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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and
+Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies
+
+Author: Robert Gordon Latham
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2010 [EBook #31296]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Archaic, dialect and variant spellings (including quoted proper
+    nouns) remain as printed, except where noted. Minor typographical
+    errors have been corrected without note; significant amendments have
+    been listed at the end of the text.
+
+
+
+
+                             THE
+                          ETHNOLOGY
+                             OF
+                    THE BRITISH COLONIES
+                             AND
+                        DEPENDENCIES.
+
+                             BY
+                 R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,
+ CORRESPONDING MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK,
+                          ETC. ETC.
+
+                          [Device]
+
+                           LONDON:
+              JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+
+                         M.DCCC.LI.
+
+
+
+
+              LONDON:
+ Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY and CO.,
+      Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+                                                                    PAGE
+ Heligoland and the Frisians.--Gibraltar and the Spanish Stock.--
+ Malta.--The Ionian Islands.--The Channel Islands.                     1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+ The Gambia Settlements.--Sierra Leone.--The Gold Coast.--The
+ Cape.--The Mauritius.--The Negroes of America.                       34
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+               BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+ Aden.--The Mongolian Variety.--The Monosyllabic Languages.--Hong
+ Kong.--The Tenasserim Provinces; Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim,
+ the Mergui Archipelago.--The Môn, Siamese, Avans, Kariens, and
+ Silong.--Arakhan.--Mugs, Khyens.--Chittagong, Tippera, and
+ Sylhet.--Kuki.--Kasia.--Cachars.--Assam.--Nagas.--Singpho.--Jili.
+ --Khamti.--Mishimi.--Abors and Bor-Abors.--Dufla.--Aka.--Muttucks
+ and Miri, and other Tribes of the Valley of Assam.--The Garo.--
+ Classification.--Mr. Brown's Tables.--The Bodo.--Dhimal.--Kocch.
+ --Lepchas of Sikkim.--Rawat of Kumaon.--Polyandria.--The Tamulian
+ Populations.--Rajmahali Mountaineers.--Kúlis, Khonds, Goands,
+ Chenchwars.--Tudas, &c.--Bhils.--Waralis.--The Tamul, Telinga,
+ Kanara, and Malayalam Languages.                                     92
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+ The Sanskrit Language.--Its Relations to certain Modern Languages
+ of India; to the Slavonic and Lithuanic of Europe.--Inferences.--
+ Brahminism of the Puranas.--Of the Institutes of Menu.--Extract.
+ --Of the Vedas.--Extract.--Inferences.--The Hindús.--Sikhs.--
+ Biluchi.--Afghans.--Wandering Tribes.--Miscellaneous Populations.
+ --Ceylon.--Buddhism.--Devil-worship.--Vaddahs.                      150
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+ British Dependencies in the Malayan Peninsula.--The Oceanic Stock
+ and its Divisions.--The Malay, Semang, and Dyak Types.--The Orang
+ Binua.--Jakuns.--The Biduanda Kallang.--The Orang Sletar.--The
+ Sarawak Tribes.--The New Zealanders.--The Australians.--The
+ Tasmanians.                                                         203
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+ The Athabaskans of the Hudson's Bay Country.--The Algonkin Stock.
+ --The Iroquois.--The Sioux.--Assineboins.--The Eskimo.--The
+ Kolúch.--The Nehanni.--Digothi.--The Atsina.--Indians of British
+ Oregon, Quadra's and Vancouver's Island.--Haidah.--Chimsheyan.--
+ Billichula.--Hailtsa.--Nutka.--Atna.--Kitunaha Indians.--
+ Particular Algonkin Tribes.--The Nascopi.--The Bethuck.--Numerals
+ from Fitz-Hugh Sound.--The Moskito Indians.--South American
+ Indians of British Guiana.--Caribs.--Warows.--Wapisianas.--
+ Tarumas.--Caribs of St. Vincent.--Trinidad.                         224
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The following pages represent a Course of Six Lectures delivered at the
+Royal Institution, Manchester, in the months of February and March of
+the present year; the matter being now laid before the public in a
+somewhat fuller and more systematic form than was compatible with the
+original delivery.
+
+
+
+
+         ETHNOLOGY
+            OF
+ THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+
+    HELIGOLAND AND THE FRISIANS.--GIBRALTAR AND THE SPANISH
+    STOCK.--MALTA.--THE IONIAN ISLANDS.--THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.
+
+
+_Heligoland._--We learn from a passage in the _Germania_ of Tacitus,
+that certain tribes agreed with each other in the worship of a goddess
+who was revered as _Earth the Mother_; that a sacred grove, in a sacred
+island, was dedicated to her; and that, in that grove, there stood a
+holy wagon, covered with a pall, and touched by the priest only. The
+goddess herself was drawn by heifers; and as long as she vouchsafed her
+presence among men, there was joy, and feasts, and hospitality; and
+peace amongst otherwise fierce tribes instead of war and violence. After
+a time, however, the goddess withdrew herself to her secret
+temple--satiated with the converse of mankind; and then the wagon, the
+pall, and the deity herself were bathed in the holy lake. The
+administrant slaves were sucked up by its waters. There was terror and
+there was ignorance; the reality being revealed to those alone who thus
+suddenly passed from life to death.
+
+Now we know, by name at least, five of the tribes who are thus connected
+by a common worship--mysterious and obscure as it is. They are the
+Reudigni, the Aviones, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and the Nuithones.
+
+Two others we know by something more than name--the Varini and the
+Langobardi.
+
+The eighth is our own parent stock--the _Angli_.
+
+Such is one of the earliest notices of the old creed of our German
+forefathers; and, fragmentary and indefinite as it is, it is one of the
+fullest which has reached us. I subjoin the original text, premising
+that, instead of _Herthum_, certain MSS. read _Nerthum_.
+
+"----Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis
+nationibus cincti, non per obsequium sed prœliis et periclitando tuti
+sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et _Angli_, et Varini, et Eudoses, et
+Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam
+notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, Terram
+matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis,
+arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo
+vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse
+penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis multâ cum veneratione
+prosequitur. Læti tunc dies, festa loca, quæcumque adventu hospitioque
+dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum; pax et
+quies tunc tantùm nota, tunc tantùm amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam
+conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat; mox vehiculum et vestes, et,
+si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant,
+quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque
+ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tantùm perituri vident."--"De Moribus
+Germanorum," 40.
+
+What connects the passage with the ethnology of Heligoland? Heligoland
+is, probably, the _island of the Holy Grove_. Its present name indicates
+this--_the holy land_. Its position in the main sea, or _Ocean_, does
+the same. So does its vicinity to the country of Germans.
+
+At the same time it must not be concealed from the reader that the Isle
+of Rugen, off the coast of Pomerania, has its claims. It is an
+island--but not an island of the _Ocean_. It is full of religious
+remains--but those remains are _Slavonic_ rather than _German_.
+
+I believe, for my own part, that the seat of the worship of _Earth the
+Mother_, was the island which we are now considering.
+
+In respect to its inhabitants, it must serve as a slight text for a long
+commentary. A population of about two thousand fishers; characterized,
+like the ancient Venetians, by an utter absence of horses, mules,
+ponies, asses, carts, wagons, or any of the ordinary applications of
+animal power to the purposes of locomotion, confined to a small rock,
+and but little interrupted with foreign elements, is, if considered in
+respect to itself alone, no great subject for either the ethnologist or
+the geographer. But what if its relations to the population of the
+continent be remarkable? What if the source of its population be other
+than that which, from the occupants of the nearest portion of the
+continent, we are prepared to expect? In this case, the narrow area of
+an isolated rock assumes an importance which its magnitude would never
+have created.
+
+The nearest part of the opposite continent is German--Cuxhaven, Bremen,
+and Hamburg, being all German towns. And what the towns are the country
+is also--or nearly so. It is German--which Heligoland is _not_.
+
+The Heligolanders are no Germans, but _Frisians_. I have lying before me
+the Heligoland version of _God save the Queen_. A Dutchman would
+understand this, easier than a Low German, a Low German easier than an
+Englishman, and (I _think_) an Englishman easier than a German of
+Bavaria. The same applies to another sample of the Heligoland muse--_the
+contented Heligolander's wife_ (_Dii tofreden Hjelgelünnerin_), a pretty
+little song in Hettema's collection of Frisian poems; with which,
+however, the native literature ends. There is plenty of Frisian verse in
+general; but little enough of the particular Frisian of Heligoland.
+
+A difference like that between the Frisians of Heligoland and the
+Germans of Hanover, is always suggestive of an ethnological alternative;
+since it is a general rule, supported both by induction and common
+sense, that, except under certain modifying circumstances, islands
+derive their inhabitants from the nearest part of the nearest continent.
+When, however, the populations differ, one of two views has to be taken.
+Either some more distant point than the one which geographical proximity
+suggests has supplied the original occupants, or a change has taken
+place on the part of one or both of the populations since the period of
+the original migration.
+
+Which has been the case here? The latter. The present Germans of the
+coast between the Elbe and Weser are not the Germans who peopled
+Heligoland, nor yet the descendants of them. Allied to them they are;
+inasmuch as Germany is a wide country, and German a comprehensive term;
+but they are not the same. The two peoples, though like, are different.
+
+Of what sort, then, were the men and women that the present Germans of
+the Oldenburg and Hanoverian coast have displaced and superseded? Let us
+investigate. Whoever rises from the perusal of those numerous notices of
+the ancient Germans which we find in the classical writers, to the usual
+tour of Rhenish Germany, will find a notable contrast between the
+natives of that region as they _were_ and as they _are_. His mind may be
+full of their _golden_ hair, expecting to find it _flaxen_ at least.
+Blue and grey eyes, too, he will expect to preponderate over the black
+and hazel. This is what he will have read about, and what he will _not_
+find--at least along the routine lines of travel. As little will there
+be of massive muscularity in the limbs, and height in the stature. Has
+the type changed, or have the old records been inaccurate? Has the wrong
+part of Germany been described? or has the contrast between the Goth and
+the Italian engendered an exaggeration of the differences? It is no part
+of the present treatise to enter upon this question. It is enough to
+indicate the difference between the actual German of the greater part of
+Germany in respect to the colour of his hair, eyes, and skin, and the
+epithets of the classical writers.
+
+But all is not bare from Dan to Beersheba. The German of the old
+Germanic type is to be found if sought for. His locality, however, is
+away from the more frequented parts of his country. Still it is the part
+which Tacitus knew best, and which he more especially described. This is
+the parts on the Lower rather than the Upper Rhine; and it is the parts
+about the Ems and Weser rather than those of the Rhine at all--sacred as
+is this latter stream to the patriotism of the Prussian and Suabian. It
+is Lower rather than Upper Germany, Holland rather than Germany at all,
+and Friesland rather than any of the other Dutch provinces. It is
+Westphalia, and Oldenburg, as much, perhaps, as Friesland. The tract
+thus identified extends far into the Cimbric Peninsula,--so that the
+Jutlander, though a Dane in tongue, is a Low German in appearance.
+
+The preceding observations are by no means the present writer's, who has
+no wish to be responsible for the apparent paradox that the _Germans in
+Germany are not Germanic_. It is little more than a repetition of one of
+Prichard's,[1] in which he is supported by both Niebuhr and the
+Chevalier Bunsen. The former expressly states that the yellow or red
+hair, blue eyes, and light complexion has now become uncommon, whilst
+the latter has "often looked in vain for the auburn or golden locks and
+the light cerulean eyes of the old Germans, and never verified the
+picture given by the ancients of his countrymen, till he visited
+Scandinavia; there he found himself surrounded by the Germans of
+Tacitus."
+
+For _Scandinavia_, I would simply substitute the _fen districts of
+Friesland, Oldenburg, Hanover, and Holstein_--all of them the old area
+of the Frisian.
+
+Such is the physiognomy. What are the other peculiarities of the
+Frisian? His language, his distribution, his history.
+
+The Frisian of Friesland, is not the Dutch of Holland; nor yet a mere
+provincial dialect of it. Instead of the infinitive moods and plural
+numbers ending in -_n_ as in Holland, the former end in -_a_, the latter
+in -_ar_. And so they did when the language was first reduced to
+writing,--which it has been for nearly a thousand years. So they did
+when the laws of the Old Frisian republic were composed, and when the
+so-called _Old_ Frisian was the language of the country. So they did in
+the sixteenth century, when the popular poet, Gysbert Japicx, wrote in
+the _Middle_ Frisian; and so they do now--when, under the auspices of
+Postumus and Hettema, we have Frisian translations of Shakespeare's "As
+You Like it," "Julius Cæsar," and "Cymbeline."
+
+Now the oldest Frisian is older than the oldest Dutch; in other words,
+of the two languages it was the former which was first reduced to
+writing. Yet the doctrine that it is the mother-tongue of the Dutch, is
+as inaccurate as the opposite notion of its being a mere provincial
+dialect. I state this, because I doubt whether the Dutch forms in -_n_,
+could well be evolved out of the Frisian in -_r_, or -_a_. The -_n_
+belongs to the older form,--which at one time was common to both
+languages, but which in the Frisian became omitted as early as the tenth
+century; whereas, in the Dutch, it remains up to the present day.
+
+If the Frisian differ from the Dutch, it differs still more from the
+proper Low German dialects of Westphalia, Oldenburg, and Holstein; all
+of which have the differential characteristics of the Dutch in a greater
+degree than the Dutch itself.
+
+The closest likeness to the Frisian has ceased to exist as a language.
+It has disappeared on the Continent. It has changed in the island which
+adopted it. That island is Great Britain.
+
+No existing nation, as tested by its language, is so near the Angle of
+England as the Frisian of Friesland. This, to the Englishman, is the
+great element of its interest.
+
+The history of the Frisian Germans must begin with their present
+distribution. They constitute the present agricultural population of the
+province of Friesland; so that if Dutch be the language of the towns, it
+is Frisian which we find in the villages and lone farm-houses. And this
+is the case with that remarkable series of islands which runs like a row
+of breakwaters from the Helder to the Weser, and serves as a front to
+the continent behind them. Such are Ameland, Terschelling, Wangeroog,
+and the others--each with its dialect or sub-dialect.
+
+But beyond this, the continuity of the range of language is broken.
+Frisian is _not_ the present dialect of Groningen. Nor yet of Oldenburg
+generally--though in one or two of the fenniest villages of that duchy a
+remnant of it still continues to be spoken; and is known to philologists
+and antiquarians as the _Saterland_ dialect.
+
+It was spoken in parts of East Friesland as late as the middle of the
+last century--but only in parts; the Low German, or Platt-Deutsch, being
+the current tongue of the districts around.
+
+It is spoken--as already stated--in Heligoland.
+
+And, lastly, it is spoken in an isolated locality as far north as the
+Duchy of Sleswick, in the neighbourhood of Husum and Bredsted.
+
+It was these Frisians of Sleswick who alone, during the late struggle of
+Denmark against Germany, looked upon the contest with the same
+indifference as the frogs viewed the battles of the oxen. They were not
+Germans to favour the aggressors from the South, nor Danes to feel the
+patriotism of the Northmen. They were neither one nor the other--simply
+Frisians, members of an isolated and disconnected brotherhood.
+
+The epithet _free_ originated with the Frisians of Friesland Proper, and
+it has adhered to them. With their language they have preserved many of
+their old laws and privileges, and from first to last, have always
+contrived that the authority of the sovereigns of the Netherlands should
+sit lightly on them.
+
+Nevertheless, they are a broken and disjointed population; inasmuch, as
+the natural inference from their present distribution is the doctrine
+that, at some earlier period, they were spread over the whole of the
+sea-coast from Holland to Jutland, in other words, that they were the
+oldest inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower Hanover, and Holstein.
+If so, they must have been the _Frisii_ of Tacitus. No one doubts this.
+They must also have been the _Chauci_ of that writer, the German form of
+whose names, as we know from the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems, was _Hocing_.
+This is not so universally admitted; nevertheless, it is difficult to
+say who the Chauci were if they were not Frisians, or why we find
+Frisians to the north of the Elbe, unless the population was at one time
+continuous.
+
+When was this continuity disturbed? From the earliest times the
+sea-coast of Germany seems to have been Frisian, and from the earliest
+times the tribes of the interior seem to have moved from the inland
+country towards the sea. Their faces were turned towards Britain; or, if
+not towards Britain, towards France, or the Baltic. I believe, then,
+that as early as 100 B.C. the displacement of some of the occupants of
+the Frisian area had begun; this being an inference from the statement
+of Cæsar, that the Batavians of Holland were, in his own time,
+considered to have been an immigrant population. From these Batavians
+have come the present Dutch, and as the present Dutch differ from the
+Frisians of A.D. 1851, so did their respective great ancestors in B.C.
+100--there, or thereabouts. But the encroachment of the Dutch upon the
+Frisian was but slow. The map tells us this. Just as in some parts of
+Great Britain we have _Shiptons_ and _Charltons_, whereas in others the
+form is _Skipton_ and _Carlton_; just as in Scotland they talk of the
+_kirk_, and in England of the _church_;[2] and just as such differences
+are explained by the difference of dialect on the part of the original
+occupants, so do we see in Holland that certain places have the names in
+a Dutch, and others in a Frisian form. The Dutch compounds of _man_ are
+like the English, and end in -_n_. The Frisians never end so. They drop
+the consonant, and end in -_a_; as _Hettema_, _Halberts-ma_, &c.
+Again--all three languages--English, Dutch, and Frisian--have numerous
+compounds of the word _hám_=_home_, as _Threekingham_, _Eastham_,
+_Petersham_, &c. In English the form is what we have just seen. In
+Holland the termination is -_hem_, as in _Arn-hem_, _Berg-hem_. In
+Frisian the vowel is _u_, and the _h_ is omitted altogether, _e.g._,
+_Dokk-um_, _Borst-um_, &c.
+
+Bearing this in mind, we may take up a map of the Netherlands. Nine
+places out of ten in Friesland end in -_um_, and none in -_hem_. In
+Groningen the proportion is less; and in Guelderland and Overijssel, it
+is less still. Nevertheless, as far south as the Maas, and in parts of
+the true Dutch Netherlands, where no approach to the Frisian language
+can now be discovered, a certain per-centage of Frisian forms for
+geographical localities occurs.[3]
+
+The remainder of the displacement of the Frisians was, most probably,
+effected by the introduction of the Low Germans of the empire of
+Charlemagne, into the present countries of Oldenburg and Hanover; and I
+believe that the same series of conquests, which then broke up the
+speakers of the Frisian, annihilated the Germanic representatives of the
+Anglo-Saxons of England; since it is an undeniable fact that of the
+numerous dialects of the country called Lower Saxony, all (with the
+exception of the Frisian) are forms of the Platt-Deutsch, and none of
+them descendants of the Anglo-Saxon. Hence, as far as the language
+represents the descent, whatever we Anglo-Saxons may be in Great
+Britain, America, Hindostan, Australia, New Zealand, or Africa, we are
+the least of our kith and kin in Germany. And we can afford to be so.
+Otherwise, if we were a petty people, and given to ethnological
+sentimentality, we might talk about the Franks of Charlemagne, as the
+Celts talk of us; for, without doubt, the same Franks either
+exterminated or denationalized us in the land of our birth, and
+displaced the language of Alfred and Ælfric in the country upon which it
+first reflected a literature.
+
+There are no absolute descendants of the ancestors of the English in
+their ancestral country of Germany; the Germans that eliminated them
+being but step-brothers at best. But there is something of the sort. The
+conquest that destroyed the Angles, broke up the Frisians. Each shared
+each other's ruin. This gives the common bond of misfortune. But there
+is more than this. It is quite safe to say that the Saxons and
+Frisians[4] were closely--_very_ closely--connected in respect to all
+the great elements of ethnological affinity--language, traditions,
+geographical position, history. Nor is this confined to mere
+generalities. The opinion, first, I believe, indicated by Archbishop
+Usher, and recommended to further consideration by Mr. Kemble, that the
+Frisians took an important part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Great
+Britain is gaining ground. True, indeed, it is that the current texts
+from Beda and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle make no mention of them. They
+speak only of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. And true it is, that no
+provincial dialect has been discovered in England which stands in the
+same contrast to the languages of the parts about it, as the Frisian
+does to the Dutch and Low German. Yet it is also true that, according to
+some traditions, Hengist was a Frisian hero. And it is equally true
+that, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, we find more than one incidental
+mention of Frisians in England--their presence being noticed as a matter
+of course, and without any reference to their introduction. This is
+shown in the following extract:--"That same year, the armies from among
+the East-Anglians, and from among the North-Humbrians, harassed the land
+of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all by their _æscs_, which they had
+built many years before. Then King Alfred commanded long ships to be
+built to oppose the æscs; they were full-nigh twice as long as the
+others; some had sixty oars, and some had more; they were both swifter
+and steadier, and also higher than the others. They were shapen neither
+like the Frisian nor the Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they
+would be most efficient. Then some time in the same year, there came six
+ships to Wight, and there did much harm, as well as in Devon, and
+elsewhere along the sea-coast. Then the king commanded nine of the new
+ships to go thither, and they obstructed their passage from the port
+towards the outer sea. Then went they with three of their ships out
+against them; and three lay in the upper part of the port in the dry;
+the men were gone from them ashore. Then took they two of the three
+ships at the outer part of the port, and killed the men, and the other
+ship escaped; in that also the men were killed except five; they got
+away because the other ships were aground. They also were aground very
+disadvantageously, three lay aground on that side of the deep on which
+the Danish ships were aground, and all the rest upon the other side, so
+that no one of them could get to the others. But when the water had
+ebbed many furlongs from the ships, the Danish men went from their three
+ships to the other three which were left by the tide on their side, and
+then they there fought against them. There was slain Lucumon the king's
+reeve, and Wulfheard the Frisian, and Æbbe the Frisian, and Æthelhere
+the Frisian, and Æthelferth the king's _geneat_, and of all the men,
+Frisians and English, seventy-two; and of the Danish men one hundred and
+twenty."
+
+Lastly, we have the evidence of Procopius that "three numerous nations
+inhabit Britain,--the Angles, the Frisians, and the Britons."[5]
+
+Whatever interpretation we may put upon the preceding extracts, it is
+certain that the Frisians are the nearest German representatives of our
+Germanic ancestors; whilst it is not uninteresting to find that the
+little island of Heligoland, is the only part of the British Empire
+where the ethnological and political relations coincide.
+
+_Gibraltar._--This isolated possession serves as a text for the
+ethnology of Spain; and there is no country wherein the investigation is
+more difficult.
+
+It is difficult, if we look at the analysis of the present population,
+and attempt to ascertain the proportion of its different ingredients.
+There is Moorish blood, and there is Gothic, Roman, and Phœnician; some
+little Greek, and, older than any, the primitive and original Iberic.
+Perhaps, too, there is a Celtic element,--at least such is the inference
+from the term _Celtiberian_. Yet it is doubtful whether it be a true
+one; and, even if it be, there still stands over the question whether
+the _Celtic_ or the _Iberic_ element be the older.
+
+When this is settled, the hardest problem of all remains behind; _viz._,
+the ethnological position of the Iberians. What they were, in
+themselves, we partially know from history; and what their descendants
+are we know also from their language. But we only know them as an
+isolated branch of the human species. Their _relation_ to the
+neighbouring families is a mystery. Reasons may be given for connecting
+them with the Celts of Gaul; reasons for connecting them with the
+Africans of the other side of the Straits; and reasons for connecting
+them with tribes and families so distant in place, and so different in
+manners as the Finns of Finland, and the Laps of Lapland. Nay
+more,--affinities have been found between their language and the Hebrew,
+Arabic, and Syriac; between it and the Georgian; between it and half the
+tongues of the Old World. Even in the forms of speech of America,
+_analogies_ have been either found or fancied.
+
+Be this, however, as it may, the oldest inhabitants of the Spanish
+peninsula were the different tribes of the Iberians proper, and the
+Celtiberians; the first being the most easily disposed of. They it was,
+whose country was partially colonized by Phœnician colonists; either
+directly from Tyre and Sidon, or indirectly from Carthage. They it was
+who, at a somewhat later period, came in contact with the Greeks of
+Marseilles and their own town of _Emporia_. They it was who could not
+fail to receive some intermixture of African blood; whether it were from
+Africans crossing over on their own account, or from the Libyans,
+Gætulians, and Mauritanians of the Carthaginian levies.
+
+And now the great western peninsula becomes the battle-ground for Rome
+and Carthage; the theatre of the Scipios on the one side, and the great
+family of the Barcas on the other. On Iberian ground does Hannibal swear
+his deadly and undying enmity to Rome. At this time, the numerous
+primitive tribes of Spain may boast a civilization equal to that of the
+most favoured spots of the earth,--Greece, and the parts between the
+Nile, the Euphrates and the Mediterranean alone being excepted. As
+tested by their agricultural mode of life, their commercial and mining
+industry, their susceptibility of discipline as soldiers, and, above
+all, by the size and number of their cities, the Iberian of Spain is on
+the same level with the Celt of Gaul, and the Celt of Gaul on that of
+the Italian of Italy,--_i.e._, _as far as the civilization of the latter
+is his own, and not of Greek origin_. But this is a point of European
+rather than Spanish ethnology.
+
+That the obstinate spirit of resistance to organized armies by means of
+a _guerilla_ warfare, the savage patriotism which suggests such
+expressions as _war even to the knife_, and the endurance behind stone
+walls, which characterizes the modern Spaniards, is foreshadowed in the
+times of their earliest history, has often been remarked, and that
+truly. Numantia is an early Saragossa, Saragossa a modern Numantia.
+Viriathus has had innumerable counterparts. Where the indomitable
+Cantabrian held out against the power of Rome, the Biscayan of the year
+1851 adheres to his privileges and his language; and what the Cantabrian
+was to the Roman, the Asturian was to the Moor. Both trusted their
+freedom to their impracticable mountains and stubborn spirits--and kept
+it accordingly. It is an easy matter to refer the peculiarities of the
+Spanish character to the infusion of Oriental blood; and with some of
+them it may be the case. But with many of them, the reference is a false
+one. Half the Spanish character was Iberic and Lusitanian before either
+Jew or Saracen had seen the Rock of Gibraltar.
+
+Of the early Spanish religion, we know but little. A remarkable passage
+in Strabo speaks to their literature. They had an _alphabet_. This is
+known from coins and inscriptions. And it was of foreign origin--Greek
+or Phœnician. This nothing but the most inconsiderate and uncritical
+patriotism can deny. Denied, however, it has been; and the indigenous
+and independent evolution of an alphabet has been claimed; the
+particular tribe to which it has more especially been ascribed being the
+_Turdetani_. These--and the passage I am about to quote is the passage
+of Strabo just alluded to--are "put forward as the wisest of the Iberi,
+and they have the use of letters; and they have records of ancient
+history, and poems, and metrical laws for six thousand years--as they
+say."[6]
+
+Now, whatever may be the doubts implied by the last three words of this
+extract, the evidence is to the effect that the old Iberians were a
+lettered nation; the antiquity of their civilization being another
+question. To modify our scepticism on the point, the text has been
+tampered with, and it has been proposed to read _poems_ (ἐπῶν) instead
+of years (ἐτῶν). The change, to be sure, is slight enough--that of a
+single letter--from _p_ (π) to _t_ (τ); nevertheless, as it is more than
+cautious criticism will allow, the reading must stand as it is, and the
+claim of the Turdetanians must be for a literature nearly as old as the
+supposed age of the world in the current century,--a long date, and a
+date which would be improbable, even if we divided it by twelve, and
+rendered ἔτος by _month_ instead of _year_. It denotes either some
+shorter period (perhaps a day) or nothing at all.
+
+So much for the Iberians; of which the Lusitanians of Portugal were a
+branch; and of which there were several divisions and subdivisions
+involving considerable varieties both of manners and language. In
+respect to the latter there is the special evidence of Strabo that their
+tongues and alphabets differed. And so did their mythologies. The
+Callaici had the reputation of being _atheists_; whilst the Celtiberi
+worshipped an anonymous God,[7] at the full of the moon, with feasts and
+dances.
+
+But who were the Celtiberi? I have already said that there were
+difficulties upon this point. The name makes them a mixed people; half
+Celt and half Iberic. If so, the French influence in the Spanish
+Peninsula was as great in the time of Hannibal, as it was wished to be
+in the time of Louis XIV.
+
+With the exception of Niebuhr, the chief authorities have considered the
+Iberi as the aborigines, and the Celts as emigrants from Gaul. To this,
+however, Niebuhr took exceptions. He considered the warlike character of
+the Iberians; and this made him unwilling to think that any invader from
+the north had displaced them. And he considered the geographical
+_distribution_ of the Celtiberi. This was not in the fertile plains nor
+along the banks of fertilizing rivers, nor yet in the districts of the
+golden corn and the precious wool of Hispania, but in the rougher
+mountain tracts, in the quarters whereto an aboriginal inhabitant would
+be more likely to retire, than an invading conqueror to covet, I admit
+the difficulty implied in his objection; but I admit it only as a
+_presumption_--against which there is a decided preponderance of
+material facts.
+
+In the first place, there are the oldest names of the geographical
+localities throughout Spain. These, as shown by the well-known monograph
+of Humboldt, are _not_ Celtic, and are _Iberic_.
+
+In the next place, the Celtic frontier was by no means so near the
+geographical boundary of the Peninsula as it is often supposed to have
+been. Instead of the Celtic of Gaul reaching the Pyrenees, the Iberic of
+Spain reached the Loire--so that the province of Aquitania, although
+Gallic in politics, was Iberic in ethnology. This, again, is shown by
+Humboldt.
+
+For my own part, instead of discussing the relation of the Celts of
+Celtiberia to the other inhabitants of Spain, I would open a new
+question, and investigate the grounds upon which we believe in an
+intermixture at all. Whatever respect we may pay to the statements of
+the classical writers, the _name_ itself is not conclusive; since it
+would be just as likely to be given from an approach on the part of an
+Iberic population to the Celtic manners, or from the adoption of any
+_supposed_ Celtic characteristic, as from absolute ethnological
+intermixture. Like modern observers, the ancient writers were too fond
+of gratuitously assuming an intermixture of blood for the explanation
+of the results of common physical or social conditions. Hence--without
+pressing my opinion on the reader--I confine myself to an expression of
+doubt as to the existence of Celts amongst the Celtiberi _at all_.
+
+But this only simplifies the question as to the ethnological position of
+the Iberic variety of the human species. It does not even suggest an
+answer. They were the aborigines of Spain. They are the ancestors of the
+present Biscayans. Their tongue survives in the north-west provinces of
+Spain, and in the north-east corner of France. It _has no recognized
+affinity with any known tongue; and it has undeniable points of contrast
+with all the languages of the countries around._
+
+Yet it is only by means of the Basque language that the problem can be
+attempted. The physical conformation of the still extant Iberians, has
+nothing definitely characteristic about it. The ancient mythology has
+died away. The tribes most immediately allied have ceased to be other
+than unmixed. So the language alone remains--and that has yet to find
+its interpreter.
+
+An Iberic basis--Greek, Phœnician, and Mauritanian intermixtures--possibly
+a Celtic element--Roman sufficient to change the language through
+four-fifths of the Peninsula--Gothic blood introduced by the followers
+of Euric--Arabian influences, second in importance to those of Rome
+only--such is the analysis of ethnological elements of the Spanish
+stock. The proportions, of course, differ in different parts of the
+Peninsula, and, although they are nowhere ascertained, it is reasonable
+to suppose that the Arab blood increases as we go southwards, and the
+Gothic and Iberic as we approach the Pyrenees. This makes Gibraltar the
+most Moorish part of Europe; and such I believe it to be.
+
+_Malta._--When we have subtracted the English, Italians, Greeks, and
+other nations of the Levant from the population of Malta, there still
+remain the primitive islanders, with their peculiar language.
+
+Now this language is a form of the Arabic; and, with the exception of
+some of the dialects of Syria, it is the only instance of that language
+in the mouth of a Christian population. So thoroughly are the language
+and the religion of the Koran co-extensive.
+
+At what period this tongue found its way to Malta is undetermined. As
+compared with any of the present languages of the island it is
+_ancient_. But it is not certain that, though old, it is the earliest.
+Carthaginians may have preceded the Arabs; Greeks the Carthaginians;
+and, possibly, Sicanians, or the earliest occupants of Sicily, the
+Greeks. I am unable, however, to carry my reader beyond the simple fact
+of the _language being Arabic_.
+
+The only other Arabic dependency of Great Britain is Aden.[8]
+
+_The Ionian Islands._--The reader may have remarked the peculiar
+character of European ethnology. It consists chiefly in the _analysis_
+of the component parts of particular populations; and this it
+investigates so exclusively as to leave no room for the description of
+manners, customs, physiognomy, and the like--paramount in importance as
+these matters are when we come to the other quarters of the world. There
+are two reasons for this difference. First--the peculiarities of the
+European nations are by no means of the same extent and character with
+those of the ruder families of mankind. A similar civilization, and a
+similar religion, have effected a remarkable amount of uniformity; and,
+hence, the differences are those that the historian deals with more
+appropriately than the ethnologist. Secondly--such external and palpable
+differences as exist are generally known and appreciated. The
+_analysis_ of blood, or stock, which, partially, accounts for them, is
+less completely understood.
+
+Hence, in treating of the Maltese, there was no description of the
+Arabic stock at all. All that was stated was a reason for believing that
+the Maltese belonged to it. Such also, to a great degree, was the case
+with the Gibraltar population, and the Heligolanders. And such will be
+the case with the Ionian Islanders. It will not be thought necessary to
+enlarge upon the Greeks; it will only be requisite to ask how far the
+group in question is Grecian.
+
+The very oldest population of the Ionian Islands I believe to have been
+_barbarous_--a term which, in the present classical localities, is
+convenient.
+
+In the smaller islands, such as Ithaca and Zacynthus, the population had
+become Hellenized at the time of the composition of the Homeric poems.
+In Corcyra, on the other hand, the original barbarism lasted longer.
+Such, at least, is the way in which I interpret the passages in the
+Odyssey concerning the Phæacians (who were certainly not Greek), and the
+later language of Thucydides respecting the relations of the Corinthian
+colonies of Epidamnus, and Corcyra. The whole context leads to the
+belief that, originally, the ἄποικοι were Greeks in contact with a
+population which was _not_ Greek.
+
+In respect to the stock to which these early and ante-Hellenic
+islanders belonged, the presumption is in favour of its having been the
+Illyrian; a stock known only in its probable remains--the Skipitar
+(Albanians, or Arnaouts) of Albania.
+
+Time, however, made them all equally Hellenic, a result which was,
+probably, completed before the decline of Greek independence; since
+which epoch there have been the following elements of intermixture:--
+
+1. Albanian blood, from the opposite coast.
+
+2. Slavonic, from Dalmatia.
+
+3. Italian, from Italy.
+
+4. Turk--I have no pretence to the minute ethnological knowledge which
+would enable me even to guess at the proportions.
+
+Upon the whole, however, I believe the Ionian islanders to be what their
+language represents them--Greek. At the same time they are Greeks of an
+exceedingly mixed blood.[9]
+
+Again--of the foreign elements I imagine the Italian to be the chief.
+This, however, is an impression rather than a matured opinion.
+
+The Slavonic element, too, is likely to be considerable. The Byzantine
+historians speak of numerous and permanent settlements, during the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, both in Thessaly, and in the Morea;
+statements which the frequency of Slavonic names for Greek geographical
+localities confirms.[10] Neither, however, outweighs the undoubted
+Hellenic character of the language, which is still the representative of
+the great medium of the fathers of literature and philosophy.
+
+_The Channel Islands._--As Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, are no
+parts of Great Britain, and are, nevertheless, European, I make a brief
+mention of them; although they are neither colonies nor dependencies:
+indeed, in strict history, Great Britain is a dependency of theirs.
+
+They are _Norman_ rather than _French_, and the illustration of this
+distinction, which will re-appear when we come to the Canadas--concludes
+the chapter.
+
+The _earliest_ population of France was twofold--Celtic for the north,
+Iberic for the south.
+
+Its _second_ population was Roman.
+
+Its language is Roman--all that remains of the old tongues of the tribes
+which Cæsar conquered being (1) certain words in the present French,
+(2) the Breton of Brittany, which is closely akin to the Welsh Celtic,
+and (3) the Basque dialects of Gascony, which is Iberic.
+
+Now whether the old Gallic blood be as fully displaced by that of the
+Roman conquerors, as the old Gallic language has been displaced by the
+Latin is uncertain. It is only certain that the old and indigenous
+elements of the French nation, however indeterminate in amount--were not
+of a uniform character, _i.e._, neither wholly Celtic, nor wholly
+Iberic; but Celtic for one part of the country, and Iberic for another.
+
+The ancient tribes of Normandy were _Celtic_. Hence, when the third
+element of the present Norman population was introduced, all that was
+not Italian was Welsh--just as it was in Picardy and Orleans, and just
+as it was _not_ in Gascony and Poitou. _There_ the old element was
+Iberic.
+
+The _third element_--just alluded to--was Germanic; Germanic of
+different kinds, but chiefly Frank or Burgundian.
+
+The _fourth_ great element was the Norse or Scandinavian; introduced by
+the so-called _Sea-kings_ of Denmark and Norway in the ninth and tenth
+centuries. These, as the empire of Charlemagne declined, insulted and
+dismembered it. They converted Neustria in _Normandy_=_the country of
+the Northmen_. The exact amount of their influence has not been
+ascertained; nor is the investigation easy. The process, however, by
+which we measured the original extent of the Frisian area is applicable
+to that of the Northmen. There are Norse names for French localities. Of
+these the most important are the compounds of -_tot_, -_fleur_, and
+-_bec_; like Yve-_tot_, Har-_fleur_, and Caude-_bec_.
+
+ FRENCH.    NORSE.    ENGLISH.
+
+  -tot       toft     _village_.
+  -fleur     flöt     _stream_.
+  -bec       beck     _brook_.[11]
+
+Names of places thus ending are almost exclusively limited to Normandy;
+occurring, even there, most numerously within a few miles of either the
+sea or the Seine.
+
+Furthermore, there is a fresh element suggested by a term of the
+"Notitia Utriusque Imperii," a document of the latter end of the fourth
+century. This is _Litus Saxonicum per Britannias_, a tract extending
+from the Wash to Portsmouth. Now the opposite shore of the continent was
+a _litus Saxonicum_ also; within which lay Normandy. I believe that
+these Saxons were part of the same branch of Germans which invaded
+England; in other words, that portions of France, like portions of
+England, were _Anglicized_; the two processes differing in respect to
+their extent and duration. What was general and permanent on the
+island, was partial and temporary on the continent. That there were
+Saxons at Bayeux in the tenth century is asserted by express evidence.
+
+Taking in the account the preceding invasions, and remembering that,
+both from Germany and Italy, Normandy is one of the most distant of the
+French provinces, we arrive at the following analysis.
+
+The Channel Islanders are what the Normans are.
+
+The Normans are Romanized Celts; the Roman element being somewhat less
+than it is elsewhere.
+
+The Frank and Burgundian elements are also less.
+
+But a Saxon element is greater.
+
+And a Norse element is pre-eminently Norman.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] "Natural History of Man," p. 197.
+
+[2] The form in _c_ and _sk_ (_Skipton_ and _Carlton_) being of Danish,
+whilst those in _ch_ and _sh_ are of Anglo-Saxon origin.--_See_
+"Quarterly Review," No. CLXIV.
+
+[3] The details of this investigation are given in full in the present
+writer's "Taciti Germania with Ethnological notes," now in course of
+publication.
+
+[4] I include in this term the so-called old Saxons of Westphalia.
+
+[5] The original passage is as follows:--"Βριττίαν δὲ τὴν νῆσον ἔθνη
+τρία πολυανθρωπότατα ἔχουσι, βασιλεύς τε εἷς αὐτῶν ἑκάστῳ ἐφέστηκεν,
+ὀνόματα δὲ κεῖται τοῖς ἔθνεσι τούτοις Ἀγγίλοι τε καὶ Φρίσσονες καὶ οἱ τῆ
+νήσῳ ὁμώνυμοι Βρίττωνες. Τοσαύτη δὲ ἡ τῶνδε τῶν ἐθνῶν πολυανθρωπία
+φαίνεται οὖσα ὥστε ἀνὰ πᾶν ἔτος κατὰ πολλοὺς ἐνθένδε μετανιστάμενοι ξὺν
+γυναιξὶ καὶ παισὶν ἐς Φράγγους χώρουσιν."--Procop. B. G. iv. 20.
+
+Reasons which have induced me to go farther than any previous writer in
+respect to the importance of the Frisian element in the Anglo-Saxon
+invasion, and to believe that instead of _Saxon_ being a native German
+name for any portion of the Germanic population, it was only a Celtic
+and Roman term for the Germans of the sea-coast, and (amongst these) for
+the Frisians most especially, are given, at large, in my ethnological
+edition of the "Germania of Tacitus."
+
+[6] Σοφώτατοι δ' ἐξεταζονται τῶν Ἰβήρων οὗτοι, καὶ γραμματικῆ χρῶνται·
+καὶ τῆς παλαιᾶς μνήμης ἔχουσι τὰ συγγράμματα, καὶ ποιήματα καὶ νόμους
+ἐμμέτρους ἑξακισχιλίων ἐτῶν, ὥς φασι.
+
+[7] This was probably the case with the Callaici.
+
+[8] The famous Knighthood of Malta--_without fear_, but (though,
+perhaps, the best of its class) not _without reproach_, has no place
+here. Its ethnology belongs to the different countries which it
+dignified by its valour, or dishonoured by its profligacy.
+
+[9] This I believe to have been the case with the ancient Greeks also;
+though the proof would require an elaborate monograph.
+
+[10] The two together have led to a doctrine which has been best
+developed by Fallmerayer. It is this--_that the modern Greeks are
+Sclavonians_. The Russian school are the chief believers of this. In the
+few countries where ethnology is scientific rather than political, the
+more moderate opinion of the modern Greeks being a mixed stock prevails.
+
+[11] Or _beck_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+    THE GAMBIA SETTLEMENTS.--SIERRA LEONE.--THE GOLD COAST.--THE
+    CAPE.--THE MAURITIUS.--THE NEGROES OF AMERICA.
+
+
+_The Gambia._--All our settlements on the Gambia are in the Mandingo
+country.
+
+Of all the true and unequivocal Negroes, the Mandingos are the most
+civilized; the basis of their civilization being Arab, and their
+religion that of the Koran. Hence, they have priests, or Marabouts, the
+use of the Arabic alphabet, and a monotheistic creed.
+
+Of all the Negroes, too, the Mandingos are the most commercial, not as
+mere slave-dealers, but as truly industrial merchants.
+
+Of all the families of the African stock, with the exception of the
+Kaffres, the Mandingo is the most widely spread. It also falls into
+numerous divisions and subdivisions. Hence the term has a twofold power.
+Sometimes it is a generic name for a large group; sometimes the
+designation of a particular section of that group. The Mandingos of the
+Lower Gambia are Mandingos in the restricted meaning of the word.
+
+For the Mandingo tribes, when we use the term in a general sense, the
+most convenient classification is into the _Mahometan_ and the _Pagan_.
+That this division should exist is natural; since, with the exception of
+the Wolofs, the Mandingos are the most northern of all the western
+Negroes, and, consequently, those who are most in contact with the
+Mahometan Arabs, and the equally Mahometan Kabyles of Barbary and the
+Great Desert,--a fact sufficient to account for the monotheistic creeds
+of the northern tribes.
+
+As for the Paganism of the others, we must remember how far southwards
+and inland the same great stock extends--indefinitely towards the
+interior, and as far as the back of the Ashanti country, in the
+direction of the equator.
+
+This prepares us for finding Mandingos at our next settlement.
+
+_Sierra Leone._--The native populations which encircle this settlement
+are two--the _Timmani_ towards the north, and _Bullom_ towards the
+south.
+
+Both are Negroes of the most typical kind, in respect to their physical
+conformation.
+
+Both are Pagans.
+
+Both speak what seem to be mutually unintelligible languages, but which
+have an undoubted relationship to each other, and to the numerous
+Mandingo dialects as well. It is this which induces me to place them in
+the same section with the more civilized Africans of the Gambia.
+
+It is safe to say that they are amongst the rudest members of the stock;
+indeed it is only in the eyes of the etymologist that they are Mandingo
+at all. Practically, they, and several tribes like them, are Mandingo,
+in the way that a wolf is a dog, or a goat a sheep.
+
+The Bullom and Timmani are the frontagers to Sierra Leone; and it was
+with Bullom and Timmani potentates that the land of the settlement was
+bargained for. The settlers themselves are of different origin. Mixed
+beyond all other populations of Africa, the occupants of Free Town are
+in the same category with the Negroes of Jamaica and St. Domingo;
+concerning whom we can only predicate that they have dark skins, and
+that they come from Africa. The analysis of their several origins, and
+their distribution amongst the separate branches of the African family,
+would be one of the most difficult feats in minute ethnology; and this
+would be but a fraction of the investigation. When the several countries
+which supplied the several victims of the slave-trade had been
+ascertained, the complicated question of _intermixture_ would stand
+over; and there we should find lineages of every degree of
+hybridism--children, whose ancestors originated on different sides of
+Africa, themselves the parents of a lighter-coloured offspring, the
+effect of European intercourse.
+
+At present it is sufficient to state that the nucleus of the Free Town
+population consists of what is called the _Maroon_ Negroes. These were
+slaves of Jamaica, who, having recovered their freedom during the
+Spanish dominion in the island, were removed, by the English, in the
+first instance to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to their present locality.
+
+Round this has collected an equally miscellaneous population of rescued
+slaves; and, besides these, there are immigrants, labourers, and
+barterers from all the neighbouring parts of the Continent--Krumen more
+especially.
+
+A writer who, when we come to the Negroes of the Gold Coast, will be
+freely quoted, calls the Krumen the _Scotchmen_ of Africa, since, with
+unusual industry, enterprise, and perseverance, they leave, without
+reluctance, their own country to push their fortunes wherever they can
+find a wider field. They are ready for any employment which may enable
+them to increase their means, and ensure a return to their own country
+in a state of improved prosperity. There the Kruman's ambition is to
+purchase one or two head of cattle, and one or two head of wives, to
+enjoy the luxuries of rum and tobacco, and pass the remainder of his
+days as
+
+    "A gentleman of Africa who sits at home at ease."
+
+Half the Africans that we see in Liverpool are Krumen, who have left
+their own country when young, and taken employment on board a ship,
+where they exhibit a natural aptitude for the sea. Without being nice as
+to the destination of the vessel in which they engage, they return home
+as soon as they can; and rarely or never contract matrimony before their
+return. In Cape Coast Town, as well as in Sierra Leone, they form a
+bachelor community--quiet and orderly; and in that respect stand in
+strong contrast to the other tribes around them. Besides which, with all
+their blackness, and all their typical Negro character, they are
+distinguishable from most other western Africans; having the advantage
+of them in make, features, and industry.
+
+A Kruman is pre-eminently the _free labourer_ of Africa. In the slave
+trade he has engaged less than any of his neighbours, attaches himself
+readily to the whites, and, in his native country, as well as in Sierra
+Leone, Coast Town, and other places of his temporary denizenship, is
+quick of perception and amenable to instruction. His language is the
+_Grebo_ tongue, and it has been reduced to writing by the American
+missionaries of Cape Palmas. It has decided affinities with those of
+the Mandingo tongues to the north, the Fanti dialects of the Gold Coast,
+and, in all probability, still closer ones with those of the Ivory
+coast. These last, however, are but imperfectly known; indeed, a single
+vocabulary of the _Avekvom_ language, in the "American Oriental
+Journal," furnishes nine-tenths of our philological data for the parts
+between Cape Palmas and Cape Apollonia.
+
+The best measure of the heterogeneousness of the Sierra Leone population
+is to be found in Mrs. Kilham's vocabularies. That lady collected, at
+Free Town, specimens of thirty-one African tongues, from Negroes then
+and there resident. Of these--
+
+A. Eight belonged to the Mandingo group, _viz._, Mandingo Proper, Susu,
+Bambara, Kossa, Pessa, Kissi, Bullom, and Timmani.
+
+B. Two were dialects of the Grebo (Kru): the Kru, and the Bassa.
+
+C. Two were Fanti: the Fanti and the Ashanti, closely allied dialects.
+
+D. Two were Dahoman: the Fot, and the Popo.
+
+E. Two Benin: the Benin Proper, and the Moko, languages of a tract but
+little known.
+
+F. One Wolof, from the Senegal.
+
+G. Eight from the parts between the rivers Formosa and Loango, _viz._,
+the Bongo, the Ako, the Ibu, the Rungo, the Akuonga, the Karaba, the
+Uobo, the Kouri.
+
+H. One from the river Kongo, _i.e._, the Kongo properly so-called.
+
+I. Two from the Lower Niger, but, still separated from the coast--the
+Tapua (Nufi) and Appa.
+
+K. Three from the widely-spread nations of the interior--the Fulah, the
+Haussa, and the Bornu.
+
+I do not say that all Mrs. Kilham's specimens represent mutually
+unintelligible tongues; probably they do not. At the same time, as
+several decidedly different languages are omitted, the list understates,
+rather than exaggerates, the number of the divisions and subdivisions of
+the western African populations, as inferred from the divisions and
+subdivisions of the language.
+
+Thus, no samples are given of the--
+
+1. _Sereres._--Pastoral tribes about Cape Verde.
+
+2. _Serawolli._--On the Middle Senegal, different, in many respects,
+from the Sereres, the Wolofs, and the Fulahs; nations with which they
+are in geographical contact.
+
+3. _The Feloops._--Between the Gambia and Cacheo, along the coast.
+
+4. _The Papels._--South of the Cacheo; and also coastmen.
+
+5. _The Balantes._--Coast-men to the south of the Papels.
+
+6. _The Bagnon._--Conterminous with the Feloops of the river Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Bissago._--Fierce occupants of the islands so-called.
+
+8. _The Naloos._--On the Nun and river Grande.
+
+9. _The Sapi._--Conterminous with the Naloo, and like all the preceding
+tribes, from the Feloops downwards, pre-eminently rude, fierce,
+intractable, and imperfectly known.
+
+Southward, the unrepresented languages are equally numerous--especially
+for the Ivory Coast, and for the Delta of the Niger. Of these I shall
+only notice one--the Vey.
+
+The settlement with which the tribes speaking the Vey language is in
+contact is one of which the tongue is English, but not the political
+relations. It is the American free Negro settlement of Liberia.
+
+In the Vey language, it had been known for some time to the American
+missionaries, that there were _written books_, a fact not likely to be
+undervalued by those who felt warmly on the social and civilizational
+prospects of the coloured divisions of our species. One of these books
+was discovered by Lieutenant Forbes, of H.M.S. the Bonetta; local
+inquiry was further made by the Rev. W. S. Koelle; and the MS. was
+critically analyzed by Mr. Norris, of the Asiatic Society.[12]
+
+The phenomenon, if properly measured, is by no means a very significant
+one; since, although the Vey alphabet, the invention of a man now
+living, so far differs from the Mandingo, as to be spelt by the
+_syllable_ rather than the _letter_, it is anything but an independent
+creation of the Negro brain. Doala Bukara, its composer, an imperfect
+Mahometan, had seen Mahometan books, and, although he was no Christian,
+had seen an English Bible also. He knew, then, what spelling or writing
+was. He knew, too, the phonetic analysis of the Mandingo, a tongue
+closely allied to his own. And this is nine parts out of ten in the
+so-called invention of alphabets.
+
+The true claims of Doala, in this way, are those of the phonetic
+reformers in England, as compared with those of Toth or Cadmus--real but
+moderate. His own account of the matter, as he gave it to Mr. Koelle,
+was, that the fact of sounds being _written_, haunted him in a dream,
+wherein he was shown a series of signs adapted to his native tongue.
+These he forgot in the morning; but remembered the impression. So he
+consulted his friends; and they and he, laying their heads together,
+coined new ones. The king of the country made its introduction a matter
+of state, and built a large house in Dshondu, as a day-school. But a
+war with the Guru people disturbed both the learners and teachers, so
+that the latter removed to Bandakoro, where all grown-up people, of both
+sexes, can now read and write.
+
+This alphabet is a _syllabarium_.
+
+The books written in it are essentially Mahometan; the Koran appearing
+in them much in the same way as the Bible appears in the more degenerate
+legends of the middle ages.
+
+How far the Vey alphabet will be an instrument of civilization, is a
+difficult question. For my own part, I half regret its evolution; since
+the Arabic that served for the Mandingo, would have served for the Vey
+as well--or if not the Arabic, the English.
+
+As a measure of African capacity it is of some value; and in this
+respect, it speaks for the Negro just as the Cherokee alphabet speaks
+for the American Indian. This latter was invented by a native named
+Sequoyah. Like Doala, he knew what reading was. Like Doala, too, he had
+a language adapted to a _syllabarium_. Hence, both the Vey and the
+Cherokee, the two latest coinages in the way of alphabets, are both
+syllabic.
+
+We now move southwards to the--
+
+_Gold Coast Settlements._--The climate of Western Africa requires
+notice. It suits the native, but destroys the European. Of the two
+settlements, already mentioned, the Gambia is the most deadly; though
+Sierra Leone has the worst name. _Both_ are on the coast; both,
+consequently, on the lower courses of the rivers, and both on low
+levels. The import of these remarks applies to the Negroes of America.
+At present, it ushers in a brief notice of the climate of the Gold
+Coast; this district being chosen for the purpose of description because
+it makes the nearest approach to the equator of any English settlement
+in Africa. Consequently, it may serve as a typical sample of the
+malarious parts of the coast in question.
+
+From April till August is the rainy season, which gradually passes into
+the dry; heavy fogs forming during the transition. These last till the
+end of September. Occasional showers, too, continue till November. Then
+the weather becomes really clear and dry, until, towards the end of
+January, the dry parching wind, called the Harmattan, sets in, with its
+over-stimulant action upon the human system, and clouds of penetrating
+impalpable sand. If this is not blowing, the atmosphere is loaded with
+moisture; and this it is, combined with the heat of an intertropical
+sun, and the effluvia engendered by the decay of an over-luxuriant
+vegetation, which makes Western Africa the white man's grave. Not that
+the soil, even on the coast, is always swampy and alluvial. About Cape
+Coast it is rocky and undulating. Still, it is inordinately wooded, as
+well as full of spots where water accumulates and exhalations multiply.
+Yet the thermometer ranges between 78° and 86° Fahrenheit--a low
+_maximum_ for the neighbourhood of the equator; a high one, however, to
+feel cold in. Nevertheless, such is the case. "From this peculiarity of
+the atmosphere, the sensations of an individual almost invariably
+indicate a degree of _cold_, especially when sitting in a room, or not
+taking bodily exercise; so that, to ensure a feeling of comfortable
+warmth, it becomes necessary to dress in a thicker material than what is
+usually considered best adapted for tropical wear, and to have a fire
+lighted in one's bedroom for some time before one retires to rest."[13]
+
+The chief Africans of these parts--and we now approach the great
+_officina servorum_--alone tolerant of the heats, and droughts, and
+rains, and exhalations are--
+
+1. The Fantis.
+
+2. The Ghans.
+
+3. The Avekvom (?)
+
+A. _The Fantis._--Of the true natives of the country these are the
+chief.
+
+The term _Fanti_, like the term _Mandingo_, has a double sense--a
+general and a specific signification.
+
+The particular population of the parts about Cape Coast is Fanti in the
+limited sense of the term.
+
+The great section of the Negro family, which comprises, besides the
+Fantis Proper, the Ashanti, Boroom, and several other populations, is
+_Fanti_ in the wide sense of the term.
+
+The Fanti, Ashanti, and Boroom forms of speech are merely dialects of
+one and the same language.
+
+A great proportion of the vocabularies of "Bowdich's Ashanti" are the
+same.
+
+So are the Fetu, Affotoo, and other vocabularies of the "Mithridates."
+
+The inhabitants of the Native Town of Cape Coast, a mixed population of
+Krumen, Fantis, and Mulattoes, amounting to as many as 10,000, are no
+true specimens of the African of the Gold Coast. European influences
+have too long been at work on them. Before the town was English it was
+Dutch; and it was English as early as 1661.
+
+More than this. It is not certain that their fathers' fathers were the
+_exact_ aborigines; in other words, a tribe akin to, but slightly
+different from them, seems to have been the earlier possessors. These
+were the Fetu--the remains of which can doubtless be met with among the
+populations of the neighbourhood; since we find in the "Mithridates" a
+_Fetu_ vocabulary and an _Affotoo_ one as well.
+
+Now the Fantis that thus displaced the Fetu, were themselves fugitives
+from the conquering Ashantis; all, however, being the members of one
+stock, and the pressure being from the highlands of the interior towards
+the lowlands of the coast.
+
+All three are truly Negro in conformation, and miserably Pagan in creed,
+the best measure of their political capacity being the organized kingdom
+of the Ashantis; and the lowest form of it, the system of clanships,
+chieftainships, or captainships of the proper Fantis of the coast. The
+details of these are of importance.
+
+I cannot ascertain upon what principle those different divisions which
+are sometimes called _tribes_, sometimes _clans_, are formed; since it
+is by no means safe to assume that they necessarily consist of
+descendants from one common ancestor. The investigations concerning the
+_tribes_ of ancient Rome show this.
+
+It is easier to enumerate their external characteristics, and material
+elements of their union. In the Native Town there are four quarters,
+each occupied by a separate section of the population. This section has
+its own proper head, its own proper standards, and its own proper band
+of music.
+
+What follows seems to apply to the rude state of society in the country
+around. Each division has its badge or device; so that we have the
+tribe, or clan, of the leopard, the cat, the dog, the hawk, the parrot,
+&c. On certain days there are certain festivals and processions, when
+the chief is carried in a long basket on the heads of two men, with
+umbrellas above him, and attendants around proportionate to his rank.
+When in distress, the Fanti has a claim upon the good offices of his
+tribe.
+
+When a Fanti government becomes extensive enough to require
+organization, we find absolute monarchs with satraps (caboceers) under
+them; under these the heads of the different villages or towns, and
+under these captains of hundreds, fifties, and tens--an organization
+which is, perhaps, of military rather than social origin. The Ashanti
+kingdom gives us the best measure of extent to which a branch of the
+Fanti stock has developed itself into a political influence. As for the
+_Constitution_, it is a simple and unmitigated despotism; of which the
+most remarkable point is the law of succession. This follows the female
+lines, so that the heir-apparent is the eldest son of the reigning
+king's eldest sister. The same applies to the caboceers; except that, in
+cases of mental or physical incapacity, the rightful heir is set aside,
+and a path opened to the ambition of private adventurers.
+
+Slavery is what we expect; and on the coast of Guinea it meets us at
+every turn, though not in the worst forms of the _Trade_. This
+flourishes in Dahomey, and along the whole of the Bight of Benin. In the
+Fanti countries, however, the milder form of _domestic_ servitude
+preponderates; and along with it a chronic state of warfare. These two
+evils are connected with one another, as cause and effect. The conquest
+supplies the slaves; the slaves provoke the conquest.
+
+Besides this there is a sort of temporary servitude, which reminds us of
+the _Nexi_ of the Romans. This occurs when "a person, in order to raise
+a particular sum of money, voluntarily sells himself for a certain
+period, or until such time as he is enabled to pay the amount so
+borrowed, together with whatever interest may have been agreed upon.
+This is called the system of pawning, and the people so sold, pawns.
+Thus a native, in order to make a great display on any particular
+occasion, as on his marriage, or to have a grand 'custom' for a deceased
+relative, will forfeit his labour for a definite time, or give one of
+his slaves for a period agreed upon. Neither these pawns, however, nor
+the domestic slaves, entertain any feeling of disgrace, but on the
+contrary are happy and contented."[14]
+
+Everything connected with the administration of justice is rude and
+savage; the severity of the punishment upon detection being the chief
+preventive. The awards, of course, depend much upon the individual
+character of the chiefs; and there are but few who have not exhibited
+horrible proofs of cruelty. These, however, are no measures of the
+temper of the people at large. The legitimate, normal, established, and
+familiar forms of torture give us this. It may just be a shade or two
+better than that of the autocrats--though bad at best. I still draw upon
+the writer already quoted. "The most common mode of torture is what is
+termed tying Guinea-fashion. In this the arms are closely drawn together
+behind the back, by means of a cord tied tightly round them, about
+midway between the elbows and shoulders. A piece of wood to act as a
+rack, having been previously introduced, is then used so as to tighten
+the cord, and so intense is the agony that one application is generally
+sufficient to occasion the wretch so tortured to confess to anything
+that is required of him. There are various other modes of torture in
+common use among the natives of Guinea. One is tying the head, feet, and
+hands, in such a way that by turning the body backwards, they may be
+drawn together by the cords employed. Another is securing a wrist or
+ankle to a block of wood by an iron staple. By means of a hammer any
+degree of pressure may thus be applied, while the suffering so produced
+is continuous, only being relieved by the wood being split, and the
+staples removed, but this may not be done until a crime has been
+confessed by a person who never committed it, and even then his limb has
+generally been destroyed. It would not be interesting to here enumerate
+the various tortures employed by a barbarous people, but when we
+recollect the refinement of the art of torture in our own country in the
+days of the maiden, the boot, and thumb-screws, we will cease to wonder
+that substitutes for these should be used in a country where
+civilization has not yet begun to elevate a people who are generally
+allowed to be the lowest of the human race.
+
+"There are some superstitious rites employed by Fetish-men for the
+detection of crime; and whether it is that these people really possess
+such powerful influence over their wretched dupes, as to frighten into
+confession of his guilt the perpetrator of crime, or whether it is that
+they manage by their numerous spies to obtain a clue sufficient in most
+cases to lead to the detection of the person, is more than I can venture
+to assert; but, be the means employed what they may, a Fetish-man will
+assuredly very often bring a crime home to the right person, even after
+the most patient investigation in the ordinary way has failed to elicit
+the slightest clue.
+
+"There is also what is called Trial by Dhoom. This consists in whoever
+are suspected of having committed a crime being made to swallow a
+decoction of _dhoom_ wood of the country, and it is believed that
+whoever is innocent will immediately eject the deleterious draught, but
+the guilty person will die. This, however, is not much to be depended
+upon; for while it causes death in one instance, it may do so in all who
+partake of it; or on the other hand, from some accident in its
+preparation, it may be productive of no effect either upon the guilty or
+the innocent.
+
+"The Rice test, although practised in this part of Africa, is, I
+believe, not peculiar to it, being also employed in the West Indies, and
+South America. Although no doubt originally introduced by a people in a
+low state of civilization, it is interesting in so far that it
+exemplifies the powerful influence which the mind possesses over the
+corporeal functions, and as it appears to have been in use among the
+blacks for centuries, we may give them the credit of having been
+practically aware that 'conscience doth make cowards of us all,' long
+before the Bard of Avon chronicled the fact. In the employment of this
+test in Guinea, those who are suspected of having committed a crime are
+assembled, and to each a small portion of rice is given, which they are
+required to masticate, and afterwards produce on the hand; and it is
+invariably the case that while all but the real culprit will produce
+their rice in a soft pulpy mass, his will be as dry as if ground in a
+mill, the salivary glands having, under the influence exerted upon the
+nervous system by fear, refused to perform their ordinary functions."
+
+Something like this is common in many savage countries. In the shape of
+the _dhoom_ test, it re-appears in Old Calabar, and, probably,
+elsewhere. There, the "king and chief inhabitants ordinarily constitute
+a court of justice, in which all country disputes are adjusted, and to
+which every prisoner suspected of capital offences is brought, to
+undergo examination and judgment. If found guilty, they are usually
+forced to swallow a deadly potion made from the poisonous seeds of an
+aquatic leguminous plant, which rapidly destroys life. This poison is
+obtained by pounding the seeds, and macerating them in water, which
+acquires a white milky colour. The condemned person, after swallowing a
+certain portion of the liquid, is ordered to walk about, until its
+effects become palpable. If, however, after the lapse of a definite
+period, the accused should be so fortunate as to throw the poison from
+off his stomach, he is considered as innocent, and allowed to depart
+unmolested. In native _parlance_ this ordeal is designated as 'chopping
+nut.'"[15]
+
+The hardest workers amongst the Fantis are the fishers, who use a canoe
+of wood of the bombax, from ten to twelve feet in length, and
+strengthened by cross timbers. The net--a casting net--is made from the
+fibres of the aloe or the pine-apple, and is about twenty feet in
+diameter (?).
+
+Next to these come the farmers, whose rough agriculture consists in the
+cultivation of maize, bananas, yams, and pumpkins; and lastly, the
+gold-seekers. Of this there is abundance; and where the European coin of
+the coast ceases, the native currency of gold-dust begins. Sums of so
+small a value as three half-pence are thus paid; smaller ones being
+represented by cowries.
+
+The highest of their arts is that of manufacturing gold ornaments, and
+this is the hereditary craft of certain families. These transmit the
+secret of their skill from father to son, and keep the corporation to
+which they belong up to a due degree of closeness, by avoiding
+intermarriage with any of the more unskilled labourers. A little
+weaving, and a little potting, constitute the remaining arts of the
+Fanti--as far, at least, as they are either _fine_ or _useful_.
+
+The craft of the _Fetish-man_ comes under none of the preceding
+categories. He is the priest, sorcerer, or medicine man; the
+representative of "Paganism, in its lowest and most hideous form, the
+objects of their worship being the most repulsive reptiles, and their
+ceremonies the most degrading. They certainly have some idea of the
+existence of a First Cause, and believe themselves to be in the power of
+the _Great Fetish_, their protection or destruction being dependent upon
+the will of this power, of whose attributes they know nothing further.
+They also believe in the existence of a spirit of evil, and on some
+parts of the coast consider his power over them so great, that they
+address their supplications, and erect, for his especial service, small
+mud huts, usually of a conical shape, built under the shade of some
+stately palm or wild fig-tree, in one of the most inviting spots to be
+found. These huts bear the unattractive name among Europeans of 'devil's
+temples.' It will be seen thus, that this belief in the existence of the
+Great Fetish professed by the Fantees, is a faint glimmering of that
+natural religion which all nations possess. Of the creation of our
+species, they do not appear to entertain very correct ideas, unless it
+be that they owe their being to this Fetish, who, they say, in the
+beginning made two people, one of whom was black, the other white, and
+that both originally occupied the Fantee country. It would seem,
+however, from their account, that, after these two men were brought into
+existence, the Fetish was at a loss to know how to dispose of them, and
+in order to prevent any jealousy arising between them, had recourse to a
+sort of lottery, where there were all prizes and no blanks. Two packets
+were accordingly placed before them, and the black man drew first; nor
+was he disappointed with his prize, for it consisted of such a quantity
+of gold-dust, that it has not been taken out of the country yet. The
+remaining packet was of course the lawful property of the white man, and
+in the long run he had no cause to complain--for, on being opened, it
+was found to contain a book which taught him everything; and so do the
+poor wretches account for the superior intellect of whites, and the
+inexhaustible treasures of their own country.
+
+"In the neighbourhood of Cape Coast, the natives seem to believe that
+this Fetish occupies more especially particular localities, and exists
+in the form of a particular animal, so that an isolated portion of rock
+is frequently called a Fetish-stone, and snakes even of the most
+poisonous description, in a certain locality, are preserved and allowed
+to propagate, undisturbed, their venomous species. In some places on
+the coast, temples dedicated to snake-worship are built, and the Fetish
+men, or priests, connected with them are frequently esteemed
+particularly holy, no doubt from the familiar terms upon which they, in
+course of time, become with the horrid reptiles, upon which the people
+look as the personification of their Fetish. The offerings made at these
+temples are often very valuable, the cupidity of the deities within not
+being easily satisfied. Gold-dust and clothes are the most acceptable
+offerings; but when these are not to be obtained, it is perfectly
+wonderful how large a quantity of rum and tobacco the _snakes_ will
+consume before they vouchsafe their good offices for the removal of a
+disease from a cow, a wife, a child, or the detection of a thief, who,
+not unlikely, has been employed by themselves.
+
+"These Fetish men and women, too, for there are Fetish women, and,
+consequently Fetish children, have spies in different directions,
+forming as many links of communication between the priesthood in various
+parts of the country, so that very few occurrences take place of which
+they have not the means of making themselves acquainted."[16]
+
+The same writer continues, "Religious observances, properly so called,
+the Fantees have none, but each particular class has a certain day of
+the week upon which they cease from following their ordinary
+avocations--thus, a fisherman will not go to sea on a Tuesday; nor will
+a bushman enter the forest on a Friday--these days being dedicated to
+the Fetish, and thus, in some degree, representing the Sabbath of
+Christian nations. There are, in addition, several days throughout the
+year--apparently occurring at the desire of the Fetish men--in which the
+Fantees abstain from work, and during a period of war, it often happens
+that the movements of the opposing armies are much interfered with by
+the numerous occasions upon which it becomes necessary to propitiate the
+Fetish. One of these especial Fetish days may be here noticed, it being,
+apparently, the most important of those that occur during the whole
+year, and its object no less important than driving the devil out of the
+village. The period when this desirable object is effected, occurs
+during the month of December, the night-time being chosen as the most
+fitting for the ceremony. As soon as darkness has closed in, the
+inhabitants of a village collect at an appointed rendezvous, with sticks
+and staves, and under the directions of a leader, sally out, entering
+every house in their way, through the various apartments of which they
+knock about, and yell and howl with such violence that they would
+actually scare any devil but a most impertinent one. Having, as they
+think, completely rid the town of him, they pursue the retreating enemy
+for some distance into the bush, after which they return and spend the
+remainder of the night in carousals.
+
+"There is another festival, which, as it partakes somewhat of a
+religious nature, may also be noticed here, _viz._, the yam-custom,
+which is held in September, to celebrate the goodness of the Fetish, in
+having granted an abundant harvest. On this occasion, the king of the
+village and the staff of Fetish men connected with it, take part. All
+the people who can by any possibility attend, assemble, a procession is
+formed, and then the most extraordinary mixture of costumes, the noises
+produced by numerous tom-toms, horns made from elephants' tusks, and the
+still ruder, if possible, rattle of two pieces of wood, or common metal,
+which the women beat together to a tune similar to what in Ireland is
+known as the Kentish fire. The constant firing of musketry, and the
+obscene dances performed by the two sexes form one of the most debasing
+and savage exhibitions it is possible to see. In this way does the
+procession parade the principal streets, the king seated in his basket
+carried by his slaves, and protected by the umbrellas, according to his
+rank--the Fetish-men dressed in white robes, also in their baskets. On
+arriving at the king's house sacrifices are usually offered--some fowls
+or eggs being now substituted in the vicinity of our settlements for a
+human being, but we have still too good reasons to believe, that even as
+near as the capital of Ashantee many human lives are sacrificed on this
+particular occasion, as well as in other festivals of various
+descriptions. The offerings being made, the Fetish-man partakes of the
+yam; the king then eats of the valued root; and after these two have
+pronounced them ripe and fit for food, the people consider themselves at
+liberty to commence digging.
+
+"A being named _Tahbil_ resides in the substance of the rock, upon which
+Cape Coast is built, and watches the town. Every morning, offerings of
+food or flowers are left for him on the rock. Most villages have a
+corresponding deity; and in earlier times, there is good reason for
+believing that human beings were sacrificed to him."
+
+Likely enough--as may be seen from the practices at Fanti funerals, and
+as may be inferred from the analogy of the other parts of Western
+Africa.
+
+If the survivors of a deceased Fanti be poor, the corpse is quietly
+interred in one of the denser spots of the jungles; and if rich, the
+funeral is at once costly and bloody; since gold and jewels are buried
+along with the dead body, and human victims as well. The ceremonial is
+as follows. The coffin is carried to the grave by slaves, when the
+retainers and friends press forwards, fix the number required (in
+general four), stun the selected individuals by a sudden blow on the
+head, throw the still breathing bodies into the grave of their master,
+and, whilst life yet remains, cover in the earth.
+
+This horrible custom is truly West-African. How near we must approach
+the Mandingo frontier, before we get rid of it on the north, or how far
+south it extends, I am not exactly able to say. In Dahomey, where it
+attains its _maximum_ development, it is worse than amongst the
+Ashantis, and amongst the Ashantis worse than in the proper Fanti
+districts. It certainly reaches as far southwards as Old Calabar, where,
+upon the death of Ephraim, a well-known Caboceer, "some hundreds of men,
+women, and children were immolated to his manes,--decapitation, burning
+alive, and the administration of the poison-nut, being the methods
+resorted to for terminating their existence. When King Eyeo, father of
+the present Chief of Creek Town, died, an eye-witness, who had only
+arrived just after the completion of the funeral rites, informed me that
+a large pit had been dug, in which several of the deceased's wives were
+bound and thrown in, until a certain number had been procured; the earth
+was then thrown over them, and so great was the agony of these victims,
+that the ground for several minutes was agitated with their convulsive
+throes. So fearful, in former times, was the observance of this
+barbarous custom, that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation. The
+graves of the kings are invariably concealed, so as, it is stated, to
+prevent an enemy from obtaining their skulls as trophies, which is not
+the case with those of the common people."[17]
+
+I have said that it is in Dahomey, where the immolation of human beings
+is the bloodiest; and I now add that it is in Dahomey where those who
+look for the more characteristic peculiarities of the Negro stock, must
+search. But it is the bad side which will preponderate; it is the
+darkest practices which will develop themselves most typically. What we
+find in germs and remnants elsewhere, grow, in Dahomey, to inordinate
+and incredible proportions.
+
+The sacro-sanctitude of the snake is doubled in Dahomey.
+
+Slavery, bad along the whole Bight of Benin, is worse, still, in
+Dahomey.
+
+In Akkim we find a _female_ colonel. In Dahomey there is an army of
+Amazons, as indicated by Mr. Duncan, and as described in detail by
+Captain Forbes.
+
+_The Gha._--Accra, and the forts lately purchased from the
+Danes--Christiansborg and others,--are the localities of the _Gha_
+nation. I say _Gha_ (or _Ghan_) because the author of a paper soon about
+to be noticed states, that this is the indigenous name of the people
+which we call _Acra_, _Akra_, _Accrah_, or _Inkra_--and it is always
+best to give the native name if we can.
+
+Adelung, on the authority of Romer and Isert, gives the following
+account of the Negroes speaking the Gha language. He calls it Akra.
+
+They began with conquering and reducing to a state of servitude the
+_Adampi_, or _Tambi_, Negroes of the hill country; these being a portion
+of their own stock, and speaking a mutually intelligible language.
+
+But, in time, they were themselves conquered by the _Akvambu_, and broke
+up into two parts. One of these remained _in situ_, and is represented
+by the present Gha of Christiansborg. The other fled to the Little Popo,
+an island off the coast of Dahomey, and there settled.
+
+What remained then on the Gold Coast were the Gha and Akvambu; and these
+were afterwards conquered by the Akkim Fantis, themselves eventually
+reduced by the Ashantis.
+
+In no more than nine or ten villages, lying within nine or ten miles of
+Fort St. James and Christiansborg, was the Akra language spoken in the
+time of Protten (A.D. 1794), and of the Ghas thus speaking it each
+understood the Fanti.
+
+This makes the Gha a decreasing, and, for practical purposes, an
+unimportant population. At the same time I should be glad to direct the
+attention of some investigator to their ethnology. Their exact relations
+to the Akvambu are uncertain. The only work known to me where specimens
+of the latter language are to be found is out of reach.[18]
+
+Then as to the _Adampi_. Bowdich states that it radically differs from
+the Gha; the numerals, which agree, being borrowed from the one tongue
+into the other. But his collation rests on only seven words.
+
+Again,--_Adampi_, _Tembi_, and _Tambu_ are words so much alike as to
+pass for the same. Yet a _Tembu_ vocabulary in the "Mithridates" differs
+from a _Tambu_ one in the same work--
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.      TAMBU.
+
+ _Sky_       so          giom.
+ _Sun_       wis         pum.
+ _Moon_      igodi       horamb.
+ _Man_       naa         nyummu.
+  ...        ibalu       numero.
+ _Woman_     alo         in.
+ _Head_      knynoo      ii.
+ _Foot_      navorree    nandi.
+ _One_       kuddum      kaki.
+ _Two_       noalee      ennu.
+ _Three_     nodoso      ettee.
+
+Again--the _Tembu_ is related to the vocabulary of a language called
+_Kouri_, which the _Tambu_ is _not_.
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.    KOURI.
+
+ _Sun_       wis       nosi.
+ _Man_       ibalu     abalu.
+ _Woman_     alo       alu.
+ _One_       kuddum    kotum.
+ _Two_       noalee    nalee.
+ _Three_     nodoso    natisu.
+
+Thirdly, the _Tjemba_ of Balbi's "Atlas Ethnologique" is called
+_Kassenti_.
+
+Lastly, the _Gha_, as far as very short comparison goes, is neither
+_Tambu_ nor _Tembu_: nor yet _Kouri_--though it has a few resemblances
+to all.
+
+The author of the paper alluded to above is the Rev. Mr. Hanson--himself
+a Gha by birth. It was laid before the British Association in 1849. Two
+points characterize the theory that it exhibits; but as the publication
+of the paper _in extenso_, is contemplated, I merely state what they
+are.
+
+1. A remarkable number of customs common to the _Jews_ and the _Gha_.
+
+2. The probable origin of the latter population in some part of the
+interior of Africa, north of their present locality, and, perhaps, in
+the parts about Timbuktu.
+
+_The Quaquas._--I am not sure that this name is the best that can be
+given to the class in question. Hence, it is merely provisional. The
+language that is spoken by them is called the _Avekvom_. They constitute
+the chief population of the _Ivory_--just as the Krumen do that of the
+_Grain_ and the Fantis that of the _Gold_--Coast. _Apollonia_ is the
+English dependency where we find members of the _Quaqua_ stock.
+
+The Avekvom dialects of the Quaqua tribes seem to belong to a different
+tongue from that of the Krumen and Fantis; and I imagine that the three
+are mutually unintelligible. Still, it is difficult to predicate this
+from the mere inspection of vocabularies; the more so, as no language of
+the western coast of Africa is less known than the Avekvom--the only
+specimen of any length being one in the last number of the "Journal of
+the American Oriental Society." With numerous miscellaneous affinities,
+it is more Fanti and Grebo than aught else; and, perhaps, is
+transitional in character to those two languages.
+
+At any rate it is no isolated tongue, as may be seen from the following
+table, where _Yebu_ means the language of the Yarriba country, at the
+back of Dahomey, and _Efik_ that of Old Calabar:--
+
+ ENGLISH.          AVEKVOM.        OTHER IBO-ASHANTI LANGUAGES.
+
+ _Arm_             ebo             ubok, _Efik_.
+ _Blood_           evie            eyip, _Efik_; eye, _Yebu_.
+ _Bone_            ewi             beu, _Fanti_.
+ _Box_             ebru            brânh, _Grebo_.
+ _Canoe_           edie            tonh, _Grebo_.
+ _Chair_           fata            bada, _Grebo_.
+ _Dark_            eshim           esum, _Fanti_; ekim, _Efik_.
+ _Dog_             etye            aja, ayga, _Yebu_.
+ _Door_            eshinavi        usuny, _Efik_.
+ _Ear_             eshibe          esoa, _Fanti_.
+ _Fire_            eya             ija, _Fanti_.
+ _Fish_            etsi            eja, eya, _Fanti_.
+ _Fowl_            esu             suseo, _Mandingo_; edia, _Yebu_.
+ _Ground-nut_      ngeti           nkatye, _Fanti_.
+ _Hair_            emu             ihwi, _Fanti_.
+ _Honey_           ajo             ewo, _Fanti_; oyi, _Yebu_.
+ _House_           eva             ifi, _Fanti_; ufog, _Efik_.
+ _Moon_            efe             hâbo, _Grebo_; ofiong, _Efik_.
+ _Mosquito_        efo             obong, _Fanti_.
+ _Oil_             inyu            ingo, _Fanti_.
+ _Rain_            efuzumo-sohn    sanjio, _Mandingo_.
+ _Rainy season_    eshi            ojo, _rain_, _Yebu_.
+ _Salt_            etsa            ta, _Grebo_.
+ _Sand_            esian-na        utan, _Efik_.
+ _Sea_             etyu            idu, _Grebo_.
+ _Stone_           desi            sia, shia, _Grebo_.
+ _Thread_          jesi            gise, _Grebo_.
+ _Tooth_           enena           nyeng, _Mandingo_; gne, _Grebo_.
+ _Water_           esonh           nsu, _Fanti_.
+ _Wife_            emise           muso, _Mandingo_; mbesia, _Fanti_.
+ _Cry_             yaru            isu, _Fanti_.
+ _Give_            nae             nye, _Grebo_; no, _Efik_.
+ _Go_              le              olo, _Yebu_.
+ _Kill_            bai             fa, _Mandingo_; pa, _Yebu_.
+
+There has been war and displacement here as well as in the Gha country.
+In the seventeenth century the parts about Cape Apollonia were contended
+for by two tribes called the Issini (or Oshin) and the Ghiomo. The
+former gave way to the latter, and having retreated to the country of
+the Veteres, were joined by that tribe against the Esiep.
+
+A Quaqua prayer is given in the "Mithridates." It is uttered every
+morning by the tribes on the Issini, after a previous ablution in that
+river--_Anghiume mame maro, mame orie, mame shikke e okkori, mame akaka,
+mame frembi, mame anguan e awnsan_--_O Anghiume! give rice, give yams,
+give gold, give aigris, give slaves, give riches, give (to be) strong
+and swift._
+
+What is here written about the ethnology of Apollonia is written
+doubtfully; since here, as at Acra, the simple ethnology of the pure and
+proper Fantis becomes complicated.
+
+_The Cape of Good Hope._--The aboriginal population of the Cape is
+divided between two great families:--
+
+1. The Hottentot.
+
+2. The Kaffre.
+
+1. _The Hottentots._--Of the two families this is the most western; it
+is the one which the colonists came first in contact with, and it is the
+one which has been most displaced by Europeans. The names of fourteen
+extinct tribes of Hottentots are known; of which it is only necessary to
+mention the Gunyeman and Sussaqua the nearest the Cape, and the Heykom,
+so far eastwards and northwards as Port Natal. The displacement of these
+last has not been effected by Europeans. African subdued African; and it
+was the Kaffres who did the work of conquest here.
+
+Of the extant Hottentots, within the limits of the colony of the Cape,
+the most remote are the _Gonaqua_, on the head-waters of the Great Fish
+River; or rather on the water-shed between it and the Orange River. They
+are fast becoming either extinct, or amalgamated with the Kaffres;
+inasmuch as they are the Hottentots of the Amakosa frontier, and suffer,
+at least, as much from the Kaffres as from their white neighbours.
+
+The _Namaquas_ occupy the _lower_ part of the Orange River, the Great
+and Little Namaqualand.
+
+_The Koranas._--This branch of the Hottentots has its locality on the
+middle part of the Gariep, with the Griquas to the north, the Bechuana
+Kaffres to the east, and the Saabs in the middle of them. Their number
+is, perhaps, 10,000. Their exact relation to the other Hottentots is
+uncertain. They are a better formed people than the Gonaqua and Namaqua,
+but whether they be the best samples of the Hottentot stock altogether
+is uncertain. Probably a tribe far up in the north-western parts of
+South Africa, and beyond Namaqualand, may dispute the honour with them.
+These are the Dammaras--themselves disputed Hottentots. Their country
+lies beyond the British colony, but it must be noticed for the sake of
+taking in all the branches of the stock in question. It is the tract
+between Benguela and Namaqualand, marked in the maps as _sterile
+country_; in the northern parts of which we sometimes find notices of a
+fierce nation called _Jagas_. Walvisch Bay lies in the middle of it. Now
+some writers make the Dammaras of this country Hottentot; others Kaffre;
+and that both rightly and wrongly. They are both--partly one, partly the
+other; since Dammara is a geographical term, and some of the tribes to
+which it applies are Kaffre, some Hottentot. The Dammaras of the plains,
+or the Cattle Dammaras are the former; the Dammaras[19] of the hills,
+the latter. Between the Dammara and the Korana a much nearer approach
+to Kaffre type is made than is usually supposed.
+
+A branch of the Koranas--those of the valley of the Hartebeest
+River--deserves particular attention. They caution us against
+overvaluing differences; and Dr. Prichard has quoted the evidence of Mr.
+Thompson with this especial object. They are Koranas who have suffered
+in war, lost their cattle, and been partially expatriated by the more
+powerful sections of their stock. Hence, want and poverty have acted
+upon them; and the effect has been that they have become hunters instead
+of shepherds, have been reduced to a precarious subsistence, and as the
+consequence of altered circumstances, have receded from the level of the
+other Koranas, and approached that of the--
+
+_Saabs or Bushmen._--These belong to the parts between the Roggeveld and
+Orange River; parts which rival the _sterile country_ of the map in
+barrenness. As is the country so are the inhabitants; starved, miserable
+hunters--hunters rather than shepherds or herdsmen.
+
+The Lap is not more strongly contrasted with the Finlander, than the
+Korana with the Saab; and the deadly enmity between these two
+populations is as marked as the differences in their physical
+appearances. I think, however, that undue inferences have been drawn
+from the difference; in other words, that the distance between the
+Korana and the Saab has been exaggerated. The languages are
+unequivocally allied.
+
+I think, too, that a similarly undue inference has been drawn from the
+extent to which the Kaffre and the Korana are _alike_; inasmuch as an
+infusion of Kaffre has been assumed for the sake of accounting for it.
+Of this, however, no proof exists.
+
+The Saabs are described as having constitutions "so much enfeebled by
+the dissolute life they lead, and the constant smoking of _dacha_, that
+nearly all, including the young people, look old and wrinkled;
+nevertheless, they are remarkable for vanity, and decorate their ears,
+legs, and arms with beads, and iron, copper, or brass rings. The women
+likewise stain their faces red, or paint them, either wholly or in part.
+Their clothing consists of a few sheepskins, which hang about their
+bodies, and thus form the mantle or covering, commonly called a
+_kaross_. This is their only clothing by day or night. The men wear old
+hats, which they obtain from the farmers, or else caps of their own
+manufacture. The women wear caps of skins, which they stiffen and finish
+with a high peak, and adorn with beads and metal rings. The dwelling of
+the Bushman is either a low wretched hut, or a circular cavity, on the
+open plain, into which, at night, he creeps with his wife and children,
+and which, though it shelters him from the wind, leaves him exposed to
+the rain. In this neighbourhood, in which rocks abound, they had
+formerly their habitations in them, as is proved by the many rude
+figures of oxen, horses, serpents, &c. still existing. It is not a
+little interesting to see these poor degraded people, who formerly were
+considered and treated as little better than wild beasts in their rocky
+retreats. Many of those who have forsaken us live in such cavities not
+far from our settlement, and we have thus an opportunity of observing
+them in their natural condition. Several who, when they came to us from
+the farmers, were decently clothed and possessed a flock of sheep, which
+they had earned, in a short time returned to their fastnesses in a state
+of nakedness and indigence, rejoicing that they had got free from the
+farmers, and could live as they pleased in the indulgence of their
+sensual appetites. Such fugitives from civilised life, I have never seen
+otherwise occupied than with their bows and arrows. The bows are small,
+but made of good elastic wood; the arrows are formed of small reeds, the
+points furnished with a well-wrought piece of bone, and a double barb,
+which is steeped in a potent poison of a resiny appearance. This poison
+is distilled from the leaves of an indigenous tree. Many prefer these
+arrows to fire-arms, under the idea that they can kill more game by
+means of a weapon that makes no report. On their return from the chase,
+they feast till they are tired and drowsy, and hunger alone rouses them
+to renewed exertion. In seasons of scarcity they devour all kinds of
+wild roots, ants, ants' eggs, locusts, snakes, and even roasted skins.
+Three women of this singular tribe were not long since met with, several
+days' journey from this place, who had forsaken their husbands, and
+lived very contentedly on wild honey and locusts. As enemies, the
+Bushmen are not to be despised. They are adepts in stealing cattle and
+sheep; and the wounds they inflict when pursued, are ordinarily fatal if
+the wounded part is not immediately cut out. The animals they are unable
+to carry off, they kill or mutilate.
+
+"To our great comfort, even some of these poor outcasts have shown
+eagerness to become acquainted with the way of salvation. The children
+of such as are inhabitants of the settlement, attend the school
+diligently, and of them we have the best hopes.
