +1485 to 1522. + +[21] This monstrance was given by Bishop Dom Jorge d'Almeida who died in +1543, having governed the see for sixty-two years. (Fig. 7.) + +[22] Presented by Canon Goncalo Annes in 1534. + +[23] D. Francisco Simonet, professor of Arabic at Granada. Note in _Paco +de Cintra_, p. 206. + +[24] See Miss I. Savory, _In the Tail of the Peacock_. + +[25] A common pattern found at Bacalhoa, near Setubal, in the Museum at +Oporto, and in the Corporation Galleries of Glasgow, where it is said to +have come from Valencia in Spain. + +[26] Joaquim Rasteiro, _Palacio e Quinta de Bacalhoa em Azeitao_. +Lisbon, 1895. + +[27] Columns with corbel capitals support a house on the right. Such +capitals were common in Spain, so it is just possible that these tiles +may have been made in Spain. + +[28] Antonio ab Oliva=Antonio de Oliveira Bernardes, who also painted +the tiles in Sao Pedro de Rates. + +[29] _E.g._ in the church of the Misericordia Vianna do Castello, the +cloister at Oporto, the Graca Santarem, Sta. Cruz Coimbra, the Se, +Lisbon, and in many other places. + +[30] Paco de Cintra, _Cond. de Sabugosa_. Lisbon, 1903. + +[31] These yokes are about 4 or 5 feet long by 18 inches or 2 feet +broad, are made of walnut, and covered with the most intricate pierced +patterns. Each parish or district, though no two are ever exactly alike, +has its own design. The most elaborate, which are also often painted +bright red, green, and yellow are found south of the Douro near Espinho. +Further north at Villa do Conde they are much less elaborate, the +piercings being fewer and larger. Nor do they extend far up the Douro as +in the wine country in Tras-os-Montes the oxen, darker and with shorter +horns, pull not from the shoulder but from the forehead, to which are +fastened large black leather cushions trimmed with red wool. + +[32] Originally there was a bell-gable above the narthex door, since +replaced by a low square tower resting on the north-west corner of the +narthex and capped by a plastered spire. + +[33] + +Theodomir rex gloriosus v. erex. & contrux. hoc. monast. can. B. +Aug. ad. Gl. D. et V.M.G.D. & B. Martini et fecit ita so: lemnit: +sacrari ab Lucrec. ep. Brac. et alliis sub. J. III. P. M. Prid. +Idus. Nov. an. D. DLIX. Post id. rex in hac eccl. ab. eod. ep. +palam bapt. et fil. Ariamir cum magnat. suis. omnes conversi ad +fid. ob. v. reg. & mirab. in fil. ex sacr. reliq. B.M. a Galiis eo. +reg. postul translatis & hic asservatis Kal. Jan. An. D. DLX. + + +[34] From M. Bernardes, _Tratados Varios_, vol. ii. p. 4. The same story +is told of the monastery of San Salvador de Leyre in Navarre, whose +abbot, Virila, wondering how it could be possible to listen to the +heavenly choirs for ever without weariness, sat down to rest by a spring +which may still be seen, and there listened, enchanted, to the singing +of a bird for three hundred years. + +[35] _E.g._ the west door of Ste. Croix, Bordeaux, though it is of +course very much more elaborate. + +[36] Namely, to give back some Galician towns which had been captured. + +[37] Bayona is one of the most curious and unusual churches in the north +of Spain. Unfortunately, during a restoration made a few years ago a +plaster groined vault was added hiding the old wooden roof. + +[38] + +The tomb is inscribed: Hic requiescit Fys: + Dei: Egas: Monis: Vir: + Inclitus: era: millesima: + centesima: LXXXII + _i.e._ Era of Caesar 1182, A.D. 1144. + + +[39] He died soon after at Medinaceli, and a Christian contemporary +writer records the fact saying: 'This day died Al-Mansor. He desecrated +Santiago, and destroyed Pampluna, Leon and Barcelona. He was buried in +Hell.' + +[40] Another cloister-like building of even earlier date is to be found +behind the fourteenth-century church of Leca de Balio: it was built +probably after the decayed church had been granted to the Knights of St. +John of Jerusalem. (Fig. 17.) + +[41] A careful restoration is now being carried out under the direction +of Senhor Fuschini. + +[42] The inscription is mutilated at both ends and seems to read, +'Ahmed-ben-Ishmael built it strongly by order of ...' + +[43] It is a pity that the difference in date makes it impossible to +identify this Bernardo with the Bernardo who built Santiago. For the +work Dom Miguel gave 500 morabitinos, besides a yoke of oxen worth 12, +also silver altar fronts made by Master Ptolomeu. Besides the money +Bernardo received a suit of clothes worth 3 morabitinos and food at the +episcopal table, while Soeiro his successor got a suit of clothes, a +quintal of wine, and a mora of bread. The bishop also gave a great deal +of church plate showing that the cathedral was practically finished +before his death. + +[44] Compare the doorlike window of Nossa Senhora da Oliveira at +Guimaraes. + +[45] The small church of Sao Salvador has also an old door, plainer and +smaller than Sao Thiago. + +[46] The five small shields with the Wounds of Christ on the Portuguese +coat are supposed to have been adopted because on the eve of this battle +Christ crucified appeared to Affonso and promised him victory, and +because five kings were defeated. + +[47] Andre de Rezende, a fifteenth-century antiquary, says, quoting from +an old 'book of anniversaries': 'Each year an anniversary is held in +memory of Bishop D. Payo on St. Mark's Day, that is May 21st, on which +day he laid the first stone for the foundation of this cathedral, on the +spot where now is St. Mark's Altar, and he lies behind the said place +and altar in the Chapel of St. John. This church was founded Era 1224,' +_i.e._ 1186 A.D. D. Payo became bishop in 1181. Another stone in the +chancel records the death, in era 1321, _i.e._ 1283 A.D., of Bishop D. +Durando, 'who built and enriched this cathedral with his alms,' but +probably he only made some additions, perhaps the central lantern. + +[48] It was built 1718-1746 by Ludovici or Ludwig the architect of Mafra +and cost 160:000$000 or about L30,000. + +[49] The whole inscription, the first part occurring also on a stone in +the castle, runs thus:-- + +E (i.e. Era) MC : L[~X]. VIII. regnant : Afonso : illustrisimo rege +Portugalis : magister : galdinus : Portugalensium : Militum Templi : cum +fratribus suis Primo : die : Marcii : cepit edificari : hoc : castellu : +n[=m]e Thomar : q[=o]d : prefatus rex obtulit : Deo : et militibus : +Templi : E. M. CC. XX. VIII : III. mens. : Julii : venit rex de maroqis +ducens : CCCC milia equit[=u] : et quingenta milia : pedit[=u]m : et +obsedit castrum istud : per sex Dies : et delevit : quantum extra : +murum invenit : castell[=u] : et prefatus : magister : c[=u] : fratribus +suis liberavit Deus : de manibus : suis Idem : rex : remeavit : in +patri[=a] : su[=a] : cu : innumerabili : detrimento : homin[=u] et +bestiarum. + + +[50] Cf. Templar church at Segovia, Old Castile, where, however, the +interior octagon is nearly solid with very small openings, and a vault +over the lower story; it has also three eastern apses. + +[51] There is a corbel table like it but more elaborate at Vezelay in +Burgundy. + +[52] _E.g._ in S. Martino al Cimino near Viterbo. + +[53] So says Murray. Vilhena Barbosa says 1676. 1770 seems the more +probable. + +[54] Indeed to the end the native builders have been very chary of +building churches with a high-groined vault and a well-developed +clerestory. The nave of Batalha and of the cathedral of Guarda seem to +be almost the only examples which have survived, for Lisbon choir was +destroyed by the great earthquake of 1755, as was also the church of the +Carmo in the same city, which perhaps shows that they were right in +rejecting such a method of construction in a country so liable to be +shaken. + +[55] Cf. similar corbel capitals in the nave of the cathedral of Orense +in Galicia. + +[56] Before the Black Death, which reduced the number to eight, there +are said to have sometimes been as many as 999 monks! + +[57] It was a monk of Alcobaca who came to General Wellesley on the +night of 16th August 1808, and told him that if he wished to catch the +French he must be quick as they meant to retire early in the morning, +thus enabling