+
+"The language of the Bushman has not one pleasing feature; it seems to
+consist of a collection of snapping, hissing, grunting, sounds; all more
+or less nasal. Of their religious creed it is difficult to obtain any
+information; as far as I have been able to learn, they have a name for
+the Supreme Being; and the Kaffre word _tixo_ is derived from the
+_tixme_ of the Bushmen. Sorcerers exist among them. One of the Bushmen
+residing here being sick, a sorceress was sent for before we were aware
+of it, who pretended, by the virtue of mystic dance, to extract an
+antelope horn from the head of the patient."[20]
+
+_The Griquas._--The Griquas, called also Baastaards, are a pastoral
+population, upwards of 15,000 in number, on the north side of the great
+bend of the Orange River. They are the descendants of Dutch fathers and
+Hottentot mothers.
+
+A mixture of Griquas and Hottentots occurs also on the Kat River, a
+feeder of the Great Fish River, in the district of Somerset, and on the
+Kaffre frontier. Here they are distributed in a series of district
+locations, amid the dales and fastnesses of the eastern frontier. A
+great proportion of them are discharged soldiers--so that in reality,
+like the borderers of old, they form a sort of military colony.
+
+2. _The Kaffres._--The British districts in contact with the Kaffre
+populations are the eastern, and of these Albany and Somerset most
+especially. The Kaffre nation in most immediate contact with Albany and
+Somerset is--
+
+_The Amakosa._--This is the population which constituted the authority
+of Hintza, and to which Pato, Gaika, and the other chiefs of the last
+war belonged. To this, too, belong the troublesome chiefs of the
+present. Next to the Amakosa, and in alliance with them, come--
+
+_The Amatembu_, or _Tambuki_ (_Tambookies_), occupants of the upper part
+of the river Kei, as the Amakosa are of the lower Keiskamma.
+
+Between the Amatembu and Port Natal lie _the Amaponda_, or _Mambuki_
+(_Mambookies_), the northern extremity of which reaches the country of--
+
+_The Amazulu_, or _Zulu_ (_Zooloos_), the chief frontagers (conjointly
+with the _Mambuki_) of Port Natal.
+
+The last division of the Kaffres of the coast is that of--
+
+_The Fingos._--In 1835, a numerous population, called Fingos, was found
+by Sir B. D'Urban in the Kaffre chief Hintza's country, and in a state
+of abject servitude to the Amakosas. They were from different tribes;
+darker and shorter than the Amakosas--but still true Kaffres. They were
+offered land between the lower Keiskamma and the Great Fish River, and
+were emancipated and brought safe into the colony to the amount of
+17,000.[21] Since then, they have served as a sort of military police on
+the Kaffre frontier; and as shepherds in Australia--whither they have
+been advantageously introduced.
+
+But, besides the Kaffres of the coast there are those of the interior.
+These speak a modified form of the Kosa (or Amakosa), called
+Si-_chuana_, the name of the people being Bi-_chuana_. They lie due
+north of the Koranas; beyond the boundaries of the colony; but not
+beyond the influence of its missionaries, or the range of its explorers.
+Litaku, Kurrichani, and other similar _towns_ are _Sichuana_; the Kaffre
+civilization being said to attain its _maximum_ hereabouts.
+
+There are plenty of points of contrast between the Kaffre and the
+typical Negro; so many indeed as to have suggested the doctrine that the
+former class belongs to some division of the human species other than
+the African. And these points of contrast are widely distributed,
+_i.e._, they appear and re-appear, whatever may be the view taken of the
+Kaffre stock. They appear in the descriptions of their skin and
+skeletons; they appear in the notice of their language; and they appear
+in the history of the Kaffre wars of the Cape frontier--wars more
+obstinate and troublesome than any which have been conducted by the true
+Negro; and which approach the character of the Kabyle struggle for
+independence in Algeria. In investigating these differences we must
+guard against the exaggeration of their import.
+
+Physically, the Kaffre has the advantage of the Negro in the
+conformation of the face and skull. His forehead betokens greater
+capacity; being more prominent, more vaulted, and with a greater facial
+angle. His teeth, too, are more vertically inserted, and the nasal bones
+less depressed. I have not heard of aquiline noses in Kaffraria; but
+should not be surprised if I did.
+
+The cheek-bones of the Kaffre project outwards; and where the
+cheek-bones so project beyond a certain limit, the chin appears to taper
+downwards, and the vertex upwards. When this becomes exaggerated we hear
+of _lozenge-shaped_ crania; the Malay skulls being currently quoted as
+instances thereof. Be this as it may, the breadth in the malar portion
+of the face is a remarkable feature in the Kaffre physiognomy. This he
+has in common with the Hottentot. His hair is also tufted like the
+Hottentot's: while his lips are thick like the Negro's. Tall in stature,
+wiry and elastic in his muscles, the Kaffre varies in colour, through
+all the shades of black and brown; being, in some portions of his area
+nearly as dark as the Negro, in others simply brown like the Arab. The
+eye is sometimes oblique; the opening generally narrow.
+
+An opinion often gives a better picture than a description. Kaffres,
+that have receded in the greatest degree from the Negro type, have been
+so likened to the more southern Arabs as to have engendered the
+hypothesis of an infusion of Arab blood.
+
+The manners of the Kaffres of the Cape are those of pastoral tribes
+under chieftains; tribes which, from their habits and social relations,
+are naturally active, locomotive, warlike, and jealous of encroachment.
+Next to marauding on the hunting-grounds of an American Indian,
+interference with the pasture of a shepherd population is the surest way
+to warfare.
+
+It would be strange indeed if the Kaffre life and Kaffre physiognomy had
+no peculiarities. However little in the way of physical influence we may
+attribute to the geography of a country, no man ignores them altogether.
+Now Kaffreland has very nearly a latitude of its own; inhabited lands
+similarly related to the southern tropic being found in South America
+and Australia only. And it has a soil still more exclusively
+South-African. We connect the idea of the _desert_ with that of sand;
+whilst _steppe_ is a term which is limited to the vast tracts of central
+Asia. Now the Kaffre, and still more the Hottentot, area, dry like the
+desert, and elevated like the steppe, is partially a _karro_. Its soil
+is often a hard, cracked, and parched clay rather than a waste of sand,
+and it constitutes an argillaceous table-land. Its vegetation has
+strongly marked characters. Its Fauna has the same.
+
+The language is peculiar. If English were spoken on Kosa or Sichuana
+principles we should say
+
+ _b_un beam   instead of _s_un beam.
+ _l_oon light    ...     _m_oon light.
+ _s_rand-son     ...     _g_rand-son, &c.,
+
+since, in the Kaffre languages throughout, subordinate words in certain
+syntactic combinations, accommodate their initial letter to that of the
+leading word of the term.
+
+Their polity and manners, too, are peculiar. The head man of the village
+settles disputes; his tribunal being in the open air. From him an appeal
+lies to a chief of higher power; and from him to some superior, higher
+still. In this way there is a long chain of feudal or semi-feudal
+dependency.
+
+But the power of the chief is checked by that of the priest. A supposed
+skill in medicine, imaginary arts of divination, and an accredited power
+over the elements are the prerogatives of certain witches and wizards.
+Thus, when a murrain among the cattle, or the death of an important
+individual has taken place, the blame is laid upon some unfortunate
+victim whom the witch or wizard points out. And the ordeal to which he
+must submit, is equal in cruelty to those of the Gold Coast. He is
+beaten with sticks, and then pegged down to the ground. Whilst thus
+helpless, a nest of venomous bush-ants is broken over his racked and
+quivering body. If this fail to extort a confession, he is singed to
+death with red-hot stones.
+
+This tells us what is meant by Kaffre chiefs and Kaffre wizards.
+
+The wife is the slave to the husband; and he _buys_ her in order that
+she should be so. The purchase implies a seller. This is always a member
+of another tribe. Hence the wish of a Kaffre is to see his wife the
+mother of many children, girls being more valuable than boys.
+
+Why a man should not sell his offspring to the members of his own tribe
+is uncertain. It is clear, however, that the practice of doing so makes
+marriage between even distant relations next to impossible. To guard
+against the chances of this, a rigid and suspicious system of restraint
+has been developed in cases of consanguinity; and relations must do all
+they can to avoid meeting. To sit in the same room, to meet on the same
+road, is undesirable. To converse is but just allowable, and then all
+who choose must hear what is said. So thorough, however, has been the
+isolation in many cases, that persons of different sexes have lived as
+near neighbours for many years without having conversed with each other;
+and such communication as there has been, has taken place through the
+medium of a third person. No gift will induce a Kaffre female to violate
+this law.
+
+Is the immolation of human beings at the death of chieftains a Kaffre
+custom, as it was one of western Africa? The following extract gives an
+answer in the affirmative, the only difference being the _pretext_ of
+the murders. On the "death of the mother of Chaka, the great Zulu chief,
+a public mourning was held, which lasted for the space of two days, the
+people being assembled at the kraal of the chief to the number of sixty
+or eighty thousand souls. Mr. Fynn, who was present, describes the scene
+as the most terrific which it is possible for the human mind to
+conceive. The immense multitude were all engaged in rending the air with
+the most doleful shrieks, and discordant cries and lamentations; whilst,
+in the event of their ceasing to utter them, they were instantly
+butchered as guilty of a crime against the reigning tyrant. It is said
+that no less than six or seven thousand persons were destroyed on this
+occasion, charged with no other offence than exhausted nature in the
+performance of this horrid rite, their brains being mercilessly dashed
+out amidst the surrounding throng. As a suitable _finale_ to this
+dreadful tragedy, it is said that ten females were actually buried alive
+with the royal corpse; whilst all who witnessed the funeral were
+obliged to remain on the spot for a whole year."
+
+Details of Kaffre manners may be multiplied almost _ad infinitum_; and
+as their history and habits are likely to fill a Blue Book, a short
+treatise can only notice their more prominent peculiarities.
+
+However, lest an undue inference be drawn from their contrast to the
+Hottentot, we must remember that the former has encroached upon the
+latter, and that such transitional populations as existed have been
+swept away.
+
+Now comes a coloured population--not indigenous, but the descendants of
+the _slaves_ of the colony. This consists of--
+
+1. Negroes.
+
+2. Malays from the Indian Archipelago.
+
+3. Malagasi from Madagascar.
+
+To which we must add, as of mixed blood, the offspring of--
+
+1. Negroes and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+2. Malays and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+3. Malagasi and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+This seems to be the limit of the intermixture; since, between the
+Malays and Negroes, &c., there is but little intermarriage. The
+_possible_ elements, however, of hybridity are numerous, _e.g._, Griquas
+and Negroes, Griquas and Malays, Malays and Kaffres, &c.
+
+_The so-called yellow men._--On the 4th of August, 1782, the
+"Grosvenor" Indiaman was wrecked on the coast of Natal. Of the crew who
+escaped, some reached the Cape and others remained amongst the natives.
+In 1790, an expedition was undertaken in search of them.
+
+In this expedition, Mr. Van Reenens, considered that he had discovered a
+village where the people were descended from the whites, and in which
+there were three old women who had been wrecked when very young. They
+could not tell to what country they belonged; were treated as superior
+beings; and, when offered a safe convoy to the Cape, were at first
+pleased with the prospect, but eventually refused to leave their
+children and grandchildren. Now, whatever these old women were, they
+were not of the crew of the "Grosvenor," and I doubt whether they were
+Europeans at all.
+
+Again--Mr. Thomson, when at Litaku, heard of yellow _cannibals_, with
+long hair, whose invasions were the dread of the country; a statement
+which merely means that some tribes of South Africa, are lighter
+coloured, and more savage in their appetite than others.
+
+Lastly, Lieutenant Farewell saw one of these yellow men at Natal, who
+was described as a cannibal, and _who shrunk abashed from the
+lieutenant_.
+
+Be it so. The evidence that "there are descendants of Europeans and
+Africans now widely diffusing their offspring throughout the country;
+whose services might be turned to good account in civilizing the native
+tribes," is still incomplete.
+
+_Mauritius._--The coloured population, which is far greater than that of
+the white, consists in the Mauritius of--
+
+1. True Africans--chiefly from the east coast, and, consequently, of the
+Kaffre stock; the word being used in its most general sense. Darker than
+the Kaffres of the Cape, they, nevertheless, recede from the Negro type
+in the shape of the jaw, lips, and forehead. The hair also is less
+woolly. They are strong and powerful individuals.
+
+2. Malagasi, or natives of Madagascar.--These are _not_ Africans to the
+same extent as the Kaffres of the coast. As far back as the time of
+Reland it was known that the affinities of the Malagasi language were
+with the Malay and Polynesian tongues of Asia; but it was also known
+that the similarity in physiognomy was less than that of language. Hence
+came a conflict of difficulties. The speech indicated one origin, the
+colour another--whilst the fact of an island so near to Africa, and so
+far from Malacca, as Madagascar, being other than what its geographical
+position indicated, is, and has been, a mystery. Some writers have
+assumed an intermixture of blood; others have limited the Malay element
+to the dominant population. Lastly, Mr. Crawfurd has denied the
+inferences from the similarity of language _in toto_; considering that
+there is "nothing in common between the two races, and nothing in common
+between the character of their languages." The comparative philologist
+is slow to admit this--indeed, he denies it.
+
+The blacks form the great majority of the coloured population. Besides
+these, however, there are--
+
+3. Arabs.
+
+4. Chinese.
+
+5. Hindús, from the continent of India; convicts being transported to
+the Mauritius for life, and worked on the roads of the colony.
+
+6. Cingalese from Ceylon--the Kandian chiefs whose presence in their
+native country was thought likely to endanger the tranquillity of the
+island, were sent hither.
+
+The whites of the Mauritius are chiefly French; though not wholly of
+pure blood. The first settlers took their wives from Madagascar. The
+English form the smallest part of the population.
+
+_Rodrigues_--occupied by a few French colonists from the Mauritius.
+
+_The Seychelles_--The same; the coloured population outnumbering the
+white in the proportion of ten to one. Here there is a Portuguese
+admixture. From Maha, the chief town of the Seychelles, to Madagascar,
+is five hundred and seventy-six miles--a fact to be borne in mind when
+we speculate upon the origin of the population of that island.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Africans of British America.--Honduras, Belize, the West India
+Islands, and Demerara._--The usual distribution of the population of
+these parts is--
+
+WHITE.
+
+    1. European whites, born in Europe.
+    2. Creoles, or whites born in the island.
+
+COLOURED.
+
+  _a. Pure Blood._
+
+    1. Mandingos, from the river-systems of the Senegal and Gambia.
+    2. Coromantines--from the Ivory and Gold Coast.
+    3. Whydahs--from Dahomey.
+    4. Ibos--from the Lower Niger.
+    5. Congos--from Portuguese Africa.
+
+  _b. Mixed Blood._
+
+    1. Sambos, intermixture of the Negro and Mulatto.
+    2. Mulattoes--Negro and white.
+    3. Quadroons--Mulatto and white.
+    4. Mestis--Quadroon and white.
+
+Such is what I find in Mr. Martin's valuable work on the Colonies, and
+it is, undoubtedly, a convenient and practical classification. Yet for
+the purposes of ethnology, it is deficient in detail. Without even
+guessing at the proportion of American slaves which the different parts
+of the western coast of Africa may have supplied, I subjoin a brief
+notice of tract between the Senegal and Benguela.
+
+1. First come the _Wolof_, between the Senegal and Cape Verde. To the
+back of these lie--
+
+2. The _Serawolli_--and around Cape Verde--
+
+3. The _Sereres_--none of these are truly Mandingo; nor is it certain
+that many slaves have come from them; such as do, however, are probably
+Mandingos in the current classification.
+
+4. The Fulahs of Fouta-Torro and Fouta-Jallo possess the higher part of
+the Senegambian system. Imperfect Mahometans, they are lighter-coloured
+than either the Wolof or the Mandingo. Notwithstanding the great Fulah
+conquests--for under a leader named Danfodio this has been one of the
+encroaching and subjugating families of Africa--there are still American
+slaves of Fulah blood--though, perhaps, but few. Mr. Hodgson procured
+his vocabulary from a Fulah slave of Virginia; and what we find in the
+United States, we may find in the British possessions also.
+
+5. The Mandingos Proper are the Negroes of the Gambia; but the following
+Africans, all within the range of the old slave trade, belong to the
+same class.
+
+_a._ The Susu; whose language is spoken from the River Pongos to Sierra
+Leone.
+
+_b._ The Timmani.
+
+_c._ The Bullom--each in contact with that settlement.
+
+_d._ The Vey--the written language already noticed.
+
+_e._ The Mendi--conterminous with the Vey.
+
+_f._ The Kissi--like the last two, spoken in the country behind Cape
+Mount, and on the boundaries of Liberia.
+
+South of the Gambia and north of the Pongos, the Mandingo tongues,
+though spoken in the interior, do not reach the coast. On the contrary,
+they encircle the populations on the mouths of the Cacheo, Rio Grande,
+and Nun--and truly barbarous populations these are. Of these the most
+northern are--
+
+6. _The Felúp_ (Feloops)--between the Gambia and Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Papel_--south of the Cacheo.
+
+8. _The Balantes_--south of the Papel.
+
+9. _The Bagnon_--on the Lower Cacheo.
+
+10. _The Bissago_--islanders off the Cacheo.
+
+11. _Nalú_ (_Naloos_)--on the Lower Nun.
+
+12. _Sapi_--_ibid_.
+
+After these come the Susu, &c.; down to the tribes about Cape Mount and
+Cape Mesurado.
+
+Between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas come--
+
+13. _The Krumen._ Next to them--
+
+14. _The Quaquas_, of the Ivory Coast; speaking different Avekvom
+dialects.
+
+Somewhere hereabouts come the--
+
+15, 16, 17. Kanga, Mangree, and Gien; three undetermined vocabularies of
+the "Mithridates." Then--
+
+18, 19, 20. The Fanti, Gha, and Adampi (?) of the Gold Coast. We now
+approach the great marts--
+
+21, 22. Benin and Dahomey; and--almost equal in infamous notoriety--the
+countries of the Delta, of the Niger, or of the--
+
+23, 24, 25. Ibu, Bonny, and Efik (Old Calabar) Africans; at the back of
+which lie--
+
+26, 27. Yarriba, and the Nufi country. In Fernando Po the population
+is--
+
+28. Ediya. About the Bimbia river and mountain--
+
+29. Isubu.
+
+30, 31, 32. The _Banaka_ (or _Batanga_), the _Panwi_, and the _Mpoongwe_
+take us from the Gaboon to Loango; forming a transition from the true
+Negroes to the Kaffres.
+
+33, 34, 35, 36. _Loango_, _Congo_, _Angola_, and _Benguela_--the Kaffre
+type, both in form and language, is now more closely approached. Below
+Benguela there has been little or no exportation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] "Journal of the Geographical Society," 1850.
+
+[13] "United Service Magazine," Dec., 1850.
+
+[14] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[15] Daniell in "Transactions of the Ethnological Society."
+
+[16] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[17] Dr. Daniell on the Natives of Old Calabar, "Transactions of the
+Ethnological Society."
+
+[18] Rask.--_Vejledning tel Acra-sproget, paa Kysten Ginea, med et
+Tillaeg om Akvambuisk._--Copenhagen, 1828. _Introduction to the Acra
+Language, on the Coast of Guinea, with an Appendix on the Akvambu._
+
+[19] "Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. i. no. 4.
+
+[20] "British Colonies." By M. Martin.
+
+[21] "Journal of the Geographical Society," vol. v. p. 319.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+    ADEN.--THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.--THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES.--HONG
+    KONG.--THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES; MAULMEIN, YE, TAVOY, TENASSERIM,
+    THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO.--THE MÔN, SIAMESE, AVANS, KARIENS, AND
+    SILONG.--ARAKHAN.--MUGS, KHYENS.--CHITTAGONG, TIPPERA, AND
+    SYLHET.--KUKI.--KASIA.--CACHARS.--ASSAM.--NAGAS.--SINGPHO.--JILI.--
+    KHAMTI.--MISHIMI.--ABORS AND BOR-ABORS.--DUFLA.--AKA.--MUTTUCKS AND
+    MIRI, AND OTHER TRIBES OF THE VALLEY OF ASSAM.--THE GARO.--
+    CLASSIFICATION.--MR. BROWN'S TABLES.--THE BODO.--DHIMAL.--KOCCH.--
+    LEPCHAS OF SIKKIM.--RAWAT OF KUMAON.--POLYANDRIA.--THE TAMULIAN
+    POPULATIONS.--RAJMAHALI MOUNTAINEERS.--KÚLIS, KHONDS, GOANDS,
+    CHENCHWARS.--TUDAS, ETC.--BHILS.--WARALIS.--THE TAMUL, TELINGA,
+    KANARA AND MALAYALAM LANGUAGES.
+
+
+_Aden._--The ethnology of the Arab stock would fill a volume. It is
+sufficient to state that the British political dependency of Aden is,
+ethnologically, an Arab town.
+
+Far more important possessions direct our attention towards India.
+Nevertheless, there are certain preliminaries to its ethnology.
+
+Mongolia and China--each of these countries illustrates an important
+ethnological phenomenon.
+
+The first is a physical one. Cheek-bones that project outwards, a broad
+and flat face, a depressed nose, an oblique eye, a somewhat slanting
+insertion of the teeth, a scanty beard, an undersized frame, and a tawny
+or yellow skin, characterize the Mongol of Mongolia.
+
+The second is a philological one. A comparative absence of grammatical
+inflexions, and a disproportionate preponderance of monosyllabic words,
+characterize the language of China.
+
+So much for the simple elementary facts; the former of which will be
+spoken of under the designation of _Mongolian conformation_; the second
+under that of _monosyllabic language_.
+
+Neither term is limited to the nation by which it has been illustrated.
+Plenty of populations besides those of Mongolia Proper are Mongol in
+physiognomy. Plenty of nations besides the Chinese are monosyllabic in
+language.
+
+All the nations speaking monosyllabic tongues are Mongol in physiognomy;
+though all the nations which have a Mongol physiognomy do _not_ speak
+monosyllabic tongues. This makes the latter group, which for shortness
+will be called that of the _monosyllabic_ nations or tribes--a section,
+or division, of the former.
+
+Little Tibet, Ladakh, Tibet Proper, Butan, and China, are all Mongol in
+form, and monosyllabic in language. So are Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambojia,
+and Cochin China, the countries which constitute the great peninsula,
+sometimes called _Indo-Chinese_, and sometimes _Transgangetic_.
+
+The extremity however--the Malayan peninsula--is _not_ monosyllabic.
+
+_The British possessions of Hindostan are monosyllabic on their Tibetan
+and Burmese frontiers._
+
+_Hong-Kong._--Aden was disposed of briefly. So is Hong-Kong; and that
+for the same reason. Politically, British, it is ethnologically Chinese.
+
+_Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and the Mergui Archipelago._--These
+constitute what are sometimes called the _ceded_, sometimes the
+_Tenasserim_ provinces. They came into possession of the British at the
+close of the Burmese war of 1825. Unlike our dependencies in Hindostan,
+they are cut off from connection with any of the great centres of
+British power in Asia--in which respect they agree with the smaller and
+still more isolated settlements of the Malaccan Peninsula. The power
+that ceded them was the Burmese, so that it is with the existing
+subjects of that empire that their present limits are in contact; though
+only for the northern part. To the south they abut upon Siam.
+
+The population throughout is monosyllabic; except so far as it is
+modified by foreign intermixture--of which by far the most important
+element is the Indian. Everything in the way of religious creed which is
+not native and pagan is Indian and Buddhist. The alphabets, too, of the
+lettered populations are Indian in origin.
+
+The population of the _continental_ part of these British dependencies
+is referable to four divisions--of unequal and imperfectly ascertained
+value. 1. The Môn. 2. The Siamese. 3. The Avans. 4. The Kariens.
+
+1. _The Môn._--Môn is the native name of the indigenous population of
+Pegu, so that the Môn of Maulmein, or Amherst, the most northern of the
+provinces in question, on the left bank of the lower Salwín, are part
+and parcel of the present occupants of the delta of the Irawaddi, and
+the country about Cape Negrais. The Burmese call them _Talieng_, and
+under that designation they are described in Dr. Helfer's Report.[22]
+The Siamese appellation is _Ming-môn_; apparently the native name in a
+state of composition. In the early Portuguese notices a still more
+composite form appears--and we hear of the ancient empire of
+_Kalamenham_, supposed to have been founded by the _Pandalús_ of Môn or
+Pegu.
+
+None of the _lettered_ languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula are less
+known than that of Pegu. At the same time its unequivocally
+monosyllabic character is beyond doubt. The alphabet is a slight
+variation of the Avan.
+
+The geographical position of the Môn at the extremity of a promontory,
+and on the delta of a river, taken along with their philological
+isolation, is remarkable. They have evidently been encroached upon by
+the Avans in latter times; whilst, at an earlier period, they themselves
+probably encroached upon others. Whether they are the oldest occupants
+of Maulmein is uncertain; it is only certain that they are older than
+their conquerors.
+
+To the Môn of Pegu the exchange of Avan for British rule, has been a
+great and an appreciated advantage.
+
+2. _The Siamese._--The native name for the Siamese language is _Tha'y_,
+and _Tha'y_ is the national and indigenous denomination of the Siamese.
+It is the Avans who call them _Sian_ or _Shan_; from whence the European
+term has been derived through the Portuguese.
+
+The Siamese population is of course greatest on the Siamese frontier; so
+that, increasing as we go south, it attains its _maximum_ in Tenasserim
+just as the Môn did in Maulmein. It seems, also, to have been introduced
+at different times; a fact which gives us a distinction between the
+native Siamese and the recent settlers.
+
+Like the _Môn_, the Tha'y, at least in its more classical dialect, is a
+lettered language; the alphabet, like the Buddhist religion, being
+Indian. Unlike, however, the _Môn_, which is the only representative of
+the family to which it belongs, the _Tha'y_ tribes constitute a vast
+class, falling into divisions and subdivisions, and exceedingly
+remarkable in respect to its geographical distribution.
+
+The Siamese of Siam, the kingdom of which Bankok is the capital, form
+but a fraction of this great stock. The _upper_ half of the river Menam
+is occupied by what are called the _Laú_, or _Laos_. These are partly
+wholly independent, and partly in nominal dependence upon China; and
+proportionate to their independence is the unlettered character of their
+language, and the absence of Indian influences. Nor is this all. The
+Menam is pre-eminently the river of the Tha'y stock, and along the
+water-system of the Menam its chief branches are to be found; their
+position being between the Burmese populations of the west, and the
+Khomen of Cambojia on the east. This distribution is _vertical_, _i.e._,
+it is characterized by its length, rather than its breadth, and runs
+from south to north. So far does it reach in this direction that, as
+high as 28° North lat., in upper Assam we find a branch of it. This is
+the _Khamti_. In a valuable comparison of languages, well-known as
+"Brown's Tables,"[23] the proportion of the Khamti words to the South
+Siamese is ninety-two _per cent._
+
+Of the physical appearance of the Siamese, we find the best account in
+"Crawfurd's Embassy," the classical work for the ethnology of the
+southern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their stature is low; the
+tallest man out of twenty having been five feet eight inches, the
+shortest five feet three. The complexion, darker than that of the
+Chinese, is lighter than that of the Malay; the eye oblique; the jaw
+square; and the cheek-bones broad.
+
+_Tha'y_ is an ethnological term, and denotes all the nations and tribes
+akin to the Siamese of the southern, the Khamti of the northern, or the
+Laú of the intermediate area. The difference between the first and the
+last of these three should be noticed. Some members of the family are
+Indianized in religion, and organized in politics. Such are the Siamese
+of Bankok. Others retain both their independence and their original
+Paganism. Such are some of the Laú. _Mutatis mutandis_, the same applies
+to the next family.
+
+This is the _Burmese_, to which both the Avans and the Kariens belong;
+but as it has been already stated that the divisions under
+consideration are by no means of equal value, the two branches will be
+considered separately.
+
+3. _The Avans._--_Avan_ is a more convenient term than _Burmese_,
+inasmuch as it is more definite; the _Burmese Empire_ containing not
+only very distant members of the great _Burmese_ family, but also
+populations which belong to other groups. _Ava_, on the other hand, is
+the centre of the dominant division.
+
+Whether the _Môn_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent the
+aborigines of _Maulmein_, it is certain that the Avans of that country
+are of comparatively recent introduction.
+
+Again, whether the _Tha'y_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent
+the aborigines of _Tenasserim_, it is certain that the Avans of that
+country are of comparatively recent origin.
+
+Nevertheless, there are Avans in each; and in Maulmein, although the Môn
+preponderate in number, they all are able to speak the language of their
+conquerors. I say _conquerors_, because the Avans are for all the parts
+south of 18° North lat., an intrusive population: the end of the
+eighteenth century being the date, when, under Alompra, an Avan or
+Umerapúra dynasty broke up and subjected, in different degrees, the Môn
+and Tha'y populations to the south, as well as several others more akin
+to itself on the east, west, and north.
+
+The kingdom of Ava, next to those of China and Siam, best represents the
+civilization of those families whose tongue is monosyllabic. This
+implies that it has an organized polity, a lettered language, and a
+Buddhist creed; in other words that the influences of either China or
+India have acted on it. Of these two nations it is the latter which has
+most modified the Indianized members of the great Burmese stock. In
+strong contrast with these is the fourth and last branch of the
+_continental_ population for the provinces in question, the
+
+4. _Karien._--The Kariens are partially independent; chiefly pagan; and
+their language, belonging to the same class with the Avan, is
+unlettered. They are the first of a long list.
+
+Their geographical distribution is remarkable, like that of the Tha'y.
+Its direction is north and south; its dimensions linear, rather than
+broad; and it bears nearly the same relation to the water-system of the
+Salwín that that of the Siamese does to the river Menam. There are
+Kariens as far south as 11° North lat. and there are Kariens as far
+north as 25° North lat. Hence we have them in Maulmein, and in
+Tenasserim, and in the intermediate provinces of Ye and Tavoy as well.
+All these, like the Môn, have been eased by the transfer from Avan
+oppression to British rule; though this says but little. Hence, with one
+exception, the other members of their family are decreasing; the
+exception being the so-called _Red_ Karien.
+
+This epithet indicates a change in physiognomy; and, indeed, the
+physical conformation of the Burmese tribes requires attention. It is
+Mongolian in the way that the Siamese is Mongolian; but changes have set
+in. The beard increases; the hair becomes crisper; and the complexion
+darkens. The Kyo,[24] the isolated occupants of a single village on the
+river Koladyng, are so much darker than their neighbours as to have been
+considered half Bengali; and, as a general rule, the nearer we approach
+India, the deeper becomes the complexion. The Môn, too, of Pegu, are
+very dark. What is this the effect of? Certainly not of latitude, since
+we are moving northward. Of intermarriage? There is no proof of this.
+The greater amount of low alluvial soils, like those of the Ganges and
+Irawaddi, is, in my mind, the truer reason. But this is too general a
+question to be allowed to delay us. The Red Kariens are instances of an
+Asiatic tribe with an American colour; just as the Red Fulahs were in
+Africa. Such are the occupants of the _continent_.
+
+5. _The Silong._--In the _islands_ of the Mergui Archipelago, there is
+another variety; but whether it form a class itself, or belong to any
+of the previous ones, is uncertain. Their language is said to be
+peculiar;[25] but of this we have no specimen. As it is probably that of
+the oldest inhabitants of the continent opposite, this is to be
+regretted.
+
+They are called _Silong_, are a sort of sea-gipsy; and amount to about
+one thousand. Of all the creeds of either India or the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula theirs is the most primitive; so primitive as to be
+characterized by little except its negative characters. They believe
+that the land, air, trees, and waters are inhabited by _Nat_, or
+spirits, who direct the phenomena of Nature. How far they affect that of
+man, except indirectly, is unascertained. "We do not think about that,"
+was the invariable answer, when any one was questioned about a future
+state. Too vague for monotheism, the Silong creed is also said to be too
+vague for idolatry, too vague for sacrifices.
+
+The Kariens, also, believe in _Nat_, but, as _they_ believe in their
+influence on human affairs, they sacrifice to them accordingly.
+
+Little, then, as we know, respecting these two families, we know that
+the common practice of _Nat_ worship connects them; and this worship
+connects many other members of the _Burmese_ stock. Consequently it
+helps us to place the Silong in that group. It also favours the notion
+of the Tenasserim aborigines being Burmese.
+
+It is the delta of the Irawaddi which isolates the _Tenasserim
+provinces_; and the British dependency from which it separates them is--
+
+_Arakhan._--We are prepared for the ethnological position of the Arakhan
+populations. They are _Burmese_.
+
+We are likewise prepared for a division of them; there will be the
+Indianized and the Pagan--paganism and political independence going, to
+a certain degree, together.
+
+We are prepared for even minuter detail; the paganism will be
+Nat-worship; the Indian creed Buddhism: the alphabet also, where the
+language is written, will be Indian also. In Captain Tower's
+vocabulary,[26] only seven words out of fifty differ between the Burmese
+of Arakhan, and the Burmese of Ava; and some of these are mere
+differences of pronunciation.
+
+The language itself is called _Rukheng_ by those who use it; but the
+Bengali name is _Mug_.
+
+This applies to the Indianized part of the population, the analogues of
+the Avans and Siamese of Tenasserim, and of the Môn of Maulmein. What
+are the Arakhan equivalents to the Karien?
+
+_The Khyen._--These inhabit the Yuma mountains between Arakhan and Ava.
+A full notice of them is given by Lieutenant Trant, in the sixteenth
+volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But as they are chiefly independent
+tribes, it is enough to state that they form the Anglo-Burmese frontier.
+It is also added that there are numerous Khyen slaves in Arakhan.
+
+Farther notice of them is the less important, because a closely allied
+population will occur amongst the hill-tribes of--
+
+_Chittagong._--Hindú elements now increase. Even in Arakhan, Buddhism
+had ceased to be the only creed of western origin. There were Mahometans
+who spoke a mixed dialect called the _Ruinga_;[27] and Brahminical
+Hindús who spoke another called the _Rosawn_. In Chittagong, then, we
+must look about us for the aborigines; so intrusive have become the
+Hindú elements. Intrusive, however, they are, and intrusive they will be
+for some time to come.
+
+The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are important points of
+difference in Indian ethnology. On the _lower_ ranges of the mountains
+on the north-east of Chittagong are the _Khumia_ (_Choomeeas_) or
+_villagers_; _khum_ (_choom_) meaning _village_. These are definitely
+distinguished from the Hindús, by a flat nose, small eye, and broad
+round face, in other words by Mongolian characteristics in the way of
+physiognomy. But the _Khumia_ are less perfect samples of their class
+than the true mountaineers. These are the _Kuki_,[28]--hunters and
+warriors, divided into tribes, each under elective chiefs, themselves
+subordinate to a hereditary _Raja_,--at least such is the Hindú
+phraseology.
+
+Their creed consists in the belief of _Khogein Pootteeang_ as a
+superior, and _Sheem Sauk_ as an inferior deity; the destruction of
+numerous enemies being the best recommendation to their favour. A wooden
+figure, of human shape, represents the latter. The skulls of their
+enemies they keep as trophies. In the month of January there is a solemn
+festival.
+
+Language and tradition alike tell us that the Kuki (and most likely the
+Khumia as well) are unmodified Mugs. The displacement of their family
+has been twofold--first by Hindús, secondly by Buddhist (or modified)
+Mugs at the time of the Burmese conquest. The Kuki population extends to
+the wilder parts of the district of _Tippera_.
+
+_Sylhet._--On the southern frontier we have Kukis; on the eastern
+Cachari; on the northern Coosyas (_Kasia_). Due west of these last lie
+the Garo. I imagine that both these last-named populations are members
+of the same group--but cannot speak confidently. If so, we have
+departed considerably from the more typical Burmese of Arakhan and Ava.
+Still we are within the same great class. The Garo will command a
+somewhat full notice.
+
+The Cachars depart still more from the more typical Burmese; the group
+to which they most closely belong being one which will also be enlarged
+on.
+
+North of the Kasia we reach the western portion of the southern frontier
+of--
+
+_Assam._--Here it will be convenient to take the whole of the
+valley--Upper as well as Middle and Lower Assam--although parts of the
+former are independent rather than British--and to go round it;
+beginning with the Kasia country and the Jaintia mountains on the
+south-west. I imagine--but am not certain--that the Kasia and Jaintia
+mountaineers are very closely allied.
+
+Next to the Cachars on the southern, or Manipur, frontier are--
+
+_The Nagas._--These are in the same class with the Kuki; _i.e._, the
+wild tribes of Manipur, speaking a not very altered dialect of the
+Burmese.
+
+_The Singpho._--This people is said to have come from a locality between
+their present position and the north-eastern corner of Assam and the
+Chinese frontier. An imperfect Buddhism, and an unappreciated alphabet
+of Siamese origin, are the chief phenomena of their civilization.
+
+_The Jili._--These are conterminous with the Singpho; to whom they are
+closely allied, in language, at least; seventy words out of one hundred
+agreeing in the two vocabularies.
+
+The _Khamti_ come in now. These have been mentioned as Tha'y in their
+most northern localities. They occupy north-eastern Assam, and are
+conterminous with the Singpho. The Khamti language, with its per-centage
+of ninety-two words common to it and the Siamese of Bankok, ten degrees
+southwards, has only three out of one hundred that agree with the
+Singpho, and ten in one hundred with the Jili. This shows the remarkable
+character of their ethnological distribution, and, at the same time,
+suggests the idea of great displacement.
+
+_The Mishimi._--These occupy the north-east extremity of Assam. With the
+Mishimi we turn the corner, and find ourself on the northern or Tibetan
+frontier. Here it is the most western tribes which come first; and these
+are--
+
+_The Abors and Padam Bor-Abors._--The first, like the Kuki, on the
+mountain-tops; the latter, like the Khumia, on the lower ranges.
+
+_The Dufla._--Mountaineers west of the Abors, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 94° East lon.
+
+_The Aka._--Mountaineers west of the Dufla, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 92° East lon. The Akas bound Lower Assam, the
+eastern part of which lies between them and the Cachari country.
+
+The tribes hitherto mentioned, although sufficiently numerous, represent
+the mountaineers of the Manipur and Tibetan _frontiers_ only. The native
+tribes of the valley still stand over. These are--
+
+1. The _Muttuck_ or _Moa Mareya_, _south_ of the Brahmaputra, and so far
+Indianized as to be Brahminical in religion. Their locality is the south
+bank of the Brahmaputra; opposite to that of--
+
+2. _The Miri_, on the _north_.--The Miri are backed on the north by the
+Bor-Abors.
+
+3. _The Mikir._--Mr. Robertson looks upon these as an intrusive people
+from the Jaintia hills: their present locality being the district of
+Nowgong, where they are mixed up with--
+
+4. _The Lalong._--I cannot say whether the Lalong speak their originally
+monosyllabic tongue, or have learnt the Bengali--a phenomenon which does
+much to disguise the true ethnology of more than one of the forthcoming
+tribes; one of which is certainly--
+
+5. _The Dhekra_, occupants of Lower Assam and Kamrup, where they are
+mixed up with other sections of the population.
+
+6. _The Rabhá._--Like the Dhekra, these are Hindús. Like the Dhekra
+they speak Bengali. Hence, like the Dhekra, their true affinities are
+disguised. It is, however, pretty generally admitted by the best
+authorities that what may be predicated of the Garo and Bodo--two
+families of which a fuller notice will be given in the sequel--may be
+predicated of the sections in question, as also of--
+
+7. _The Hajong_ or _Hojai_.--Hindús, speaking a form of the Bengali at
+the foot of the Garo hills; and who join the Rabhá, whose locality is
+between Gwahatti and Sylhet, _i.e._, at the entrance of the Assam
+valley.
+
+The _Garo_ of the Garo hills to the north-east of Bengal now require
+notice. A mountaineer of these parts has much in common with the Coosya;
+yet the languages are, _perhaps_, mutually unintelligible. In form they
+are exceedingly alike.
+
+Now, a Garo[29] is hardy, stout, and surly-looking, with a flattened
+nose, blue or brown eyes, large mouth, thick lips, round face, and brown
+complexion. Their _buniahs_ (_booneeahs_) or chiefs, are distinguished
+by a silken turban. They have a prejudice against milk; but in the
+matter of other sorts of food are omnivorous. Their houses, called
+_chaungs_, are built on piles, from three to four feet from the ground,
+from ten to forty in breadth, and from thirty to one hundred and fifty
+in length. They drink, feast, and dance freely; and, in their
+matrimonial forms, much resemble the Bodo. The youngest daughter
+inherits. The widow marries the brother of the deceased; if he die, the
+next; if all, the father.
+
+The dead are kept for four days; then burnt. Then the ashes are buried
+in a hole on the place where the fire was. A small thatched building is
+next raised over them; which is afterwards railed in. For a month, or
+more, a lamp is lit every night in this building. The clothes of the
+deceased hang on poles--one at each corner of the railing. When the pile
+is set fire to, there is great feasting and drunkenness.
+
+The Garo are no Hindús. Neither are they unmodified pagans. Mahadeva
+they invoke--perhaps, worship. Nevertheless, their creed is mixed. They
+worship the sun and the moon, or rather the sun _or_ the moon; since
+they ascertain which is to be invoked by taking a cup of water and some
+wheat. The priest then calls on the name of the sun, and drops corn into
+the water. If it sink, the sun is worshipped. If not, a similar
+experiment is tried with the name of the moon. Misfortunes are
+attributed to supernatural agency: and averted by sacrifice.
+
+Sometimes they swear on a stone; sometimes they take a tiger's bone
+between their teeth and then tell their tale.
+
+Lastly, they have an equivalent to the _Lycanthropy_ of the older
+European nations:--
+
+"Among the Garrows a madness exists, which they call transformation into
+a tiger, from the person who is afflicted with this malady walking about
+like that animal, shunning all society. It is said, that, on their being
+first seized with this complaint they tear their hair and the rings from
+their ears, with such force as to break the lobe. It is supposed to be
+occasioned by a medicine applied to the forehead; but I endeavoured to
+procure some of the medicine thus used, without effect. I imagine it
+rather to be created by frequent intoxications, as the malady goes off
+in the course of a week or fortnight. During the time the person is in
+this state, it is with the utmost difficulty he is made to eat or drink.
+I questioned a man, who had thus been afflicted, as to the manner of his
+being seized, and he told me he only felt a giddiness without any pain,
+and that afterwards he did not know what happened to him."[30]
+
+In a paper of Captain C. S. Reynolds, in the "Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal,"[31] we have the notice of a hitherto undescribed
+superstition; that of the _Korah_. A _Korah_ is a dish of bell-metal, of
+uncertain manufacture. A small kind, called Deo Korah, is hung up as a
+household god and worshipped. Should the monthly sacrifice of a fowl be
+neglected, punishment is expected. If "a person perform his devotion to
+the spirit which inhabits the Korah with increasing fervour and
+devotion, he is generally rewarded by seeing the embossed figures
+gradually expand. The Garos believe that when the whole household is
+wrapped in sleep, the Deo Korahs make expeditions in search of food, and
+when they have satisfied their appetites return to their snug retreats
+unobserved."
+
+The Miri are supposed to believe the same of what are called _Deo
+Guntas_, brought from Tibet.
+
+Now what is the classification of all these tribes? Preliminary to the
+answer on this point, there are eleven dialects spoken in the parts
+about Manipur--besides the proper language of Manipur itself--to be
+enumerated. These are as follows:--1. Songpu. 2. Kapwi. 3. Koreng. 4.
+Maram. 5. Champhung. 6. Luhuppa. 7, 8, 9. Northern, Central, and
+Southern Tangkhul. 10. Khoibu; and 11. Maring. Now these twelve (the
+Manipur being included) have been tabulated by Mr. Brown, in such a way
+as to show the per-centage of words that each has with all the others;
+and not only these, but nearly all the tongues which we have had to deal
+with, are similarly put in order for being compared. The part of the
+table necessary for the present use is as follows:--
+
+                                                         |N.|C.|S.|
+                                                   |C |  |  |  |  |
+                                    |M |           |h |  |T |T |T |
+                  |M |B |  |S |     |a |           |a |L |á |á |á |
+                  |i |u |  |i |     |n |S |  |K |  |m |u |n |n |n |K |M
+                  |s |r |K |n |     |i |o |K |o |M |p |h |g |g |g |h |a
+               |Á |h |m |a |g |J |G |p |n |a |r |a |h |u |k |k |k |o |r
+            |Á |b |i |e |r |p |i |á |u |g |p |e |r |u |p |h |h |h |i |i
+            |k |o |m |s |e |h |l |r |r |p |w |n |á |n |p |u |u |u |b |n
+            |á |r |í |e |n |o |í |o |í |ú |í |g |m |g |a |l |l |l |ú |g
+ -----------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--
+ Áká        |  |47|20|17|12|15|15| 5|11| 3|10| 3| 8| 8| 8| 5| 6|10| 8|10
+ Ábor       |47|  |20|11|10|18|11| 6|15| 6|11| 5| 8| 6| 8| 8| 8|10|10|18
+ Mishimí    |20|20|  |10|10|10|13|10|11| 0|11| 0| 3| 5| 6| 8| 6|13|10| 8
+ Burmese    |17|11|10|  |23|23|26|12|16| 8|20| 6|11|11|11|10|13|13|16|16
+ Karen      |12|10|10|23|  |17|21| 8|15|10|15| 8|12| 4|12| 8|12|12|10|15
+ Singpho    |15|18|10|23|17|  |70|16|25|10|18|11|11|13|15|13|25|13|20|18
+ Jilí       |15|11|13|26|21|70|  |22|16|10|21|13|11|11|18|20|20|13|20|20
+ Gáro       | 5| 6|10|12| 8|16|22|  |10| 5| 6| 5| 8| 5| 8|13|11| 5| 5| 5
+ Manipurí   |11|15|11|16|15|25|16|10|  |21|41|18|25|28|31|28|35|33|40|50
+ Songpú     | 3| 6| 0| 8|10|10|10| 5|21|  |35|50|53|20|23|15|15|13| 8|15
+ Kapwí      |10|11|11|20|15|18|21| 6|41|35|  |30|33|20|35|30|40|45|38|40
+ Koreng     | 3| 5| 0| 6| 8|11|13| 5|18|50|30|  |41|18|21|20|20|11|10|15
+ Marám      | 8| 8| 3|11|12|11|11| 8|25|53|33|41|  |21|28|25|20|16|23|26
+ Champhung  | 8| 6| 5|11| 4|13|11| 5|28|20|20|18|21|  |40|20|20|16|15|25
+ Luhuppa    | 8| 8| 6|11|12|15|18| 8|31|23|35|21|28|40|  |63|55|36|33|40
+ N. Tángkhul| 5| 8| 8|10| 8|13|20|13|28|15|30|20|25|20|63|  |85|30|31|31
+ C. Tángkhul| 6| 8| 6|13|12|25|20|11|35|15|40|20|20|20|55|85|  |41|45|41
+ S. Tángkhul|10|10|13|13|12|13|13| 5|33|13|45|11|16|16|36|30|41|  |43|43
+ Khoibú     | 8|10|10|16|10|20|20| 5|40| 8|38|10|23|15|33|31|45|43|  |78
+ Maring     |10|18| 8|16|15|18|20| 5|50|15|40|15|26|25|40|31|41|43|78|
+
+The last eleven dialects are not spoken in any British dependency; and
+they have only been mentioned for the sake of explaining the table.
+
+All belong to one and the same class; a point upon which I see no room
+for doubt; although respecting the _value_ of that class I admit that
+some exists.
+
+For this, the term _Burmese_ is as good as any other--without professing
+to be better; yet, should it seem too precise, there is no objection to
+the sufficiently general term of _monosyllabic_ being substituted for
+it.
+
+The reader, however, may doubt the fact of the affinities. This has
+been done. Long before the present writer knew of such dialects as the
+Jili, Mishimi, Aka, Abor, Singpho, and the like, he had satisfied
+himself that the Garo was monosyllabic, and had so expressed himself in
+1844,[32] when Brown's Tables had been published, though not seen by
+him. It was with surprise, then, that he found the author of them
+writing, that "it would be difficult to decide from the specimens before
+us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic or polysyllabic
+languages. It probably belongs to the latter."
+
+Again, Mr. Hodgson makes the Garo Tamulian, _i.e._, polysyllabic; a fact
+which will be noticed again when the Bodo, Dhimal, and Kocch have been
+disposed of.
+
+_The Kocch_, _Bodo_, and _Dhimal_ is the title of one of that writer's
+works--a model of an ethnological monograph. This gives us a new class.
+The Bodo of Hodgson are the wild tribes that skirt the Himalayas, from
+Assam to Sikkim. West of these, between the river Konki and the river
+Dhorla are the Dhimal, a small tribe mixed with Bodo; and, southwards,
+in Kocch Behar, are the Kocch. The two former are so much described
+together that a separation is difficult. This leaves us at liberty to
+follow the details of either one population or of both. The history of
+a Bodo from his cradle to his grave is as follows. The birth is attended
+with a _minimum_ amount of ceremonies. Midwives there are none; but
+labours are easy. Neither has the priest much to do with ushering-in the
+new-comer to the world. A short period of uncleanness is recognized, but
+it is only a short one; the purification consisting in the acts of
+bathing and shaving performed by the parties themselves. Four or five
+days after delivery, the mother goes out into the world; and at that
+time, the child is named. Any passing event determines this; as there
+are no family names, and no names taken from their mythology. The
+account, however, of Mr. Hodgson, in this respect is somewhat obscure,
+"A Bhotia chief arrives at the village, and the child is named Jinkháp;
+or a hill peasant arrives, and it is named Gongar, after the titular, or
+general designation of the Bhotias."
+
+As long as a mother can suckle a child (or _children_) she continues to
+do so, sometimes for so long a period as three years, when the last and
+last but one may be seen sucking together.
+
+The period of weaning is thus delayed; and, notwithstanding the current
+notion as to the prematurity of marriages in warm climates, that of
+wedlock is delayed as well: the male waits till he is twenty or
+twenty-five, the female till between fifteen and twenty. The parties
+least concerned are the bride and bridegroom; the parents do the
+courtship. Those of the lady take a payment. This is called a _Jan_
+amongst the Bodo, and varies from ten to fifteen rupees. With the Dhimal
+it is a _Gandi_, and amounts to a higher sum, ranging from fifteen to
+forty-five. Failing this, service must be done by the youth; and a wife
+be earned as Jacob earned Leah and Rachel. This is the _Gabor_ of the
+Bodo, and the _Gharjya_ of the Dhimal.
+
+Such marriages are easily dissolved, _i.e._, at the option of either
+party. In case, however, of infidelity on the part of a wife having
+caused a divorce, the wedding-money is repaid. Adoption is common,
+concubinage rare; each being on a level with marriage in respect to the
+_status_ of the children. Of these, all males inherit alike; but the
+rights of the female are limited.
+
+The ceremony itself begins with a procession on the part of the
+bridegroom's friends to the bride's house, two females accompanying
+them. Of these, it is the business to put red-lead and oil on the
+bride-elect's hair. A feast follows; after which the husband takes his
+wife home. Thus far the Bodo forms agree with the Dhimal; but they
+differ in what follows.
+
+_The Bodo_ sacrifices a cock and a hen in the names of the bridegroom
+and the bride, respectively to the Sun.
+
+_The Dhimal_ propitiate _Data_ and _Bedata_ by presents of betel-leaf
+and red-lead.
+
+Both bury their dead, and purify themselves by ablution in the nearest
+stream when the funeral procession is over. The family, however, of the
+deceased is considered as unclean for three days.
+
+A feast with sacrifices attends the purification. Before sitting down,
+they repair once more to the grave, and present the dead with some of
+the food from the banquet;--"take and eat, heretofore you have eaten and
+drunk with us; you can do so no more; you were one of us, you can be so
+no longer; we come no more to you; come you not to us." After this each
+member of the party takes from his wrist a bracelet of thread, and
+throws it on the grave.
+
+A ceremonial implies a priesthood. Under this class come the Deoshi, the
+Dhami, the Ojha, and the Phantwal.
+
+The first of these is the village, the second the district, priest.
+
+The Ojha is the village exorcist; and the Phantwal a subordinate of the
+Deoshi. The influence of this clerical body, although probably higher
+than Mr. Hodgson places it, is, evidently, anything but exorbitant.
+
+I cannot find anything in the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions higher than
+what was found in Africa. Nor yet is anything _essentially_ different.
+Similar intellectual conditions develop similar creeds, independent of
+intercourse; a fact which, the more we go into the natural history of
+religions, the more we shall verify. We read indeed of _oaths_ and
+_ordeals_; but oaths and ordeals are by no means, what they have too
+loosely been supposed to be, appeals to the moral nature of the
+Divinity. The _dhoom_ test, in Old Calabar, is an ordeal. The criminal
+tests of the Fantis are the same. Indeed, few, if any tribes, are
+without them. What the real ideas are which determine such and such-like
+ceremonies is difficult for intellectual adults to understand. The way
+towards their appreciation lies in the phenomena of a child's mind; the
+true clue to the psychology of rude populations.
+
+If we take the Bodo and Dhimal religions in detail we find ourselves in
+a familiar field, with well-known forms of superstition around us.
+
+Diseases are attributed to supernatural agency; and the medicine-man,
+exorcist, or Ojha, is more priest than surgeon.
+
+The _feticism_ of Africa re-appears; at least such is my inference from
+the following extract. "_Batho_ is clearly and indisputably identifiable
+with _something tangible_, _viz._, the _Sij_ or _Euphorbia_; though why
+that useless and even exotic plant should have been thus selected to
+type the Godhead, I have failed to learn."
+
+Euhemerism, or the worship of dead men deified, is to be found either in
+its germs or its rudiments; at any rate, one of their deities bears the
+name of Hajo, a known historic personage. But this may be referable to
+Hindú influences unequivocally traceable in other parts of the Pantheon.
+
+It is the rites and ceremonies of a country that give us its religion in
+the concrete. All beyond is an abstraction. These, with the Bodo and
+Dhimal, are numerous. Invocations, deprecations, and thanksgivings are
+all mentioned by Mr. Hodgson; and they are all attended by offerings or
+sacrifices; libations attend the sacrifices, and feasting follows the
+libations.
+
+The great festivals of the year are four for the Bodo, three for the
+Dhimal.
+
+_a._ In December or January, when the cotton-crop is ready, the Bodo
+hold their _Shurkhar_, the Dhimal their _Harejata_.
+
+_b._ In February or March, the Bodo hold the _Wagaleno_.
+
+_c._ In July or August, the rice comes into ear. This brings on the Bodo
+_Phulthepno_, and the Dhimal _Gavipuja_.
+
+All these are celebrated out of doors, and on agricultural occasions.
+
+_d._ The fourth great festival is held at home; its time being the month
+of October; its name _Aihuno_ in Bodo, and _Pochima paka_ in Dhimal.
+Here, in the _Aihuno_ at least, the family assembles, the priest joins
+it, and the Sij, or Euphorbia, represents Batho. This is placed in the
+middle of the room, has prayers offered to it, and a _cock_ as a
+sacrifice; whilst Mainou's offering is a _hog_; Agrang's a _he-goat_,
+and so on, through the whole list of the nine _nooni madai_, or deities
+thus worshipped. As for the symbols which represent them, besides the
+Sij, which stands for Batho, there is a bamboo post about three feet
+high, surmounted by a small cup of rice, denoting Mainou; but the
+equivalents of the other seven are somewhat uncertain.
+
+The Wagaleno festival was witnessed by Mr. Hodgson and Dr. Campbell. The
+account of it is something lengthy. I mention it, however, for the sake
+of one of its principal actors--the Déódá. This is the _possessed_, who,
+"when filled with the god, answers by inspiration to the question of the
+priest as to the prospects of the coming season. When we first discerned
+him, he was sitting on the ground, panting, and rolling his eyes so
+significantly that I at once conjectured his function. Shortly
+afterwards, the rite still proceeding, the Déódá got up, entered the
+circle, and commenced dancing with the rest, but more wildly. He held a
+short staff in his hand, with which, from time to time, he struck the
+bedizened poles, one by one, and lowering it as he struck. The chief
+dancer with the odd-shaped instrument waxed more and more vehement in
+his dance; the inspired grew more and more maniacal; the music more and
+more rapid; the incantation more and more solemn and earnest; till, at
+last, amid a general lowering of the heads of the decked bamboo poles,
+so that they met and formed a canopy over him, the Déódá went off in an
+affected fit, and the ceremony closed without any revelation." This
+self-excited state of ecstasy is an element of most religions in the
+same stage of development; and a low level it indicates. In Greece, in
+Africa, and in Northern Asia, we find it as regularly as we find a
+coarse and material creed; and to the coarseness of the materialism of
+such a creed it is generally proportionate.
+
+Witches, and the discovery of them, and the influence of the evil eye
+are part and parcel of the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions.
+
+_Kocch_ means a population, which possibly amounts to as much as a
+million souls, extended from about 88° to 93½° East long., and 25° to
+27° North lat., and of which Kocch Behar is the political centre. The
+term is _ethnological_--not political. It is ethnological, and not
+political, because, although originally native, it has since been
+partially abandoned. _All_ the inhabitants of the parts in question
+_once_ called themselves Kocch; and Kocch they were called by their
+neighbours the Mech. At this time the country was unequivocally other
+than Indian; _i.e._, in the same category with that of the Garo and
+Bodo. Since then, however, great changes have taken place; so that, just
+as Wales is partially Anglicized, the Welsh language being replaced by
+the English, the Kocch--the native tongue--is under the process of being
+replaced by a Hindú dialect. Nevertheless, just as many a Welshman who
+speaks nothing but English is still a Welshman, so are the Kocch, who
+have changed their languages, Bodo, Garo, or something closely akin, in
+ethnological position.
+
+The extent to which different portions of the once great Kocch nation
+have abandoned or retained their original characteristics is easily
+measured.
+
+1. Those who have changed most speak a form of the Bengali, and are
+imperfect Mahometans; imperfect, because their creed is strongly
+tinctured with Hinduism. Thus the very epithet which they apply to
+themselves is Brahminical; _Rájbansi_=_Suryabansi_=_Sun-born_. The
+converted Kocch of the Mahometan creed are chiefly of the lower order
+of the province of Behar.
+
+2. Those who have changed, but changed less than the _Mahometans_ of
+Behar, are either Brahminists or Buddhists--speaking the same Bengali
+dialect as the last. These are chiefly the higher classes of the
+population of Behar. They are Kocch in the way that the Cornishmen are
+Welsh. They consider them _Rájbansi_ also. Doubtless, their Hinduism is
+imperfect; _i.e._, tinctured with the original paganism.
+
+3. The primitive, unconverted, or _Pani_ Kocch, have either not changed
+at all, or changed but little. They retain the original name of Kocch;
+which is not endured by the others. They retain their original tongue,
+which, according to Buchanan, has no affinity with any of the Hindú
+tongues. They retain their original customs; and they retain their
+original paganism. Lastly, Mr. Hodgson attests the "entire conformity of
+the physiognomy of all--with that of the other aborigines around them."
+He adds that he cannot improve on Buchanan's account of them, which is
+as follows:--"The primitive or Páni Kocch live amid the woods,
+frequently changing their abode in order to cultivate lands enriched by
+a fallow. They cultivate entirely with the hoe, and more carefully than
+their neighbours who use the plough, for they weed their crops, which
+the others do not. As they keep hogs and poultry they are better fed
+than the Hindús, and as they make a fermented liquor from rice, their
+diet is more strengthening. The clothing of the Páni Kocch is made by
+the women, and is in general blue, dyed by themselves with their own
+indigo, the borders red, dyed with Morinda. The material is cotton of
+their own growth, and they are better clothed than the mass of the
+Bengalese. Their huts are at least as good, nor are they raised on posts
+like the houses of the Indo-Chinese, at least, not generally so. Their
+only arms are spears: but they use iron-shod implements of agriculture,
+which the Bengalese often do not. They eat swine, goats, sheep, deer,
+buffaloes, rhinoceros, fowls, and ducks--not beef, nor dogs, nor cats,
+nor frogs, nor snakes. They use tobacco and beer, but reject opium and
+hemp. They eat no tame animal without offering it to God (the Gods), and
+consider that he who is least restrained is most exalted, allowing the
+Gárós to be their superiors, because the Gárós may eat beef. The men are
+so gallant as to have made over all property to the women, who in return
+are most industrious, weaving, spinning, brewing, planting, sowing; in a
+word, doing all work not above their strength. When a woman dies the
+family property goes to her daughters, and when a man marries he lives
+with his wife's mother, obeying her as his wife. Marriages are usually
+arranged by mothers in nonage, but consulting the destined bride. Grown
+up women may select a husband for themselves, and another, if the first
+die. A girl's marriage costs the mother ten rupees--a boy's five rupees.
+This sum is expended in a feast with sacrifice, which completes the
+ceremony. Few remain unmarried, or live long. I saw no grey hairs.
+Girls, who are frail, can always marry their lover. Under such rule,
+polygamy, concubinage, and adultery are not tolerated. The last subjects
+to a ruinous fine, which if not paid, the offender becomes a slave. No
+one can marry out of his own tribe. If he do, he is fined. Sutties are
+unknown, and widows always having property can pick out a new husband at
+discretion. The dead are kept two days, during which the family mourn,
+and the kindred and friends assemble and feast, dance and sing. The body
+is then burned by a river's side, and each person having bathed returns
+to his usual occupation. A funeral costs ten rupees, as several pigs
+must be sacrificed to the manes. This tribe has no letters; but a sort
+of priesthood called Déóshi, who marry and work like other people. Their
+office is not hereditary, and everybody employs what Déóshi he pleases,
+but some one always assists at every sacrifice and gets a share. The
+Kocch sacrifice to the sun, moon, and stars, to the gods of rivers,
+hills and woods, and every year, at harvest-home, they offer fruits and
+a fowl to deceased parents, though they believe not in a future state!
+Their chief gods are Rishi and his wife Jágó. After the rains the whole
+tribe make a grand sacrifice to these gods, and occasionally also, in
+cases of distress. There are no images. The gods get the blood of
+sacrifices; their votaries, the meat. Disputes are settled among
+themselves by juries of Elders, the women being excluded here, however
+despotic at home. If a man incurs a fine, he cannot pay with purse, he
+must with person, becoming a bondman, on food and raiment only, unless
+his wife can and will redeem him."
+
+I must now request particular attention on the part of the reader to the
+terms which Mr. Hodgson applies to the physical conformation of these
+northern, or sub-Himalayan tribes; and still closer attention must be
+given to his nomenclature. He calls the stock in question _Tamulian_.
+This connects it with the _South_ Indian. He contrasts it with the
+_Hindú_. By this he means the Brahminical elements of the Indian
+populations.
+
+Let us then see what points he considers to be _Tamulian_.
+
+1. There is "less height, less symmetry, more dumpiness and flesh."
+
+2. There is "a somewhat lozenge contour (of face) caused by the large
+cheek-bones."
+
+3. There is "less perpendicularity of features in the front--a larger
+proportion of face to head--a broader flatter face--a shorter wider
+nose, often clubbed at the end, and furnished with round nostrils."
+
+4. There is a smaller eye, "less fully opened, and less evenly crossing
+the face by their line of aperture." In other words, there is the
+_oblique_ eye, so much considered in the Chinese physiognomy.
+
+5. Lastly, there are larger ears, thicker lips, and less beard.
+
+I submit that all these points are Mongolian; and this is what Mr.
+Hodgson evidently thinks also.
+
+The whole class has passed beyond the hunter state, if ever such
+existed. It has passed beyond the pastoral or nomadic state also; if
+such existed. It is at present--and, perhaps, has always been--an
+agricultural state of society. On the other hand--the industrial state,
+the development represented by towns and commerce, has not been
+attained.
+
+The whole stock is essentially agricultural. Likewise, the agriculture
+is peculiar. We may explain it by the term _erratic_. They "never
+cultivate the same field beyond the second year, or remain in the same
+village beyond the fourth to sixth year. After the lapse of four or five
+years they frequently return to their old fields and resume their
+cultivation, if in the interim the jungle has grown well, and they have
+not been anticipated by others, for there is no pretence of
+appropriation other than possessory, and if, therefore, another party
+have preceded them, or, if the slow growth of the jungle give no
+sufficient promise of a good stratum of ashes for the land when cleared
+by fire, they move on to another site, new or old. If old, they resume
+the identical fields they tilled before, but never the old houses or
+site of the old village, that being deemed unlucky. In general, however,
+they prefer new land to old, and having still abundance of unbroken
+forest around them, they are in constant movement, more especially as,
+should they find a new spot prove unfertile, they decamp after the first
+harvest is got in."
+
+_Arva in annos mutant et superest ager._ This passage is explained by
+their customs.
+
+In respect to their social constitution, they dwell in small communities
+of from ten to forty houses; each of which community is under a _grà_ or
+head. This is Hindú--except that as the Hindú villages are both larger
+and more permanent, the functionaries, in addition to the _headman_, are
+more numerous. This is noted, because the difference in the two sorts of
+village government seems to be one of _degree_ rather than _kind_.
+
+And now comes more in the way of classification. The Bodo are Kachars,
+or the Kachars are Bodo. Their languages are the same, so are their
+gods, so is their name; since Kachar is a Hindú, and no native term--the
+native name (_i.e._, of the Kachars) being _Bodo_. On the other hand,
+the _Hindú_ name of the Bodo is Mech. Whoever looks to a map will find
+that the outline of the Bodo area is very deeply indented; implying
+either a great original irregularity of area, or great subsequent
+displacement.
+
+Now follow the Garo. One fourth--fifteen out of sixty--of the words of
+Mr. Brown's Garo vocabulary is Bodo. The inference? That the Bodo and
+Garo are in the same category. What is this? Mr. Hodgson makes both
+Tamulian or Indian. In my own mind both are Burmese. But be this as it
+may, one fact is certain; _viz._, that a transition between the tongues
+of the Indian and the tongues of the Indo-Chinese peninsula exists, and
+that the lines of demarcation which divide them are less broad and
+trenchant than is generally supposed.
+
+The Dhimal bring us to Sikkim. The dominant nation of Sikkim are--
+
+_The Lepchas._--Their language also is monosyllabic; but it is Tibetan
+rather than Burmese. They are a Sikkim rather than a British Indian
+population.
+
+When we have passed the rajahship of Sikkim, we reach that of Nepâl.
+This, again, is independent. Such being the case, the line of frontier
+between the Hindú populations and the populations of the Bodo and Garo
+character lies beyond the pale of the British dependencies.
+
+But in proceeding westward, we pass Nepâl, and reach Kumaon.
+
+This is British, and, as it extends as far north as the Himalayas, it
+may contain monosyllabic languages, and tribes speaking them. It may
+present also instances of intermixture like those which we have already
+found in Behar--the line of demarcation being equally difficult and
+undefined. Difficult and undefined it really is--because, although it is
+an easy matter to take a portion of the Sirmor, Gurhwal, or Kumaon
+population, and say, "this is Hindú because both language and creed make
+it so," it is by no means so easy to prove that the blood, pedigree, or
+descent is Hindú also. To repeat an illustration already in use--many
+such populations may be Hindú only as the Cornishmen are English.
+
+Now the populations of the Tibetan stock to the west of Nepâl, so little
+known in detail, must be illustrated by means of our knowledge of the
+tribes of Nepâl and Tibet most closely related to them--by those of
+Nepâl on the east, and those of Tibet on the north.
+
+For neither of these areas are there any very minute _data_. For the
+aborigines of _eastern_ and _central_ Nepâl, we have plenty of
+information. They are tribes speaking monosyllabic languages, and tribes
+in different degrees of intercourse with the Hindús; being by name--1.
+The Magars. 2. The Gurungs. 3. The Jariyas. 4. The Newars. 5. The
+Murmis. 6. The Kirata. 7. The Limbu; and 8. The Lepchas, common to the
+eastern boundary of Nepâl, to the western part of Butan, and to Sikkim.
+This, however, will not bring us far west enough for the Kumaon
+frontier; indeed, for the forests of Nepâl _west_ of the Great Valley,
+we have the notice of one family only--the Chepang. For this, as for so
+much more, we are indebted to Mr. Hodgson. It falls into three tribes;
+the Chepang proper, the Kusunda, and the Haju. Its language (known to us
+by a vocabulary) is monosyllabic; its physical conformation, that of the
+unmodified Indian.
+
+So much for analogy. In the way of direct information we simply know
+that the Pariahs, or outcasts, of Kumaon[33] are called _Doms_. These
+have darker skins and curlier hair than the Hindús. Are these enslaved
+and partially amalgamated aborigines? Probably. Nay more; in the
+eastern part of the province, amidst the forests at the foot of the
+Himalayas, a community of about twenty families, pertinaciously adheres
+to the customs of their ancestors, resembles the _Doms_ in looks, and is
+called _Rawat_ or _Raji_. Though I have seen no specimen of their
+language, I have little doubt as to the _Rawat_ of Kumaon being the
+equivalents to the Chepang of Nepâl.
+
+From Konawur we have three monosyllabic vocabularies, the Sumchu, the
+Theburskud, and the Milchan; but the exact amount to which the Tibetan
+and the Hindú populations indent each other along the western Himalayas
+is more than I can give.
+
+Here end the monosyllabic tongues spoken in British India. But they
+fringe the Himalayas throughout, and occur in the country of Gholab
+Singh, as well as in the independent rajahships between the Sutlege and
+Cashmeer. My latest researches have carried them even further westward
+than Little Tibet; as far as the Kohistan, or mountain country, of
+Cabul--the Der, Lughmani, Tirhai, and other languages, known, wholly or
+chiefly, through the vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach, being essentially
+monosyllabic in structure, and definitely connected with the tongues of
+Tibet, and Nepâl in respect to their vocables.
+
+But this is episodical to the subject--a subject still requiring the
+notice of a very important phenomenon.
+
+_Polyandria_[34] is a term in ethnology, even as it is in botany. Its
+meaning, however, is different. Etymologically, it denotes a form of
+_polygamy_. _Polygamy_, however, being restricted to that particular
+form of marriage which consists in a multiplicity of _wives_,
+_polyandria_ expresses the reverse, _viz._, the plurality of _husbands_.
+
+At the first glance, the word _polyandria_ looks like a learned name for
+a common thing; and suggests the inquiry as to how it differs from
+simple promiscuity of intercourse; or, at least, how far the Tibetan
+wife differs from the fair frail one who was always constant to the 85th
+regiment. The answer is not easy. Still it is certain that some
+difference exists--if not in form, at least, in its effects. One of
+these, in certain countries where _polyandria_ prevails, is the law of
+succession to property. This follows the female line, rather than the
+male.
+
+Again--the marriage of the widow with the surviving brother of her
+husband, is polyandria under another form.
+
+What the exact polyandria of Tibet is, is uncertain. I am not prepared
+to deny its existence even in so extreme a form as that of _one woman
+being married to several husbands, all alive at once_. Still, I think it
+more likely that either the circle of community was limited to certain
+degrees of relationships, or else that the multiplied husbands were
+successive, rather than simultaneous. Still, the facts of the Tibetan
+_polyandria_ require further investigation.
+
+One thing, only, is certain--_viz._, that as an ethnological criterion
+the practice is of no great value. Capable, as it has been shown to be,
+of modification in form, it is anything but limited to either Tibet, or
+the families allied to the Tibetan. It occurs in many parts of the
+world. It is a Malabar practice; where it is, probably, as truly Tibetan
+as in Tibet itself. But it is also Jewish, African, Siberian, and North
+American; so that nothing would more mislead us in the classification of
+the varieties of man than to mistake it for a phenomenon _per se_, and
+allow it to separate allied, or to connect distinct populations.
+
+_Necdum finitus Orestes._--There are several populations which, on fair
+grounds, have been believed to be in the same category with the Dhekra,
+_i.e._, which are Hindú in language and creed, though monosyllabic in
+blood. The Kudi, Batar, Kebrat, Pallah, Gangai, Maraha, Dhanak, Kichak,
+and Tharu, are oftener alluded to than described--though, doubtless, a
+better-informed investigator in such special matters than the present
+writer could find several definite details concerning them. They seem
+chiefly referable to Behar and north-eastern Bengal. The _Dhungers_--in
+the same class--the husbandmen of South Behar, bring us down to the
+vicinity of the population next to be noticed; a population which is
+generally considered with reference to the nations, tribes, and families
+of _Southern_ rather than _Northern_ India.
+
+The name of this family has already been mentioned. It is _Tamulian_;
+and the _Tamulian_ physiognomy has been described. It has been seen to
+extend as far north as the Himalayas. If so, the nations already
+enumerated have been Tamulian; and no new class is now approaching. This
+may or may not be the case. Another change, however, is more undeniable.
+This is that of language. It is no longer referable to the Chinese type;
+since separate monosyllables have, more or less perfectly, become
+_agglutinated_ into inflected forms, and the speech is as
+_poly_-syllabic as the other tongues of the world in general. As we
+approach the south this abandonment of the monosyllabic character
+increases, and from the _Tamul_ language spoken between Pulicat and Cape
+Comorin, the term _Tamulian_--applicable in a general ethnological
+sense--is derived. _Agglutinated_ (or _agglutinate_) is also a technical
+term. It means languages in the second stage of their development; when
+words originally separate, such as adverbs of time, prepositions, and
+personal pronouns, have become permanently connected with the root, so
+as to form tenses, cases, and persons--the union of the two parts of an
+inflected word being still sufficiently recent and imperfect to leave
+their original separation and independence visible and manifest. When
+the incorporation or amalgamation, has become more complete; so
+complete, as in most cases to have obliterated all vestiges of an
+original independence; the _agglutinate_ character has departed, the
+second stage of development has been passed, and the language is in the
+same class with those of Greece, Rome, and Germany, rather than in that
+of the tongues in question, and of many others.
+
+To return, however, to the _Tamulian_ family, meaning thereby a branch
+of the great Mongolian stock, speaking, _either now or formerly_, a
+language more or less allied to the Tamul of the Dekhan.
+
+The first members of the class, as we proceed southwards from Behar, are
+certain hill-tribes of the Rajmahali Mountains--the Rajmahali
+mountaineers. Their Mongolian physiognomy is unequivocal;--a Mongolian
+physiognomy but conjoined with a dark skin. They have "broad faces,
+small eyes, and flattish or rather turned-up noses. Their lips are
+thicker than those of the inhabitants of the plain."[35]
+
+The flattened nose reminded the writer of the Negro, and the general
+character of the features of the Chinese or Malay; though it is added
+that the resemblance is in a great degree lost on closer inspection. At
+the same time it has been sufficiently recognized to have originated the
+hypothesis of a descent from one of those nations as a means of
+accounting for it.
+
+With a slight tincture of Brahminic Hinduism, the Rajmahali mountaineers
+are Pagans. _Bedo_ is one of their gods; doubtless the _Potteang_ of the
+Kuki, and the _Batho_ of the Bodo. _Gosaik_, too, is either the name of
+a god, or a holy epithet; this, also, being a mythological term current
+amongst many other tribes of India. Other elements in their
+imperfectly-known mythology deserve notice. Their priesthood contains
+both _Demauns_ and _Dewassis_; the latter form being the Bodo _Deoshi_.
+As the names are alike, so are the functions. The _Dewassi_ is an
+oracular seer. When he vouchsafes to give answers, his inspiration takes
+the form of frenzy--but he neither hurts nor speaks to any one. He makes
+signs for a cock, and for a hen's egg as well. The cock's head he
+wrenches off, and sucks the bleeding neck. The egg he eats. After this
+he seeks the solitude of the wood or stream; and is fed by the deity.
+Sometimes he has ridden a snake; sometimes put his hands in the mouth of
+a tiger with impunity. Trees too large to move, or too thorny to touch,
+he places on the roofs of houses. He sees Bedo Gosaik in visions; and,
+in the sacrifices therein enjoined, red paint, rice, and pigeons make a
+part. From the touch of women he abstains; so he does from the taste of
+flesh. Either would make his prophecies false.
+
+There are also certain sacrifices that the _Maungy_ (chief?) of each
+village makes, and in which threads of red silk play a part.
+
+One of their gods--an elemental one--is the god of rain, and the dangers
+of a drought are averted by praying to him. A ceremony called the
+_Satane_ determines the chief who takes the office of invoker.
+
+A black stone, called _Ruxy_, is much of the same sort of fetish with
+these mountaineers as the Sij with the Bodo. The name, too, Ruxy _Nad_,
+suggests the Nat worship of the Silong, Kariens, and others.
+
+The northern half of the Tamulian families are, like the Welsh, the
+Cornish, and the Bretons of France, members of the same ethnological
+group, but not in geographical contact with each other. Or, rather, they
+are, like the Celtic population of Wales and the Scottish Highlands,
+cut off from one another by a vast tract of intervening Anglo-Saxons.
+Yet the time was when all was Celtic, from Cape Wrath to the Land's End;
+and when the original population extended, in its full integrity, over
+York and Nottingham, as well as over Merioneth and Argyleshire. And so
+it is with the populations in question. They stand apart from each
+other, like islands in an ocean; the intervening spaces being filled up
+by Hindús. At the same time the isolation has been much overvalued, and,
+I imagine that when greater attention shall have been bestowed upon this
+important subject, connecting links which have hitherto been unnoticed
+will be detected.
+
+The next locality where we find a population akin to the Rajmahali
+mountaineers, is the mountain system of Orissa. These are called by the
+Hindús _Kóls_ (_Coolies_), _Khonds_ and _Súrs_. Such, however, are no
+native designations--no more than the classical term _Barbarian_, or the
+English word _Tartar_. The people themselves have no collective name;
+but, being divided into tribes, have a separate one for each.
+
+I say that this branch of Tamulians is isolated, because I am not able
+to show its continuity; the range of hill-country which gives rise to
+the rivers between the Ganges and Mahanuddy being but imperfectly known.
+
+In Orissa, the most northern of the hill-tribes are the Kól of Cuttack.
+South of these come the Khonds best studied in the neighbourhood of
+Goomsoor. The following is a list of their gods, and as _n_ seems to
+stand for _d_, _Pennu_ is but another name for _Bedo_, and _Gossa Pennu_
+for _Bedo Gosaik_:--
+
+  1. Bera _Pennu_, or the earth god.
+  2. Bella _Pennu_, the sun god, and Danzu _Pennu_, the moon god.
+  3. Sandhi _Pennu_, the god of limits.
+  4. Loha _Pennu_, the iron god, or god of arms.
+  5. Jugah _Pennu_, the god of small-pox.
+  6. Madzu _Pennu_, or the village deity, the universal _genius loci_.
+  7. Soro _Pennu_, the hill god.
+  8. Jori _Pennu_, the god of streams.
+  9. Gossa _Pennu_, the forest god.
+  10. Munda _Pennu_, the tank god.
+  11. Sugu _Pennu_, or Sidruja _Pennu_, the god of fountains.
+  12. Pidzu _Pennu_, the god of rain.
+  13. Pilamu _Pennu_, the god of hunting.
+  14. The god of births.[36]
+
+The most southern of the Orissa hill-tribes are the _Súr_; connected by
+language with the preceding tribes; as they were with each other and the
+Rajmahali mountaineers.
+
+These stand in remarkable contrast with the rest of the population of
+Orissa; whose language is the Udiya, a tongue which, according to many,
+belongs to a wholly different class, or, at least, to a different
+division of the present.
+
+South of Chicacole, however, the Tamul tongues are spoken continuously.
+I cannot say where the southern limits of the Súr population come in
+contact with the northern ones of the--
+
+_Chenchwars_--who occupy the same range of mountains, in the parts
+between the rivers Kistna and Pennar, and, probably, extending as far
+south as the neighbourhood of Madras. Their language is the Telugu, the
+language of the parts around, and of Tamul origin.[37] The contrast
+between the Chenchwars of the hills, and the Telingas of the lower
+country lies in their mythologies; the former retaining much of the
+original creed of their country, the latter being Brahminists.
+
+Below Madras, the mountain range changes its direction, and the next
+locality under notice is the Neilgherry hills.
+
+The families here are--
+
+1. _The Cohatars_--so little Indianized as to eat of the flesh of the
+cow, amounting to about two thousand in number, and occupants of the
+highest part of the range.
+
+2. _The Tudas._--An interesting monograph by Captain Harkness has drawn
+unusual attention to these mountaineers, the chief points of importance
+being the comparative absence of all elements of Brahminism, and the
+occurrence in their physiognomy of the most favourable points of Hindú
+beauty--regular and delicate features, oval face, and a clear brunette
+skin. Free from the other religious and social characteristics of
+Hinduism as the Tudas may be, they still admit a sort of caste; _e.g._,
+whilst the _Peiki_, or _Toralli_, may perform any function, the _Kuta_,
+or _Tardas_, are limited. Neither did they always intermarry, though
+they do now; their offspring being called _Mookh_, or _descendants_.
+
+3. _The Curumbas_, called by the Tudas _Curbs_, inhabit a lower level
+than the preceding populations, but a higher one than--
+
+4. _The Erulars_ at the foot of the hills; falling into two
+divisions--_a_, the _Urali_ (a name to be noticed), and _b_, the
+_Curutali_.
+
+Between the Neilgherries and Cape Comorin, the hill-tribes are worth
+enumerating, if only for the sake of showing their complexity. According
+to Lieutenant Conner in the "Madras Journal," they are--1, Cowders; 2,
+Vaishvans; 3, Múdavenmars; 4, Arreamars, or Vailamers; 5, Ural-Uays.
+Besides these, there is a population of predial slaves, divided and
+subdivided.
+
+  1. Vaituvan, Konaken.
+  2. Polayers--
+       _a._ Vulluva.
+       _b._ Kunnaka.
+       _c._ Morny Pulayer.
+  3. Pariahs.
+  4. Vaidurs.
+  5. Ulanders and Naiadi.
+
+To return to the Neilgherries, and follow the western Ghauts upwards, a
+population more numerous than any hitherto mentioned is that of the--
+
+_Buddugurs_, called also _Marvés_. This name takes so many forms that
+_Berdar_ may be one of them. One division of Buddugurs is called
+_Lingait_.
+
+I cannot follow the Ghauts consecutively; however, when we reach the
+southern portion of the Mahratta country, we find in the rajahship of
+Satarah, two predatory tribes:--
+
+_The Berdars_, supposed to be closely allied to Ramusi. The--
+
+_Ramusi_ themselves connected by tradition and creed, with the _Lingait_
+Buddugurs. But not by language; or at any rate not wholly so. The Ramusi
+dialect is a mixture of Tulava and Marathi--the former being undoubted
+Tamul, but the latter in the same category with the Udiya.
+
+The continuous Tamul languages are now left to the south of us, and the
+hill-tribes next in order, will have unlearnt their native tongues, and
+be found speaking the Hindú dialects of the countries around them.
+Hence, the evidence of their Tamulian descent will be less conclusive.
+
+_Warali of the Konkan._--Mountaineers of the northern Konkan. We have
+seen this name twice already, and we shall see it again. The evidence of
+their Tamulian extraction is imperfect. Their language is Marathi and
+their creed an imperfect Brahminism. Their mountaineer habits separate
+them from--
+
+_The Katodi_--outcasts, who take their name from preparing the _kat_, or
+_cat-echu_, and who hang about the villages of the _plains_.
+
+_The Kúli._--From Poonah to Gujerat, the occupants of the range of
+mountains parallel to the coast are called _Kúli_ (_Coolies_), the same
+in the eyes of the Hindús of the western coast, as the _Kól_ were in
+those of the Bengalese and Orissans; and similarly named. Their language
+is generally (perhaps always) that of the country around them, _viz._,
+Marathi amongst the Mahrattas, and Gujerathi in Gujerat. However,
+difference of habits and creed sufficiently separate them from the
+Hindús.
+
+_The Bhils._--These are generally associated with the Kúlis; from whom
+they chiefly differ geographically, belonging, as they do to the
+transverse ranges--the Satpura and Vindhia mountains--rather than to the
+main line of the Ghauts with its due north-and-south direction, and with
+its parallelism to the coast.
+
+_The Paurias._--Hill-tribes in Candeish, belonging to the Satpura range,
+and conterminous with the Bhil tribes, and with--
+
+_The Wurali of the Satpura range._--The Wurali re-appear for the fourth
+time. In the parts in question they are in contact with the Bhils and
+Paurias; from whom they keep themselves distinct; and from whom they
+differ in dialect. Still their language is Marathi. Pre-eminent as they
+are for their Paganism, their country contains ruins of brick buildings,
+and considerable excavations.[38]
+
+These three are the hill-tribes of the water-shed of the rivers Tapti
+and Nerbudda. The water-system of the south-western feeders of the
+Ganges is more complex. Along the mountains between Candeish and Jeypur
+come--
+
+Certain _Bhil_ tribes.
+
+_The Mewars_--under the Grasya chiefs of Joora, Meerpoor, Oguna, and
+Panurwa. The political relations of these tribes--in some cases of an
+undetermined nature--are with the Rajpút governments; in other words,
+we are now amongst the aborigines of Rajasthan.
+
+_The Minas._--These, like the Mewars, are in geographical contact with
+certain Bhil tribes; in political contact with the Rajpúts--the Mewars
+with those of Udipúr; the Minas with those of Ajmer, Jeypur, and Kota.
+
+_The Moghis._--At present, a free company rather than a population;
+although the representatives of what was once one--_viz._, the
+aborigines of Jodpure. So little Brahminists are they that they eat of
+the flesh of the jackal and the cow, and indulge freely in fermented
+drinks.
+
+The hills that separate Malwah from the Haroti country, and from the
+south-eastern boundary of the valley of the River Chumbul are occupied
+by--
+
+_The Saireas._--This is a name which has occurred before and
+elsewhere;[39] and is almost certainly, anything but native. Tribes,
+under this name, extend into Bundelcund.[40]
+
+_The Goands._--The central parts between Candeish and Orissa, the
+head-waters of the Nerbudda and Tapti on the west, and of the Godavery
+on the east, still require notice. Here the hill population is at its
+_maximum_, both in point of numbers and characteristics; and the _Khond_
+forms of the Tamul re-appear under the name _Goand_. Of these we have
+specimens from--
+
+_a._ The Gawhilghur mountains near Ellichpoor.
+
+_b._ Chupprah.
+
+_c._ Mundala in _Gundwana_, or the _Goand_ country.
+
+Such are the chief hill-populations; which, although they belong to
+Tamulian stock, differ as to the extent to which they carry outward and
+visible signs of their origin. Some, like the Rajmahali, are merely
+separated geographically; and, perhaps, not even that. Others, like the
+Khonds of Orissa, are contrasted with the Tamuls of the south, by their
+inferior and social condition, and their non-Brahminical creeds. The
+Minas and Bhils differ in language; whilst the Ramusis and Berdars,
+probably, exhibit transitional forms of speech. The Tudas and Chenchwars
+surrounded by Telingas and Tamuls, as the Khonds and Goands are by
+Udiyas and Mahrattas, are merely the population of the parts around them
+with a primitive polity and religion.
+
+The _lettered_ languages of the Dekhan, where the Tamul character is
+unequivocal, but where the civilizational influences have chiefly been
+Hindú, are spoken in continuity from Chicacole, east, and the parts
+about Goa, west, to Cape Comorin, _i.e._, in the Madras Presidency, and
+in the countries of Mysore, Travancore, and the coasts of Malabar and
+Coromandel. Of these, the most northern--beginning on the eastern
+coast--is--
+
+_The Telinga or Telugu._--Spoken from the parts about Chicacole to
+Pulicat, where it is succeeded by--
+
+_The Tamul Proper._--The language of the Coromandel coast and the parts
+of the interior as far as Coimbatore. Each of these tongues has a double
+form, one for literature, and one for common use; the former being
+called the High, the latter the Low, Tamul or Telugu, as the case may
+be, and the creed which it embodies being either Brahminism, or some
+modification of it.
+
+In Travancore and on the Malabar coast the language is--
+
+_The Malayalma_ or _Malayalam_--and in the greater part of Mysore--
+
+_The Kanara_--which, like the Tamul and Telinga, is both High and
+Low--literary or vulgar.
+
+Amongst these four well-known forms of the South Tamulian tongue, may be
+distributed several dialects and sub-dialects. Such as the Tulava for
+the parts between Goa and Mangalore, and the Coorgi of the Rajahship of
+Coorg, not to mention the several varieties in the language of the
+hill-tribes.
+
+Now all the populations of the present chapter agree in this
+particular--their language is generally admitted to be Tamulian at the
+present moment, or if not, to have been so at some earlier period. With
+the languages next under notice, the original Tamulian character is not
+so admitted--indeed, it is so far denied as to make the affirmation of
+it partake of the nature of paradox.
+
+The distinction then is raised on the existence of the doubt in
+question, or rather on the differences that such a doubt implies. Hence
+the division of the languages of India into the Hindú and the Tamulian
+is practical rather than scientific--the _Hindú_ meaning those for which
+a _Sanskrit_, rather than a _Tamul_ affinity is claimed.