him to win the battle of Rolica, the first fight of the +Peninsular War. + +[58] Cf. the clerestory windows of Burgos Cathedral, or those at +Dunblane, where as at Guimaraes the circle merely rests on the lights +below without being properly united with them. + +[59] From the north-east corner of the narthex a door leads to the +cloisters, which have a row of coupled shafts and small pointed arches. +From the east walk a good doorway of Dom Manoel's time led into the +chapter-house, now the barrack kitchen, the smoke from which has +entirely blackened alike the doorway and the cloister near. + +[60] Compare the horseshoe moulding on the south door of the cathedral +of Orense, Galicia, begun 1120, where, however, each horseshoe is +separated from the next by a deep groove. + +[61] The town having much decayed owing to fevers and to the gradual +shallowing of the river the see was transferred to Faro in 1579. The +cathedral there, sacked by Essex in 1596, and shattered by the +earthquake of 1755, has little left of its original work except the +stump of a west tower standing on a porch open on three sides with plain +pointed arches, and leading to the church on the fourth by a door only +remarkable for the dog-tooth of its hood-mould. + +[62] The towers stand quite separate from the walls and are united to +them by wide round arches. + +[63] In the dilapidated courtyard of the castle there is one very +picturesque window of Dom Manoel's time (his father the duke of Beja is +buried in the church of the Conceicao in the town). + +[64] An inscription says:-- + +'Era 1362 [i.e. A.D. 1324] anos foi +esta tore co (mecad) a (aos) 8 +dias demaio. e mandou a faze (r +o muito) nobre Dom Diniz +rei de P...' + + +[65] Just outside the castle there is a good romanesque door belonging +to a now desecrated church. + +[66] Some of the distinctive features of Norman such as cushion capitals +seem to be unknown in Normandy and not to be found any nearer than +Lombardy. + +[67] Sub Era MCCCXLVIII. idus Aprilis, Dnus Nuni Abbas monasterij de +Alcobatie posuit primam lapidem in fundamento Claustri ejusdem loci. +presente Dominico Dominici magistro operis dicti Claustri. Era 1348 = +A.D. 1310. + +[68] It is interesting to notice that the master builder was called +Domingo Domingues, who, if Domingues was already a proper name and not +still merely a patronymic, may have been the ancestor of Affonso +Domingues who built Batalha some eighty years later and died 1402. + +[69] In this cloister are kept in a cage some unhappy ravens in memory +of their ancestors having guided the boat which miraculously brought St. +Vincent's body to the Tagus. + +[70] Cf. the aisle windows of Sta. Maria dos Olivaes at Thomar. + +[71] It was at Leca that Dom Fernando in 1372 announced his marriage +with Dona Leonor Telles de Menezes, the wife of Joao Lourenco da Cunha, +whom he had seen at his sister's wedding, and whom he married though he +was himself betrothed to a daughter of the Castilian king, and though +Dona Leonor's husband was still alive: a marriage which nearly ruined +Portugal, and caused the extinction of the legitimate branch of the +house of Burgundy. + +[72] Opening off the north-west corner of the cathedral is an apsidal +chapel of about the same period, entered by a fine pointed door, one of +whose mouldings is enriched by an early-looking chevron, but whose real +date is shown by the leaf-carving of its capitals. + +[73] A note in Sir H. Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, vol. i. p. 215, +says of Alcobaca: 'They had burned what they could and destroyed the +remainder with an immense deal of trouble. The embalmed kings and queens +were taken out of their tombs, and I saw them lying in as great +preservation as the day they were interred. The fine tesselated +pavement, from the entrance to the Altar, was picked up, the facings of +the stone pillars were destroyed nearly to the top, scaffolding having +been erected for that purpose. An orderly book found near the place +showed that regular parties had been ordered for the