+
+_Sanskrit_ is the name of a language; a name upon which nine-tenths of
+the controversial points in Indian ethnology and in Indian history
+turn.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[23] "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. part 2.
+See also pp. 112, 113 of the present volume.
+
+[24] Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal of the
+Asiatic Society of Bengal."
+
+[25] Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[26] "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[27] Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[28] Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.
+
+[29] Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.
+
+[30] Eliot, _ut supra_.
+
+[31] For Jan. 1849.
+
+[32] "Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science," 1844.
+
+[33] "Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic
+Researches, vol. xvi.
+
+[34] From the Greek _polys_=_many_, and _anær_=_man_.
+
+[35] Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.
+
+[36] Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol.
+xiii.
+
+[37] See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. viii.
+
+[38] Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay Geographical
+Society," May to August 1850.
+
+[39] The Soars of Orissa.
+
+[40] Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+    THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.--ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN LANGUAGES
+    OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF EUROPE.--INFERENCES.--
+    BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS--OF THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.--EXTRACT.--OF
+    THE VEDAS.--EXTRACT.--INFERENCES.--THE HINDÚS.--SIKHS.--BILUCHI.--
+    AFGHANS.--WANDERING TRIBES.--MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.--CEYLON.--
+    BUDDHISM.--DEVIL-WORSHIP.--VADDAHS.
+
+
+The language called _Sanskrit_ has a peculiar alphabet. It has long been
+written, and embodies an important literature. It has been well studied;
+and its ethnological affinities are understood. They are at least as
+remarkable as any other of its characters.
+
+Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects; just like the ancient
+Greek. Like the Doric, Æolic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over
+distant countries, and cultivated at different periods. Like them, too,
+each is characterized by its peculiar literature.
+
+The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is the _Vedaic_ dialect of the
+religious hymns called _Vedas_--of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.
+
+Another form of equal antiquity is the language of the Persepolitan and
+other arrow-headed inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity, and
+range from the time of Cambyses to that of Artaxerxes.
+
+By _old_ is meant _old in structure_, _i.e._, betraying by its archaic
+forms, an early stage of development. It is by no means _old_ in
+chronology. In the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare is
+older than the German of Goethe; yet the German of Goethe is the older
+tongue, because it retains more old inflections.
+
+The third form is called _Pali_. In this is written the oldest Indian
+inscription; one containing the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's
+successors. It is also the dialect of the chief Buddhist works.
+
+A fourth form is the _Bactrian_. This occurs in the coins of Macedonian
+and other Indianized kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the
+"Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.
+
+A fifth is the _Zend_ of the Zendavesta, the Scriptures of the followers
+of Zoroaster.
+
+Others are called _Pracrit_. Some of the Sanskrit works are dramatic. In
+the modern comedies of Italy we find certain characters speaking the
+provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and other districts. The same
+took place here. In the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the
+standard language, put into the mouths of some of the subordinate
+characters. It is believed that these Pracrits represented certain local
+dialects, as opposed to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.
+
+Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage of Sanskrit words in
+it; just as every dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman. What
+does this prove? That depends upon the per-centage; and this differs in
+different languages. In a general way it may be stated that, amongst the
+tongues already enumerated, it is smallest in the isolated Tamulian
+tongues; larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest in the tongues
+about to be enumerated; these being the chief languages of modern
+Hindostan.
+
+1. The _Marathi_ of the Mahrattas. Here the Sanskrit words amount to
+four-fifths in the Marathi dictionaries.
+
+2. The _Udiya_, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a per-centage of Sanskrit
+greater than that of the Marathi, but less than that of--
+
+3. The _Bengali_. Here it is at its _maximum_, and amounts to
+nine-tenths.
+
+4. The _Hindú_, of Oude, and the parts between Bengal and the Punjâb,
+falling into the subordinate dialects of the Rajpút country.
+
+5. The _Gujerathi_ of Gujerat.
+
+6. The _Scindian_ of Scinde.
+
+7. The _Multani_ of Múltan; probably a dialect of either the Gujerathi
+or--
+
+8. The _Punjabi_ of the Punjâb.
+
+By going into minor differences this list might be enlarged.
+
+None of the previous languages were mentioned in the last chapter; in
+fact, they were those different Hindú tongues which were contrasted with
+the Tamulian, and which, in the northern part of the Peninsula had
+effected those displacements which separated, or were supposed to
+separate, the Rajmahali, Kól, and Khond dialects from each other. They
+formed the _sea_ of speech, in which those tongues were _islands_.
+
+Now what is the inference from these per-centages? from such a one as
+the Bengali, of ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove as to the
+character of the language in which they occur? Do they make the Sanskrit
+the basis of the tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English, or
+do they merely show it as a superadded foreign element, like the
+Norman--like that in kind, but far greater in degree? The answer to this
+will give us the philological position of the North-Indian tongues. It
+will make the Bengali either Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of
+foreign vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the older native
+tongue retained.
+
+If the question were settled by a reference to authorities, the answer
+would be that the Bengali was essentially Sanskrit.
+
+It would be the same if we took only the _primâ facie_ view of the
+matter.
+
+Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.
+
+1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words it has been assumed that,
+whenever the modern and ancient tongues have any words in common, the
+former has always taken them from the latter,--an undue assumption,
+since the Sanskrit may easily have adopted native words.
+
+2. The grammatical inflections are so far from being as Sanskritic as
+the vocables, that they are either non-existent altogether,
+unequivocally Tamul, or else _controverted_ Sanskrit.
+
+Here I pause,--giving, at present, no opinion upon the merits of the two
+views. The reader has seen the complications of the case; and is
+prepared for hearing that, though most of the highest authorities
+consider the languages of northern India to be related to the Sanskrit,
+just as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Italian to the Latin;
+others deny such a connexion, affirming that as the real relations of
+the Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our own tongue, and of
+the Arabic to the Spanish, there is no such thing throughout the whole
+length and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended from the
+Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous tongue can be shown to have
+existed as a spoken and indigenous language.
+
+But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack in India; and as the
+modern Persian is descended from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister
+to the Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality. The same
+doubts apply here.
+
+Such are the doubts that apply to an important question in Asiatic
+ethnology. I am not, at present, going beyond the simple fact of their
+existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion that the Sanskrit
+never was indigenous to any part of India, not even the most
+north-western; and there is an extension of this opinion which--rightly
+or wrongly--similarly excludes it from Persia. So much doubt should be
+relieved by the exhibition of some universally admitted fact as a
+set-off.
+
+Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape of a comment on the
+following tables.[41] It is one of Dr. Trithem's.
+
+ ENGLISH.             LITHUANIC.    RUSSIAN.        SANSKRIT.
+
+ _Father_             tewas         otets           pitr.
+ _Mother_             motina        mat'            mātr.
+ _Son_                sunai         suin            sūnu.
+ _Brother_            brolis        brat            bhratr.
+ _Sister_             sessu         sestra          svasr.
+ _Daughter-in-law_     --           snokha          snushā.[42]
+ _Father-in-law_       --           svekor[43]      śvasúra.
+ _Mother-in-law_       --           svekrov'[44]    śvas ru.
+ _Brother-in-law_      --           dever'[45]      devr.
+ _One_                wienas        odin            eka.
+ _Two_                du            dva             dvā.
+ _Three_              trys          tri             tri.
+ _Four_               keturi        chetuire        chatvārah.
+ _Five_               penki         piat'           pancha.
+ _Six_                szessi        shest'          shash.
+ _Seven_              septyni       sedm'           saptan.
+ _Eight_              asstuoni      osm'            ashtan.
+ _Nine_               dewyni        deviat'         navan.
+ _Ten_                dessimtis     desiat'         dasá.
+
+The following similarities go the same way, _viz._, towards the proof of
+a remarkable affinity with certain languages of _Europe_, there being
+none equally strong with any existing and undoubted Asiatic ones.
+
+ ENGLISH.     LITHUANIC.    SANSKRIT.    ZEND.
+
+ _I_          ass           aham         azem.
+ _Thou_       tu            twam         tūm.
+ _Ye_         yus           yūyam        yūs.
+ _The_[46]    tas           ta-_d_       tad.
+   --         szi           sah          ho.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Laups-inni = _I praise._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Laups    -innu    -innawa    -inname.
+ 2.  --      -inni    -innata    -innata.
+ 3.  --      -inna    -inna      -inna.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Jaj-ami = _I conquer._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Jaj    -āmi    -āvah     -āmah.
+ 2. --     -ăsi    -ăthah    -ătha.
+ 3. --     -ăti    -ătah     -anti.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Esmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Esmi    eswa    esme.
+ 2. Essi    esta    esti.
+ 3. Esti    esti    esti.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Asmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Asmi    swah     smah.
+ 2. Asi     sthah    stha.
+ 3. Asti    stah     santi.
+
+The inference from the vast series of philological facts, of which the
+following is a specimen, has, generally--perhaps _universally_--been as
+follows, _viz._, that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied languages
+of Germany, Italy, and Greece--numerous, widely-spread, and
+unequivocally European--are _Asiatic_ in origin; the Sanskrit being
+first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent the languages of
+that Asiatic locality. I merely express my dissent from this inference;
+adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit to the Hindú tongues
+are those of the Anglo-Norman to the English, and that its relation to
+those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that of the Greek of
+Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon--greater, much greater in degree, but
+the same in kind.[47]
+
+The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next great characteristic.
+Brahminism may be viewed in two ways. We may either take it in its later
+forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin with it in its simplest
+and most unmodified stage, and notice the changes that have affected it
+as they occur. At the present its principles are to be found in the holy
+book called _Puranas_; the Brahminism of the _Puranas_ standing in the
+same relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism of the Talmud,
+or the Romanism of the fathers does to primitive Judaism and
+Christianity. The pre-eminence of a sacred caste--the sanctitude of the
+cow--an impossible cosmogony--the worship of Siva and Vishnu--and an
+indefinite sort of recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali, and
+others, are the leading features here; the recognition of the Ramas and
+Krishnas being of an indefinite and equivocal character, because the
+extent to which the elements of their divine nature are referable to the
+idea of _dead men deified_, or the very opposite notion of _Gods become
+incarnate_, are inextricably mixed together. The Puranas are referable
+to different dates between the twelfth and sixth centuries A.D.
+
+The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas are the two great epics, the
+_Ramayana_, or the conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and the _Mahabharata_,
+or great war between the Sun and Moon dynasties. If we call the _worship
+of dead men deified_, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the
+Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements of the present Brahminism
+are to be attributed. They increased the _personality_ of the previous
+religion. This is the natural effect of narrative poetry, and one of
+which we may measure the magnitude by looking at the influence and
+tendencies of the great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these which give
+us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and Vishnu, and which helped to determine
+the preponderance of the two last over Brahma--Brahma being the Creator;
+Vishnu, the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity
+which has been given to the _epics_ is the second century B.C.; and this
+is full high enough.
+
+The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu," the oldest Indian code of
+laws, is simpler than that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less.
+Nevertheless, it contains the great text on the caste-system, the
+_fulcrum_ of priestly pre-eminence.
+
+
+INSTITUTES OF MENU.
+
+_Sir Graves Haughton's Translation._
+
+    1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, supremely
+    glorious, allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively
+    from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot.
+
+    2. To _Bráhmins_ he assigned the duties of reading the _Veda_, of
+    teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of
+    giving alms, _if they be rich_, and, if _indigent_, of receiving
+    gifts.
+
+    3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the
+    _Veda_, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a
+    few words, the duties of a _Cshatriya_.
+
+    4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to
+    read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to
+    cultivate land, are _prescribed or permitted_ to a _Vaisya_.
+
+    5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a _Súdra_;
+    namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating
+    their worth.
+
+    6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating
+    Power declared the purest part of him to be his mouth.
+
+    7. Since the Bráhmin sprang from the most excellent part, since he
+    was the first born, and since he possesses the _Veda_, he is by
+    right the chief of this whole creation.
+
+    8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the beginning,
+    from his own mouth, that having performed holy rites, he might
+    present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the
+    progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world.
+
+    9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose mouth the
+    gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified butter, and the
+    manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?
+
+    10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which are
+    animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of
+    the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.
+
+    11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who
+    know their duty; of those who know it, such as perform it
+    virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a
+    perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.
+
+    12. The very birth of _Bráhmins_ is a constant incarnation of
+    DHERMA, _God of Justice_; for the _Bráhmin_ is born to promote
+    justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.
+
+    13. When a _Bráhmin_ springs to light, he is borne above the world,
+    the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of
+    duties, religious and civil.
+
+    14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect, _though not
+    in form_, the wealth of the _Bráhmin_; since the _Bráhmin_ is
+    entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth.
+
+    15. The _Bráhmin_ eats but his own food; wears but his own apparel;
+    and bestows but his own in alms: through the benevolence of the
+    _Bráhmin_, indeed, other mortals enjoy life.
+
+    16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other classes
+    in due order, the sage MENU, sprung from the self-existing,
+    promulged this code of laws.
+
+    17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by every learned
+    _Bráhmin_, and fully explained to his disciples, but _must be
+    taught_ by no other man _of an inferior class_.
+
+    18. The _Bráhmin_ who studies this book, having performed sacred
+    rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word, and in
+    deed.
+
+    19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors, and
+    on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He alone
+    deserves to possess this whole earth.
+
+Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes, the importance assigned
+to caste; substitute for the Euhemerism of the Epics, an _elemental
+religion_, and we ascend to the religion of the Vedas; the nominal, but
+only the nominal basis, of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns,
+_Agni_ is _fire_; _Indra_, the _sky_, _firmament_, or _atmosphere_; and
+_Marut_, the _cloud_.
+
+
+RIGVEDA SANHITA.
+
+_Wilson's Translation._
+
+
+    I.
+
+    1. I glorify AGNI, the high priest of the sacrifice, the divine, the
+    ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the
+    possessor of great wealth.
+
+    2. May that AGNI, who is to be celebrated by both ancient and modern
+    sages, conduct the gods hither.
+
+    3. Through AGNI the worshipper obtains that affluence, which
+    increases day by day, which is the source of fame and the multiplier
+    of mankind.
+
+    4. AGNI, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on every side
+    the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.
+
+    5. May AGNI, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of knowledge;
+    he who is true, renowned, and divine, come hither with the gods!
+
+    6. Whatever good thou mayest, AGNI, bestow upon the giver (of the
+    oblation), that verily, ANGIRAS, shall revert to thee.
+
+    7. We approach thee, AGNI, with reverential homage in our thoughts,
+    daily, both morning and evening.
+
+    8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant
+    illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!
+
+    9. AGNI, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; be ever
+    present with us for our good!
+
+
+    II.
+
+    1. AŚWINS, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept with
+    outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!
+
+    2. AŚWINS, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion),
+    endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our praises!
+
+    3. AŚWINS, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, leaders in
+    the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations sprinkled on the
+    lopped sacred grass!
+
+    4. INDRA, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, ever
+    pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are desirous of
+    thee!
+
+    5. INDRA, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated by the
+    wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the priest), as he offers
+    the libation!
+
+    6. Fleet INDRA with the tawny coursers, come hither to the prayers
+    (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) food.
+
+    7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers (of
+    rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!
+
+    8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of rain, come
+    to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' to the days!
+
+    9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, omniscient,
+    devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the sacrifice!
+
+    10. May SARASWATÍ, the purifier, the bestower of food, the
+    recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our offered
+    viands to our rite!
+
+    11. SARASWATÍ, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, the
+    instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!
+
+    12. SARASWATÍ makes manifest by her acts a mighty river, and (in her
+    own form) enlightens all understandings.
+
+
+    III.
+
+    1. Come, INDRA, and be regaled with all viands and libations, and
+    thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy foes)!
+
+    2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating and
+    efficacious (draught) to the rejoicing INDRA, the accomplisher of
+    all things.
+
+    3. INDRA, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these animating
+    praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all mankind, (come) to
+    these rites (with the gods)!
+
+    4. I have addressed to thee, INDRA, the showerer (of blessings), the
+    protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have reached thee, and
+    of which thou hast approved!
+
+    5. Place before us, INDRA, precious and multiform riches, for
+    enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!
+
+    6. Opulent INDRA, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement of
+    wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!
+
+    7. Grant us, INDRA, wealth beyond measure or calculation,
+    inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.
+
+    8. INDRA, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a thousand
+    ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought from the
+    field) in carts!
+
+    9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property, INDRA, the lord
+    of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to the place
+    of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!
+
+    10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies the
+    vast prowess of INDRA, the mighty, the dweller in (an eternal
+    mansion)!
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    1. The MARUTS who are going forth decorate themselves like females:
+    they are gliders (through the air), the sons of RUDRA, and the doers
+    of good works, by which they promote the welfare of earth and
+    heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid rocks), they delight in
+    sacrifices!
+
+    2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, the sons of
+    RUDRA have established their dwelling above the sky: glorifying him
+    (INDRA) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with
+    vigour: the sons of PRISNI have acquired dominion!
+
+    3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with ornaments,
+    they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant)
+    decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters follow
+    their path!
+
+    4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons:
+    incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers (of
+    mountains): MARUTS, swift as thought, intrusted with the duty of
+    sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars!
+
+    5. When MARUTS, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing)
+    food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from
+    the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water!
+
+    6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither),
+    and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled with good things:
+    sit, MARUTS, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale
+    yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!
+
+    7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power);
+    they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for
+    themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for whom VISHNU defends
+    (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come
+    (quickly) like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred
+    grass!
+
+    8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the
+    swift-moving (MARUTS) have engaged in battles: all beings fear the
+    MARUTS, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like
+    princes!
+
+    9. INDRA wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt,
+    which the skilful TWASHTRI has framed for him, that he may achieve
+    great exploits in war. He has slain VRITRA, and sent forth an ocean
+    of water!
+
+    10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the
+    mountain that obstructed their path: the munificent MARUTS, blowing
+    upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by the _soma_
+    juice, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer)!
+
+    11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where the _Muni_
+    was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty GOTAMA: the
+    variously-radiant (MARUTS) come to his succour, gratifying the
+    desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!
+
+    12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and
+    are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the libation),
+    who addresses you with praise; bestow them, also, MARUTS, upon us,
+    and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs
+    prosperity!
+
+If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns we shall find no definite
+and unimpeachable date. Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal
+evidence. The language is so much more archaic than that of the
+Institutes, and the mythology so much simpler; whilst the Institutes
+themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect to the Epics. Fixing
+these at about 200, B.C.; we allow so many centuries for the archaisms
+of Menu, and so many more for those of the Vedas. For the whole, eleven
+hundred has not been thought too little, which places the Vedas in the
+fourteenth century, B.C., and makes them the earliest, or nearly the
+earliest records in the world.
+
+It is clear that this is but an approximation, and, although all
+inquirers admit that creeds, languages, and social conditions present
+the phenomena of _growth_, the opinions as to the _rate_ of such growths
+are varied, and none of much value. This is because the particular
+induction required for the formation of anything better than a mere
+impression has yet to be undertaken--till when, one man's guess is as
+good as another's. The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric
+rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine, or a polity, has neither
+bark nor wood, neither teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.
+
+Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred from the archaic character
+of their language, has been shaken by the discovery of the structure of
+the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions. It approaches
+that of the Vedas; being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of
+Menu. Yet its date is less than 500, B.C. Again, the Pali is less
+archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the Pali is the language of the oldest
+inscriptions in India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any sort,
+with a definite date.
+
+One of the few cases where the phenomena of _rate_ have been studied
+with due attention, is in the evolution of the three languages of
+Denmark, Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What does this tell
+us? The last has altered so slowly that a modern Icelander can read the
+oldest works of his language. In Sweden, however, the speech _has_
+altered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these languages are
+unintelligible to the Icelander, and _vice versâ_. As to their
+respective changes, Petersen shows that the Danish was always about a
+hundred years forwarder than the Swedish, having attained that point at
+(say) 1200, which the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however,
+changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the Danish having, as it were, the
+start of a century. The Norwegian, however, comported itself
+differently. Until the Reformation it hardly changed at all; less than
+the stationary Icelandic itself. Fifty years, however, of sudden and
+rapid transformation brought it, at once, to the stage which the Danish
+had been three hundred years in reaching. How many times must the
+observation of such phenomena be multiplied before we can strike an
+average as to the rate of change in languages, creeds, and polities?
+
+Again--it is by no means certain that the Institutes and the Vedas
+represent a contemporary state of things. All doctrinal writings contain
+something appertaining to a period older than that of their composition.
+
+Lastly,--the proof that all the writings in question belong to the same
+linear series, and represent the growth of _the same phenomena in the
+same place_ is deficient. The Ægyptologist believes that contemporary
+kings are mistaken for successive ones; the philologist, that difference
+of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts of a more specific
+nature dawn upon us when we attempt to realize the alphabet in which an
+Indian MS. of even only eight hundred years B.C., was written. No Indian
+MS. is fifteen hundred years old; no inscription older than Alexander's
+time. Nevertheless,--though I write upon this subject with
+diffidence--the Devanagari characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be
+deduced from the alphabet of the inscriptions; whilst these inscriptions
+themselves approach the alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion
+to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet of the Vedas is
+referable to that of the inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions
+betrays an origin external to India. Its introduction _may_ be very
+early; nevertheless its epoch must be investigated with a full
+recognition of the comparatively modern date of even the earliest
+alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early as compared with such
+a date as 1400, B.C., the accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch,
+perhaps, a thousand years too early.
+
+Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet, an architecture, a coinage,
+and an algebra at a period which no scepticism puts much later than 250,
+B.C., is so undoubted, that they may pass as ethnological facts, _i.e._,
+facts sufficiently true to be not merely admitted with what is called an
+_otiose_ belief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionable _data_
+of history, and to be used as effects from which we may argue
+backwards--_more ethnologico_--to their antecedent causes; the
+appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and an induction of its
+own.
+
+We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian civilization without
+impugning its indigenous origin, nor doubt this without stirring the
+question as to the countries from which it was introduced. These have
+been Persia, Assyria, Egypt, and Greece; the introduction being direct
+or indirect as the case might be.
+
+In this way are contrasted the views of the general ethnologist, with
+those of the special orientalist, in respect to the great and difficult
+question of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism of the
+former affect our views concerning the descent of the Hindús, the
+Mahrattas, the Bengali, and those other populations, to the languages
+whereof they applied? Not much. Whichever way we decide, the population
+may still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the language Sanskritic, it
+is Tamulian in the same way as the Cornish are Welsh; _i.e._, Tamulian
+with a change of tongue.
+
+The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the Sanskrit literature unsettle
+but little. They merely make the introduction of certain foreign
+elements some centuries later.
+
+Whatever may be the oldest of the great Hindú creeds, that of the
+_Sikhs_ is the newest. Its founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was
+a contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind, a zealous man of
+action; himself succeeded by similar _gúrús_, or priests, who
+eventually, by means of fanaticism, organization, and union with the
+state raised the power of the _Khalsa_ to the formidable height from
+which it has so lately fallen. _Truth_ is the great abstraction of the
+Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at once intolerant and
+eclectic may be seen from the following extracts.[48] They certainly
+present the doctrine in a favourable light.
+
+
+    I.
+
+    The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being
+              without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and
+              Grace.
+    Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.
+    Truth which is, and truth, O Nânuk! which will remain.
+    By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention
+              be fixed.
+    A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the
+              dead.
+    How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?
+    O Nânuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the
+              Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.
+    God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the
+              West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by
+              words?
+
+
+    III.
+
+    Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas,
+              Vishnoos, and Sivas.
+    Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and
+              holy men:
+    But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.
+    O Nânuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who
+              can understand?
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but
+              found not the value of an oil seed.
+    Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were
+              deceived by Maya.
+    There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owtârs, and
+              the wondrous Muhadeo.
+    Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find
+              Thee.
+
+
+    V.
+
+    He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of
+              hell!
+    Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.
+    I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of
+              creation.
+
+
+    VI.
+
+    Dwell thou in flames uninjured,
+    Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,
+    Make blocks of stone thy daily food,
+    Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,
+    Weigh the heavens in a balance,
+    And then ask of me to perform miracles.
+
+
+    VII.
+
+    Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his
+              eyes.
+    Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but
+              neither does he regard.
+    Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he
+              heed.
+    O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.
+
+
+    VIII.
+
+    All say that there are four races,
+    But all are of the seed of Bruhm.
+    The world is but clay,
+    And of similar clay many pots are made.
+    Nânuk says man will be judged by his actions,
+    And that without finding God there will be no salvation.
+    The body of man is composed of five elements;
+    Who can say that one is high and another low?
+
+
+    IX.
+
+    There are four races and four creeds in the world among Hindoos and
+              Mahometans;
+    Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly;
+    The Hindoos dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Mahometans on the
+              Kaaba;
+    The Mahometans held by circumcision, the Hindoos by strings and
+              frontal marks.
+    They each called on Ram and Ruheem, one name, and yet both forgot
+              the road.
+    Forgetting the Veds and the Koran, they were inveigled in the snares
+              of the world.
+    Truth remained on one side, while Moollas and Brahmins disputed,
+    And salvation was not attained.
+
+
+    X.
+
+    God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and Nânuk was sent
+              into the world.
+    He established the custom that the disciple should wash the feet of
+              his Gooroo, and drink the water;
+    Pâr Bruhm and Poorun Bruhm, in his Kulyoog, he showed were one.
+    The four feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were made of
+              faith; the four castes were made one;
+    The high and the low became equal: the salutation of the feet (among
+              disciples) he established in the world;
+    Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above the head.
+    In the Kulyoog he gave salvation; using the only true name, he
+              taught men to worship the Lord.
+    To give salvation in the Kulyoog, Gooroo Nânuk came.
+
+
+PARTS BEYOND THE INDUS.
+
+The Punjâb is the most western locality of the Indian stock, whether we
+call the members of it Hindú or Tamulian. On crossing the Indus we reach
+a new ethnological area, only partially, and only recently British;
+_viz._, the country of the Bilúch, and the country of the Afghans. And
+here we must prepare for new terms; for hearing of _tribes_ rather than
+_castes_; and for finding a polity more like that of the Jews and Arabs
+than the institutions of the Brahmins.
+
+_The Bilúch._--_Biluchi-stan_ means the country of the _Bilúch_, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Afghani-stan_ mean that of the Hindús and Afghans. It
+is the south-western quarter of Persia, that is the chief area of the
+tribes in question. Hence, however, they extend into Kutch Gundava,
+Scinde, and Múltan, and the northern parts of Gujerat. Between Kelat,
+the Indus, and the sea, they are mixed with Brahúi.
+
+The Biluchi is a dialect of the Persian--sufficiently close to be
+understood by a Persian proper.
+
+There are no grounds for believing the Bilúch to have been other than
+the aborigines of the country which they occupy; as their advent lies
+beyond the historical period; beyond the pale of admissible tradition.
+We may, perhaps, be told that they came from Arabia; an origin which
+their Mahometanism, their division into tribes, and their manners,
+suggest; an origin, too, which their physiognomy by no means impugns.
+Yet the tradition is not only unsupported, but equivocal. The _Arabia_
+that it refers to is, probably, the country of the ancient _Arabitæ_;
+and that is neither more nor less than a part of the province of Mekran,
+within--or nearly within--the present Bilúch domain. Hence, they may be
+_Arabite_, though not _Arabian_; or rather the old _Arabitæ_ of the
+_Arabius fluvius_ were Bilúch.
+
+But the Arabs are not the only members of the Semitic family with which
+the Bilúch have been affiliated. A multiplicity of Jewish
+characteristics has been discerned. These are all the more visible from
+their contrast to the manners of the Hindús. Intermediate in appearance
+to the Hindú and the Persian, the Bilúch "cast of feature is certainly
+Jewish;"[49] his tribual divisions are equally so; whilst the Levitical
+punishment of adultery by stoning, and the transmission of the widow of
+a deceased brother to the brothers who survive, have been duly
+recognized as Hebrew characteristics. We know what follows all this; as
+surely as smoke shows fire. Levitical peculiarities suggest the
+ubiquitous decad of the lost tribes of Israel. We shall soon hear of
+these again.
+
+Tribes under chiefs--hereditary succession--pride of blood--clannish
+sentiments--feuds between tribe and tribe--the sacro-sanctity of revenge
+as a duty--the suspension of private wars when foreign foes
+threaten--greater rudeness amongst the mountains--comparative industry
+in the plains--the business of robbery tempered by the duties of
+hospitality--black mail, &c. All this is equally Bilúch, Arabian, and
+Highland Scotch; and it all shows the similarity of details which
+accompanies similarity of social institutions. Ethnological relationship
+it does _not_ show.
+
+The word _Bilúch_ is Persian. The bearer of the designation either calls
+himself by the name of his tribe, or else glorifies himself by the term
+_Usul_ or _Pure_. The tribes or _khoums_ are numerous. Sir H. Pottinger
+gives the names of no less than fifty-eight; without going into their
+subdivisions.
+
+If, however, instead of details, we seek for classes of greater
+generality we find that _three_ primary divisions comprise all the
+ramifications of the Bilúch. The first of these is the _Rind_; the other
+two are the _Nihro_ and the _Mughsi_. The daughter of a Rind may be
+given to a Rind as a wife; but to marry into a tribe of Nihro or Mughsi
+extraction is a degradation. Here the elements of _caste_ intermix with
+those of _tribe_ or _clan_.
+
+_Afghans._--_Afghani-stan_ means the country of the Afghans, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Biluchi-stan_ mean that of the Hindús and Biluchi,
+respectively.
+
+In India the Afghans are called _Patan_.
+
+Their language is called _Pushtu_. It is allied to the Persian--but less
+closely than the Bilúch.
+
+Fully and accurately described in the admirable work of Lord Mountstuart
+Elphinstone, the Afghans have long commanded the attention of the
+ethnologist; and all that has been said about the Judaism of the Biluchi
+has been said in respect to them also, though not by so good a writer as
+the one just quoted. No wonder. Their tribual organization, if not more
+peculiar in character, has been more minutely described; a greater
+massiveness of frame and feature has been looked upon as eminently
+Judaic; and, lastly, an incorrect statement of Sir William Jones's, as
+to the Hebrew character of the Pushtu language, has added the authority
+of that respected scholar to the doctrine of the Semitic origin of the
+Afghans. Against this, however, stands the evidence of their peculiar
+and hitherto unplaced language. I say _unplaced_, because the criticism
+that separates the modern dialects of Hindostan from the Sanskrit,
+disconnects the Pushtu and the old Persian. Nevertheless, it is anything
+but either Hebrew or Arabic.
+
+Similarity of political constitution, and its attendant spirit of
+independence, have given a political importance to both the Bilúch and
+the Afghan. Each is but partially--very partially--British; and each
+became dependent upon Britain, not because they were the Afghans and
+Bilúch of their own rugged countries, but because they were part and
+parcel of certain territories in India. It was on the Indus that they
+were conquered; and it as Indians that they are British.
+
+Four great patriarchs are the hypothetical progenitors of the four
+primary Afghan divisions--though it is uncertain whether any such
+quaternion be more of an historical reality than the four castes of
+Brahminism. Subordinate to these four heads is the division called
+_Ulús_ (_Ooloos_).
+
+A minuter knowledge of the Afghan affiliations--real or supposed--is to
+be gained by premising that _khail_ has much the same meaning as the
+Bilúch _khoum_, so that it denotes a division of population which we may
+call _clan_, _tribe_, or _sept_; whilst the affix -_zye_, means _sons_
+or _offspring_. Hence, _Eusof-zye_ is equivalent to what an Arab would
+call _Beni Yusuf_; a Greek, _Ioseph-idæ_; or a Highland Gael,
+_MacJoseph_. All this is clear. When, however, we try to give precision
+to our nomenclature, and ask whether the _khail_ contains a number of
+-_zye_, or the -_zye_ a number of _khails_, difficulties begin.
+Sometimes the one, sometimes the other is the larger class. And a
+_khail_ in one case may be divided into groups ending in -_zye_; in
+others, a group denoted by -_zye_ may contain two or more _khails_. Each
+is a _generic_ or _specific_ designation as the case may be.
+
+However, to proceed to instances, the following groups of Afghans may be
+constituted.
+
+1. Three sections--the _Acco-zye_, the _Mulle-zye_, and the
+_Lawe-zye_--are subdivisions of the--
+
+2. _Eusof._--The Eusof and _Munder_ being branches of the--
+
+3. _Eusof-zye._--Now the _Eusof-zye_ is one out of four divisions of
+the--
+
+4. _Khukkhi._--The _Guggiani_, _Turcolani_, and _Mahomed-zye_, being the
+other three.
+
+5. Lastly, the _Khukkhi_, the _Otman-khail_, the _Khyberi_, the
+_Bungush_, the _Khuttuk_ and, probably, some others form the _Berdurani_
+Afghans.
+
+But as _Berdurani_ is a geographical, or political, rather than a
+tribual designation; as it is the name by which the _north_-eastern
+Afghans were known to the Moghuls; and as it is equivalent to such an
+expression as _Western_ or _Eastern Highlander_, rather than to names so
+specific as _Campbell_ or _MacDonald_, it may be excluded from the true
+Afghan affiliations.
+
+With this deduction, however, the classification is sufficiently
+complex; besides which, it is, probably, much more systematic on paper
+than in reality. This, however, can only be indicated.
+
+The valley of Peshawar is the valley of the _Guggiani_, and
+_Mahomed-zye_ Afghans.
+
+The parts round it belong to the _Eusof-zye_, the _Otman-khail_, the
+_Turcolani_, the _Momunds_, and the _Khyberi_ of the Khyber Range and
+Pass. These last fall into the _Afridi_, the _Shainwari_, and the
+_Uruk-zye_. Their country is chiefly to the north of the Salt Range.
+
+The river Kúrúm gives us the two valleys of Dowr and Bunnú[50]--the
+_Bunnúchi_ being as pre-eminently a mixed, as the mountaineers around
+them--the _Vizeri_--are a pure branch. These, and others, appear to
+belong to the great _Khuttuk_ division.
+
+The _south_-eastern Afghans are called _Lohani_; and, as a proof of this
+designation being of the same geographico-political character as
+_Berdurani_, the Khuttuk Afghans are divided between the two sections;
+at least the particular Khuttuks called _Murwuti_ are mentioned as
+Lohani, though the Khuttuk class in general is placed in the Berdurani
+branch. The chief Lohani Afghans are the _Shiráni_ near the
+Tukt-i-Solimán mountain, and the _Storiáni_ (_Storeeanees_,
+_Oosteraunees_) conterminous with the most northern of the Bilúch.
+
+Of these the Búgti and Murri are the chief populations of the frontier;
+whilst the _Nútkani_, _Kúsrani_, _Lund_, _Lughari_, _Gurkhari_,
+_Mudari_, and others, help to fill up the Muckelwand (or the parts
+immediately along the course of the Indus), and the Bilúch portions of
+Múltan.
+
+_The Brahúi._--The Brahúi, with whom it has been stated that the Bilúch
+are intermixed, are pastoral tribes, with a coarser physiognomy, and a
+stouter make than their neighbours. Their language also is different. A
+specimen of it may be found amongst the well-known and important
+vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach; and this forms the subject of a memoir
+of no less a scholar than Lassen. Without placing it, he remarks that
+the numerals are _South_-Indian (or Tamulian) rather than aught else. He
+might have said more. The Brahúi is a remarkable and unexplained branch
+of the Tamul; but whether it be of late introduction or indigenous
+origin in the parts where it now occurs is uncertain. The mountains
+between Kutch Gundava and Mekran seem to form the area of the Brahúi;
+some eastern branches of which population I presume to be British, mixed
+with Bilúch.[51]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Ceylon._--The inhabitants of the northern part of Ceylon speak the
+Tamul language, and are Brahminists in creed. They are not, however, the
+true natives of the island. These latter use a Hindú tongue, called the
+_Singhalese_. Its philological relations are exactly those of the
+Mahratta, Bengali, and Udiya,--neither better nor worse defined, more or
+less unequivocal. Some make it out to be of Sanskrit, others of Tamulian
+origin. All that is certain is, that it is more Sanskritic than the
+proper Tamul, and more Tamul than the Bengali. It is _written_; and
+embodies a copious, but worthless literature, its alphabet being derived
+from that of the Pali language.
+
+This introduces a new characteristic. The Pali has the same relation to
+Buddhism, that the Sanskrit has to Brahminism. It is the language of the
+Scriptures, the priest, and the scholar, and, although, at the present
+moment, it is as little recognized as a holy tongue on the continent of
+India, as the Greek of the New Testament is at Rome, it divides with the
+Arabic and Latin, the honour of being the most widely-spread literary
+language of the world. All the forms of Buddhism in the transgangetic
+peninsula are embodied in Pali writings. So are those of the Mongols;
+and so, to a great extent, those of the Tibetans as well. This makes the
+language and the creed nearly co-extensive. In China, however, and
+Japan, where great changes have taken place, and where either the
+development, or the deterioration of Buddhism has gone far enough to
+abolish the more palpable characteristics of the original Indian
+doctrine, the Pali language is no longer the medium. It _is_ so,
+however, for the vast area already indicated.
+
+In Buddhism, as opposed to Brahminism, there is a greater tenderness of
+animal life in general, whilst less respect is paid to the ox-tribe in
+particular. There is less also of the system of caste; and, in
+consequence of this, fewer of those elements of priestly influence,
+which originate in the ideas of the hereditary transmission of
+sacro-sanctitude. Buddhism, too, has the credit of running further in
+the dream-land of subjective metaphysics than Brahminism,--though this,
+as far as my own very imperfect means of judging go, is doubtful. Into
+practical pantheism, and into the deification of human reason it _does_
+run.
+
+When self-contemplation has reached its highest degree of abstraction,
+the state of _Nirwana_ is induced. This seems to mean the absorption of
+the spirit within itself; a condition which at once suggests adjectives
+like _impassive_, _subjective_, _exalted_, and _supra-sensual_, or
+substantives like _transcendentalism_, _egoism_, &c., and the like; in
+some cases with definite ideas to correspond with the term; oftener as
+mere meaningless words. Such, however, is the nomenclature which is
+requisite; a nomenclature to which I have recourse, not for the sake of
+illustrating my subject, but with the view of giving a practical notion
+of its indistinctness.
+
+Buddha himself is a specimen and model of self-absorption, consummation,
+perfection, or exaltation rather than a deity, or even a prophet. He
+shows what purity can effect, rather than teaches what purity consists
+in. He may even have become what he was, by his own unaided powers of
+supra-sensual abstraction.
+
+All this is but a series of negations, at least in the way of theology.
+But his spirit, after the departure of his body from the earth,[52]
+became incarnate in the body of some successor--and so on _ad
+infinitum_. This connects Buddhism with the doctrine of metempsychosis;
+a doctrine which the incarnations of Brahminism also suggest.
+
+Such are some of the speculative points of Buddhism. Its morality has
+been greatly, and, perhaps, unduly extolled. So much contemplation can
+scarcely exist without the condemnation of the more palpable sins of
+_commission_. Hence, those vices which are the offspring of passion and
+ignorance are condemned; as is but natural. The suspension of exertion
+precludes active vice. Of the active virtues, however, the recognition
+is as slight as may be; so slight as to make it doubtful whether
+Buddhism be a better rule for the formation of good citizens than
+Brahminism. Which has been the most resistant to the influences of
+Christianity is doubtful.[53]
+
+Just as the Anglo-Saxon language, although it originated in Germany, has
+survived and developed itself in Britain only, the Buddhist creed, once
+indigenous to the continent of Hindostan, is now found nowhere between
+the Himalayas and Cape Comorin; whilst beyond the pale of India, it is
+as widely extended as the English language is beyond the limits of
+Germany. The rival religion of the Brahmins expelled it. Which of the
+two was the older is uncertain. Still more difficult is it to determine
+how far each is a separate substantive mythological growth, or merely a
+modification of the rival creed.
+
+I lay but little stress upon the internal evidence derivable from the
+character of the religions themselves. Both are complicated and
+artificial--both, perhaps, equally so. In contrast, however, to the more
+speculative and transcendental points, suggestive of recent development,
+there are others indicative of great antiquity. Nevertheless, it is as
+difficult to affirm that the primitive parts of the one creed are older
+than the most primitive parts of the other, as it is to affirm that the
+highest transcendentalisms are more recent.
+
+The fact of the oldest inscriptions being in the Pali dialect, is
+favourable to the greater antiquity of Buddhism, but it is not
+conclusive. The notion that Sanskrit itself is comparatively recent, of
+course subtracts from that of Brahminism. But this is far from being
+admitted. Besides which, it by no means follows, that because Brahminism
+is, comparatively speaking, recent, Buddhism must be ancient.
+
+The best clue in this labyrinth of conflicting opinions is the study of
+the superstitions of the ruder tribes of the hill-ranges of India
+itself, of the sub-Himalayas, and of the Indo-Chinese peninsula; the
+result of which investigation will be that that creed which has most
+points in common with the primitive and unmodified mythologies of the
+Tamulian stock, and of those branches of the monosyllabic populations
+nearest akin thereto, has also the best claim to be considered as the
+older.
+
+In my own mind, I believe that the _Bedo_ of the Rajmahali mountaineers,
+is the _Batho_ of the Bodo, the _Pennu_ of the Khonds, and the
+_Potteang_ of the Kukis,[54]--name for name. I believe this without
+doubt or hesitation. But if I ask myself the import of this identity,
+the answer is unsatisfactory. There is doubt and hesitation in
+abundance. _Bedo_, _Batho_, _Petto_, and _Potteang_, _may_ represent the
+germ of what afterwards became _Buddh-ism_. They may exhibit the Indian
+creed in its _rudiments_. True. But they may also represent it in its
+_fragments_, so that _Bedo_ and _Batho_ may be but _Buddh_, distorted in
+form, and but imperfectly comprehended in import. In our own Gospel, the
+name for the place of punishment, which the Greeks called _Hades_, and
+the Hebrews typified by _Gehenna_, is the name of a Saxon goddess
+_Hela_; and, in this particular instance, a point of our original
+paganism has been taken up into our present Christianity. The same is
+the case with the Finnic nation, where _Yumala_ signifies _God_; Yumala
+being as truly heathen as _Jupiter_. On the other hand we find amongst
+the genuine pagan Gallas of Africa, an object of respect or worship
+called _Miriam_. What is this? No true piece of heathendom at all. Dr.
+Beke has given good reasons for believing that it means the Virgin
+Mother of the Saviour, the only extant member of the Christian
+Revelation now known to that once imperfectly Christianized community.
+
+Buddhism, then, may claim a higher antiquity than Brahminism under the
+two following conditions.
+
+1. That the names _Batho_, &c., be really a form of _Buddh_.
+
+2. That they have belonged to superstitions in which they occur from the
+beginning; and are not in the same category with the _Miriam_ of the
+Gallas, _i.e._, recent introductions from a wholly different
+religion--grafts rather than embryos.
+
+How far this latter is the case must be ascertained by a wide and minute
+inquiry, foreign to the present work.
+
+It is no wonder that, side by side with a semi-philosophical creed like
+Buddhism, we should have such a phenomenon as Devil-worship. When the
+spirit falls short of its due degree of self-sustained hardihood, fear
+finds its way to the heart. The evil powers are then propitiated;
+sometimes in a manner savouring of dignity, sometimes with groveling and
+grotesque cowardice. The Yezid of Mesopotamia, whose belief in the power
+of an evil spirit is derived from the Manicheism of old, shows his fear
+of the arch-enemy by simple and not unreasonable acts of negation. He
+does nothing that may offend; never mentions his name; and dwells on his
+attributes as little as possible. The devil-worshipper of Ceylon uses
+such invocations as the following:--
+
+    I.
+
+    Come, thou _sanguinary Devil_, at the sixth hour. Come, thou _fierce
+    Devil_, upon this stage, and accept the offerings made to thee!
+
+    The _ferocious Devil_ seems to be coming measuring the ground by the
+    length of his feet, and giving warnings of his approach by throwing
+    stones and sand round about. He looks upon the meat-offering which
+    is kneaded with blood and boiled rice.
+
+    He stands there and plays in the shade of the tree called _Demby_.
+    He removes the sickness of the person which he caused. He will
+    accept the offerings prepared with blood, odour, and reddish boiled
+    rice. Prepare these offerings in the shade of the _Demby_ tree.
+
+    Make a female figure of the _planets_ with a monkey's face, and its
+    body the colour of gold. Offer four offerings in the four corners.
+    In the left corner, place some blood, and for victims a fowl and a
+    goat. In the evening, place the scene representing the planets on
+    the high ground.
+
+    The face resembles a monkey's face, and the head is the colour of
+    gold. The head is reddish, and the bunch of hair is black and tied.
+    He holds blood in the left-hand, and rides on a bullock. After this
+    manner make the sanguinary figure of the planets.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, preserve these sick persons without
+    delay!
+
+    On the way, as he was going, by supernatural power he made a great
+    noise. He fought with the form of _Wessamoony_, and wounded his
+    head. The planet _Saturn_ saw a wolf in the midst of the forest, and
+    broke his neck. The _Wessamoony_ gave permission to the great devil
+    called _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, take away these sicknesses by
+    accepting the offerings made frequently to thee.--The qualities of
+    this devil are these: he stretches his long chin, and opens wide his
+    mouth like a cavern: he bears a spear in his right-hand, and grasps
+    a great and strong elephant with his left-hand. He is watching and
+    expecting to drink the blood of the elephant in the place where the
+    two and three roads meet together.
+
+    Influenced by supernatural power, he entered the body of the
+    princess called _Godimbera_. He caused her to be sick with severe
+    trembling sickness. Come thou poor and powerless devil _Maha-Sohon_
+    to fight with me, and leave the princess, if thou hast sufficient
+    strength.
+
+    On hearing these sayings, he left her, and made himself like a blue
+    cloud, and violently covered his whole body with flames of fire.
+    Furiously staring with his eyes, he said, "Art thou come, blockhead,
+    to fight with me who was born in the world of men? I will take you
+    by the legs, and dash you upon the great rock _Maha-meru_, and
+    quickly bring you to nothing."
+
+    Thou wast born on Sunday, the first day of the month, and didst
+    receive permission from the _King of Death_, and didst brandish a
+    sword like a plantain-leaf. Thou comest down at half-past seven, to
+    accept the offerings made to thee.
+
+    If the devil _Maha-Sohon_ cause the chin-cough, leanness of the
+    body, thirst, madness, and mad babblings, he will come down at
+    half-past seven, and accept the offerings made to him.
+
+    These are the marks of the devil _Maha-Sohon_: three marks on the
+    head, one mark on the eye-brow and on the temple; three marks on the
+    belly, a shining moon on the thigh, a lighted torch on the head, an
+    offering and a flower on the breast. The chief god of the
+    burying-place will say, May you live long!
+
+    Make the figure of the _planets_ called the emblem of the _great
+    burying-place_, as follows: a spear grasped by the right-hand, an
+    elephant's figure in the left-hand, and in the act of drinking the
+    blood of the elephant by bruising its proboscis.
+
+    Tip the point of the spear in the hand with blood, pointed towards
+    the elephant's face in the left-hand. These effigies and offerings
+    take and offer in the burying-place,--discerning well the sickness
+    by means of the devil-dancer.
+
+    Make a figure of the _wolf_ with a large breast, full of hairs on
+    the body, and with long teeth separated from each other. The effigy
+    of the _Maha-Sohon_ was made formerly so.
+
+    These are the sicknesses which the great devil causes by living
+    among the tombs: chin-cough, itching of the body, disorders in the
+    bowels; windy complaints, dropsy, leanness of the body, weakness and
+    consumptions.
+
+    He walks on high upon the lofty stones. He walks on the ground where
+    three ways meet. Therefore go not in the roads by night: if you do
+    so, you must not expect to escape with your life.
+
+    Make two figures of a goose, one on each side. Make a lion and a dog
+    to stand at the left-leg, bearing four drinking-cups on four
+    paws--and make a moon's image, and put it in the burying-place.
+
+    Comb the hair, and tie up a large bunch with a black string. Put
+    round the neck a cobra-capella, and dress him in the garments by
+    making nine folds round the waist. He stands on a rock eating men's
+    flesh. The persons that were possessed with devils are put in the
+    burying-place.
+
+    Put a corpse at the feet, taking out the intestines through the
+    mouth. The principal thing for this country, and for the Singhalese,
+    is the worship of the planets.[55]
+
+In the centre of the island is the kingdom of Kandy; naturally fortified
+by impervious forests, and long independent. This creates a variety; the
+Kandyans being somewhat ruder than the other Singhalese. It is not,
+however, an important one. The really important ethnology of Ceylon is
+that of the _Vaddahs_, in the eastern districts, inland of Battacaloa.
+They are still unmodified by either the Hindú habits, or the great
+Indian creeds,--the true analogues of the Khonds, and Kóls, and Bhils,
+&c. Their language, however, is Singhalese; an important fact, since it
+denotes one of two phenomena,--either the antiquity of the conquest of
+Ceylon supposing the extension of the Singhalese language to have been
+gradual, or the thorough-going character of it, if it be recent.
+
+Who were the _Padæi_ of the following extract from
+Herodotus?[56]--"Other Indians there are, who live east of these. They
+are nomads, eaters of raw flesh; and called Padæi. They are said to have
+the following customs. Whenever one of their countrymen is sick, whether
+man or woman, he is killed. The males kill the males, and amongst these
+the most intimate acquaintance kill their nearest friends; for they say
+that for a man to be wasted by disease is for their own meat to be
+spoilt. The man denies that he ails; but they, not letting him have his
+own way, kill and feast on him. If a female be sick, the women that are
+most intimate with her treat her as the males do the men. They sacrifice
+and feast upon all who arrive at old age. Few, however, go thus far,
+since they kill every one who falls sick before he reaches that stage of
+life."
+
+Name for name, the _Vaddahs_ of Ceylon have a claim to be _Padæi_.
+Besides which they are Indian.
+
+But, name for name, the _Battas_[57] of Sumatra have a claim as well;
+and although they are not exactly Indian, they are cannibals of the sort
+in question--or, at any rate, cannibals in a manner quite as remarkable.
+
+This gives us a conflict of difficulties. The solution of them lies in
+the fact of neither _Vaddah_ nor _Batta_ being _native_ names; a fact
+which leaves us a liberty to suppose that the _Padæi_ of Herodotus were
+simply some wild Indian tribe sufficiently allied in manners to the
+_Vaddahs_ of Ceylon, and the _Battas_ of Sumatra, to be called by the
+same name, but without being necessarily either the one or the other; or
+even ethnologically connected with either.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now look at the _gipsies_ of Great Britain. They are wanderers without
+fixed habitations; whilst, at the same time, they are more abundant in
+some parts of the island than others. They have no very definite
+occupation; yet they are oftener tinkers and tinmen than aught else
+equally legal. They intermarry with the English but little. All this is
+_caste_, although we may not exactly call it so. Then, again, they have
+a peculiar language, although it is so imperfectly known to the majority
+of the British gipsies, as to have become well-nigh extinct.[58] These
+gipsies are of Indian origin, and a wandering tribe of Hindostan, called
+Sikligurs, reminded Mr. Pickering of the European gipsies more than any
+other Indians he fell in with. Like these, the Sikligurs are _coves_, or
+tinkers.
+
+This, however, is by the way. Although it is as well to make a note of
+the Indian extraction of the English and other European gipsies, it is
+not for this reason that they have been mentioned. They find a place
+here for the sake of illustrating what is meant by the _wandering tribes
+of India_, whilst at the same time they throw a slight illustration over
+the nature of _castes_. Lastly, they are essentially parts of an
+ethnological investigation--ethnological rather than either social or
+political. Their characteristics are referable to a difference of
+descent; and they are tinkers, wanderers, poachers, and smugglers, not
+so much because they are either gipsies, or Indians, as because they are
+of a different stock from the English. They are foreigners in the
+fullest sense of the term; and they differ from their fellow-citizens
+just as the Jew does--though less advantageously.
+
+Now India swarms with the analogues of the English gipsy; so much so as
+to make it likely that the latter is found as far from his original
+country as Wales and Norway, simply because he is a vagabond, not
+because he is an Indian.
+
+Of the chief of the tribes in question a good account is given by Mr.
+Balfour. This list, however, which is as follows, may be enlarged.
+
+1. The _Gohur_ are, perhaps, better known under the name of _Lumbarri_,
+and better still as the _Brinjarri_, the bullock-drivers of many parts
+of India, but more especially of the Dekhan. They are corn-merchants as
+well. Their organization consists of divisions called _Tandas_, at the
+head of which is a _Naek_. Two Naeks paramount over the rest, reside
+permanently at Hyderabad, on the confines of the Mahratta and Telugu
+countries. The bullock, _Hatadia_, devoted to the God _Balajee_, is an
+object of worship. In a long line of Brinjarri met by Mr. Pickering,[59]
+one of the females was carrying a dog, which neither a Hindú nor a Parsi
+would have done. Many of them are Sikhs. There are, certainly, three
+divisions of the Gohuri--the Chouhane,[60] the Rhatore, and the Powar,
+and probably--
+
+_The Purmans_ are another branch of them; consisting of about
+seventy-five families of agriculturists on the Bombay islets.
+
+2. _The Bhowri_, called also _Hirn-shikarri_ and _Hern-pardi_, though
+Bhowri is the native name, are hunters. They also fall into subordinate
+divisions.
+
+3. _The Tarremúki_; so-called by themselves, but known in the Dekhan as
+_Ghissaris_, or _Bail-Kumbar_, and amongst the Mahrattas, as _Lohars_,
+are blacksmiths.
+
+4. _The Korawi_, fall in tribes which neither eat with each other, nor
+intermarry, _viz._:--
+
+_a._ The Bajantri, who are musicians.
+
+_b._ The Teling--basket-makers and prostitutes.
+
+_c._ The Kolla.
+
+_d._ The Soli.
+
+5. _The Bhattu_, _Dummur_, or _Kollati_, are exorcists and exhibitors of
+feats of strength.
+
+6. _The Muddikpur_, so called by themselves, though known under several
+other names, follow a variety of employments; some being ferrymen.
+
+All these tribes wander about the country without any permanent home,
+speak a peculiar dialect with a considerable proportion of
+Non-Sanskritic words, and preserve certain peculiarities of creed;
+though in different degrees--the Muddikpur being wholly or nearly pagan,
+the Tarremúki Brahminic.
+
+The wandering life of these, and other similar tribes is not, by itself,
+sufficient to justify us in separating them from the other Hindús. But
+it does not stand alone. The fragments of an earlier paganism, and the
+fragments of an earlier language are phenomena which must be taken in
+conjunction with it. These suggest the likelihood of the Gohuri, the
+Bhatti, and their like, being in the same category with the Khonds and
+Bhils, &c., _i.e._, representatives of the earlier and more exclusively
+Tamulian populations. If the gipsy language of England had, instead of
+its Indian elements, an equal number of words from the original
+British, it would present the same phenomena, and lead to the same
+inference as that which is drawn from the Bhatti, Bhowri, Tarremúki, and
+Gohuri vocabularies,[61] _viz._: the doctrine that fragments of the
+original population are to be sought for amongst the wanderers over the
+face of the country, as well as among the occupants of its mountain
+strongholds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In a country like India, where differences of habit, business,
+extraction, and creed, are accompanied by an inordinate amount of
+separation between different sections and subsections of its population,
+and where slight barriers of diverse kinds prevent intermixture, the
+different sects of its numerous religions requires notice. This,
+however, may be short. As sectarianism is generally in the direct ratio
+to the complexity of the creed submitted to section, we may expect to
+find the forms of Brahminism and Buddhism, not less numerous than those
+of either Christianity or Mahometanism. And such is really the case. The
+sects are too numerous to enlarge upon. The Sikh creed has been noticed
+from its political importance. That of the Jains is also remarkable,
+since it most closely resembles Buddhism, without being absolutely
+Buddhist in the current sense of the word. It is, possibly, the actual
+and original Buddhism of the continent of India--supposed to have been
+driven out bodily by Brahminism, but really with the true vitality of
+persecuted creeds, still surviving in disguise. Again, in India, though
+in a less degree than in China, Philosophy replaces belief--so much so,
+that the different forms of one negation--Natural Religion--must be
+classed amongst the creeds of Hindostan; by the side of which there
+stand many kinds of simple philosophy; just as was the case in ancient
+Greece, where, in one and the same city, there were the philosophers of
+the Academy and the believers in Zeus.
+
+There is, then, creed within creed in the two great religions of
+India--to say nothing about the numerous fragments of modified and
+unmodified paganism.
+
+And besides these there are the following introduced religions--each
+coinciding, more or less, with some ethnological division.
+
+1. Christianity from, at least, four different sources--
+
+_a._ That of the Christians of Thomas on the Malabar Coast. Here the
+doctrine is that of the Syrian Church, and the population being
+_perhaps_ (?) Persian in origin.
+
+_b._ The Romanism of the French and Portuguese; the latter having its
+greatest development in the Mahratta country, about Goa.
+
+_c._ Dutch and Danish Protestantism.
+
+_d._ English and American Protestantism. To which add small infusions of
+the Armenian and Abyssinian churches.
+
+Of these it is only the Christians of St. Thomas that are of much
+ethnological importance.
+
+2. Judaism on the coast of Malabar; or the Judaism of the so-called
+_Black Jews_.
+
+3. Parseeism in Gujerat; of Persian origin, and, probably, nearly
+confined to individuals of Persian blood.
+
+4. Mahometanism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of foreign blood there are numerous infusions.
+
+1. _Arab._--On the western coast, more especially amongst the Moplahs of
+the neighbourhood of Goa; where the stock seems to be Arabian on the
+father's, and Indian on the mother's side.
+
+2. _Persian._--Amongst the Parsees and Saint Thomas Christians (?); and,
+far more unequivocally, and in greater proportions, amongst the _Moghul_
+families--these being always more or less Persian; but Persian with such
+heterogeneous intermixtures of Turk and Mongol blood besides as to make
+analysis almost impossible.
+
+3. _Afghan._--The Rohillas of Rohilcund are Afghan in origin; so are the
+Patani--indeed, the term _Patan_ means an Afghan of Hindostan wherever
+he may be.
+
+4. _Jewish._
+
+5, 6, 7.--_Chinese_, _Malay_, _Burmese_, &c.
+
+8. _European._
+
+Of the _Indians out of India_, by far the most are--
+
+1. The _Gipsies_.
+
+2. The _Banians_, who are the Hindú traders of Arabia, Persia, Cashmir,
+and other parts of the East.
+
+3. The _Hill Coolies_, individuals of the Khond and Kúli class, upon
+whom England is trying the experiment of what may end in a revival of
+the old crimping system, as a substitute for slave-labour in our
+intertropical colonies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is a sketch of the ethnology of India; pre-eminently complex, but
+not pre-eminently mysterious; its chief problems being--
+
+1. The general ethnological relations of the Tamulian stock.
+
+2. Those of the intrusive Brahminical Hindús.
+
+3. The relation of the intrusive population to the aboriginal.[62]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] "Transactions of Philological Society," No. 94.
+
+[42] Latin _nurus_, from _snurus_.
+
+[43] Latin _socer_, Greek ἕκυρος.
+
+[44] Latin _socrus_, Greek ἕκυρα.
+
+[45] Latin _levir_ (_devir_), Greek δαηρ.
+
+[46] Or _that_, _this_.
+
+[47] The full exposition of this doctrine is in the present writer's
+ethnological edition of the "Germania" of Tacitus; v. _Æstyi_.
+
+[48] Taken from the Appendix to Captain Cunningham's "History of the
+Sikhs."
+
+[49] Captain Postans, in "Transactions of Ethnological Society," who,
+along with Sir H. Pottinger, is my chief authority.
+
+[50] For a description of these parts see Major Edwardes' "Year on the
+Punjâb Frontier."
+
+[51] The best account of the Brahúi is to be found in Sir H. Pottinger's
+Travels.
+
+[52] In the sixth century, B.C. according to the Buddhist chronology.
+
+[53] Such, at least, is the opinion of the author of "Christianity in
+Ceylon," Sir E. Tennent.
+
+[54] Names explained in Chapter iii.
+
+[55] From Callaway's "Translation of the _Kolán Nattannawa_."
+
+[56] Book iii. §. 99.
+
+[57] The same, probably, is the case with the BIDI of Java.
+
+[58] From this language, I imagine that the three following words have
+come into the English--two of them being slang and one a sporting
+term--_rum_, _cove_, _jockey_.
+
+[59] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," No. 145.
+
+[60] These names introduce a difficulty: They are _Rajpút_ as well.
+
+[61] All of which may be found in the paper already quoted; and all of
+which contain numerous Tamul roots.
+
+[62] Since this was written Major-General Briggs' valuable paper on the
+_Aboriginal Tribes of India_, has been published in "Transactions of the
+British Association," &c., for 1851. Having been seen in MS. by the
+present writer it has been freely used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+    BRITISH DEPENDENCIES IN THE MALAYAN PENINSULA.--THE OCEANIC STOCK
+    AND ITS DIVISIONS.--THE MALAY, SEMANG, AND DYAK TYPES.--THE ORANG
+    BINUA.--JAKUNS.--THE BIDUANDA KALLANG.--THE ORANG SLETAR.--THE
+    SARAWAK TRIBES.--THE NEW ZEALANDERS.--THE AUSTRALIANS.--THE
+    TASMANIANS.
+
+
+Our isolated and small settlements in the Malayan Peninsula,[63] the
+depôt at Labuan, Sir James Brooke's Rajahship of Sarawak, New Zealand,
+the joint protectorate of the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti, Australia,
+and Van Dieman's Land, bring us to a new division of the human species,
+which is conveniently called the _Oceanic_.
+
+Its divisions and subdivisions are as follows:--
+
+                         { PROTONESIANS { MICRONESIANS
+         { AMPHINESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS
+         {               { MALAGASI     {   PROPER
+ OCEANIC-{
+         {               { PAPUANS
+         { KELÆNONESIANS-{ AUSTRALIANS
+                         { TASMANIANS.
+
+Our settlements are limited to the Protonesian, Proper Polynesian,
+Australian, and Tasmanian sections: and we have no political authority
+over any of the Malagasi, Micronesians, or Papuans.
+
+With the exception of the occupants of the Malayan Peninsula, all the
+Oceanic population occupy islands. This explains the term _Oceanic_.
+
+Their _distribution_ is as remarkable as their _extension_. The
+Amphinesian[64] stream of population, originating in the peninsula of
+Malacca, is continued through Borneo, the Moluccas, and the Philippines,
+Lord North's Island, Sonsoral, the Pelew group, the Caroline and
+Marianne Isles, the Ralik and Radack chains, the Kingsmill group and the
+Gilbert and Scarborough Islands, to the Navigators', Society, Friendly,
+Marquesas, Sandwich, and New Zealand groups; having become _Micronesian_
+rather than _Protonesian_, after passing the Philippines, and _Proper
+Polynesian_ rather than _Micronesian_, after passing the Scarborough and
+Gilbert Archipelagoes. In this course it passes _round_ New Guinea and
+Australia; in each of which islands the population is Kelænonesian.
+
+The Malay of the Malacca peninsula is no longer either monosyllabic or
+uninflectional, although in immediate contact with the southern
+dialects of the Siamese. Hence, the transition is abrupt; although by no
+means conclusive as to any broad and trenchant line of ethnological
+demarcation.
+
+The differences of physical form are less than those of language. No one
+has denied that the Malay configuration is a modification of the
+Mongolian--_at least in some of its varieties_.
+
+I say _at least in some of its varieties_, because within the narrow
+range of the Malaccan peninsula and the island of Borneo we find no less
+than three different types. In _Polynesia_ one of these, and in
+_Kelænonesia_ another becomes exaggerated--so much so, as to suggest the
+idea of a different origin for the populations.
+
+_a._ The _Malays_ are referable to the first type. Mahometans in
+religion, they partake of the civilization of the Arab and Indian, and
+differ but slightly from the Indo-Chinese nations; the complexion being
+dark and the hair straight. The Mahometan Malays, however, are no true
+aborigines. They are not only a new people on the peninsula, but they
+consider themselves as such; and those occupants which they recognize as
+older than themselves, they call _Orang Binua_, or _men of the soil_. Of
+these some have a darker complexion and crisper hair than the intruding
+population: and when we reach a particular section called--
+
+_b._ The _Semang_, we find them described as having curly, crisp,
+matted, and even woolly hair, thick lips, and a black skin. These, like
+most of the other _Orang Binua_, are Pagans. Still their language is
+essentially Malay; and their physical conformation passes into that of
+the Malays by numerous transitions.
+
+_c._ Thirdly, we find in Borneo the _Dyaks_. Many of these are as much
+fairer than the Malays as the Semang are darker. Their language,
+however, belongs to the Malay class; whilst their religion and
+civilization may reasonably be supposed to be that of the Malays
+previous to the influences of Brahminism from India, Mahometanism from
+Arabia, and the changes effected in their habits, language, and
+appearance effected thereby.
+
+It is not too much to say that within the peninsula of Malaya, the
+Johore Archipelago, and the island of Borneo, each of these types, and
+every intermediate form as well, is to be found.
+
+_Malacca._--The town of Malacca is a town of Mahometan Malays, but I
+believe that the eastern parts of Wellesley province are on the frontier
+of the _Jokong_, _Jakon_, or _Jakun_. These are _Orang Binua_, or
+aborigines--at least as compared with the true Malays.
+
+In the eighth century--I am drawing an illustration from the history of
+our own island, and its relations to continental Germany--the
+Anglo-Saxons of Great Britain, themselves originally Pagan Germans, took
+an interest in the spiritual welfare of the so-called Old Saxons, a
+tribe of Westphalia, immediately related to their own continental
+ancestors, these Old Saxons having retained their primitive Paganism.
+The mission partly succeeded, and partly failed.
+
+Now, if in addition to this partial success of the Anglo-Saxon mission,
+there had been a partial Anglo-Saxon colonization as well, and if, side
+by side with this, fragments of the old unmodified Paganism had survived
+amongst the fens and forests up to the present time, we should have had,
+in the relations of England and Germany, precisely what I imagine to
+have been the case with the Malayan peninsula and the island of Sumatra.
+Like Germany, the peninsula would have supplied the original stock to
+the island; but, in the island, that stock would have undergone certain
+modifications. With these modifications it would--so to say--have been
+_reflected_ back upon the continent--_re_-colonizing the old
+mother-country. Now just what the Old Saxons of Westphalia were to the
+Anglo-Saxons of the eighth century, are the Jakun to the true Malays.
+They differ from them in being something other than Mahometan; _i.e._,
+in being nearly what the Mahometan Malays were before their conversion.
+
+The Jakun are Malays, _minus_ those points of Malay civilization which
+are referable to the religion of the Koran.
+
+But the Jakun are only a few out of many; a single branch of a great
+stem.
+
+The most convenient term for the members in general of this class is
+_Orang Binua_--a term already explained.
+
+_The Biduanda Kallang._--The next, then, of the _Orang Binua_ that comes
+in contact with a British dependency--many others _not_ thus politically
+connected with us being passed over--are the _Biduanda Kallang_ of the
+parts about Sincapore. Their present locality is the banks of the most
+southern of the rivers of the peninsula, the Pulai. Thither they were
+removed when the British took possession of the island of Sincapore; of
+which they were previously the joint occupants--joint occupants, because
+they shared it with the tribe which will be next mentioned. They were an
+_Orang Laut_ in one sense of the word, but not in another. _Orang_ means
+_men_ or _people_, and _laut_ means _sea_ in Malay; and the Biduanda
+Kallang were boatmen rather than agriculturists. But they were only
+freshwater sailors; since, though they lived on the water, they avoided
+the open sea. They formerly consisted of one hundred families; but have
+been reduced by small-pox to eight.
+
+Their priest or physician is called _bomo_, and he invokes the _hantu_,
+or deities, the _anito_ of the Philippine Islanders, the _tii_ of the
+Tahitians; and, probably, the _Wandong_ and _Vintana_ of Australia and
+Madagascar respectively.
+
+They bury their dead after wrapping the corpse in a mat; and placing on
+the grave one cup of woman's milk, one of water, and one of rice; when
+they entreat the deceased to seek nothing more from them.
+
+Persons of even the remotest degree of relationship are forbidden to
+intermarry.
+
+The accounts of their physical appearance is taken from too few
+individuals to justify any generalization. Two, however, of them had the
+forehead broader than the cheek-bones, so that the head was pear-shaped.
+In a third, it was lozenge-shaped. The head was small, and the face
+flat. The lower jaw projected; but not the upper--so that "when viewed
+in profile, the features seem to be placed on a straight line, from
+which the prominent parts rise very slightly."[65]
+
+_The Orang Sletar._--The original joint-occupants of Sincapore with the
+Biduanda Kallang, were the _Orang Sletar_, or _men of the river Sletar_;
+differing but little from the former. Of the two families they are the
+shyer, and the more squalid; numbering about two hundred individuals and
+forty boats. Their dialect is Malay, spoken with a guttural
+pronunciation, and with a clipping of the words.
+
+At the birth of a child they have no ceremonies; at marriage a present
+of tobacco and rice to the bride's mother confirms the match; at death
+the deceased is wrapped in his garments and interred.
+
+Skin diseases and deformities are common; nevertheless, many of their
+women are given in marriage to both the Malays and Chinese; but I know
+of no account of the mixed progeny.
+
+A low retreating forehead throws the face of the _Orang Sletar_
+forwards, though the jaw is rather perpendicular than projecting.[66]
+
+Such are the _Orang Binua_ originally, or at present, in contact with
+the small and isolated possessions of the British in the Malayan
+peninsula.
+
+Of the proper Malays I have said next to nothing. Excellent works give
+full accounts of them;[67] whilst it is not through _them_ that the true
+ethnological problems are to be worked.
+
+I believe that when we reach Borneo, the equivalents to the _Orang
+Binua_, or the original populations in opposition to the Mahometan
+Malays, become referable to a fresh type, and that instead of being
+_darker_ than the true Malays they are often _lighter_. At any rate, one
+thing is certain, _viz._, that, whether the skin be brown, blackish, or
+fair, the language belongs to the same stock.
+
+Again--although in one area the darker tribes may preponderate, it is
+not to the absolute exclusion of the fairer. The Dyaks of Borneo are,
+generally speaking, light-complexioned; yet, there is special evidence
+to the existence of dark tribes in that island. On the other hand there
+is equal evidence to the existence of families lighter-skinned than the
+true Malays in the peninsula. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the
+departure from the type of that population is towards darkness of colour
+on the continent, and towards lightness in Borneo.
+
+With what physical conditions these differences coincide is not always
+easy to be discerned. In the South Sea Islands, where in one and the
+same Archipelago, we find some tribes tall and fair, whereas others are
+dark and ill-featured, it has been remarked by Captain Beechy that this
+contrast of complexion coincides with the geological structure of the
+soil. The lower and more coralline the island, the blacker the
+islanders; the more elevated and volcanic, the lighter. In Africa, it is
+the low alluvia of rivers that favour the Negro configuration.
+Mountains or table-lands, on the other hand, give us red or yellow
+skins, rather than sable.
+
+The Dyaks, then, are light-coloured Pagans, speaking languages allied to
+the Malay; little touched by Arabic, and less by Hindú influences; with
+manners and customs that, more or less, re-appear amongst the Battas (or
+ruder tribes of Sumatra), and the so-called Harafuras of Celebes--and
+not only here but elsewhere. In other words, in all the islands, where
+Indian and Arabic civilization have not succeeded in wholly changing
+the primitive character, analogues of the _Orang Binua_ are to be
+found; their greatest differences being those of stature and
+complexion--differences upon which good judges have laid great stress;
+but differences which will probably be found to coincide with certain
+geological conditions in the way of physical, and with a lower level of
+civilization in the way of moral causes--these moral causes having
+indirectly a physical action.
+
+The Dyaks, in general, use the _sumpitan_, or blow-pipe, about five feet
+long; out of which some tribes shoot simple, others poisoned arrows. The
+utmost distance that the sumpitan carries is about one hundred yards. At
+twenty it is sure in its aim. The differences between the Dyak weapon,
+and one in use with the Arawaks of Guiana is but trifling--perhaps it
+amounts to nothing at all.
+
+Some Dyak tribes tattoo their bodies; others do not.
+
+Before a Dyak youth marries he must lay at the feet of the bride-elect
+the head of an enemy. This makes _head-hunting_ a normal item of Dyak
+courtship.
+
+Traces of the Indian mythology--measures of the Indian influence in
+other respects--just exist amongst the Dyaks--_e.g._, _Battara_ is a
+name in their Pantheon, and this is an alteration of the Brahminic
+_Avatar_.
+
+The pirates who harass the coasts of Borneo and the Chinese
+Seas--destined, at some future time to be, like the Kaffres, but too
+well-known to the English tax-payers--are Malays rather than _Orang
+Binua_, or their equivalents; the navigation of the Dyaks being chiefly
+confined to rivers.
+
+The particular tribes of Sarawak are the following--the Lundu, the
+Sarambo, the Singé, the Suntah, the Sow, and the Sibnow. It is almost
+unnecessary to name the great fountain-head for all our recent knowledge
+of Borneo--Sir James Brooke.
+
+The Dyak type predominates amongst the _Orang Binua_ of Borneo. In the
+Philippines the Semang complexion re-appears. But the prolongation of
+the eastward line of migration takes us through the Mariannes and
+Ladrones to Polynesia; and here the magnitude of the islands decreases;
+in other words, the influences of the sea-air become greater. The
+aliment becomes almost wholly vegetable. The separation from the
+civilizational influences of Asia amounts to absolute isolation. Of the
+general ethnology of the South Sea Islanders I say nothing. The reasons
+which took me over China, Arabia, and the Malayan peninsula, _sicco
+pede_, spare the necessity of details here.
+
+In the Sandwich Islands there is a constitution. In Tahiti, a school of
+native Christian Missionaries.
+
+New Zealand exhibits the contrast between the darker and
+lighter-coloured Oceanic populations in so remarkable a manner as to
+have engendered the notion that two stocks occupy the island. If it were
+so, the fact would be remarkable and mysterious. How _one_ population
+found its way to a locality so distant is by no means an easy question;
+whilst the assumption of a second family of immigrants just doubles its
+difficulty.[68]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Java the proper Malay influences have been so great as to leave but
+few traces of the _Orang Binua_; and, earlier even than these, those of
+India were actively at work.
+
+East of Bali, however, the _Orang Binua_ re-appear, and here the type is
+that of the Semangs. From Ombay, parts of Ende, and parts of Sumbawa, we
+have short vocabularies--short, but not too scanty to set aside the
+hasty, but accredited, assertion of the Australian language, having
+nothing in common with those of the Indian Archipelago.[69]
+
+I feel as satisfied that Australia was peopled from either Timor or
+Rotti, as I do about the Gallic origin of the ancient Britons.
+
+I believe this because the geographical positions of the countries
+suggest it.
+
+I believe it, because the older and more aboriginal populations of Timor
+and Rotti approach, in physical character, the Australian.
+
+I believe it, because the proportion of words in the vocabularies
+alluded to is greater than can be attributed to accident; whilst the
+words themselves are not of that kind which is introduced by
+intercourse. Besides which, no such intercourse either occurs at the
+present moment, or can be shown to have ever existed.
+
+Australia agrees with parts of Africa, South America, and Polynesia, in
+being partially intertropical and wholly south of the equator--no part
+of continental Asia or Europe coming under these conditions. But it
+differs from Polynesia in being continental rather than insular in
+climate; from South America in the absence of great rivers and vast
+alluvial tracts; and from Africa in being wholly isolated from the
+Northern Hemisphere. It is with South Africa, however, that its closest
+analogies exist. Both have but small water-systems; both vast tracts of
+elevated barren country; and both a distinctive vegetation. The animal
+kingdoms, however, of the two areas have next to nothing in common. The
+comparative non-existence of Australian mammalia, higher in rank than
+the marsupials, is a subject for the zoologist. Ethnology only indicates
+its bearing upon the sustenance of man. Poor in the vegetable elements
+of food, and beggarly in respect to the animal, the vast continental
+expanse of Australia supports the scantiest aboriginal population of the
+world, and nourishes it worst. The steppes of Asia feed the horse; the
+_tundras_, the reindeer; the circumpolar icebergs, the seal; and each of
+these comparatively inhospitable tracts is more kindly towards its
+Mongolian, its Samoeid, and its Eskimo occupant, than Australia with its
+intertropical climate, but wide and isolated deserts.
+
+Except that his hair (which is often either straight, or only crisp or
+wavy) has not attained its _maximum_ of frizziness, and has seldom or
+never been called _woolly_, the Australian is a Semang under a South
+African climate, on a South African soil, and with more than a South
+African isolation.
+
+Few Australians count as far as five, and fewer still beyond it. This
+paucity of numerals is South American as well--the Brazilian and Carib,
+and other systems of numeration being equally limited.
+
+The sound of _s_ is wanting in the majority of Australian languages. So
+it is in many of the Polynesian.
+
+The social constitution is of extreme simplicity. Many degrees removed
+from the industrial, almost as far from the agricultural state, the
+Australian is hardly even a hunter--except so far as the kangaroo or
+wombat are beasts of chase. Families--scarcely large enough to be called
+tribes or clans--wander over wide but allotted areas. Nowhere is the
+approach to an organized polity so imperfect.
+
+This makes the differences between section and section of the Australian
+population, both broad and numerous. Nevertheless, the fundamental unity
+of the whole is not only generally admitted, but--what is better--it has
+been well illustrated. The researches of Captain Grey, Teichelmann,
+Schurrmann, and others, have chiefly contributed to this.
+
+The appreciation of certain apparent characteristic peculiarities has
+been less satisfactory; differences having been over-rated and points of
+similarity wondered at rather than investigated.
+
+The well-known instrument called the _boomerang_ is Australian, and it
+is, perhaps, exclusively so.
+
+Circumcision is an Australian practice--a practice common to certain
+Polynesians and Negroes, besides--to say nothing of the Jews and
+Mahometans.
+
+The recognition of the _maternal_ rather than the _paternal_ descent is
+Australian. Children take the name of their mother. What other points it
+has in common with the Malabar polyandria has yet to be ascertained.
+
+When an Australian dies, those words which are identical with his name,
+or (in case of compounds) with any part of it, cease to be used; and
+some synonym is adopted instead; just as if, in England, whenever a Mr.
+_Smith_ departed this life, the parish to which he belonged should cease
+to talk of _blacksmiths_, and say _forgemen_, _forgers_, or something
+equally respectful to the deceased, instead. This custom re-appears in
+Polynesia, and in South America; Dobrizhoffer's account of the
+Abiponian custom being as follows:--The "Abiponian language is involved
+in new difficulties by a ridiculous custom which the savages have of
+continually abolishing words common to the whole nation, and
+substituting new ones in their stead. Funeral rites are the origin of
+this custom. The Abipones do not like that anything should remain to
+remind them of the dead. Hence appellative words bearing any affinity
+with the names of the deceased are presently abolished. During the first
+years that I spent amongst the Abipones, it was usual to say _Hegmalkam
+kahamátek_, when will there be a slaughtering of oxen? On account of the
+death of some Abipon, the word _Kahamátek_ was interdicted, and, in its
+stead, they were all commanded by the voice of a crier to say,
+_Hegmalkam négerkatà?_ The word _nihirenak_, a tiger, was exchanged for
+_apanigehak_; _peû_, a crocodile, for _Kaeprhak_, and _Kaáma_,
+Spaniards, for _Rikil_, because these words bore some resemblance to the
+names of Abipones lately deceased. Hence it is that our vocabularies are
+so full of blots occasioned by our having such frequent occasions to
+obliterate interdicted words, and insert new ones."
+
+The following custom is Australian, and it belongs to a class which
+should always be noticed when found. This is because it appears and
+re-appears in numerous parts of the world, in different forms, and,
+apparently, independent of ethnological affinities.
+
+A family selects some natural object as its symbol, badge, or armorial
+bearing.
+
+All natural objects of the same class then become sacred; _i.e._, the
+family which has adopted, respects them also.
+
+The modes of showing this respect are various. If the object be an
+animal, it is not killed; if a plant, not plucked.
+
+The native term for the object thus chosen is _Kobong_.
+
+A man cannot marry a woman of the same _Kobong_.
+
+Until we know the sequence of the cause and effect in the case of the
+Australian _Kobong_, we have but little room for speculation as to its
+origin. Is the plant or animal adopted by a particular family selected
+because it was previously viewed with a mysterious awe, or is it
+invested with the attributes of sacro-sanctity because it has been
+chosen by the family? This has yet to be investigated.
+
+Meanwhile, as Captain Gray truly remarks, the Australian _Kobong_ has
+elements in common with the Polynesian _tabu_! Might he not have added
+that the _names_ are probably the same? The change from _t_ to _k_, and
+the difference between a nasal and a vowel termination, are by no means
+insuperable objections.
+
+He also adds that it has a counterpart with the American system of
+_totem_; although the exact degree to which the comparison runs on all
+fours is undetermined.
+
+But the disuse of certain words on the death of kinsmen, and the
+_Kobong_ are not the only customs common to the Australian and American.
+
+The admission to the duties and privileges of manhood is preceded by a
+probation. What this is in the Mandan tribe of the Sioux Americans, and
+the extent to which it consists in the infliction and endurance of
+revolting and almost incredible cruelties, may be seen in Mr. Catlin's
+description--the description of an eye-witness. In Australia it is the
+_Babu_ that cries for the youths that have arrived at puberty. Suddenly,
+and at night, a cry is heard in the woods. Upon hearing this, the men of
+the neighbourhood take the youths to a secluded spot previously fixed
+upon. The ceremony then takes place. Sham fights, dances, partial
+mutilations of the body, _e.g._, the knocking out of a front tooth, are
+elements of it. And this is as much as is known of it; except that from
+the time of initiation to the time of marriage, the young men are
+forbidden to speak to, or even approach a female.
+
+Surely, it is the common conditions of a hunter life which determine
+these probationary preparations for the hardships which accompany it in
+populations so remote as the Australian and the American of the prairie.
+I say of the prairie, because we shall find that in the proportion as
+the agricultural state replaces the erratic habits of the hunter,
+ceremonies of the sort in question decrease both in number and
+peculiarity of character.
+
+A third regulation forbids the use of the more enviable articles of
+diet, like fish, eggs, the emu, and the choicer sorts of opossum and
+kangaroo to the Australian youth.
+
+All that is known of the Australian religion is due to the researches of
+the United States Exploring Expedition. The most specific fact in this
+respect is the name _Wandong_ as applied to the evil spirit. I believe
+this to be truly a word belonging to the Oceanic Pantheon in general,
+and--as stated above--to be the same as _Vintana_ in Malagasi, and as
+the root _anit_ in many of the Polynesian languages.
+
+_The Tasmanians._--A few families, the remains of the aborigines of Van
+Dieman's Land, occupy Flinder's Island, whither they have been removed.
+
+I can give but little information concerning them.
+
+From the Australians they differ but slightly in mental capacity, and
+civilizational development. Perhaps their very low level in this
+respect is the lower of the two.
+
+The language seems to have fallen into not less than four mutually
+unintelligible forms of speech.
+
+Their _hair_ constituted their chief physical difference. This was
+curled, frizzy, or mopped.
+
+The _a priori_ view of their origin is that they crossed Torres Straits
+from Australia. I have, however, stated elsewhere that a case may be
+made out for either Timor or New Caledonia being their mother countries;
+in which case the stream of population has gone _round_ Australia rather
+than _across_ it. Certain peculiarities of the Tasmanian language give
+us the ground for thus demurring to the _primâ facie_ view of their
+descent. The same help us to account for the differences in texture of
+the hair.[70]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] Malacca, Wellesley Province, Penang, and Sincapore. For excellent
+information about the ethnology of these parts see Newbold's "British
+Settlements," and the "Journal of the Indian Archipelago."
+
+[64] From ἀμφὶ (_amfi_) _roundabout_, and νῆσος (_næsos_) _an island_.
+
+[65] Logan in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[66] Logan and Thompson in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[67] Especially Crawfurd's "Indian Archipelago," Sir Stamford Raffles'
+"History of Java," and Marsden's "Sumatra."
+
+[68] Dr. Dieffenbach's work on New Zealand is the repertory of details
+here--a valuable and standard book.
+
+[69] The collation of these may be seen in the Appendix to Mr. Jukes'
+"Voyage of the Fly."
+
+[70] In the Appendix to Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly," and in "Man and his
+Migrations."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+    THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.--THE ALGONKIN
+    STOCK.--THE IROQUOIS.--THE SIOUX.--ASSINEBOINS.--THE ESKIMO.--THE
+    KOLÚCH.--THE NEHANNI.--DIGOTHI.--THE ATSINA.--INDIANS OF BRITISH
+    OREGON, QUADRA'S AND VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.--HAIDAH.--CHIMSHEYAN.--
+    BILLICHULA.--HAILTSA.--NUTKA.--ATNA.--KITUNAHA INDIANS.--PARTICULAR
+    ALGONKIN TRIBES.--THE NASCOPI.--THE BETHUCK.--NUMERALS FROM
+    FITZ-HUGH SOUND.--THE MOSKITO INDIANS.--SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF
+    BRITISH GUIANA.--CARIBS.--WAROWS.--WAPISIANAS.--TARUMAS.--CARIBS OF
+    ST. VINCENT.--TRINIDAD.
+
+
+_The Athabaskans._--The best starting-point for the ethnology of the
+British dependencies in America is the water-system of the largest of
+the rivers which empty themselves into the Polar Sea, a system which
+comprises the Rivers Peel, Dahodinni, and the Rivière aux Liards,
+tributaries to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear Lake, the Great
+Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; a vast tract, and one which is _almost_
+wholly occupied by a population belonging to one and the same class; a
+class sometimes known under the name _Chepewyan_, or _Chepeyan_,
+sometimes under that of _Athabaskan_.
+
+The water-system in question forms the centre of the great Athabaskan
+area--the centre, but not the whole. _Eastward_, there are Athabaskan
+tribes as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards as far as the
+immediate neighbourhood of the Pacific; and southwards as far as the
+head-waters of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths of the
+Athabaskan population, in respect to its political relations, is
+British; all that is not British being either Russian or American. To
+this we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory rather than
+Canada to which the British Athabaskans belong.
+
+The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans are as follows:--
+
+1. The _Sí-ísaw-dinni_ (_See-eesaw-dinneh_), or
+_rising-sun-men_.--These, generally called either _Chipewyans_, or
+_Northern Indians_, are the most eastern members of the family, and
+extend from the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. I
+imagine that the _Brushwood_, _Birchrind_, and _Sheep_ Indians are
+particular divisions of this branch.
+
+2. _The Beaver Indians._--From the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountain,
+_i.e._, the valley of the Peace River.
+
+3. The _Daho-dinni_.--On the head-waters of the Rivière aux Liards.
+Called also _Mauvais Monde_.
+
+4. The _Strong-Bows_.--Mountaineers of the upper part of the Rocky
+Mountains.
+
+5. The _Kancho_.--Called also _Hare_ and _Slave_ Indians. Starved and
+miserable occupants of the parts along the River McKenzie between the
+Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional cannibalism, justified
+by the pressure of famine. Due east of these come--
+
+6. The _Dog-ribs_, and
+
+7. The _Yellow-knives_, on the _Copper River_; these last being also
+called the Copper Indians.
+
+8, 9. The _Slaous-cud-dinni_[71] of the McKenzie River is, probably, a
+division of some of the other groups rather than a separate substantive
+class.
+
+10. The _Takulli_.[72]--These fall into eleven minor tribes or clans.
+
+_a._ The _Taú-tin_; probably the same as the _Naote-tains_.
+
+_b._ The _Tshilko-tin_.
+
+_c._ The _Nasko-tin_.
+
+_d._ The _Thetlio-tin_.
+
+_e._ The _Tsatsno-tin_.
+
+_f._ The _Nulaáu-tin_.
+
+_g._ The _Ntsaáu-tin_.
+
+_h._ The _Natliáu-tin_.
+
+_i._ The _Nikozliáu-tin_.
+
+_j._ The _Tatshiáu-tin_.
+
+_k._ The _Babine_ Indians.
+
+11. The _Susi_ (_Sussees_).--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.
+
+New Caledonia is the chief area of the _Takulli_.
+
+Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky Mountains, lie--
+
+12. The _Tsikani_ (_Sicunnies_).
+
+The Athabaskan is the _first_ class in our list; and, if we look only at
+the area which its population occupies, it is a great one. All the
+Athabaskan languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.