purpose' +(Tomkinson, 77). + +[74] There is in the Carmo Museum at Lisbon a fine tomb to Dom Fernando, +Dom Pedro's unfortunate successor. It was brought from Sao Francisco at +Santarem, but is very much less elaborate, having three panels on each +side filled with variously shaped cuspings, enclosing shields, all +beautifully wrought. + +[75] Another trophy is now at Alcobaca in the shape of a huge copper +caldron some four feet in diameter. + +[76] This site at Pinhal was bought from one Egas Coelho. + +[77] Though a good deal larger than most Portuguese churches, except of +course Alcobaca, the church is not really very large. Its total length +is about 265 feet with a transept of about 109 feet long. The central +aisle is about 25 feet wide by 106 high--an unusual proportion anywhere. + +[78] Albrecht Haupt, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Portugal_, says +that 'Der Plan durchaus englisch ist (Lang-und Querschiff fast ganz +identisch mit dener der Kathedral zu Canterbury, nur thurmlos).' + +[79] This spire has been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1755, and so +may be quite different from that originally intended. + +[80] In his book on Batalha, Murphy, who stayed in the abbey for some +months towards the end of the eighteenth century, gives an engraving of +an open-work spire on this chapel, saying it had been destroyed in 1755. + +[81] Huguet witnessed a document dated December 7, 1402, concerning a +piece of land belonging to Margarida Annes, servant to Affonso +Domingues, master of the works, and his name also occurs in a document +of 1450 as having had a house granted to him by Dom Duarte, but he must +have been dead some time before that as his successor as master of the +works, Master Vasquez, was already dead before 1448. Probably Huguet +died about 1440. + +[82] Caspar Estaco, writing in the sixteenth century, says that this +triptych was made of the silver against which King Joao weighed himself, +but the story of its capture at Aljubarrota seems the older tradition. + +[83] These capitals have the distinctive Manoelino feature of the +moulding just under the eight-sided abacus, being twisted like a rope or +like two interlacing branches. + +[84] The church was about 236 feet long with a transept of over 100 +feet, which is about the length of the Batalha transept. + +[85] She also sent the beautiful bronze tomb in which her eldest brother +Affonso, who died young, lies in the cathedral, Braga. The bronze effigy +lies on the top of an altar-tomb under a canopy upheld by two slender +bronze shafts. Unfortunately it is much damaged and stands in so dark a +corner that it can scarcely be seen. + +[86] In one transept there is a very large blue tile picture. + +[87] The Aleo is still at Ceuta. In the cathedral Our Lady of Africa +holds it in her hand, and it is given to each new governor on his +arrival as a symbol of office. + +[88] The inscription is:-- + + Memoria de D. Duarte de Menezes + Terceiro conde de Viana, Tronco + dos condes de Tarouca. Primeiro +Capitao de Alcacer-Seguer, em Africa, + que com quinhentos soldados defendeu + esta praca contra cemmil + Mouros, com os quaes teve + muitos encontros, ficando n'elles +com grande honra e gloria. Morreu na + serra de Bonacofu per salvar a + vida do seu rei D. Affonso o Quinto. + + + +[89] When the tomb was moved from Sao Francisco, only one tooth, not a +finger, was found inside. + +[90] Besides the church there is in Caminha a street in which most of +the houses have charming doors and windows of about the same date as the +church. + +[91] 1524 seems too early by some forty years. + +[92] The rest of the west front was rebuilt and the inside altered by +Archbishop Dom Jose de Braganza, a son of Dom Pedro II., about two +hundred years ago. + +[93] A chapel was added at the back, and at a higher level some time +during the seventeenth century to cover in one of the statues, that of +St. Anthony of Padua, who was then becoming very popular. + +[94] This winding stair was built by Dom Manoel: cf. some stairs at +Thomar. + +[95] A 'pelourinho' is a market cross. + +[96] The kitchens in the houses at Marrakesh and elsewhere in Morocco +have somewhat similar chimneys. See B. Meakin, _The Land of the Moors_. + +[97] 'Esta fortaleza se comecou a xiij dagosto de mil cccc.l. P[N. of T. +horizonal line through it] iiij por madado del Rey do Joam o segundo +nosso sor e acabouse em tpo del Rey dom Manoel o primeiro nosso Snor +fela per seus madados dom Diogo Lobo baram dalvito.' + +[98] The house of the duke of Cadaval called 'Agua de Peixes,' not very +far off, has several windows in the same Moorish style. + +[99] Vilhena Barbosa, _Monumentos de Portugal_, p. 324. + +[100] Though the grammar seems a little doubtful this seems to mean + +Since these by service were +And loyal efforts gained, +By these and others like to them +They ought to be maintained. + + +[101] One blank space in one of the corners is pointed out as having +contained the arms of the Duque d'Aveiro beheaded for conspiracy in +1758. In reality it was painted with the arms of the Coelhos, but the +old boarding fell out and has never been replaced. + +[102] Affonso de Albuquerque took Ormuz in 1509 and Goa next year. + +[103] Sumatra was visited in 1509. + +[104] Fernao Peres de Andrade established himself at Canton in 1517 and +reached Pekin in 1521. + +[105] Compare the elaborate outlines of some Arab arches at the Alhambra +or in Morocco. + +[106] Some have supposed that Boutaca was a foreigner, but there is a +place called Boutaca near Batalha, so he probably came from there. + +[107] Once the Madre de Deus was adorned with several della Robbia +placques. They are now all gone. + +[108] Danver's _Portuguese in India_, vol. i. + +[109] See in Oliveira Martims' _Historia de Portugal_, vol. II. ch. i., +the account of the Embassy sent to Pope Leo IX. by Dom Manoel in 1514. +No such procession had been seen since the days of the Roman Empire. +There were besides endless wealth, leopards from India, also an elephant +which, on reaching the Castle of S. Angelo, filled its trunk with +scented water and 'asperged' first the Pope and then the people. These +with a horse from Ormuz represented the East. Unfortunately the +representative of Africa, a rhinoceros, died on the way. + +[110] Danver's _Portuguese in India_, vol. i. + +[111] Unfortunately Fernandes was one of the commonest of names. In his +list of Portuguese artists, Count Raczynski mentions an enormous number. + +[112] In the year 1512 Olivel was paid 25$000. He had previously +received 12$000 a month. He died soon after and his widow undertook to +finish his work with the help of his assistant Munoz. + +[113] See the drawing in _A Ordem de Christo_ by Vieira Guimaraes. + +[114] The last two figures look like 15 but the first two are scarcely +legible; it may not be a date at all. + +[115] All the statues are rather Northern in appearance, not unlike +those on the royal tombs in Santa Cruz, Coimbra, and may be the work of +the two Flemings mentioned among those employed at Thomar, Antonio and +Gabriel. + +[116] The door--notwithstanding the supposed date, 1515--was probably +finished by Joao after 1523. + +[117] Cf. the carving on the jambs of the Allah-ud-din gate at Delhi. + +[118] Such heads of many curves may have been derived from such +elaborate Moorish arches as may be seen in the Alhambra, or, for +example, in the Hasan tower at Rabat in Morocco, and it is worth +noticing that there were men with Moorish names among the workmen at +Thomar--Omar, Mafamede, Bugimaa, and Bebedim. + +[119] Esp(h)era=_sphere_; Espera=_hope_, present imperative. + +[120] The inscription says: 'Aqui jaz Matheus Fernandes mestre que foi +destas obras, e sua mulher Izabel Guilherme e levou-o nosso Senhor a dez +dias de Abril de 1515. Ella levou-a a....' + +[121] Fig. 57. + +[122] _As Capellas Imperfeitas e a lenda das devisas Gregas._ Por +Caroline Michaelis de Vasconcellos. Porto, 1905. + +[123] The frieze is now filled up and plastered, but not long ago was +empty and recessed as if prepared for letting in reliefs. Can these have +been