+
+_The Algonkins._--The _second_ class is the Algonkin. It is greater in
+every way than the Athabaskan--greater in respect to the number of its
+divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to the ground it covers,
+and greater in respect to the range of difference which it embraces. All
+the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.
+
+Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is nearly equally divided
+between the United States and Great Britain.
+
+Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided between the Canadas and our
+other possessions and the Hudson's Bay territory.
+
+The whole of the Canadas, with one small but important exception, the
+whole of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's
+Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland are chiefly Algonkin.
+
+To this stock belonged and belong the extinct and extant Indians of New
+England, part of New York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even Kentucky and
+Tennessee; a point of American rather than of British ethnology, but a
+point necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating the
+magnitude of this stock.
+
+Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, the Narragansetts, the
+Massachuset, the Montaug, the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, the
+Ottogamis, the Kikkapús, the Potawhotamis, the Illinois, the Miami, the
+Piankeshaws, the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock--all within the
+United States.
+
+The British Algonkins are as follows:--
+
+1. The _Crees_; of which the _Skoffi_ and _Sheshatapúsh_ of Labrador are
+branches.
+
+2. The _Ojibways_;[73] falling into--
+
+_a._ The _Ojibways Proper_, of which the _Sauteurs_ are a section.
+
+_b._ The _Ottawas_ of the River Ottawa.
+
+_c._ The original Indians of Lake _Nipissing_; important because it is
+believed that the form of speech called _Algonkin_, a term since
+extended to the whole class, was their particular dialect. They are now
+either extinct or amalgamated with other tribes.
+
+_d._ The _Messisaugis_, to the north of Lake Ontario.
+
+3. The _Micmacs_ of New Brunswick, Gaspé, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and
+part of Newfoundland; closely allied to the--
+
+4. _Abnaki_ of Mayne, and the British frontier; represented at present
+by the _St. John's Indians_.
+
+5. The _Bethuck_--the aborigines of Newfoundland.
+
+6. The _Blackfoots_, consisting of the--
+
+_a._ _Satsikaa_, or _Blackfoots Proper_.
+
+_b._ The _Kena_, or _Blood Indians_.
+
+_c._ The _Piegan_.
+
+To these must be added numerous extinct tribes.
+
+_The Iroquois._--The single and important exception to the Algonkin
+population of the Canadas is made by the existence of certain members of
+the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; a class falling into
+two divisions. The _northern_ Iroquois belong to New York and
+Pennsylvania, the _southern_ to the Carolinas.
+
+The former of these two falls into two great confederations, and into
+several unconfederate tribes.
+
+The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the now extinct _Mynkasar_ and
+_Cochnowagoes_--extinct, unless either or both be represented by a small
+remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his great work on the Indian
+tribes, now in the course of publication, under the sanction of
+Congress, as the _St. Regis Indians_.
+
+Of the second confederation the leading members were the _Wyandots_, or
+_Hurons_, of the parts between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.
+
+The first was that of the famous and formidable _Mohawks_. To these add
+the _Senekas_, the _Onondagos_, the _Cayugas_, and the _Oneidas_, and
+you have the _Five_ Nations. Then add, as a later accession, from the
+southern Iroquois, the _Tuskaroras_, and the _Six_ Nations are formed.
+
+Between these two there was war _even to the knife_; the greater portion
+of the Wyandot league belonging to the Algonkin class.
+
+Nevertheless, a few representatives of the whole seven tribes[74] still
+remain extant, their present locality--a reserve--being the triangular
+peninsula which was the original Huron area.
+
+Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier occupants were the
+_Hochelaga_; an Iroquois tribe also.
+
+_The Sioux._--In tracing the Nelson River from its embouchure in
+Hudson's Bay, towards its source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake
+Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement--the Red River rising within the
+boundary of the United States, flowing from south to north, and
+receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the Valley of the Assineboin
+is an interesting ethnological locality.
+
+Either the river takes its name from the population, or the population
+from the river; the division to which it belongs being a new one.
+Different from the Algonkins on the east, different from the Athabaskans
+on the north, and (in the present state of our knowledge) different from
+the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins have all their affinities
+southwards. In that direction the family to which they belong extends as
+far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom nine-tenths of the Valley
+of Missouri originally belonged--the Indians of the great Sioux class;
+Indians whose original hunting-grounds included the vast prairie-country
+from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi, and who again appear as an
+isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These isolated Sioux are the
+Winebagoes; the others being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the
+Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, the Osage, the Konzas,
+the Ottos, the Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the Quappas,--all
+American, _i.e._, belonging to the United States.
+
+None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with the sea. None of them
+belong to the great _forest_ districts of America. Most of them hunt
+over the country of the buffalo. This makes them warlike, migratory
+hunters; with fewer approaches to agricultural or industrial
+civilization than any Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.
+
+Of this class the Assineboins are the British representatives. They are
+the chief _Red River_ aborigines.
+
+It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members of the Algonkin
+stock, upon which the current and popular notions of the American
+Indian, the _Red Man_, as he is called--
+
+    The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,
+
+have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the other hand, have not
+contributed much to our notions on this point. In the first place, they
+are less known; in the next, they are less typical.
+
+But this raises their value in the eyes of the ethnologist; and the very
+fact of their possessing certain characteristics, in a comparatively
+slight degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating the phenomena
+of _transition_.
+
+Previous, however, to this, we must get our other _extreme_. This is to
+be found in the ethnology of--
+
+_The Eskimo._--It is a very easy matter for an artistic ethnologist to
+make some fine light-and-shade contrasts between two populations, where
+he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an Eskimo of Labrador at
+the other. An oblique eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow,
+with a crescentic fold overshadowing the _caruncula lacrymalis_,
+surmounted by a low forehead and black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of
+such inordinate development as to make the face as broad as it is long,
+are elements of ugliness which catch the imagination, and produce a
+caricature, where we want a picture. And they are elements of ugliness
+which can be accumulated. We may add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks
+so fleshy, as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the former
+untouched. We may then notice the state of the teeth, from the
+mastication of injurious substances; and having thus exhausted nature,
+we may revert to the deformities of art. We may observe that wherever
+there is a fleshy portion of the face that can be perforated by a stone
+knife, or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing and incisions;
+and that wherever there are incisions, bones, nails, feathers, and such
+like ornaments will be inserted. All this is the case. What European
+ladies do with their ears, the Eskimo does with the cartilage of his
+nose, the lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. More than
+this--in the lower lip, parallel to the mouth, and taking the guise of a
+mouth additional, a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough to
+allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion of the tongue. The
+insertion of a shell or bone, cut into the shape of teeth, completes the
+adornment.
+
+Then comes the question of colour. The Indian has a tinge of red; a
+tinge which enables us to compare his skin to _copper_. The Eskimo is
+simply brown, swarthy, or tawny.
+
+Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales are scarce in the south,
+and wood in the north of Greenland; and in consequence of this, there
+are regular meetings for the business of barter. This gives us the
+elements of commercial industry; elements which must themselves be taken
+in conjunction with the maritime habits of the people. What stronger
+contrast can we find to all this than the gloomy isolation of the
+hunters of the prairie-countries, whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?
+
+Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual capacity, to give the
+Eskimo credit for ingenuity and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type
+which we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently indocile and
+inflexible.
+
+Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable of great
+qualification--qualification which we find necessary, whether we look to
+the extent to which the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian the
+Eskimo--each receding from its own more extreme representative.
+
+The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly common amongst the Red
+Indian tribes; and rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither universal
+in the one, nor non-existent in the other. Oval features, a mixture of
+red in the complexion, an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst
+the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and women.
+
+In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less remarkable for
+inferiority than is generally supposed. His bulky, baggy dress makes him
+look square and short. Measurements, however, correct this impression.
+Men of the height of five feet ten inches have been noticed as
+particular specimens--better grown individuals than their fellows. And
+men under five feet have also been noticed for the contrary reasons.
+Numerous measurements, however, give about five feet as the height of an
+Eskimo woman, and five feet six inches as that of a man. This is more
+than so good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the Malays; whose
+person is squat, and whose average stature does not exceed five feet
+three or four inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk gives the
+Guiana Indians, as may be seen from the following table:--
+
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ |               | Aged. | ft.   in.   |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Wapisianas._ |  12   |  4   8-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  4   6      |
+ |               |  16   |  5   1-1/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Tarumas._    |  14   |  4  11-3/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Mawackas._   |  15   |  4  10      |
+ |               |  16}  |  4   9-5/10 |
+ |               |  17}  |             |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Atorais._    |  35   |  5   1-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  5   1      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Macusis._    |  14}  |  4   8      |
+ |               |  15}  |             |
+ |               |  14   |  5   0      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+
+It is more than the average of several other populations.
+
+Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different from the American. It
+is, probably, larger in its dimensions; so that its cavity contains more
+cubic inches. The measurements, however, which suggest this view, are
+but few. On the other hand, the relations between the _width_ and the
+_depth_ of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.
+
+By _width_ is meant the number of inches from side to side, from one
+parietal bone to the other; in other words, the _parietal diameter_.
+
+_Depth_ signifies the length of the _occipito-frontal_ diameter, or the
+number of inches from the forehead to the back of the skull.
+
+Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo crania examined by Dr. Morton, the
+parietal diameter so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal as for the
+skull in question to be as much as 5·4 inches in width, and as little as
+5·7 in depth; a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain almost as
+broad as it is long. _Valeat quantum._ It is an extreme specimen. The
+remainder are as 5·5 to 7·3; as 5·1 to 7·5; and as 5 to 6·7, proportions
+by no means exclusively Eskimo, and proportions which occur in very many
+of the undeniably American stocks.
+
+Likeness there is; and variety there is;--likeness in physical feature,
+likeness in language, and likeness in the general moral and intellectual
+characteristics. And then there is variety--variety in all the details
+of their arts; variety in their bows, their canoes, their dwellings,
+their fashions in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their
+fashions in the dressing of their hair.
+
+This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo at present. It is,
+however, preparatory to the general statement that _all the remaining_
+Indians of British North America recede from the Sioux and Iroquois
+type, and approach that of the family in question. Such, indeed, has
+been the case, though (perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the
+classes already considered--the Athabaskan.
+
+_The Kolúch._--The extreme west of the British possessions beyond the
+Rocky Mountains, _north_ of latitude 55° is but imperfectly known.
+Indeed, for scientific, and, perhaps, for political purposes as well,
+the country is unfortunately divided. The Russians have the long but
+narrow strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations to
+its bays and archipelagoes. The British, on the contrary, though they
+possess the interior, have no great interest in the parts about the
+Russian boundary. In the way of trade, they are not sufficiently on the
+sea for the sea-otter, nor near enough the mountains for other
+fur-bearing animals.
+
+Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, the head-waters British.
+Beyond these, we have the water-system of the McKenzie--for that river,
+although falling into the Arctic Sea, has a western fork, which breaks
+through the barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in direction
+from west and south-west to north. Lake Simpson, Lake Dease, and the
+River Turnagain belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie being
+a range of highlands, if not of mountains.
+
+This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous on the south with that
+of the Takulli, and on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. How
+far, however, it extends towards the Russian boundary and in the
+north-west direction I cannot say.
+
+The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British representatives of the
+class called Kolúch.[75] Assuming this--although from the want of a
+special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence is wanting--I
+begin with the notice of the _Nehannis_, as known to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, and afterwards superadd a sketch of the _Sitkans_, as known to
+the Russians of New Archangel; the two notices together giving us the
+special description of a family, and the general view of the class to
+which that family belongs.
+
+That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, is no more than is
+expected. We are far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. That
+they are ruled by a woman should surprise us. Such, however, is the
+case. A female rules them--and rules them, too, with a rod of iron.
+Respect for sex has here attained its height. It had begun to be
+recognized amongst the Athabaskans.
+
+The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but they are also civilized
+enough to barter; buying of the inland tribes, and selling to the
+Russians--a practice which seems to divert the furs of British territory
+to the markets of Muscovy. But this is no business of the ethnologist's.
+They are slavers and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond of
+music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; bold and treacherous in
+temper; and with the common Kolúch physiognomy and habits.
+
+_These_ we must collect from the descriptions of the Russian
+Kolúches--the locality where they have been best studied being Sitka
+Sound, or New Archangel. We must do it, however, _mutatis mutandis_,
+_i.e._, remembering that the Sitkans are Kolúch of an Archipelago, the
+Nehanni Kolúch of a continent.
+
+The Kolúch complexion is light; the hair long and lank; the eyes black;
+and the lip and chin often bearded.
+
+The _Konægi_ are the natives of the island Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from
+whom the chief details of the Sitkan Kolúch are taken, especially states
+that, with few exceptions, their manners and customs are those of these
+same Konægi; one of the minor points of difference being the greater
+liveliness of the Sitkans, and one of the more important ones, their
+treatment of the dead. They _burn_ the bodies (as do the Takulli
+Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in wooden boxes placed upon pillars,
+painted or carved, more or less elaborately, according to the wealth of
+the deceased.
+
+On the death of a _toyon_, or chief, one of his slaves is killed and
+burned with him. If, however, the deceased be of inferior rank the
+victim is _buried_. If the death be in battle, the head, instead of
+being burned, is kept in a wooden box of its own. But it is not with the
+shaman as with the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; since he is
+supposed to be too full of the evil spirit to be consumed by fire. The
+reason why burning is preferred to burying is because the possession of
+a piece of flesh is supposed to enable its owner to do what mischief he
+pleases.
+
+_Now the Konægi are admitted Eskimo._
+
+Notwithstanding the similarity between the Sitkans and Konægi there is
+no want of true American customs amongst them. Cruelty to prisoners,
+indifference to pain when inflicted on themselves, and the habit of
+scalping are common to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and
+those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On the other hand, they
+share the skill in painting and carving with the Chenúks and the
+aborigines of the Oregon.
+
+_The Digothi._--The Dahodinni are Athabaskan rather than Kolúch; the
+Nehanni Kolúch rather than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni
+country is partially encircled by Kolúch populations, and that a fresh
+branch of this stock re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the Lower
+McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, and at the termination of the
+great Rocky Range on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the _Digothi_
+or _Loucheux_; the only family not belonging to the Eskimo class, which
+comes in contact with the ocean; and, consequently, the only
+unequivocally Indian population which interrupts the continuity of the
+Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic. Perhaps the alluvium of
+a great river like the McKenzie, has determined this displacement. Such
+an occupancy would be as naturally coveted by an inland population, as
+undervalued by a maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have the
+appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; indeed, few Indians have
+had their physical appearance described in terms equally favourable.
+Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine sparkling eyes, and
+regular teeth, they approach the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass
+them in stature. The same authority which expressly states that the
+Nehanni are not generally tall, speaks to the athletic proportions and
+tall stature of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances are
+handsome and expressive.
+
+Whence came they? From the south-east, from Russian America. Their
+points of contrast to the Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast
+to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points of similarity to the
+Kolúch do more. The Loucheux possessive pronoun is the same as the
+Kenay. Thus--
+
+ ENGLISH.         LOUCHEUX.    KENAY.
+
+ _My_-son         _se_-jay     _ssi_-ja.
+ _My_-daughter    _se_-zay     _ssa_-za.
+
+Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux and Nehanni are
+required before we can decidedly pronounce them to be Kolúch; indeed,
+so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter amongst the
+Athabaskans.
+
+_The Fall Indians._--In a MS. communicated by Mr. Gallatin to Dr.
+Prichard, and, by the latter kindly lent to myself, and examined by me
+some years back, was a vocabulary of the language of the Indians of the
+Falls of the Saskatchewan. In this their native name was written
+_Ahnenin_. Mr. Hale, however, calls them _Atsina_. Which is correct is
+difficult to say.
+
+_Gros ventres_ is another of their designations; _Minetari of the
+Prairie_ another. This last is inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since
+the true _Minetari_ are a Sioux tribe, different in language, manners,
+and descent.
+
+_Arrapaho_ is a third synonym; and this is important, since there are
+other _Arrapahoes_ as far south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.
+
+The identity of name is _primâ facie_ evidence of two tribes so distant
+as those of Arkansas and the Saskatchewan being either offsets from one
+another, or else from some common stock; but it is not more. Nothing can
+be less conclusive. This has just been shown to be in the case of the
+term _Minetari_.
+
+The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; though the confederacy to
+which the Indians who speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.
+
+Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary; neither do we know
+whether the name be native or not.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A tract still stands over for notice. As we have no exact northern
+limits for the Nehanni, no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no
+exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts due east of the Russian
+boundary are undescribed.
+
+I can only _contribute_ to the ethnology here.
+
+_The Ugalentses._--Round Mount St. Elias we have a population of
+_Ugalentses_ or Ugalyakhmutsi. Though said to consist of less than forty
+families,[76] as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable that
+some of them are British.
+
+_The Tshugatsi_.--In contact with the Ugalents, who are transitional
+between the true Eskimo and the true Kolúch, the Tshugatsi are
+unequivocally Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's Sound are their
+locality.
+
+_The Haidah._--Queen Charlotte's, and the southern extremity of the
+Prince of Wales' Archipelago, are the parts to which the Indians
+speaking the Haidah language have been referred. In case, however, any
+members of their family extend into the British territory, they are
+mentioned here.
+
+Three Haidah tribes are more particularly named--
+
+_a._ The _Skittegat_.
+
+_b._ The _Cumshahas_--a name remarkably like that of the _Chimsheyan_,
+hereafter to be noticed.
+
+_c._ The _Kygani_.
+
+_The Tungaas._--This is the name of the language of the most Northern
+Indians, with which the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It is
+Kolúch; and more Russian than British.
+
+The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole of his valuable remarks
+upon the North-western Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion
+already made as to the extent which we have formed our ideas of the
+Aboriginal American upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; and his
+facts are a correction to our inferences. In what way do the moral and
+intellectual characters of the Western Indians differ from those of the
+Eastern? I shall give the answer in Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are
+less inflexible in character. Their range of ideas is greater. They are
+imitative and docile. They are comparatively humane.[77] No scalping. No
+excessive torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.
+
+Now--whether negative or positive--there is not one of those
+characteristics wherein the Western American differs from the Eastern,
+in which he does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. In the
+absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk, the council fire, the
+wampum-belt, the hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the Eskimo
+differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, and the Mohawk. True. But the
+Haidah and the Chimsheyan do the same.
+
+The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is Shamanistic; like the Negro
+of Africa they attribute to some material object mysterious powers. As
+far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. But, then, like the
+Finn, and the Samoeid of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or
+reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, charms, and dreams. As
+far as the term has been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our notions
+as to the religion of the Indians be rendered unduly favourable through
+the ideas of pure theism, called up by the missionary term _Great
+Spirit_, we must simply remember, in the first place, that the term is
+_ours_, not _theirs_; and that those who, by looking to facts rather
+than words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion that the
+creed of the Indians of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi is neither
+better nor worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. Both are
+alike, Shamanistic. And so is the Eskimo.
+
+The names in detail of the Indians of British Oregon, over and above
+those of the Athabaskan family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.
+Scouler still being the authority, and, along with him, Mr. Tolmie and
+Mr. Hale.
+
+1. The _Chimsheyan_, or _Chimmesyan_, on the sea-coast and islands about
+55° North lat. Their tribes are the _Naaskok_, the _Chimsheyan Proper_,
+the _Kitshatlah_, and the _Kethumish_.
+
+2. The _Billichula_, on the mouth of the Salmon River.
+
+3. The _Hailtsa_, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury Island to
+Broughton's Archipelago, and (perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island. Their tribes are the _Hyshalla_, the _Hyhysh_, the
+_Esleytuk_, the _Weekenoch_, the _Nalatsenoch_, the _Quagheuil_, the
+_Ttatla-shequilla_, and the _Lequeeltoch_. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh
+Sound will be noticed in the sequel.
+
+4. _The Nutka Sound Indians_ occupy the greater part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island, speak the _Wakash_ language, and fall into the
+following tribes--
+
+_a._ _The Naspatl._
+
+_b._ _The Nutkans Proper._
+
+_c._ _The Tlaoquatsh._
+
+_d._ _The Nittenat._
+
+5. _The Shushwah_, or _Atna_, are bounded on the north by the Takulli,
+belong to the interior rather than the coast, are members of a large
+family, called the _Tsihaili-Selish_, extending far into the United
+States. According to Mr. Hale, they present the remarkable phenomenon
+of an aboriginal stock having increased from about four hundred to
+twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.
+
+6. _The Kitunaha_, _Cutanies_, or _Flat-bows_, hardy, brave and shrewd
+hunters on the Kitunaha, or Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the
+Blackfoots, are the Oregon Indians whose habits most closely approach
+those of the Indians to the east of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To some of these I now return, since three points of Algonkin ethnology
+require special notice.
+
+_a._ _The Nascopi_ or _Skoffi_.--This is a frontier tribe. Much as we
+connect the ideas of cold and cheerless sterility with the inclement
+climate and naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we connect the
+Eskimo as a population with a similarly inhospitable country, it is only
+the coast of that vast region which is thus tenanted. On Hudson's
+Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits of Belleisle there are Eskimo;
+along the intervening coast there are Eskimo, and as far south as
+Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior there are no Eskimo.
+Instead of them we find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatapúsh--subsections
+(as stated before) of the same section of the great Algonkin stock. In
+them we have a measure of the effect of external conditions upon
+different members of the same class. Between the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay
+and the Pamticos of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25° of latitude
+combined with a difference of other physical conditions which more than
+equals the difference between north and south. Yet the contrast between
+the Algonkin and other inhabitants of Labrador is as evident (though
+not, perhaps, so great) as that between the Greenlander and the
+Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable from the
+Laplander so is the Skoffi from Eskimo.
+
+Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, the Nascopi hunts and
+fishes for his livelihood exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal
+migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, upon his net. This he
+sets under the ice, during the earlier months of the winter. After
+December, however, he would set them in vain; the fish being, then, all
+in the deep water. Woman, generally a drudge in North America, is
+pre-eminently so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, is the
+_killing_ of the game. The woman brings it home. The woman also drags
+the loaded sledges from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, and
+collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and smokes. Of such domestic
+slaves more than one is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi
+recognizes marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this sense the
+contracting parties are respectively the parents of the couple--the
+bride and bridegroom being the last parties consulted. When all has been
+arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's tent, remains there
+a year, and then departs as an independent member of the community.
+Cousins are addressed as brothers or sisters; marriage between near
+relations is allowed; and so is the marriage of more than one sister
+successively.
+
+The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the other Cree tribes; their
+Christianity still more partial and still more nominal. Sometimes
+rolling in abundance, sometimes starving, they are attached to the
+Whites by but few artificial wants; the few fur-bearing animals of their
+country being highly prized, and, consequently, going a long way as
+elements of barter. Their dress is almost wholly of reindeer skin; their
+travelling gear a leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In this
+bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his knees up to his chin, and
+defies both wind and snow.
+
+This account has been condensed from M'Lean's "Five and Twenty Years'
+Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder in his
+own words: "The horrid practice still obtains among the Nascopis of
+destroying their parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates them
+for further exertion. I must, however, do them the justice to say, that
+the parent himself expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural
+deed would probably never be committed, for they, in general, treat
+their old people with much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest
+relative, performs the office of executioner--the self-devoted victim
+being disposed of by strangulation."
+
+_b._ _The Aborigines of Newfoundland._--Sebastian Cabot brought three
+Newfoundlanders to England. They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate
+raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic of the Eskimo; and,
+thus far, the evidence is in favour of the savages in question belonging
+to that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by what follows; since
+Purchas states that two years after he saw two of them, dressed like
+Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not discover from Englishmen,
+till I learned what they were."
+
+Now as the Bethuck--the aborigines in question--have either been cruelly
+exterminated, or exist in such small numbers as not to have been seen
+for many years, it has been a matter of doubt whether they were Eskimo
+or Micmacs, the present occupants of the island. Reasons against either
+of these views are supplied by a hitherto unpublished Bethuck
+vocabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr.
+King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a _separate section_
+of the Algonkins. Such I believe them to have been, and have placed them
+accordingly.
+
+_c._ _The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals._--These are nearly the same as the
+Hailtsa. On the other hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in
+-_scum_.
+
+Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really to connect the Blackfoot
+with the Hailtsa, it brings the Algonkin class of languages across the
+whole breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores of the Pacific.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, any more than the
+Tahitians are of France, or the Sandwich Islanders of America, France,
+and England conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: and the
+Moskito Indians are the subjects of a native king.
+
+The present reigning monarch was educated under English auspices at
+Jamaica, and, upon attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. I
+believe that his name is that of the grandfather of our late gracious
+majesty. King George, then, king of the Moskitos, has a territory
+extending from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower part of the
+River San Juan; a territory whereof, inconveniently for Great Britain,
+the United States, and the commerce of the world at large, the limits
+and definition are far from being universally recognized. Nicaragua has
+claims, and the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.
+
+The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor of the Brazil, are the
+only resident sovereigns of the New World.
+
+The subjects of the former are, really, the aborigines of the whole line
+of coast between Nicaragua and Honduras--there being no Indians
+remaining in the former republic, and but few in the latter. Of these,
+too--the Nicaraguans--we have no definite ethnological information. Mr.
+Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands of the lakes of the
+interior. Colonel Galindo also mentions them; but I infer, from his
+account, that their original language is lost, and that Spanish is their
+present tongue; just as it is said to be that of the aborigines of St.
+Salvador and Costa Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And the
+difficulty is increased when we resort to history, tradition, and
+archæology. History makes them Mexicans--Asteks from the kingdom of
+Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just as the Phœnicians were
+of Carthage. Archæology goes the same way. A detailed description of Mr.
+Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology which is anxiously
+expected. At any rate, stone ruins and carved decorations have been
+found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written about Yucatan and
+Guatemala, may be repeated in the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The
+difficulty will be but increased; since whatever facts makes Nicaragua
+Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They are now in contact with Spaniards
+and Englishmen--populations whose civilization differs from their own;
+and populations who are evidently intrusive and of recent origin.
+Precisely the same would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made
+Mexican. The civilization would be of another sort; the population which
+introduced it would be equally intrusive; and the only difference would
+be a difference of stage and degree--a little earlier in the way of
+time, and a little less contrast in the way of skill and industry.
+
+But the evidence in favour of the Mexican origin of the Nicaraguans, is
+doubtful; and so is the fact of their having wholly lost their native
+tongue; and until one of these two opinions be proved, it will be well
+to suspend our judgment as to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed,
+either of them be true, their ethnological position will be a difficult
+question. With nothing in Honduras to compare them with--with nothing
+tangible, or with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua--with
+only very general miscellaneous affinities in Guatemala--their
+ethnological affinities are as peculiar as their political
+constitution. Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has
+undoubted _general affinities with those of America at large_; and this
+is all that it is safe to say at present. But it is safe to say _this_.
+We have plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of Mr.
+Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.
+
+The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is that they were never
+subject to the Spaniards. Each continent affords a specimen of this
+isolated freedom--the independence of some exceptional and impracticable
+tribes, as compared with the universal empire of some encroaching
+European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, the Tshuktshi Koriaks in
+North-eastern Asia, and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their
+relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of an amicable
+description. So they were with the Negroes--maroon and imported. And
+this, perhaps, has determined their _differentiæ_. They are
+intertropical American aborigines, who have become partially European,
+without becoming Spanish.
+
+Their physical conformation is that of the South rather than the North
+American; and, here it must be remembered, that we are passing from one
+moiety of the new hemisphere to the other. With a skin which is
+olive-coloured rather than red, they have small limbs and undersized
+frames; whilst their habits are, _mutatis mutandis_, those of the
+intertropical African. This means, that the exuberance of soil, and the
+heat of the climate, makes them agriculturists rather than shepherds,
+and idlers rather than agriculturists; since the least possible amount
+of exertion gives them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants
+which are compatible with indolence that they care to satisfy. They
+presume rather than improve upon the warmth of their suns, and the
+fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they get drunk; when they
+work hardest, they cut mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the
+native industry. _Wulasha_ is the name of their Evil Spirit, and
+_Liwaia_ that of a water-god.
+
+I cannot but think that there is much intermixture amongst them. At the
+same time, the _data_ for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their
+greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the Negro; their next
+greatest with the Englishman. Of the population of the interior, we know
+next to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.
+
+They are frontagers to the river San Juan. This gives them their value
+in politics.
+
+They are the only well-known extant Indians between Guatemala and
+Veragua. This gives them their value in ethnology.
+
+The populations to which they were most immediately allied, have
+disappeared from history. This isolates them; so that there is no class
+to which they can be subordinated. At the same time, they are quite as
+like the nearest known tribes as the _American_ ethnologist is prepared
+to expect.
+
+What they were in their truly natural state, when, unmodified by either
+Englishman or Spaniard, Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous
+civilization (such as it was) of their coast, is uncertain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That the difference between the North and South American aborigines has
+been over-rated, is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do so,
+decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, who is at once minute in
+taking notice, and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to that
+of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge upon the extent to which the
+Indians of the New World in general look "like children of one family."
+On the other hand, however, there are writers like D'Orbigny. These
+expatiate upon the difference between members of the same class, so as
+to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or Peruvians from
+Athabaskans, but Peruvians from Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.
+
+Now it is no paradox to assert that these two views, instead of
+contradicting, support each other. A writer exhibits clear and
+undeniable differences between two American tribes in geographical
+juxtaposition to one another. But does this prove a difference of
+origin, stock, or race? Not necessarily. Such differences may be, and
+often are, partial. More than this--they may be more than neutralized by
+undeniable marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they prove is the
+extent to which really allied populations may be contrasted in respect
+to certain particular characters.
+
+Stature is the chief point in which the North American has the advantage
+of the Southern, _e.g._, the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R.
+Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general rule. Yet a vast number of
+the Indians of the Oregon, are shorter than the South American
+Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large as compared with the
+trunk, and the trunk with the limbs; the hands small; the foot large;
+the skin soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.
+
+_Indians of British Guiana._--These are distributed amongst four
+divisions, of very unequal magnitude and importance.--1. The Carib. 2.
+The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The Taruma.
+
+The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. Schomburgk was eighteen.
+
+1. The great _Carib_ group falls into three divisions:--
+
+_a._ The Caribs Proper.
+
+_b._ The Tamanaks.
+
+_c._ The Arawaks.
+
+Of these, it is only members of the first and last that occupy British
+Guiana.
+
+_The Arawaks._--The Arawaks are our nearest neighbours, and,
+consequently, the most Europeanized. Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they
+and the Warows amount to about three thousand, and from Bernau we infer,
+that this number is nearly equally divided between the two; since he
+reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. Each family has its
+distinctive tattoo, and these families are twenty-seven in number.
+
+The children may marry into their father's family, but not into that of
+their mother. Now as the caste is derived from their mother, this is an
+analogue of the North American _totem_. Polygamy is chiefly the
+privilege of the chiefs. The _Pe-i-man_ is the Arawak _Shaman_. He it is
+who names the children--_for a consideration_. Failing this, the progeny
+goes nameless; and to go nameless is to be obnoxious to all sorts of
+misfortunes.
+
+Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son of a conjuror enters his
+twentieth year, his right ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring,
+and he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.
+
+In imitating what they see, and remembering what they hear, the Arawak
+has, at least, an average capacity. Neither is he destitute of
+ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration is of the rudest
+kind.
+
+ Aba-da-kabo   = once my hand  = _five_.
+ Biama-da-kabo = twice my hand = _ten_.
+ Aba-olake     = one man       = _twenty_.
+
+Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and some neatness in the
+dressing of their hair is perceptible. It is tied up on the crown of the
+head.
+
+The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the lightest coloured families
+being as fair as Spaniards. This is on the evidence of Bernau, who adds,
+that, as children grow in knowledge and receive instruction, the
+forehead rises, and the physiognomy improves.
+
+The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are Carib at all, are Caribs
+Proper, rather than Arawaks. Of these, the chief are--
+
+_The Accaways_,--occupants of the rivers Mazaruni and Putara, with about
+six hundred fighting men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; firm
+friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, they kill; when unopposed,
+enslave.
+
+The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; for--like certain
+Australians--they attribute all deaths to contrivances of an enemy.
+Workers in poison themselves, they suspect it with others.
+
+Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but then their nudity is more
+complete; inasmuch as, instead of clothing, they paint themselves;
+arnotto being their red, lana their blue pigment. They pierce the
+_septum_ of the nose, and wear wood in the holes, like the Eskimo,
+Loucheux, and others. They paint the face in streaks, and the body
+variously--sometimes blue on one side, and red on the other. They rub
+their bodies with carapa oil, to keep off insects; and _one_ of the
+ingredients of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant called
+_muneery_.
+
+Their forehead is depressed.
+
+They give nicknames to each other and to strangers, irrespective of
+rank; and the better their authorities take it the greater their
+influence.
+
+It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit of the deceased hovers
+over the dwelling in which death took place, and that it will not
+tolerate disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse _in_ the hammock, and
+_under_ the hut in which it became one. This they burn and desert.
+
+_The Carabísi._--Twenty years ago the Carabísi (_Carabeese_,
+_Carabisce_) mustered one thousand fighting men. It would now be
+difficult to raise one hundred. But the diminution of their numbers and
+importance began earlier still. Beyond the proper Carabísi area, there
+are numerous Carabísi names of rivers, islands, and other geographical
+objects. Hence, their area has decreased.
+
+Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, dogs, rats, frogs, insects,
+and other sorts of food, unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by
+their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the part which they perforate,
+and wherein they wear their usual pins; besides which they fasten a
+large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of the head.
+
+In ordinary cases the hammock in which the death took place, serves as a
+coffin, the body is buried, and a funeral procession made once or twice
+round the grave; but the bodies of persons of importance are watched and
+washed by the nearest female relations, and when nothing but the
+skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, painted, packed in a basket and
+preserved. When, however, there is a change of habitation they are
+_burned_; after which the ashes are collected, and kept.
+
+Here we have interment and cremation in one and the same tribe; a
+circumstance which should guard us against exaggerating their value as
+characteristic and distinguishing customs.
+
+Again. The _Macusi_ is closely akin to the Carabísi; yet the Macusi
+buries his dead in a sitting posture without coffins, and with but few
+ceremonies. Now the sitting posture is common to the Peruvians, the
+Oregon Indians, and numerous tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers
+it to be one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Red Man of
+America in general.
+
+The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man of note dies his relations
+plant a field of cassava; just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a
+cocoa-nut tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve moons are over,
+and the cassava is ripe, they re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each
+other cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are then _hung up_ on
+the spot where the person died. Six moons later a second meeting takes
+place--and, this time, the whips are _buried_.
+
+The _Waika_ are a small tribe of the _Accaways_; the _Zapara_ of the
+_Macusis_. Besides these, the following Guiana Indians are Carib.
+
+The _Arecuna_; of which the _Soerikong_ are a section.
+
+The _Waiyamara_.
+
+The _Guinau_.
+
+The _Maiongkong_.
+
+The _Woyawai_.
+
+The _Mawakwa_, or Frog Indians--a tribe that flattens the head.
+
+The _Piano-ghotto_; of which the _Zaramata_ and _Drio_ are sections.
+
+The _Tiveri-ghotto_.
+
+2. _The Warow_, _Waraw_, _Warau_, or _Guarauno_.--These are the Indians
+of the Delta of the Orinoco, and the parts between that river and the
+Pomaroon. Their language is peculiar, but by no means without
+miscellaneous affinities. They are the fluviatile boatmen of South
+America. Their habit of taking up their residence in trees when the
+ground is flooded, has given both early and late writers an opportunity
+of enlarging upon their semi-arboreal habits.
+
+3. _The Wapisianas_ fall into--
+
+_a._ The _Wapisianas_ Proper--
+
+_b._ The _Atorai_, of which the _Taurai_, or _Dauri_ (the same word
+under another form), and the extinct, or nearly extinct, _Amaripas_ are
+divisions.
+
+_c._ The _Parauana_.
+
+4. The _Tarumas_, on the Upper Essequibo, have their probable affinities
+with the uninvestigated tribes of Central South America.
+
+The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are those of St. Vincents. In no
+other West Indian islands are there any aborigines extant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[71] _Dinni_, _tinni_, _din_, _tin_, &c.=_man_ in the Athabaskan
+tongues.
+
+[72] Called also _Carriers_, _Nagail_, and _Chin Indians_; though
+whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.
+
+[73] By no means to be confounded with the _Chepewyans_.
+
+[74] The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, and
+Hurons.
+
+[75] See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the British
+Association," 1847, p. 121.
+
+[76] Thirty-eight.
+
+[77] This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have already been
+noticed.
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+              LONDON:
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+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES OF MAN. By ROBERT GORDON LATHAM,
+M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge; Vice-President of the
+Ethnological Society of London; Corresponding Member of the Ethnological
+Society of New York. 8vo. illustrated, price 21_s._
+
+A HISTORY OF BRITISH MOLLUSCA AND THEIR SHELLS. By PROFESSOR EDWARD
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+2_s._ 6_d._ plain, or royal 8vo. coloured, 5_s._ each.
+
+    This Work is in continuation of the series of "British Histories,"
+    of which the Quadrupeds and Reptiles, by Professor Bell; the Birds
+    and Fishes, by Mr. Yarrell; the Birds' Eggs, by Mr. Hewitson; the
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+                  JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Amendments:
+
+ p. 30, fn. 10, 'Fallermayer' amended to _Fallmerayer_.
+
+ p. 31, 'Britany' amended to _Brittany_.
+
+ p. 32, 'Notitiæ ...' amended to _Notitia Utriusque Imperii_.
+
+ p. 34, 'Caffres' amended to _Kaffres_.
+
+ p. 35, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_;
+        'Cabyles' amended to _Kabyles_.
+
+ p. 39, 'Avekoom' amended to _Avekvom_;
+        'Woloff' amended to _Wolof_;
+        'Bambarra' amended to _Bambara_.
+
+ p. 40, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_.
+
+ p. 65, 'languge' amended to _language_.
+
+ p. 67, 'Yorriba' amended to _Yarriba_;
+        'Callabar' amended to _Calabar_;
+        'Mosketo' amended to _Mosquito_.
+
+ p. 75, 'Amokosa' amended to _Amakosa_: '_The Amakosa._--This'.
+
+ p. 84, 'Caffraria' amended to _Kaffraria_.
+
+ p. 86, 'Crawford' amended to _Crawfurd_.
+
+ p. 94, 'Trangangetic' amended to _Transgangetic_.
+
+ p. 98, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to _Crawfurd's Embassy_.
+
+ p. 107, 'Kamti' amended to _Khamti_.
+
+ p. 121, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_.
+
+ p. 137, 'Pottaing' amended to _Potteang_.
+
+ p. 140, 'Kuttak' amended to _Cuttack_;
+         'Penna' amended to _Pennu_ (twice).
+
+ p. 141, 'Cicacole' amended to _Chicacole_.
+
+ p. 146, 'jackall' amended to _jackal_.
+
+ p. 148, 'Rajaship' amended to _Rajahship_.
+
+ p. 177, 'Levitican' amended to _Levitical_.
+
+ p. 181, 'Peshawer' amended to _Peshawar_.
+
+ p. 192, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+ p. 193, 'Singalese' amended to _Singhalese_.
+
+ p. 197, 'Binjarri' amended to _Brinjarri_;
+         'Telagu' amended to _Telugu_.
+
+ p. 198, 'Taremuki' amended to _Tarremúki_.
+
+ p. 199, 'Bowri' amended to _Bhowri_.
+
+ p. 201, 'Guzerat' amended to _Gujerat_.
+
+ p. 228, 'Skofi' amended to _Skoffi_.
+
+ p. 233, 'tatooing' amended to _tattooing_.
+
+ p. 237, 'tatooings' amended to _tattooings_.
+
+ p. 243, 'Saskachewan' amended to _Saskatchewan_.
+
+ p. 259, 'tatoo' amended to _tattoo_.
+
+ p. 262, 'Caribis' amended to _Carabísi_.
+
+
+Further Notes:
+
+ p. 113, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows 'Áká' and 'Ábor' repositioned
+         to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. Tángkhul'
+         (column), which originally read '--', has been amended to '11'.
+
+ p. 172-175, corrections to extracts taken from _A History of the Sikhs_,
+         by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and
+Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies
+
+Author: Robert Gordon Latham
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2010 [EBook #31296]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Archaic, dialect and variant spellings (including quoted proper
+    nouns) remain as printed, except where noted. Minor typographical
+    errors have been corrected without note; significant amendments have
+    been listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Greek text has been transliterated and appears between {braces}.
+
+    Non-standard characters have been transcribed as follows:
+
+      [oe], oe ligature;
+      [=a], [=u], macron over _a_ or _u_;
+      [)a], breve over _a_;
+      ['s], acute accent over _s_.
+
+
+
+
+                             THE
+                          ETHNOLOGY
+                             OF
+                    THE BRITISH COLONIES
+                             AND
+                        DEPENDENCIES.
+
+                             BY
+                 R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,
+ CORRESPONDING MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK,
+                          ETC. ETC.
+
+                          [Device]
+
+                           LONDON:
+              JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+
+                         M.DCCC.LI.
+
+
+
+
+              LONDON:
+ Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY and CO.,
+      Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+                                                                    PAGE
+ Heligoland and the Frisians.--Gibraltar and the Spanish Stock.--
+ Malta.--The Ionian Islands.--The Channel Islands.                     1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+ The Gambia Settlements.--Sierra Leone.--The Gold Coast.--The
+ Cape.--The Mauritius.--The Negroes of America.                       34
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+               BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+ Aden.--The Mongolian Variety.--The Monosyllabic Languages.--Hong
+ Kong.--The Tenasserim Provinces; Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim,
+ the Mergui Archipelago.--The M�n, Siamese, Avans, Kariens, and
+ Silong.--Arakhan.--Mugs, Khyens.--Chittagong, Tippera, and
+ Sylhet.--Kuki.--Kasia.--Cachars.--Assam.--Nagas.--Singpho.--Jili.
+ --Khamti.--Mishimi.--Abors and Bor-Abors.--Dufla.--Aka.--Muttucks
+ and Miri, and other Tribes of the Valley of Assam.--The Garo.--
+ Classification.--Mr. Brown's Tables.--The Bodo.--Dhimal.--Kocch.
+ --Lepchas of Sikkim.--Rawat of Kumaon.--Polyandria.--The Tamulian
+ Populations.--Rajmahali Mountaineers.--K�lis, Khonds, Goands,
+ Chenchwars.--Tudas, &c.--Bhils.--Waralis.--The Tamul, Telinga,
+ Kanara, and Malayalam Languages.                                     92
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+ The Sanskrit Language.--Its Relations to certain Modern Languages
+ of India; to the Slavonic and Lithuanic of Europe.--Inferences.--
+ Brahminism of the Puranas.--Of the Institutes of Menu.--Extract.
+ --Of the Vedas.--Extract.--Inferences.--The Hind�s.--Sikhs.--
+ Biluchi.--Afghans.--Wandering Tribes.--Miscellaneous Populations.
+ --Ceylon.--Buddhism.--Devil-worship.--Vaddahs.                      150
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+ British Dependencies in the Malayan Peninsula.--The Oceanic Stock
+ and its Divisions.--The Malay, Semang, and Dyak Types.--The Orang
+ Binua.--Jakuns.--The Biduanda Kallang.--The Orang Sletar.--The
+ Sarawak Tribes.--The New Zealanders.--The Australians.--The
+ Tasmanians.                                                         203
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+ The Athabaskans of the Hudson's Bay Country.--The Algonkin Stock.
+ --The Iroquois.--The Sioux.--Assineboins.--The Eskimo.--The
+ Kol�ch.--The Nehanni.--Digothi.--The Atsina.--Indians of British
+ Oregon, Quadra's and Vancouver's Island.--Haidah.--Chimsheyan.--
+ Billichula.--Hailtsa.--Nutka.--Atna.--Kitunaha Indians.--
+ Particular Algonkin Tribes.--The Nascopi.--The Bethuck.--Numerals
+ from Fitz-Hugh Sound.--The Moskito Indians.--South American
+ Indians of British Guiana.--Caribs.--Warows.--Wapisianas.--
+ Tarumas.--Caribs of St. Vincent.--Trinidad.                         224
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The following pages represent a Course of Six Lectures delivered at the
+Royal Institution, Manchester, in the months of February and March of
+the present year; the matter being now laid before the public in a
+somewhat fuller and more systematic form than was compatible with the
+original delivery.
+
+
+
+
+         ETHNOLOGY
+            OF
+ THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+
+    HELIGOLAND AND THE FRISIANS.--GIBRALTAR AND THE SPANISH
+    STOCK.--MALTA.--THE IONIAN ISLANDS.--THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.
+
+
+_Heligoland._--We learn from a passage in the _Germania_ of Tacitus,
+that certain tribes agreed with each other in the worship of a goddess
+who was revered as _Earth the Mother_; that a sacred grove, in a sacred
+island, was dedicated to her; and that, in that grove, there stood a
+holy wagon, covered with a pall, and touched by the priest only. The
+goddess herself was drawn by heifers; and as long as she vouchsafed her
+presence among men, there was joy, and feasts, and hospitality; and
+peace amongst otherwise fierce tribes instead of war and violence. After
+a time, however, the goddess withdrew herself to her secret
+temple--satiated with the converse of mankind; and then the wagon, the
+pall, and the deity herself were bathed in the holy lake. The
+administrant slaves were sucked up by its waters. There was terror and
+there was ignorance; the reality being revealed to those alone who thus
+suddenly passed from life to death.
+
+Now we know, by name at least, five of the tribes who are thus connected
+by a common worship--mysterious and obscure as it is. They are the
+Reudigni, the Aviones, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and the Nuithones.
+
+Two others we know by something more than name--the Varini and the
+Langobardi.
+
+The eighth is our own parent stock--the _Angli_.
+
+Such is one of the earliest notices of the old creed of our German
+forefathers; and, fragmentary and indefinite as it is, it is one of the
+fullest which has reached us. I subjoin the original text, premising
+that, instead of _Herthum_, certain MSS. read _Nerthum_.
+
+"----Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis
+nationibus cincti, non per obsequium sed pr[oe]liis et periclitando tuti
+sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et _Angli_, et Varini, et Eudoses, et
+Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam
+notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, Terram
+matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis,
+arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo
+vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse
+penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis mult� cum veneratione
+prosequitur. L�ti tunc dies, festa loca, qu�cumque adventu hospitioque
+dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum; pax et
+quies tunc tant�m nota, tunc tant�m amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam
+conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat; mox vehiculum et vestes, et,
+si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant,
+quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque
+ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tant�m perituri vident."--"De Moribus
+Germanorum," 40.
+
+What connects the passage with the ethnology of Heligoland? Heligoland
+is, probably, the _island of the Holy Grove_. Its present name indicates
+this--_the holy land_. Its position in the main sea, or _Ocean_, does
+the same. So does its vicinity to the country of Germans.
+
+At the same time it must not be concealed from the reader that the Isle
+of Rugen, off the coast of Pomerania, has its claims. It is an
+island--but not an island of the _Ocean_. It is full of religious
+remains--but those remains are _Slavonic_ rather than _German_.
+
+I believe, for my own part, that the seat of the worship of _Earth the
+Mother_, was the island which we are now considering.
+
+In respect to its inhabitants, it must serve as a slight text for a long
+commentary. A population of about two thousand fishers; characterized,
+like the ancient Venetians, by an utter absence of horses, mules,
+ponies, asses, carts, wagons, or any of the ordinary applications of
+animal power to the purposes of locomotion, confined to a small rock,
+and but little interrupted with foreign elements, is, if considered in
+respect to itself alone, no great subject for either the ethnologist or
+the geographer. But what if its relations to the population of the
+continent be remarkable? What if the source of its population be other
+than that which, from the occupants of the nearest portion of the
+continent, we are prepared to expect? In this case, the narrow area of
+an isolated rock assumes an importance which its magnitude would never
+have created.
+
+The nearest part of the opposite continent is German--Cuxhaven, Bremen,
+and Hamburg, being all German towns. And what the towns are the country
+is also--or nearly so. It is German--which Heligoland is _not_.
+
+The Heligolanders are no Germans, but _Frisians_. I have lying before me
+the Heligoland version of _God save the Queen_. A Dutchman would
+understand this, easier than a Low German, a Low German easier than an
+Englishman, and (I _think_) an Englishman easier than a German of
+Bavaria. The same applies to another sample of the Heligoland muse--_the
+contented Heligolander's wife_ (_Dii tofreden Hjelgel�nnerin_), a pretty
+little song in Hettema's collection of Frisian poems; with which,
+however, the native literature ends. There is plenty of Frisian verse in
+general; but little enough of the particular Frisian of Heligoland.
+
+A difference like that between the Frisians of Heligoland and the
+Germans of Hanover, is always suggestive of an ethnological alternative;
+since it is a general rule, supported both by induction and common
+sense, that, except under certain modifying circumstances, islands
+derive their inhabitants from the nearest part of the nearest continent.
+When, however, the populations differ, one of two views has to be taken.
+Either some more distant point than the one which geographical proximity
+suggests has supplied the original occupants, or a change has taken
+place on the part of one or both of the populations since the period of
+the original migration.
+
+Which has been the case here? The latter. The present Germans of the
+coast between the Elbe and Weser are not the Germans who peopled
+Heligoland, nor yet the descendants of them. Allied to them they are;
+inasmuch as Germany is a wide country, and German a comprehensive term;
+but they are not the same. The two peoples, though like, are different.
+
+Of what sort, then, were the men and women that the present Germans of
+the Oldenburg and Hanoverian coast have displaced and superseded? Let us
+investigate. Whoever rises from the perusal of those numerous notices of
+the ancient Germans which we find in the classical writers, to the usual
+tour of Rhenish Germany, will find a notable contrast between the
+natives of that region as they _were_ and as they _are_. His mind may be
+full of their _golden_ hair, expecting to find it _flaxen_ at least.
+Blue and grey eyes, too, he will expect to preponderate over the black
+and hazel. This is what he will have read about, and what he will _not_
+find--at least along the routine lines of travel. As little will there
+be of massive muscularity in the limbs, and height in the stature. Has
+the type changed, or have the old records been inaccurate? Has the wrong
+part of Germany been described? or has the contrast between the Goth and
+the Italian engendered an exaggeration of the differences? It is no part
+of the present treatise to enter upon this question. It is enough to
+indicate the difference between the actual German of the greater part of
+Germany in respect to the colour of his hair, eyes, and skin, and the
+epithets of the classical writers.
+
+But all is not bare from Dan to Beersheba. The German of the old
+Germanic type is to be found if sought for. His locality, however, is
+away from the more frequented parts of his country. Still it is the part
+which Tacitus knew best, and which he more especially described. This is
+the parts on the Lower rather than the Upper Rhine; and it is the parts
+about the Ems and Weser rather than those of the Rhine at all--sacred as
+is this latter stream to the patriotism of the Prussian and Suabian. It
+is Lower rather than Upper Germany, Holland rather than Germany at all,
+and Friesland rather than any of the other Dutch provinces. It is
+Westphalia, and Oldenburg, as much, perhaps, as Friesland. The tract
+thus identified extends far into the Cimbric Peninsula,--so that the
+Jutlander, though a Dane in tongue, is a Low German in appearance.
+
+The preceding observations are by no means the present writer's, who has
+no wish to be responsible for the apparent paradox that the _Germans in
+Germany are not Germanic_. It is little more than a repetition of one of
+Prichard's,[1] in which he is supported by both Niebuhr and the
+Chevalier Bunsen. The former expressly states that the yellow or red
+hair, blue eyes, and light complexion has now become uncommon, whilst
+the latter has "often looked in vain for the auburn or golden locks and
+the light cerulean eyes of the old Germans, and never verified the
+picture given by the ancients of his countrymen, till he visited
+Scandinavia; there he found himself surrounded by the Germans of
+Tacitus."
+
+For _Scandinavia_, I would simply substitute the _fen districts of
+Friesland, Oldenburg, Hanover, and Holstein_--all of them the old area
+of the Frisian.
+
+Such is the physiognomy. What are the other peculiarities of the
+Frisian? His language, his distribution, his history.
+
+The Frisian of Friesland, is not the Dutch of Holland; nor yet a mere
+provincial dialect of it. Instead of the infinitive moods and plural
+numbers ending in -_n_ as in Holland, the former end in -_a_, the latter
+in -_ar_. And so they did when the language was first reduced to
+writing,--which it has been for nearly a thousand years. So they did
+when the laws of the Old Frisian republic were composed, and when the
+so-called _Old_ Frisian was the language of the country. So they did in
+the sixteenth century, when the popular poet, Gysbert Japicx, wrote in
+the _Middle_ Frisian; and so they do now--when, under the auspices of
+Postumus and Hettema, we have Frisian translations of Shakespeare's "As
+You Like it," "Julius C�sar," and "Cymbeline."
+
+Now the oldest Frisian is older than the oldest Dutch; in other words,
+of the two languages it was the former which was first reduced to
+writing. Yet the doctrine that it is the mother-tongue of the Dutch, is
+as inaccurate as the opposite notion of its being a mere provincial
+dialect. I state this, because I doubt whether the Dutch forms in -_n_,
+could well be evolved out of the Frisian in -_r_, or -_a_. The -_n_
+belongs to the older form,--which at one time was common to both
+languages, but which in the Frisian became omitted as early as the tenth
+century; whereas, in the Dutch, it remains up to the present day.
+
+If the Frisian differ from the Dutch, it differs still more from the
+proper Low German dialects of Westphalia, Oldenburg, and Holstein; all
+of which have the differential characteristics of the Dutch in a greater
+degree than the Dutch itself.
+
+The closest likeness to the Frisian has ceased to exist as a language.
+It has disappeared on the Continent. It has changed in the island which
+adopted it. That island is Great Britain.
+
+No existing nation, as tested by its language, is so near the Angle of
+England as the Frisian of Friesland. This, to the Englishman, is the
+great element of its interest.
+
+The history of the Frisian Germans must begin with their present
+distribution. They constitute the present agricultural population of the
+province of Friesland; so that if Dutch be the language of the towns, it
+is Frisian which we find in the villages and lone farm-houses. And this
+is the case with that remarkable series of islands which runs like a row
+of breakwaters from the Helder to the Weser, and serves as a front to
+the continent behind them. Such are Ameland, Terschelling, Wangeroog,
+and the others--each with its dialect or sub-dialect.
+
+But beyond this, the continuity of the range of language is broken.
+Frisian is _not_ the present dialect of Groningen. Nor yet of Oldenburg
+generally--though in one or two of the fenniest villages of that duchy a
+remnant of it still continues to be spoken; and is known to philologists
+and antiquarians as the _Saterland_ dialect.
+
+It was spoken in parts of East Friesland as late as the middle of the
+last century--but only in parts; the Low German, or Platt-Deutsch, being
+the current tongue of the districts around.
+
+It is spoken--as already stated--in Heligoland.
+
+And, lastly, it is spoken in an isolated locality as far north as the
+Duchy of Sleswick, in the neighbourhood of Husum and Bredsted.
+
+It was these Frisians of Sleswick who alone, during the late struggle of
+Denmark against Germany, looked upon the contest with the same
+indifference as the frogs viewed the battles of the oxen. They were not
+Germans to favour the aggressors from the South, nor Danes to feel the
+patriotism of the Northmen. They were neither one nor the other--simply
+Frisians, members of an isolated and disconnected brotherhood.
+
+The epithet _free_ originated with the Frisians of Friesland Proper, and
+it has adhered to them. With their language they have preserved many of
+their old laws and privileges, and from first to last, have always
+contrived that the authority of the sovereigns of the Netherlands should
+sit lightly on them.
+
+Nevertheless, they are a broken and disjointed population; inasmuch, as
+the natural inference from their present distribution is the doctrine
+that, at some earlier period, they were spread over the whole of the
+sea-coast from Holland to Jutland, in other words, that they were the
+oldest inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower Hanover, and Holstein.
+If so, they must have been the _Frisii_ of Tacitus. No one doubts this.
+They must also have been the _Chauci_ of that writer, the German form of
+whose names, as we know from the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems, was _Hocing_.
+This is not so universally admitted; nevertheless, it is difficult to
+say who the Chauci were if they were not Frisians, or why we find
+Frisians to the north of the Elbe, unless the population was at one time
+continuous.
+
+When was this continuity disturbed? From the earliest times the
+sea-coast of Germany seems to have been Frisian, and from the earliest
+times the tribes of the interior seem to have moved from the inland
+country towards the sea. Their faces were turned towards Britain; or, if
+not towards Britain, towards France, or the Baltic. I believe, then,
+that as early as 100 B.C. the displacement of some of the occupants of
+the Frisian area had begun; this being an inference from the statement
+of C�sar, that the Batavians of Holland were, in his own time,
+considered to have been an immigrant population. From these Batavians
+have come the present Dutch, and as the present Dutch differ from the
+Frisians of A.D. 1851, so did their respective great ancestors in B.C.
+100--there, or thereabouts. But the encroachment of the Dutch upon the
+Frisian was but slow. The map tells us this. Just as in some parts of
+Great Britain we have _Shiptons_ and _Charltons_, whereas in others the
+form is _Skipton_ and _Carlton_; just as in Scotland they talk of the
+_kirk_, and in England of the _church_;[2] and just as such differences
+are explained by the difference of dialect on the part of the original
+occupants, so do we see in Holland that certain places have the names in
+a Dutch, and others in a Frisian form. The Dutch compounds of _man_ are
+like the English, and end in -_n_. The Frisians never end so. They drop
+the consonant, and end in -_a_; as _Hettema_, _Halberts-ma_, &c.
+Again--all three languages--English, Dutch, and Frisian--have numerous
+compounds of the word _h�m_=_home_, as _Threekingham_, _Eastham_,
+_Petersham_, &c. In English the form is what we have just seen. In
+Holland the termination is -_hem_, as in _Arn-hem_, _Berg-hem_. In
+Frisian the vowel is _u_, and the _h_ is omitted altogether, _e.g._,
+_Dokk-um_, _Borst-um_, &c.
+
+Bearing this in mind, we may take up a map of the Netherlands. Nine
+places out of ten in Friesland end in -_um_, and none in -_hem_. In
+Groningen the proportion is less; and in Guelderland and Overijssel, it
+is less still. Nevertheless, as far south as the Maas, and in parts of
+the true Dutch Netherlands, where no approach to the Frisian language
+can now be discovered, a certain per-centage of Frisian forms for
+geographical localities occurs.[3]
+
+The remainder of the displacement of the Frisians was, most probably,
+effected by the introduction of the Low Germans of the empire of
+Charlemagne, into the present countries of Oldenburg and Hanover; and I
+believe that the same series of conquests, which then broke up the
+speakers of the Frisian, annihilated the Germanic representatives of the
+Anglo-Saxons of England; since it is an undeniable fact that of the
+numerous dialects of the country called Lower Saxony, all (with the
+exception of the Frisian) are forms of the Platt-Deutsch, and none of
+them descendants of the Anglo-Saxon. Hence, as far as the language
+represents the descent, whatever we Anglo-Saxons may be in Great
+Britain, America, Hindostan, Australia, New Zealand, or Africa, we are
+the least of our kith and kin in Germany. And we can afford to be so.
+Otherwise, if we were a petty people, and given to ethnological
+sentimentality, we might talk about the Franks of Charlemagne, as the
+Celts talk of us; for, without doubt, the same Franks either
+exterminated or denationalized us in the land of our birth, and
+displaced the language of Alfred and �lfric in the country upon which it
+first reflected a literature.
+
+There are no absolute descendants of the ancestors of the English in
+their ancestral country of Germany; the Germans that eliminated them
+being but step-brothers at best. But there is something of the sort. The
+conquest that destroyed the Angles, broke up the Frisians. Each shared
+each other's ruin. This gives the common bond of misfortune. But there
+is more than this. It is quite safe to say that the Saxons and
+Frisians[4] were closely--_very_ closely--connected in respect to all
+the great elements of ethnological affinity--language, traditions,
+geographical position, history. Nor is this confined to mere
+generalities. The opinion, first, I believe, indicated by Archbishop
+Usher, and recommended to further consideration by Mr. Kemble, that the
+Frisians took an important part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Great
+Britain is gaining ground. True, indeed, it is that the current texts
+from Beda and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle make no mention of them. They
+speak only of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. And true it is, that no
+provincial dialect has been discovered in England which stands in the
+same contrast to the languages of the parts about it, as the Frisian
+does to the Dutch and Low German. Yet it is also true that, according to
+some traditions, Hengist was a Frisian hero. And it is equally true
+that, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, we find more than one incidental
+mention of Frisians in England--their presence being noticed as a matter
+of course, and without any reference to their introduction. This is
+shown in the following extract:--"That same year, the armies from among
+the East-Anglians, and from among the North-Humbrians, harassed the land
+of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all by their _�scs_, which they had
+built many years before. Then King Alfred commanded long ships to be
+built to oppose the �scs; they were full-nigh twice as long as the
+others; some had sixty oars, and some had more; they were both swifter
+and steadier, and also higher than the others. They were shapen neither
+like the Frisian nor the Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they
+would be most efficient. Then some time in the same year, there came six
+ships to Wight, and there did much harm, as well as in Devon, and
+elsewhere along the sea-coast. Then the king commanded nine of the new
+ships to go thither, and they obstructed their passage from the port
+towards the outer sea. Then went they with three of their ships out
+against them; and three lay in the upper part of the port in the dry;
+the men were gone from them ashore. Then took they two of the three
+ships at the outer part of the port, and killed the men, and the other
+ship escaped; in that also the men were killed except five; they got
+away because the other ships were aground. They also were aground very
+disadvantageously, three lay aground on that side of the deep on which
+the Danish ships were aground, and all the rest upon the other side, so
+that no one of them could get to the others. But when the water had
+ebbed many furlongs from the ships, the Danish men went from their three
+ships to the other three which were left by the tide on their side, and
+then they there fought against them. There was slain Lucumon the king's
+reeve, and Wulfheard the Frisian, and �bbe the Frisian, and �thelhere
+the Frisian, and �thelferth the king's _geneat_, and of all the men,
+Frisians and English, seventy-two; and of the Danish men one hundred and
+twenty."
+
+Lastly, we have the evidence of Procopius that "three numerous nations
+inhabit Britain,--the Angles, the Frisians, and the Britons."[5]
+
+Whatever interpretation we may put upon the preceding extracts, it is
+certain that the Frisians are the nearest German representatives of our
+Germanic ancestors; whilst it is not uninteresting to find that the
+little island of Heligoland, is the only part of the British Empire
+where the ethnological and political relations coincide.
+
+_Gibraltar._--This isolated possession serves as a text for the
+ethnology of Spain; and there is no country wherein the investigation is
+more difficult.
+
+It is difficult, if we look at the analysis of the present population,
+and attempt to ascertain the proportion of its different ingredients.
+There is Moorish blood, and there is Gothic, Roman, and Ph[oe]nician;
+some little Greek, and, older than any, the primitive and original
+Iberic. Perhaps, too, there is a Celtic element,--at least such is the
+inference from the term _Celtiberian_. Yet it is doubtful whether it be
+a true one; and, even if it be, there still stands over the question
+whether the _Celtic_ or the _Iberic_ element be the older.
+
+When this is settled, the hardest problem of all remains behind; _viz._,
+the ethnological position of the Iberians. What they were, in
+themselves, we partially know from history; and what their descendants
+are we know also from their language. But we only know them as an
+isolated branch of the human species. Their _relation_ to the
+neighbouring families is a mystery. Reasons may be given for connecting
+them with the Celts of Gaul; reasons for connecting them with the
+Africans of the other side of the Straits; and reasons for connecting
+them with tribes and families so distant in place, and so different in
+manners as the Finns of Finland, and the Laps of Lapland. Nay
+more,--affinities have been found between their language and the Hebrew,
+Arabic, and Syriac; between it and the Georgian; between it and half the
+tongues of the Old World. Even in the forms of speech of America,
+_analogies_ have been either found or fancied.
+
+Be this, however, as it may, the oldest inhabitants of the Spanish
+peninsula were the different tribes of the Iberians proper, and the
+Celtiberians; the first being the most easily disposed of. They it was,
+whose country was partially colonized by Ph[oe]nician colonists; either
+directly from Tyre and Sidon, or indirectly from Carthage. They it was
+who, at a somewhat later period, came in contact with the Greeks of
+Marseilles and their own town of _Emporia_. They it was who could not
+fail to receive some intermixture of African blood; whether it were from
+Africans crossing over on their own account, or from the Libyans,
+G�tulians, and Mauritanians of the Carthaginian levies.
+
+And now the great western peninsula becomes the battle-ground for Rome
+and Carthage; the theatre of the Scipios on the one side, and the great
+family of the Barcas on the other. On Iberian ground does Hannibal swear
+his deadly and undying enmity to Rome. At this time, the numerous
+primitive tribes of Spain may boast a civilization equal to that of the
+most favoured spots of the earth,--Greece, and the parts between the
+Nile, the Euphrates and the Mediterranean alone being excepted. As
+tested by their agricultural mode of life, their commercial and mining
+industry, their susceptibility of discipline as soldiers, and, above
+all, by the size and number of their cities, the Iberian of Spain is on
+the same level with the Celt of Gaul, and the Celt of Gaul on that of
+the Italian of Italy,--_i.e._, _as far as the civilization of the latter
+is his own, and not of Greek origin_. But this is a point of European
+rather than Spanish ethnology.
+
+That the obstinate spirit of resistance to organized armies by means of
+a _guerilla_ warfare, the savage patriotism which suggests such
+expressions as _war even to the knife_, and the endurance behind stone
+walls, which characterizes the modern Spaniards, is foreshadowed in the
+times of their earliest history, has often been remarked, and that
+truly. Numantia is an early Saragossa, Saragossa a modern Numantia.
+Viriathus has had innumerable counterparts. Where the indomitable
+Cantabrian held out against the power of Rome, the Biscayan of the year
+1851 adheres to his privileges and his language; and what the Cantabrian
+was to the Roman, the Asturian was to the Moor. Both trusted their
+freedom to their impracticable mountains and stubborn spirits--and kept
+it accordingly. It is an easy matter to refer the peculiarities of the
+Spanish character to the infusion of Oriental blood; and with some of
+them it may be the case. But with many of them, the reference is a false
+one. Half the Spanish character was Iberic and Lusitanian before either
+Jew or Saracen had seen the Rock of Gibraltar.
+
+Of the early Spanish religion, we know but little. A remarkable passage
+in Strabo speaks to their literature. They had an _alphabet_. This is
+known from coins and inscriptions. And it was of foreign origin--Greek
+or Ph[oe]nician. This nothing but the most inconsiderate and uncritical
+patriotism can deny. Denied, however, it has been; and the indigenous
+and independent evolution of an alphabet has been claimed; the
+particular tribe to which it has more especially been ascribed being the
+_Turdetani_. These--and the passage I am about to quote is the passage
+of Strabo just alluded to--are "put forward as the wisest of the Iberi,
+and they have the use of letters; and they have records of ancient
+history, and poems, and metrical laws for six thousand years--as they
+say."[6]
+
+Now, whatever may be the doubts implied by the last three words of this
+extract, the evidence is to the effect that the old Iberians were a
+lettered nation; the antiquity of their civilization being another
+question. To modify our scepticism on the point, the text has been
+tampered with, and it has been proposed to read _poems_ ({ep�n}) instead
+of years ({et�n}). The change, to be sure, is slight enough--that of a
+single letter--from _p_ ({p}) to _t_ ({t}); nevertheless, as it is more
+than cautious criticism will allow, the reading must stand as it is, and
+the claim of the Turdetanians must be for a literature nearly as old as
+the supposed age of the world in the current century,--a long date, and
+a date which would be improbable, even if we divided it by twelve, and
+rendered {etos} by _month_ instead of _year_. It denotes either some
+shorter period (perhaps a day) or nothing at all.
+
+So much for the Iberians; of which the Lusitanians of Portugal were a
+branch; and of which there were several divisions and subdivisions
+involving considerable varieties both of manners and language. In
+respect to the latter there is the special evidence of Strabo that their
+tongues and alphabets differed. And so did their mythologies. The
+Callaici had the reputation of being _atheists_; whilst the Celtiberi
+worshipped an anonymous God,[7] at the full of the moon, with feasts and
+dances.
+
+But who were the Celtiberi? I have already said that there were
+difficulties upon this point. The name makes them a mixed people; half
+Celt and half Iberic. If so, the French influence in the Spanish
+Peninsula was as great in the time of Hannibal, as it was wished to be
+in the time of Louis XIV.
+
+With the exception of Niebuhr, the chief authorities have considered the
+Iberi as the aborigines, and the Celts as emigrants from Gaul. To this,
+however, Niebuhr took exceptions. He considered the warlike character of
+the Iberians; and this made him unwilling to think that any invader from
+the north had displaced them. And he considered the geographical
+_distribution_ of the Celtiberi. This was not in the fertile plains nor
+along the banks of fertilizing rivers, nor yet in the districts of the
+golden corn and the precious wool of Hispania, but in the rougher
+mountain tracts, in the quarters whereto an aboriginal inhabitant would
+be more likely to retire, than an invading conqueror to covet, I admit
+the difficulty implied in his objection; but I admit it only as a
+_presumption_--against which there is a decided preponderance of
+material facts.
+
+In the first place, there are the oldest names of the geographical
+localities throughout Spain. These, as shown by the well-known monograph
+of Humboldt, are _not_ Celtic, and are _Iberic_.
+
+In the next place, the Celtic frontier was by no means so near the
+geographical boundary of the Peninsula as it is often supposed to have
+been. Instead of the Celtic of Gaul reaching the Pyrenees, the Iberic of
+Spain reached the Loire--so that the province of Aquitania, although
+Gallic in politics, was Iberic in ethnology. This, again, is shown by
+Humboldt.
+
+For my own part, instead of discussing the relation of the Celts of
+Celtiberia to the other inhabitants of Spain, I would open a new
+question, and investigate the grounds upon which we believe in an
+intermixture at all. Whatever respect we may pay to the statements of
+the classical writers, the _name_ itself is not conclusive; since it
+would be just as likely to be given from an approach on the part of an
+Iberic population to the Celtic manners, or from the adoption of any
+_supposed_ Celtic characteristic, as from absolute ethnological
+intermixture. Like modern observers, the ancient writers were too fond
+of gratuitously assuming an intermixture of blood for the explanation
+of the results of common physical or social conditions. Hence--without
+pressing my opinion on the reader--I confine myself to an expression of
+doubt as to the existence of Celts amongst the Celtiberi _at all_.
+
+But this only simplifies the question as to the ethnological position of
+the Iberic variety of the human species. It does not even suggest an
+answer. They were the aborigines of Spain. They are the ancestors of the
+present Biscayans. Their tongue survives in the north-west provinces of
+Spain, and in the north-east corner of France. It _has no recognized
+affinity with any known tongue; and it has undeniable points of contrast
+with all the languages of the countries around._
+
+Yet it is only by means of the Basque language that the problem can be
+attempted. The physical conformation of the still extant Iberians, has
+nothing definitely characteristic about it. The ancient mythology has
+died away. The tribes most immediately allied have ceased to be other
+than unmixed. So the language alone remains--and that has yet to find
+its interpreter.
+
+An Iberic basis--Greek, Ph[oe]nician, and Mauritanian
+intermixtures--possibly a Celtic element--Roman sufficient to change the
+language through four-fifths of the Peninsula--Gothic blood introduced
+by the followers of Euric--Arabian influences, second in importance to
+those of Rome only--such is the analysis of ethnological elements of the
+Spanish stock. The proportions, of course, differ in different parts of
+the Peninsula, and, although they are nowhere ascertained, it is
+reasonable to suppose that the Arab blood increases as we go southwards,
+and the Gothic and Iberic as we approach the Pyrenees. This makes
+Gibraltar the most Moorish part of Europe; and such I believe it to be.
+
+_Malta._--When we have subtracted the English, Italians, Greeks, and
+other nations of the Levant from the population of Malta, there still
+remain the primitive islanders, with their peculiar language.
+
+Now this language is a form of the Arabic; and, with the exception of
+some of the dialects of Syria, it is the only instance of that language
+in the mouth of a Christian population. So thoroughly are the language
+and the religion of the Koran co-extensive.
+
+At what period this tongue found its way to Malta is undetermined. As
+compared with any of the present languages of the island it is
+_ancient_. But it is not certain that, though old, it is the earliest.
+Carthaginians may have preceded the Arabs; Greeks the Carthaginians;
+and, possibly, Sicanians, or the earliest occupants of Sicily, the
+Greeks. I am unable, however, to carry my reader beyond the simple fact
+of the _language being Arabic_.
+
+The only other Arabic dependency of Great Britain is Aden.[8]
+
+_The Ionian Islands._--The reader may have remarked the peculiar
+character of European ethnology. It consists chiefly in the _analysis_
+of the component parts of particular populations; and this it
+investigates so exclusively as to leave no room for the description of
+manners, customs, physiognomy, and the like--paramount in importance as
+these matters are when we come to the other quarters of the world. There
+are two reasons for this difference. First--the peculiarities of the
+European nations are by no means of the same extent and character with
+those of the ruder families of mankind. A similar civilization, and a
+similar religion, have effected a remarkable amount of uniformity; and,
+hence, the differences are those that the historian deals with more
+appropriately than the ethnologist. Secondly--such external and palpable
+differences as exist are generally known and appreciated. The
+_analysis_ of blood, or stock, which, partially, accounts for them, is
+less completely understood.
+
+Hence, in treating of the Maltese, there was no description of the
+Arabic stock at all. All that was stated was a reason for believing that
+the Maltese belonged to it. Such also, to a great degree, was the case
+with the Gibraltar population, and the Heligolanders. And such will be
+the case with the Ionian Islanders. It will not be thought necessary to
+enlarge upon the Greeks; it will only be requisite to ask how far the
+group in question is Grecian.
+
+The very oldest population of the Ionian Islands I believe to have been
+_barbarous_--a term which, in the present classical localities, is
+convenient.
+
+In the smaller islands, such as Ithaca and Zacynthus, the population had
+become Hellenized at the time of the composition of the Homeric poems.
+In Corcyra, on the other hand, the original barbarism lasted longer.
+Such, at least, is the way in which I interpret the passages in the
+Odyssey concerning the Ph�acians (who were certainly not Greek), and the
+later language of Thucydides respecting the relations of the Corinthian
+colonies of Epidamnus, and Corcyra. The whole context leads to the
+belief that, originally, the {apoikoi} were Greeks in contact with a
+population which was _not_ Greek.
+
+In respect to the stock to which these early and ante-Hellenic
+islanders belonged, the presumption is in favour of its having been the
+Illyrian; a stock known only in its probable remains--the Skipitar
+(Albanians, or Arnaouts) of Albania.
+
+Time, however, made them all equally Hellenic, a result which was,
+probably, completed before the decline of Greek independence; since
+which epoch there have been the following elements of intermixture:--
+
+1. Albanian blood, from the opposite coast.
+
+2. Slavonic, from Dalmatia.
+
+3. Italian, from Italy.
+
+4. Turk--I have no pretence to the minute ethnological knowledge which
+would enable me even to guess at the proportions.
+
+Upon the whole, however, I believe the Ionian islanders to be what their
+language represents them--Greek. At the same time they are Greeks of an
+exceedingly mixed blood.[9]
+
+Again--of the foreign elements I imagine the Italian to be the chief.
+This, however, is an impression rather than a matured opinion.
+
+The Slavonic element, too, is likely to be considerable. The Byzantine
+historians speak of numerous and permanent settlements, during the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, both in Thessaly, and in the Morea;
+statements which the frequency of Slavonic names for Greek geographical
+localities confirms.[10] Neither, however, outweighs the undoubted
+Hellenic character of the language, which is still the representative of
+the great medium of the fathers of literature and philosophy.
+
+_The Channel Islands._--As Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, are no
+parts of Great Britain, and are, nevertheless, European, I make a brief
+mention of them; although they are neither colonies nor dependencies:
+indeed, in strict history, Great Britain is a dependency of theirs.
+
+They are _Norman_ rather than _French_, and the illustration of this
+distinction, which will re-appear when we come to the Canadas--concludes
+the chapter.
+
+The _earliest_ population of France was twofold--Celtic for the north,
+Iberic for the south.
+
+Its _second_ population was Roman.
+
+Its language is Roman--all that remains of the old tongues of the tribes
+which C�sar conquered being (1) certain words in the present French,
+(2) the Breton of Brittany, which is closely akin to the Welsh Celtic,
+and (3) the Basque dialects of Gascony, which is Iberic.
+
+Now whether the old Gallic blood be as fully displaced by that of the
+Roman conquerors, as the old Gallic language has been displaced by the
+Latin is uncertain. It is only certain that the old and indigenous
+elements of the French nation, however indeterminate in amount--were not
+of a uniform character, _i.e._, neither wholly Celtic, nor wholly
+Iberic; but Celtic for one part of the country, and Iberic for another.
+
+The ancient tribes of Normandy were _Celtic_. Hence, when the third
+element of the present Norman population was introduced, all that was
+not Italian was Welsh--just as it was in Picardy and Orleans, and just
+as it was _not_ in Gascony and Poitou. _There_ the old element was
+Iberic.
+
+The _third element_--just alluded to--was Germanic; Germanic of
+different kinds, but chiefly Frank or Burgundian.
+
+The _fourth_ great element was the Norse or Scandinavian; introduced by
+the so-called _Sea-kings_ of Denmark and Norway in the ninth and tenth
+centuries. These, as the empire of Charlemagne declined, insulted and
+dismembered it. They converted Neustria in _Normandy_=_the country of
+the Northmen_. The exact amount of their influence has not been
+ascertained; nor is the investigation easy. The process, however, by
+which we measured the original extent of the Frisian area is applicable
+to that of the Northmen. There are Norse names for French localities. Of
+these the most important are the compounds of -_tot_, -_fleur_, and
+-_bec_; like Yve-_tot_, Har-_fleur_, and Caude-_bec_.
+
+ FRENCH.    NORSE.    ENGLISH.
+
+  -tot       toft     _village_.
+  -fleur     fl�t     _stream_.
+  -bec       beck     _brook_.[11]
+
+Names of places thus ending are almost exclusively limited to Normandy;
+occurring, even there, most numerously within a few miles of either the
+sea or the Seine.
+
+Furthermore, there is a fresh element suggested by a term of the
+"Notitia Utriusque Imperii," a document of the latter end of the fourth
+century. This is _Litus Saxonicum per Britannias_, a tract extending
+from the Wash to Portsmouth. Now the opposite shore of the continent was
+a _litus Saxonicum_ also; within which lay Normandy. I believe that
+these Saxons were part of the same branch of Germans which invaded
+England; in other words, that portions of France, like portions of
+England, were _Anglicized_; the two processes differing in respect to
+their extent and duration. What was general and permanent on the
+island, was partial and temporary on the continent. That there were
+Saxons at Bayeux in the tenth century is asserted by express evidence.
+
+Taking in the account the preceding invasions, and remembering that,
+both from Germany and Italy, Normandy is one of the most distant of the
+French provinces, we arrive at the following analysis.
+
+The Channel Islanders are what the Normans are.
+
+The Normans are Romanized Celts; the Roman element being somewhat less
+than it is elsewhere.
+
+The Frank and Burgundian elements are also less.
+
+But a Saxon element is greater.
+
+And a Norse element is pre-eminently Norman.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] "Natural History of Man," p. 197.
+
+[2] The form in _c_ and _sk_ (_Skipton_ and _Carlton_) being of Danish,
+whilst those in _ch_ and _sh_ are of Anglo-Saxon origin.--_See_
+"Quarterly Review," No. CLXIV.
+
+[3] The details of this investigation are given in full in the present
+writer's "Taciti Germania with Ethnological notes," now in course of
+publication.
+
+[4] I include in this term the so-called old Saxons of Westphalia.
+
+[5] The original passage is as follows:--"{Brittian de t�n n�son ethn�
+tria polyanthr�potata echousi, basileus te heis aut�n hekast�
+ephest�ken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi toutois Angiloi te kai
+Phrissones kai hoi t� n�s� hom�nymoi Britt�nes. Tosaut� de h� t�nde t�n
+ethn�n polyanthr�pia phainetai ousa h�ste ana pan etos kata pollous
+enthende metanistamenoi xyn gynaixi kai paisin es Phrangous
+ch�rousin.}"--Procop. B. G. iv. 20.
+
+Reasons which have induced me to go farther than any previous writer in
+respect to the importance of the Frisian element in the Anglo-Saxon
+invasion, and to believe that instead of _Saxon_ being a native German
+name for any portion of the Germanic population, it was only a Celtic
+and Roman term for the Germans of the sea-coast, and (amongst these) for
+the Frisians most especially, are given, at large, in my ethnological
+edition of the "Germania of Tacitus."
+
+[6] {Soph�tatoi d' exetazontai t�n Ib�r�n houtoi, kai grammatik�
+chr�ntai; kai t�s palaias mn�m�s echousi ta syngrammata, kai poi�mata
+kai nomous emmetrous hexakischili�n et�n, h�s phasi.}
+
+[7] This was probably the case with the Callaici.
+
+[8] The famous Knighthood of Malta--_without fear_, but (though,
+perhaps, the best of its class) not _without reproach_, has no place
+here. Its ethnology belongs to the different countries which it
+dignified by its valour, or dishonoured by its profligacy.
+
+[9] This I believe to have been the case with the ancient Greeks also;
+though the proof would require an elaborate monograph.
+
+[10] The two together have led to a doctrine which has been best
+developed by Fallmerayer. It is this--_that the modern Greeks are
+Sclavonians_. The Russian school are the chief believers of this. In the
+few countries where ethnology is scientific rather than political, the
+more moderate opinion of the modern Greeks being a mixed stock prevails.
+
+[11] Or _beck_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+    THE GAMBIA SETTLEMENTS.--SIERRA LEONE.--THE GOLD COAST.--THE
+    CAPE.--THE MAURITIUS.--THE NEGROES OF AMERICA.
+
+
+_The Gambia._--All our settlements on the Gambia are in the Mandingo
+country.
+
+Of all the true and unequivocal Negroes, the Mandingos are the most
+civilized; the basis of their civilization being Arab, and their
+religion that of the Koran. Hence, they have priests, or Marabouts, the
+use of the Arabic alphabet, and a monotheistic creed.
+
+Of all the Negroes, too, the Mandingos are the most commercial, not as
+mere slave-dealers, but as truly industrial merchants.
+
+Of all the families of the African stock, with the exception of the
+Kaffres, the Mandingo is the most widely spread. It also falls into
+numerous divisions and subdivisions. Hence the term has a twofold power.
+Sometimes it is a generic name for a large group; sometimes the
+designation of a particular section of that group. The Mandingos of the
+Lower Gambia are Mandingos in the restricted meaning of the word.
+
+For the Mandingo tribes, when we use the term in a general sense, the
+most convenient classification is into the _Mahometan_ and the _Pagan_.
+That this division should exist is natural; since, with the exception of
+the Wolofs, the Mandingos are the most northern of all the western
+Negroes, and, consequently, those who are most in contact with the
+Mahometan Arabs, and the equally Mahometan Kabyles of Barbary and the
+Great Desert,--a fact sufficient to account for the monotheistic creeds
+of the northern tribes.
+
+As for the Paganism of the others, we must remember how far southwards
+and inland the same great stock extends--indefinitely towards the
+interior, and as far as the back of the Ashanti country, in the
+direction of the equator.
+
+This prepares us for finding Mandingos at our next settlement.
+
+_Sierra Leone._--The native populations which encircle this settlement
+are two--the _Timmani_ towards the north, and _Bullom_ towards the
+south.
+
+Both are Negroes of the most typical kind, in respect to their physical
+conformation.
+
+Both are Pagans.
+
+Both speak what seem to be mutually unintelligible languages, but which
+have an undoubted relationship to each other, and to the numerous
+Mandingo dialects as well. It is this which induces me to place them in
+the same section with the more civilized Africans of the Gambia.
+
+It is safe to say that they are amongst the rudest members of the stock;
+indeed it is only in the eyes of the etymologist that they are Mandingo
+at all. Practically, they, and several tribes like them, are Mandingo,
+in the way that a wolf is a dog, or a goat a sheep.
+
+The Bullom and Timmani are the frontagers to Sierra Leone; and it was
+with Bullom and Timmani potentates that the land of the settlement was
+bargained for. The settlers themselves are of different origin. Mixed
+beyond all other populations of Africa, the occupants of Free Town are
+in the same category with the Negroes of Jamaica and St. Domingo;
+concerning whom we can only predicate that they have dark skins, and
+that they come from Africa. The analysis of their several origins, and
+their distribution amongst the separate branches of the African family,
+would be one of the most difficult feats in minute ethnology; and this
+would be but a fraction of the investigation. When the several countries
+which supplied the several victims of the slave-trade had been
+ascertained, the complicated question of _intermixture_ would stand
+over; and there we should find lineages of every degree of
+hybridism--children, whose ancestors originated on different sides of
+Africa, themselves the parents of a lighter-coloured offspring, the
+effect of European intercourse.
+
+At present it is sufficient to state that the nucleus of the Free Town
+population consists of what is called the _Maroon_ Negroes. These were
+slaves of Jamaica, who, having recovered their freedom during the
+Spanish dominion in the island, were removed, by the English, in the
+first instance to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to their present locality.
+
+Round this has collected an equally miscellaneous population of rescued
+slaves; and, besides these, there are immigrants, labourers, and
+barterers from all the neighbouring parts of the Continent--Krumen more
+especially.
+
+A writer who, when we come to the Negroes of the Gold Coast, will be
+freely quoted, calls the Krumen the _Scotchmen_ of Africa, since, with
+unusual industry, enterprise, and perseverance, they leave, without
+reluctance, their own country to push their fortunes wherever they can
+find a wider field. They are ready for any employment which may enable
+them to increase their means, and ensure a return to their own country
+in a state of improved prosperity. There the Kruman's ambition is to
+purchase one or two head of cattle, and one or two head of wives, to
+enjoy the luxuries of rum and tobacco, and pass the remainder of his
+days as
+
+    "A gentleman of Africa who sits at home at ease."
+
+Half the Africans that we see in Liverpool are Krumen, who have left
+their own country when young, and taken employment on board a ship,
+where they exhibit a natural aptitude for the sea. Without being nice as
+to the destination of the vessel in which they engage, they return home
+as soon as they can; and rarely or never contract matrimony before their
+return. In Cape Coast Town, as well as in Sierra Leone, they form a
+bachelor community--quiet and orderly; and in that respect stand in
+strong contrast to the other tribes around them. Besides which, with all
+their blackness, and all their typical Negro character, they are
+distinguishable from most other western Africans; having the advantage
+of them in make, features, and industry.
+
+A Kruman is pre-eminently the _free labourer_ of Africa. In the slave
+trade he has engaged less than any of his neighbours, attaches himself
+readily to the whites, and, in his native country, as well as in Sierra
+Leone, Coast Town, and other places of his temporary denizenship, is
+quick of perception and amenable to instruction. His language is the
+_Grebo_ tongue, and it has been reduced to writing by the American
+missionaries of Cape Palmas. It has decided affinities with those of
+the Mandingo tongues to the north, the Fanti dialects of the Gold Coast,
+and, in all probability, still closer ones with those of the Ivory
+coast. These last, however, are but imperfectly known; indeed, a single
+vocabulary of the _Avekvom_ language, in the "American Oriental
+Journal," furnishes nine-tenths of our philological data for the parts
+between Cape Palmas and Cape Apollonia.
+
+The best measure of the heterogeneousness of the Sierra Leone population
+is to be found in Mrs. Kilham's vocabularies. That lady collected, at
+Free Town, specimens of thirty-one African tongues, from Negroes then
+and there resident. Of these--
+
+A. Eight belonged to the Mandingo group, _viz._, Mandingo Proper, Susu,
+Bambara, Kossa, Pessa, Kissi, Bullom, and Timmani.
+
+B. Two were dialects of the Grebo (Kru): the Kru, and the Bassa.
+
+C. Two were Fanti: the Fanti and the Ashanti, closely allied dialects.
+
+D. Two were Dahoman: the Fot, and the Popo.
+
+E. Two Benin: the Benin Proper, and the Moko, languages of a tract but
+little known.
+
+F. One Wolof, from the Senegal.
+
+G. Eight from the parts between the rivers Formosa and Loango, _viz._,
+the Bongo, the Ako, the Ibu, the Rungo, the Akuonga, the Karaba, the
+Uobo, the Kouri.
+
+H. One from the river Kongo, _i.e._, the Kongo properly so-called.
+
+I. Two from the Lower Niger, but, still separated from the coast--the
+Tapua (Nufi) and Appa.
+
+K. Three from the widely-spread nations of the interior--the Fulah, the
+Haussa, and the Bornu.
+
+I do not say that all Mrs. Kilham's specimens represent mutually
+unintelligible tongues; probably they do not. At the same time, as
+several decidedly different languages are omitted, the list understates,
+rather than exaggerates, the number of the divisions and subdivisions of
+the western African populations, as inferred from the divisions and
+subdivisions of the language.
+
+Thus, no samples are given of the--
+
+1. _Sereres._--Pastoral tribes about Cape Verde.
+
+2. _Serawolli._--On the Middle Senegal, different, in many respects,
+from the Sereres, the Wolofs, and the Fulahs; nations with which they
+are in geographical contact.
+
+3. _The Feloops._--Between the Gambia and Cacheo, along the coast.
+
+4. _The Papels._--South of the Cacheo; and also coastmen.
+
+5. _The Balantes._--Coast-men to the south of the Papels.
+
+6. _The Bagnon._--Conterminous with the Feloops of the river Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Bissago._--Fierce occupants of the islands so-called.
+
+8. _The Naloos._--On the Nun and river Grande.
+
+9. _The Sapi._--Conterminous with the Naloo, and like all the preceding
+tribes, from the Feloops downwards, pre-eminently rude, fierce,
+intractable, and imperfectly known.
+
+Southward, the unrepresented languages are equally numerous--especially
+for the Ivory Coast, and for the Delta of the Niger. Of these I shall
+only notice one--the Vey.
+
+The settlement with which the tribes speaking the Vey language is in
+contact is one of which the tongue is English, but not the political
+relations. It is the American free Negro settlement of Liberia.
+
+In the Vey language, it had been known for some time to the American
+missionaries, that there were _written books_, a fact not likely to be
+undervalued by those who felt warmly on the social and civilizational
+prospects of the coloured divisions of our species. One of these books
+was discovered by Lieutenant Forbes, of H.M.S. the Bonetta; local
+inquiry was further made by the Rev. W. S. Koelle; and the MS. was
+critically analyzed by Mr. Norris, of the Asiatic Society.[12]
+
+The phenomenon, if properly measured, is by no means a very significant
+one; since, although the Vey alphabet, the invention of a man now
+living, so far differs from the Mandingo, as to be spelt by the
+_syllable_ rather than the _letter_, it is anything but an independent
+creation of the Negro brain. Doala Bukara, its composer, an imperfect
+Mahometan, had seen Mahometan books, and, although he was no Christian,
+had seen an English Bible also. He knew, then, what spelling or writing
+was. He knew, too, the phonetic analysis of the Mandingo, a tongue
+closely allied to his own. And this is nine parts out of ten in the
+so-called invention of alphabets.
+
+The true claims of Doala, in this way, are those of the phonetic
+reformers in England, as compared with those of Toth or Cadmus--real but
+moderate. His own account of the matter, as he gave it to Mr. Koelle,
+was, that the fact of sounds being _written_, haunted him in a dream,
+wherein he was shown a series of signs adapted to his native tongue.
+These he forgot in the morning; but remembered the impression. So he
+consulted his friends; and they and he, laying their heads together,
+coined new ones. The king of the country made its introduction a matter
+of state, and built a large house in Dshondu, as a day-school. But a
+war with the Guru people disturbed both the learners and teachers, so
+that the latter removed to Bandakoro, where all grown-up people, of both
+sexes, can now read and write.
+
+This alphabet is a _syllabarium_.
+
+The books written in it are essentially Mahometan; the Koran appearing
+in them much in the same way as the Bible appears in the more degenerate
+legends of the middle ages.
+
+How far the Vey alphabet will be an instrument of civilization, is a
+difficult question. For my own part, I half regret its evolution; since
+the Arabic that served for the Mandingo, would have served for the Vey
+as well--or if not the Arabic, the English.
+
+As a measure of African capacity it is of some value; and in this
+respect, it speaks for the Negro just as the Cherokee alphabet speaks
+for the American Indian. This latter was invented by a native named
+Sequoyah. Like Doala, he knew what reading was. Like Doala, too, he had
+a language adapted to a _syllabarium_. Hence, both the Vey and the
+Cherokee, the two latest coinages in the way of alphabets, are both
+syllabic.
+
+We now move southwards to the--
+
+_Gold Coast Settlements._--The climate of Western Africa requires
+notice. It suits the native, but destroys the European. Of the two
+settlements, already mentioned, the Gambia is the most deadly; though
+Sierra Leone has the worst name. _Both_ are on the coast; both,
+consequently, on the lower courses of the rivers, and both on low
+levels. The import of these remarks applies to the Negroes of America.
+At present, it ushers in a brief notice of the climate of the Gold
+Coast; this district being chosen for the purpose of description because
+it makes the nearest approach to the equator of any English settlement
+in Africa. Consequently, it may serve as a typical sample of the
+malarious parts of the coast in question.
+
+From April till August is the rainy season, which gradually passes into
+the dry; heavy fogs forming during the transition. These last till the
+end of September. Occasional showers, too, continue till November. Then
+the weather becomes really clear and dry, until, towards the end of
+January, the dry parching wind, called the Harmattan, sets in, with its
+over-stimulant action upon the human system, and clouds of penetrating
+impalpable sand. If this is not blowing, the atmosphere is loaded with
+moisture; and this it is, combined with the heat of an intertropical
+sun, and the effluvia engendered by the decay of an over-luxuriant
+vegetation, which makes Western Africa the white man's grave. Not that
+the soil, even on the coast, is always swampy and alluvial. About Cape
+Coast it is rocky and undulating. Still, it is inordinately wooded, as
+well as full of spots where water accumulates and exhalations multiply.
+Yet the thermometer ranges between 78� and 86� Fahrenheit--a low
+_maximum_ for the neighbourhood of the equator; a high one, however, to
+feel cold in. Nevertheless, such is the case. "From this peculiarity of
+the atmosphere, the sensations of an individual almost invariably
+indicate a degree of _cold_, especially when sitting in a room, or not
+taking bodily exercise; so that, to ensure a feeling of comfortable
+warmth, it becomes necessary to dress in a thicker material than what is
+usually considered best adapted for tropical wear, and to have a fire
+lighted in one's bedroom for some time before one retires to rest."[13]
+
+The chief Africans of these parts--and we now approach the great
+_officina servorum_--alone tolerant of the heats, and droughts, and
+rains, and exhalations are--
+
+1. The Fantis.
+
+2. The Ghans.
+
+3. The Avekvom (?)
+
+A. _The Fantis._--Of the true natives of the country these are the
+chief.
+
+The term _Fanti_, like the term _Mandingo_, has a double sense--a
+general and a specific signification.
+
+The particular population of the parts about Cape Coast is Fanti in the
+limited sense of the term.
+
+The great section of the Negro family, which comprises, besides the
+Fantis Proper, the Ashanti, Boroom, and several other populations, is
+_Fanti_ in the wide sense of the term.
+
+The Fanti, Ashanti, and Boroom forms of speech are merely dialects of
+one and the same language.
+
+A great proportion of the vocabularies of "Bowdich's Ashanti" are the
+same.
+
+So are the Fetu, Affotoo, and other vocabularies of the "Mithridates."
+
+The inhabitants of the Native Town of Cape Coast, a mixed population of
+Krumen, Fantis, and Mulattoes, amounting to as many as 10,000, are no
+true specimens of the African of the Gold Coast. European influences
+have too long been at work on them. Before the town was English it was
+Dutch; and it was English as early as 1661.
+
+More than this. It is not certain that their fathers' fathers were the
+_exact_ aborigines; in other words, a tribe akin to, but slightly
+different from them, seems to have been the earlier possessors. These
+were the Fetu--the remains of which can doubtless be met with among the
+populations of the neighbourhood; since we find in the "Mithridates" a
+_Fetu_ vocabulary and an _Affotoo_ one as well.
+
+Now the Fantis that thus displaced the Fetu, were themselves fugitives
+from the conquering Ashantis; all, however, being the members of one
+stock, and the pressure being from the highlands of the interior towards
+the lowlands of the coast.
+
+All three are truly Negro in conformation, and miserably Pagan in creed,
+the best measure of their political capacity being the organized kingdom
+of the Ashantis; and the lowest form of it, the system of clanships,
+chieftainships, or captainships of the proper Fantis of the coast. The
+details of these are of importance.
+
+I cannot ascertain upon what principle those different divisions which
+are sometimes called _tribes_, sometimes _clans_, are formed; since it
+is by no means safe to assume that they necessarily consist of
+descendants from one common ancestor. The investigations concerning the
+_tribes_ of ancient Rome show this.
+
+It is easier to enumerate their external characteristics, and material
+elements of their union. In the Native Town there are four quarters,
+each occupied by a separate section of the population. This section has
+its own proper head, its own proper standards, and its own proper band
+of music.
+
+What follows seems to apply to the rude state of society in the country
+around. Each division has its badge or device; so that we have the
+tribe, or clan, of the leopard, the cat, the dog, the hawk, the parrot,
+&c. On certain days there are certain festivals and processions, when
+the chief is carried in a long basket on the heads of two men, with
+umbrellas above him, and attendants around proportionate to his rank.
+When in distress, the Fanti has a claim upon the good offices of his
+tribe.
+
+When a Fanti government becomes extensive enough to require
+organization, we find absolute monarchs with satraps (caboceers) under
+them; under these the heads of the different villages or towns, and
+under these captains of hundreds, fifties, and tens--an organization
+which is, perhaps, of military rather than social origin. The Ashanti
+kingdom gives us the best measure of extent to which a branch of the
+Fanti stock has developed itself into a political influence. As for the
+_Constitution_, it is a simple and unmitigated despotism; of which the
+most remarkable point is the law of succession. This follows the female
+lines, so that the heir-apparent is the eldest son of the reigning
+king's eldest sister. The same applies to the caboceers; except that, in
+cases of mental or physical incapacity, the rightful heir is set aside,
+and a path opened to the ambition of private adventurers.
+
+Slavery is what we expect; and on the coast of Guinea it meets us at
+every turn, though not in the worst forms of the _Trade_. This
+flourishes in Dahomey, and along the whole of the Bight of Benin. In the
+Fanti countries, however, the milder form of _domestic_ servitude
+preponderates; and along with it a chronic state of warfare. These two
+evils are connected with one another, as cause and effect. The conquest
+supplies the slaves; the slaves provoke the conquest.
+
+Besides this there is a sort of temporary servitude, which reminds us of
+the _Nexi_ of the Romans. This occurs when "a person, in order to raise
+a particular sum of money, voluntarily sells himself for a certain
+period, or until such time as he is enabled to pay the amount so
+borrowed, together with whatever interest may have been agreed upon.
+This is called the system of pawning, and the people so sold, pawns.
+Thus a native, in order to make a great display on any particular
+occasion, as on his marriage, or to have a grand 'custom' for a deceased
+relative, will forfeit his labour for a definite time, or give one of
+his slaves for a period agreed upon. Neither these pawns, however, nor
+the domestic slaves, entertain any feeling of disgrace, but on the
+contrary are happy and contented."[14]
+
+Everything connected with the administration of justice is rude and
+savage; the severity of the punishment upon detection being the chief
+preventive. The awards, of course, depend much upon the individual
+character of the chiefs; and there are but few who have not exhibited
+horrible proofs of cruelty. These, however, are no measures of the
+temper of the people at large. The legitimate, normal, established, and
+familiar forms of torture give us this. It may just be a shade or two
+better than that of the autocrats--though bad at best. I still draw upon
+the writer already quoted. "The most common mode of torture is what is
+termed tying Guinea-fashion. In this the arms are closely drawn together
+behind the back, by means of a cord tied tightly round them, about
+midway between the elbows and shoulders. A piece of wood to act as a
+rack, having been previously introduced, is then used so as to tighten
+the cord, and so intense is the agony that one application is generally
+sufficient to occasion the wretch so tortured to confess to anything
+that is required of him. There are various other modes of torture in
+common use among the natives of Guinea. One is tying the head, feet, and
+hands, in such a way that by turning the body backwards, they may be
+drawn together by the cords employed. Another is securing a wrist or
+ankle to a block of wood by an iron staple. By means of a hammer any
+degree of pressure may thus be applied, while the suffering so produced
+is continuous, only being relieved by the wood being split, and the
+staples removed, but this may not be done until a crime has been
+confessed by a person who never committed it, and even then his limb has
+generally been destroyed. It would not be interesting to here enumerate
+the various tortures employed by a barbarous people, but when we
+recollect the refinement of the art of torture in our own country in the
+days of the maiden, the boot, and thumb-screws, we will cease to wonder
+that substitutes for these should be used in a country where
+civilization has not yet begun to elevate a people who are generally
+allowed to be the lowest of the human race.
+
+"There are some superstitious rites employed by Fetish-men for the
+detection of crime; and whether it is that these people really possess
+such powerful influence over their wretched dupes, as to frighten into
+confession of his guilt the perpetrator of crime, or whether it is that
+they manage by their numerous spies to obtain a clue sufficient in most
+cases to lead to the detection of the person, is more than I can venture
+to assert; but, be the means employed what they may, a Fetish-man will
+assuredly very often bring a crime home to the right person, even after
+the most patient investigation in the ordinary way has failed to elicit
+the slightest clue.
+
+"There is also what is called Trial by Dhoom. This consists in whoever
+are suspected of having committed a crime being made to swallow a
+decoction of _dhoom_ wood of the country, and it is believed that
+whoever is innocent will immediately eject the deleterious draught, but
+the guilty person will die. This, however, is not much to be depended
+upon; for while it causes death in one instance, it may do so in all who
+partake of it; or on the other hand, from some accident in its
+preparation, it may be productive of no effect either upon the guilty or
+the innocent.
+
+"The Rice test, although practised in this part of Africa, is, I
+believe, not peculiar to it, being also employed in the West Indies, and
+South America. Although no doubt originally introduced by a people in a
+low state of civilization, it is interesting in so far that it
+exemplifies the powerful influence which the mind possesses over the
+corporeal functions, and as it appears to have been in use among the
+blacks for centuries, we may give them the credit of having been
+practically aware that 'conscience doth make cowards of us all,' long
+before the Bard of Avon chronicled the fact. In the employment of this
+test in Guinea, those who are suspected of having committed a crime are
+assembled, and to each a small portion of rice is given, which they are
+required to masticate, and afterwards produce on the hand; and it is
+invariably the case that while all but the real culprit will produce
+their rice in a soft pulpy mass, his will be as dry as if ground in a
+mill, the salivary glands having, under the influence exerted upon the
+nervous system by fear, refused to perform their ordinary functions."
+
+Something like this is common in many savage countries. In the shape of
+the _dhoom_ test, it re-appears in Old Calabar, and, probably,
+elsewhere. There, the "king and chief inhabitants ordinarily constitute
+a court of justice, in which all country disputes are adjusted, and to
+which every prisoner suspected of capital offences is brought, to
+undergo examination and judgment. If found guilty, they are usually
+forced to swallow a deadly potion made from the poisonous seeds of an
+aquatic leguminous plant, which rapidly destroys life. This poison is
+obtained by pounding the seeds, and macerating them in water, which
+acquires a white milky colour. The condemned person, after swallowing a
+certain portion of the liquid, is ordered to walk about, until its
+effects become palpable. If, however, after the lapse of a definite
+period, the accused should be so fortunate as to throw the poison from
+off his stomach, he is considered as innocent, and allowed to depart
+unmolested. In native _parlance_ this ordeal is designated as 'chopping
+nut.'"[15]
+
+The hardest workers amongst the Fantis are the fishers, who use a canoe
+of wood of the bombax, from ten to twelve feet in length, and
+strengthened by cross timbers. The net--a casting net--is made from the
+fibres of the aloe or the pine-apple, and is about twenty feet in
+diameter (?).
+
+Next to these come the farmers, whose rough agriculture consists in the
+cultivation of maize, bananas, yams, and pumpkins; and lastly, the
+gold-seekers. Of this there is abundance; and where the European coin of
+the coast ceases, the native currency of gold-dust begins. Sums of so
+small a value as three half-pence are thus paid; smaller ones being
+represented by cowries.
+
+The highest of their arts is that of manufacturing gold ornaments, and
+this is the hereditary craft of certain families. These transmit the
+secret of their skill from father to son, and keep the corporation to
+which they belong up to a due degree of closeness, by avoiding
+intermarriage with any of the more unskilled labourers. A little
+weaving, and a little potting, constitute the remaining arts of the
+Fanti--as far, at least, as they are either _fine_ or _useful_.
+
+The craft of the _Fetish-man_ comes under none of the preceding
+categories. He is the priest, sorcerer, or medicine man; the
+representative of "Paganism, in its lowest and most hideous form, the
+objects of their worship being the most repulsive reptiles, and their
+ceremonies the most degrading. They certainly have some idea of the
+existence of a First Cause, and believe themselves to be in the power of
+the _Great Fetish_, their protection or destruction being dependent upon
+the will of this power, of whose attributes they know nothing further.
+They also believe in the existence of a spirit of evil, and on some
+parts of the coast consider his power over them so great, that they
+address their supplications, and erect, for his especial service, small
+mud huts, usually of a conical shape, built under the shade of some
+stately palm or wild fig-tree, in one of the most inviting spots to be
+found. These huts bear the unattractive name among Europeans of 'devil's
+temples.' It will be seen thus, that this belief in the existence of the
+Great Fetish professed by the Fantees, is a faint glimmering of that
+natural religion which all nations possess. Of the creation of our
+species, they do not appear to entertain very correct ideas, unless it
+be that they owe their being to this Fetish, who, they say, in the
+beginning made two people, one of whom was black, the other white, and
+that both originally occupied the Fantee country. It would seem,
+however, from their account, that, after these two men were brought into
+existence, the Fetish was at a loss to know how to dispose of them, and
+in order to prevent any jealousy arising between them, had recourse to a
+sort of lottery, where there were all prizes and no blanks. Two packets
+were accordingly placed before them, and the black man drew first; nor
+was he disappointed with his prize, for it consisted of such a quantity
+of gold-dust, that it has not been taken out of the country yet. The
+remaining packet was of course the lawful property of the white man, and
+in the long run he had no cause to complain--for, on being opened, it
+was found to contain a book which taught him everything; and so do the
+poor wretches account for the superior intellect of whites, and the
+inexhaustible treasures of their own country.
+
+"In the neighbourhood of Cape Coast, the natives seem to believe that
+this Fetish occupies more especially particular localities, and exists
+in the form of a particular animal, so that an isolated portion of rock
+is frequently called a Fetish-stone, and snakes even of the most
+poisonous description, in a certain locality, are preserved and allowed
+to propagate, undisturbed, their venomous species. In some places on
+the coast, temples dedicated to snake-worship are built, and the Fetish
+men, or priests, connected with them are frequently esteemed
+particularly holy, no doubt from the familiar terms upon which they, in
+course of time, become with the horrid reptiles, upon which the people
+look as the personification of their Fetish. The offerings made at these
+temples are often very valuable, the cupidity of the deities within not
+being easily satisfied. Gold-dust and clothes are the most acceptable
+offerings; but when these are not to be obtained, it is perfectly
+wonderful how large a quantity of rum and tobacco the _snakes_ will
+consume before they vouchsafe their good offices for the removal of a
+disease from a cow, a wife, a child, or the detection of a thief, who,
+not unlikely, has been employed by themselves.
+
+"These Fetish men and women, too, for there are Fetish women, and,
+consequently Fetish children, have spies in different directions,
+forming as many links of communication between the priesthood in various
+parts of the country, so that very few occurrences take place of which
+they have not the means of making themselves acquainted."[16]
+
+The same writer continues, "Religious observances, properly so called,
+the Fantees have none, but each particular class has a certain day of
+the week upon which they cease from following their ordinary
+avocations--thus, a fisherman will not go to sea on a Tuesday; nor will
+a bushman enter the forest on a Friday--these days being dedicated to
+the Fetish, and thus, in some degree, representing the Sabbath of
+Christian nations. There are, in addition, several days throughout the
+year--apparently occurring at the desire of the Fetish men--in which the
+Fantees abstain from work, and during a period of war, it often happens
+that the movements of the opposing armies are much interfered with by
+the numerous occasions upon which it becomes necessary to propitiate the
+Fetish. One of these especial Fetish days may be here noticed, it being,
+apparently, the most important of those that occur during the whole
+year, and its object no less important than driving the devil out of the
+village. The period when this desirable object is effected, occurs
+during the month of December, the night-time being chosen as the most
+fitting for the ceremony. As soon as darkness has closed in, the
+inhabitants of a village collect at an appointed rendezvous, with sticks
+and staves, and under the directions of a leader, sally out, entering
+every house in their way, through the various apartments of which they
+knock about, and yell and howl with such violence that they would
+actually scare any devil but a most impertinent one. Having, as they
+think, completely rid the town of him, they pursue the retreating enemy
+for some distance into the bush, after which they return and spend the
+remainder of the night in carousals.
+
+"There is another festival, which, as it partakes somewhat of a
+religious nature, may also be noticed here, _viz._, the yam-custom,
+which is held in September, to celebrate the goodness of the Fetish, in
+having granted an abundant harvest. On this occasion, the king of the
+village and the staff of Fetish men connected with it, take part. All
+the people who can by any possibility attend, assemble, a procession is
+formed, and then the most extraordinary mixture of costumes, the noises
+produced by numerous tom-toms, horns made from elephants' tusks, and the
+still ruder, if possible, rattle of two pieces of wood, or common metal,
+which the women beat together to a tune similar to what in Ireland is
+known as the Kentish fire. The constant firing of musketry, and the
+obscene dances performed by the two sexes form one of the most debasing
+and savage exhibitions it is possible to see. In this way does the
+procession parade the principal streets, the king seated in his basket
+carried by his slaves, and protected by the umbrellas, according to his
+rank--the Fetish-men dressed in white robes, also in their baskets. On
+arriving at the king's house sacrifices are usually offered--some fowls
+or eggs being now substituted in the vicinity of our settlements for a
+human being, but we have still too good reasons to believe, that even as
+near as the capital of Ashantee many human lives are sacrificed on this
+particular occasion, as well as in other festivals of various
+descriptions. The offerings being made, the Fetish-man partakes of the
+yam; the king then eats of the valued root; and after these two have
+pronounced them ripe and fit for food, the people consider themselves at
+liberty to commence digging.
+
+"A being named _Tahbil_ resides in the substance of the rock, upon which
+Cape Coast is built, and watches the town. Every morning, offerings of
+food or flowers are left for him on the rock. Most villages have a
+corresponding deity; and in earlier times, there is good reason for
+believing that human beings were sacrificed to him."
+
+Likely enough--as may be seen from the practices at Fanti funerals, and
+as may be inferred from the analogy of the other parts of Western
+Africa.
+
+If the survivors of a deceased Fanti be poor, the corpse is quietly
+interred in one of the denser spots of the jungles; and if rich, the
+funeral is at once costly and bloody; since gold and jewels are buried
+along with the dead body, and human victims as well. The ceremonial is
+as follows. The coffin is carried to the grave by slaves, when the
+retainers and friends press forwards, fix the number required (in
+general four), stun the selected individuals by a sudden blow on the
+head, throw the still breathing bodies into the grave of their master,
+and, whilst life yet remains, cover in the earth.
+
+This horrible custom is truly West-African. How near we must approach
+the Mandingo frontier, before we get rid of it on the north, or how far
+south it extends, I am not exactly able to say. In Dahomey, where it
+attains its _maximum_ development, it is worse than amongst the
+Ashantis, and amongst the Ashantis worse than in the proper Fanti
+districts. It certainly reaches as far southwards as Old Calabar, where,
+upon the death of Ephraim, a well-known Caboceer, "some hundreds of men,
+women, and children were immolated to his manes,--decapitation, burning
+alive, and the administration of the poison-nut, being the methods
+resorted to for terminating their existence. When King Eyeo, father of
+the present Chief of Creek Town, died, an eye-witness, who had only
+arrived just after the completion of the funeral rites, informed me that
+a large pit had been dug, in which several of the deceased's wives were
+bound and thrown in, until a certain number had been procured; the earth
+was then thrown over them, and so great was the agony of these victims,
+that the ground for several minutes was agitated with their convulsive
+throes. So fearful, in former times, was the observance of this
+barbarous custom, that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation. The
+graves of the kings are invariably concealed, so as, it is stated, to
+prevent an enemy from obtaining their skulls as trophies, which is not
+the case with those of the common people."[17]
+
+I have said that it is in Dahomey, where the immolation of human beings
+is the bloodiest; and I now add that it is in Dahomey where those who
+look for the more characteristic peculiarities of the Negro stock, must
+search. But it is the bad side which will preponderate; it is the
+darkest practices which will develop themselves most typically. What we
+find in germs and remnants elsewhere, grow, in Dahomey, to inordinate
+and incredible proportions.
+
+The sacro-sanctitude of the snake is doubled in Dahomey.
+
+Slavery, bad along the whole Bight of Benin, is worse, still, in
+Dahomey.
+
+In Akkim we find a _female_ colonel. In Dahomey there is an army of
+Amazons, as indicated by Mr. Duncan, and as described in detail by
+Captain Forbes.
+
+_The Gha._--Accra, and the forts lately purchased from the
+Danes--Christiansborg and others,--are the localities of the _Gha_
+nation. I say _Gha_ (or _Ghan_) because the author of a paper soon about
+to be noticed states, that this is the indigenous name of the people
+which we call _Acra_, _Akra_, _Accrah_, or _Inkra_--and it is always
+best to give the native name if we can.
+
+Adelung, on the authority of Romer and Isert, gives the following
+account of the Negroes speaking the Gha language. He calls it Akra.
+
+They began with conquering and reducing to a state of servitude the
+_Adampi_, or _Tambi_, Negroes of the hill country; these being a portion
+of their own stock, and speaking a mutually intelligible language.
+
+But, in time, they were themselves conquered by the _Akvambu_, and broke
+up into two parts. One of these remained _in situ_, and is represented
+by the present Gha of Christiansborg. The other fled to the Little Popo,
+an island off the coast of Dahomey, and there settled.
+
+What remained then on the Gold Coast were the Gha and Akvambu; and these
+were afterwards conquered by the Akkim Fantis, themselves eventually
+reduced by the Ashantis.
+
+In no more than nine or ten villages, lying within nine or ten miles of
+Fort St. James and Christiansborg, was the Akra language spoken in the
+time of Protten (A.D. 1794), and of the Ghas thus speaking it each
+understood the Fanti.
+
+This makes the Gha a decreasing, and, for practical purposes, an
+unimportant population. At the same time I should be glad to direct the
+attention of some investigator to their ethnology. Their exact relations
+to the Akvambu are uncertain. The only work known to me where specimens
+of the latter language are to be found is out of reach.[18]
+
+Then as to the _Adampi_. Bowdich states that it radically differs from
+the Gha; the numerals, which agree, being borrowed from the one tongue
+into the other. But his collation rests on only seven words.
+
+Again,--_Adampi_, _Tembi_, and _Tambu_ are words so much alike as to
+pass for the same. Yet a _Tembu_ vocabulary in the "Mithridates" differs
+from a _Tambu_ one in the same work--
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.      TAMBU.
+
+ _Sky_       so          giom.
+ _Sun_       wis         pum.
+ _Moon_      igodi       horamb.
+ _Man_       naa         nyummu.
+  ...        ibalu       numero.
+ _Woman_     alo         in.
+ _Head_      knynoo      ii.
+ _Foot_      navorree    nandi.
+ _One_       kuddum      kaki.
+ _Two_       noalee      ennu.
+ _Three_     nodoso      ettee.
+
+Again--the _Tembu_ is related to the vocabulary of a language called
+_Kouri_, which the _Tambu_ is _not_.
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.    KOURI.
+
+ _Sun_       wis       nosi.
+ _Man_       ibalu     abalu.
+ _Woman_     alo       alu.
+ _One_       kuddum    kotum.
+ _Two_       noalee    nalee.
+ _Three_     nodoso    natisu.
+
+Thirdly, the _Tjemba_ of Balbi's "Atlas Ethnologique" is called
+_Kassenti_.
+
+Lastly, the _Gha_, as far as very short comparison goes, is neither
+_Tambu_ nor _Tembu_: nor yet _Kouri_--though it has a few resemblances
+to all.
+
+The author of the paper alluded to above is the Rev. Mr. Hanson--himself
+a Gha by birth. It was laid before the British Association in 1849. Two
+points characterize the theory that it exhibits; but as the publication
+of the paper _in extenso_, is contemplated, I merely state what they
+are.
+
+1. A remarkable number of customs common to the _Jews_ and the _Gha_.
+
+2. The probable origin of the latter population in some part of the
+interior of Africa, north of their present locality, and, perhaps, in
+the parts about Timbuktu.
+
+_The Quaquas._--I am not sure that this name is the best that can be
+given to the class in question. Hence, it is merely provisional. The
+language that is spoken by them is called the _Avekvom_. They constitute
+the chief population of the _Ivory_--just as the Krumen do that of the
+_Grain_ and the Fantis that of the _Gold_--Coast. _Apollonia_ is the
+English dependency where we find members of the _Quaqua_ stock.
+
+The Avekvom dialects of the Quaqua tribes seem to belong to a different
+tongue from that of the Krumen and Fantis; and I imagine that the three
+are mutually unintelligible. Still, it is difficult to predicate this
+from the mere inspection of vocabularies; the more so, as no language of
+the western coast of Africa is less known than the Avekvom--the only
+specimen of any length being one in the last number of the "Journal of
+the American Oriental Society." With numerous miscellaneous affinities,
+it is more Fanti and Grebo than aught else; and, perhaps, is
+transitional in character to those two languages.
+
+At any rate it is no isolated tongue, as may be seen from the following
+table, where _Yebu_ means the language of the Yarriba country, at the
+back of Dahomey, and _Efik_ that of Old Calabar:--
+
+ ENGLISH.          AVEKVOM.        OTHER IBO-ASHANTI LANGUAGES.
+
+ _Arm_             ebo             ubok, _Efik_.
+ _Blood_           evie            eyip, _Efik_; eye, _Yebu_.
+ _Bone_            ewi             beu, _Fanti_.
+ _Box_             ebru            br�nh, _Grebo_.
+ _Canoe_           edie            tonh, _Grebo_.
+ _Chair_           fata            bada, _Grebo_.
+ _Dark_            eshim           esum, _Fanti_; ekim, _Efik_.
+ _Dog_             etye            aja, ayga, _Yebu_.
+ _Door_            eshinavi        usuny, _Efik_.
+ _Ear_             eshibe          esoa, _Fanti_.
+ _Fire_            eya             ija, _Fanti_.
+ _Fish_            etsi            eja, eya, _Fanti_.
+ _Fowl_            esu             suseo, _Mandingo_; edia, _Yebu_.
+ _Ground-nut_      ngeti           nkatye, _Fanti_.
+ _Hair_            emu             ihwi, _Fanti_.
+ _Honey_           ajo             ewo, _Fanti_; oyi, _Yebu_.
+ _House_           eva             ifi, _Fanti_; ufog, _Efik_.
+ _Moon_            efe             h�bo, _Grebo_; ofiong, _Efik_.
+ _Mosquito_        efo             obong, _Fanti_.
+ _Oil_             inyu            ingo, _Fanti_.
+ _Rain_            efuzumo-sohn    sanjio, _Mandingo_.
+ _Rainy season_    eshi            ojo, _rain_, _Yebu_.
+ _Salt_            etsa            ta, _Grebo_.
+ _Sand_            esian-na        utan, _Efik_.
+ _Sea_             etyu            idu, _Grebo_.
+ _Stone_           desi            sia, shia, _Grebo_.
+ _Thread_          jesi            gise, _Grebo_.
+ _Tooth_           enena           nyeng, _Mandingo_; gne, _Grebo_.
+ _Water_           esonh           nsu, _Fanti_.
+ _Wife_            emise           muso, _Mandingo_; mbesia, _Fanti_.
+ _Cry_             yaru            isu, _Fanti_.
+ _Give_            nae             nye, _Grebo_; no, _Efik_.
+ _Go_              le              olo, _Yebu_.
+ _Kill_            bai             fa, _Mandingo_; pa, _Yebu_.
+
+There has been war and displacement here as well as in the Gha country.
+In the seventeenth century the parts about Cape Apollonia were contended
+for by two tribes called the Issini (or Oshin) and the Ghiomo. The
+former gave way to the latter, and having retreated to the country of
+the Veteres, were joined by that tribe against the Esiep.
+
+A Quaqua prayer is given in the "Mithridates." It is uttered every
+morning by the tribes on the Issini, after a previous ablution in that
+river--_Anghiume mame maro, mame orie, mame shikke e okkori, mame akaka,
+mame frembi, mame anguan e awnsan_--_O Anghiume! give rice, give yams,
+give gold, give aigris, give slaves, give riches, give (to be) strong
+and swift._
+
+What is here written about the ethnology of Apollonia is written
+doubtfully; since here, as at Acra, the simple ethnology of the pure and
+proper Fantis becomes complicated.
+
+_The Cape of Good Hope._--The aboriginal population of the Cape is
+divided between two great families:--
+
+1. The Hottentot.
+
+2. The Kaffre.
+
+1. _The Hottentots._--Of the two families this is the most western; it
+is the one which the colonists came first in contact with, and it is the
+one which has been most displaced by Europeans. The names of fourteen
+extinct tribes of Hottentots are known; of which it is only necessary to
+mention the Gunyeman and Sussaqua the nearest the Cape, and the Heykom,
+so far eastwards and northwards as Port Natal. The displacement of these
+last has not been effected by Europeans. African subdued African; and it
+was the Kaffres who did the work of conquest here.
+
+Of the extant Hottentots, within the limits of the colony of the Cape,
+the most remote are the _Gonaqua_, on the head-waters of the Great Fish
+River; or rather on the water-shed between it and the Orange River. They
+are fast becoming either extinct, or amalgamated with the Kaffres;
+inasmuch as they are the Hottentots of the Amakosa frontier, and suffer,
+at least, as much from the Kaffres as from their white neighbours.
+
+The _Namaquas_ occupy the _lower_ part of the Orange River, the Great
+and Little Namaqualand.
+
+_The Koranas._--This branch of the Hottentots has its locality on the
+middle part of the Gariep, with the Griquas to the north, the Bechuana
+Kaffres to the east, and the Saabs in the middle of them. Their number
+is, perhaps, 10,000. Their exact relation to the other Hottentots is
+uncertain. They are a better formed people than the Gonaqua and Namaqua,
+but whether they be the best samples of the Hottentot stock altogether
+is uncertain. Probably a tribe far up in the north-western parts of
+South Africa, and beyond Namaqualand, may dispute the honour with them.
+These are the Dammaras--themselves disputed Hottentots. Their country
+lies beyond the British colony, but it must be noticed for the sake of
+taking in all the branches of the stock in question. It is the tract
+between Benguela and Namaqualand, marked in the maps as _sterile
+country_; in the northern parts of which we sometimes find notices of a
+fierce nation called _Jagas_. Walvisch Bay lies in the middle of it. Now
+some writers make the Dammaras of this country Hottentot; others Kaffre;
+and that both rightly and wrongly. They are both--partly one, partly the
+other; since Dammara is a geographical term, and some of the tribes to
+which it applies are Kaffre, some Hottentot. The Dammaras of the plains,
+or the Cattle Dammaras are the former; the Dammaras[19] of the hills,
+the latter. Between the Dammara and the Korana a much nearer approach
+to Kaffre type is made than is usually supposed.
+
+A branch of the Koranas--those of the valley of the Hartebeest
+River--deserves particular attention. They caution us against
+overvaluing differences; and Dr. Prichard has quoted the evidence of Mr.
+Thompson with this especial object. They are Koranas who have suffered
+in war, lost their cattle, and been partially expatriated by the more
+powerful sections of their stock. Hence, want and poverty have acted
+upon them; and the effect has been that they have become hunters instead
+of shepherds, have been reduced to a precarious subsistence, and as the
+consequence of altered circumstances, have receded from the level of the
+other Koranas, and approached that of the--
+
+_Saabs or Bushmen._--These belong to the parts between the Roggeveld and
+Orange River; parts which rival the _sterile country_ of the map in
+barrenness. As is the country so are the inhabitants; starved, miserable
+hunters--hunters rather than shepherds or herdsmen.
+
+The Lap is not more strongly contrasted with the Finlander, than the
+Korana with the Saab; and the deadly enmity between these two
+populations is as marked as the differences in their physical
+appearances. I think, however, that undue inferences have been drawn
+from the difference; in other words, that the distance between the
+Korana and the Saab has been exaggerated. The languages are
+unequivocally allied.
+
+I think, too, that a similarly undue inference has been drawn from the
+extent to which the Kaffre and the Korana are _alike_; inasmuch as an
+infusion of Kaffre has been assumed for the sake of accounting for it.
+Of this, however, no proof exists.
+
+The Saabs are described as having constitutions "so much enfeebled by
+the dissolute life they lead, and the constant smoking of _dacha_, that
+nearly all, including the young people, look old and wrinkled;
+nevertheless, they are remarkable for vanity, and decorate their ears,
+legs, and arms with beads, and iron, copper, or brass rings. The women
+likewise stain their faces red, or paint them, either wholly or in part.
+Their clothing consists of a few sheepskins, which hang about their
+bodies, and thus form the mantle or covering, commonly called a
+_kaross_. This is their only clothing by day or night. The men wear old
+hats, which they obtain from the farmers, or else caps of their own
+manufacture. The women wear caps of skins, which they stiffen and finish
+with a high peak, and adorn with beads and metal rings. The dwelling of
+the Bushman is either a low wretched hut, or a circular cavity, on the
+open plain, into which, at night, he creeps with his wife and children,
+and which, though it shelters him from the wind, leaves him exposed to
+the rain. In this neighbourhood, in which rocks abound, they had
+formerly their habitations in them, as is proved by the many rude
+figures of oxen, horses, serpents, &c. still existing. It is not a
+little interesting to see these poor degraded people, who formerly were
+considered and treated as little better than wild beasts in their rocky
+retreats. Many of those who have forsaken us live in such cavities not
+far from our settlement, and we have thus an opportunity of observing
+them in their natural condition. Several who, when they came to us from
+the farmers, were decently clothed and possessed a flock of sheep, which
+they had earned, in a short time returned to their fastnesses in a state
+of nakedness and indigence, rejoicing that they had got free from the
+farmers, and could live as they pleased in the indulgence of their
+sensual appetites. Such fugitives from civilised life, I have never seen
+otherwise occupied than with their bows and arrows. The bows are small,
+but made of good elastic wood; the arrows are formed of small reeds, the
+points furnished with a well-wrought piece of bone, and a double barb,
+which is steeped in a potent poison of a resiny appearance. This poison
+is distilled from the leaves of an indigenous tree. Many prefer these
+arrows to fire-arms, under the idea that they can kill more game by
+means of a weapon that makes no report. On their return from the chase,
+they feast till they are tired and drowsy, and hunger alone rouses them
+to renewed exertion. In seasons of scarcity they devour all kinds of
+wild roots, ants, ants' eggs, locusts, snakes, and even roasted skins.
+Three women of this singular tribe were not long since met with, several
+days' journey from this place, who had forsaken their husbands, and
+lived very contentedly on wild honey and locusts. As enemies, the
+Bushmen are not to be despised. They are adepts in stealing cattle and
+sheep; and the wounds they inflict when pursued, are ordinarily fatal if
+the wounded part is not immediately cut out. The animals they are unable
+to carry off, they kill or mutilate.
+
+"To our great comfort, even some of these poor outcasts have shown
+eagerness to become acquainted with the way of salvation. The children
+of such as are inhabitants of the settlement, attend the school
+diligently, and of them we have the best hopes.
+
+"The language of the Bushman has not one pleasing feature; it seems to
+consist of a collection of snapping, hissing, grunting, sounds; all more
+or less nasal. Of their religious creed it is difficult to obtain any
+information; as far as I have been able to learn, they have a name for
+the Supreme Being; and the Kaffre word _tixo_ is derived from the
+_tixme_ of the Bushmen. Sorcerers exist among them. One of the Bushmen
+residing here being sick, a sorceress was sent for before we were aware
+of it, who pretended, by the virtue of mystic dance, to extract an
+antelope horn from the head of the patient."[20]
+
+_The Griquas._--The Griquas, called also Baastaards, are a pastoral
+population, upwards of 15,000 in number, on the north side of the great
+bend of the Orange River. They are the descendants of Dutch fathers and
+Hottentot mothers.
+
+A mixture of Griquas and Hottentots occurs also on the Kat River, a
+feeder of the Great Fish River, in the district of Somerset, and on the
+Kaffre frontier. Here they are distributed in a series of district
+locations, amid the dales and fastnesses of the eastern frontier. A
+great proportion of them are discharged soldiers--so that in reality,
+like the borderers of old, they form a sort of military colony.
+
+2. _The Kaffres._--The British districts in contact with the Kaffre
+populations are the eastern, and of these Albany and Somerset most
+especially. The Kaffre nation in most immediate contact with Albany and
+Somerset is--
+
+_The Amakosa._--This is the population which constituted the authority
+of Hintza, and to which Pato, Gaika, and the other chiefs of the last
+war belonged. To this, too, belong the troublesome chiefs of the
+present. Next to the Amakosa, and in alliance with them, come--
+
+_The Amatembu_, or _Tambuki_ (_Tambookies_), occupants of the upper part
+of the river Kei, as the Amakosa are of the lower Keiskamma.
+
+Between the Amatembu and Port Natal lie _the Amaponda_, or _Mambuki_
+(_Mambookies_), the northern extremity of which reaches the country of--
+
+_The Amazulu_, or _Zulu_ (_Zooloos_), the chief frontagers (conjointly
+with the _Mambuki_) of Port Natal.
+
+The last division of the Kaffres of the coast is that of--
+
+_The Fingos._--In 1835, a numerous population, called Fingos, was found
+by Sir B. D'Urban in the Kaffre chief Hintza's country, and in a state
+of abject servitude to the Amakosas. They were from different tribes;
+darker and shorter than the Amakosas--but still true Kaffres. They were
+offered land between the lower Keiskamma and the Great Fish River, and
+were emancipated and brought safe into the colony to the amount of
+17,000.[21] Since then, they have served as a sort of military police on
+the Kaffre frontier; and as shepherds in Australia--whither they have
+been advantageously introduced.
+
+But, besides the Kaffres of the coast there are those of the interior.
+These speak a modified form of the Kosa (or Amakosa), called
+Si-_chuana_, the name of the people being Bi-_chuana_. They lie due
+north of the Koranas; beyond the boundaries of the colony; but not
+beyond the influence of its missionaries, or the range of its explorers.
+Litaku, Kurrichani, and other similar _towns_ are _Sichuana_; the Kaffre
+civilization being said to attain its _maximum_ hereabouts.
+
+There are plenty of points of contrast between the Kaffre and the
+typical Negro; so many indeed as to have suggested the doctrine that the
+former class belongs to some division of the human species other than
+the African. And these points of contrast are widely distributed,
+_i.e._, they appear and re-appear, whatever may be the view taken of the
+Kaffre stock. They appear in the descriptions of their skin and
+skeletons; they appear in the notice of their language; and they appear
+in the history of the Kaffre wars of the Cape frontier--wars more
+obstinate and troublesome than any which have been conducted by the true
+Negro; and which approach the character of the Kabyle struggle for
+independence in Algeria. In investigating these differences we must
+guard against the exaggeration of their import.
+
+Physically, the Kaffre has the advantage of the Negro in the
+conformation of the face and skull. His forehead betokens greater
+capacity; being more prominent, more vaulted, and with a greater facial
+angle. His teeth, too, are more vertically inserted, and the nasal bones
+less depressed. I have not heard of aquiline noses in Kaffraria; but
+should not be surprised if I did.
+
+The cheek-bones of the Kaffre project outwards; and where the
+cheek-bones so project beyond a certain limit, the chin appears to taper
+downwards, and the vertex upwards. When this becomes exaggerated we hear
+of _lozenge-shaped_ crania; the Malay skulls being currently quoted as
+instances thereof. Be this as it may, the breadth in the malar portion
+of the face is a remarkable feature in the Kaffre physiognomy. This he
+has in common with the Hottentot. His hair is also tufted like the
+Hottentot's: while his lips are thick like the Negro's. Tall in stature,
+wiry and elastic in his muscles, the Kaffre varies in colour, through
+all the shades of black and brown; being, in some portions of his area
+nearly as dark as the Negro, in others simply brown like the Arab. The
+eye is sometimes oblique; the opening generally narrow.
+
+An opinion often gives a better picture than a description. Kaffres,
+that have receded in the greatest degree from the Negro type, have been
+so likened to the more southern Arabs as to have engendered the
+hypothesis of an infusion of Arab blood.
+
+The manners of the Kaffres of the Cape are those of pastoral tribes
+under chieftains; tribes which, from their habits and social relations,
+are naturally active, locomotive, warlike, and jealous of encroachment.
+Next to marauding on the hunting-grounds of an American Indian,
+interference with the pasture of a shepherd population is the surest way
+to warfare.
+
+It would be strange indeed if the Kaffre life and Kaffre physiognomy had
+no peculiarities. However little in the way of physical influence we may
+attribute to the geography of a country, no man ignores them altogether.
+Now Kaffreland has very nearly a latitude of its own; inhabited lands
+similarly related to the southern tropic being found in South America
+and Australia only. And it has a soil still more exclusively
+South-African. We connect the idea of the _desert_ with that of sand;
+whilst _steppe_ is a term which is limited to the vast tracts of central
+Asia. Now the Kaffre, and still more the Hottentot, area, dry like the
+desert, and elevated like the steppe, is partially a _karro_. Its soil
+is often a hard, cracked, and parched clay rather than a waste of sand,
+and it constitutes an argillaceous table-land. Its vegetation has
+strongly marked characters. Its Fauna has the same.
+
+The language is peculiar. If English were spoken on Kosa or Sichuana
+principles we should say
+
+ _b_un beam   instead of _s_un beam.
+ _l_oon light    ...     _m_oon light.
+ _s_rand-son     ...     _g_rand-son, &c.,
+
+since, in the Kaffre languages throughout, subordinate words in certain
+syntactic combinations, accommodate their initial letter to that of the
+leading word of the term.
+
+Their polity and manners, too, are peculiar. The head man of the village
+settles disputes; his tribunal being in the open air. From him an appeal
+lies to a chief of higher power; and from him to some superior, higher
+still. In this way there is a long chain of feudal or semi-feudal
+dependency.
+
+But the power of the chief is checked by that of the priest. A supposed
+skill in medicine, imaginary arts of divination, and an accredited power
+over the elements are the prerogatives of certain witches and wizards.
+Thus, when a murrain among the cattle, or the death of an important
+individual has taken place, the blame is laid upon some unfortunate
+victim whom the witch or wizard points out. And the ordeal to which he
+must submit, is equal in cruelty to those of the Gold Coast. He is
+beaten with sticks, and then pegged down to the ground. Whilst thus
+helpless, a nest of venomous bush-ants is broken over his racked and
+quivering body. If this fail to extort a confession, he is singed to
+death with red-hot stones.
+
+This tells us what is meant by Kaffre chiefs and Kaffre wizards.
+
+The wife is the slave to the husband; and he _buys_ her in order that
+she should be so. The purchase implies a seller. This is always a member
+of another tribe. Hence the wish of a Kaffre is to see his wife the
+mother of many children, girls being more valuable than boys.
+
+Why a man should not sell his offspring to the members of his own tribe
+is uncertain. It is clear, however, that the practice of doing so makes
+marriage between even distant relations next to impossible. To guard
+against the chances of this, a rigid and suspicious system of restraint
+has been developed in cases of consanguinity; and relations must do all
+they can to avoid meeting. To sit in the same room, to meet on the same
+road, is undesirable. To converse is but just allowable, and then all
+who choose must hear what is said. So thorough, however, has been the
+isolation in many cases, that persons of different sexes have lived as
+near neighbours for many years without having conversed with each other;
+and such communication as there has been, has taken place through the
+medium of a third person. No gift will induce a Kaffre female to violate
+this law.
+
+Is the immolation of human beings at the death of chieftains a Kaffre
+custom, as it was one of western Africa? The following extract gives an
+answer in the affirmative, the only difference being the _pretext_ of
+the murders. On the "death of the mother of Chaka, the great Zulu chief,
+a public mourning was held, which lasted for the space of two days, the
+people being assembled at the kraal of the chief to the number of sixty
+or eighty thousand souls. Mr. Fynn, who was present, describes the scene
+as the most terrific which it is possible for the human mind to
+conceive. The immense multitude were all engaged in rending the air with
+the most doleful shrieks, and discordant cries and lamentations; whilst,
+in the event of their ceasing to utter them, they were instantly
+butchered as guilty of a crime against the reigning tyrant. It is said
+that no less than six or seven thousand persons were destroyed on this
+occasion, charged with no other offence than exhausted nature in the
+performance of this horrid rite, their brains being mercilessly dashed
+out amidst the surrounding throng. As a suitable _finale_ to this
+dreadful tragedy, it is said that ten females were actually buried alive
+with the royal corpse; whilst all who witnessed the funeral were
+obliged to remain on the spot for a whole year."
+
+Details of Kaffre manners may be multiplied almost _ad infinitum_; and
+as their history and habits are likely to fill a Blue Book, a short
+treatise can only notice their more prominent peculiarities.
+
+However, lest an undue inference be drawn from their contrast to the
+Hottentot, we must remember that the former has encroached upon the
+latter, and that such transitional populations as existed have been
+swept away.
+
+Now comes a coloured population--not indigenous, but the descendants of
+the _slaves_ of the colony. This consists of--
+
+1. Negroes.
+
+2. Malays from the Indian Archipelago.
+
+3. Malagasi from Madagascar.
+
+To which we must add, as of mixed blood, the offspring of--
+
+1. Negroes and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+2. Malays and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+3. Malagasi and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+This seems to be the limit of the intermixture; since, between the
+Malays and Negroes, &c., there is but little intermarriage. The
+_possible_ elements, however, of hybridity are numerous, _e.g._, Griquas
+and Negroes, Griquas and Malays, Malays and Kaffres, &c.
+
+_The so-called yellow men._--On the 4th of August, 1782, the
+"Grosvenor" Indiaman was wrecked on the coast of Natal. Of the crew who
+escaped, some reached the Cape and others remained amongst the natives.
+In 1790, an expedition was undertaken in search of them.
+
+In this expedition, Mr. Van Reenens, considered that he had discovered a
+village where the people were descended from the whites, and in which
+there were three old women who had been wrecked when very young. They
+could not tell to what country they belonged; were treated as superior
+beings; and, when offered a safe convoy to the Cape, were at first
+pleased with the prospect, but eventually refused to leave their
+children and grandchildren. Now, whatever these old women were, they
+were not of the crew of the "Grosvenor," and I doubt whether they were
+Europeans at all.
+
+Again--Mr. Thomson, when at Litaku, heard of yellow _cannibals_, with
+long hair, whose invasions were the dread of the country; a statement
+which merely means that some tribes of South Africa, are lighter
+coloured, and more savage in their appetite than others.
+
+Lastly, Lieutenant Farewell saw one of these yellow men at Natal, who
+was described as a cannibal, and _who shrunk abashed from the
+lieutenant_.
+
+Be it so. The evidence that "there are descendants of Europeans and
+Africans now widely diffusing their offspring throughout the country;
+whose services might be turned to good account in civilizing the native
+tribes," is still incomplete.
+
+_Mauritius._--The coloured population, which is far greater than that of
+the white, consists in the Mauritius of--
+
+1. True Africans--chiefly from the east coast, and, consequently, of the
+Kaffre stock; the word being used in its most general sense. Darker than
+the Kaffres of the Cape, they, nevertheless, recede from the Negro type
+in the shape of the jaw, lips, and forehead. The hair also is less
+woolly. They are strong and powerful individuals.
+
+2. Malagasi, or natives of Madagascar.--These are _not_ Africans to the
+same extent as the Kaffres of the coast. As far back as the time of
+Reland it was known that the affinities of the Malagasi language were
+with the Malay and Polynesian tongues of Asia; but it was also known
+that the similarity in physiognomy was less than that of language. Hence
+came a conflict of difficulties. The speech indicated one origin, the
+colour another--whilst the fact of an island so near to Africa, and so
+far from Malacca, as Madagascar, being other than what its geographical
+position indicated, is, and has been, a mystery. Some writers have
+assumed an intermixture of blood; others have limited the Malay element
+to the dominant population. Lastly, Mr. Crawfurd has denied the
+inferences from the similarity of language _in toto_; considering that
+there is "nothing in common between the two races, and nothing in common
+between the character of their languages." The comparative philologist
+is slow to admit this--indeed, he denies it.
+
+The blacks form the great majority of the coloured population. Besides
+these, however, there are--
+
+3. Arabs.
+
+4. Chinese.
+
+5. Hind�s, from the continent of India; convicts being transported to
+the Mauritius for life, and worked on the roads of the colony.
+
+6. Cingalese from Ceylon--the Kandian chiefs whose presence in their
+native country was thought likely to endanger the tranquillity of the
+island, were sent hither.
+
+The whites of the Mauritius are chiefly French; though not wholly of
+pure blood. The first settlers took their wives from Madagascar. The
+English form the smallest part of the population.
+
+_Rodrigues_--occupied by a few French colonists from the Mauritius.
+
+_The Seychelles_--The same; the coloured population outnumbering the
+white in the proportion of ten to one. Here there is a Portuguese
+admixture. From Maha, the chief town of the Seychelles, to Madagascar,
+is five hundred and seventy-six miles--a fact to be borne in mind when
+we speculate upon the origin of the population of that island.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Africans of British America.--Honduras, Belize, the West India
+Islands, and Demerara._--The usual distribution of the population of
+these parts is--
+
+WHITE.
+
+    1. European whites, born in Europe.
+    2. Creoles, or whites born in the island.
+
+COLOURED.
+
+  _a. Pure Blood._
+
+    1. Mandingos, from the river-systems of the Senegal and Gambia.
+    2. Coromantines--from the Ivory and Gold Coast.
+    3. Whydahs--from Dahomey.
+    4. Ibos--from the Lower Niger.
+    5. Congos--from Portuguese Africa.
+
+  _b. Mixed Blood._
+
+    1. Sambos, intermixture of the Negro and Mulatto.
+    2. Mulattoes--Negro and white.
+    3. Quadroons--Mulatto and white.
+    4. Mestis--Quadroon and white.
+
+Such is what I find in Mr. Martin's valuable work on the Colonies, and
+it is, undoubtedly, a convenient and practical classification. Yet for
+the purposes of ethnology, it is deficient in detail. Without even
+guessing at the proportion of American slaves which the different parts
+of the western coast of Africa may have supplied, I subjoin a brief
+notice of tract between the Senegal and Benguela.
+
+1. First come the _Wolof_, between the Senegal and Cape Verde. To the
+back of these lie--
+
+2. The _Serawolli_--and around Cape Verde--
+
+3. The _Sereres_--none of these are truly Mandingo; nor is it certain
+that many slaves have come from them; such as do, however, are probably
+Mandingos in the current classification.
+
+4. The Fulahs of Fouta-Torro and Fouta-Jallo possess the higher part of
+the Senegambian system. Imperfect Mahometans, they are lighter-coloured
+than either the Wolof or the Mandingo. Notwithstanding the great Fulah
+conquests--for under a leader named Danfodio this has been one of the
+encroaching and subjugating families of Africa--there are still American
+slaves of Fulah blood--though, perhaps, but few. Mr. Hodgson procured
+his vocabulary from a Fulah slave of Virginia; and what we find in the
+United States, we may find in the British possessions also.
+
+5. The Mandingos Proper are the Negroes of the Gambia; but the following
+Africans, all within the range of the old slave trade, belong to the
+same class.
+
+_a._ The Susu; whose language is spoken from the River Pongos to Sierra
+Leone.
+
+_b._ The Timmani.
+
+_c._ The Bullom--each in contact with that settlement.
+
+_d._ The Vey--the written language already noticed.
+
+_e._ The Mendi--conterminous with the Vey.
+
+_f._ The Kissi--like the last two, spoken in the country behind Cape
+Mount, and on the boundaries of Liberia.
+
+South of the Gambia and north of the Pongos, the Mandingo tongues,
+though spoken in the interior, do not reach the coast. On the contrary,
+they encircle the populations on the mouths of the Cacheo, Rio Grande,
+and Nun--and truly barbarous populations these are. Of these the most
+northern are--
+
+6. _The Fel�p_ (Feloops)--between the Gambia and Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Papel_--south of the Cacheo.
+
+8. _The Balantes_--south of the Papel.
+
+9. _The Bagnon_--on the Lower Cacheo.
+
+10. _The Bissago_--islanders off the Cacheo.
+
+11. _Nal�_ (_Naloos_)--on the Lower Nun.
+
+12. _Sapi_--_ibid_.
+
+After these come the Susu, &c.; down to the tribes about Cape Mount and
+Cape Mesurado.
+
+Between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas come--
+
+13. _The Krumen._ Next to them--
+
+14. _The Quaquas_, of the Ivory Coast; speaking different Avekvom
+dialects.
+
+Somewhere hereabouts come the--
+
+15, 16, 17. Kanga, Mangree, and Gien; three undetermined vocabularies of
+the "Mithridates." Then--
+
+18, 19, 20. The Fanti, Gha, and Adampi (?) of the Gold Coast. We now
+approach the great marts--
+
+21, 22. Benin and Dahomey; and--almost equal in infamous notoriety--the
+countries of the Delta, of the Niger, or of the--
+
+23, 24, 25. Ibu, Bonny, and Efik (Old Calabar) Africans; at the back of
+which lie--
+
+26, 27. Yarriba, and the Nufi country. In Fernando Po the population
+is--
+
+28. Ediya. About the Bimbia river and mountain--
+
+29. Isubu.
+
+30, 31, 32. The _Banaka_ (or _Batanga_), the _Panwi_, and the _Mpoongwe_
+take us from the Gaboon to Loango; forming a transition from the true
+Negroes to the Kaffres.
+
+33, 34, 35, 36. _Loango_, _Congo_, _Angola_, and _Benguela_--the Kaffre
+type, both in form and language, is now more closely approached. Below
+Benguela there has been little or no exportation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] "Journal of the Geographical Society," 1850.
+
+[13] "United Service Magazine," Dec., 1850.
+
+[14] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[15] Daniell in "Transactions of the Ethnological Society."
+
+[16] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[17] Dr. Daniell on the Natives of Old Calabar, "Transactions of the
+Ethnological Society."
+
+[18] Rask.--_Vejledning tel Acra-sproget, paa Kysten Ginea, med et
+Tillaeg om Akvambuisk._--Copenhagen, 1828. _Introduction to the Acra
+Language, on the Coast of Guinea, with an Appendix on the Akvambu._
+
+[19] "Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. i. no. 4.
+
+[20] "British Colonies." By M. Martin.
+
+[21] "Journal of the Geographical Society," vol. v. p. 319.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+    ADEN.--THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.--THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES.--HONG
+    KONG.--THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES; MAULMEIN, YE, TAVOY, TENASSERIM,
+    THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO.--THE M�N, SIAMESE, AVANS, KARIENS, AND
+    SILONG.--ARAKHAN.--MUGS, KHYENS.--CHITTAGONG, TIPPERA, AND
+    SYLHET.--KUKI.--KASIA.--CACHARS.--ASSAM.--NAGAS.--SINGPHO.--JILI.--
+    KHAMTI.--MISHIMI.--ABORS AND BOR-ABORS.--DUFLA.--AKA.--MUTTUCKS AND
+    MIRI, AND OTHER TRIBES OF THE VALLEY OF ASSAM.--THE GARO.--
+    CLASSIFICATION.--MR. BROWN'S TABLES.--THE BODO.--DHIMAL.--KOCCH.--
+    LEPCHAS OF SIKKIM.--RAWAT OF KUMAON.--POLYANDRIA.--THE TAMULIAN
+    POPULATIONS.--RAJMAHALI MOUNTAINEERS.--K�LIS, KHONDS, GOANDS,
+    CHENCHWARS.--TUDAS, ETC.--BHILS.--WARALIS.--THE TAMUL, TELINGA,
+    KANARA AND MALAYALAM LANGUAGES.
+
+
+_Aden._--The ethnology of the Arab stock would fill a volume. It is
+sufficient to state that the British political dependency of Aden is,
+ethnologically, an Arab town.
+
+Far more important possessions direct our attention towards India.
+Nevertheless, there are certain preliminaries to its ethnology.
+
+Mongolia and China--each of these countries illustrates an important
+ethnological phenomenon.
+
+The first is a physical one. Cheek-bones that project outwards, a broad
+and flat face, a depressed nose, an oblique eye, a somewhat slanting
+insertion of the teeth, a scanty beard, an undersized frame, and a tawny
+or yellow skin, characterize the Mongol of Mongolia.
+
+The second is a philological one. A comparative absence of grammatical
+inflexions, and a disproportionate preponderance of monosyllabic words,
+characterize the language of China.
+
+So much for the simple elementary facts; the former of which will be
+spoken of under the designation of _Mongolian conformation_; the second
+under that of _monosyllabic language_.
+
+Neither term is limited to the nation by which it has been illustrated.
+Plenty of populations besides those of Mongolia Proper are Mongol in
+physiognomy. Plenty of nations besides the Chinese are monosyllabic in
+language.
+
+All the nations speaking monosyllabic tongues are Mongol in physiognomy;
+though all the nations which have a Mongol physiognomy do _not_ speak
+monosyllabic tongues. This makes the latter group, which for shortness
+will be called that of the _monosyllabic_ nations or tribes--a section,
+or division, of the former.
+
+Little Tibet, Ladakh, Tibet Proper, Butan, and China, are all Mongol in
+form, and monosyllabic in language. So are Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambojia,
+and Cochin China, the countries which constitute the great peninsula,
+sometimes called _Indo-Chinese_, and sometimes _Transgangetic_.
+
+The extremity however--the Malayan peninsula--is _not_ monosyllabic.
+
+_The British possessions of Hindostan are monosyllabic on their Tibetan
+and Burmese frontiers._
+
+_Hong-Kong._--Aden was disposed of briefly. So is Hong-Kong; and that
+for the same reason. Politically, British, it is ethnologically Chinese.
+
+_Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and the Mergui Archipelago._--These
+constitute what are sometimes called the _ceded_, sometimes the
+_Tenasserim_ provinces. They came into possession of the British at the
+close of the Burmese war of 1825. Unlike our dependencies in Hindostan,
+they are cut off from connection with any of the great centres of
+British power in Asia--in which respect they agree with the smaller and
+still more isolated settlements of the Malaccan Peninsula. The power
+that ceded them was the Burmese, so that it is with the existing
+subjects of that empire that their present limits are in contact; though
+only for the northern part. To the south they abut upon Siam.
+
+The population throughout is monosyllabic; except so far as it is
+modified by foreign intermixture--of which by far the most important
+element is the Indian. Everything in the way of religious creed which is
+not native and pagan is Indian and Buddhist. The alphabets, too, of the
+lettered populations are Indian in origin.
+
+The population of the _continental_ part of these British dependencies
+is referable to four divisions--of unequal and imperfectly ascertained
+value. 1. The M�n. 2. The Siamese. 3. The Avans. 4. The Kariens.
+
+1. _The M�n._--M�n is the native name of the indigenous population of
+Pegu, so that the M�n of Maulmein, or Amherst, the most northern of the
+provinces in question, on the left bank of the lower Salw�n, are part
+and parcel of the present occupants of the delta of the Irawaddi, and
+the country about Cape Negrais. The Burmese call them _Talieng_, and
+under that designation they are described in Dr. Helfer's Report.[22]
+The Siamese appellation is _Ming-m�n_; apparently the native name in a
+state of composition. In the early Portuguese notices a still more
+composite form appears--and we hear of the ancient empire of
+_Kalamenham_, supposed to have been founded by the _Pandal�s_ of M�n or
+Pegu.
+
+None of the _lettered_ languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula are less
+known than that of Pegu. At the same time its unequivocally
+monosyllabic character is beyond doubt. The alphabet is a slight
+variation of the Avan.
+
+The geographical position of the M�n at the extremity of a promontory,
+and on the delta of a river, taken along with their philological
+isolation, is remarkable. They have evidently been encroached upon by
+the Avans in latter times; whilst, at an earlier period, they themselves
+probably encroached upon others. Whether they are the oldest occupants
+of Maulmein is uncertain; it is only certain that they are older than
+their conquerors.
+
+To the M�n of Pegu the exchange of Avan for British rule, has been a
+great and an appreciated advantage.
+
+2. _The Siamese._--The native name for the Siamese language is _Tha'y_,
+and _Tha'y_ is the national and indigenous denomination of the Siamese.
+It is the Avans who call them _Sian_ or _Shan_; from whence the European
+term has been derived through the Portuguese.
+
+The Siamese population is of course greatest on the Siamese frontier; so
+that, increasing as we go south, it attains its _maximum_ in Tenasserim
+just as the M�n did in Maulmein. It seems, also, to have been introduced
+at different times; a fact which gives us a distinction between the
+native Siamese and the recent settlers.
+
+Like the _M�n_, the Tha'y, at least in its more classical dialect, is a
+lettered language; the alphabet, like the Buddhist religion, being
+Indian. Unlike, however, the _M�n_, which is the only representative of
+the family to which it belongs, the _Tha'y_ tribes constitute a vast
+class, falling into divisions and subdivisions, and exceedingly
+remarkable in respect to its geographical distribution.
+
+The Siamese of Siam, the kingdom of which Bankok is the capital, form
+but a fraction of this great stock. The _upper_ half of the river Menam
+is occupied by what are called the _La�_, or _Laos_. These are partly
+wholly independent, and partly in nominal dependence upon China; and
+proportionate to their independence is the unlettered character of their
+language, and the absence of Indian influences. Nor is this all. The
+Menam is pre-eminently the river of the Tha'y stock, and along the
+water-system of the Menam its chief branches are to be found; their
+position being between the Burmese populations of the west, and the
+Khomen of Cambojia on the east. This distribution is _vertical_, _i.e._,
+it is characterized by its length, rather than its breadth, and runs
+from south to north. So far does it reach in this direction that, as
+high as 28� North lat., in upper Assam we find a branch of it. This is
+the _Khamti_. In a valuable comparison of languages, well-known as
+"Brown's Tables,"[23] the proportion of the Khamti words to the South
+Siamese is ninety-two _per cent._
+
+Of the physical appearance of the Siamese, we find the best account in
+"Crawfurd's Embassy," the classical work for the ethnology of the
+southern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their stature is low; the
+tallest man out of twenty having been five feet eight inches, the
+shortest five feet three. The complexion, darker than that of the
+Chinese, is lighter than that of the Malay; the eye oblique; the jaw
+square; and the cheek-bones broad.
+
+_Tha'y_ is an ethnological term, and denotes all the nations and tribes
+akin to the Siamese of the southern, the Khamti of the northern, or the
+La� of the intermediate area. The difference between the first and the
+last of these three should be noticed. Some members of the family are
+Indianized in religion, and organized in politics. Such are the Siamese
+of Bankok. Others retain both their independence and their original
+Paganism. Such are some of the La�. _Mutatis mutandis_, the same applies
+to the next family.
+
+This is the _Burmese_, to which both the Avans and the Kariens belong;
+but as it has been already stated that the divisions under
+consideration are by no means of equal value, the two branches will be
+considered separately.
+
+3. _The Avans._--_Avan_ is a more convenient term than _Burmese_,
+inasmuch as it is more definite; the _Burmese Empire_ containing not
+only very distant members of the great _Burmese_ family, but also
+populations which belong to other groups. _Ava_, on the other hand, is
+the centre of the dominant division.
+
+Whether the _M�n_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent the
+aborigines of _Maulmein_, it is certain that the Avans of that country
+are of comparatively recent introduction.
+
+Again, whether the _Tha'y_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent
+the aborigines of _Tenasserim_, it is certain that the Avans of that
+country are of comparatively recent origin.
+
+Nevertheless, there are Avans in each; and in Maulmein, although the M�n
+preponderate in number, they all are able to speak the language of their
+conquerors. I say _conquerors_, because the Avans are for all the parts
+south of 18� North lat., an intrusive population: the end of the
+eighteenth century being the date, when, under Alompra, an Avan or
+Umerap�ra dynasty broke up and subjected, in different degrees, the M�n
+and Tha'y populations to the south, as well as several others more akin
+to itself on the east, west, and north.
+
+The kingdom of Ava, next to those of China and Siam, best represents the
+civilization of those families whose tongue is monosyllabic. This
+implies that it has an organized polity, a lettered language, and a
+Buddhist creed; in other words that the influences of either China or
+India have acted on it. Of these two nations it is the latter which has
+most modified the Indianized members of the great Burmese stock. In
+strong contrast with these is the fourth and last branch of the
+_continental_ population for the provinces in question, the
+
+4. _Karien._--The Kariens are partially independent; chiefly pagan; and
+their language, belonging to the same class with the Avan, is
+unlettered. They are the first of a long list.
+
+Their geographical distribution is remarkable, like that of the Tha'y.
+Its direction is north and south; its dimensions linear, rather than
+broad; and it bears nearly the same relation to the water-system of the
+Salw�n that that of the Siamese does to the river Menam. There are
+Kariens as far south as 11� North lat. and there are Kariens as far
+north as 25� North lat. Hence we have them in Maulmein, and in
+Tenasserim, and in the intermediate provinces of Ye and Tavoy as well.
+All these, like the M�n, have been eased by the transfer from Avan
+oppression to British rule; though this says but little. Hence, with one
+exception, the other members of their family are decreasing; the
+exception being the so-called _Red_ Karien.
+
+This epithet indicates a change in physiognomy; and, indeed, the
+physical conformation of the Burmese tribes requires attention. It is
+Mongolian in the way that the Siamese is Mongolian; but changes have set
+in. The beard increases; the hair becomes crisper; and the complexion
+darkens. The Kyo,[24] the isolated occupants of a single village on the
+river Koladyng, are so much darker than their neighbours as to have been
+considered half Bengali; and, as a general rule, the nearer we approach
+India, the deeper becomes the complexion. The M�n, too, of Pegu, are
+very dark. What is this the effect of? Certainly not of latitude, since
+we are moving northward. Of intermarriage? There is no proof of this.
+The greater amount of low alluvial soils, like those of the Ganges and
+Irawaddi, is, in my mind, the truer reason. But this is too general a
+question to be allowed to delay us. The Red Kariens are instances of an
+Asiatic tribe with an American colour; just as the Red Fulahs were in
+Africa. Such are the occupants of the _continent_.
+
+5. _The Silong._--In the _islands_ of the Mergui Archipelago, there is
+another variety; but whether it form a class itself, or belong to any
+of the previous ones, is uncertain. Their language is said to be
+peculiar;[25] but of this we have no specimen. As it is probably that of
+the oldest inhabitants of the continent opposite, this is to be
+regretted.
+
+They are called _Silong_, are a sort of sea-gipsy; and amount to about
+one thousand. Of all the creeds of either India or the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula theirs is the most primitive; so primitive as to be
+characterized by little except its negative characters. They believe
+that the land, air, trees, and waters are inhabited by _Nat_, or
+spirits, who direct the phenomena of Nature. How far they affect that of
+man, except indirectly, is unascertained. "We do not think about that,"
+was the invariable answer, when any one was questioned about a future
+state. Too vague for monotheism, the Silong creed is also said to be too
+vague for idolatry, too vague for sacrifices.
+
+The Kariens, also, believe in _Nat_, but, as _they_ believe in their
+influence on human affairs, they sacrifice to them accordingly.
+
+Little, then, as we know, respecting these two families, we know that
+the common practice of _Nat_ worship connects them; and this worship
+connects many other members of the _Burmese_ stock. Consequently it
+helps us to place the Silong in that group. It also favours the notion
+of the Tenasserim aborigines being Burmese.
+
+It is the delta of the Irawaddi which isolates the _Tenasserim
+provinces_; and the British dependency from which it separates them is--
+
+_Arakhan._--We are prepared for the ethnological position of the Arakhan
+populations. They are _Burmese_.
+
+We are likewise prepared for a division of them; there will be the
+Indianized and the Pagan--paganism and political independence going, to
+a certain degree, together.
+
+We are prepared for even minuter detail; the paganism will be
+Nat-worship; the Indian creed Buddhism: the alphabet also, where the
+language is written, will be Indian also. In Captain Tower's
+vocabulary,[26] only seven words out of fifty differ between the Burmese
+of Arakhan, and the Burmese of Ava; and some of these are mere
+differences of pronunciation.
+
+The language itself is called _Rukheng_ by those who use it; but the
+Bengali name is _Mug_.
+
+This applies to the Indianized part of the population, the analogues of
+the Avans and Siamese of Tenasserim, and of the M�n of Maulmein. What
+are the Arakhan equivalents to the Karien?
+
+_The Khyen._--These inhabit the Yuma mountains between Arakhan and Ava.
+A full notice of them is given by Lieutenant Trant, in the sixteenth
+volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But as they are chiefly independent
+tribes, it is enough to state that they form the Anglo-Burmese frontier.
+It is also added that there are numerous Khyen slaves in Arakhan.
+
+Farther notice of them is the less important, because a closely allied
+population will occur amongst the hill-tribes of--
+
+_Chittagong._--Hind� elements now increase. Even in Arakhan, Buddhism
+had ceased to be the only creed of western origin. There were Mahometans
+who spoke a mixed dialect called the _Ruinga_;[27] and Brahminical
+Hind�s who spoke another called the _Rosawn_. In Chittagong, then, we
+must look about us for the aborigines; so intrusive have become the
+Hind� elements. Intrusive, however, they are, and intrusive they will be
+for some time to come.
+
+The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are important points of
+difference in Indian ethnology. On the _lower_ ranges of the mountains
+on the north-east of Chittagong are the _Khumia_ (_Choomeeas_) or
+_villagers_; _khum_ (_choom_) meaning _village_. These are definitely
+distinguished from the Hind�s, by a flat nose, small eye, and broad
+round face, in other words by Mongolian characteristics in the way of
+physiognomy. But the _Khumia_ are less perfect samples of their class
+than the true mountaineers. These are the _Kuki_,[28]--hunters and
+warriors, divided into tribes, each under elective chiefs, themselves
+subordinate to a hereditary _Raja_,--at least such is the Hind�
+phraseology.
+
+Their creed consists in the belief of _Khogein Pootteeang_ as a
+superior, and _Sheem Sauk_ as an inferior deity; the destruction of
+numerous enemies being the best recommendation to their favour. A wooden
+figure, of human shape, represents the latter. The skulls of their
+enemies they keep as trophies. In the month of January there is a solemn
+festival.
+
+Language and tradition alike tell us that the Kuki (and most likely the
+Khumia as well) are unmodified Mugs. The displacement of their family
+has been twofold--first by Hind�s, secondly by Buddhist (or modified)
+Mugs at the time of the Burmese conquest. The Kuki population extends to
+the wilder parts of the district of _Tippera_.
+
+_Sylhet._--On the southern frontier we have Kukis; on the eastern
+Cachari; on the northern Coosyas (_Kasia_). Due west of these last lie
+the Garo. I imagine that both these last-named populations are members
+of the same group--but cannot speak confidently. If so, we have
+departed considerably from the more typical Burmese of Arakhan and Ava.
+Still we are within the same great class. The Garo will command a
+somewhat full notice.
+
+The Cachars depart still more from the more typical Burmese; the group
+to which they most closely belong being one which will also be enlarged
+on.
+
+North of the Kasia we reach the western portion of the southern frontier
+of--
+
+_Assam._--Here it will be convenient to take the whole of the
+valley--Upper as well as Middle and Lower Assam--although parts of the
+former are independent rather than British--and to go round it;
+beginning with the Kasia country and the Jaintia mountains on the
+south-west. I imagine--but am not certain--that the Kasia and Jaintia
+mountaineers are very closely allied.
+
+Next to the Cachars on the southern, or Manipur, frontier are--
+
+_The Nagas._--These are in the same class with the Kuki; _i.e._, the
+wild tribes of Manipur, speaking a not very altered dialect of the
+Burmese.
+
+_The Singpho._--This people is said to have come from a locality between
+their present position and the north-eastern corner of Assam and the
+Chinese frontier. An imperfect Buddhism, and an unappreciated alphabet
+of Siamese origin, are the chief phenomena of their civilization.
+
+_The Jili._--These are conterminous with the Singpho; to whom they are
+closely allied, in language, at least; seventy words out of one hundred
+agreeing in the two vocabularies.
+
+The _Khamti_ come in now. These have been mentioned as Tha'y in their
+most northern localities. They occupy north-eastern Assam, and are
+conterminous with the Singpho. The Khamti language, with its per-centage
+of ninety-two words common to it and the Siamese of Bankok, ten degrees
+southwards, has only three out of one hundred that agree with the
+Singpho, and ten in one hundred with the Jili. This shows the remarkable
+character of their ethnological distribution, and, at the same time,
+suggests the idea of great displacement.
+
+_The Mishimi._--These occupy the north-east extremity of Assam. With the
+Mishimi we turn the corner, and find ourself on the northern or Tibetan
+frontier. Here it is the most western tribes which come first; and these
+are--
+
+_The Abors and Padam Bor-Abors._--The first, like the Kuki, on the
+mountain-tops; the latter, like the Khumia, on the lower ranges.
+
+_The Dufla._--Mountaineers west of the Abors, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 94� East lon.
+
+_The Aka._--Mountaineers west of the Dufla, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 92� East lon. The Akas bound Lower Assam, the
+eastern part of which lies between them and the Cachari country.
+
+The tribes hitherto mentioned, although sufficiently numerous, represent
+the mountaineers of the Manipur and Tibetan _frontiers_ only. The native
+tribes of the valley still stand over. These are--
+
+1. The _Muttuck_ or _Moa Mareya_, _south_ of the Brahmaputra, and so far
+Indianized as to be Brahminical in religion. Their locality is the south
+bank of the Brahmaputra; opposite to that of--
+
+2. _The Miri_, on the _north_.--The Miri are backed on the north by the
+Bor-Abors.
+
+3. _The Mikir._--Mr. Robertson looks upon these as an intrusive people
+from the Jaintia hills: their present locality being the district of
+Nowgong, where they are mixed up with--
+
+4. _The Lalong._--I cannot say whether the Lalong speak their originally
+monosyllabic tongue, or have learnt the Bengali--a phenomenon which does
+much to disguise the true ethnology of more than one of the forthcoming
+tribes; one of which is certainly--
+
+5. _The Dhekra_, occupants of Lower Assam and Kamrup, where they are
+mixed up with other sections of the population.
+
+6. _The Rabh�._--Like the Dhekra, these are Hind�s. Like the Dhekra
+they speak Bengali. Hence, like the Dhekra, their true affinities are
+disguised. It is, however, pretty generally admitted by the best
+authorities that what may be predicated of the Garo and Bodo--two
+families of which a fuller notice will be given in the sequel--may be
+predicated of the sections in question, as also of--
+
+7. _The Hajong_ or _Hojai_.--Hind�s, speaking a form of the Bengali at
+the foot of the Garo hills; and who join the Rabh�, whose locality is
+between Gwahatti and Sylhet, _i.e._, at the entrance of the Assam
+valley.
+
+The _Garo_ of the Garo hills to the north-east of Bengal now require
+notice. A mountaineer of these parts has much in common with the Coosya;
+yet the languages are, _perhaps_, mutually unintelligible. In form they
+are exceedingly alike.
+
+Now, a Garo[29] is hardy, stout, and surly-looking, with a flattened
+nose, blue or brown eyes, large mouth, thick lips, round face, and brown
+complexion. Their _buniahs_ (_booneeahs_) or chiefs, are distinguished
+by a silken turban. They have a prejudice against milk; but in the
+matter of other sorts of food are omnivorous. Their houses, called
+_chaungs_, are built on piles, from three to four feet from the ground,
+from ten to forty in breadth, and from thirty to one hundred and fifty
+in length. They drink, feast, and dance freely; and, in their
+matrimonial forms, much resemble the Bodo. The youngest daughter
+inherits. The widow marries the brother of the deceased; if he die, the
+next; if all, the father.
+
+The dead are kept for four days; then burnt. Then the ashes are buried
+in a hole on the place where the fire was. A small thatched building is
+next raised over them; which is afterwards railed in. For a month, or
+more, a lamp is lit every night in this building. The clothes of the
+deceased hang on poles--one at each corner of the railing. When the pile
+is set fire to, there is great feasting and drunkenness.
+
+The Garo are no Hind�s. Neither are they unmodified pagans. Mahadeva
+they invoke--perhaps, worship. Nevertheless, their creed is mixed. They
+worship the sun and the moon, or rather the sun _or_ the moon; since
+they ascertain which is to be invoked by taking a cup of water and some
+wheat. The priest then calls on the name of the sun, and drops corn into
+the water. If it sink, the sun is worshipped. If not, a similar
+experiment is tried with the name of the moon. Misfortunes are
+attributed to supernatural agency: and averted by sacrifice.
+
+Sometimes they swear on a stone; sometimes they take a tiger's bone
+between their teeth and then tell their tale.
+
+Lastly, they have an equivalent to the _Lycanthropy_ of the older
+European nations:--
+
+"Among the Garrows a madness exists, which they call transformation into
+a tiger, from the person who is afflicted with this malady walking about
+like that animal, shunning all society. It is said, that, on their being
+first seized with this complaint they tear their hair and the rings from
+their ears, with such force as to break the lobe. It is supposed to be
+occasioned by a medicine applied to the forehead; but I endeavoured to
+procure some of the medicine thus used, without effect. I imagine it
+rather to be created by frequent intoxications, as the malady goes off
+in the course of a week or fortnight. During the time the person is in
+this state, it is with the utmost difficulty he is made to eat or drink.
+I questioned a man, who had thus been afflicted, as to the manner of his
+being seized, and he told me he only felt a giddiness without any pain,
+and that afterwards he did not know what happened to him."[30]
+
+In a paper of Captain C. S. Reynolds, in the "Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal,"[31] we have the notice of a hitherto undescribed
+superstition; that of the _Korah_. A _Korah_ is a dish of bell-metal, of
+uncertain manufacture. A small kind, called Deo Korah, is hung up as a
+household god and worshipped. Should the monthly sacrifice of a fowl be
+neglected, punishment is expected. If "a person perform his devotion to
+the spirit which inhabits the Korah with increasing fervour and
+devotion, he is generally rewarded by seeing the embossed figures
+gradually expand. The Garos believe that when the whole household is
+wrapped in sleep, the Deo Korahs make expeditions in search of food, and
+when they have satisfied their appetites return to their snug retreats
+unobserved."
+
+The Miri are supposed to believe the same of what are called _Deo
+Guntas_, brought from Tibet.
+
+Now what is the classification of all these tribes? Preliminary to the
+answer on this point, there are eleven dialects spoken in the parts
+about Manipur--besides the proper language of Manipur itself--to be
+enumerated. These are as follows:--1. Songpu. 2. Kapwi. 3. Koreng. 4.
+Maram. 5. Champhung. 6. Luhuppa. 7, 8, 9. Northern, Central, and
+Southern Tangkhul. 10. Khoibu; and 11. Maring. Now these twelve (the
+Manipur being included) have been tabulated by Mr. Brown, in such a way
+as to show the per-centage of words that each has with all the others;
+and not only these, but nearly all the tongues which we have had to deal
+with, are similarly put in order for being compared. The part of the
+table necessary for the present use is as follows:--
+
+                                                         |N.|C.|S.|
+                                                   |C |  |  |  |  |
+                                    |M |           |h |  |T |T |T |
+                  |M |B |  |S |     |a |           |a |L |� |� |� |
+                  |i |u |  |i |     |n |S |  |K |  |m |u |n |n |n |K |M
+                  |s |r |K |n |     |i |o |K |o |M |p |h |g |g |g |h |a
+               |� |h |m |a |g |J |G |p |n |a |r |a |h |u |k |k |k |o |r
+            |� |b |i |e |r |p |i |� |u |g |p |e |r |u |p |h |h |h |i |i
+            |k |o |m |s |e |h |l |r |r |p |w |n |� |n |p |u |u |u |b |n
+            |� |r |� |e |n |o |� |o |� |� |� |g |m |g |a |l |l |l |� |g
+ -----------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--
+ �k�        |  |47|20|17|12|15|15| 5|11| 3|10| 3| 8| 8| 8| 5| 6|10| 8|10
+ �bor       |47|  |20|11|10|18|11| 6|15| 6|11| 5| 8| 6| 8| 8| 8|10|10|18
+ Mishim�    |20|20|  |10|10|10|13|10|11| 0|11| 0| 3| 5| 6| 8| 6|13|10| 8
+ Burmese    |17|11|10|  |23|23|26|12|16| 8|20| 6|11|11|11|10|13|13|16|16
+ Karen      |12|10|10|23|  |17|21| 8|15|10|15| 8|12| 4|12| 8|12|12|10|15
+ Singpho    |15|18|10|23|17|  |70|16|25|10|18|11|11|13|15|13|25|13|20|18
+ Jil�       |15|11|13|26|21|70|  |22|16|10|21|13|11|11|18|20|20|13|20|20
+ G�ro       | 5| 6|10|12| 8|16|22|  |10| 5| 6| 5| 8| 5| 8|13|11| 5| 5| 5
+ Manipur�   |11|15|11|16|15|25|16|10|  |21|41|18|25|28|31|28|35|33|40|50
+ Songp�     | 3| 6| 0| 8|10|10|10| 5|21|  |35|50|53|20|23|15|15|13| 8|15
+ Kapw�      |10|11|11|20|15|18|21| 6|41|35|  |30|33|20|35|30|40|45|38|40
+ Koreng     | 3| 5| 0| 6| 8|11|13| 5|18|50|30|  |41|18|21|20|20|11|10|15
+ Mar�m      | 8| 8| 3|11|12|11|11| 8|25|53|33|41|  |21|28|25|20|16|23|26
+ Champhung  | 8| 6| 5|11| 4|13|11| 5|28|20|20|18|21|  |40|20|20|16|15|25
+ Luhuppa    | 8| 8| 6|11|12|15|18| 8|31|23|35|21|28|40|  |63|55|36|33|40
+ N. T�ngkhul| 5| 8| 8|10| 8|13|20|13|28|15|30|20|25|20|63|  |85|30|31|31
+ C. T�ngkhul| 6| 8| 6|13|12|25|20|11|35|15|40|20|20|20|55|85|  |41|45|41
+ S. T�ngkhul|10|10|13|13|12|13|13| 5|33|13|45|11|16|16|36|30|41|  |43|43
+ Khoib�     | 8|10|10|16|10|20|20| 5|40| 8|38|10|23|15|33|31|45|43|  |78
+ Maring     |10|18| 8|16|15|18|20| 5|50|15|40|15|26|25|40|31|41|43|78|
+
+The last eleven dialects are not spoken in any British dependency; and
+they have only been mentioned for the sake of explaining the table.
+
+All belong to one and the same class; a point upon which I see no room
+for doubt; although respecting the _value_ of that class I admit that
+some exists.
+
+For this, the term _Burmese_ is as good as any other--without professing
+to be better; yet, should it seem too precise, there is no objection to
+the sufficiently general term of _monosyllabic_ being substituted for
+it.
+
+The reader, however, may doubt the fact of the affinities. This has
+been done. Long before the present writer knew of such dialects as the
+Jili, Mishimi, Aka, Abor, Singpho, and the like, he had satisfied
+himself that the Garo was monosyllabic, and had so expressed himself in
+1844,[32] when Brown's Tables had been published, though not seen by
+him. It was with surprise, then, that he found the author of them
+writing, that "it would be difficult to decide from the specimens before
+us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic or polysyllabic
+languages. It probably belongs to the latter."
+
+Again, Mr. Hodgson makes the Garo Tamulian, _i.e._, polysyllabic; a fact
+which will be noticed again when the Bodo, Dhimal, and Kocch have been
+disposed of.
+
+_The Kocch_, _Bodo_, and _Dhimal_ is the title of one of that writer's
+works--a model of an ethnological monograph. This gives us a new class.
+The Bodo of Hodgson are the wild tribes that skirt the Himalayas, from
+Assam to Sikkim. West of these, between the river Konki and the river
+Dhorla are the Dhimal, a small tribe mixed with Bodo; and, southwards,
+in Kocch Behar, are the Kocch. The two former are so much described
+together that a separation is difficult. This leaves us at liberty to
+follow the details of either one population or of both. The history of
+a Bodo from his cradle to his grave is as follows. The birth is attended
+with a _minimum_ amount of ceremonies. Midwives there are none; but
+labours are easy. Neither has the priest much to do with ushering-in the
+new-comer to the world. A short period of uncleanness is recognized, but
+it is only a short one; the purification consisting in the acts of
+bathing and shaving performed by the parties themselves. Four or five
+days after delivery, the mother goes out into the world; and at that
+time, the child is named. Any passing event determines this; as there
+are no family names, and no names taken from their mythology. The
+account, however, of Mr. Hodgson, in this respect is somewhat obscure,
+"A Bhotia chief arrives at the village, and the child is named Jinkh�p;
+or a hill peasant arrives, and it is named Gongar, after the titular, or
+general designation of the Bhotias."