of terra cotta of the della Robbia school? Dom Manoel imported many +which are now all gone but one in the Museum at Lisbon. There are also +some della Robbia medallions at the Quinta de Bacalhoa at Azeitao near +Setubal. + +[124] J. Murphy, _History of the Royal Convent of Batalha_. London, +1792. + +[125] One of the first was probably the chapel dos Reys Magos at Sao +Marcos near Coimbra. + +[126] A conto = 1.000$000. + +[127] It is no use telling a tramway conductor to stop near the Torre de +Sao Vicente. He has never heard of it, but if one says 'Fabrica de Gas' +the car will stop at the right place. + +[128] Similar roofs cap the larger angle turrets in the house of the +Quinta de Bacalhoa near Setubal, built by Dona Brites, mother of Dom +Manoel, about 1490, and rebuilt or altered by the younger Albuquerque +after 1528 when he bought the Quinta. + +[129] Raczynski says 1517, Haupt 1522. + +[130] According to Raczynski, Joao de Castilho in 1517 undertook to +carry on the work for 140$000 per month, at the rate of $50 per day per +man. 140$000=now about L31. + +[131] Nicolas was the first of the French renaissance artists to come to +Portugal. + +[132] _E.g._ on the Hotel Bourgtheroulde, Rouen. + +[133] Cf. the top of a turret at St. Wulfram, Abbeville. + +[134] Haupt. + +[135] The university was first accommodated in Sta. Cruz, till Dom Joao +gave up the palace where it still is. It was after the return of the +university to Coimbra that George Buchanan was for a time professor. He +got into difficulties with the Inquisition and had to leave. + +[136] Nicolas the Frenchman is first mentioned in 1517 as working at +Belem. He therefore was probably the first to introduce the renaissance +into Portugal, for Sansovino had no lasting influence. + +[137] 'To give room and licence to Dioguo de Castylho, master of the +work of my palace at Coimbra, to ride on a mule and a nag seeing that he +has no horse, and notwithstanding my decrees to the contrary.'--Sept. +18, 1526. + +[138] _Vilhena Barbosa Monumentes de Portugal_, p. 411. + +[139] Other men from Rouen are also mentioned, Jeronymo and Simao. + +[140] The stone used at Batalha and at Alcobaca is of similar fineness, +but seems better able to stand exposure, as the front of Santa Cruz at +Coimbra is much more decayed than are any parts of the buildings at +either Batalha or Alcobaca. The stone resembles Caen stone, but is even +finer. + +[141] Joao de Ruao also made some bookcases for the monastery library. + +[142] 'Aqui jas o muito honrado Pero Rodrigues Porto Carreiro, ayo que +foy do Conde D. Henrique, Cavalleiro da Ordem de San Tiago, e o muyto +honrado Gonzalo Gil Barbosa seu genro, Cavalleiro da Ordem de X^to, e +assim o muito honrado seu filho Francisco Barbosa: os quaes forao +trasladados a esta sepultura no anno de 1532.'--Fr. _Historia de +Santarem edificada_. By Ignacio da Piedade e Vasconcellos. Lisboa +Occidental, MDCCXXXX. + +[143] The date 1522 is found on a tablet on Ayres' tomb, so the three +must have been worked while the chancel was being built. + +[144] _Les Arts en Portugal:_ letters to the Berlin Academy of Arts. +Paris, 1846. + +[145] _Sao Marcos:_ E. Biel. Porto, in _A arte e a natureza em +Portugal:_ text by J. de Vasconcellos. + +[146] There is also a fine reredos of somewhat later date in the church +of Varziella near Cantanhede not far off: but it belongs rather to the +school of the chapel dos Reis Magos; there is another in the Matriz of +Cantanhede itself. + +[147] Johannis III. Emanuelis filius, Ferdinandi nep. Eduardi pronep. +Johannis I. abnep. Portugal. et Alg. rex. Affric. Aethiop. arabic. +persic. Indi. ob felicem partum Catherinae reginae conjugis +incomparabilis suscepto Emanuele filio principi, aram cum signis pos. +dedicavitque anno MDXXXII. Divae Mariae Virgini et Matri sac. + +[148] The only other object of any interest in the Sao Marcos is a small +early renaissance pulpit on the north side of the nave, not unlike that +at Caminha. + +[149] During the French invasion much church plate was hidden on the top +of capitals and so escaped discovery. + +[150] Joao then bought a house in the Rua de Corredoura for 80$000 or +nearly L18.