+
+As long as a mother can suckle a child (or _children_) she continues to
+do so, sometimes for so long a period as three years, when the last and
+last but one may be seen sucking together.
+
+The period of weaning is thus delayed; and, notwithstanding the current
+notion as to the prematurity of marriages in warm climates, that of
+wedlock is delayed as well: the male waits till he is twenty or
+twenty-five, the female till between fifteen and twenty. The parties
+least concerned are the bride and bridegroom; the parents do the
+courtship. Those of the lady take a payment. This is called a _Jan_
+amongst the Bodo, and varies from ten to fifteen rupees. With the Dhimal
+it is a _Gandi_, and amounts to a higher sum, ranging from fifteen to
+forty-five. Failing this, service must be done by the youth; and a wife
+be earned as Jacob earned Leah and Rachel. This is the _Gabor_ of the
+Bodo, and the _Gharjya_ of the Dhimal.
+
+Such marriages are easily dissolved, _i.e._, at the option of either
+party. In case, however, of infidelity on the part of a wife having
+caused a divorce, the wedding-money is repaid. Adoption is common,
+concubinage rare; each being on a level with marriage in respect to the
+_status_ of the children. Of these, all males inherit alike; but the
+rights of the female are limited.
+
+The ceremony itself begins with a procession on the part of the
+bridegroom's friends to the bride's house, two females accompanying
+them. Of these, it is the business to put red-lead and oil on the
+bride-elect's hair. A feast follows; after which the husband takes his
+wife home. Thus far the Bodo forms agree with the Dhimal; but they
+differ in what follows.
+
+_The Bodo_ sacrifices a cock and a hen in the names of the bridegroom
+and the bride, respectively to the Sun.
+
+_The Dhimal_ propitiate _Data_ and _Bedata_ by presents of betel-leaf
+and red-lead.
+
+Both bury their dead, and purify themselves by ablution in the nearest
+stream when the funeral procession is over. The family, however, of the
+deceased is considered as unclean for three days.
+
+A feast with sacrifices attends the purification. Before sitting down,
+they repair once more to the grave, and present the dead with some of
+the food from the banquet;--"take and eat, heretofore you have eaten and
+drunk with us; you can do so no more; you were one of us, you can be so
+no longer; we come no more to you; come you not to us." After this each
+member of the party takes from his wrist a bracelet of thread, and
+throws it on the grave.
+
+A ceremonial implies a priesthood. Under this class come the Deoshi, the
+Dhami, the Ojha, and the Phantwal.
+
+The first of these is the village, the second the district, priest.
+
+The Ojha is the village exorcist; and the Phantwal a subordinate of the
+Deoshi. The influence of this clerical body, although probably higher
+than Mr. Hodgson places it, is, evidently, anything but exorbitant.
+
+I cannot find anything in the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions higher than
+what was found in Africa. Nor yet is anything _essentially_ different.
+Similar intellectual conditions develop similar creeds, independent of
+intercourse; a fact which, the more we go into the natural history of
+religions, the more we shall verify. We read indeed of _oaths_ and
+_ordeals_; but oaths and ordeals are by no means, what they have too
+loosely been supposed to be, appeals to the moral nature of the
+Divinity. The _dhoom_ test, in Old Calabar, is an ordeal. The criminal
+tests of the Fantis are the same. Indeed, few, if any tribes, are
+without them. What the real ideas are which determine such and such-like
+ceremonies is difficult for intellectual adults to understand. The way
+towards their appreciation lies in the phenomena of a child's mind; the
+true clue to the psychology of rude populations.
+
+If we take the Bodo and Dhimal religions in detail we find ourselves in
+a familiar field, with well-known forms of superstition around us.
+
+Diseases are attributed to supernatural agency; and the medicine-man,
+exorcist, or Ojha, is more priest than surgeon.
+
+The _feticism_ of Africa re-appears; at least such is my inference from
+the following extract. "_Batho_ is clearly and indisputably identifiable
+with _something tangible_, _viz._, the _Sij_ or _Euphorbia_; though why
+that useless and even exotic plant should have been thus selected to
+type the Godhead, I have failed to learn."
+
+Euhemerism, or the worship of dead men deified, is to be found either in
+its germs or its rudiments; at any rate, one of their deities bears the
+name of Hajo, a known historic personage. But this may be referable to
+Hind� influences unequivocally traceable in other parts of the Pantheon.
+
+It is the rites and ceremonies of a country that give us its religion in
+the concrete. All beyond is an abstraction. These, with the Bodo and
+Dhimal, are numerous. Invocations, deprecations, and thanksgivings are
+all mentioned by Mr. Hodgson; and they are all attended by offerings or
+sacrifices; libations attend the sacrifices, and feasting follows the
+libations.
+
+The great festivals of the year are four for the Bodo, three for the
+Dhimal.
+
+_a._ In December or January, when the cotton-crop is ready, the Bodo
+hold their _Shurkhar_, the Dhimal their _Harejata_.
+
+_b._ In February or March, the Bodo hold the _Wagaleno_.
+
+_c._ In July or August, the rice comes into ear. This brings on the Bodo
+_Phulthepno_, and the Dhimal _Gavipuja_.
+
+All these are celebrated out of doors, and on agricultural occasions.
+
+_d._ The fourth great festival is held at home; its time being the month
+of October; its name _Aihuno_ in Bodo, and _Pochima paka_ in Dhimal.
+Here, in the _Aihuno_ at least, the family assembles, the priest joins
+it, and the Sij, or Euphorbia, represents Batho. This is placed in the
+middle of the room, has prayers offered to it, and a _cock_ as a
+sacrifice; whilst Mainou's offering is a _hog_; Agrang's a _he-goat_,
+and so on, through the whole list of the nine _nooni madai_, or deities
+thus worshipped. As for the symbols which represent them, besides the
+Sij, which stands for Batho, there is a bamboo post about three feet
+high, surmounted by a small cup of rice, denoting Mainou; but the
+equivalents of the other seven are somewhat uncertain.
+
+The Wagaleno festival was witnessed by Mr. Hodgson and Dr. Campbell. The
+account of it is something lengthy. I mention it, however, for the sake
+of one of its principal actors--the D��d�. This is the _possessed_, who,
+"when filled with the god, answers by inspiration to the question of the
+priest as to the prospects of the coming season. When we first discerned
+him, he was sitting on the ground, panting, and rolling his eyes so
+significantly that I at once conjectured his function. Shortly
+afterwards, the rite still proceeding, the D��d� got up, entered the
+circle, and commenced dancing with the rest, but more wildly. He held a
+short staff in his hand, with which, from time to time, he struck the
+bedizened poles, one by one, and lowering it as he struck. The chief
+dancer with the odd-shaped instrument waxed more and more vehement in
+his dance; the inspired grew more and more maniacal; the music more and
+more rapid; the incantation more and more solemn and earnest; till, at
+last, amid a general lowering of the heads of the decked bamboo poles,
+so that they met and formed a canopy over him, the D��d� went off in an
+affected fit, and the ceremony closed without any revelation." This
+self-excited state of ecstasy is an element of most religions in the
+same stage of development; and a low level it indicates. In Greece, in
+Africa, and in Northern Asia, we find it as regularly as we find a
+coarse and material creed; and to the coarseness of the materialism of
+such a creed it is generally proportionate.
+
+Witches, and the discovery of them, and the influence of the evil eye
+are part and parcel of the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions.
+
+_Kocch_ means a population, which possibly amounts to as much as a
+million souls, extended from about 88� to 93-1/2� East long., and 25� to
+27� North lat., and of which Kocch Behar is the political centre. The
+term is _ethnological_--not political. It is ethnological, and not
+political, because, although originally native, it has since been
+partially abandoned. _All_ the inhabitants of the parts in question
+_once_ called themselves Kocch; and Kocch they were called by their
+neighbours the Mech. At this time the country was unequivocally other
+than Indian; _i.e._, in the same category with that of the Garo and
+Bodo. Since then, however, great changes have taken place; so that, just
+as Wales is partially Anglicized, the Welsh language being replaced by
+the English, the Kocch--the native tongue--is under the process of being
+replaced by a Hind� dialect. Nevertheless, just as many a Welshman who
+speaks nothing but English is still a Welshman, so are the Kocch, who
+have changed their languages, Bodo, Garo, or something closely akin, in
+ethnological position.
+
+The extent to which different portions of the once great Kocch nation
+have abandoned or retained their original characteristics is easily
+measured.
+
+1. Those who have changed most speak a form of the Bengali, and are
+imperfect Mahometans; imperfect, because their creed is strongly
+tinctured with Hinduism. Thus the very epithet which they apply to
+themselves is Brahminical; _R�jbansi_=_Suryabansi_=_Sun-born_. The
+converted Kocch of the Mahometan creed are chiefly of the lower order
+of the province of Behar.
+
+2. Those who have changed, but changed less than the _Mahometans_ of
+Behar, are either Brahminists or Buddhists--speaking the same Bengali
+dialect as the last. These are chiefly the higher classes of the
+population of Behar. They are Kocch in the way that the Cornishmen are
+Welsh. They consider them _R�jbansi_ also. Doubtless, their Hinduism is
+imperfect; _i.e._, tinctured with the original paganism.
+
+3. The primitive, unconverted, or _Pani_ Kocch, have either not changed
+at all, or changed but little. They retain the original name of Kocch;
+which is not endured by the others. They retain their original tongue,
+which, according to Buchanan, has no affinity with any of the Hind�
+tongues. They retain their original customs; and they retain their
+original paganism. Lastly, Mr. Hodgson attests the "entire conformity of
+the physiognomy of all--with that of the other aborigines around them."
+He adds that he cannot improve on Buchanan's account of them, which is
+as follows:--"The primitive or P�ni Kocch live amid the woods,
+frequently changing their abode in order to cultivate lands enriched by
+a fallow. They cultivate entirely with the hoe, and more carefully than
+their neighbours who use the plough, for they weed their crops, which
+the others do not. As they keep hogs and poultry they are better fed
+than the Hind�s, and as they make a fermented liquor from rice, their
+diet is more strengthening. The clothing of the P�ni Kocch is made by
+the women, and is in general blue, dyed by themselves with their own
+indigo, the borders red, dyed with Morinda. The material is cotton of
+their own growth, and they are better clothed than the mass of the
+Bengalese. Their huts are at least as good, nor are they raised on posts
+like the houses of the Indo-Chinese, at least, not generally so. Their
+only arms are spears: but they use iron-shod implements of agriculture,
+which the Bengalese often do not. They eat swine, goats, sheep, deer,
+buffaloes, rhinoceros, fowls, and ducks--not beef, nor dogs, nor cats,
+nor frogs, nor snakes. They use tobacco and beer, but reject opium and
+hemp. They eat no tame animal without offering it to God (the Gods), and
+consider that he who is least restrained is most exalted, allowing the
+G�r�s to be their superiors, because the G�r�s may eat beef. The men are
+so gallant as to have made over all property to the women, who in return
+are most industrious, weaving, spinning, brewing, planting, sowing; in a
+word, doing all work not above their strength. When a woman dies the
+family property goes to her daughters, and when a man marries he lives
+with his wife's mother, obeying her as his wife. Marriages are usually
+arranged by mothers in nonage, but consulting the destined bride. Grown
+up women may select a husband for themselves, and another, if the first
+die. A girl's marriage costs the mother ten rupees--a boy's five rupees.
+This sum is expended in a feast with sacrifice, which completes the
+ceremony. Few remain unmarried, or live long. I saw no grey hairs.
+Girls, who are frail, can always marry their lover. Under such rule,
+polygamy, concubinage, and adultery are not tolerated. The last subjects
+to a ruinous fine, which if not paid, the offender becomes a slave. No
+one can marry out of his own tribe. If he do, he is fined. Sutties are
+unknown, and widows always having property can pick out a new husband at
+discretion. The dead are kept two days, during which the family mourn,
+and the kindred and friends assemble and feast, dance and sing. The body
+is then burned by a river's side, and each person having bathed returns
+to his usual occupation. A funeral costs ten rupees, as several pigs
+must be sacrificed to the manes. This tribe has no letters; but a sort
+of priesthood called D��shi, who marry and work like other people. Their
+office is not hereditary, and everybody employs what D��shi he pleases,
+but some one always assists at every sacrifice and gets a share. The
+Kocch sacrifice to the sun, moon, and stars, to the gods of rivers,
+hills and woods, and every year, at harvest-home, they offer fruits and
+a fowl to deceased parents, though they believe not in a future state!
+Their chief gods are Rishi and his wife J�g�. After the rains the whole
+tribe make a grand sacrifice to these gods, and occasionally also, in
+cases of distress. There are no images. The gods get the blood of
+sacrifices; their votaries, the meat. Disputes are settled among
+themselves by juries of Elders, the women being excluded here, however
+despotic at home. If a man incurs a fine, he cannot pay with purse, he
+must with person, becoming a bondman, on food and raiment only, unless
+his wife can and will redeem him."
+
+I must now request particular attention on the part of the reader to the
+terms which Mr. Hodgson applies to the physical conformation of these
+northern, or sub-Himalayan tribes; and still closer attention must be
+given to his nomenclature. He calls the stock in question _Tamulian_.
+This connects it with the _South_ Indian. He contrasts it with the
+_Hind�_. By this he means the Brahminical elements of the Indian
+populations.
+
+Let us then see what points he considers to be _Tamulian_.
+
+1. There is "less height, less symmetry, more dumpiness and flesh."
+
+2. There is "a somewhat lozenge contour (of face) caused by the large
+cheek-bones."
+
+3. There is "less perpendicularity of features in the front--a larger
+proportion of face to head--a broader flatter face--a shorter wider
+nose, often clubbed at the end, and furnished with round nostrils."
+
+4. There is a smaller eye, "less fully opened, and less evenly crossing
+the face by their line of aperture." In other words, there is the
+_oblique_ eye, so much considered in the Chinese physiognomy.
+
+5. Lastly, there are larger ears, thicker lips, and less beard.
+
+I submit that all these points are Mongolian; and this is what Mr.
+Hodgson evidently thinks also.
+
+The whole class has passed beyond the hunter state, if ever such
+existed. It has passed beyond the pastoral or nomadic state also; if
+such existed. It is at present--and, perhaps, has always been--an
+agricultural state of society. On the other hand--the industrial state,
+the development represented by towns and commerce, has not been
+attained.
+
+The whole stock is essentially agricultural. Likewise, the agriculture
+is peculiar. We may explain it by the term _erratic_. They "never
+cultivate the same field beyond the second year, or remain in the same
+village beyond the fourth to sixth year. After the lapse of four or five
+years they frequently return to their old fields and resume their
+cultivation, if in the interim the jungle has grown well, and they have
+not been anticipated by others, for there is no pretence of
+appropriation other than possessory, and if, therefore, another party
+have preceded them, or, if the slow growth of the jungle give no
+sufficient promise of a good stratum of ashes for the land when cleared
+by fire, they move on to another site, new or old. If old, they resume
+the identical fields they tilled before, but never the old houses or
+site of the old village, that being deemed unlucky. In general, however,
+they prefer new land to old, and having still abundance of unbroken
+forest around them, they are in constant movement, more especially as,
+should they find a new spot prove unfertile, they decamp after the first
+harvest is got in."
+
+_Arva in annos mutant et superest ager._ This passage is explained by
+their customs.
+
+In respect to their social constitution, they dwell in small communities
+of from ten to forty houses; each of which community is under a _gr�_ or
+head. This is Hind�--except that as the Hind� villages are both larger
+and more permanent, the functionaries, in addition to the _headman_, are
+more numerous. This is noted, because the difference in the two sorts of
+village government seems to be one of _degree_ rather than _kind_.
+
+And now comes more in the way of classification. The Bodo are Kachars,
+or the Kachars are Bodo. Their languages are the same, so are their
+gods, so is their name; since Kachar is a Hind�, and no native term--the
+native name (_i.e._, of the Kachars) being _Bodo_. On the other hand,
+the _Hind�_ name of the Bodo is Mech. Whoever looks to a map will find
+that the outline of the Bodo area is very deeply indented; implying
+either a great original irregularity of area, or great subsequent
+displacement.
+
+Now follow the Garo. One fourth--fifteen out of sixty--of the words of
+Mr. Brown's Garo vocabulary is Bodo. The inference? That the Bodo and
+Garo are in the same category. What is this? Mr. Hodgson makes both
+Tamulian or Indian. In my own mind both are Burmese. But be this as it
+may, one fact is certain; _viz._, that a transition between the tongues
+of the Indian and the tongues of the Indo-Chinese peninsula exists, and
+that the lines of demarcation which divide them are less broad and
+trenchant than is generally supposed.
+
+The Dhimal bring us to Sikkim. The dominant nation of Sikkim are--
+
+_The Lepchas._--Their language also is monosyllabic; but it is Tibetan
+rather than Burmese. They are a Sikkim rather than a British Indian
+population.
+
+When we have passed the rajahship of Sikkim, we reach that of Nep�l.
+This, again, is independent. Such being the case, the line of frontier
+between the Hind� populations and the populations of the Bodo and Garo
+character lies beyond the pale of the British dependencies.
+
+But in proceeding westward, we pass Nep�l, and reach Kumaon.
+
+This is British, and, as it extends as far north as the Himalayas, it
+may contain monosyllabic languages, and tribes speaking them. It may
+present also instances of intermixture like those which we have already
+found in Behar--the line of demarcation being equally difficult and
+undefined. Difficult and undefined it really is--because, although it is
+an easy matter to take a portion of the Sirmor, Gurhwal, or Kumaon
+population, and say, "this is Hind� because both language and creed make
+it so," it is by no means so easy to prove that the blood, pedigree, or
+descent is Hind� also. To repeat an illustration already in use--many
+such populations may be Hind� only as the Cornishmen are English.
+
+Now the populations of the Tibetan stock to the west of Nep�l, so little
+known in detail, must be illustrated by means of our knowledge of the
+tribes of Nep�l and Tibet most closely related to them--by those of
+Nep�l on the east, and those of Tibet on the north.
+
+For neither of these areas are there any very minute _data_. For the
+aborigines of _eastern_ and _central_ Nep�l, we have plenty of
+information. They are tribes speaking monosyllabic languages, and tribes
+in different degrees of intercourse with the Hind�s; being by name--1.
+The Magars. 2. The Gurungs. 3. The Jariyas. 4. The Newars. 5. The
+Murmis. 6. The Kirata. 7. The Limbu; and 8. The Lepchas, common to the
+eastern boundary of Nep�l, to the western part of Butan, and to Sikkim.
+This, however, will not bring us far west enough for the Kumaon
+frontier; indeed, for the forests of Nep�l _west_ of the Great Valley,
+we have the notice of one family only--the Chepang. For this, as for so
+much more, we are indebted to Mr. Hodgson. It falls into three tribes;
+the Chepang proper, the Kusunda, and the Haju. Its language (known to us
+by a vocabulary) is monosyllabic; its physical conformation, that of the
+unmodified Indian.
+
+So much for analogy. In the way of direct information we simply know
+that the Pariahs, or outcasts, of Kumaon[33] are called _Doms_. These
+have darker skins and curlier hair than the Hind�s. Are these enslaved
+and partially amalgamated aborigines? Probably. Nay more; in the
+eastern part of the province, amidst the forests at the foot of the
+Himalayas, a community of about twenty families, pertinaciously adheres
+to the customs of their ancestors, resembles the _Doms_ in looks, and is
+called _Rawat_ or _Raji_. Though I have seen no specimen of their
+language, I have little doubt as to the _Rawat_ of Kumaon being the
+equivalents to the Chepang of Nep�l.
+
+From Konawur we have three monosyllabic vocabularies, the Sumchu, the
+Theburskud, and the Milchan; but the exact amount to which the Tibetan
+and the Hind� populations indent each other along the western Himalayas
+is more than I can give.
+
+Here end the monosyllabic tongues spoken in British India. But they
+fringe the Himalayas throughout, and occur in the country of Gholab
+Singh, as well as in the independent rajahships between the Sutlege and
+Cashmeer. My latest researches have carried them even further westward
+than Little Tibet; as far as the Kohistan, or mountain country, of
+Cabul--the Der, Lughmani, Tirhai, and other languages, known, wholly or
+chiefly, through the vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach, being essentially
+monosyllabic in structure, and definitely connected with the tongues of
+Tibet, and Nep�l in respect to their vocables.
+
+But this is episodical to the subject--a subject still requiring the
+notice of a very important phenomenon.
+
+_Polyandria_[34] is a term in ethnology, even as it is in botany. Its
+meaning, however, is different. Etymologically, it denotes a form of
+_polygamy_. _Polygamy_, however, being restricted to that particular
+form of marriage which consists in a multiplicity of _wives_,
+_polyandria_ expresses the reverse, _viz._, the plurality of _husbands_.
+
+At the first glance, the word _polyandria_ looks like a learned name for
+a common thing; and suggests the inquiry as to how it differs from
+simple promiscuity of intercourse; or, at least, how far the Tibetan
+wife differs from the fair frail one who was always constant to the 85th
+regiment. The answer is not easy. Still it is certain that some
+difference exists--if not in form, at least, in its effects. One of
+these, in certain countries where _polyandria_ prevails, is the law of
+succession to property. This follows the female line, rather than the
+male.
+
+Again--the marriage of the widow with the surviving brother of her
+husband, is polyandria under another form.
+
+What the exact polyandria of Tibet is, is uncertain. I am not prepared
+to deny its existence even in so extreme a form as that of _one woman
+being married to several husbands, all alive at once_. Still, I think it
+more likely that either the circle of community was limited to certain
+degrees of relationships, or else that the multiplied husbands were
+successive, rather than simultaneous. Still, the facts of the Tibetan
+_polyandria_ require further investigation.
+
+One thing, only, is certain--_viz._, that as an ethnological criterion
+the practice is of no great value. Capable, as it has been shown to be,
+of modification in form, it is anything but limited to either Tibet, or
+the families allied to the Tibetan. It occurs in many parts of the
+world. It is a Malabar practice; where it is, probably, as truly Tibetan
+as in Tibet itself. But it is also Jewish, African, Siberian, and North
+American; so that nothing would more mislead us in the classification of
+the varieties of man than to mistake it for a phenomenon _per se_, and
+allow it to separate allied, or to connect distinct populations.
+
+_Necdum finitus Orestes._--There are several populations which, on fair
+grounds, have been believed to be in the same category with the Dhekra,
+_i.e._, which are Hind� in language and creed, though monosyllabic in
+blood. The Kudi, Batar, Kebrat, Pallah, Gangai, Maraha, Dhanak, Kichak,
+and Tharu, are oftener alluded to than described--though, doubtless, a
+better-informed investigator in such special matters than the present
+writer could find several definite details concerning them. They seem
+chiefly referable to Behar and north-eastern Bengal. The _Dhungers_--in
+the same class--the husbandmen of South Behar, bring us down to the
+vicinity of the population next to be noticed; a population which is
+generally considered with reference to the nations, tribes, and families
+of _Southern_ rather than _Northern_ India.
+
+The name of this family has already been mentioned. It is _Tamulian_;
+and the _Tamulian_ physiognomy has been described. It has been seen to
+extend as far north as the Himalayas. If so, the nations already
+enumerated have been Tamulian; and no new class is now approaching. This
+may or may not be the case. Another change, however, is more undeniable.
+This is that of language. It is no longer referable to the Chinese type;
+since separate monosyllables have, more or less perfectly, become
+_agglutinated_ into inflected forms, and the speech is as
+_poly_-syllabic as the other tongues of the world in general. As we
+approach the south this abandonment of the monosyllabic character
+increases, and from the _Tamul_ language spoken between Pulicat and Cape
+Comorin, the term _Tamulian_--applicable in a general ethnological
+sense--is derived. _Agglutinated_ (or _agglutinate_) is also a technical
+term. It means languages in the second stage of their development; when
+words originally separate, such as adverbs of time, prepositions, and
+personal pronouns, have become permanently connected with the root, so
+as to form tenses, cases, and persons--the union of the two parts of an
+inflected word being still sufficiently recent and imperfect to leave
+their original separation and independence visible and manifest. When
+the incorporation or amalgamation, has become more complete; so
+complete, as in most cases to have obliterated all vestiges of an
+original independence; the _agglutinate_ character has departed, the
+second stage of development has been passed, and the language is in the
+same class with those of Greece, Rome, and Germany, rather than in that
+of the tongues in question, and of many others.
+
+To return, however, to the _Tamulian_ family, meaning thereby a branch
+of the great Mongolian stock, speaking, _either now or formerly_, a
+language more or less allied to the Tamul of the Dekhan.
+
+The first members of the class, as we proceed southwards from Behar, are
+certain hill-tribes of the Rajmahali Mountains--the Rajmahali
+mountaineers. Their Mongolian physiognomy is unequivocal;--a Mongolian
+physiognomy but conjoined with a dark skin. They have "broad faces,
+small eyes, and flattish or rather turned-up noses. Their lips are
+thicker than those of the inhabitants of the plain."[35]
+
+The flattened nose reminded the writer of the Negro, and the general
+character of the features of the Chinese or Malay; though it is added
+that the resemblance is in a great degree lost on closer inspection. At
+the same time it has been sufficiently recognized to have originated the
+hypothesis of a descent from one of those nations as a means of
+accounting for it.
+
+With a slight tincture of Brahminic Hinduism, the Rajmahali mountaineers
+are Pagans. _Bedo_ is one of their gods; doubtless the _Potteang_ of the
+Kuki, and the _Batho_ of the Bodo. _Gosaik_, too, is either the name of
+a god, or a holy epithet; this, also, being a mythological term current
+amongst many other tribes of India. Other elements in their
+imperfectly-known mythology deserve notice. Their priesthood contains
+both _Demauns_ and _Dewassis_; the latter form being the Bodo _Deoshi_.
+As the names are alike, so are the functions. The _Dewassi_ is an
+oracular seer. When he vouchsafes to give answers, his inspiration takes
+the form of frenzy--but he neither hurts nor speaks to any one. He makes
+signs for a cock, and for a hen's egg as well. The cock's head he
+wrenches off, and sucks the bleeding neck. The egg he eats. After this
+he seeks the solitude of the wood or stream; and is fed by the deity.
+Sometimes he has ridden a snake; sometimes put his hands in the mouth of
+a tiger with impunity. Trees too large to move, or too thorny to touch,
+he places on the roofs of houses. He sees Bedo Gosaik in visions; and,
+in the sacrifices therein enjoined, red paint, rice, and pigeons make a
+part. From the touch of women he abstains; so he does from the taste of
+flesh. Either would make his prophecies false.
+
+There are also certain sacrifices that the _Maungy_ (chief?) of each
+village makes, and in which threads of red silk play a part.
+
+One of their gods--an elemental one--is the god of rain, and the dangers
+of a drought are averted by praying to him. A ceremony called the
+_Satane_ determines the chief who takes the office of invoker.
+
+A black stone, called _Ruxy_, is much of the same sort of fetish with
+these mountaineers as the Sij with the Bodo. The name, too, Ruxy _Nad_,
+suggests the Nat worship of the Silong, Kariens, and others.
+
+The northern half of the Tamulian families are, like the Welsh, the
+Cornish, and the Bretons of France, members of the same ethnological
+group, but not in geographical contact with each other. Or, rather, they
+are, like the Celtic population of Wales and the Scottish Highlands,
+cut off from one another by a vast tract of intervening Anglo-Saxons.
+Yet the time was when all was Celtic, from Cape Wrath to the Land's End;
+and when the original population extended, in its full integrity, over
+York and Nottingham, as well as over Merioneth and Argyleshire. And so
+it is with the populations in question. They stand apart from each
+other, like islands in an ocean; the intervening spaces being filled up
+by Hind�s. At the same time the isolation has been much overvalued, and,
+I imagine that when greater attention shall have been bestowed upon this
+important subject, connecting links which have hitherto been unnoticed
+will be detected.
+
+The next locality where we find a population akin to the Rajmahali
+mountaineers, is the mountain system of Orissa. These are called by the
+Hind�s _K�ls_ (_Coolies_), _Khonds_ and _S�rs_. Such, however, are no
+native designations--no more than the classical term _Barbarian_, or the
+English word _Tartar_. The people themselves have no collective name;
+but, being divided into tribes, have a separate one for each.
+
+I say that this branch of Tamulians is isolated, because I am not able
+to show its continuity; the range of hill-country which gives rise to
+the rivers between the Ganges and Mahanuddy being but imperfectly known.
+
+In Orissa, the most northern of the hill-tribes are the K�l of Cuttack.
+South of these come the Khonds best studied in the neighbourhood of
+Goomsoor. The following is a list of their gods, and as _n_ seems to
+stand for _d_, _Pennu_ is but another name for _Bedo_, and _Gossa Pennu_
+for _Bedo Gosaik_:--
+
+  1. Bera _Pennu_, or the earth god.
+  2. Bella _Pennu_, the sun god, and Danzu _Pennu_, the moon god.
+  3. Sandhi _Pennu_, the god of limits.
+  4. Loha _Pennu_, the iron god, or god of arms.
+  5. Jugah _Pennu_, the god of small-pox.
+  6. Madzu _Pennu_, or the village deity, the universal _genius loci_.
+  7. Soro _Pennu_, the hill god.
+  8. Jori _Pennu_, the god of streams.
+  9. Gossa _Pennu_, the forest god.
+  10. Munda _Pennu_, the tank god.
+  11. Sugu _Pennu_, or Sidruja _Pennu_, the god of fountains.
+  12. Pidzu _Pennu_, the god of rain.
+  13. Pilamu _Pennu_, the god of hunting.
+  14. The god of births.[36]
+
+The most southern of the Orissa hill-tribes are the _S�r_; connected by
+language with the preceding tribes; as they were with each other and the
+Rajmahali mountaineers.
+
+These stand in remarkable contrast with the rest of the population of
+Orissa; whose language is the Udiya, a tongue which, according to many,
+belongs to a wholly different class, or, at least, to a different
+division of the present.
+
+South of Chicacole, however, the Tamul tongues are spoken continuously.
+I cannot say where the southern limits of the S�r population come in
+contact with the northern ones of the--
+
+_Chenchwars_--who occupy the same range of mountains, in the parts
+between the rivers Kistna and Pennar, and, probably, extending as far
+south as the neighbourhood of Madras. Their language is the Telugu, the
+language of the parts around, and of Tamul origin.[37] The contrast
+between the Chenchwars of the hills, and the Telingas of the lower
+country lies in their mythologies; the former retaining much of the
+original creed of their country, the latter being Brahminists.
+
+Below Madras, the mountain range changes its direction, and the next
+locality under notice is the Neilgherry hills.
+
+The families here are--
+
+1. _The Cohatars_--so little Indianized as to eat of the flesh of the
+cow, amounting to about two thousand in number, and occupants of the
+highest part of the range.
+
+2. _The Tudas._--An interesting monograph by Captain Harkness has drawn
+unusual attention to these mountaineers, the chief points of importance
+being the comparative absence of all elements of Brahminism, and the
+occurrence in their physiognomy of the most favourable points of Hind�
+beauty--regular and delicate features, oval face, and a clear brunette
+skin. Free from the other religious and social characteristics of
+Hinduism as the Tudas may be, they still admit a sort of caste; _e.g._,
+whilst the _Peiki_, or _Toralli_, may perform any function, the _Kuta_,
+or _Tardas_, are limited. Neither did they always intermarry, though
+they do now; their offspring being called _Mookh_, or _descendants_.
+
+3. _The Curumbas_, called by the Tudas _Curbs_, inhabit a lower level
+than the preceding populations, but a higher one than--
+
+4. _The Erulars_ at the foot of the hills; falling into two
+divisions--_a_, the _Urali_ (a name to be noticed), and _b_, the
+_Curutali_.
+
+Between the Neilgherries and Cape Comorin, the hill-tribes are worth
+enumerating, if only for the sake of showing their complexity. According
+to Lieutenant Conner in the "Madras Journal," they are--1, Cowders; 2,
+Vaishvans; 3, M�davenmars; 4, Arreamars, or Vailamers; 5, Ural-Uays.
+Besides these, there is a population of predial slaves, divided and
+subdivided.
+
+  1. Vaituvan, Konaken.
+  2. Polayers--
+       _a._ Vulluva.
+       _b._ Kunnaka.
+       _c._ Morny Pulayer.
+  3. Pariahs.
+  4. Vaidurs.
+  5. Ulanders and Naiadi.
+
+To return to the Neilgherries, and follow the western Ghauts upwards, a
+population more numerous than any hitherto mentioned is that of the--
+
+_Buddugurs_, called also _Marv�s_. This name takes so many forms that
+_Berdar_ may be one of them. One division of Buddugurs is called
+_Lingait_.
+
+I cannot follow the Ghauts consecutively; however, when we reach the
+southern portion of the Mahratta country, we find in the rajahship of
+Satarah, two predatory tribes:--
+
+_The Berdars_, supposed to be closely allied to Ramusi. The--
+
+_Ramusi_ themselves connected by tradition and creed, with the _Lingait_
+Buddugurs. But not by language; or at any rate not wholly so. The Ramusi
+dialect is a mixture of Tulava and Marathi--the former being undoubted
+Tamul, but the latter in the same category with the Udiya.
+
+The continuous Tamul languages are now left to the south of us, and the
+hill-tribes next in order, will have unlearnt their native tongues, and
+be found speaking the Hind� dialects of the countries around them.
+Hence, the evidence of their Tamulian descent will be less conclusive.
+
+_Warali of the Konkan._--Mountaineers of the northern Konkan. We have
+seen this name twice already, and we shall see it again. The evidence of
+their Tamulian extraction is imperfect. Their language is Marathi and
+their creed an imperfect Brahminism. Their mountaineer habits separate
+them from--
+
+_The Katodi_--outcasts, who take their name from preparing the _kat_, or
+_cat-echu_, and who hang about the villages of the _plains_.
+
+_The K�li._--From Poonah to Gujerat, the occupants of the range of
+mountains parallel to the coast are called _K�li_ (_Coolies_), the same
+in the eyes of the Hind�s of the western coast, as the _K�l_ were in
+those of the Bengalese and Orissans; and similarly named. Their language
+is generally (perhaps always) that of the country around them, _viz._,
+Marathi amongst the Mahrattas, and Gujerathi in Gujerat. However,
+difference of habits and creed sufficiently separate them from the
+Hind�s.
+
+_The Bhils._--These are generally associated with the K�lis; from whom
+they chiefly differ geographically, belonging, as they do to the
+transverse ranges--the Satpura and Vindhia mountains--rather than to the
+main line of the Ghauts with its due north-and-south direction, and with
+its parallelism to the coast.
+
+_The Paurias._--Hill-tribes in Candeish, belonging to the Satpura range,
+and conterminous with the Bhil tribes, and with--
+
+_The Wurali of the Satpura range._--The Wurali re-appear for the fourth
+time. In the parts in question they are in contact with the Bhils and
+Paurias; from whom they keep themselves distinct; and from whom they
+differ in dialect. Still their language is Marathi. Pre-eminent as they
+are for their Paganism, their country contains ruins of brick buildings,
+and considerable excavations.[38]
+
+These three are the hill-tribes of the water-shed of the rivers Tapti
+and Nerbudda. The water-system of the south-western feeders of the
+Ganges is more complex. Along the mountains between Candeish and Jeypur
+come--
+
+Certain _Bhil_ tribes.
+
+_The Mewars_--under the Grasya chiefs of Joora, Meerpoor, Oguna, and
+Panurwa. The political relations of these tribes--in some cases of an
+undetermined nature--are with the Rajp�t governments; in other words,
+we are now amongst the aborigines of Rajasthan.
+
+_The Minas._--These, like the Mewars, are in geographical contact with
+certain Bhil tribes; in political contact with the Rajp�ts--the Mewars
+with those of Udip�r; the Minas with those of Ajmer, Jeypur, and Kota.
+
+_The Moghis._--At present, a free company rather than a population;
+although the representatives of what was once one--_viz._, the
+aborigines of Jodpure. So little Brahminists are they that they eat of
+the flesh of the jackal and the cow, and indulge freely in fermented
+drinks.
+
+The hills that separate Malwah from the Haroti country, and from the
+south-eastern boundary of the valley of the River Chumbul are occupied
+by--
+
+_The Saireas._--This is a name which has occurred before and
+elsewhere;[39] and is almost certainly, anything but native. Tribes,
+under this name, extend into Bundelcund.[40]
+
+_The Goands._--The central parts between Candeish and Orissa, the
+head-waters of the Nerbudda and Tapti on the west, and of the Godavery
+on the east, still require notice. Here the hill population is at its
+_maximum_, both in point of numbers and characteristics; and the _Khond_
+forms of the Tamul re-appear under the name _Goand_. Of these we have
+specimens from--
+
+_a._ The Gawhilghur mountains near Ellichpoor.
+
+_b._ Chupprah.
+
+_c._ Mundala in _Gundwana_, or the _Goand_ country.
+
+Such are the chief hill-populations; which, although they belong to
+Tamulian stock, differ as to the extent to which they carry outward and
+visible signs of their origin. Some, like the Rajmahali, are merely
+separated geographically; and, perhaps, not even that. Others, like the
+Khonds of Orissa, are contrasted with the Tamuls of the south, by their
+inferior and social condition, and their non-Brahminical creeds. The
+Minas and Bhils differ in language; whilst the Ramusis and Berdars,
+probably, exhibit transitional forms of speech. The Tudas and Chenchwars
+surrounded by Telingas and Tamuls, as the Khonds and Goands are by
+Udiyas and Mahrattas, are merely the population of the parts around them
+with a primitive polity and religion.
+
+The _lettered_ languages of the Dekhan, where the Tamul character is
+unequivocal, but where the civilizational influences have chiefly been
+Hind�, are spoken in continuity from Chicacole, east, and the parts
+about Goa, west, to Cape Comorin, _i.e._, in the Madras Presidency, and
+in the countries of Mysore, Travancore, and the coasts of Malabar and
+Coromandel. Of these, the most northern--beginning on the eastern
+coast--is--
+
+_The Telinga or Telugu._--Spoken from the parts about Chicacole to
+Pulicat, where it is succeeded by--
+
+_The Tamul Proper._--The language of the Coromandel coast and the parts
+of the interior as far as Coimbatore. Each of these tongues has a double
+form, one for literature, and one for common use; the former being
+called the High, the latter the Low, Tamul or Telugu, as the case may
+be, and the creed which it embodies being either Brahminism, or some
+modification of it.
+
+In Travancore and on the Malabar coast the language is--
+
+_The Malayalma_ or _Malayalam_--and in the greater part of Mysore--
+
+_The Kanara_--which, like the Tamul and Telinga, is both High and
+Low--literary or vulgar.
+
+Amongst these four well-known forms of the South Tamulian tongue, may be
+distributed several dialects and sub-dialects. Such as the Tulava for
+the parts between Goa and Mangalore, and the Coorgi of the Rajahship of
+Coorg, not to mention the several varieties in the language of the
+hill-tribes.
+
+Now all the populations of the present chapter agree in this
+particular--their language is generally admitted to be Tamulian at the
+present moment, or if not, to have been so at some earlier period. With
+the languages next under notice, the original Tamulian character is not
+so admitted--indeed, it is so far denied as to make the affirmation of
+it partake of the nature of paradox.
+
+The distinction then is raised on the existence of the doubt in
+question, or rather on the differences that such a doubt implies. Hence
+the division of the languages of India into the Hind� and the Tamulian
+is practical rather than scientific--the _Hind�_ meaning those for which
+a _Sanskrit_, rather than a _Tamul_ affinity is claimed.
+
+_Sanskrit_ is the name of a language; a name upon which nine-tenths of
+the controversial points in Indian ethnology and in Indian history
+turn.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[23] "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. part 2.
+See also pp. 112, 113 of the present volume.
+
+[24] Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal of the
+Asiatic Society of Bengal."
+
+[25] Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[26] "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[27] Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[28] Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.
+
+[29] Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.
+
+[30] Eliot, _ut supra_.
+
+[31] For Jan. 1849.
+
+[32] "Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science," 1844.
+
+[33] "Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic
+Researches, vol. xvi.
+
+[34] From the Greek _polys_=_many_, and _an�r_=_man_.
+
+[35] Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.
+
+[36] Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol.
+xiii.
+
+[37] See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. viii.
+
+[38] Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay Geographical
+Society," May to August 1850.
+
+[39] The Soars of Orissa.
+
+[40] Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+    THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.--ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN LANGUAGES
+    OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF EUROPE.--INFERENCES.--
+    BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS--OF THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.--EXTRACT.--OF
+    THE VEDAS.--EXTRACT.--INFERENCES.--THE HIND�S.--SIKHS.--BILUCHI.--
+    AFGHANS.--WANDERING TRIBES.--MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.--CEYLON.--
+    BUDDHISM.--DEVIL-WORSHIP.--VADDAHS.
+
+
+The language called _Sanskrit_ has a peculiar alphabet. It has long been
+written, and embodies an important literature. It has been well studied;
+and its ethnological affinities are understood. They are at least as
+remarkable as any other of its characters.
+
+Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects; just like the ancient
+Greek. Like the Doric, �olic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over
+distant countries, and cultivated at different periods. Like them, too,
+each is characterized by its peculiar literature.
+
+The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is the _Vedaic_ dialect of the
+religious hymns called _Vedas_--of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.
+
+Another form of equal antiquity is the language of the Persepolitan and
+other arrow-headed inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity, and
+range from the time of Cambyses to that of Artaxerxes.
+
+By _old_ is meant _old in structure_, _i.e._, betraying by its archaic
+forms, an early stage of development. It is by no means _old_ in
+chronology. In the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare is
+older than the German of Goethe; yet the German of Goethe is the older
+tongue, because it retains more old inflections.
+
+The third form is called _Pali_. In this is written the oldest Indian
+inscription; one containing the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's
+successors. It is also the dialect of the chief Buddhist works.
+
+A fourth form is the _Bactrian_. This occurs in the coins of Macedonian
+and other Indianized kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the
+"Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.
+
+A fifth is the _Zend_ of the Zendavesta, the Scriptures of the followers
+of Zoroaster.
+
+Others are called _Pracrit_. Some of the Sanskrit works are dramatic. In
+the modern comedies of Italy we find certain characters speaking the
+provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and other districts. The same
+took place here. In the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the
+standard language, put into the mouths of some of the subordinate
+characters. It is believed that these Pracrits represented certain local
+dialects, as opposed to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.
+
+Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage of Sanskrit words in
+it; just as every dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman. What
+does this prove? That depends upon the per-centage; and this differs in
+different languages. In a general way it may be stated that, amongst the
+tongues already enumerated, it is smallest in the isolated Tamulian
+tongues; larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest in the tongues
+about to be enumerated; these being the chief languages of modern
+Hindostan.
+
+1. The _Marathi_ of the Mahrattas. Here the Sanskrit words amount to
+four-fifths in the Marathi dictionaries.
+
+2. The _Udiya_, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a per-centage of Sanskrit
+greater than that of the Marathi, but less than that of--
+
+3. The _Bengali_. Here it is at its _maximum_, and amounts to
+nine-tenths.
+
+4. The _Hind�_, of Oude, and the parts between Bengal and the Punj�b,
+falling into the subordinate dialects of the Rajp�t country.
+
+5. The _Gujerathi_ of Gujerat.
+
+6. The _Scindian_ of Scinde.
+
+7. The _Multani_ of M�ltan; probably a dialect of either the Gujerathi
+or--
+
+8. The _Punjabi_ of the Punj�b.
+
+By going into minor differences this list might be enlarged.
+
+None of the previous languages were mentioned in the last chapter; in
+fact, they were those different Hind� tongues which were contrasted with
+the Tamulian, and which, in the northern part of the Peninsula had
+effected those displacements which separated, or were supposed to
+separate, the Rajmahali, K�l, and Khond dialects from each other. They
+formed the _sea_ of speech, in which those tongues were _islands_.
+
+Now what is the inference from these per-centages? from such a one as
+the Bengali, of ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove as to the
+character of the language in which they occur? Do they make the Sanskrit
+the basis of the tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English, or
+do they merely show it as a superadded foreign element, like the
+Norman--like that in kind, but far greater in degree? The answer to this
+will give us the philological position of the North-Indian tongues. It
+will make the Bengali either Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of
+foreign vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the older native
+tongue retained.
+
+If the question were settled by a reference to authorities, the answer
+would be that the Bengali was essentially Sanskrit.
+
+It would be the same if we took only the _prim� facie_ view of the
+matter.
+
+Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.
+
+1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words it has been assumed that,
+whenever the modern and ancient tongues have any words in common, the
+former has always taken them from the latter,--an undue assumption,
+since the Sanskrit may easily have adopted native words.
+
+2. The grammatical inflections are so far from being as Sanskritic as
+the vocables, that they are either non-existent altogether,
+unequivocally Tamul, or else _controverted_ Sanskrit.
+
+Here I pause,--giving, at present, no opinion upon the merits of the two
+views. The reader has seen the complications of the case; and is
+prepared for hearing that, though most of the highest authorities
+consider the languages of northern India to be related to the Sanskrit,
+just as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Italian to the Latin;
+others deny such a connexion, affirming that as the real relations of
+the Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our own tongue, and of
+the Arabic to the Spanish, there is no such thing throughout the whole
+length and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended from the
+Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous tongue can be shown to have
+existed as a spoken and indigenous language.
+
+But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack in India; and as the
+modern Persian is descended from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister
+to the Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality. The same
+doubts apply here.
+
+Such are the doubts that apply to an important question in Asiatic
+ethnology. I am not, at present, going beyond the simple fact of their
+existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion that the Sanskrit
+never was indigenous to any part of India, not even the most
+north-western; and there is an extension of this opinion which--rightly
+or wrongly--similarly excludes it from Persia. So much doubt should be
+relieved by the exhibition of some universally admitted fact as a
+set-off.
+
+Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape of a comment on the
+following tables.[41] It is one of Dr. Trithem's.
+
+ ENGLISH.             LITHUANIC.    RUSSIAN.        SANSKRIT.
+
+ _Father_             tewas         otets           pitr.
+ _Mother_             motina        mat'            m[=a]tr.
+ _Son_                sunai         suin            s[=u]nu.
+ _Brother_            brolis        brat            bhratr.
+ _Sister_             sessu         sestra          svasr.
+ _Daughter-in-law_     --           snokha          snush[=a].[42]
+ _Father-in-law_       --           svekor[43]      ['s]vas�ra.
+ _Mother-in-law_       --           svekrov'[44]    ['s]vas ru.
+ _Brother-in-law_      --           dever'[45]      devr.
+ _One_                wienas        odin            eka.
+ _Two_                du            dva             dv[=a].
+ _Three_              trys          tri             tri.
+ _Four_               keturi        chetuire        chatv[=a]rah.
+ _Five_               penki         piat'           pancha.
+ _Six_                szessi        shest'          shash.
+ _Seven_              septyni       sedm'           saptan.
+ _Eight_              asstuoni      osm'            ashtan.
+ _Nine_               dewyni        deviat'         navan.
+ _Ten_                dessimtis     desiat'         das�.
+
+The following similarities go the same way, _viz._, towards the proof of
+a remarkable affinity with certain languages of _Europe_, there being
+none equally strong with any existing and undoubted Asiatic ones.
+
+ ENGLISH.     LITHUANIC.    SANSKRIT.    ZEND.
+
+ _I_          ass           aham         azem.
+ _Thou_       tu            twam         t[=u]m.
+ _Ye_         yus           y[=u]yam     y[=u]s.
+ _The_[46]    tas           ta-_d_       tad.
+   --         szi           sah          ho.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Laups-inni = _I praise._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Laups    -innu    -innawa    -inname.
+ 2.  --      -inni    -innata    -innata.
+ 3.  --      -inna    -inna      -inna.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Jaj-ami = _I conquer._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Jaj    -[=a]mi    -[=a]vah     -[=a]mah.
+ 2. --     -[)a]si    -[)a]thah    -[)a]tha.
+ 3. --     -[)a]ti    -[)a]tah     -anti.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Esmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Esmi    eswa    esme.
+ 2. Essi    esta    esti.
+ 3. Esti    esti    esti.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Asmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Asmi    swah     smah.
+ 2. Asi     sthah    stha.
+ 3. Asti    stah     santi.
+
+The inference from the vast series of philological facts, of which the
+following is a specimen, has, generally--perhaps _universally_--been as
+follows, _viz._, that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied languages
+of Germany, Italy, and Greece--numerous, widely-spread, and
+unequivocally European--are _Asiatic_ in origin; the Sanskrit being
+first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent the languages of
+that Asiatic locality. I merely express my dissent from this inference;
+adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit to the Hind� tongues
+are those of the Anglo-Norman to the English, and that its relation to
+those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that of the Greek of
+Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon--greater, much greater in degree, but
+the same in kind.[47]
+
+The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next great characteristic.
+Brahminism may be viewed in two ways. We may either take it in its later
+forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin with it in its simplest
+and most unmodified stage, and notice the changes that have affected it
+as they occur. At the present its principles are to be found in the holy
+book called _Puranas_; the Brahminism of the _Puranas_ standing in the
+same relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism of the Talmud,
+or the Romanism of the fathers does to primitive Judaism and
+Christianity. The pre-eminence of a sacred caste--the sanctitude of the
+cow--an impossible cosmogony--the worship of Siva and Vishnu--and an
+indefinite sort of recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali, and
+others, are the leading features here; the recognition of the Ramas and
+Krishnas being of an indefinite and equivocal character, because the
+extent to which the elements of their divine nature are referable to the
+idea of _dead men deified_, or the very opposite notion of _Gods become
+incarnate_, are inextricably mixed together. The Puranas are referable
+to different dates between the twelfth and sixth centuries A.D.
+
+The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas are the two great epics, the
+_Ramayana_, or the conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and the _Mahabharata_,
+or great war between the Sun and Moon dynasties. If we call the _worship
+of dead men deified_, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the
+Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements of the present Brahminism
+are to be attributed. They increased the _personality_ of the previous
+religion. This is the natural effect of narrative poetry, and one of
+which we may measure the magnitude by looking at the influence and
+tendencies of the great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these which give
+us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and Vishnu, and which helped to determine
+the preponderance of the two last over Brahma--Brahma being the Creator;
+Vishnu, the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity
+which has been given to the _epics_ is the second century B.C.; and this
+is full high enough.
+
+The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu," the oldest Indian code of
+laws, is simpler than that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less.
+Nevertheless, it contains the great text on the caste-system, the
+_fulcrum_ of priestly pre-eminence.
+
+
+INSTITUTES OF MENU.
+
+_Sir Graves Haughton's Translation._
+
+    1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, supremely
+    glorious, allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively
+    from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot.
+
+    2. To _Br�hmins_ he assigned the duties of reading the _Veda_, of
+    teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of
+    giving alms, _if they be rich_, and, if _indigent_, of receiving
+    gifts.
+
+    3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the
+    _Veda_, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a
+    few words, the duties of a _Cshatriya_.
+
+    4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to
+    read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to
+    cultivate land, are _prescribed or permitted_ to a _Vaisya_.
+
+    5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a _S�dra_;
+    namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating
+    their worth.
+
+    6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating
+    Power declared the purest part of him to be his mouth.
+
+    7. Since the Br�hmin sprang from the most excellent part, since he
+    was the first born, and since he possesses the _Veda_, he is by
+    right the chief of this whole creation.
+
+    8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the beginning,
+    from his own mouth, that having performed holy rites, he might
+    present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the
+    progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world.
+
+    9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose mouth the
+    gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified butter, and the
+    manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?
+
+    10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which are
+    animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of
+    the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.
+
+    11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who
+    know their duty; of those who know it, such as perform it
+    virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a
+    perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.
+
+    12. The very birth of _Br�hmins_ is a constant incarnation of
+    DHERMA, _God of Justice_; for the _Br�hmin_ is born to promote
+    justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.
+
+    13. When a _Br�hmin_ springs to light, he is borne above the world,
+    the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of
+    duties, religious and civil.
+
+    14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect, _though not
+    in form_, the wealth of the _Br�hmin_; since the _Br�hmin_ is
+    entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth.
+
+    15. The _Br�hmin_ eats but his own food; wears but his own apparel;
+    and bestows but his own in alms: through the benevolence of the
+    _Br�hmin_, indeed, other mortals enjoy life.
+
+    16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other classes
+    in due order, the sage MENU, sprung from the self-existing,
+    promulged this code of laws.
+
+    17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by every learned
+    _Br�hmin_, and fully explained to his disciples, but _must be
+    taught_ by no other man _of an inferior class_.
+
+    18. The _Br�hmin_ who studies this book, having performed sacred
+    rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word, and in
+    deed.
+
+    19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors, and
+    on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He alone
+    deserves to possess this whole earth.
+
+Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes, the importance assigned
+to caste; substitute for the Euhemerism of the Epics, an _elemental
+religion_, and we ascend to the religion of the Vedas; the nominal, but
+only the nominal basis, of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns,
+_Agni_ is _fire_; _Indra_, the _sky_, _firmament_, or _atmosphere_; and
+_Marut_, the _cloud_.
+
+
+RIGVEDA SANHITA.
+
+_Wilson's Translation._
+
+
+    I.
+
+    1. I glorify AGNI, the high priest of the sacrifice, the divine, the
+    ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the
+    possessor of great wealth.
+
+    2. May that AGNI, who is to be celebrated by both ancient and modern
+    sages, conduct the gods hither.
+
+    3. Through AGNI the worshipper obtains that affluence, which
+    increases day by day, which is the source of fame and the multiplier
+    of mankind.
+
+    4. AGNI, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on every side
+    the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.
+
+    5. May AGNI, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of knowledge;
+    he who is true, renowned, and divine, come hither with the gods!
+
+    6. Whatever good thou mayest, AGNI, bestow upon the giver (of the
+    oblation), that verily, ANGIRAS, shall revert to thee.
+
+    7. We approach thee, AGNI, with reverential homage in our thoughts,
+    daily, both morning and evening.
+
+    8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant
+    illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!
+
+    9. AGNI, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; be ever
+    present with us for our good!
+
+
+    II.
+
+    1. A['S]WINS, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept with
+    outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!
+
+    2. A['S]WINS, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion),
+    endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our praises!
+
+    3. A['S]WINS, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, leaders in
+    the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations sprinkled on the
+    lopped sacred grass!
+
+    4. INDRA, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, ever
+    pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are desirous of
+    thee!
+
+    5. INDRA, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated by the
+    wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the priest), as he offers
+    the libation!
+
+    6. Fleet INDRA with the tawny coursers, come hither to the prayers
+    (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) food.
+
+    7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers (of
+    rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!
+
+    8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of rain, come
+    to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' to the days!
+
+    9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, omniscient,
+    devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the sacrifice!
+
+    10. May SARASWAT�, the purifier, the bestower of food, the
+    recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our offered
+    viands to our rite!
+
+    11. SARASWAT�, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, the
+    instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!
+
+    12. SARASWAT� makes manifest by her acts a mighty river, and (in her
+    own form) enlightens all understandings.
+
+
+    III.
+
+    1. Come, INDRA, and be regaled with all viands and libations, and
+    thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy foes)!
+
+    2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating and
+    efficacious (draught) to the rejoicing INDRA, the accomplisher of
+    all things.
+
+    3. INDRA, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these animating
+    praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all mankind, (come) to
+    these rites (with the gods)!
+
+    4. I have addressed to thee, INDRA, the showerer (of blessings), the
+    protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have reached thee, and
+    of which thou hast approved!
+
+    5. Place before us, INDRA, precious and multiform riches, for
+    enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!
+
+    6. Opulent INDRA, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement of
+    wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!
+
+    7. Grant us, INDRA, wealth beyond measure or calculation,
+    inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.
+
+    8. INDRA, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a thousand
+    ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought from the
+    field) in carts!
+
+    9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property, INDRA, the lord
+    of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to the place
+    of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!
+
+    10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies the
+    vast prowess of INDRA, the mighty, the dweller in (an eternal
+    mansion)!
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    1. The MARUTS who are going forth decorate themselves like females:
+    they are gliders (through the air), the sons of RUDRA, and the doers
+    of good works, by which they promote the welfare of earth and
+    heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid rocks), they delight in
+    sacrifices!
+
+    2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, the sons of
+    RUDRA have established their dwelling above the sky: glorifying him
+    (INDRA) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with
+    vigour: the sons of PRISNI have acquired dominion!
+
+    3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with ornaments,
+    they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant)
+    decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters follow
+    their path!
+
+    4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons:
+    incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers (of
+    mountains): MARUTS, swift as thought, intrusted with the duty of
+    sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars!
+
+    5. When MARUTS, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing)
+    food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from
+    the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water!
+
+    6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither),
+    and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled with good things:
+    sit, MARUTS, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale
+    yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!
+
+    7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power);
+    they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for
+    themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for whom VISHNU defends
+    (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come
+    (quickly) like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred
+    grass!
+
+    8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the
+    swift-moving (MARUTS) have engaged in battles: all beings fear the
+    MARUTS, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like
+    princes!
+
+    9. INDRA wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt,
+    which the skilful TWASHTRI has framed for him, that he may achieve
+    great exploits in war. He has slain VRITRA, and sent forth an ocean
+    of water!
+
+    10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the
+    mountain that obstructed their path: the munificent MARUTS, blowing
+    upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by the _soma_
+    juice, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer)!
+
+    11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where the _Muni_
+    was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty GOTAMA: the
+    variously-radiant (MARUTS) come to his succour, gratifying the
+    desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!
+
+    12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and
+    are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the libation),
+    who addresses you with praise; bestow them, also, MARUTS, upon us,
+    and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs
+    prosperity!
+
+If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns we shall find no definite
+and unimpeachable date. Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal
+evidence. The language is so much more archaic than that of the
+Institutes, and the mythology so much simpler; whilst the Institutes
+themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect to the Epics. Fixing
+these at about 200, B.C.; we allow so many centuries for the archaisms
+of Menu, and so many more for those of the Vedas. For the whole, eleven
+hundred has not been thought too little, which places the Vedas in the
+fourteenth century, B.C., and makes them the earliest, or nearly the
+earliest records in the world.
+
+It is clear that this is but an approximation, and, although all
+inquirers admit that creeds, languages, and social conditions present
+the phenomena of _growth_, the opinions as to the _rate_ of such growths
+are varied, and none of much value. This is because the particular
+induction required for the formation of anything better than a mere
+impression has yet to be undertaken--till when, one man's guess is as
+good as another's. The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric
+rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine, or a polity, has neither
+bark nor wood, neither teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.
+
+Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred from the archaic character
+of their language, has been shaken by the discovery of the structure of
+the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions. It approaches
+that of the Vedas; being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of
+Menu. Yet its date is less than 500, B.C. Again, the Pali is less
+archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the Pali is the language of the oldest
+inscriptions in India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any sort,
+with a definite date.
+
+One of the few cases where the phenomena of _rate_ have been studied
+with due attention, is in the evolution of the three languages of
+Denmark, Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What does this tell
+us? The last has altered so slowly that a modern Icelander can read the
+oldest works of his language. In Sweden, however, the speech _has_
+altered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these languages are
+unintelligible to the Icelander, and _vice vers�_. As to their
+respective changes, Petersen shows that the Danish was always about a
+hundred years forwarder than the Swedish, having attained that point at
+(say) 1200, which the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however,
+changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the Danish having, as it were, the
+start of a century. The Norwegian, however, comported itself
+differently. Until the Reformation it hardly changed at all; less than
+the stationary Icelandic itself. Fifty years, however, of sudden and
+rapid transformation brought it, at once, to the stage which the Danish
+had been three hundred years in reaching. How many times must the
+observation of such phenomena be multiplied before we can strike an
+average as to the rate of change in languages, creeds, and polities?
+
+Again--it is by no means certain that the Institutes and the Vedas
+represent a contemporary state of things. All doctrinal writings contain
+something appertaining to a period older than that of their composition.
+
+Lastly,--the proof that all the writings in question belong to the same
+linear series, and represent the growth of _the same phenomena in the
+same place_ is deficient. The �gyptologist believes that contemporary
+kings are mistaken for successive ones; the philologist, that difference
+of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts of a more specific
+nature dawn upon us when we attempt to realize the alphabet in which an
+Indian MS. of even only eight hundred years B.C., was written. No Indian
+MS. is fifteen hundred years old; no inscription older than Alexander's
+time. Nevertheless,--though I write upon this subject with
+diffidence--the Devanagari characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be
+deduced from the alphabet of the inscriptions; whilst these inscriptions
+themselves approach the alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion
+to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet of the Vedas is
+referable to that of the inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions
+betrays an origin external to India. Its introduction _may_ be very
+early; nevertheless its epoch must be investigated with a full
+recognition of the comparatively modern date of even the earliest
+alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early as compared with such
+a date as 1400, B.C., the accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch,
+perhaps, a thousand years too early.
+
+Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet, an architecture, a coinage,
+and an algebra at a period which no scepticism puts much later than 250,
+B.C., is so undoubted, that they may pass as ethnological facts, _i.e._,
+facts sufficiently true to be not merely admitted with what is called an
+_otiose_ belief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionable _data_
+of history, and to be used as effects from which we may argue
+backwards--_more ethnologico_--to their antecedent causes; the
+appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and an induction of its
+own.
+
+We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian civilization without
+impugning its indigenous origin, nor doubt this without stirring the
+question as to the countries from which it was introduced. These have
+been Persia, Assyria, Egypt, and Greece; the introduction being direct
+or indirect as the case might be.
+
+In this way are contrasted the views of the general ethnologist, with
+those of the special orientalist, in respect to the great and difficult
+question of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism of the
+former affect our views concerning the descent of the Hind�s, the
+Mahrattas, the Bengali, and those other populations, to the languages
+whereof they applied? Not much. Whichever way we decide, the population
+may still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the language Sanskritic, it
+is Tamulian in the same way as the Cornish are Welsh; _i.e._, Tamulian
+with a change of tongue.
+
+The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the Sanskrit literature unsettle
+but little. They merely make the introduction of certain foreign
+elements some centuries later.
+
+Whatever may be the oldest of the great Hind� creeds, that of the
+_Sikhs_ is the newest. Its founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was
+a contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind, a zealous man of
+action; himself succeeded by similar _g�r�s_, or priests, who
+eventually, by means of fanaticism, organization, and union with the
+state raised the power of the _Khalsa_ to the formidable height from
+which it has so lately fallen. _Truth_ is the great abstraction of the
+Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at once intolerant and
+eclectic may be seen from the following extracts.[48] They certainly
+present the doctrine in a favourable light.
+
+
+    I.
+
+    The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being
+              without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and
+              Grace.
+    Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.
+    Truth which is, and truth, O N�nuk! which will remain.
+    By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention
+              be fixed.
+    A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the
+              dead.
+    How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?
+    O N�nuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the
+              Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.
+    God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the
+              West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by
+              words?
+
+
+    III.
+
+    Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas,
+              Vishnoos, and Sivas.
+    Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and
+              holy men:
+    But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.
+    O N�nuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who
+              can understand?
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but
+              found not the value of an oil seed.
+    Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were
+              deceived by Maya.
+    There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owt�rs, and
+              the wondrous Muhadeo.
+    Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find
+              Thee.
+
+
+    V.
+
+    He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of
+              hell!
+    Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.
+    I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of
+              creation.
+
+
+    VI.
+
+    Dwell thou in flames uninjured,
+    Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,
+    Make blocks of stone thy daily food,
+    Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,
+    Weigh the heavens in a balance,
+    And then ask of me to perform miracles.
+
+
+    VII.
+
+    Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his
+              eyes.
+    Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but
+              neither does he regard.
+    Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he
+              heed.
+    O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.
+
+
+    VIII.
+
+    All say that there are four races,
+    But all are of the seed of Bruhm.
+    The world is but clay,
+    And of similar clay many pots are made.
+    N�nuk says man will be judged by his actions,
+    And that without finding God there will be no salvation.
+    The body of man is composed of five elements;
+    Who can say that one is high and another low?
+
+
+    IX.
+
+    There are four races and four creeds in the world among Hindoos and
+              Mahometans;
+    Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly;
+    The Hindoos dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Mahometans on the
+              Kaaba;
+    The Mahometans held by circumcision, the Hindoos by strings and
+              frontal marks.
+    They each called on Ram and Ruheem, one name, and yet both forgot
+              the road.
+    Forgetting the Veds and the Koran, they were inveigled in the snares
+              of the world.
+    Truth remained on one side, while Moollas and Brahmins disputed,
+    And salvation was not attained.
+
+
+    X.
+
+    God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and N�nuk was sent
+              into the world.
+    He established the custom that the disciple should wash the feet of
+              his Gooroo, and drink the water;
+    P�r Bruhm and Poorun Bruhm, in his Kulyoog, he showed were one.
+    The four feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were made of
+              faith; the four castes were made one;
+    The high and the low became equal: the salutation of the feet (among
+              disciples) he established in the world;
+    Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above the head.
+    In the Kulyoog he gave salvation; using the only true name, he
+              taught men to worship the Lord.
+    To give salvation in the Kulyoog, Gooroo N�nuk came.
+
+
+PARTS BEYOND THE INDUS.
+
+The Punj�b is the most western locality of the Indian stock, whether we
+call the members of it Hind� or Tamulian. On crossing the Indus we reach
+a new ethnological area, only partially, and only recently British;
+_viz._, the country of the Bil�ch, and the country of the Afghans. And
+here we must prepare for new terms; for hearing of _tribes_ rather than
+_castes_; and for finding a polity more like that of the Jews and Arabs
+than the institutions of the Brahmins.
+
+_The Bil�ch._--_Biluchi-stan_ means the country of the _Bil�ch_, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Afghani-stan_ mean that of the Hind�s and Afghans. It
+is the south-western quarter of Persia, that is the chief area of the
+tribes in question. Hence, however, they extend into Kutch Gundava,
+Scinde, and M�ltan, and the northern parts of Gujerat. Between Kelat,
+the Indus, and the sea, they are mixed with Brah�i.
+
+The Biluchi is a dialect of the Persian--sufficiently close to be
+understood by a Persian proper.
+
+There are no grounds for believing the Bil�ch to have been other than
+the aborigines of the country which they occupy; as their advent lies
+beyond the historical period; beyond the pale of admissible tradition.
+We may, perhaps, be told that they came from Arabia; an origin which
+their Mahometanism, their division into tribes, and their manners,
+suggest; an origin, too, which their physiognomy by no means impugns.
+Yet the tradition is not only unsupported, but equivocal. The _Arabia_
+that it refers to is, probably, the country of the ancient _Arabit�_;
+and that is neither more nor less than a part of the province of Mekran,
+within--or nearly within--the present Bil�ch domain. Hence, they may be
+_Arabite_, though not _Arabian_; or rather the old _Arabit�_ of the
+_Arabius fluvius_ were Bil�ch.
+
+But the Arabs are not the only members of the Semitic family with which
+the Bil�ch have been affiliated. A multiplicity of Jewish
+characteristics has been discerned. These are all the more visible from
+their contrast to the manners of the Hind�s. Intermediate in appearance
+to the Hind� and the Persian, the Bil�ch "cast of feature is certainly
+Jewish;"[49] his tribual divisions are equally so; whilst the Levitical
+punishment of adultery by stoning, and the transmission of the widow of
+a deceased brother to the brothers who survive, have been duly
+recognized as Hebrew characteristics. We know what follows all this; as
+surely as smoke shows fire. Levitical peculiarities suggest the
+ubiquitous decad of the lost tribes of Israel. We shall soon hear of
+these again.
+
+Tribes under chiefs--hereditary succession--pride of blood--clannish
+sentiments--feuds between tribe and tribe--the sacro-sanctity of revenge
+as a duty--the suspension of private wars when foreign foes
+threaten--greater rudeness amongst the mountains--comparative industry
+in the plains--the business of robbery tempered by the duties of
+hospitality--black mail, &c. All this is equally Bil�ch, Arabian, and
+Highland Scotch; and it all shows the similarity of details which
+accompanies similarity of social institutions. Ethnological relationship
+it does _not_ show.
+
+The word _Bil�ch_ is Persian. The bearer of the designation either calls
+himself by the name of his tribe, or else glorifies himself by the term
+_Usul_ or _Pure_. The tribes or _khoums_ are numerous. Sir H. Pottinger
+gives the names of no less than fifty-eight; without going into their
+subdivisions.
+
+If, however, instead of details, we seek for classes of greater
+generality we find that _three_ primary divisions comprise all the
+ramifications of the Bil�ch. The first of these is the _Rind_; the other
+two are the _Nihro_ and the _Mughsi_. The daughter of a Rind may be
+given to a Rind as a wife; but to marry into a tribe of Nihro or Mughsi
+extraction is a degradation. Here the elements of _caste_ intermix with
+those of _tribe_ or _clan_.
+
+_Afghans._--_Afghani-stan_ means the country of the Afghans, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Biluchi-stan_ mean that of the Hind�s and Biluchi,
+respectively.
+
+In India the Afghans are called _Patan_.
+
+Their language is called _Pushtu_. It is allied to the Persian--but less
+closely than the Bil�ch.
+
+Fully and accurately described in the admirable work of Lord Mountstuart
+Elphinstone, the Afghans have long commanded the attention of the
+ethnologist; and all that has been said about the Judaism of the Biluchi
+has been said in respect to them also, though not by so good a writer as
+the one just quoted. No wonder. Their tribual organization, if not more
+peculiar in character, has been more minutely described; a greater
+massiveness of frame and feature has been looked upon as eminently
+Judaic; and, lastly, an incorrect statement of Sir William Jones's, as
+to the Hebrew character of the Pushtu language, has added the authority
+of that respected scholar to the doctrine of the Semitic origin of the
+Afghans. Against this, however, stands the evidence of their peculiar
+and hitherto unplaced language. I say _unplaced_, because the criticism
+that separates the modern dialects of Hindostan from the Sanskrit,
+disconnects the Pushtu and the old Persian. Nevertheless, it is anything
+but either Hebrew or Arabic.
+
+Similarity of political constitution, and its attendant spirit of
+independence, have given a political importance to both the Bil�ch and
+the Afghan. Each is but partially--very partially--British; and each
+became dependent upon Britain, not because they were the Afghans and
+Bil�ch of their own rugged countries, but because they were part and
+parcel of certain territories in India. It was on the Indus that they
+were conquered; and it as Indians that they are British.
+
+Four great patriarchs are the hypothetical progenitors of the four
+primary Afghan divisions--though it is uncertain whether any such
+quaternion be more of an historical reality than the four castes of
+Brahminism. Subordinate to these four heads is the division called
+_Ul�s_ (_Ooloos_).
+
+A minuter knowledge of the Afghan affiliations--real or supposed--is to
+be gained by premising that _khail_ has much the same meaning as the
+Bil�ch _khoum_, so that it denotes a division of population which we may
+call _clan_, _tribe_, or _sept_; whilst the affix -_zye_, means _sons_
+or _offspring_. Hence, _Eusof-zye_ is equivalent to what an Arab would
+call _Beni Yusuf_; a Greek, _Ioseph-id�_; or a Highland Gael,
+_MacJoseph_. All this is clear. When, however, we try to give precision
+to our nomenclature, and ask whether the _khail_ contains a number of
+-_zye_, or the -_zye_ a number of _khails_, difficulties begin.
+Sometimes the one, sometimes the other is the larger class. And a
+_khail_ in one case may be divided into groups ending in -_zye_; in
+others, a group denoted by -_zye_ may contain two or more _khails_. Each
+is a _generic_ or _specific_ designation as the case may be.
+
+However, to proceed to instances, the following groups of Afghans may be
+constituted.
+
+1. Three sections--the _Acco-zye_, the _Mulle-zye_, and the
+_Lawe-zye_--are subdivisions of the--
+
+2. _Eusof._--The Eusof and _Munder_ being branches of the--
+
+3. _Eusof-zye._--Now the _Eusof-zye_ is one out of four divisions of
+the--
+
+4. _Khukkhi._--The _Guggiani_, _Turcolani_, and _Mahomed-zye_, being the
+other three.
+
+5. Lastly, the _Khukkhi_, the _Otman-khail_, the _Khyberi_, the
+_Bungush_, the _Khuttuk_ and, probably, some others form the _Berdurani_
+Afghans.
+
+But as _Berdurani_ is a geographical, or political, rather than a
+tribual designation; as it is the name by which the _north_-eastern
+Afghans were known to the Moghuls; and as it is equivalent to such an
+expression as _Western_ or _Eastern Highlander_, rather than to names so
+specific as _Campbell_ or _MacDonald_, it may be excluded from the true
+Afghan affiliations.
+
+With this deduction, however, the classification is sufficiently
+complex; besides which, it is, probably, much more systematic on paper
+than in reality. This, however, can only be indicated.
+
+The valley of Peshawar is the valley of the _Guggiani_, and
+_Mahomed-zye_ Afghans.
+
+The parts round it belong to the _Eusof-zye_, the _Otman-khail_, the
+_Turcolani_, the _Momunds_, and the _Khyberi_ of the Khyber Range and
+Pass. These last fall into the _Afridi_, the _Shainwari_, and the
+_Uruk-zye_. Their country is chiefly to the north of the Salt Range.
+
+The river K�r�m gives us the two valleys of Dowr and Bunn�[50]--the
+_Bunn�chi_ being as pre-eminently a mixed, as the mountaineers around
+them--the _Vizeri_--are a pure branch. These, and others, appear to
+belong to the great _Khuttuk_ division.
+
+The _south_-eastern Afghans are called _Lohani_; and, as a proof of this
+designation being of the same geographico-political character as
+_Berdurani_, the Khuttuk Afghans are divided between the two sections;
+at least the particular Khuttuks called _Murwuti_ are mentioned as
+Lohani, though the Khuttuk class in general is placed in the Berdurani
+branch. The chief Lohani Afghans are the _Shir�ni_ near the
+Tukt-i-Solim�n mountain, and the _Stori�ni_ (_Storeeanees_,
+_Oosteraunees_) conterminous with the most northern of the Bil�ch.
+
+Of these the B�gti and Murri are the chief populations of the frontier;
+whilst the _N�tkani_, _K�srani_, _Lund_, _Lughari_, _Gurkhari_,
+_Mudari_, and others, help to fill up the Muckelwand (or the parts
+immediately along the course of the Indus), and the Bil�ch portions of
+M�ltan.
+
+_The Brah�i._--The Brah�i, with whom it has been stated that the Bil�ch
+are intermixed, are pastoral tribes, with a coarser physiognomy, and a
+stouter make than their neighbours. Their language also is different. A
+specimen of it may be found amongst the well-known and important
+vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach; and this forms the subject of a memoir
+of no less a scholar than Lassen. Without placing it, he remarks that
+the numerals are _South_-Indian (or Tamulian) rather than aught else. He
+might have said more. The Brah�i is a remarkable and unexplained branch
+of the Tamul; but whether it be of late introduction or indigenous
+origin in the parts where it now occurs is uncertain. The mountains
+between Kutch Gundava and Mekran seem to form the area of the Brah�i;
+some eastern branches of which population I presume to be British, mixed
+with Bil�ch.[51]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Ceylon._--The inhabitants of the northern part of Ceylon speak the
+Tamul language, and are Brahminists in creed. They are not, however, the
+true natives of the island. These latter use a Hind� tongue, called the
+_Singhalese_. Its philological relations are exactly those of the
+Mahratta, Bengali, and Udiya,--neither better nor worse defined, more or
+less unequivocal. Some make it out to be of Sanskrit, others of Tamulian
+origin. All that is certain is, that it is more Sanskritic than the
+proper Tamul, and more Tamul than the Bengali. It is _written_; and
+embodies a copious, but worthless literature, its alphabet being derived
+from that of the Pali language.
+
+This introduces a new characteristic. The Pali has the same relation to
+Buddhism, that the Sanskrit has to Brahminism. It is the language of the
+Scriptures, the priest, and the scholar, and, although, at the present
+moment, it is as little recognized as a holy tongue on the continent of
+India, as the Greek of the New Testament is at Rome, it divides with the
+Arabic and Latin, the honour of being the most widely-spread literary
+language of the world. All the forms of Buddhism in the transgangetic
+peninsula are embodied in Pali writings. So are those of the Mongols;
+and so, to a great extent, those of the Tibetans as well. This makes the
+language and the creed nearly co-extensive. In China, however, and
+Japan, where great changes have taken place, and where either the
+development, or the deterioration of Buddhism has gone far enough to
+abolish the more palpable characteristics of the original Indian
+doctrine, the Pali language is no longer the medium. It _is_ so,
+however, for the vast area already indicated.
+
+In Buddhism, as opposed to Brahminism, there is a greater tenderness of
+animal life in general, whilst less respect is paid to the ox-tribe in
+particular. There is less also of the system of caste; and, in
+consequence of this, fewer of those elements of priestly influence,
+which originate in the ideas of the hereditary transmission of
+sacro-sanctitude. Buddhism, too, has the credit of running further in
+the dream-land of subjective metaphysics than Brahminism,--though this,
+as far as my own very imperfect means of judging go, is doubtful. Into
+practical pantheism, and into the deification of human reason it _does_
+run.
+
+When self-contemplation has reached its highest degree of abstraction,
+the state of _Nirwana_ is induced. This seems to mean the absorption of
+the spirit within itself; a condition which at once suggests adjectives
+like _impassive_, _subjective_, _exalted_, and _supra-sensual_, or
+substantives like _transcendentalism_, _egoism_, &c., and the like; in
+some cases with definite ideas to correspond with the term; oftener as
+mere meaningless words. Such, however, is the nomenclature which is
+requisite; a nomenclature to which I have recourse, not for the sake of
+illustrating my subject, but with the view of giving a practical notion
+of its indistinctness.
+
+Buddha himself is a specimen and model of self-absorption, consummation,
+perfection, or exaltation rather than a deity, or even a prophet. He
+shows what purity can effect, rather than teaches what purity consists
+in. He may even have become what he was, by his own unaided powers of
+supra-sensual abstraction.
+
+All this is but a series of negations, at least in the way of theology.
+But his spirit, after the departure of his body from the earth,[52]
+became incarnate in the body of some successor--and so on _ad
+infinitum_. This connects Buddhism with the doctrine of metempsychosis;
+a doctrine which the incarnations of Brahminism also suggest.
+
+Such are some of the speculative points of Buddhism. Its morality has
+been greatly, and, perhaps, unduly extolled. So much contemplation can
+scarcely exist without the condemnation of the more palpable sins of
+_commission_. Hence, those vices which are the offspring of passion and
+ignorance are condemned; as is but natural. The suspension of exertion
+precludes active vice. Of the active virtues, however, the recognition
+is as slight as may be; so slight as to make it doubtful whether
+Buddhism be a better rule for the formation of good citizens than
+Brahminism. Which has been the most resistant to the influences of
+Christianity is doubtful.[53]
+
+Just as the Anglo-Saxon language, although it originated in Germany, has
+survived and developed itself in Britain only, the Buddhist creed, once
+indigenous to the continent of Hindostan, is now found nowhere between
+the Himalayas and Cape Comorin; whilst beyond the pale of India, it is
+as widely extended as the English language is beyond the limits of
+Germany. The rival religion of the Brahmins expelled it. Which of the
+two was the older is uncertain. Still more difficult is it to determine
+how far each is a separate substantive mythological growth, or merely a
+modification of the rival creed.
+
+I lay but little stress upon the internal evidence derivable from the
+character of the religions themselves. Both are complicated and
+artificial--both, perhaps, equally so. In contrast, however, to the more
+speculative and transcendental points, suggestive of recent development,
+there are others indicative of great antiquity. Nevertheless, it is as
+difficult to affirm that the primitive parts of the one creed are older
+than the most primitive parts of the other, as it is to affirm that the
+highest transcendentalisms are more recent.
+
+The fact of the oldest inscriptions being in the Pali dialect, is
+favourable to the greater antiquity of Buddhism, but it is not
+conclusive. The notion that Sanskrit itself is comparatively recent, of
+course subtracts from that of Brahminism. But this is far from being
+admitted. Besides which, it by no means follows, that because Brahminism
+is, comparatively speaking, recent, Buddhism must be ancient.
+
+The best clue in this labyrinth of conflicting opinions is the study of
+the superstitions of the ruder tribes of the hill-ranges of India
+itself, of the sub-Himalayas, and of the Indo-Chinese peninsula; the
+result of which investigation will be that that creed which has most
+points in common with the primitive and unmodified mythologies of the
+Tamulian stock, and of those branches of the monosyllabic populations
+nearest akin thereto, has also the best claim to be considered as the
+older.
+
+In my own mind, I believe that the _Bedo_ of the Rajmahali mountaineers,
+is the _Batho_ of the Bodo, the _Pennu_ of the Khonds, and the
+_Potteang_ of the Kukis,[54]--name for name. I believe this without
+doubt or hesitation. But if I ask myself the import of this identity,
+the answer is unsatisfactory. There is doubt and hesitation in
+abundance. _Bedo_, _Batho_, _Petto_, and _Potteang_, _may_ represent the
+germ of what afterwards became _Buddh-ism_. They may exhibit the Indian
+creed in its _rudiments_. True. But they may also represent it in its
+_fragments_, so that _Bedo_ and _Batho_ may be but _Buddh_, distorted in
+form, and but imperfectly comprehended in import. In our own Gospel, the
+name for the place of punishment, which the Greeks called _Hades_, and
+the Hebrews typified by _Gehenna_, is the name of a Saxon goddess
+_Hela_; and, in this particular instance, a point of our original
+paganism has been taken up into our present Christianity. The same is
+the case with the Finnic nation, where _Yumala_ signifies _God_; Yumala
+being as truly heathen as _Jupiter_. On the other hand we find amongst
+the genuine pagan Gallas of Africa, an object of respect or worship
+called _Miriam_. What is this? No true piece of heathendom at all. Dr.
+Beke has given good reasons for believing that it means the Virgin
+Mother of the Saviour, the only extant member of the Christian
+Revelation now known to that once imperfectly Christianized community.
+
+Buddhism, then, may claim a higher antiquity than Brahminism under the
+two following conditions.
+
+1. That the names _Batho_, &c., be really a form of _Buddh_.
+
+2. That they have belonged to superstitions in which they occur from the
+beginning; and are not in the same category with the _Miriam_ of the
+Gallas, _i.e._, recent introductions from a wholly different
+religion--grafts rather than embryos.
+
+How far this latter is the case must be ascertained by a wide and minute
+inquiry, foreign to the present work.
+
+It is no wonder that, side by side with a semi-philosophical creed like
+Buddhism, we should have such a phenomenon as Devil-worship. When the
+spirit falls short of its due degree of self-sustained hardihood, fear
+finds its way to the heart. The evil powers are then propitiated;
+sometimes in a manner savouring of dignity, sometimes with groveling and
+grotesque cowardice. The Yezid of Mesopotamia, whose belief in the power
+of an evil spirit is derived from the Manicheism of old, shows his fear
+of the arch-enemy by simple and not unreasonable acts of negation. He
+does nothing that may offend; never mentions his name; and dwells on his
+attributes as little as possible. The devil-worshipper of Ceylon uses
+such invocations as the following:--
+
+    I.
+
+    Come, thou _sanguinary Devil_, at the sixth hour. Come, thou _fierce
+    Devil_, upon this stage, and accept the offerings made to thee!
+
+    The _ferocious Devil_ seems to be coming measuring the ground by the
+    length of his feet, and giving warnings of his approach by throwing
+    stones and sand round about. He looks upon the meat-offering which
+    is kneaded with blood and boiled rice.
+
+    He stands there and plays in the shade of the tree called _Demby_.
+    He removes the sickness of the person which he caused. He will
+    accept the offerings prepared with blood, odour, and reddish boiled
+    rice. Prepare these offerings in the shade of the _Demby_ tree.
+
+    Make a female figure of the _planets_ with a monkey's face, and its
+    body the colour of gold. Offer four offerings in the four corners.
+    In the left corner, place some blood, and for victims a fowl and a
+    goat. In the evening, place the scene representing the planets on
+    the high ground.
+
+    The face resembles a monkey's face, and the head is the colour of
+    gold. The head is reddish, and the bunch of hair is black and tied.
+    He holds blood in the left-hand, and rides on a bullock. After this
+    manner make the sanguinary figure of the planets.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, preserve these sick persons without
+    delay!
+
+    On the way, as he was going, by supernatural power he made a great
+    noise. He fought with the form of _Wessamoony_, and wounded his
+    head. The planet _Saturn_ saw a wolf in the midst of the forest, and
+    broke his neck. The _Wessamoony_ gave permission to the great devil
+    called _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, take away these sicknesses by
+    accepting the offerings made frequently to thee.--The qualities of
+    this devil are these: he stretches his long chin, and opens wide his
+    mouth like a cavern: he bears a spear in his right-hand, and grasps
+    a great and strong elephant with his left-hand. He is watching and
+    expecting to drink the blood of the elephant in the place where the
+    two and three roads meet together.
+
+    Influenced by supernatural power, he entered the body of the
+    princess called _Godimbera_. He caused her to be sick with severe
+    trembling sickness. Come thou poor and powerless devil _Maha-Sohon_
+    to fight with me, and leave the princess, if thou hast sufficient
+    strength.
+
+    On hearing these sayings, he left her, and made himself like a blue
+    cloud, and violently covered his whole body with flames of fire.
+    Furiously staring with his eyes, he said, "Art thou come, blockhead,
+    to fight with me who was born in the world of men? I will take you
+    by the legs, and dash you upon the great rock _Maha-meru_, and
+    quickly bring you to nothing."
+
+    Thou wast born on Sunday, the first day of the month, and didst
+    receive permission from the _King of Death_, and didst brandish a
+    sword like a plantain-leaf. Thou comest down at half-past seven, to
+    accept the offerings made to thee.
+
+    If the devil _Maha-Sohon_ cause the chin-cough, leanness of the
+    body, thirst, madness, and mad babblings, he will come down at
+    half-past seven, and accept the offerings made to him.
+
+    These are the marks of the devil _Maha-Sohon_: three marks on the
+    head, one mark on the eye-brow and on the temple; three marks on the
+    belly, a shining moon on the thigh, a lighted torch on the head, an
+    offering and a flower on the breast. The chief god of the
+    burying-place will say, May you live long!
+
+    Make the figure of the _planets_ called the emblem of the _great
+    burying-place_, as follows: a spear grasped by the right-hand, an
+    elephant's figure in the left-hand, and in the act of drinking the
+    blood of the elephant by bruising its proboscis.
+
+    Tip the point of the spear in the hand with blood, pointed towards
+    the elephant's face in the left-hand. These effigies and offerings
+    take and offer in the burying-place,--discerning well the sickness
+    by means of the devil-dancer.
+
+    Make a figure of the _wolf_ with a large breast, full of hairs on
+    the body, and with long teeth separated from each other. The effigy
+    of the _Maha-Sohon_ was made formerly so.
+
+    These are the sicknesses which the great devil causes by living
+    among the tombs: chin-cough, itching of the body, disorders in the
+    bowels; windy complaints, dropsy, leanness of the body, weakness and
+    consumptions.
+
+    He walks on high upon the lofty stones. He walks on the ground where
+    three ways meet. Therefore go not in the roads by night: if you do
+    so, you must not expect to escape with your life.
+
+    Make two figures of a goose, one on each side. Make a lion and a dog
+    to stand at the left-leg, bearing four drinking-cups on four
+    paws--and make a moon's image, and put it in the burying-place.
+
+    Comb the hair, and tie up a large bunch with a black string. Put
+    round the neck a cobra-capella, and dress him in the garments by
+    making nine folds round the waist. He stands on a rock eating men's
+    flesh. The persons that were possessed with devils are put in the
+    burying-place.
+
+    Put a corpse at the feet, taking out the intestines through the
+    mouth. The principal thing for this country, and for the Singhalese,
+    is the worship of the planets.[55]
+
+In the centre of the island is the kingdom of Kandy; naturally fortified
+by impervious forests, and long independent. This creates a variety; the
+Kandyans being somewhat ruder than the other Singhalese. It is not,
+however, an important one. The really important ethnology of Ceylon is
+that of the _Vaddahs_, in the eastern districts, inland of Battacaloa.
+They are still unmodified by either the Hind� habits, or the great
+Indian creeds,--the true analogues of the Khonds, and K�ls, and Bhils,
+&c. Their language, however, is Singhalese; an important fact, since it
+denotes one of two phenomena,--either the antiquity of the conquest of
+Ceylon supposing the extension of the Singhalese language to have been
+gradual, or the thorough-going character of it, if it be recent.
+
+Who were the _Pad�i_ of the following extract from
+Herodotus?[56]--"Other Indians there are, who live east of these. They
+are nomads, eaters of raw flesh; and called Pad�i. They are said to have
+the following customs. Whenever one of their countrymen is sick, whether
+man or woman, he is killed. The males kill the males, and amongst these
+the most intimate acquaintance kill their nearest friends; for they say
+that for a man to be wasted by disease is for their own meat to be
+spoilt. The man denies that he ails; but they, not letting him have his
+own way, kill and feast on him. If a female be sick, the women that are
+most intimate with her treat her as the males do the men. They sacrifice
+and feast upon all who arrive at old age. Few, however, go thus far,
+since they kill every one who falls sick before he reaches that stage of
+life."
+
+Name for name, the _Vaddahs_ of Ceylon have a claim to be _Pad�i_.
+Besides which they are Indian.
+
+But, name for name, the _Battas_[57] of Sumatra have a claim as well;
+and although they are not exactly Indian, they are cannibals of the sort
+in question--or, at any rate, cannibals in a manner quite as remarkable.
+
+This gives us a conflict of difficulties. The solution of them lies in
+the fact of neither _Vaddah_ nor _Batta_ being _native_ names; a fact
+which leaves us a liberty to suppose that the _Pad�i_ of Herodotus were
+simply some wild Indian tribe sufficiently allied in manners to the
+_Vaddahs_ of Ceylon, and the _Battas_ of Sumatra, to be called by the
+same name, but without being necessarily either the one or the other; or
+even ethnologically connected with either.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now look at the _gipsies_ of Great Britain. They are wanderers without
+fixed habitations; whilst, at the same time, they are more abundant in
+some parts of the island than others. They have no very definite
+occupation; yet they are oftener tinkers and tinmen than aught else
+equally legal. They intermarry with the English but little. All this is
+_caste_, although we may not exactly call it so. Then, again, they have
+a peculiar language, although it is so imperfectly known to the majority
+of the British gipsies, as to have become well-nigh extinct.[58] These
+gipsies are of Indian origin, and a wandering tribe of Hindostan, called
+Sikligurs, reminded Mr. Pickering of the European gipsies more than any
+other Indians he fell in with. Like these, the Sikligurs are _coves_, or
+tinkers.
+
+This, however, is by the way. Although it is as well to make a note of
+the Indian extraction of the English and other European gipsies, it is
+not for this reason that they have been mentioned. They find a place
+here for the sake of illustrating what is meant by the _wandering tribes
+of India_, whilst at the same time they throw a slight illustration over
+the nature of _castes_. Lastly, they are essentially parts of an
+ethnological investigation--ethnological rather than either social or
+political. Their characteristics are referable to a difference of
+descent; and they are tinkers, wanderers, poachers, and smugglers, not
+so much because they are either gipsies, or Indians, as because they are
+of a different stock from the English. They are foreigners in the
+fullest sense of the term; and they differ from their fellow-citizens
+just as the Jew does--though less advantageously.
+
+Now India swarms with the analogues of the English gipsy; so much so as
+to make it likely that the latter is found as far from his original
+country as Wales and Norway, simply because he is a vagabond, not
+because he is an Indian.
+
+Of the chief of the tribes in question a good account is given by Mr.
+Balfour. This list, however, which is as follows, may be enlarged.
+
+1. The _Gohur_ are, perhaps, better known under the name of _Lumbarri_,
+and better still as the _Brinjarri_, the bullock-drivers of many parts
+of India, but more especially of the Dekhan. They are corn-merchants as
+well. Their organization consists of divisions called _Tandas_, at the
+head of which is a _Naek_. Two Naeks paramount over the rest, reside
+permanently at Hyderabad, on the confines of the Mahratta and Telugu
+countries. The bullock, _Hatadia_, devoted to the God _Balajee_, is an
+object of worship. In a long line of Brinjarri met by Mr. Pickering,[59]
+one of the females was carrying a dog, which neither a Hind� nor a Parsi
+would have done. Many of them are Sikhs. There are, certainly, three
+divisions of the Gohuri--the Chouhane,[60] the Rhatore, and the Powar,
+and probably--
+
+_The Purmans_ are another branch of them; consisting of about
+seventy-five families of agriculturists on the Bombay islets.
+
+2. _The Bhowri_, called also _Hirn-shikarri_ and _Hern-pardi_, though
+Bhowri is the native name, are hunters. They also fall into subordinate
+divisions.
+
+3. _The Tarrem�ki_; so-called by themselves, but known in the Dekhan as
+_Ghissaris_, or _Bail-Kumbar_, and amongst the Mahrattas, as _Lohars_,
+are blacksmiths.
+
+4. _The Korawi_, fall in tribes which neither eat with each other, nor
+intermarry, _viz._:--
+
+_a._ The Bajantri, who are musicians.
+
+_b._ The Teling--basket-makers and prostitutes.
+
+_c._ The Kolla.
+
+_d._ The Soli.
+
+5. _The Bhattu_, _Dummur_, or _Kollati_, are exorcists and exhibitors of
+feats of strength.
+
+6. _The Muddikpur_, so called by themselves, though known under several
+other names, follow a variety of employments; some being ferrymen.
+
+All these tribes wander about the country without any permanent home,
+speak a peculiar dialect with a considerable proportion of
+Non-Sanskritic words, and preserve certain peculiarities of creed;
+though in different degrees--the Muddikpur being wholly or nearly pagan,
+the Tarrem�ki Brahminic.
+
+The wandering life of these, and other similar tribes is not, by itself,
+sufficient to justify us in separating them from the other Hind�s. But
+it does not stand alone. The fragments of an earlier paganism, and the
+fragments of an earlier language are phenomena which must be taken in
+conjunction with it. These suggest the likelihood of the Gohuri, the
+Bhatti, and their like, being in the same category with the Khonds and
+Bhils, &c., _i.e._, representatives of the earlier and more exclusively
+Tamulian populations. If the gipsy language of England had, instead of
+its Indian elements, an equal number of words from the original
+British, it would present the same phenomena, and lead to the same
+inference as that which is drawn from the Bhatti, Bhowri, Tarrem�ki, and
+Gohuri vocabularies,[61] _viz._: the doctrine that fragments of the
+original population are to be sought for amongst the wanderers over the
+face of the country, as well as among the occupants of its mountain
+strongholds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In a country like India, where differences of habit, business,
+extraction, and creed, are accompanied by an inordinate amount of
+separation between different sections and subsections of its population,
+and where slight barriers of diverse kinds prevent intermixture, the
+different sects of its numerous religions requires notice. This,
+however, may be short. As sectarianism is generally in the direct ratio
+to the complexity of the creed submitted to section, we may expect to
+find the forms of Brahminism and Buddhism, not less numerous than those
+of either Christianity or Mahometanism. And such is really the case. The
+sects are too numerous to enlarge upon. The Sikh creed has been noticed
+from its political importance. That of the Jains is also remarkable,
+since it most closely resembles Buddhism, without being absolutely
+Buddhist in the current sense of the word. It is, possibly, the actual
+and original Buddhism of the continent of India--supposed to have been
+driven out bodily by Brahminism, but really with the true vitality of
+persecuted creeds, still surviving in disguise. Again, in India, though
+in a less degree than in China, Philosophy replaces belief--so much so,
+that the different forms of one negation--Natural Religion--must be
+classed amongst the creeds of Hindostan; by the side of which there
+stand many kinds of simple philosophy; just as was the case in ancient
+Greece, where, in one and the same city, there were the philosophers of
+the Academy and the believers in Zeus.
+
+There is, then, creed within creed in the two great religions of
+India--to say nothing about the numerous fragments of modified and
+unmodified paganism.
+
+And besides these there are the following introduced religions--each
+coinciding, more or less, with some ethnological division.
+
+1. Christianity from, at least, four different sources--
+
+_a._ That of the Christians of Thomas on the Malabar Coast. Here the
+doctrine is that of the Syrian Church, and the population being
+_perhaps_ (?) Persian in origin.
+
+_b._ The Romanism of the French and Portuguese; the latter having its
+greatest development in the Mahratta country, about Goa.
+
+_c._ Dutch and Danish Protestantism.
+
+_d._ English and American Protestantism. To which add small infusions of
+the Armenian and Abyssinian churches.
+
+Of these it is only the Christians of St. Thomas that are of much
+ethnological importance.
+
+2. Judaism on the coast of Malabar; or the Judaism of the so-called
+_Black Jews_.
+
+3. Parseeism in Gujerat; of Persian origin, and, probably, nearly
+confined to individuals of Persian blood.
+
+4. Mahometanism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of foreign blood there are numerous infusions.
+
+1. _Arab._--On the western coast, more especially amongst the Moplahs of
+the neighbourhood of Goa; where the stock seems to be Arabian on the
+father's, and Indian on the mother's side.
+
+2. _Persian._--Amongst the Parsees and Saint Thomas Christians (?); and,
+far more unequivocally, and in greater proportions, amongst the _Moghul_
+families--these being always more or less Persian; but Persian with such
+heterogeneous intermixtures of Turk and Mongol blood besides as to make
+analysis almost impossible.
+
+3. _Afghan._--The Rohillas of Rohilcund are Afghan in origin; so are the
+Patani--indeed, the term _Patan_ means an Afghan of Hindostan wherever
+he may be.
+
+4. _Jewish._
+
+5, 6, 7.--_Chinese_, _Malay_, _Burmese_, &c.
+
+8. _European._
+
+Of the _Indians out of India_, by far the most are--
+
+1. The _Gipsies_.
+
+2. The _Banians_, who are the Hind� traders of Arabia, Persia, Cashmir,
+and other parts of the East.
+
+3. The _Hill Coolies_, individuals of the Khond and K�li class, upon
+whom England is trying the experiment of what may end in a revival of
+the old crimping system, as a substitute for slave-labour in our
+intertropical colonies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is a sketch of the ethnology of India; pre-eminently complex, but
+not pre-eminently mysterious; its chief problems being--
+
+1. The general ethnological relations of the Tamulian stock.
+
+2. Those of the intrusive Brahminical Hind�s.
+
+3. The relation of the intrusive population to the aboriginal.[62]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] "Transactions of Philological Society," No. 94.
+
+[42] Latin _nurus_, from _snurus_.
+
+[43] Latin _socer_, Greek {hekyros}.
+
+[44] Latin _socrus_, Greek {hekyra}.
+
+[45] Latin _levir_ (_devir_), Greek {da�r}.
+
+[46] Or _that_, _this_.
+
+[47] The full exposition of this doctrine is in the present writer's
+ethnological edition of the "Germania" of Tacitus; v. _�styi_.
+
+[48] Taken from the Appendix to Captain Cunningham's "History of the
+Sikhs."
+
+[49] Captain Postans, in "Transactions of Ethnological Society," who,
+along with Sir H. Pottinger, is my chief authority.
+
+[50] For a description of these parts see Major Edwardes' "Year on the
+Punj�b Frontier."
+
+[51] The best account of the Brah�i is to be found in Sir H. Pottinger's
+Travels.
+
+[52] In the sixth century, B.C. according to the Buddhist chronology.
+
+[53] Such, at least, is the opinion of the author of "Christianity in
+Ceylon," Sir E. Tennent.
+
+[54] Names explained in Chapter iii.
+
+[55] From Callaway's "Translation of the _Kol�n Nattannawa_."
+
+[56] Book iii. �. 99.
+
+[57] The same, probably, is the case with the BIDI of Java.
+
+[58] From this language, I imagine that the three following words have
+come into the English--two of them being slang and one a sporting
+term--_rum_, _cove_, _jockey_.
+
+[59] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," No. 145.
+
+[60] These names introduce a difficulty: They are _Rajp�t_ as well.
+
+[61] All of which may be found in the paper already quoted; and all of
+which contain numerous Tamul roots.
+
+[62] Since this was written Major-General Briggs' valuable paper on the
+_Aboriginal Tribes of India_, has been published in "Transactions of the
+British Association," &c., for 1851. Having been seen in MS. by the
+present writer it has been freely used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+    BRITISH DEPENDENCIES IN THE MALAYAN PENINSULA.--THE OCEANIC STOCK
+    AND ITS DIVISIONS.--THE MALAY, SEMANG, AND DYAK TYPES.--THE ORANG
+    BINUA.--JAKUNS.--THE BIDUANDA KALLANG.--THE ORANG SLETAR.--THE
+    SARAWAK TRIBES.--THE NEW ZEALANDERS.--THE AUSTRALIANS.--THE
+    TASMANIANS.
+
+
+Our isolated and small settlements in the Malayan Peninsula,[63] the
+dep�t at Labuan, Sir James Brooke's Rajahship of Sarawak, New Zealand,
+the joint protectorate of the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti, Australia,
+and Van Dieman's Land, bring us to a new division of the human species,
+which is conveniently called the _Oceanic_.
+
+Its divisions and subdivisions are as follows:--
+
+                         { PROTONESIANS { MICRONESIANS
+         { AMPHINESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS
+         {               { MALAGASI     {   PROPER
+ OCEANIC-{
+         {               { PAPUANS
+         { KEL�NONESIANS-{ AUSTRALIANS
+                         { TASMANIANS.
+
+Our settlements are limited to the Protonesian, Proper Polynesian,
+Australian, and Tasmanian sections: and we have no political authority
+over any of the Malagasi, Micronesians, or Papuans.
+
+With the exception of the occupants of the Malayan Peninsula, all the
+Oceanic population occupy islands. This explains the term _Oceanic_.
+
+Their _distribution_ is as remarkable as their _extension_. The
+Amphinesian[64] stream of population, originating in the peninsula of
+Malacca, is continued through Borneo, the Moluccas, and the Philippines,
+Lord North's Island, Sonsoral, the Pelew group, the Caroline and
+Marianne Isles, the Ralik and Radack chains, the Kingsmill group and the
+Gilbert and Scarborough Islands, to the Navigators', Society, Friendly,
+Marquesas, Sandwich, and New Zealand groups; having become _Micronesian_
+rather than _Protonesian_, after passing the Philippines, and _Proper
+Polynesian_ rather than _Micronesian_, after passing the Scarborough and
+Gilbert Archipelagoes. In this course it passes _round_ New Guinea and
+Australia; in each of which islands the population is Kel�nonesian.
+
+The Malay of the Malacca peninsula is no longer either monosyllabic or
+uninflectional, although in immediate contact with the southern
+dialects of the Siamese. Hence, the transition is abrupt; although by no
+means conclusive as to any broad and trenchant line of ethnological
+demarcation.
+
+The differences of physical form are less than those of language. No one
+has denied that the Malay configuration is a modification of the
+Mongolian--_at least in some of its varieties_.
+
+I say _at least in some of its varieties_, because within the narrow
+range of the Malaccan peninsula and the island of Borneo we find no less
+than three different types. In _Polynesia_ one of these, and in
+_Kel�nonesia_ another becomes exaggerated--so much so, as to suggest the
+idea of a different origin for the populations.
+
+_a._ The _Malays_ are referable to the first type. Mahometans in
+religion, they partake of the civilization of the Arab and Indian, and
+differ but slightly from the Indo-Chinese nations; the complexion being
+dark and the hair straight. The Mahometan Malays, however, are no true
+aborigines. They are not only a new people on the peninsula, but they
+consider themselves as such; and those occupants which they recognize as
+older than themselves, they call _Orang Binua_, or _men of the soil_. Of
+these some have a darker complexion and crisper hair than the intruding
+population: and when we reach a particular section called--
+
+_b._ The _Semang_, we find them described as having curly, crisp,
+matted, and even woolly hair, thick lips, and a black skin. These, like
+most of the other _Orang Binua_, are Pagans. Still their language is
+essentially Malay; and their physical conformation passes into that of
+the Malays by numerous transitions.
+
+_c._ Thirdly, we find in Borneo the _Dyaks_. Many of these are as much
+fairer than the Malays as the Semang are darker. Their language,
+however, belongs to the Malay class; whilst their religion and
+civilization may reasonably be supposed to be that of the Malays
+previous to the influences of Brahminism from India, Mahometanism from
+Arabia, and the changes effected in their habits, language, and
+appearance effected thereby.
+
+It is not too much to say that within the peninsula of Malaya, the
+Johore Archipelago, and the island of Borneo, each of these types, and
+every intermediate form as well, is to be found.
+
+_Malacca._--The town of Malacca is a town of Mahometan Malays, but I
+believe that the eastern parts of Wellesley province are on the frontier
+of the _Jokong_, _Jakon_, or _Jakun_. These are _Orang Binua_, or
+aborigines--at least as compared with the true Malays.
+
+In the eighth century--I am drawing an illustration from the history of
+our own island, and its relations to continental Germany--the
+Anglo-Saxons of Great Britain, themselves originally Pagan Germans, took
+an interest in the spiritual welfare of the so-called Old Saxons, a
+tribe of Westphalia, immediately related to their own continental
+ancestors, these Old Saxons having retained their primitive Paganism.
+The mission partly succeeded, and partly failed.
+
+Now, if in addition to this partial success of the Anglo-Saxon mission,
+there had been a partial Anglo-Saxon colonization as well, and if, side
+by side with this, fragments of the old unmodified Paganism had survived
+amongst the fens and forests up to the present time, we should have had,
+in the relations of England and Germany, precisely what I imagine to
+have been the case with the Malayan peninsula and the island of Sumatra.
+Like Germany, the peninsula would have supplied the original stock to
+the island; but, in the island, that stock would have undergone certain
+modifications. With these modifications it would--so to say--have been
+_reflected_ back upon the continent--_re_-colonizing the old
+mother-country. Now just what the Old Saxons of Westphalia were to the
+Anglo-Saxons of the eighth century, are the Jakun to the true Malays.
+They differ from them in being something other than Mahometan; _i.e._,
+in being nearly what the Mahometan Malays were before their conversion.
+
+The Jakun are Malays, _minus_ those points of Malay civilization which
+are referable to the religion of the Koran.
+
+But the Jakun are only a few out of many; a single branch of a great
+stem.
+
+The most convenient term for the members in general of this class is
+_Orang Binua_--a term already explained.
+
+_The Biduanda Kallang._--The next, then, of the _Orang Binua_ that comes
+in contact with a British dependency--many others _not_ thus politically
+connected with us being passed over--are the _Biduanda Kallang_ of the
+parts about Sincapore. Their present locality is the banks of the most
+southern of the rivers of the peninsula, the Pulai. Thither they were
+removed when the British took possession of the island of Sincapore; of
+which they were previously the joint occupants--joint occupants, because
+they shared it with the tribe which will be next mentioned. They were an
+_Orang Laut_ in one sense of the word, but not in another. _Orang_ means
+_men_ or _people_, and _laut_ means _sea_ in Malay; and the Biduanda
+Kallang were boatmen rather than agriculturists. But they were only
+freshwater sailors; since, though they lived on the water, they avoided
+the open sea. They formerly consisted of one hundred families; but have
+been reduced by small-pox to eight.
+
+Their priest or physician is called _bomo_, and he invokes the _hantu_,
+or deities, the _anito_ of the Philippine Islanders, the _tii_ of the
+Tahitians; and, probably, the _Wandong_ and _Vintana_ of Australia and
+Madagascar respectively.
+
+They bury their dead after wrapping the corpse in a mat; and placing on
+the grave one cup of woman's milk, one of water, and one of rice; when
+they entreat the deceased to seek nothing more from them.
+
+Persons of even the remotest degree of relationship are forbidden to
+intermarry.
+
+The accounts of their physical appearance is taken from too few
+individuals to justify any generalization. Two, however, of them had the
+forehead broader than the cheek-bones, so that the head was pear-shaped.
+In a third, it was lozenge-shaped. The head was small, and the face
+flat. The lower jaw projected; but not the upper--so that "when viewed
+in profile, the features seem to be placed on a straight line, from
+which the prominent parts rise very slightly."[65]
+
+_The Orang Sletar._--The original joint-occupants of Sincapore with the
+Biduanda Kallang, were the _Orang Sletar_, or _men of the river Sletar_;
+differing but little from the former. Of the two families they are the
+shyer, and the more squalid; numbering about two hundred individuals and
+forty boats. Their dialect is Malay, spoken with a guttural
+pronunciation, and with a clipping of the words.
+
+At the birth of a child they have no ceremonies; at marriage a present
+of tobacco and rice to the bride's mother confirms the match; at death
+the deceased is wrapped in his garments and interred.
+
+Skin diseases and deformities are common; nevertheless, many of their
+women are given in marriage to both the Malays and Chinese; but I know
+of no account of the mixed progeny.
+
+A low retreating forehead throws the face of the _Orang Sletar_
+forwards, though the jaw is rather perpendicular than projecting.[66]
+
+Such are the _Orang Binua_ originally, or at present, in contact with
+the small and isolated possessions of the British in the Malayan
+peninsula.
+
+Of the proper Malays I have said next to nothing. Excellent works give
+full accounts of them;[67] whilst it is not through _them_ that the true
+ethnological problems are to be worked.
+
+I believe that when we reach Borneo, the equivalents to the _Orang
+Binua_, or the original populations in opposition to the Mahometan
+Malays, become referable to a fresh type, and that instead of being
+_darker_ than the true Malays they are often _lighter_. At any rate, one
+thing is certain, _viz._, that, whether the skin be brown, blackish, or
+fair, the language belongs to the same stock.
+
+Again--although in one area the darker tribes may preponderate, it is
+not to the absolute exclusion of the fairer. The Dyaks of Borneo are,
+generally speaking, light-complexioned; yet, there is special evidence
+to the existence of dark tribes in that island. On the other hand there
+is equal evidence to the existence of families lighter-skinned than the
+true Malays in the peninsula. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the
+departure from the type of that population is towards darkness of colour
+on the continent, and towards lightness in Borneo.
+
+With what physical conditions these differences coincide is not always
+easy to be discerned. In the South Sea Islands, where in one and the
+same Archipelago, we find some tribes tall and fair, whereas others are
+dark and ill-featured, it has been remarked by Captain Beechy that this
+contrast of complexion coincides with the geological structure of the
+soil. The lower and more coralline the island, the blacker the
+islanders; the more elevated and volcanic, the lighter. In Africa, it is
+the low alluvia of rivers that favour the Negro configuration.
+Mountains or table-lands, on the other hand, give us red or yellow
+skins, rather than sable.
+
+The Dyaks, then, are light-coloured Pagans, speaking languages allied to
+the Malay; little touched by Arabic, and less by Hind� influences; with
+manners and customs that, more or less, re-appear amongst the Battas (or
+ruder tribes of Sumatra), and the so-called Harafuras of Celebes--and
+not only here but elsewhere. In other words, in all the islands, where
+Indian and Arabic civilization have not succeeded in wholly changing
+the primitive character, analogues of the _Orang Binua_ are to be
+found; their greatest differences being those of stature and
+complexion--differences upon which good judges have laid great stress;
+but differences which will probably be found to coincide with certain
+geological conditions in the way of physical, and with a lower level of
+civilization in the way of moral causes--these moral causes having
+indirectly a physical action.
+
+The Dyaks, in general, use the _sumpitan_, or blow-pipe, about five feet
+long; out of which some tribes shoot simple, others poisoned arrows. The
+utmost distance that the sumpitan carries is about one hundred yards. At
+twenty it is sure in its aim. The differences between the Dyak weapon,
+and one in use with the Arawaks of Guiana is but trifling--perhaps it
+amounts to nothing at all.
+
+Some Dyak tribes tattoo their bodies; others do not.
+
+Before a Dyak youth marries he must lay at the feet of the bride-elect
+the head of an enemy. This makes _head-hunting_ a normal item of Dyak
+courtship.
+
+Traces of the Indian mythology--measures of the Indian influence in
+other respects--just exist amongst the Dyaks--_e.g._, _Battara_ is a
+name in their Pantheon, and this is an alteration of the Brahminic
+_Avatar_.
+
+The pirates who harass the coasts of Borneo and the Chinese
+Seas--destined, at some future time to be, like the Kaffres, but too
+well-known to the English tax-payers--are Malays rather than _Orang
+Binua_, or their equivalents; the navigation of the Dyaks being chiefly
+confined to rivers.
+
+The particular tribes of Sarawak are the following--the Lundu, the
+Sarambo, the Sing�, the Suntah, the Sow, and the Sibnow. It is almost
+unnecessary to name the great fountain-head for all our recent knowledge
+of Borneo--Sir James Brooke.
+
+The Dyak type predominates amongst the _Orang Binua_ of Borneo. In the
+Philippines the Semang complexion re-appears. But the prolongation of
+the eastward line of migration takes us through the Mariannes and
+Ladrones to Polynesia; and here the magnitude of the islands decreases;
+in other words, the influences of the sea-air become greater. The
+aliment becomes almost wholly vegetable. The separation from the
+civilizational influences of Asia amounts to absolute isolation. Of the
+general ethnology of the South Sea Islanders I say nothing. The reasons
+which took me over China, Arabia, and the Malayan peninsula, _sicco
+pede_, spare the necessity of details here.
+
+In the Sandwich Islands there is a constitution. In Tahiti, a school of
+native Christian Missionaries.
+
+New Zealand exhibits the contrast between the darker and
+lighter-coloured Oceanic populations in so remarkable a manner as to
+have engendered the notion that two stocks occupy the island. If it were
+so, the fact would be remarkable and mysterious. How _one_ population
+found its way to a locality so distant is by no means an easy question;
+whilst the assumption of a second family of immigrants just doubles its
+difficulty.[68]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Java the proper Malay influences have been so great as to leave but
+few traces of the _Orang Binua_; and, earlier even than these, those of
+India were actively at work.
+
+East of Bali, however, the _Orang Binua_ re-appear, and here the type is
+that of the Semangs. From Ombay, parts of Ende, and parts of Sumbawa, we
+have short vocabularies--short, but not too scanty to set aside the
+hasty, but accredited, assertion of the Australian language, having
+nothing in common with those of the Indian Archipelago.[69]
+
+I feel as satisfied that Australia was peopled from either Timor or
+Rotti, as I do about the Gallic origin of the ancient Britons.
+
+I believe this because the geographical positions of the countries
+suggest it.
+
+I believe it, because the older and more aboriginal populations of Timor
+and Rotti approach, in physical character, the Australian.
+
+I believe it, because the proportion of words in the vocabularies
+alluded to is greater than can be attributed to accident; whilst the
+words themselves are not of that kind which is introduced by
+intercourse. Besides which, no such intercourse either occurs at the
+present moment, or can be shown to have ever existed.
+
+Australia agrees with parts of Africa, South America, and Polynesia, in
+being partially intertropical and wholly south of the equator--no part
+of continental Asia or Europe coming under these conditions. But it
+differs from Polynesia in being continental rather than insular in
+climate; from South America in the absence of great rivers and vast
+alluvial tracts; and from Africa in being wholly isolated from the
+Northern Hemisphere. It is with South Africa, however, that its closest
+analogies exist. Both have but small water-systems; both vast tracts of
+elevated barren country; and both a distinctive vegetation. The animal
+kingdoms, however, of the two areas have next to nothing in common. The
+comparative non-existence of Australian mammalia, higher in rank than
+the marsupials, is a subject for the zoologist. Ethnology only indicates
+its bearing upon the sustenance of man. Poor in the vegetable elements
+of food, and beggarly in respect to the animal, the vast continental
+expanse of Australia supports the scantiest aboriginal population of the
+world, and nourishes it worst. The steppes of Asia feed the horse; the
+_tundras_, the reindeer; the circumpolar icebergs, the seal; and each of
+these comparatively inhospitable tracts is more kindly towards its
+Mongolian, its Samoeid, and its Eskimo occupant, than Australia with its
+intertropical climate, but wide and isolated deserts.
+
+Except that his hair (which is often either straight, or only crisp or
+wavy) has not attained its _maximum_ of frizziness, and has seldom or
+never been called _woolly_, the Australian is a Semang under a South
+African climate, on a South African soil, and with more than a South
+African isolation.
+
+Few Australians count as far as five, and fewer still beyond it. This
+paucity of numerals is South American as well--the Brazilian and Carib,
+and other systems of numeration being equally limited.
+
+The sound of _s_ is wanting in the majority of Australian languages. So
+it is in many of the Polynesian.
+
+The social constitution is of extreme simplicity. Many degrees removed
+from the industrial, almost as far from the agricultural state, the
+Australian is hardly even a hunter--except so far as the kangaroo or
+wombat are beasts of chase. Families--scarcely large enough to be called
+tribes or clans--wander over wide but allotted areas. Nowhere is the
+approach to an organized polity so imperfect.
+
+This makes the differences between section and section of the Australian
+population, both broad and numerous. Nevertheless, the fundamental unity
+of the whole is not only generally admitted, but--what is better--it has
+been well illustrated. The researches of Captain Grey, Teichelmann,
+Schurrmann, and others, have chiefly contributed to this.
+
+The appreciation of certain apparent characteristic peculiarities has
+been less satisfactory; differences having been over-rated and points of
+similarity wondered at rather than investigated.
+
+The well-known instrument called the _boomerang_ is Australian, and it
+is, perhaps, exclusively so.
+
+Circumcision is an Australian practice--a practice common to certain
+Polynesians and Negroes, besides--to say nothing of the Jews and
+Mahometans.
+
+The recognition of the _maternal_ rather than the _paternal_ descent is
+Australian. Children take the name of their mother. What other points it
+has in common with the Malabar polyandria has yet to be ascertained.
+
+When an Australian dies, those words which are identical with his name,
+or (in case of compounds) with any part of it, cease to be used; and
+some synonym is adopted instead; just as if, in England, whenever a Mr.
+_Smith_ departed this life, the parish to which he belonged should cease
+to talk of _blacksmiths_, and say _forgemen_, _forgers_, or something
+equally respectful to the deceased, instead. This custom re-appears in
+Polynesia, and in South America; Dobrizhoffer's account of the
+Abiponian custom being as follows:--The "Abiponian language is involved
+in new difficulties by a ridiculous custom which the savages have of
+continually abolishing words common to the whole nation, and
+substituting new ones in their stead. Funeral rites are the origin of
+this custom. The Abipones do not like that anything should remain to
+remind them of the dead. Hence appellative words bearing any affinity
+with the names of the deceased are presently abolished. During the first
+years that I spent amongst the Abipones, it was usual to say _Hegmalkam
+kaham�tek_, when will there be a slaughtering of oxen? On account of the
+death of some Abipon, the word _Kaham�tek_ was interdicted, and, in its
+stead, they were all commanded by the voice of a crier to say,
+_Hegmalkam n�gerkat�?_ The word _nihirenak_, a tiger, was exchanged for
+_apanigehak_; _pe�_, a crocodile, for _Kaeprhak_, and _Ka�ma_,
+Spaniards, for _Rikil_, because these words bore some resemblance to the
+names of Abipones lately deceased. Hence it is that our vocabularies are
+so full of blots occasioned by our having such frequent occasions to
+obliterate interdicted words, and insert new ones."
+
+The following custom is Australian, and it belongs to a class which
+should always be noticed when found. This is because it appears and
+re-appears in numerous parts of the world, in different forms, and,
+apparently, independent of ethnological affinities.
+
+A family selects some natural object as its symbol, badge, or armorial
+bearing.
+
+All natural objects of the same class then become sacred; _i.e._, the
+family which has adopted, respects them also.
+
+The modes of showing this respect are various. If the object be an
+animal, it is not killed; if a plant, not plucked.
+
+The native term for the object thus chosen is _Kobong_.
+
+A man cannot marry a woman of the same _Kobong_.
+
+Until we know the sequence of the cause and effect in the case of the
+Australian _Kobong_, we have but little room for speculation as to its
+origin. Is the plant or animal adopted by a particular family selected
+because it was previously viewed with a mysterious awe, or is it
+invested with the attributes of sacro-sanctity because it has been
+chosen by the family? This has yet to be investigated.
+
+Meanwhile, as Captain Gray truly remarks, the Australian _Kobong_ has
+elements in common with the Polynesian _tabu_! Might he not have added
+that the _names_ are probably the same? The change from _t_ to _k_, and
+the difference between a nasal and a vowel termination, are by no means
+insuperable objections.
+
+He also adds that it has a counterpart with the American system of
+_totem_; although the exact degree to which the comparison runs on all
+fours is undetermined.
+
+But the disuse of certain words on the death of kinsmen, and the
+_Kobong_ are not the only customs common to the Australian and American.
+
+The admission to the duties and privileges of manhood is preceded by a
+probation. What this is in the Mandan tribe of the Sioux Americans, and
+the extent to which it consists in the infliction and endurance of
+revolting and almost incredible cruelties, may be seen in Mr. Catlin's
+description--the description of an eye-witness. In Australia it is the
+_Babu_ that cries for the youths that have arrived at puberty. Suddenly,
+and at night, a cry is heard in the woods. Upon hearing this, the men of
+the neighbourhood take the youths to a secluded spot previously fixed
+upon. The ceremony then takes place. Sham fights, dances, partial
+mutilations of the body, _e.g._, the knocking out of a front tooth, are
+elements of it. And this is as much as is known of it; except that from
+the time of initiation to the time of marriage, the young men are
+forbidden to speak to, or even approach a female.
+
+Surely, it is the common conditions of a hunter life which determine
+these probationary preparations for the hardships which accompany it in
+populations so remote as the Australian and the American of the prairie.
+I say of the prairie, because we shall find that in the proportion as
+the agricultural state replaces the erratic habits of the hunter,
+ceremonies of the sort in question decrease both in number and
+peculiarity of character.
+
+A third regulation forbids the use of the more enviable articles of
+diet, like fish, eggs, the emu, and the choicer sorts of opossum and
+kangaroo to the Australian youth.
+
+All that is known of the Australian religion is due to the researches of
+the United States Exploring Expedition. The most specific fact in this
+respect is the name _Wandong_ as applied to the evil spirit. I believe
+this to be truly a word belonging to the Oceanic Pantheon in general,
+and--as stated above--to be the same as _Vintana_ in Malagasi, and as
+the root _anit_ in many of the Polynesian languages.
+
+_The Tasmanians._--A few families, the remains of the aborigines of Van
+Dieman's Land, occupy Flinder's Island, whither they have been removed.
+
+I can give but little information concerning them.
+
+From the Australians they differ but slightly in mental capacity, and
+civilizational development. Perhaps their very low level in this
+respect is the lower of the two.
+
+The language seems to have fallen into not less than four mutually
+unintelligible forms of speech.
+
+Their _hair_ constituted their chief physical difference. This was
+curled, frizzy, or mopped.
+
+The _a priori_ view of their origin is that they crossed Torres Straits
+from Australia. I have, however, stated elsewhere that a case may be
+made out for either Timor or New Caledonia being their mother countries;
+in which case the stream of population has gone _round_ Australia rather
+than _across_ it. Certain peculiarities of the Tasmanian language give
+us the ground for thus demurring to the _prim� facie_ view of their
+descent. The same help us to account for the differences in texture of
+the hair.[70]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] Malacca, Wellesley Province, Penang, and Sincapore. For excellent
+information about the ethnology of these parts see Newbold's "British
+Settlements," and the "Journal of the Indian Archipelago."
+
+[64] From {amphi} (_amfi_) _roundabout_, and {n�sos} (_n�sos_) _an
+island_.
+
+[65] Logan in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[66] Logan and Thompson in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[67] Especially Crawfurd's "Indian Archipelago," Sir Stamford Raffles'
+"History of Java," and Marsden's "Sumatra."
+
+[68] Dr. Dieffenbach's work on New Zealand is the repertory of details
+here--a valuable and standard book.
+
+[69] The collation of these may be seen in the Appendix to Mr. Jukes'
+"Voyage of the Fly."
+
+[70] In the Appendix to Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly," and in "Man and his
+Migrations."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+    THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.--THE ALGONKIN
+    STOCK.--THE IROQUOIS.--THE SIOUX.--ASSINEBOINS.--THE ESKIMO.--THE
+    KOL�CH.--THE NEHANNI.--DIGOTHI.--THE ATSINA.--INDIANS OF BRITISH
+    OREGON, QUADRA'S AND VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.--HAIDAH.--CHIMSHEYAN.--
+    BILLICHULA.--HAILTSA.--NUTKA.--ATNA.--KITUNAHA INDIANS.--PARTICULAR
+    ALGONKIN TRIBES.--THE NASCOPI.--THE BETHUCK.--NUMERALS FROM
+    FITZ-HUGH SOUND.--THE MOSKITO INDIANS.--SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF
+    BRITISH GUIANA.--CARIBS.--WAROWS.--WAPISIANAS.--TARUMAS.--CARIBS OF
+    ST. VINCENT.--TRINIDAD.
+
+
+_The Athabaskans._--The best starting-point for the ethnology of the
+British dependencies in America is the water-system of the largest of
+the rivers which empty themselves into the Polar Sea, a system which
+comprises the Rivers Peel, Dahodinni, and the Rivi�re aux Liards,
+tributaries to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear Lake, the Great
+Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; a vast tract, and one which is _almost_
+wholly occupied by a population belonging to one and the same class; a
+class sometimes known under the name _Chepewyan_, or _Chepeyan_,
+sometimes under that of _Athabaskan_.
+
+The water-system in question forms the centre of the great Athabaskan
+area--the centre, but not the whole. _Eastward_, there are Athabaskan
+tribes as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards as far as the
+immediate neighbourhood of the Pacific; and southwards as far as the
+head-waters of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths of the
+Athabaskan population, in respect to its political relations, is
+British; all that is not British being either Russian or American. To
+this we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory rather than
+Canada to which the British Athabaskans belong.
+
+The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans are as follows:--
+
+1. The _S�-�saw-dinni_ (_See-eesaw-dinneh_), or
+_rising-sun-men_.--These, generally called either _Chipewyans_, or
+_Northern Indians_, are the most eastern members of the family, and
+extend from the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. I
+imagine that the _Brushwood_, _Birchrind_, and _Sheep_ Indians are
+particular divisions of this branch.
+
+2. _The Beaver Indians._--From the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountain,
+_i.e._, the valley of the Peace River.
+
+3. The _Daho-dinni_.--On the head-waters of the Rivi�re aux Liards.
+Called also _Mauvais Monde_.
+
+4. The _Strong-Bows_.--Mountaineers of the upper part of the Rocky
+Mountains.
+
+5. The _Kancho_.--Called also _Hare_ and _Slave_ Indians. Starved and
+miserable occupants of the parts along the River McKenzie between the
+Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional cannibalism, justified
+by the pressure of famine. Due east of these come--
+
+6. The _Dog-ribs_, and
+
+7. The _Yellow-knives_, on the _Copper River_; these last being also
+called the Copper Indians.
+
+8, 9. The _Slaous-cud-dinni_[71] of the McKenzie River is, probably, a
+division of some of the other groups rather than a separate substantive
+class.
+
+10. The _Takulli_.[72]--These fall into eleven minor tribes or clans.
+
+_a._ The _Ta�-tin_; probably the same as the _Naote-tains_.
+
+_b._ The _Tshilko-tin_.
+
+_c._ The _Nasko-tin_.
+
+_d._ The _Thetlio-tin_.
+
+_e._ The _Tsatsno-tin_.
+
+_f._ The _Nula�u-tin_.
+
+_g._ The _Ntsa�u-tin_.
+
+_h._ The _Natli�u-tin_.
+
+_i._ The _Nikozli�u-tin_.
+
+_j._ The _Tatshi�u-tin_.
+
+_k._ The _Babine_ Indians.
+
+11. The _Susi_ (_Sussees_).--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.
+
+New Caledonia is the chief area of the _Takulli_.
+
+Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky Mountains, lie--
+
+12. The _Tsikani_ (_Sicunnies_).
+
+The Athabaskan is the _first_ class in our list; and, if we look only at
+the area which its population occupies, it is a great one. All the
+Athabaskan languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.
+
+_The Algonkins._--The _second_ class is the Algonkin. It is greater in
+every way than the Athabaskan--greater in respect to the number of its
+divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to the ground it covers,
+and greater in respect to the range of difference which it embraces. All
+the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.
+
+Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is nearly equally divided
+between the United States and Great Britain.
+
+Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided between the Canadas and our
+other possessions and the Hudson's Bay territory.
+
+The whole of the Canadas, with one small but important exception, the
+whole of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's
+Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland are chiefly Algonkin.
+
+To this stock belonged and belong the extinct and extant Indians of New
+England, part of New York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even Kentucky and
+Tennessee; a point of American rather than of British ethnology, but a
+point necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating the
+magnitude of this stock.
+
+Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, the Narragansetts, the
+Massachuset, the Montaug, the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, the
+Ottogamis, the Kikkap�s, the Potawhotamis, the Illinois, the Miami, the
+Piankeshaws, the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock--all within the
+United States.
+
+The British Algonkins are as follows:--
+
+1. The _Crees_; of which the _Skoffi_ and _Sheshatap�sh_ of Labrador are
+branches.
+
+2. The _Ojibways_;[73] falling into--
+
+_a._ The _Ojibways Proper_, of which the _Sauteurs_ are a section.
+
+_b._ The _Ottawas_ of the River Ottawa.
+
+_c._ The original Indians of Lake _Nipissing_; important because it is
+believed that the form of speech called _Algonkin_, a term since
+extended to the whole class, was their particular dialect. They are now
+either extinct or amalgamated with other tribes.
+
+_d._ The _Messisaugis_, to the north of Lake Ontario.
+
+3. The _Micmacs_ of New Brunswick, Gasp�, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and
+part of Newfoundland; closely allied to the--
+
+4. _Abnaki_ of Mayne, and the British frontier; represented at present
+by the _St. John's Indians_.
+
+5. The _Bethuck_--the aborigines of Newfoundland.
+
+6. The _Blackfoots_, consisting of the--
+
+_a._ _Satsikaa_, or _Blackfoots Proper_.
+
+_b._ The _Kena_, or _Blood Indians_.
+
+_c._ The _Piegan_.
+
+To these must be added numerous extinct tribes.
+
+_The Iroquois._--The single and important exception to the Algonkin
+population of the Canadas is made by the existence of certain members of
+the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; a class falling into
+two divisions. The _northern_ Iroquois belong to New York and
+Pennsylvania, the _southern_ to the Carolinas.
+
+The former of these two falls into two great confederations, and into
+several unconfederate tribes.
+
+The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the now extinct _Mynkasar_ and
+_Cochnowagoes_--extinct, unless either or both be represented by a small
+remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his great work on the Indian
+tribes, now in the course of publication, under the sanction of
+Congress, as the _St. Regis Indians_.
+
+Of the second confederation the leading members were the _Wyandots_, or
+_Hurons_, of the parts between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.
+
+The first was that of the famous and formidable _Mohawks_. To these add
+the _Senekas_, the _Onondagos_, the _Cayugas_, and the _Oneidas_, and
+you have the _Five_ Nations. Then add, as a later accession, from the
+southern Iroquois, the _Tuskaroras_, and the _Six_ Nations are formed.
+
+Between these two there was war _even to the knife_; the greater portion
+of the Wyandot league belonging to the Algonkin class.
+
+Nevertheless, a few representatives of the whole seven tribes[74] still
+remain extant, their present locality--a reserve--being the triangular
+peninsula which was the original Huron area.
+
+Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier occupants were the
+_Hochelaga_; an Iroquois tribe also.
+
+_The Sioux._--In tracing the Nelson River from its embouchure in
+Hudson's Bay, towards its source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake
+Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement--the Red River rising within the
+boundary of the United States, flowing from south to north, and
+receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the Valley of the Assineboin
+is an interesting ethnological locality.
+
+Either the river takes its name from the population, or the population
+from the river; the division to which it belongs being a new one.
+Different from the Algonkins on the east, different from the Athabaskans
+on the north, and (in the present state of our knowledge) different from
+the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins have all their affinities
+southwards. In that direction the family to which they belong extends as
+far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom nine-tenths of the Valley
+of Missouri originally belonged--the Indians of the great Sioux class;
+Indians whose original hunting-grounds included the vast prairie-country
+from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi, and who again appear as an
+isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These isolated Sioux are the
+Winebagoes; the others being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the
+Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, the Osage, the Konzas,
+the Ottos, the Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the Quappas,--all
+American, _i.e._, belonging to the United States.
+
+None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with the sea. None of them
+belong to the great _forest_ districts of America. Most of them hunt
+over the country of the buffalo. This makes them warlike, migratory
+hunters; with fewer approaches to agricultural or industrial
+civilization than any Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.
+
+Of this class the Assineboins are the British representatives. They are
+the chief _Red River_ aborigines.
+
+It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members of the Algonkin
+stock, upon which the current and popular notions of the American
+Indian, the _Red Man_, as he is called--
+
+    The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,
+
+have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the other hand, have not
+contributed much to our notions on this point. In the first place, they
+are less known; in the next, they are less typical.
+
+But this raises their value in the eyes of the ethnologist; and the very
+fact of their possessing certain characteristics, in a comparatively
+slight degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating the phenomena
+of _transition_.
+
+Previous, however, to this, we must get our other _extreme_. This is to
+be found in the ethnology of--
+
+_The Eskimo._--It is a very easy matter for an artistic ethnologist to
+make some fine light-and-shade contrasts between two populations, where
+he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an Eskimo of Labrador at
+the other. An oblique eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow,
+with a crescentic fold overshadowing the _caruncula lacrymalis_,
+surmounted by a low forehead and black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of
+such inordinate development as to make the face as broad as it is long,
+are elements of ugliness which catch the imagination, and produce a
+caricature, where we want a picture. And they are elements of ugliness
+which can be accumulated. We may add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks
+so fleshy, as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the former
+untouched. We may then notice the state of the teeth, from the
+mastication of injurious substances; and having thus exhausted nature,
+we may revert to the deformities of art. We may observe that wherever
+there is a fleshy portion of the face that can be perforated by a stone
+knife, or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing and incisions;
+and that wherever there are incisions, bones, nails, feathers, and such
+like ornaments will be inserted. All this is the case. What European
+ladies do with their ears, the Eskimo does with the cartilage of his
+nose, the lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. More than
+this--in the lower lip, parallel to the mouth, and taking the guise of a
+mouth additional, a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough to
+allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion of the tongue. The
+insertion of a shell or bone, cut into the shape of teeth, completes the
+adornment.
+
+Then comes the question of colour. The Indian has a tinge of red; a
+tinge which enables us to compare his skin to _copper_. The Eskimo is
+simply brown, swarthy, or tawny.
+
+Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales are scarce in the south,
+and wood in the north of Greenland; and in consequence of this, there
+are regular meetings for the business of barter. This gives us the
+elements of commercial industry; elements which must themselves be taken
+in conjunction with the maritime habits of the people. What stronger
+contrast can we find to all this than the gloomy isolation of the
+hunters of the prairie-countries, whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?
+
+Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual capacity, to give the
+Eskimo credit for ingenuity and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type
+which we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently indocile and
+inflexible.
+
+Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable of great
+qualification--qualification which we find necessary, whether we look to
+the extent to which the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian the
+Eskimo--each receding from its own more extreme representative.
+
+The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly common amongst the Red
+Indian tribes; and rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither universal
+in the one, nor non-existent in the other. Oval features, a mixture of
+red in the complexion, an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst
+the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and women.
+
+In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less remarkable for
+inferiority than is generally supposed. His bulky, baggy dress makes him
+look square and short. Measurements, however, correct this impression.
+Men of the height of five feet ten inches have been noticed as
+particular specimens--better grown individuals than their fellows. And
+men under five feet have also been noticed for the contrary reasons.
+Numerous measurements, however, give about five feet as the height of an
+Eskimo woman, and five feet six inches as that of a man. This is more
+than so good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the Malays; whose
+person is squat, and whose average stature does not exceed five feet
+three or four inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk gives the
+Guiana Indians, as may be seen from the following table:--
+
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ |               | Aged. | ft.   in.   |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Wapisianas._ |  12   |  4   8-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  4   6      |
+ |               |  16   |  5   1-1/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Tarumas._    |  14   |  4  11-3/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Mawackas._   |  15   |  4  10      |
+ |               |  16}  |  4   9-5/10 |
+ |               |  17}  |             |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Atorais._    |  35   |  5   1-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  5   1      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Macusis._    |  14}  |  4   8      |
+ |               |  15}  |             |
+ |               |  14   |  5   0      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+
+It is more than the average of several other populations.
+
+Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different from the American. It
+is, probably, larger in its dimensions; so that its cavity contains more
+cubic inches. The measurements, however, which suggest this view, are
+but few. On the other hand, the relations between the _width_ and the
+_depth_ of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.
+
+By _width_ is meant the number of inches from side to side, from one
+parietal bone to the other; in other words, the _parietal diameter_.
+
+_Depth_ signifies the length of the _occipito-frontal_ diameter, or the
+number of inches from the forehead to the back of the skull.
+
+Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo crania examined by Dr. Morton, the
+parietal diameter so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal as for the
+skull in question to be as much as 5�4 inches in width, and as little as
+5�7 in depth; a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain almost as
+broad as it is long. _Valeat quantum._ It is an extreme specimen. The
+remainder are as 5�5 to 7�3; as 5�1 to 7�5; and as 5 to 6�7, proportions
+by no means exclusively Eskimo, and proportions which occur in very many
+of the undeniably American stocks.
+
+Likeness there is; and variety there is;--likeness in physical feature,
+likeness in language, and likeness in the general moral and intellectual
+characteristics. And then there is variety--variety in all the details
+of their arts; variety in their bows, their canoes, their dwellings,
+their fashions in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their
+fashions in the dressing of their hair.
+
+This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo at present. It is,
+however, preparatory to the general statement that _all the remaining_
+Indians of British North America recede from the Sioux and Iroquois
+type, and approach that of the family in question. Such, indeed, has
+been the case, though (perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the
+classes already considered--the Athabaskan.
+
+_The Kol�ch._--The extreme west of the British possessions beyond the
+Rocky Mountains, _north_ of latitude 55� is but imperfectly known.
+Indeed, for scientific, and, perhaps, for political purposes as well,
+the country is unfortunately divided. The Russians have the long but
+narrow strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations to
+its bays and archipelagoes. The British, on the contrary, though they
+possess the interior, have no great interest in the parts about the
+Russian boundary. In the way of trade, they are not sufficiently on the
+sea for the sea-otter, nor near enough the mountains for other
+fur-bearing animals.
+
+Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, the head-waters British.
+Beyond these, we have the water-system of the McKenzie--for that river,
+although falling into the Arctic Sea, has a western fork, which breaks
+through the barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in direction
+from west and south-west to north. Lake Simpson, Lake Dease, and the
+River Turnagain belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie being
+a range of highlands, if not of mountains.
+
+This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous on the south with that
+of the Takulli, and on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. How
+far, however, it extends towards the Russian boundary and in the
+north-west direction I cannot say.
+
+The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British representatives of the
+class called Kol�ch.[75] Assuming this--although from the want of a
+special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence is wanting--I
+begin with the notice of the _Nehannis_, as known to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, and afterwards superadd a sketch of the _Sitkans_, as known to
+the Russians of New Archangel; the two notices together giving us the
+special description of a family, and the general view of the class to
+which that family belongs.
+
+That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, is no more than is
+expected. We are far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. That
+they are ruled by a woman should surprise us. Such, however, is the
+case. A female rules them--and rules them, too, with a rod of iron.
+Respect for sex has here attained its height. It had begun to be
+recognized amongst the Athabaskans.
+
+The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but they are also civilized
+enough to barter; buying of the inland tribes, and selling to the
+Russians--a practice which seems to divert the furs of British territory
+to the markets of Muscovy. But this is no business of the ethnologist's.
+They are slavers and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond of
+music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; bold and treacherous in
+temper; and with the common Kol�ch physiognomy and habits.
+
+_These_ we must collect from the descriptions of the Russian
+Kol�ches--the locality where they have been best studied being Sitka
+Sound, or New Archangel. We must do it, however, _mutatis mutandis_,
+_i.e._, remembering that the Sitkans are Kol�ch of an Archipelago, the
+Nehanni Kol�ch of a continent.
+
+The Kol�ch complexion is light; the hair long and lank; the eyes black;
+and the lip and chin often bearded.
+
+The _Kon�gi_ are the natives of the island Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from
+whom the chief details of the Sitkan Kol�ch are taken, especially states
+that, with few exceptions, their manners and customs are those of these
+same Kon�gi; one of the minor points of difference being the greater
+liveliness of the Sitkans, and one of the more important ones, their
+treatment of the dead. They _burn_ the bodies (as do the Takulli
+Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in wooden boxes placed upon pillars,
+painted or carved, more or less elaborately, according to the wealth of
+the deceased.
+
+On the death of a _toyon_, or chief, one of his slaves is killed and
+burned with him. If, however, the deceased be of inferior rank the
+victim is _buried_. If the death be in battle, the head, instead of
+being burned, is kept in a wooden box of its own. But it is not with the
+shaman as with the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; since he is
+supposed to be too full of the evil spirit to be consumed by fire. The
+reason why burning is preferred to burying is because the possession of
+a piece of flesh is supposed to enable its owner to do what mischief he
+pleases.
+
+_Now the Kon�gi are admitted Eskimo._
+
+Notwithstanding the similarity between the Sitkans and Kon�gi there is
+no want of true American customs amongst them. Cruelty to prisoners,
+indifference to pain when inflicted on themselves, and the habit of
+scalping are common to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and
+those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On the other hand, they
+share the skill in painting and carving with the Chen�ks and the
+aborigines of the Oregon.
+
+_The Digothi._--The Dahodinni are Athabaskan rather than Kol�ch; the
+Nehanni Kol�ch rather than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni
+country is partially encircled by Kol�ch populations, and that a fresh
+branch of this stock re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the Lower
+McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, and at the termination of the
+great Rocky Range on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the _Digothi_
+or _Loucheux_; the only family not belonging to the Eskimo class, which
+comes in contact with the ocean; and, consequently, the only
+unequivocally Indian population which interrupts the continuity of the
+Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic. Perhaps the alluvium of
+a great river like the McKenzie, has determined this displacement. Such
+an occupancy would be as naturally coveted by an inland population, as
+undervalued by a maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have the
+appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; indeed, few Indians have
+had their physical appearance described in terms equally favourable.
+Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine sparkling eyes, and
+regular teeth, they approach the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass
+them in stature. The same authority which expressly states that the
+Nehanni are not generally tall, speaks to the athletic proportions and
+tall stature of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances are
+handsome and expressive.
+
+Whence came they? From the south-east, from Russian America. Their
+points of contrast to the Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast
+to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points of similarity to the
+Kol�ch do more. The Loucheux possessive pronoun is the same as the
+Kenay. Thus--
+
+ ENGLISH.         LOUCHEUX.    KENAY.
+
+ _My_-son         _se_-jay     _ssi_-ja.
+ _My_-daughter    _se_-zay     _ssa_-za.
+
+Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux and Nehanni are
+required before we can decidedly pronounce them to be Kol�ch; indeed,
+so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter amongst the
+Athabaskans.
+
+_The Fall Indians._--In a MS. communicated by Mr. Gallatin to Dr.
+Prichard, and, by the latter kindly lent to myself, and examined by me
+some years back, was a vocabulary of the language of the Indians of the
+Falls of the Saskatchewan. In this their native name was written
+_Ahnenin_. Mr. Hale, however, calls them _Atsina_. Which is correct is
+difficult to say.
+
+_Gros ventres_ is another of their designations; _Minetari of the
+Prairie_ another. This last is inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since
+the true _Minetari_ are a Sioux tribe, different in language, manners,
+and descent.
+
+_Arrapaho_ is a third synonym; and this is important, since there are
+other _Arrapahoes_ as far south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.
+
+The identity of name is _prim� facie_ evidence of two tribes so distant
+as those of Arkansas and the Saskatchewan being either offsets from one
+another, or else from some common stock; but it is not more. Nothing can
+be less conclusive. This has just been shown to be in the case of the
+term _Minetari_.
+
+The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; though the confederacy to
+which the Indians who speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.
+
+Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary; neither do we know
+whether the name be native or not.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A tract still stands over for notice. As we have no exact northern
+limits for the Nehanni, no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no
+exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts due east of the Russian
+boundary are undescribed.
+
+I can only _contribute_ to the ethnology here.
+
+_The Ugalentses._--Round Mount St. Elias we have a population of
+_Ugalentses_ or Ugalyakhmutsi. Though said to consist of less than forty
+families,[76] as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable that
+some of them are British.
+
+_The Tshugatsi_.--In contact with the Ugalents, who are transitional
+between the true Eskimo and the true Kol�ch, the Tshugatsi are
+unequivocally Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's Sound are their
+locality.
+
+_The Haidah._--Queen Charlotte's, and the southern extremity of the
+Prince of Wales' Archipelago, are the parts to which the Indians
+speaking the Haidah language have been referred. In case, however, any
+members of their family extend into the British territory, they are
+mentioned here.
+
+Three Haidah tribes are more particularly named--
+
+_a._ The _Skittegat_.
+
+_b._ The _Cumshahas_--a name remarkably like that of the _Chimsheyan_,
+hereafter to be noticed.
+
+_c._ The _Kygani_.
+
+_The Tungaas._--This is the name of the language of the most Northern
+Indians, with which the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It is
+Kol�ch; and more Russian than British.
+
+The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole of his valuable remarks
+upon the North-western Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion
+already made as to the extent which we have formed our ideas of the
+Aboriginal American upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; and his
+facts are a correction to our inferences. In what way do the moral and
+intellectual characters of the Western Indians differ from those of the
+Eastern? I shall give the answer in Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are
+less inflexible in character. Their range of ideas is greater. They are
+imitative and docile. They are comparatively humane.[77] No scalping. No
+excessive torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.
+
+Now--whether negative or positive--there is not one of those
+characteristics wherein the Western American differs from the Eastern,
+in which he does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. In the
+absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk, the council fire, the
+wampum-belt, the hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the Eskimo
+differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, and the Mohawk. True. But the
+Haidah and the Chimsheyan do the same.
+
+The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is Shamanistic; like the Negro
+of Africa they attribute to some material object mysterious powers. As
+far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. But, then, like the
+Finn, and the Samoeid of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or
+reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, charms, and dreams. As
+far as the term has been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our notions
+as to the religion of the Indians be rendered unduly favourable through
+the ideas of pure theism, called up by the missionary term _Great
+Spirit_, we must simply remember, in the first place, that the term is
+_ours_, not _theirs_; and that those who, by looking to facts rather
+than words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion that the
+creed of the Indians of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi is neither
+better nor worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. Both are
+alike, Shamanistic. And so is the Eskimo.
+
+The names in detail of the Indians of British Oregon, over and above
+those of the Athabaskan family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.
+Scouler still being the authority, and, along with him, Mr. Tolmie and
+Mr. Hale.
+
+1. The _Chimsheyan_, or _Chimmesyan_, on the sea-coast and islands about
+55� North lat. Their tribes are the _Naaskok_, the _Chimsheyan Proper_,
+the _Kitshatlah_, and the _Kethumish_.
+
+2. The _Billichula_, on the mouth of the Salmon River.
+
+3. The _Hailtsa_, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury Island to
+Broughton's Archipelago, and (perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island. Their tribes are the _Hyshalla_, the _Hyhysh_, the
+_Esleytuk_, the _Weekenoch_, the _Nalatsenoch_, the _Quagheuil_, the
+_Ttatla-shequilla_, and the _Lequeeltoch_. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh
+Sound will be noticed in the sequel.
+
+4. _The Nutka Sound Indians_ occupy the greater part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island, speak the _Wakash_ language, and fall into the
+following tribes--
+
+_a._ _The Naspatl._
+
+_b._ _The Nutkans Proper._
+
+_c._ _The Tlaoquatsh._
+
+_d._ _The Nittenat._
+
+5. _The Shushwah_, or _Atna_, are bounded on the north by the Takulli,
+belong to the interior rather than the coast, are members of a large
+family, called the _Tsihaili-Selish_, extending far into the United
+States. According to Mr. Hale, they present the remarkable phenomenon
+of an aboriginal stock having increased from about four hundred to
+twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.
+
+6. _The Kitunaha_, _Cutanies_, or _Flat-bows_, hardy, brave and shrewd
+hunters on the Kitunaha, or Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the
+Blackfoots, are the Oregon Indians whose habits most closely approach
+those of the Indians to the east of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To some of these I now return, since three points of Algonkin ethnology
+require special notice.
+
+_a._ _The Nascopi_ or _Skoffi_.--This is a frontier tribe. Much as we
+connect the ideas of cold and cheerless sterility with the inclement
+climate and naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we connect the
+Eskimo as a population with a similarly inhospitable country, it is only
+the coast of that vast region which is thus tenanted. On Hudson's
+Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits of Belleisle there are Eskimo;
+along the intervening coast there are Eskimo, and as far south as
+Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior there are no Eskimo.
+Instead of them we find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatap�sh--subsections
+(as stated before) of the same section of the great Algonkin stock. In
+them we have a measure of the effect of external conditions upon
+different members of the same class. Between the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay
+and the Pamticos of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25� of latitude
+combined with a difference of other physical conditions which more than
+equals the difference between north and south. Yet the contrast between
+the Algonkin and other inhabitants of Labrador is as evident (though
+not, perhaps, so great) as that between the Greenlander and the
+Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable from the
+Laplander so is the Skoffi from Eskimo.
+
+Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, the Nascopi hunts and
+fishes for his livelihood exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal
+migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, upon his net. This he
+sets under the ice, during the earlier months of the winter. After
+December, however, he would set them in vain; the fish being, then, all
+in the deep water. Woman, generally a drudge in North America, is
+pre-eminently so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, is the
+_killing_ of the game. The woman brings it home. The woman also drags
+the loaded sledges from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, and
+collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and smokes. Of such domestic
+slaves more than one is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi
+recognizes marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this sense the
+contracting parties are respectively the parents of the couple--the
+bride and bridegroom being the last parties consulted. When all has been
+arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's tent, remains there
+a year, and then departs as an independent member of the community.
+Cousins are addressed as brothers or sisters; marriage between near
+relations is allowed; and so is the marriage of more than one sister
+successively.
+
+The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the other Cree tribes; their
+Christianity still more partial and still more nominal. Sometimes
+rolling in abundance, sometimes starving, they are attached to the
+Whites by but few artificial wants; the few fur-bearing animals of their
+country being highly prized, and, consequently, going a long way as
+elements of barter. Their dress is almost wholly of reindeer skin; their
+travelling gear a leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In this
+bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his knees up to his chin, and
+defies both wind and snow.
+
+This account has been condensed from M'Lean's "Five and Twenty Years'
+Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder in his
+own words: "The horrid practice still obtains among the Nascopis of
+destroying their parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates them
+for further exertion. I must, however, do them the justice to say, that
+the parent himself expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural
+deed would probably never be committed, for they, in general, treat
+their old people with much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest
+relative, performs the office of executioner--the self-devoted victim
+being disposed of by strangulation."
+
+_b._ _The Aborigines of Newfoundland._--Sebastian Cabot brought three
+Newfoundlanders to England. They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate
+raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic of the Eskimo; and,
+thus far, the evidence is in favour of the savages in question belonging
+to that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by what follows; since
+Purchas states that two years after he saw two of them, dressed like
+Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not discover from Englishmen,
+till I learned what they were."
+
+Now as the Bethuck--the aborigines in question--have either been cruelly
+exterminated, or exist in such small numbers as not to have been seen
+for many years, it has been a matter of doubt whether they were Eskimo
+or Micmacs, the present occupants of the island. Reasons against either
+of these views are supplied by a hitherto unpublished Bethuck
+vocabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr.
+King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a _separate section_
+of the Algonkins. Such I believe them to have been, and have placed them
+accordingly.
+
+_c._ _The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals._--These are nearly the same as the
+Hailtsa. On the other hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in
+-_scum_.
+
+Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really to connect the Blackfoot
+with the Hailtsa, it brings the Algonkin class of languages across the
+whole breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores of the Pacific.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, any more than the
+Tahitians are of France, or the Sandwich Islanders of America, France,
+and England conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: and the
+Moskito Indians are the subjects of a native king.
+
+The present reigning monarch was educated under English auspices at
+Jamaica, and, upon attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. I
+believe that his name is that of the grandfather of our late gracious
+majesty. King George, then, king of the Moskitos, has a territory
+extending from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower part of the
+River San Juan; a territory whereof, inconveniently for Great Britain,
+the United States, and the commerce of the world at large, the limits
+and definition are far from being universally recognized. Nicaragua has
+claims, and the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.
+
+The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor of the Brazil, are the
+only resident sovereigns of the New World.
+
+The subjects of the former are, really, the aborigines of the whole line
+of coast between Nicaragua and Honduras--there being no Indians
+remaining in the former republic, and but few in the latter. Of these,
+too--the Nicaraguans--we have no definite ethnological information. Mr.
+Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands of the lakes of the
+interior. Colonel Galindo also mentions them; but I infer, from his
+account, that their original language is lost, and that Spanish is their
+present tongue; just as it is said to be that of the aborigines of St.
+Salvador and Costa Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And the
+difficulty is increased when we resort to history, tradition, and
+arch�ology. History makes them Mexicans--Asteks from the kingdom of
+Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just as the Ph[oe]nicians
+were of Carthage. Arch�ology goes the same way. A detailed description
+of Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology which is
+anxiously expected. At any rate, stone ruins and carved decorations have
+been found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written about Yucatan and
+Guatemala, may be repeated in the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The
+difficulty will be but increased; since whatever facts makes Nicaragua
+Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They are now in contact with Spaniards
+and Englishmen--populations whose civilization differs from their own;
+and populations who are evidently intrusive and of recent origin.
+Precisely the same would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made
+Mexican. The civilization would be of another sort; the population which
+introduced it would be equally intrusive; and the only difference would
+be a difference of stage and degree--a little earlier in the way of
+time, and a little less contrast in the way of skill and industry.
+
+But the evidence in favour of the Mexican origin of the Nicaraguans, is
+doubtful; and so is the fact of their having wholly lost their native
+tongue; and until one of these two opinions be proved, it will be well
+to suspend our judgment as to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed,
+either of them be true, their ethnological position will be a difficult
+question. With nothing in Honduras to compare them with--with nothing
+tangible, or with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua--with
+only very general miscellaneous affinities in Guatemala--their
+ethnological affinities are as peculiar as their political
+constitution. Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has
+undoubted _general affinities with those of America at large_; and this
+is all that it is safe to say at present. But it is safe to say _this_.
+We have plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of Mr.
+Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.
+
+The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is that they were never
+subject to the Spaniards. Each continent affords a specimen of this
+isolated freedom--the independence of some exceptional and impracticable
+tribes, as compared with the universal empire of some encroaching
+European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, the Tshuktshi Koriaks in
+North-eastern Asia, and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their
+relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of an amicable
+description. So they were with the Negroes--maroon and imported. And
+this, perhaps, has determined their _differenti�_. They are
+intertropical American aborigines, who have become partially European,
+without becoming Spanish.
+
+Their physical conformation is that of the South rather than the North
+American; and, here it must be remembered, that we are passing from one
+moiety of the new hemisphere to the other. With a skin which is
+olive-coloured rather than red, they have small limbs and undersized
+frames; whilst their habits are, _mutatis mutandis_, those of the
+intertropical African. This means, that the exuberance of soil, and the
+heat of the climate, makes them agriculturists rather than shepherds,
+and idlers rather than agriculturists; since the least possible amount
+of exertion gives them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants
+which are compatible with indolence that they care to satisfy. They
+presume rather than improve upon the warmth of their suns, and the
+fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they get drunk; when they
+work hardest, they cut mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the
+native industry. _Wulasha_ is the name of their Evil Spirit, and
+_Liwaia_ that of a water-god.
+
+I cannot but think that there is much intermixture amongst them. At the
+same time, the _data_ for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their
+greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the Negro; their next
+greatest with the Englishman. Of the population of the interior, we know
+next to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.
+
+They are frontagers to the river San Juan. This gives them their value
+in politics.
+
+They are the only well-known extant Indians between Guatemala and
+Veragua. This gives them their value in ethnology.
+
+The populations to which they were most immediately allied, have
+disappeared from history. This isolates them; so that there is no class
+to which they can be subordinated. At the same time, they are quite as
+like the nearest known tribes as the _American_ ethnologist is prepared
+to expect.
+
+What they were in their truly natural state, when, unmodified by either
+Englishman or Spaniard, Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous
+civilization (such as it was) of their coast, is uncertain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That the difference between the North and South American aborigines has
+been over-rated, is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do so,
+decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, who is at once minute in
+taking notice, and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to that
+of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge upon the extent to which the
+Indians of the New World in general look "like children of one family."
+On the other hand, however, there are writers like D'Orbigny. These
+expatiate upon the difference between members of the same class, so as
+to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or Peruvians from
+Athabaskans, but Peruvians from Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.
+
+Now it is no paradox to assert that these two views, instead of
+contradicting, support each other. A writer exhibits clear and
+undeniable differences between two American tribes in geographical
+juxtaposition to one another. But does this prove a difference of
+origin, stock, or race? Not necessarily. Such differences may be, and
+often are, partial. More than this--they may be more than neutralized by
+undeniable marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they prove is the
+extent to which really allied populations may be contrasted in respect
+to certain particular characters.
+
+Stature is the chief point in which the North American has the advantage
+of the Southern, _e.g._, the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R.
+Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general rule. Yet a vast number of
+the Indians of the Oregon, are shorter than the South American
+Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large as compared with the
+trunk, and the trunk with the limbs; the hands small; the foot large;
+the skin soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.
+
+_Indians of British Guiana._--These are distributed amongst four
+divisions, of very unequal magnitude and importance.--1. The Carib. 2.
+The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The Taruma.
+
+The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. Schomburgk was eighteen.
+
+1. The great _Carib_ group falls into three divisions:--
+
+_a._ The Caribs Proper.
+
+_b._ The Tamanaks.
+
+_c._ The Arawaks.
+
+Of these, it is only members of the first and last that occupy British
+Guiana.
+
+_The Arawaks._--The Arawaks are our nearest neighbours, and,
+consequently, the most Europeanized. Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they
+and the Warows amount to about three thousand, and from Bernau we infer,
+that this number is nearly equally divided between the two; since he
+reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. Each family has its
+distinctive tattoo, and these families are twenty-seven in number.
+
+The children may marry into their father's family, but not into that of
+their mother. Now as the caste is derived from their mother, this is an
+analogue of the North American _totem_. Polygamy is chiefly the
+privilege of the chiefs. The _Pe-i-man_ is the Arawak _Shaman_. He it is
+who names the children--_for a consideration_. Failing this, the progeny
+goes nameless; and to go nameless is to be obnoxious to all sorts of
+misfortunes.
+
+Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son of a conjuror enters his
+twentieth year, his right ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring,
+and he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.
+
+In imitating what they see, and remembering what they hear, the Arawak
+has, at least, an average capacity. Neither is he destitute of
+ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration is of the rudest
+kind.
+
+ Aba-da-kabo   = once my hand  = _five_.
+ Biama-da-kabo = twice my hand = _ten_.
+ Aba-olake     = one man       = _twenty_.
+
+Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and some neatness in the
+dressing of their hair is perceptible. It is tied up on the crown of the
+head.
+
+The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the lightest coloured families
+being as fair as Spaniards. This is on the evidence of Bernau, who adds,
+that, as children grow in knowledge and receive instruction, the
+forehead rises, and the physiognomy improves.
+
+The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are Carib at all, are Caribs
+Proper, rather than Arawaks. Of these, the chief are--
+
+_The Accaways_,--occupants of the rivers Mazaruni and Putara, with about
+six hundred fighting men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; firm
+friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, they kill; when unopposed,
+enslave.
+
+The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; for--like certain
+Australians--they attribute all deaths to contrivances of an enemy.
+Workers in poison themselves, they suspect it with others.
+
+Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but then their nudity is more
+complete; inasmuch as, instead of clothing, they paint themselves;
+arnotto being their red, lana their blue pigment. They pierce the
+_septum_ of the nose, and wear wood in the holes, like the Eskimo,
+Loucheux, and others. They paint the face in streaks, and the body
+variously--sometimes blue on one side, and red on the other. They rub
+their bodies with carapa oil, to keep off insects; and _one_ of the
+ingredients of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant called
+_muneery_.
+
+Their forehead is depressed.
+
+They give nicknames to each other and to strangers, irrespective of
+rank; and the better their authorities take it the greater their
+influence.
+
+It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit of the deceased hovers
+over the dwelling in which death took place, and that it will not
+tolerate disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse _in_ the hammock, and
+_under_ the hut in which it became one. This they burn and desert.
+
+_The Carab�si._--Twenty years ago the Carab�si (_Carabeese_,
+_Carabisce_) mustered one thousand fighting men. It would now be
+difficult to raise one hundred. But the diminution of their numbers and
+importance began earlier still. Beyond the proper Carab�si area, there
+are numerous Carab�si names of rivers, islands, and other geographical
+objects. Hence, their area has decreased.
+
+Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, dogs, rats, frogs, insects,
+and other sorts of food, unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by
+their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the part which they perforate,
+and wherein they wear their usual pins; besides which they fasten a
+large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of the head.
+
+In ordinary cases the hammock in which the death took place, serves as a
+coffin, the body is buried, and a funeral procession made once or twice
+round the grave; but the bodies of persons of importance are watched and
+washed by the nearest female relations, and when nothing but the
+skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, painted, packed in a basket and
+preserved. When, however, there is a change of habitation they are
+_burned_; after which the ashes are collected, and kept.
+
+Here we have interment and cremation in one and the same tribe; a
+circumstance which should guard us against exaggerating their value as
+characteristic and distinguishing customs.
+
+Again. The _Macusi_ is closely akin to the Carab�si; yet the Macusi
+buries his dead in a sitting posture without coffins, and with but few
+ceremonies. Now the sitting posture is common to the Peruvians, the
+Oregon Indians, and numerous tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers
+it to be one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Red Man of
+America in general.
+
+The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man of note dies his relations
+plant a field of cassava; just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a
+cocoa-nut tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve moons are over,
+and the cassava is ripe, they re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each
+other cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are then _hung up_ on
+the spot where the person died. Six moons later a second meeting takes
+place--and, this time, the whips are _buried_.
+
+The _Waika_ are a small tribe of the _Accaways_; the _Zapara_ of the
+_Macusis_. Besides these, the following Guiana Indians are Carib.
+
+The _Arecuna_; of which the _Soerikong_ are a section.
+
+The _Waiyamara_.
+
+The _Guinau_.
+
+The _Maiongkong_.
+
+The _Woyawai_.
+
+The _Mawakwa_, or Frog Indians--a tribe that flattens the head.
+
+The _Piano-ghotto_; of which the _Zaramata_ and _Drio_ are sections.
+
+The _Tiveri-ghotto_.
+
+2. _The Warow_, _Waraw_, _Warau_, or _Guarauno_.--These are the Indians
+of the Delta of the Orinoco, and the parts between that river and the
+Pomaroon. Their language is peculiar, but by no means without
+miscellaneous affinities. They are the fluviatile boatmen of South
+America. Their habit of taking up their residence in trees when the
+ground is flooded, has given both early and late writers an opportunity
+of enlarging upon their semi-arboreal habits.
+
+3. _The Wapisianas_ fall into--
+
+_a._ The _Wapisianas_ Proper--
+
+_b._ The _Atorai_, of which the _Taurai_, or _Dauri_ (the same word
+under another form), and the extinct, or nearly extinct, _Amaripas_ are
+divisions.
+
+_c._ The _Parauana_.
+
+4. The _Tarumas_, on the Upper Essequibo, have their probable affinities
+with the uninvestigated tribes of Central South America.
+
+The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are those of St. Vincents. In no
+other West Indian islands are there any aborigines extant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[71] _Dinni_, _tinni_, _din_, _tin_, &c.=_man_ in the Athabaskan
+tongues.
+
+[72] Called also _Carriers_, _Nagail_, and _Chin Indians_; though
+whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.
+
+[73] By no means to be confounded with the _Chepewyans_.
+
+[74] The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, and
+Hurons.
+
+[75] See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the British
+Association," 1847, p. 121.
+
+[76] Thirty-eight.
+
+[77] This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have already been
+noticed.
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
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+
+Transcriber's Amendments:
+
+ p. 30, fn. 10, 'Fallermayer' amended to _Fallmerayer_.
+
+ p. 31, 'Britany' amended to _Brittany_.
+
+ p. 32, 'Notiti� ...' amended to _Notitia Utriusque Imperii_.
+
+ p. 34, 'Caffres' amended to _Kaffres_.
+
+ p. 35, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_;
+        'Cabyles' amended to _Kabyles_.
+
+ p. 39, 'Avekoom' amended to _Avekvom_;
+        'Woloff' amended to _Wolof_;
+        'Bambarra' amended to _Bambara_.
+
+ p. 40, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_.
+
+ p. 65, 'languge' amended to _language_.
+
+ p. 67, 'Yorriba' amended to _Yarriba_;
+        'Callabar' amended to _Calabar_;
+        'Mosketo' amended to _Mosquito_.
+
+ p. 75, 'Amokosa' amended to _Amakosa_: '_The Amakosa._--This'.
+
+ p. 84, 'Caffraria' amended to _Kaffraria_.
+
+ p. 86, 'Crawford' amended to _Crawfurd_.
+
+ p. 94, 'Trangangetic' amended to _Transgangetic_.
+
+ p. 98, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to _Crawfurd's Embassy_.
+
+ p. 107, 'Kamti' amended to _Khamti_.
+
+ p. 121, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_.
+
+ p. 137, 'Pottaing' amended to _Potteang_.
+
+ p. 140, 'Kuttak' amended to _Cuttack_;
+         'Penna' amended to _Pennu_ (twice).
+
+ p. 141, 'Cicacole' amended to _Chicacole_.
+
+ p. 146, 'jackall' amended to _jackal_.
+
+ p. 148, 'Rajaship' amended to _Rajahship_.
+
+ p. 177, 'Levitican' amended to _Levitical_.
+
+ p. 181, 'Peshawer' amended to _Peshawar_.
+
+ p. 192, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+ p. 193, 'Singalese' amended to _Singhalese_.
+
+ p. 197, 'Binjarri' amended to _Brinjarri_;
+         'Telagu' amended to _Telugu_.
+
+ p. 198, 'Taremuki' amended to _Tarrem�ki_.
+
+ p. 199, 'Bowri' amended to _Bhowri_.
+
+ p. 201, 'Guzerat' amended to _Gujerat_.
+
+ p. 228, 'Skofi' amended to _Skoffi_.
+
+ p. 233, 'tatooing' amended to _tattooing_.
+
+ p. 237, 'tatooings' amended to _tattooings_.
+
+ p. 243, 'Saskachewan' amended to _Saskatchewan_.
+
+ p. 259, 'tatoo' amended to _tattoo_.
+
+ p. 262, 'Caribis' amended to _Carab�si_.
+
+
+Further Notes:
+
+ p. 113, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows '�k�' and '�bor' repositioned
+         to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. T�ngkhul'
+         (column), which originally read '--', has been amended to '11'.
+
+ p. 172-175, corrections to extracts taken from _A History of the Sikhs_,
+         by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies
+and Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and
+Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies
+
+Author: Robert Gordon Latham
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2010 [EBook #31296]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="trn"><p><big><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></big></p>
+
+<p>Archaic, dialect and variant spellings (including quoted proper nouns)
+remain as printed, except where noted. Minor typographical errors
+have been corrected without note; significant amendments have been
+listed at the end of the text.</p>
+
+<p>Greek text appears as originally printed, but with a mouse-hover transliteration, <span title="Biblos">&#914;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<h1><small>THE</small><br />
+ETHNOLOGY<br />
+<small><small>OF</small></small><br />
+THE BRITISH COLONIES<br />
+<small><small>AND</small></small><br />
+DEPENDENCIES.</h1>
+
+<h2><span class="fs">BY</span><br />
+R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,<br />
+<span class="fs">CORRESPONDING MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK,
+ETC. ETC.</span></h2>
+
+<div class="figc"><img src="images/001.png" width="93" height="111" alt="Device" title="" /></div>
+
+<div class="center"><big>LONDON:</big><br />
+JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.<br />
+<small>M.DCCC.LI.</small></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="center">LONDON:<br />
+<small>Printed by <span class="smcap">Samuel Bentley</span> and <span class="smcap">Co.</span>,<br />
+Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</small></div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><td class="rgt" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER I.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">Heligoland and the Frisians.&mdash;Gibraltar and the Spanish Stock.&mdash;Malta.&mdash;The
+Ionian Islands.&mdash;The Channel Islands.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER II.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">The Gambia Settlements.&mdash;Sierra Leone.&mdash;The Gold Coast.&mdash;The
+Cape.&mdash;The Mauritius.&mdash;The Negroes of America.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER III.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">Aden.&mdash;The Mongolian Variety.&mdash;The Monosyllabic Languages.&mdash;Hong
+Kong.&mdash;The Tenasserim Provinces; Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim,
+the Mergui Archipelago.&mdash;The M&ocirc;n, Siamese, Avans, Kariens, and
+Silong.&mdash;Arakhan.&mdash;Mugs, Khyens.&mdash;Chittagong, Tippera, and
+Sylhet.&mdash;Kuki.&mdash;Kasia.&mdash;Cachars.&mdash;Assam.&mdash;Nagas.&mdash;Singpho.&mdash;Jili.&mdash;Khamti.&mdash;Mishimi.&mdash;Abors
+and Bor-Abors.&mdash;Dufla.&mdash;Aka.&mdash;Muttucks
+and Miri, and other Tribes of the Valley of Assam.&mdash;The Garo.&mdash;Classification.&mdash;Mr.
+Brown's Tables.&mdash;The Bodo.&mdash;Dhimal.&mdash;Kocch.&mdash;Lepchas
+of Sikkim.&mdash;Rawat of Kumaon.&mdash;Polyandria.&mdash;The Tamulian
+Populations.&mdash;Rajmahali Mountaineers.&mdash;K&uacute;lis, Khonds, Goands,
+Chenchwars.&mdash;Tudas, &amp;c.&mdash;Bhils.&mdash;Waralis.&mdash;The Tamul, Telinga,
+Kanara, and Malayalam Languages.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER IV.</big><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">The Sanskrit Language.&mdash;Its Relations to certain Modern Languages
+of India; to the Slavonic and Lithuanic of Europe.&mdash;Inferences.&mdash;Brahminism
+of the Puranas.&mdash;Of the Institutes of Menu.&mdash;Extract.&mdash;Of
+the Vedas.&mdash;Extract.&mdash;Inferences.&mdash;The Hind&uacute;s.&mdash;Sikhs.&mdash;Biluchi.&mdash;Afghans.&mdash;Wandering
+Tribes.&mdash;Miscellaneous Populations.&mdash;Ceylon.&mdash;Buddhism.&mdash;Devil-worship.&mdash;Vaddahs.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER V.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">British Dependencies in the Malayan Peninsula.&mdash;The Oceanic Stock
+and its Divisions.&mdash;The Malay, Semang, and Dyak Types.&mdash;The Orang
+Binua.&mdash;Jakuns.&mdash;The Biduanda Kallang.&mdash;The Orang Sletar.&mdash;The
+Sarawak Tribes.&mdash;The New Zealanders.&mdash;The Australians.&mdash;The
+Tasmanians.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="td1" colspan="2"><big>CHAPTER VI.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center" colspan="2">DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td2">The Athabaskans of the Hudson's Bay Country.&mdash;The Algonkin Stock.&mdash;The
+Iroquois.&mdash;The Sioux.&mdash;Assineboins.&mdash;The Eskimo.&mdash;The
+Kol&uacute;ch.&mdash;The Nehanni.&mdash;Digothi.&mdash;The Atsina.&mdash;Indians of British
+Oregon, Quadra's and Vancouver's Island.&mdash;Haidah.&mdash;Chimsheyan.&mdash;Billichula.&mdash;Hailtsa.&mdash;Nutka.&mdash;Atna.&mdash;Kitunaha Indians.&mdash;Particular Algonkin Tribes.&mdash;The Nascopi.&mdash;The Bethuck.&mdash;Numerals
+from Fitz-Hugh Sound.&mdash;The Moskito Indians.&mdash;South American
+Indians of British Guiana.&mdash;Caribs.&mdash;Warows.&mdash;Wapisianas.&mdash;Tarumas.&mdash;Caribs
+of St. Vincent.&mdash;Trinidad.</td><td class="rgt"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<hr />
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<div class="bk3"><p class="prf">The following pages represent a Course of
+Six Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution,
+Manchester, in the months of February and
+March of the present year; the matter being
+now laid before the public in a somewhat fuller
+and more systematic form than was compatible
+with the original delivery.</p></div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>ETHNOLOGY<br />
+<small><small>OF</small></small><br />
+THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES.</h1>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>HELIGOLAND AND THE FRISIANS.&mdash;GIBRALTAR AND THE SPANISH
+STOCK.&mdash;MALTA.&mdash;THE IONIAN ISLANDS.&mdash;THE CHANNEL
+ISLANDS.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Heligoland.</i>&mdash;We learn from a passage in the
+<i>Germania</i> of Tacitus, that certain tribes agreed
+with each other in the worship of a goddess who
+was revered as <i>Earth the Mother</i>; that a sacred
+grove, in a sacred island, was dedicated to her;
+and that, in that grove, there stood a holy wagon,
+covered with a pall, and touched by the priest
+only. The goddess herself was drawn by heifers;
+and as long as she vouchsafed her presence among
+men, there was joy, and feasts, and hospitality;
+and peace amongst otherwise fierce tribes instead
+of war and violence. After a time, however, the
+goddess withdrew herself to her secret temple&mdash;satiated
+with the converse of mankind; and then<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+the wagon, the pall, and the deity herself were
+bathed in the holy lake. The administrant slaves
+were sucked up by its waters. There was terror
+and there was ignorance; the reality being revealed
+to those alone who thus suddenly passed
+from life to death.</p>
+
+<p>Now we know, by name at least, five of the
+tribes who are thus connected by a common
+worship&mdash;mysterious and obscure as it is. They
+are the Reudigni, the Aviones, the Eudoses, the
+Suardones, and the Nuithones.</p>
+
+<p>Two others we know by something more than
+name&mdash;the Varini and the Langobardi.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth is our own parent stock&mdash;the <i>Angli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Such is one of the earliest notices of the old
+creed of our German forefathers; and, fragmentary
+and indefinite as it is, it is one of the fullest
+which has reached us. I subjoin the original
+text, premising that, instead of <i>Herthum</i>, certain
+MSS. read <i>Nerthum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"&mdash;&mdash;Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis
+ac valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium
+sed pr&#339;liis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni
+deinde, et Aviones, et <i>Angli</i>, et Varini, et
+Eudoses, et Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus
+aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam notabile in
+singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est,
+Terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus
+hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+insula Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo
+vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti
+concessum. Is adesse penetrali deam intelligit,
+vectamque bobus feminis mult&acirc; cum veneratione
+prosequitur. L&aelig;ti tunc dies, festa loca,
+qu&aelig;cumque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non
+bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne
+ferrum; pax et quies tunc tant&ugrave;m nota, tunc
+tant&ugrave;m amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam conversatione
+mortalium deam templo reddat; mox
+vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, numen
+ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant,
+quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc
+terror, sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit id, quod
+tant&ugrave;m perituri vident."&mdash;"De Moribus Germanorum,"
+40.</p>
+
+<p>What connects the passage with the ethnology
+of Heligoland? Heligoland is, probably, the
+<i>island of the Holy Grove</i>. Its present name indicates
+this&mdash;<i>the holy land</i>. Its position in the
+main sea, or <i>Ocean</i>, does the same. So does its
+vicinity to the country of Germans.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time it must not be concealed from
+the reader that the Isle of Rugen, off the coast of
+Pomerania, has its claims. It is an island&mdash;but
+not an island of the <i>Ocean</i>. It is full of religious
+remains&mdash;but those remains are <i>Slavonic</i> rather
+than <i>German</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I believe, for my own part, that the seat of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+worship of <i>Earth the Mother</i>, was the island which
+we are now considering.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to its inhabitants, it must serve as a
+slight text for a long commentary. A population
+of about two thousand fishers; characterized, like
+the ancient Venetians, by an utter absence of
+horses, mules, ponies, asses, carts, wagons, or any
+of the ordinary applications of animal power to
+the purposes of locomotion, confined to a small
+rock, and but little interrupted with foreign elements,
+is, if considered in respect to itself alone,
+no great subject for either the ethnologist or the
+geographer. But what if its relations to the population
+of the continent be remarkable? What if
+the source of its population be other than that
+which, from the occupants of the nearest portion
+of the continent, we are prepared to expect? In
+this case, the narrow area of an isolated rock assumes
+an importance which its magnitude would
+never have created.</p>
+
+<p>The nearest part of the opposite continent is
+German&mdash;Cuxhaven, Bremen, and Hamburg,
+being all German towns. And what the towns
+are the country is also&mdash;or nearly so. It is
+German&mdash;which Heligoland is <i>not</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Heligolanders are no Germans, but <i>Frisians</i>.