--Vieira Guimaraes, _A Ordem de Christo_, p. 167. + +[151] There is preserved in the Torre do Tombo at Lisbon a long account +of the trial of a 'new Christian' of Thomar, Jorge Manuel, begun on July +15, 1543, in the office of the Holy Inquisition within the convent of +Thomar.--Vieira Guimaraes, p. 179. + +[152] From book 34 of Joao III.'s Chancery a 'quitaca' or discharge +given to Joao de Castilho for all the work done for Dom Joao or for his +father, viz.--'In Monastery of Belem; in palace by the sea--swallowed up +by the earthquake in 1755--balconies in hall, stair, chapel, and rooms +of Queen Catherine, chapel of monastery of Sao Francisco in Lisbon, +foundation of Arsenal Chapel; a balcony at Santos, and divers other +lesser works. Then a door, window, well balustrade, garden repairs; work +in pest house; stone buildings at the arsenal for a dry dock for the +Indian ships; the work he has executed at Thomar, as well as the work he +has done at Alcobaca and Batalha; besides he made a bastion at Mazagao +so strong,' etc.--Raczynski's _Les Artistes Portugais_. + +[153] Vieira Guimaraes, _A Ordem de Christo_, pp. 184, 185. + +[154] Foi erecta esta cap. No A.D. 1572 sed prof. E. 1810 foi restaur E. +1848 por L. L. d'Abreu Monis. Serrao, E. Po. D Roure, Pietra +concra. Muitas Pessoas ds. cid^{ec}. + +[155] Ferguson (_History of Modern Architecture_, vol. ii. p. 287) says +that some of the cloisters at Goa reminded him of Lupiana, so no doubt +they are not unlike those here mentioned. + +[156] An inscription over a door outside says: + +DNS. EMANVEL +NORONHA EPVS +LAMACEN. 1557. + + +[157] One chapel, that of Sao Martin, has an iron screen like a poor +Spanish _reja_. + +[158] It has been pulled down quite lately. Lorvao, in a beautiful +valley some fifteen miles from Coimbra, was a very famous nunnery. The +church was rebuilt in the eighteenth century, has a dome, a nuns' choir +to the west full of stalls, but in style, except the ruined cloister, +which was older, all is very rococo. + +[159] This reredos is in the chapel on the south of the Capella Mor. + +[160] This aqueduct begun by Terzi in 1593 was finished in 1613 by Pedro +Fernandes de Torres, who also designed the fountain in the centre of the +cloister. + +[161] It was here that Wellington was slung across the river in a basket +on his way to confer with the Portuguese general during the advance on +Salamanca. + +[162] Terzi was taken prisoner at Alcacer-Quebir in 1578 and ransomed by +King Henry, who made him court architect, a position he held till his +death in 1598. + +[163] Some of the most elaborate dated 1584 are by Francisco de Mattos. + +[164] It was handed over to the cathedral chapter on the expulsion of +the Jesuits in 1772. + +[165] Sao Bento is now used as a store for drain-pipes. + +[166] The Matriz at Vianna has a fifteenth-century pointed door, with +half figures on the voussoirs arranged as are the four-and-twenty elders +on the great door at Santiago, a curious arrangement found also at +Orense and at Noya. + +[167] There was only one other house of this order in Portugal, at +Laveiras. + +[168] Not of course the famous son of Charles V., but a son of Philip +IV. + +[169] In that year from June to October 45,000 men are inscribed as +working on the building, and 1266 oxen were bought to haul stones! + +[170] The area of the Escorial, excluding the many patios and cloisters, +is over 300,000 square feet; that of Mafra, also excluding all open +spaces, is nearly 290,000. + +[171] Compare also the front of the Misericordia in Oporto. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Portuguese Architecture, by Walter Crum Watson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 29370.txt or 29370.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/3/7/29370/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University +Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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