+I have lying before me the Heligoland
+version of <i>God save the Queen</i>. A Dutchman
+would understand this, easier than a Low German,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+a Low German easier than an Englishman, and
+(I <i>think</i>) an Englishman easier than a German of
+Bavaria. The same applies to another sample of
+the Heligoland muse&mdash;<i>the contented Heligolander's
+wife</i> (<i>Dii tofreden Hjelgel&uuml;nnerin</i>), a pretty
+little song in Hettema's collection of Frisian
+poems; with which, however, the native literature
+ends. There is plenty of Frisian verse in general;
+but little enough of the particular Frisian of
+Heligoland.</p>
+
+<p>A difference like that between the Frisians of
+Heligoland and the Germans of Hanover, is
+always suggestive of an ethnological alternative;
+since it is a general rule, supported both by
+induction and common sense, that, except under
+certain modifying circumstances, islands derive
+their inhabitants from the nearest part of the
+nearest continent. When, however, the populations
+differ, one of two views has to be taken.
+Either some more distant point than the one
+which geographical proximity suggests has supplied
+the original occupants, or a change has taken
+place on the part of one or both of the populations
+since the period of the original migration.</p>
+
+<p>Which has been the case here? The latter.
+The present Germans of the coast between the
+Elbe and Weser are not the Germans who peopled
+Heligoland, nor yet the descendants of
+them. Allied to them they are; inasmuch as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+Germany is a wide country, and German a
+comprehensive term; but they are not the
+same. The two peoples, though like, are different.</p>
+
+<p>Of what sort, then, were the men and women
+that the present Germans of the Oldenburg and
+Hanoverian coast have displaced and superseded?
+Let us investigate. Whoever rises from the
+perusal of those numerous notices of the ancient
+Germans which we find in the classical writers,
+to the usual tour of Rhenish Germany, will find
+a notable contrast between the natives of that
+region as they <i>were</i> and as they <i>are</i>. His mind
+may be full of their <i>golden</i> hair, expecting to find
+it <i>flaxen</i> at least. Blue and grey eyes, too, he will
+expect to preponderate over the black and hazel.
+This is what he will have read about, and what
+he will <i>not</i> find&mdash;at least along the routine lines
+of travel. As little will there be of massive muscularity
+in the limbs, and height in the stature.
+Has the type changed, or have the old records
+been inaccurate? Has the wrong part of Germany
+been described? or has the contrast between
+the Goth and the Italian engendered an
+exaggeration of the differences? It is no part
+of the present treatise to enter upon this question.
+It is enough to indicate the difference
+between the actual German of the greater part
+of Germany in respect to the colour of his<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+hair, eyes, and skin, and the epithets of the
+classical writers.</p>
+
+<p>But all is not bare from Dan to Beersheba.
+The German of the old Germanic type is to be
+found if sought for. His locality, however, is
+away from the more frequented parts of his country.
+Still it is the part which Tacitus knew best,
+and which he more especially described. This is
+the parts on the Lower rather than the Upper
+Rhine; and it is the parts about the Ems and
+Weser rather than those of the Rhine at all&mdash;sacred
+as is this latter stream to the patriotism of
+the Prussian and Suabian. It is Lower rather than
+Upper Germany, Holland rather than Germany
+at all, and Friesland rather than any of the other
+Dutch provinces. It is Westphalia, and Oldenburg,
+as much, perhaps, as Friesland. The
+tract thus identified extends far into the Cimbric
+Peninsula,&mdash;so that the Jutlander, though a Dane
+in tongue, is a Low German in appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding observations are by no means
+the present writer's, who has no wish to be
+responsible for the apparent paradox that the
+<i>Germans in Germany are not Germanic</i>. It is
+little more than a repetition of one of Prichard's,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+in which he is supported by both Niebuhr and
+the Chevalier Bunsen. The former expressly<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+states that the yellow or red hair, blue eyes,
+and light complexion has now become uncommon,
+whilst the latter has "often looked in vain for the
+auburn or golden locks and the light cerulean
+eyes of the old Germans, and never verified the
+picture given by the ancients of his countrymen,
+till he visited Scandinavia; there he found himself
+surrounded by the Germans of Tacitus."</p>
+
+<p>For <i>Scandinavia</i>, I would simply substitute the
+<i>fen districts of Friesland, Oldenburg, Hanover,
+and Holstein</i>&mdash;all of them the old area of the
+Frisian.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the physiognomy. What are the other
+peculiarities of the Frisian? His language, his
+distribution, his history.</p>
+
+<p>The Frisian of Friesland, is not the Dutch of
+Holland; nor yet a mere provincial dialect of it.
+Instead of the infinitive moods and plural numbers
+ending in -<i>n</i> as in Holland, the former end in -<i>a</i>,
+the latter in -<i>ar</i>. And so they did when the
+language was first reduced to writing,&mdash;which it
+has been for nearly a thousand years. So they
+did when the laws of the Old Frisian republic
+were composed, and when the so-called <i>Old</i>
+Frisian was the language of the country. So
+they did in the sixteenth century, when the popular
+poet, Gysbert Japicx, wrote in the <i>Middle</i>
+Frisian; and so they do now&mdash;when, under the
+auspices of Postumus and Hettema, we have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+Frisian translations of Shakespeare's "As You
+Like it," "Julius C&aelig;sar," and "Cymbeline."</p>
+
+<p>Now the oldest Frisian is older than the oldest
+Dutch; in other words, of the two languages it
+was the former which was first reduced to writing.
+Yet the doctrine that it is the mother-tongue of
+the Dutch, is as inaccurate as the opposite notion
+of its being a mere provincial dialect. I state
+this, because I doubt whether the Dutch forms in
+-<i>n</i>, could well be evolved out of the Frisian in
+-<i>r</i>, or -<i>a</i>. The -<i>n</i> belongs to the older form,&mdash;which
+at one time was common to both languages,
+but which in the Frisian became omitted as early
+as the tenth century; whereas, in the Dutch, it
+remains up to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>If the Frisian differ from the Dutch, it differs
+still more from the proper Low German dialects
+of Westphalia, Oldenburg, and Holstein; all of
+which have the differential characteristics of the
+Dutch in a greater degree than the Dutch
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The closest likeness to the Frisian has ceased
+to exist as a language. It has disappeared on
+the Continent. It has changed in the island which
+adopted it. That island is Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>No existing nation, as tested by its language,
+is so near the Angle of England as the Frisian of
+Friesland. This, to the Englishman, is the great
+element of its interest.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The history of the Frisian Germans must begin
+with their present distribution. They constitute
+the present agricultural population of the province
+of Friesland; so that if Dutch be the language
+of the towns, it is Frisian which we find in
+the villages and lone farm-houses. And this is the
+case with that remarkable series of islands which
+runs like a row of breakwaters from the Helder to
+the Weser, and serves as a front to the continent
+behind them. Such are Ameland, Terschelling,
+Wangeroog, and the others&mdash;each with its dialect
+or sub-dialect.</p>
+
+<p>But beyond this, the continuity of the range of
+language is broken. Frisian is <i>not</i> the present
+dialect of Groningen. Nor yet of Oldenburg
+generally&mdash;though in one or two of the fenniest
+villages of that duchy a remnant of it still continues
+to be spoken; and is known to philologists
+and antiquarians as the <i>Saterland</i> dialect.</p>
+
+<p>It was spoken in parts of East Friesland as late
+as the middle of the last century&mdash;but only in
+parts; the Low German, or Platt-Deutsch, being
+the current tongue of the districts around.</p>
+
+<p>It is spoken&mdash;as already stated&mdash;in Heligoland.</p>
+
+<p>And, lastly, it is spoken in an isolated locality
+as far north as the Duchy of Sleswick, in the
+neighbourhood of Husum and Bredsted.</p>
+
+<p>It was these Frisians of Sleswick who alone,
+during the late struggle of Denmark against Germany,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+looked upon the contest with the same indifference
+as the frogs viewed the battles of the
+oxen. They were not Germans to favour the
+aggressors from the South, nor Danes to feel the
+patriotism of the Northmen. They were neither
+one nor the other&mdash;simply Frisians, members of
+an isolated and disconnected brotherhood.</p>
+
+<p>The epithet <i>free</i> originated with the Frisians of
+Friesland Proper, and it has adhered to them.
+With their language they have preserved many of
+their old laws and privileges, and from first to
+last, have always contrived that the authority
+of the sovereigns of the Netherlands should sit
+lightly on them.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, they are a broken and disjointed
+population; inasmuch, as the natural inference
+from their present distribution is the doctrine
+that, at some earlier period, they were spread
+over the whole of the sea-coast from Holland
+to Jutland, in other words, that they were the
+oldest inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower
+Hanover, and Holstein. If so, they must have
+been the <i>Frisii</i> of Tacitus. No one doubts this.
+They must also have been the <i>Chauci</i> of that
+writer, the German form of whose names, as we
+know from the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems, was
+<i>Hocing</i>. This is not so universally admitted;
+nevertheless, it is difficult to say who the Chauci
+were if they were not Frisians, or why we find<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+Frisians to the north of the Elbe, unless the population
+was at one time continuous.</p>
+
+<p>When was this continuity disturbed? From the
+earliest times the sea-coast of Germany seems to
+have been Frisian, and from the earliest times the
+tribes of the interior seem to have moved from
+the inland country towards the sea. Their faces
+were turned towards Britain; or, if not towards
+Britain, towards France, or the Baltic. I believe,
+then, that as early as 100 <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> the displacement
+of some of the occupants of the Frisian area
+had begun; this being an inference from the
+statement of C&aelig;sar, that the Batavians of Holland
+were, in his own time, considered to have
+been an immigrant population. From these
+Batavians have come the present Dutch, and as
+the present Dutch differ from the Frisians of
+<span class="smcapl">A.D.</span> 1851, so did their respective great ancestors
+in <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> 100&mdash;there, or thereabouts. But the encroachment
+of the Dutch upon the Frisian was but
+slow. The map tells us this. Just as in some parts
+of Great Britain we have <i>Shiptons</i> and <i>Charltons</i>,
+whereas in others the form is <i>Skipton</i> and <i>Carlton</i>;
+just as in Scotland they talk of the <i>kirk</i>, and in
+England of the <i>church</i>;<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and just as such differences
+are explained by the difference of dialect on the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+part of the original occupants, so do we see in
+Holland that certain places have the names in a
+Dutch, and others in a Frisian form. The Dutch
+compounds of <i>man</i> are like the English, and end
+in -<i>n</i>. The Frisians never end so. They
+drop the consonant, and end in -<i>a</i>; as <i>Hettema</i>,
+<i>Halberts-ma</i>, &amp;c. Again&mdash;all three languages&mdash;English,
+Dutch, and Frisian&mdash;have numerous
+compounds of the word <i>h&aacute;m</i>=<i>home</i>, as <i>Threekingham</i>,
+<i>Eastham</i>, <i>Petersham</i>, &amp;c. In English
+the form is what we have just seen. In Holland
+the termination is -<i>hem</i>, as in <i>Arn-hem</i>, <i>Berg-hem</i>.
+In Frisian the vowel is <i>u</i>, and the <i>h</i> is omitted
+altogether, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Dokk-um</i>, <i>Borst-um</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing this in mind, we may take up a map of
+the Netherlands. Nine places out of ten in
+Friesland end in -<i>um</i>, and none in -<i>hem</i>. In
+Groningen the proportion is less; and in Guelderland
+and Overijssel, it is less still. Nevertheless,
+as far south as the Maas, and in parts of the true
+Dutch Netherlands, where no approach to the
+Frisian language can now be discovered, a certain
+per-centage of Frisian forms for geographical
+localities occurs.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>The remainder of the displacement of the Frisians
+was, most probably, effected by the introduction<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of the Low Germans of the empire of
+Charlemagne, into the present countries of Oldenburg
+and Hanover; and I believe that the same
+series of conquests, which then broke up the
+speakers of the Frisian, annihilated the Germanic
+representatives of the Anglo-Saxons of England;
+since it is an undeniable fact that of the numerous
+dialects of the country called Lower Saxony,
+all (with the exception of the Frisian) are forms of
+the Platt-Deutsch, and none of them descendants
+of the Anglo-Saxon. Hence, as far as the language
+represents the descent, whatever we Anglo-Saxons
+may be in Great Britain, America, Hindostan,
+Australia, New Zealand, or Africa, we
+are the least of our kith and kin in Germany.
+And we can afford to be so. Otherwise, if we
+were a petty people, and given to ethnological sentimentality,
+we might talk about the Franks of
+Charlemagne, as the Celts talk of us; for, without
+doubt, the same Franks either exterminated
+or denationalized us in the land of our birth, and
+displaced the language of Alfred and &AElig;lfric in the
+country upon which it first reflected a literature.</p>
+
+<p>There are no absolute descendants of the ancestors
+of the English in their ancestral country of
+Germany; the Germans that eliminated them
+being but step-brothers at best. But there is
+something of the sort. The conquest that destroyed
+the Angles, broke up the Frisians. Each<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+shared each other's ruin. This gives the common
+bond of misfortune. But there is more than this.
+It is quite safe to say that the Saxons and Frisians<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+were closely&mdash;<i>very</i> closely&mdash;connected in respect
+to all the great elements of ethnological affinity&mdash;language,
+traditions, geographical position, history.
+Nor is this confined to mere generalities.
+The opinion, first, I believe, indicated by Archbishop
+Usher, and recommended to further consideration
+by Mr. Kemble, that the Frisians took
+an important part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion
+of Great Britain is gaining ground. True, indeed,
+it is that the current texts from Beda and
+the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle make no mention
+of them. They speak only of Saxons, Angles,
+and Jutes. And true it is, that no provincial
+dialect has been discovered in England which
+stands in the same contrast to the languages of
+the parts about it, as the Frisian does to the
+Dutch and Low German. Yet it is also true
+that, according to some traditions, Hengist was a
+Frisian hero. And it is equally true that, in the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, we find more than one
+incidental mention of Frisians in England&mdash;their
+presence being noticed as a matter of course, and
+without any reference to their introduction. This
+is shown in the following extract:&mdash;"That same<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+year, the armies from among the East-Anglians,
+and from among the North-Humbrians, harassed
+the land of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all
+by their <i>&aelig;scs</i>, which they had built many years
+before. Then King Alfred commanded long ships
+to be built to oppose the &aelig;scs; they were full-nigh
+twice as long as the others; some had sixty
+oars, and some had more; they were both swifter
+and steadier, and also higher than the others.
+They were shapen neither like the Frisian nor
+the Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they
+would be most efficient. Then some time in the
+same year, there came six ships to Wight, and
+there did much harm, as well as in Devon, and
+elsewhere along the sea-coast. Then the king
+commanded nine of the new ships to go thither,
+and they obstructed their passage from the port
+towards the outer sea. Then went they with
+three of their ships out against them; and three
+lay in the upper part of the port in the dry; the
+men were gone from them ashore. Then took
+they two of the three ships at the outer part of
+the port, and killed the men, and the other ship
+escaped; in that also the men were killed except
+five; they got away because the other ships were
+aground. They also were aground very disadvantageously,
+three lay aground on that side of
+the deep on which the Danish ships were aground,
+and all the rest upon the other side, so that no<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+one of them could get to the others. But when
+the water had ebbed many furlongs from the
+ships, the Danish men went from their three ships
+to the other three which were left by the tide on
+their side, and then they there fought against
+them. There was slain Lucumon the king's
+reeve, and Wulfheard the Frisian, and &AElig;bbe the
+Frisian, and &AElig;thelhere the Frisian, and &AElig;thelferth
+the king's <i>geneat</i>, and of all the men, Frisians
+and English, seventy-two; and of the Danish men
+one hundred and twenty."</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we have the evidence of Procopius that
+"three numerous nations inhabit Britain,&mdash;the
+Angles, the Frisians, and the Britons."<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whatever interpretation we may put upon the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+preceding extracts, it is certain that the Frisians
+are the nearest German representatives of our
+Germanic ancestors; whilst it is not uninteresting
+to find that the little island of Heligoland,
+is the only part of the British Empire where the
+ethnological and political relations coincide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gibraltar.</i>&mdash;This isolated possession serves as
+a text for the ethnology of Spain; and there
+is no country wherein the investigation is more
+difficult.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult, if we look at the analysis of the
+present population, and attempt to ascertain the
+proportion of its different ingredients. There is
+Moorish blood, and there is Gothic, Roman,
+and Ph&#339;nician; some little Greek, and, older
+than any, the primitive and original Iberic. Perhaps,
+too, there is a Celtic element,&mdash;at least such
+is the inference from the term <i>Celtiberian</i>. Yet
+it is doubtful whether it be a true one; and,
+even if it be, there still stands over the question
+whether the <i>Celtic</i> or the <i>Iberic</i> element be the
+older.</p>
+
+<p>When this is settled, the hardest problem of all
+remains behind; <i>viz.</i>, the ethnological position of
+the Iberians. What they were, in themselves,
+we partially know from history; and what their
+descendants are we know also from their language.
+But we only know them as an isolated
+branch of the human species. Their <i>relation</i> to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+the neighbouring families is a mystery. Reasons
+may be given for connecting them with the Celts
+of Gaul; reasons for connecting them with the
+Africans of the other side of the Straits; and
+reasons for connecting them with tribes and
+families so distant in place, and so different in
+manners as the Finns of Finland, and the Laps of
+Lapland. Nay more,&mdash;affinities have been found
+between their language and the Hebrew, Arabic,
+and Syriac; between it and the Georgian; between
+it and half the tongues of the Old World.
+Even in the forms of speech of America, <i>analogies</i>
+have been either found or fancied.</p>
+
+<p>Be this, however, as it may, the oldest inhabitants
+of the Spanish peninsula were the different
+tribes of the Iberians proper, and the
+Celtiberians; the first being the most easily
+disposed of. They it was, whose country was
+partially colonized by Ph&#339;nician colonists; either
+directly from Tyre and Sidon, or indirectly from
+Carthage. They it was who, at a somewhat later
+period, came in contact with the Greeks of Marseilles
+and their own town of <i>Emporia</i>. They
+it was who could not fail to receive some intermixture
+of African blood; whether it were from
+Africans crossing over on their own account, or
+from the Libyans, G&aelig;tulians, and Mauritanians
+of the Carthaginian levies.</p>
+
+<p>And now the great western peninsula becomes<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+the battle-ground for Rome and Carthage; the
+theatre of the Scipios on the one side, and the
+great family of the Barcas on the other. On
+Iberian ground does Hannibal swear his deadly
+and undying enmity to Rome. At this time,
+the numerous primitive tribes of Spain may boast
+a civilization equal to that of the most favoured
+spots of the earth,&mdash;Greece, and the parts between
+the Nile, the Euphrates and the Mediterranean
+alone being excepted. As tested by their agricultural
+mode of life, their commercial and mining
+industry, their susceptibility of discipline as
+soldiers, and, above all, by the size and number
+of their cities, the Iberian of Spain is on the same
+level with the Celt of Gaul, and the Celt of Gaul
+on that of the Italian of Italy,&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, <i>as far as the
+civilization of the latter is his own, and not of
+Greek origin</i>. But this is a point of European
+rather than Spanish ethnology.</p>
+
+<p>That the obstinate spirit of resistance to organized
+armies by means of a <i>guerilla</i> warfare,
+the savage patriotism which suggests such expressions
+as <i>war even to the knife</i>, and the endurance
+behind stone walls, which characterizes the
+modern Spaniards, is foreshadowed in the times
+of their earliest history, has often been remarked,
+and that truly. Numantia is an early Saragossa,
+Saragossa a modern Numantia. Viriathus has
+had innumerable counterparts. Where the indomitable<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+Cantabrian held out against the power of
+Rome, the Biscayan of the year 1851 adheres to
+his privileges and his language; and what the
+Cantabrian was to the Roman, the Asturian was
+to the Moor. Both trusted their freedom to
+their impracticable mountains and stubborn
+spirits&mdash;and kept it accordingly. It is an easy
+matter to refer the peculiarities of the Spanish
+character to the infusion of Oriental blood; and
+with some of them it may be the case. But with
+many of them, the reference is a false one. Half
+the Spanish character was Iberic and Lusitanian
+before either Jew or Saracen had seen the Rock
+of Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>Of the early Spanish religion, we know but
+little. A remarkable passage in Strabo speaks
+to their literature. They had an <i>alphabet</i>. This
+is known from coins and inscriptions. And it
+was of foreign origin&mdash;Greek or Ph&#339;nician.
+This nothing but the most inconsiderate and uncritical
+patriotism can deny. Denied, however,
+it has been; and the indigenous and independent
+evolution of an alphabet has been claimed; the
+particular tribe to which it has more especially
+been ascribed being the <i>Turdetani</i>. These&mdash;and
+the passage I am about to quote is the passage of
+Strabo just alluded to&mdash;are "put forward as the
+wisest of the Iberi, and they have the use of
+letters; and they have records of ancient history,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+and poems, and metrical laws for six thousand
+years&mdash;as they say."<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Now, whatever may be the doubts implied by
+the last three words of this extract, the evidence
+is to the effect that the old Iberians were a lettered
+nation; the antiquity of their civilization
+being another question. To modify our
+scepticism on the point, the text has been
+tampered with, and it has been proposed to read
+<i>poems</i> (<span title="ep&ocirc;n">&#7952;&#960;&#8182;&#957;</span>) instead of years (<span title="et&ocirc;n">&#7952;&#964;&#8182;&#957;</span>). The change,
+to be sure, is slight enough&mdash;that of a single
+letter&mdash;from <i>p</i> (<span title="p">&#960;</span>) to <i>t</i> (<span title="t">&#964;</span>); nevertheless, as it is
+more than cautious criticism will allow, the reading
+must stand as it is, and the claim of the Turdetanians
+must be for a literature nearly as old as the
+supposed age of the world in the current century,&mdash;a
+long date, and a date which would be improbable,
+even if we divided it by twelve, and
+rendered <span title="etos">&#7956;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> by <i>month</i> instead of <i>year</i>. It denotes
+either some shorter period (perhaps a day)
+or nothing at all.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the Iberians; of which the Lusitanians
+of Portugal were a branch; and of which
+there were several divisions and subdivisions involving
+considerable varieties both of manners<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+and language. In respect to the latter there is
+the special evidence of Strabo that their tongues
+and alphabets differed. And so did their mythologies.
+The Callaici had the reputation of
+being <i>atheists</i>; whilst the Celtiberi worshipped
+an anonymous God,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> at the full of the moon,
+with feasts and dances.</p>
+
+<p>But who were the Celtiberi? I have already
+said that there were difficulties upon this point.
+The name makes them a mixed people; half Celt
+and half Iberic. If so, the French influence in
+the Spanish Peninsula was as great in the time of
+Hannibal, as it was wished to be in the time of
+Louis XIV.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Niebuhr, the chief
+authorities have considered the Iberi as the aborigines,
+and the Celts as emigrants from Gaul.
+To this, however, Niebuhr took exceptions. He
+considered the warlike character of the Iberians;
+and this made him unwilling to think that any
+invader from the north had displaced them. And
+he considered the geographical <i>distribution</i> of the
+Celtiberi. This was not in the fertile plains nor
+along the banks of fertilizing rivers, nor yet in
+the districts of the golden corn and the precious
+wool of Hispania, but in the rougher mountain
+tracts, in the quarters whereto an aboriginal inhabitant
+would be more likely to retire, than an<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+invading conqueror to covet, I admit the difficulty
+implied in his objection; but I admit it
+only as a <i>presumption</i>&mdash;against which there is a
+decided preponderance of material facts.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, there are the oldest names
+of the geographical localities throughout Spain.
+These, as shown by the well-known monograph
+of Humboldt, are <i>not</i> Celtic, and are <i>Iberic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, the Celtic frontier was by no
+means so near the geographical boundary of the
+Peninsula as it is often supposed to have been.
+Instead of the Celtic of Gaul reaching the
+Pyrenees, the Iberic of Spain reached the Loire&mdash;so
+that the province of Aquitania, although
+Gallic in politics, was Iberic in ethnology. This,
+again, is shown by Humboldt.</p>
+
+<p>For my own part, instead of discussing the relation
+of the Celts of Celtiberia to the other
+inhabitants of Spain, I would open a new question,
+and investigate the grounds upon which we
+believe in an intermixture at all. Whatever
+respect we may pay to the statements of the
+classical writers, the <i>name</i> itself is not conclusive;
+since it would be just as likely to be given from
+an approach on the part of an Iberic population
+to the Celtic manners, or from the adoption of
+any <i>supposed</i> Celtic characteristic, as from absolute
+ethnological intermixture. Like modern observers,
+the ancient writers were too fond of gratuitously<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+assuming an intermixture of blood for
+the explanation of the results of common physical
+or social conditions. Hence&mdash;without pressing
+my opinion on the reader&mdash;I confine myself to an
+expression of doubt as to the existence of Celts
+amongst the Celtiberi <i>at all</i>.</p>
+
+<p>But this only simplifies the question as to the
+ethnological position of the Iberic variety of the
+human species. It does not even suggest an
+answer. They were the aborigines of Spain.
+They are the ancestors of the present Biscayans.
+Their tongue survives in the north-west provinces
+of Spain, and in the north-east corner
+of France. It <i>has no recognized affinity with
+any known tongue; and it has undeniable points
+of contrast with all the languages of the countries
+around.</i></p>
+
+<p>Yet it is only by means of the Basque language
+that the problem can be attempted. The physical
+conformation of the still extant Iberians, has
+nothing definitely characteristic about it. The
+ancient mythology has died away. The tribes
+most immediately allied have ceased to be other
+than unmixed. So the language alone remains&mdash;and
+that has yet to find its interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>An Iberic basis&mdash;Greek, Ph&#339;nician, and Mauritanian
+intermixtures&mdash;possibly a Celtic element&mdash;Roman
+sufficient to change the language through
+four-fifths of the Peninsula&mdash;Gothic blood introduced<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+by the followers of Euric&mdash;Arabian
+influences, second in importance to those of
+Rome only&mdash;such is the analysis of ethnological
+elements of the Spanish stock. The proportions,
+of course, differ in different parts of the Peninsula,
+and, although they are nowhere ascertained, it is
+reasonable to suppose that the Arab blood increases
+as we go southwards, and the Gothic and
+Iberic as we approach the Pyrenees. This makes
+Gibraltar the most Moorish part of Europe; and
+such I believe it to be.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malta.</i>&mdash;When we have subtracted the English,
+Italians, Greeks, and other nations of the
+Levant from the population of Malta, there still
+remain the primitive islanders, with their peculiar
+language.</p>
+
+<p>Now this language is a form of the Arabic;
+and, with the exception of some of the dialects
+of Syria, it is the only instance of that language
+in the mouth of a Christian population. So
+thoroughly are the language and the religion of
+the Koran co-extensive.</p>
+
+<p>At what period this tongue found its way to
+Malta is undetermined. As compared with any
+of the present languages of the island it is <i>ancient</i>.
+But it is not certain that, though old, it is
+the earliest. Carthaginians may have preceded
+the Arabs; Greeks the Carthaginians; and,
+possibly, Sicanians, or the earliest occupants of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+Sicily, the Greeks. I am unable, however, to
+carry my reader beyond the simple fact of the
+<i>language being Arabic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The only other Arabic dependency of Great
+Britain is Aden.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>The Ionian Islands.</i>&mdash;The reader may have remarked
+the peculiar character of European ethnology.
+It consists chiefly in the <i>analysis</i> of the
+component parts of particular populations; and
+this it investigates so exclusively as to leave no
+room for the description of manners, customs,
+physiognomy, and the like&mdash;paramount in importance
+as these matters are when we come to the other
+quarters of the world. There are two reasons for
+this difference. First&mdash;the peculiarities of the
+European nations are by no means of the same
+extent and character with those of the ruder
+families of mankind. A similar civilization, and
+a similar religion, have effected a remarkable
+amount of uniformity; and, hence, the differences
+are those that the historian deals with more appropriately
+than the ethnologist. Secondly&mdash;such
+external and palpable differences as exist
+are generally known and appreciated. The <i>analysis</i><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+of blood, or stock, which, partially, accounts
+for them, is less completely understood.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, in treating of the Maltese, there was no
+description of the Arabic stock at all. All that
+was stated was a reason for believing that the
+Maltese belonged to it. Such also, to a great
+degree, was the case with the Gibraltar population,
+and the Heligolanders. And such will be the case
+with the Ionian Islanders. It will not be thought
+necessary to enlarge upon the Greeks; it will
+only be requisite to ask how far the group in
+question is Grecian.</p>
+
+<p>The very oldest population of the Ionian Islands
+I believe to have been <i>barbarous</i>&mdash;a term which, in
+the present classical localities, is convenient.</p>
+
+<p>In the smaller islands, such as Ithaca and Zacynthus,
+the population had become Hellenized at
+the time of the composition of the Homeric poems.
+In Corcyra, on the other hand, the original
+barbarism lasted longer. Such, at least, is the
+way in which I interpret the passages in the
+Odyssey concerning the Ph&aelig;acians (who were
+certainly not Greek), and the later language of
+Thucydides respecting the relations of the Corinthian
+colonies of Epidamnus, and Corcyra. The
+whole context leads to the belief that, originally,
+the <span title="apoikoi">&#7940;&#960;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span> were Greeks in contact with a population
+which was <i>not</i> Greek.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to the stock to which these early<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+and ante-Hellenic islanders belonged, the presumption
+is in favour of its having been the Illyrian;
+a stock known only in its probable remains&mdash;the
+Skipitar (Albanians, or Arnaouts) of Albania.</p>
+
+<p>Time, however, made them all equally Hellenic,
+a result which was, probably, completed
+before the decline of Greek independence; since
+which epoch there have been the following elements
+of intermixture:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Albanian blood, from the opposite coast.</p>
+
+<p>2. Slavonic, from Dalmatia.</p>
+
+<p>3. Italian, from Italy.</p>
+
+<p>4. Turk&mdash;I have no pretence to the minute
+ethnological knowledge which would enable me
+even to guess at the proportions.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, however, I believe the Ionian
+islanders to be what their language represents
+them&mdash;Greek. At the same time they are Greeks
+of an exceedingly mixed blood.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;of the foreign elements I imagine the
+Italian to be the chief. This, however, is an impression
+rather than a matured opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The Slavonic element, too, is likely to be considerable.
+The Byzantine historians speak of
+numerous and permanent settlements, during the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, both in Thessaly,
+and in the Morea; statements which the frequency
+of Slavonic names for Greek geographical
+localities confirms.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Neither, however, outweighs
+the undoubted Hellenic character of the language,
+which is still the representative of the great medium
+of the fathers of literature and philosophy.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Channel Islands.</i>&mdash;As Guernsey, Jersey,
+Alderney, and Sark, are no parts of Great Britain,
+and are, nevertheless, European, I make a
+brief mention of them; although they are neither
+colonies nor dependencies: indeed, in strict history,
+Great Britain is a dependency of theirs.</p>
+
+<p>They are <i>Norman</i> rather than <i>French</i>, and the
+illustration of this distinction, which will re-appear
+when we come to the Canadas&mdash;concludes the
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>earliest</i> population of France was twofold&mdash;Celtic
+for the north, Iberic for the south.</p>
+
+<p>Its <i>second</i> population was Roman.</p>
+
+<p>Its language is Roman&mdash;all that remains of
+the old tongues of the tribes which C&aelig;sar conquered
+being (1) certain words in the present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+French, (2) the Breton of Brittany, which is closely
+akin to the Welsh Celtic, and (3) the Basque dialects
+of Gascony, which is Iberic.</p>
+
+<p>Now whether the old Gallic blood be as fully
+displaced by that of the Roman conquerors, as
+the old Gallic language has been displaced by the
+Latin is uncertain. It is only certain that the old
+and indigenous elements of the French nation,
+however indeterminate in amount&mdash;were not of a
+uniform character, <i>i.e.</i>, neither wholly Celtic, nor
+wholly Iberic; but Celtic for one part of the
+country, and Iberic for another.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient tribes of Normandy were <i>Celtic</i>.
+Hence, when the third element of the present
+Norman population was introduced, all that was
+not Italian was Welsh&mdash;just as it was in Picardy
+and Orleans, and just as it was <i>not</i> in Gascony
+and Poitou. <i>There</i> the old element was Iberic.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>third element</i>&mdash;just alluded to&mdash;was Germanic;
+Germanic of different kinds, but chiefly
+Frank or Burgundian.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>fourth</i> great element was the Norse or
+Scandinavian; introduced by the so-called <i>Sea-kings</i>
+of Denmark and Norway in the ninth and
+tenth centuries. These, as the empire of Charlemagne
+declined, insulted and dismembered it.
+They converted Neustria in <i>Normandy</i>=<i>the
+country of the Northmen</i>. The exact amount
+of their influence has not been ascertained; nor is<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+the investigation easy. The process, however, by
+which we measured the original extent of the
+Frisian area is applicable to that of the Northmen.
+There are Norse names for French localities.
+Of these the most important are the compounds
+of -<i>tot</i>, -<i>fleur</i>, and -<i>bec</i>; like Yve-<i>tot</i>, Har-<i>fleur</i>,
+and Caude-<i>bec</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcap">Norse.</span></td><td><span class="smcap">English.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">-tot</td><td class="td3">toft</td><td><i>village</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">-fleur</td><td class="td3">fl&ouml;t</td><td><i>stream</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">-bec</td><td class="td3">beck</td><td><i>brook</i>.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Names of places thus ending are almost exclusively
+limited to Normandy; occurring, even there,
+most numerously within a few miles of either the
+sea or the Seine.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, there is a fresh element suggested
+by a term of the "Notitia Utriusque Imperii," a
+document of the latter end of the fourth century.
+This is <i>Litus Saxonicum per Britannias</i>, a
+tract extending from the Wash to Portsmouth.
+Now the opposite shore of the continent was a
+<i>litus Saxonicum</i> also; within which lay Normandy.
+I believe that these Saxons were part of
+the same branch of Germans which invaded England;
+in other words, that portions of France, like
+portions of England, were <i>Anglicized</i>; the two
+processes differing in respect to their extent and
+duration. What was general and permanent on<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+the island, was partial and temporary on the continent.
+That there were Saxons at Bayeux in
+the tenth century is asserted by express evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Taking in the account the preceding invasions,
+and remembering that, both from Germany and
+Italy, Normandy is one of the most distant of the
+French provinces, we arrive at the following
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>The Channel Islanders are what the Normans
+are.</p>
+
+<p>The Normans are Romanized Celts; the Roman
+element being somewhat less than it is elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The Frank and Burgundian elements are also
+less.</p>
+
+<p>But a Saxon element is greater.</p>
+
+<p>And a Norse element is pre-eminently Norman.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> "Natural History of Man," p. 197.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The form in <i>c</i> and <i>sk</i> (<i>Skipton</i> and <i>Carlton</i>) being of
+Danish, whilst those in <i>ch</i> and <i>sh</i> are of Anglo-Saxon origin.&mdash;<i>See</i>
+"Quarterly Review," No. <span class="smcapl">CLXIV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The details of this investigation are given in full in the
+present writer's "Taciti Germania with Ethnological notes,"
+now in course of publication.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> I include in this term the so-called old Saxons of Westphalia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The original passage is as follows:&mdash;"<span title="Brittian de t&ecirc;n
+n&ecirc;son ethn&ecirc; tria polyanthr&ocirc;potata echousi, basileus te heis
+aut&ocirc;n hekast&ocirc; ephest&ecirc;ken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi
+toutois Angiloi te kai Phrissones kai hoi t&ecirc; n&ecirc;s&ocirc; hom&ocirc;nymoi
+Britt&ocirc;nes. Tosaut&ecirc; de h&ecirc; t&ocirc;nde t&ocirc;n ethn&ocirc;n
+polyanthr&ocirc;pia phainetai ousa h&ocirc;ste ana pan etos kata pollous enthende
+metanistamenoi xyn gynaixi kai paisin es Phrangous ch&ocirc;rousin.">&#914;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#964;&#8055;&#945;&#957; &#948;&#8050; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#957;&#8134;&#963;&#959;&#957; &#7956;&#952;&#957;&#951;
+&#964;&#961;&#8055;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#8057;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#7956;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;, &#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8059;&#962; &#964;&#949; &#949;&#7991;&#962; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7953;&#954;&#8049;&#963;&#964;&#8179; &#7952;&#966;&#8051;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#954;&#949;&#957;,
+&#8000;&#957;&#8057;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#948;&#8050; &#954;&#949;&#8150;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#8150;&#962; &#7956;&#952;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#8059;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#7944;&#947;&#947;&#8055;&#955;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#934;&#961;&#8055;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#957;&#949;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#959;&#7985; &#964;&#8134;
+&#957;&#8053;&#963;&#8179; &#8001;&#956;&#8061;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#953; &#914;&#961;&#8055;&#964;&#964;&#969;&#957;&#949;&#962;. &#932;&#959;&#963;&#945;&#8059;&#964;&#951; &#948;&#8050; &#7969; &#964;&#8182;&#957;&#948;&#949; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#952;&#957;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#8055;&#945;
+&#966;&#945;&#8055;&#957;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#959;&#8022;&#963;&#945; &#8037;&#963;&#964;&#949; &#7936;&#957;&#8048; &#960;&#8118;&#957; &#7956;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#7952;&#957;&#952;&#8051;&#957;&#948;&#949; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#8049;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#953; &#958;&#8058;&#957;
+&#947;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#958;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#960;&#945;&#953;&#963;&#8054;&#957; &#7952;&#962; &#934;&#961;&#8049;&#947;&#947;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#967;&#8061;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#957;.</span>"&mdash;Procop.
+B. G. iv. 20.
+</p><p>
+Reasons which have induced me to go farther than any previous
+writer in respect to the importance of the Frisian element
+in the Anglo-Saxon invasion, and to believe that instead of
+<i>Saxon</i> being a native German name for any portion of the
+Germanic population, it was only a Celtic and Roman term for
+the Germans of the sea-coast, and (amongst these) for the
+Frisians most especially, are given, at large, in my ethnological
+edition of the "Germania of Tacitus."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <span title="Soph&ocirc;tatoi d' exetazontai t&ocirc;n Ib&ecirc;r&ocirc;n houtoi, kai grammatik&ecirc;
+chr&ocirc;ntai; kai t&ecirc;s palaias mn&ecirc;m&ecirc;s echousi ta syngrammata,
+kai poi&ecirc;mata kai nomous emmetrous hexakischili&ocirc;n et&ocirc;n, h&ocirc;s
+phasi.">&#931;&#959;&#966;&#8061;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#953; &#948;' &#7952;&#958;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#950;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7992;&#946;&#8053;&#961;&#969;&#957; &#959;&#8023;&#964;&#959;&#953;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#947;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8134; &#967;&#961;&#8182;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#903;
+&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#8118;&#962; &#956;&#957;&#8053;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#7956;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953; &#964;&#8048; &#963;&#965;&#947;&#947;&#961;&#8049;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;, &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#8053;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#957;&#8057;&#956;&#959;&#965;&#962;
+&#7952;&#956;&#956;&#8051;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#7953;&#958;&#945;&#954;&#953;&#963;&#967;&#953;&#955;&#8055;&#969;&#957; &#7952;&#964;&#8182;&#957;, &#8037;&#962; &#966;&#945;&#963;&#953;.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This was probably the case with the Callaici.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The famous Knighthood of Malta&mdash;<i>without fear</i>, but
+(though, perhaps, the best of its class) not <i>without reproach</i>,
+has no place here. Its ethnology belongs to the different
+countries which it dignified by its valour, or dishonoured by
+its profligacy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> This I believe to have been the case with the ancient
+Greeks also; though the proof would require an elaborate
+monograph.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The two together have led to a doctrine which has been
+best developed by Fallmerayer. It is this&mdash;<i>that the modern
+Greeks are Sclavonians</i>. The Russian school are the chief
+believers of this. In the few countries where ethnology is
+scientific rather than political, the more moderate opinion of
+the modern Greeks being a mixed stock prevails.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Or <i>beck</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.</h3>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>THE GAMBIA SETTLEMENTS.&mdash;SIERRA LEONE.&mdash;THE GOLD COAST.&mdash;THE
+CAPE.&mdash;THE MAURITIUS.&mdash;THE NEGROES OF AMERICA.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>The Gambia.</i>&mdash;All our settlements on the
+Gambia are in the Mandingo country.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the true and unequivocal Negroes, the
+Mandingos are the most civilized; the basis of
+their civilization being Arab, and their religion
+that of the Koran. Hence, they have priests, or
+Marabouts, the use of the Arabic alphabet, and a
+monotheistic creed.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the Negroes, too, the Mandingos are the
+most commercial, not as mere slave-dealers, but
+as truly industrial merchants.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the families of the African stock, with
+the exception of the Kaffres, the Mandingo is the
+most widely spread. It also falls into numerous
+divisions and subdivisions. Hence the term has
+a twofold power. Sometimes it is a generic
+name for a large group; sometimes the designation
+of a particular section of that group. The<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+Mandingos of the Lower Gambia are Mandingos
+in the restricted meaning of the word.</p>
+
+<p>For the Mandingo tribes, when we use the term
+in a general sense, the most convenient classification
+is into the <i>Mahometan</i> and the <i>Pagan</i>.
+That this division should exist is natural; since,
+with the exception of the Wolofs, the Mandingos
+are the most northern of all the western
+Negroes, and, consequently, those who are most
+in contact with the Mahometan Arabs, and the
+equally Mahometan Kabyles of Barbary and the
+Great Desert,&mdash;a fact sufficient to account for the
+monotheistic creeds of the northern tribes.</p>
+
+<p>As for the Paganism of the others, we must
+remember how far southwards and inland the
+same great stock extends&mdash;indefinitely towards
+the interior, and as far as the back of the Ashanti
+country, in the direction of the equator.</p>
+
+<p>This prepares us for finding Mandingos at our
+next settlement.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sierra Leone.</i>&mdash;The native populations which
+encircle this settlement are two&mdash;the <i>Timmani</i>
+towards the north, and <i>Bullom</i> towards the
+south.</p>
+
+<p>Both are Negroes of the most typical kind, in
+respect to their physical conformation.</p>
+
+<p>Both are Pagans.</p>
+
+<p>Both speak what seem to be mutually unintelligible
+languages, but which have an undoubted<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+relationship to each other, and to the numerous
+Mandingo dialects as well. It is this which induces
+me to place them in the same section with
+the more civilized Africans of the Gambia.</p>
+
+<p>It is safe to say that they are amongst the
+rudest members of the stock; indeed it is only in
+the eyes of the etymologist that they are Mandingo
+at all. Practically, they, and several
+tribes like them, are Mandingo, in the way that
+a wolf is a dog, or a goat a sheep.</p>
+
+<p>The Bullom and Timmani are the frontagers to
+Sierra Leone; and it was with Bullom and Timmani
+potentates that the land of the settlement
+was bargained for. The settlers themselves are
+of different origin. Mixed beyond all other populations
+of Africa, the occupants of Free Town
+are in the same category with the Negroes of
+Jamaica and St. Domingo; concerning whom we
+can only predicate that they have dark skins, and
+that they come from Africa. The analysis of
+their several origins, and their distribution amongst
+the separate branches of the African family, would
+be one of the most difficult feats in minute ethnology;
+and this would be but a fraction of the
+investigation. When the several countries which
+supplied the several victims of the slave-trade had
+been ascertained, the complicated question of
+<i>intermixture</i> would stand over; and there we
+should find lineages of every degree of hybridism&mdash;children,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+whose ancestors originated on different
+sides of Africa, themselves the parents of a lighter-coloured
+offspring, the effect of European intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>At present it is sufficient to state that the
+nucleus of the Free Town population consists of
+what is called the <i>Maroon</i> Negroes. These were
+slaves of Jamaica, who, having recovered their
+freedom during the Spanish dominion in the
+island, were removed, by the English, in the first
+instance to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to their
+present locality.</p>
+
+<p>Round this has collected an equally miscellaneous
+population of rescued slaves; and, besides
+these, there are immigrants, labourers, and barterers
+from all the neighbouring parts of the
+Continent&mdash;Krumen more especially.</p>
+
+<p>A writer who, when we come to the Negroes of
+the Gold Coast, will be freely quoted, calls the
+Krumen the <i>Scotchmen</i> of Africa, since, with
+unusual industry, enterprise, and perseverance, they
+leave, without reluctance, their own country to
+push their fortunes wherever they can find a wider
+field. They are ready for any employment
+which may enable them to increase their means,
+and ensure a return to their own country in a
+state of improved prosperity. There the Kruman's
+ambition is to purchase one or two head of
+cattle, and one or two head of wives, to enjoy the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+luxuries of rum and tobacco, and pass the remainder
+of his days as</p>
+
+<div class="poem" style="width: 21em;">
+<span class="i0">"A gentleman of Africa who sits at home at ease."<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noin">Half the Africans that we see in Liverpool are
+Krumen, who have left their own country when
+young, and taken employment on board a ship,
+where they exhibit a natural aptitude for the sea.
+Without being nice as to the destination of the
+vessel in which they engage, they return home as
+soon as they can; and rarely or never contract
+matrimony before their return. In Cape Coast
+Town, as well as in Sierra Leone, they form a
+bachelor community&mdash;quiet and orderly; and in
+that respect stand in strong contrast to the other
+tribes around them. Besides which, with all their
+blackness, and all their typical Negro character,
+they are distinguishable from most other western
+Africans; having the advantage of them in make,
+features, and industry.</p>
+
+<p>A Kruman is pre-eminently the <i>free labourer</i> of
+Africa. In the slave trade he has engaged less
+than any of his neighbours, attaches himself
+readily to the whites, and, in his native country,
+as well as in Sierra Leone, Coast Town, and
+other places of his temporary denizenship, is
+quick of perception and amenable to instruction.
+His language is the <i>Grebo</i> tongue, and it has been
+reduced to writing by the American missionaries<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+of Cape Palmas. It has decided affinities with
+those of the Mandingo tongues to the north,
+the Fanti dialects of the Gold Coast, and, in all
+probability, still closer ones with those of the
+Ivory coast. These last, however, are but imperfectly
+known; indeed, a single vocabulary of
+the <i>Avekvom</i> language, in the "American Oriental
+Journal," furnishes nine-tenths of our philological
+data for the parts between Cape Palmas
+and Cape Apollonia.</p>
+
+<p>The best measure of the heterogeneousness of
+the Sierra Leone population is to be found in
+Mrs. Kilham's vocabularies. That lady collected,
+at Free Town, specimens of thirty-one African
+tongues, from Negroes then and there resident.
+Of these&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A. Eight belonged to the Mandingo group,
+<i>viz.</i>, Mandingo Proper, Susu, Bambara, Kossa,
+Pessa, Kissi, Bullom, and Timmani.</p>
+
+<p>B. Two were dialects of the Grebo (Kru): the
+Kru, and the Bassa.</p>
+
+<p>C. Two were Fanti: the Fanti and the
+Ashanti, closely allied dialects.</p>
+
+<p>D. Two were Dahoman: the Fot, and the
+Popo.</p>
+
+<p>E. Two Benin: the Benin Proper, and the
+Moko, languages of a tract but little known.</p>
+
+<p>F. One Wolof, from the Senegal.</p>
+
+<p>G. Eight from the parts between the rivers<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+Formosa and Loango, <i>viz.</i>, the Bongo, the Ako,
+the Ibu, the Rungo, the Akuonga, the Karaba,
+the Uobo, the Kouri.</p>
+
+<p>H. One from the river Kongo, <i>i.e.</i>, the Kongo
+properly so-called.</p>
+
+<p>I. Two from the Lower Niger, but, still separated
+from the coast&mdash;the Tapua (Nufi) and
+Appa.</p>
+
+<p>K. Three from the widely-spread nations of
+the interior&mdash;the Fulah, the Haussa, and the
+Bornu.</p>
+
+<p>I do not say that all Mrs. Kilham's specimens
+represent mutually unintelligible tongues; probably
+they do not. At the same time, as several
+decidedly different languages are omitted, the list
+understates, rather than exaggerates, the number
+of the divisions and subdivisions of the western
+African populations, as inferred from the divisions
+and subdivisions of the language.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, no samples are given of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Sereres.</i>&mdash;Pastoral tribes about Cape Verde.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Serawolli.</i>&mdash;On the Middle Senegal, different,
+in many respects, from the Sereres, the
+Wolofs, and the Fulahs; nations with which
+they are in geographical contact.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Feloops.</i>&mdash;Between the Gambia and
+Cacheo, along the coast.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Papels.</i>&mdash;South of the Cacheo; and also
+coastmen.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Balantes.</i>&mdash;Coast-men to the south of
+the Papels.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Bagnon.</i>&mdash;Conterminous with the Feloops
+of the river Cacheo.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Bissago.</i>&mdash;Fierce occupants of the islands
+so-called.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>The Naloos.</i>&mdash;On the Nun and river Grande.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>The Sapi.</i>&mdash;Conterminous with the Naloo,
+and like all the preceding tribes, from the Feloops
+downwards, pre-eminently rude, fierce, intractable,
+and imperfectly known.</p>
+
+<p>Southward, the unrepresented languages are
+equally numerous&mdash;especially for the Ivory Coast,
+and for the Delta of the Niger. Of these I shall
+only notice one&mdash;the Vey.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement with which the tribes speaking
+the Vey language is in contact is one of which the
+tongue is English, but not the political relations.
+It is the American free Negro settlement of
+Liberia.</p>
+
+<p>In the Vey language, it had been known for
+some time to the American missionaries, that
+there were <i>written books</i>, a fact not likely to be
+undervalued by those who felt warmly on the
+social and civilizational prospects of the coloured
+divisions of our species. One of these books was
+discovered by Lieutenant Forbes, of H.M.S.
+the Bonetta; local inquiry was further made
+by the Rev. W. S. Koelle; and the MS. was<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+critically analyzed by Mr. Norris, of the Asiatic
+Society.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>The phenomenon, if properly measured, is by
+no means a very significant one; since, although the
+Vey alphabet, the invention of a man now living,
+so far differs from the Mandingo, as to be spelt by
+the <i>syllable</i> rather than the <i>letter</i>, it is anything
+but an independent creation of the Negro brain.
+Doala Bukara, its composer, an imperfect Mahometan,
+had seen Mahometan books, and, although
+he was no Christian, had seen an English
+Bible also. He knew, then, what spelling or
+writing was. He knew, too, the phonetic analysis
+of the Mandingo, a tongue closely allied to his
+own. And this is nine parts out of ten in the
+so-called invention of alphabets.</p>
+
+<p>The true claims of Doala, in this way, are those
+of the phonetic reformers in England, as compared
+with those of Toth or Cadmus&mdash;real but
+moderate. His own account of the matter, as he
+gave it to Mr. Koelle, was, that the fact of sounds
+being <i>written</i>, haunted him in a dream, wherein
+he was shown a series of signs adapted to his
+native tongue. These he forgot in the morning;
+but remembered the impression. So he consulted
+his friends; and they and he, laying their heads together,
+coined new ones. The king of the country
+made its introduction a matter of state, and built<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+a large house in Dshondu, as a day-school. But
+a war with the Guru people disturbed both the
+learners and teachers, so that the latter removed
+to Bandakoro, where all grown-up people, of both
+sexes, can now read and write.</p>
+
+<p>This alphabet is a <i>syllabarium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The books written in it are essentially Mahometan;
+the Koran appearing in them much in
+the same way as the Bible appears in the more
+degenerate legends of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>How far the Vey alphabet will be an instrument
+of civilization, is a difficult question. For my
+own part, I half regret its evolution; since the
+Arabic that served for the Mandingo, would have
+served for the Vey as well&mdash;or if not the Arabic,
+the English.</p>
+
+<p>As a measure of African capacity it is of some
+value; and in this respect, it speaks for the Negro
+just as the Cherokee alphabet speaks for the
+American Indian. This latter was invented by
+a native named Sequoyah. Like Doala, he knew
+what reading was. Like Doala, too, he had
+a language adapted to a <i>syllabarium</i>. Hence,
+both the Vey and the Cherokee, the two latest
+coinages in the way of alphabets, are both syllabic.</p>
+
+<p>We now move southwards to the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Gold Coast Settlements.</i>&mdash;The climate of Western
+Africa requires notice. It suits the native,
+but destroys the European. Of the two settlements,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+already mentioned, the Gambia is the
+most deadly; though Sierra Leone has the worst
+name. <i>Both</i> are on the coast; both, consequently,
+on the lower courses of the rivers, and both on
+low levels. The import of these remarks applies
+to the Negroes of America. At present, it
+ushers in a brief notice of the climate of the
+Gold Coast; this district being chosen for the
+purpose of description because it makes the
+nearest approach to the equator of any English
+settlement in Africa. Consequently, it may
+serve as a typical sample of the malarious parts
+of the coast in question.</p>
+
+<p>From April till August is the rainy season,
+which gradually passes into the dry; heavy fogs
+forming during the transition. These last till the
+end of September. Occasional showers, too, continue
+till November. Then the weather becomes
+really clear and dry, until, towards the end of
+January, the dry parching wind, called the Harmattan,
+sets in, with its over-stimulant action
+upon the human system, and clouds of penetrating
+impalpable sand. If this is not blowing, the
+atmosphere is loaded with moisture; and this it
+is, combined with the heat of an intertropical sun,
+and the effluvia engendered by the decay of an
+over-luxuriant vegetation, which makes Western
+Africa the white man's grave. Not that the soil,
+even on the coast, is always swampy and alluvial.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+About Cape Coast it is rocky and undulating.
+Still, it is inordinately wooded, as well as full of
+spots where water accumulates and exhalations
+multiply. Yet the thermometer ranges between
+78&deg; and 86&deg; Fahrenheit&mdash;a low <i>maximum</i> for the
+neighbourhood of the equator; a high one, however,
+to feel cold in. Nevertheless, such is the
+case. "From this peculiarity of the atmosphere,
+the sensations of an individual almost invariably
+indicate a degree of <i>cold</i>, especially when sitting
+in a room, or not taking bodily exercise; so that,
+to ensure a feeling of comfortable warmth, it becomes
+necessary to dress in a thicker material than
+what is usually considered best adapted for tropical
+wear, and to have a fire lighted in one's bedroom
+for some time before one retires to rest."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>The chief Africans of these parts&mdash;and we now
+approach the great <i>officina servorum</i>&mdash;alone tolerant
+of the heats, and droughts, and rains, and
+exhalations are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The Fantis.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Ghans.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Avekvom (?)</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>The Fantis.</i>&mdash;Of the true natives of the
+country these are the chief.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Fanti</i>, like the term <i>Mandingo</i>, has a
+double sense&mdash;a general and a specific signification.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The particular population of the parts about
+Cape Coast is Fanti in the limited sense of the term.</p>
+
+<p>The great section of the Negro family, which
+comprises, besides the Fantis Proper, the Ashanti,
+Boroom, and several other populations, is <i>Fanti</i> in
+the wide sense of the term.</p>
+
+<p>The Fanti, Ashanti, and Boroom forms of
+speech are merely dialects of one and the same
+language.</p>
+
+<p>A great proportion of the vocabularies of "Bowdich's
+Ashanti" are the same.</p>
+
+<p>So are the Fetu, Affotoo, and other vocabularies
+of the "Mithridates."</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the Native Town of Cape
+Coast, a mixed population of Krumen, Fantis, and
+Mulattoes, amounting to as many as 10,000, are
+no true specimens of the African of the Gold
+Coast. European influences have too long been
+at work on them. Before the town was English
+it was Dutch; and it was English as early as 1661.</p>
+
+<p>More than this. It is not certain that their
+fathers' fathers were the <i>exact</i> aborigines; in
+other words, a tribe akin to, but slightly different
+from them, seems to have been the earlier possessors.
+These were the Fetu&mdash;the remains of
+which can doubtless be met with among the populations
+of the neighbourhood; since we find
+in the "Mithridates" a <i>Fetu</i> vocabulary and an
+<i>Affotoo</i> one as well.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now the Fantis that thus displaced the Fetu,
+were themselves fugitives from the conquering
+Ashantis; all, however, being the members of one
+stock, and the pressure being from the highlands
+of the interior towards the lowlands of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>All three are truly Negro in conformation, and
+miserably Pagan in creed, the best measure of
+their political capacity being the organized kingdom
+of the Ashantis; and the lowest form of it, the
+system of clanships, chieftainships, or captainships
+of the proper Fantis of the coast. The details of
+these are of importance.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot ascertain upon what principle those
+different divisions which are sometimes called
+<i>tribes</i>, sometimes <i>clans</i>, are formed; since it is
+by no means safe to assume that they necessarily
+consist of descendants from one common ancestor.
+The investigations concerning the <i>tribes</i> of ancient
+Rome show this.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to enumerate their external characteristics,
+and material elements of their union.
+In the Native Town there are four quarters, each
+occupied by a separate section of the population.
+This section has its own proper head, its own
+proper standards, and its own proper band of
+music.</p>
+
+<p>What follows seems to apply to the rude state
+of society in the country around. Each division
+has its badge or device; so that we have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+the tribe, or clan, of the leopard, the cat, the
+dog, the hawk, the parrot, &amp;c. On certain days
+there are certain festivals and processions, when
+the chief is carried in a long basket on the
+heads of two men, with umbrellas above him, and
+attendants around proportionate to his rank.
+When in distress, the Fanti has a claim upon the
+good offices of his tribe.</p>
+
+<p>When a Fanti government becomes extensive
+enough to require organization, we find absolute
+monarchs with satraps (caboceers) under them;
+under these the heads of the different villages or
+towns, and under these captains of hundreds,
+fifties, and tens&mdash;an organization which is, perhaps,
+of military rather than social origin. The
+Ashanti kingdom gives us the best measure of
+extent to which a branch of the Fanti stock has
+developed itself into a political influence. As
+for the <i>Constitution</i>, it is a simple and unmitigated
+despotism; of which the most remarkable point is
+the law of succession. This follows the female
+lines, so that the heir-apparent is the eldest son of
+the reigning king's eldest sister. The same applies
+to the caboceers; except that, in cases of
+mental or physical incapacity, the rightful heir is
+set aside, and a path opened to the ambition of
+private adventurers.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery is what we expect; and on the coast
+of Guinea it meets us at every turn, though not<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+in the worst forms of the <i>Trade</i>. This flourishes
+in Dahomey, and along the whole of the Bight of
+Benin. In the Fanti countries, however, the
+milder form of <i>domestic</i> servitude preponderates;
+and along with it a chronic state of warfare.
+These two evils are connected with one another,
+as cause and effect. The conquest supplies the
+slaves; the slaves provoke the conquest.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this there is a sort of temporary servitude,
+which reminds us of the <i>Nexi</i> of the
+Romans. This occurs when "a person, in order
+to raise a particular sum of money, voluntarily
+sells himself for a certain period, or until such
+time as he is enabled to pay the amount so borrowed,
+together with whatever interest may have
+been agreed upon. This is called the system of
+pawning, and the people so sold, pawns. Thus
+a native, in order to make a great display on any
+particular occasion, as on his marriage, or to have
+a grand 'custom' for a deceased relative, will
+forfeit his labour for a definite time, or give one
+of his slaves for a period agreed upon. Neither
+these pawns, however, nor the domestic slaves,
+entertain any feeling of disgrace, but on the
+contrary are happy and contented."<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Everything connected with the administration
+of justice is rude and savage; the severity of the
+punishment upon detection being the chief preventive.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+The awards, of course, depend much
+upon the individual character of the chiefs; and
+there are but few who have not exhibited horrible
+proofs of cruelty. These, however, are no measures
+of the temper of the people at large. The legitimate,
+normal, established, and familiar forms of
+torture give us this. It may just be a shade or
+two better than that of the autocrats&mdash;though
+bad at best. I still draw upon the writer already
+quoted. "The most common mode of torture is
+what is termed tying Guinea-fashion. In this
+the arms are closely drawn together behind the
+back, by means of a cord tied tightly round
+them, about midway between the elbows and
+shoulders. A piece of wood to act as a rack,
+having been previously introduced, is then used so
+as to tighten the cord, and so intense is the agony
+that one application is generally sufficient to
+occasion the wretch so tortured to confess to anything
+that is required of him. There are various
+other modes of torture in common use among the
+natives of Guinea. One is tying the head, feet,
+and hands, in such a way that by turning the
+body backwards, they may be drawn together by
+the cords employed. Another is securing a
+wrist or ankle to a block of wood by an iron
+staple. By means of a hammer any degree of
+pressure may thus be applied, while the suffering
+so produced is continuous, only being relieved by<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+the wood being split, and the staples removed,
+but this may not be done until a crime has been
+confessed by a person who never committed it,
+and even then his limb has generally been destroyed.
+It would not be interesting to here
+enumerate the various tortures employed by a
+barbarous people, but when we recollect the
+refinement of the art of torture in our own
+country in the days of the maiden, the boot,
+and thumb-screws, we will cease to wonder that
+substitutes for these should be used in a country
+where civilization has not yet begun to elevate
+a people who are generally allowed to be the
+lowest of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>"There are some superstitious rites employed
+by Fetish-men for the detection of crime; and
+whether it is that these people really possess
+such powerful influence over their wretched
+dupes, as to frighten into confession of his
+guilt the perpetrator of crime, or whether it is
+that they manage by their numerous spies to
+obtain a clue sufficient in most cases to lead to
+the detection of the person, is more than I can
+venture to assert; but, be the means employed
+what they may, a Fetish-man will assuredly very
+often bring a crime home to the right person,
+even after the most patient investigation in the
+ordinary way has failed to elicit the slightest
+clue.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"There is also what is called Trial by
+Dhoom. This consists in whoever are suspected
+of having committed a crime being made to swallow
+a decoction of <i>dhoom</i> wood of the country,
+and it is believed that whoever is innocent will
+immediately eject the deleterious draught, but the
+guilty person will die. This, however, is not
+much to be depended upon; for while it causes
+death in one instance, it may do so in all
+who partake of it; or on the other hand, from
+some accident in its preparation, it may be
+productive of no effect either upon the guilty
+or the innocent.</p>
+
+<p>"The Rice test, although practised in this
+part of Africa, is, I believe, not peculiar to it,
+being also employed in the West Indies, and
+South America. Although no doubt originally
+introduced by a people in a low state of civilization,
+it is interesting in so far that it exemplifies
+the powerful influence which the mind possesses
+over the corporeal functions, and as it appears
+to have been in use among the blacks for centuries,
+we may give them the credit of having
+been practically aware that 'conscience doth make
+cowards of us all,' long before the Bard of Avon
+chronicled the fact. In the employment of this
+test in Guinea, those who are suspected of having
+committed a crime are assembled, and to each<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+a small portion of rice is given, which they
+are required to masticate, and afterwards produce
+on the hand; and it is invariably the case
+that while all but the real culprit will produce
+their rice in a soft pulpy mass, his will be as
+dry as if ground in a mill, the salivary glands
+having, under the influence exerted upon the
+nervous system by fear, refused to perform their
+ordinary functions."</p>
+
+<p>Something like this is common in many savage
+countries. In the shape of the <i>dhoom</i> test,
+it re-appears in Old Calabar, and, probably, elsewhere.
+There, the "king and chief inhabitants
+ordinarily constitute a court of justice, in which
+all country disputes are adjusted, and to which
+every prisoner suspected of capital offences is
+brought, to undergo examination and judgment.
+If found guilty, they are usually forced to swallow
+a deadly potion made from the poisonous
+seeds of an aquatic leguminous plant, which
+rapidly destroys life. This poison is obtained by
+pounding the seeds, and macerating them in
+water, which acquires a white milky colour.
+The condemned person, after swallowing a certain
+portion of the liquid, is ordered to walk
+about, until its effects become palpable. If,
+however, after the lapse of a definite period, the
+accused should be so fortunate as to throw the
+poison from off his stomach, he is considered as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+innocent, and allowed to depart unmolested. In
+native <i>parlance</i> this ordeal is designated as 'chopping
+nut.'"<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The hardest workers amongst the Fantis are
+the fishers, who use a canoe of wood of the
+bombax, from ten to twelve feet in length, and
+strengthened by cross timbers. The net&mdash;a
+casting net&mdash;is made from the fibres of the
+aloe or the pine-apple, and is about twenty feet
+in diameter (?).</p>
+
+<p>Next to these come the farmers, whose rough
+agriculture consists in the cultivation of maize,
+bananas, yams, and pumpkins; and lastly, the
+gold-seekers. Of this there is abundance; and
+where the European coin of the coast ceases,
+the native currency of gold-dust begins. Sums
+of so small a value as three half-pence are thus
+paid; smaller ones being represented by cowries.</p>
+
+<p>The highest of their arts is that of manufacturing
+gold ornaments, and this is the hereditary
+craft of certain families. These transmit the
+secret of their skill from father to son, and keep
+the corporation to which they belong up to a due
+degree of closeness, by avoiding intermarriage
+with any of the more unskilled labourers. A
+little weaving, and a little potting, constitute the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+remaining arts of the Fanti&mdash;as far, at least, as
+they are either <i>fine</i> or <i>useful</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The craft of the <i>Fetish-man</i> comes under
+none of the preceding categories. He is the
+priest, sorcerer, or medicine man; the representative
+of "Paganism, in its lowest and most
+hideous form, the objects of their worship
+being the most repulsive reptiles, and their
+ceremonies the most degrading. They certainly
+have some idea of the existence of a First
+Cause, and believe themselves to be in the
+power of the <i>Great Fetish</i>, their protection or
+destruction being dependent upon the will of this
+power, of whose attributes they know nothing
+further. They also believe in the existence of a
+spirit of evil, and on some parts of the coast consider
+his power over them so great, that they address
+their supplications, and erect, for his especial
+service, small mud huts, usually of a conical
+shape, built under the shade of some stately palm
+or wild fig-tree, in one of the most inviting spots
+to be found. These huts bear the unattractive
+name among Europeans of 'devil's temples.' It
+will be seen thus, that this belief in the existence
+of the Great Fetish professed by the Fantees, is a
+faint glimmering of that natural religion which all
+nations possess. Of the creation of our species,
+they do not appear to entertain very correct ideas,
+unless it be that they owe their being to this<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+Fetish, who, they say, in the beginning made two
+people, one of whom was black, the other white,
+and that both originally occupied the Fantee
+country. It would seem, however, from their
+account, that, after these two men were brought
+into existence, the Fetish was at a loss to know
+how to dispose of them, and in order to prevent
+any jealousy arising between them, had recourse to
+a sort of lottery, where there were all prizes and
+no blanks. Two packets were accordingly placed
+before them, and the black man drew first; nor
+was he disappointed with his prize, for it consisted
+of such a quantity of gold-dust, that it has
+not been taken out of the country yet. The
+remaining packet was of course the lawful property
+of the white man, and in the long run he
+had no cause to complain&mdash;for, on being opened,
+it was found to contain a book which taught him
+everything; and so do the poor wretches account
+for the superior intellect of whites, and the inexhaustible
+treasures of their own country.</p>
+
+<p>"In the neighbourhood of Cape Coast, the
+natives seem to believe that this Fetish occupies
+more especially particular localities, and exists in
+the form of a particular animal, so that an isolated
+portion of rock is frequently called a Fetish-stone,
+and snakes even of the most poisonous description,
+in a certain locality, are preserved and allowed to
+propagate, undisturbed, their venomous species.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+In some places on the coast, temples dedicated to
+snake-worship are built, and the Fetish men, or
+priests, connected with them are frequently
+esteemed particularly holy, no doubt from the
+familiar terms upon which they, in course of
+time, become with the horrid reptiles, upon which
+the people look as the personification of their
+Fetish. The offerings made at these temples are
+often very valuable, the cupidity of the deities
+within not being easily satisfied. Gold-dust and
+clothes are the most acceptable offerings; but when
+these are not to be obtained, it is perfectly wonderful
+how large a quantity of rum and tobacco the
+<i>snakes</i> will consume before they vouchsafe their
+good offices for the removal of a disease from a
+cow, a wife, a child, or the detection of a thief,
+who, not unlikely, has been employed by themselves.</p>
+
+<p>"These Fetish men and women, too, for there
+are Fetish women, and, consequently Fetish
+children, have spies in different directions, forming
+as many links of communication between the
+priesthood in various parts of the country, so
+that very few occurrences take place of which
+they have not the means of making themselves
+acquainted."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>The same writer continues, "Religious observances,
+properly so called, the Fantees have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+none, but each particular class has a certain day
+of the week upon which they cease from following
+their ordinary avocations&mdash;thus, a fisherman
+will not go to sea on a Tuesday; nor will a
+bushman enter the forest on a Friday&mdash;these
+days being dedicated to the Fetish, and thus,
+in some degree, representing the Sabbath of
+Christian nations. There are, in addition, several
+days throughout the year&mdash;apparently occurring
+at the desire of the Fetish men&mdash;in which
+the Fantees abstain from work, and during a
+period of war, it often happens that the movements
+of the opposing armies are much interfered
+with by the numerous occasions upon
+which it becomes necessary to propitiate the
+Fetish. One of these especial Fetish days may
+be here noticed, it being, apparently, the most
+important of those that occur during the whole
+year, and its object no less important than driving
+the devil out of the village. The period when
+this desirable object is effected, occurs during the
+month of December, the night-time being chosen
+as the most fitting for the ceremony. As soon as
+darkness has closed in, the inhabitants of a village
+collect at an appointed rendezvous, with sticks
+and staves, and under the directions of a leader,
+sally out, entering every house in their way,
+through the various apartments of which they
+knock about, and yell and howl with such violence<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+that they would actually scare any devil but a
+most impertinent one. Having, as they think,
+completely rid the town of him, they pursue the
+retreating enemy for some distance into the
+bush, after which they return and spend the remainder
+of the night in carousals.</p>
+
+<p>"There is another festival, which, as it partakes
+somewhat of a religious nature, may also be
+noticed here, <i>viz.</i>, the yam-custom, which is held
+in September, to celebrate the goodness of the
+Fetish, in having granted an abundant harvest.
+On this occasion, the king of the village and
+the staff of Fetish men connected with it, take
+part. All the people who can by any possibility
+attend, assemble, a procession is formed, and then
+the most extraordinary mixture of costumes, the
+noises produced by numerous tom-toms, horns
+made from elephants' tusks, and the still ruder,
+if possible, rattle of two pieces of wood, or
+common metal, which the women beat together to
+a tune similar to what in Ireland is known as the
+Kentish fire. The constant firing of musketry,
+and the obscene dances performed by the two sexes
+form one of the most debasing and savage exhibitions
+it is possible to see. In this way does the
+procession parade the principal streets, the king
+seated in his basket carried by his slaves, and protected
+by the umbrellas, according to his rank&mdash;the
+Fetish-men dressed in white robes, also in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+their baskets. On arriving at the king's house
+sacrifices are usually offered&mdash;some fowls or eggs
+being now substituted in the vicinity of our settlements
+for a human being, but we have still too
+good reasons to believe, that even as near as the
+capital of Ashantee many human lives are sacrificed
+on this particular occasion, as well as in
+other festivals of various descriptions. The offerings
+being made, the Fetish-man partakes of the
+yam; the king then eats of the valued root; and
+after these two have pronounced them ripe and fit
+for food, the people consider themselves at liberty
+to commence digging.</p>
+
+<p>"A being named <i>Tahbil</i> resides in the substance
+of the rock, upon which Cape Coast is built, and
+watches the town. Every morning, offerings of
+food or flowers are left for him on the rock. Most
+villages have a corresponding deity; and in earlier
+times, there is good reason for believing that
+human beings were sacrificed to him."</p>
+
+<p>Likely enough&mdash;as may be seen from the practices
+at Fanti funerals, and as may be inferred
+from the analogy of the other parts of Western
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>If the survivors of a deceased Fanti be poor,
+the corpse is quietly interred in one of the denser
+spots of the jungles; and if rich, the funeral is at
+once costly and bloody; since gold and jewels are
+buried along with the dead body, and human<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+victims as well. The ceremonial is as follows.
+The coffin is carried to the grave by slaves,
+when the retainers and friends press forwards,
+fix the number required (in general four), stun
+the selected individuals by a sudden blow on
+the head, throw the still breathing bodies into the
+grave of their master, and, whilst life yet remains,
+cover in the earth.</p>
+
+<p>This horrible custom is truly West-African.
+How near we must approach the Mandingo frontier,
+before we get rid of it on the north, or how
+far south it extends, I am not exactly able to say.
+In Dahomey, where it attains its <i>maximum</i> development,
+it is worse than amongst the Ashantis, and
+amongst the Ashantis worse than in the proper
+Fanti districts. It certainly reaches as far southwards
+as Old Calabar, where, upon the death of
+Ephraim, a well-known Caboceer, "some hundreds
+of men, women, and children were immolated to his
+manes,&mdash;decapitation, burning alive, and the administration
+of the poison-nut, being the methods
+resorted to for terminating their existence. When
+King Eyeo, father of the present Chief of Creek
+Town, died, an eye-witness, who had only arrived
+just after the completion of the funeral rites,
+informed me that a large pit had been dug, in
+which several of the deceased's wives were bound
+and thrown in, until a certain number had been
+procured; the earth was then thrown over them,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+and so great was the agony of these victims, that
+the ground for several minutes was agitated with
+their convulsive throes. So fearful, in former
+times, was the observance of this barbarous custom,
+that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation.
+The graves of the kings are invariably concealed,
+so as, it is stated, to prevent an enemy from
+obtaining their skulls as trophies, which is not the
+case with those of the common people."<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have said that it is in Dahomey, where the
+immolation of human beings is the bloodiest; and
+I now add that it is in Dahomey where those
+who look for the more characteristic peculiarities
+of the Negro stock, must search. But it is the
+bad side which will preponderate; it is the
+darkest practices which will develop themselves
+most typically. What we find in germs and remnants
+elsewhere, grow, in Dahomey, to inordinate
+and incredible proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The sacro-sanctitude of the snake is doubled
+in Dahomey.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery, bad along the whole Bight of Benin,
+is worse, still, in Dahomey.</p>
+
+<p>In Akkim we find a <i>female</i> colonel. In Dahomey
+there is an army of Amazons, as indicated
+by Mr. Duncan, and as described in detail by
+Captain Forbes.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Gha.</i>&mdash;Accra, and the forts lately purchased
+from the Danes&mdash;Christiansborg and others,&mdash;are
+the localities of the <i>Gha</i> nation. I say <i>Gha</i> (or
+<i>Ghan</i>) because the author of a paper soon about
+to be noticed states, that this is the indigenous
+name of the people which we call <i>Acra</i>, <i>Akra</i>,
+<i>Accrah</i>, or <i>Inkra</i>&mdash;and it is always best to give
+the native name if we can.</p>
+
+<p>Adelung, on the authority of Romer and Isert,
+gives the following account of the Negroes speaking
+the Gha language. He calls it Akra.</p>
+
+<p>They began with conquering and reducing to a
+state of servitude the <i>Adampi</i>, or <i>Tambi</i>, Negroes
+of the hill country; these being a portion of
+their own stock, and speaking a mutually intelligible
+language.</p>
+
+<p>But, in time, they were themselves conquered
+by the <i>Akvambu</i>, and broke up into two parts.
+One of these remained <i>in situ</i>, and is represented
+by the present Gha of Christiansborg. The other
+fled to the Little Popo, an island off the coast of
+Dahomey, and there settled.</p>
+
+<p>What remained then on the Gold Coast were
+the Gha and Akvambu; and these were afterwards
+conquered by the Akkim Fantis, themselves
+eventually reduced by the Ashantis.</p>
+
+<p>In no more than nine or ten villages, lying
+within nine or ten miles of Fort St. James and
+Christiansborg, was the Akra language spoken in<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+the time of Protten (<span class="smcapl">A.D.</span> 1794), and of the Ghas
+thus speaking it each understood the Fanti.</p>
+
+<p>This makes the Gha a decreasing, and, for practical
+purposes, an unimportant population. At the
+same time I should be glad to direct the attention
+of some investigator to their ethnology. Their
+exact relations to the Akvambu are uncertain.
+The only work known to me where specimens
+of the latter language are to be found is out of
+reach.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>Then as to the <i>Adampi</i>. Bowdich states that
+it radically differs from the Gha; the numerals,
+which agree, being borrowed from the one tongue
+into the other. But his collation rests on only
+seven words.</p>
+
+<p>Again,&mdash;<i>Adampi</i>, <i>Tembi</i>, and <i>Tambu</i> are words
+so much alike as to pass for the same. Yet a
+<i>Tembu</i> vocabulary in the "Mithridates" differs
+from a <i>Tambu</i> one in the same work&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">TEMBU.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">TAMBU.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sky</i></td><td class="td3">so</td><td>giom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sun</i></td><td class="td3">wis</td><td>pum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Moon</i></td><td class="td3">igodi</td><td>horamb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Man</i></td><td class="td3">naa</td><td>nyummu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">...</td><td class="td3">ibalu</td><td>numero.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Woman</i></td><td class="td3">alo</td><td>in.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Head</i></td><td class="td3">knynoo</td><td>ii.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Foot</i></td><td class="td3">navorree</td><td>nandi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">kuddum</td><td>kaki.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">noalee</td><td>ennu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">nodoso</td><td>ettee.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;the <i>Tembu</i> is related to the vocabulary
+of a language called <i>Kouri</i>, which the <i>Tambu</i> is
+<i>not</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">TEMBU.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">KOURI.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sun</i></td><td class="td3">wis</td><td>nosi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Man</i></td><td class="td3">ibalu</td><td>abalu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Woman</i></td><td class="td3">alo</td><td>alu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">kuddum</td><td>kotum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">noalee</td><td>nalee.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">nodoso</td><td>natisu.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Thirdly, the <i>Tjemba</i> of Balbi's "Atlas Ethnologique"
+is called <i>Kassenti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the <i>Gha</i>, as far as very short comparison
+goes, is neither <i>Tambu</i> nor <i>Tembu</i>: nor yet
+<i>Kouri</i>&mdash;though it has a few resemblances to
+all.</p>
+
+<p>The author of the paper alluded to above is the
+Rev. Mr. Hanson&mdash;himself a Gha by birth. It
+was laid before the British Association in 1849.
+Two points characterize the theory that it exhibits;
+but as the publication of the paper <i>in
+extenso</i>, is contemplated, I merely state what they
+are.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. A remarkable number of customs common
+to the <i>Jews</i> and the <i>Gha</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The probable origin of the latter population
+in some part of the interior of Africa, north of
+their present locality, and, perhaps, in the parts
+about Timbuktu.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Quaquas.</i>&mdash;I am not sure that this name is
+the best that can be given to the class in question.
+Hence, it is merely provisional. The language
+that is spoken by them is called the <i>Avekvom</i>.
+They constitute the chief population of the <i>Ivory</i>&mdash;just
+as the Krumen do that of the <i>Grain</i> and
+the Fantis that of the <i>Gold</i>&mdash;Coast. <i>Apollonia</i> is
+the English dependency where we find members
+of the <i>Quaqua</i> stock.</p>
+
+<p>The Avekvom dialects of the Quaqua tribes
+seem to belong to a different tongue from that
+of the Krumen and Fantis; and I imagine that
+the three are mutually unintelligible. Still, it
+is difficult to predicate this from the mere inspection
+of vocabularies; the more so, as no language
+of the western coast of Africa is less known
+than the Avekvom&mdash;the only specimen of any
+length being one in the last number of the "Journal
+of the American Oriental Society." With
+numerous miscellaneous affinities, it is more
+Fanti and Grebo than aught else; and, perhaps,
+is transitional in character to those two
+languages.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At any rate it is no isolated tongue, as may
+be seen from the following table, where <i>Yebu</i>
+means the language of the Yarriba country, at
+the back of Dahomey, and <i>Efik</i> that of Old Calabar:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">AVEKVOM.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">OTHER IBO-ASHANTI LANGUAGES.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Arm</i></td><td class="td3">ebo</td><td>ubok, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Blood</i></td><td class="td3">evie</td><td>eyip, <i>Efik</i>; eye, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Bone</i></td><td class="td3">ewi</td><td>beu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Box</i></td><td class="td3">ebru</td><td>br&acirc;nh, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Canoe</i></td><td class="td3">edie</td><td>tonh, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Chair</i></td><td class="td3">fata</td><td>bada, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Dark</i></td><td class="td3">eshim</td><td>esum, <i>Fanti</i>; ekim, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Dog</i></td><td class="td3">etye</td><td>aja, ayga, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Door</i></td><td class="td3">eshinavi</td><td>usuny, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ear</i></td><td class="td3">eshibe</td><td>esoa, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fire</i></td><td class="td3">eya</td><td>ija, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fish</i></td><td class="td3">etsi</td><td>eja, eya, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Fowl</i></td><td class="td3">esu</td><td>suseo, <i>Mandingo</i>; edia, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ground-nut</i></td><td class="td3">ngeti</td><td>nkatye, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Hair</i></td><td class="td3">emu</td><td>ihwi, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Honey</i></td><td class="td3">ajo</td><td>ewo, <i>Fanti</i>; oyi, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>House</i></td><td class="td3">eva</td><td>ifi, <i>Fanti</i>; ufog, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Moon</i></td><td class="td3">efe</td><td>h&acirc;bo, <i>Grebo</i>; ofiong, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mosquito</i></td><td class="td3">efo</td><td>obong, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Oil</i></td><td class="td3">inyu</td><td>ingo, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Rain</i></td><td class="td3">efuzumo-sohn</td><td>sanjio, <i>Mandingo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Rainy season</i></td><td class="td3">eshi</td><td>ojo, <i>rain</i>, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Salt</i></td><td class="td3">etsa</td><td>ta, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sand</i></td><td class="td3">esian-na</td><td>utan, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sea</i></td><td class="td3">etyu</td><td>idu, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Stone</i></td><td class="td3">desi</td><td>sia, shia, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Thread</i></td><td class="td3">jesi</td><td>gise, <i>Grebo</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Tooth</i></td><td class="td3">enena</td><td>nyeng, <i>Mandingo</i>; gne, <i>Grebo</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Water</i></td><td class="td3">esonh</td><td>nsu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Wife</i></td><td class="td3">emise</td><td>muso, <i>Mandingo</i>; mbesia, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Cry</i></td><td class="td3">yaru</td><td>isu, <i>Fanti</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Give</i></td><td class="td3">nae</td><td>nye, <i>Grebo</i>; no, <i>Efik</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Go</i></td><td class="td3">le</td><td>olo, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Kill</i></td><td class="td3">bai</td><td>fa, <i>Mandingo</i>; pa, <i>Yebu</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There has been war and displacement here as
+well as in the Gha country. In the seventeenth
+century the parts about Cape Apollonia were
+contended for by two tribes called the Issini (or
+Oshin) and the Ghiomo. The former gave way
+to the latter, and having retreated to the country
+of the Veteres, were joined by that tribe against
+the Esiep.</p>
+
+<p>A Quaqua prayer is given in the "Mithridates."
+It is uttered every morning by the tribes on the
+Issini, after a previous ablution in that river&mdash;<i>Anghiume
+mame maro, mame orie, mame shikke e
+okkori, mame akaka, mame frembi, mame anguan e
+awnsan</i>&mdash;<i>O Anghiume! give rice, give yams, give
+gold, give aigris, give slaves, give riches, give (to be)
+strong and swift.</i></p>
+
+<p>What is here written about the ethnology of
+Apollonia is written doubtfully; since here, as at
+Acra, the simple ethnology of the pure and proper
+Fantis becomes complicated.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cape of Good Hope.</i>&mdash;The aboriginal population<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+of the Cape is divided between two great
+families:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The Hottentot.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Kaffre.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Hottentots.</i>&mdash;Of the two families this is
+the most western; it is the one which the colonists
+came first in contact with, and it is the one which
+has been most displaced by Europeans. The
+names of fourteen extinct tribes of Hottentots are
+known; of which it is only necessary to mention
+the Gunyeman and Sussaqua the nearest the
+Cape, and the Heykom, so far eastwards and
+northwards as Port Natal. The displacement of
+these last has not been effected by Europeans.
+African subdued African; and it was the Kaffres
+who did the work of conquest here.</p>
+
+<p>Of the extant Hottentots, within the limits of
+the colony of the Cape, the most remote are the
+<i>Gonaqua</i>, on the head-waters of the Great Fish
+River; or rather on the water-shed between it
+and the Orange River. They are fast becoming
+either extinct, or amalgamated with the Kaffres;
+inasmuch as they are the Hottentots of the Amakosa
+frontier, and suffer, at least, as much from
+the Kaffres as from their white neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Namaquas</i> occupy the <i>lower</i> part of the
+Orange River, the Great and Little Namaqualand.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Koranas.</i>&mdash;This branch of the Hottentots<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+has its locality on the middle part of the Gariep,
+with the Griquas to the north, the Bechuana
+Kaffres to the east, and the Saabs in the middle
+of them. Their number is, perhaps, 10,000.
+Their exact relation to the other Hottentots is
+uncertain. They are a better formed people than
+the Gonaqua and Namaqua, but whether they be
+the best samples of the Hottentot stock altogether
+is uncertain. Probably a tribe far up in the
+north-western parts of South Africa, and beyond
+Namaqualand, may dispute the honour with them.
+These are the Dammaras&mdash;themselves disputed
+Hottentots. Their country lies beyond the British
+colony, but it must be noticed for the sake of
+taking in all the branches of the stock in question.
+It is the tract between Benguela and Namaqualand,
+marked in the maps as <i>sterile country</i>; in
+the northern parts of which we sometimes find
+notices of a fierce nation called <i>Jagas</i>. Walvisch
+Bay lies in the middle of it. Now some writers
+make the Dammaras of this country Hottentot;
+others Kaffre; and that both rightly and wrongly.
+They are both&mdash;partly one, partly the other;
+since Dammara is a geographical term, and some
+of the tribes to which it applies are Kaffre, some
+Hottentot. The Dammaras of the plains, or the
+Cattle Dammaras are the former; the Dammaras<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+of the hills, the latter. Between the Dammara<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+and the Korana a much nearer approach to
+Kaffre type is made than is usually supposed.</p>
+
+<p>A branch of the Koranas&mdash;those of the valley of
+the Hartebeest River&mdash;deserves particular attention.
+They caution us against overvaluing differences;
+and Dr. Prichard has quoted the evidence
+of Mr. Thompson with this especial object. They
+are Koranas who have suffered in war, lost their
+cattle, and been partially expatriated by the
+more powerful sections of their stock. Hence,
+want and poverty have acted upon them; and the
+effect has been that they have become hunters
+instead of shepherds, have been reduced to a precarious
+subsistence, and as the consequence of
+altered circumstances, have receded from the level
+of the other Koranas, and approached that of
+the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Saabs or Bushmen.</i>&mdash;These belong to the parts
+between the Roggeveld and Orange River; parts
+which rival the <i>sterile country</i> of the map in barrenness.
+As is the country so are the inhabitants;
+starved, miserable hunters&mdash;hunters rather than
+shepherds or herdsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The Lap is not more strongly contrasted with
+the Finlander, than the Korana with the Saab;
+and the deadly enmity between these two populations
+is as marked as the differences in their
+physical appearances. I think, however, that
+undue inferences have been drawn from the difference;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+in other words, that the distance between
+the Korana and the Saab has been exaggerated.
+The languages are unequivocally allied.</p>
+
+<p>I think, too, that a similarly undue inference
+has been drawn from the extent to which the
+Kaffre and the Korana are <i>alike</i>; inasmuch as an
+infusion of Kaffre has been assumed for the sake
+of accounting for it. Of this, however, no proof
+exists.</p>
+
+<p>The Saabs are described as having constitutions
+"so much enfeebled by the dissolute life they
+lead, and the constant smoking of <i>dacha</i>, that
+nearly all, including the young people, look old
+and wrinkled; nevertheless, they are remarkable
+for vanity, and decorate their ears, legs, and arms
+with beads, and iron, copper, or brass rings. The
+women likewise stain their faces red, or paint
+them, either wholly or in part. Their clothing
+consists of a few sheepskins, which hang about
+their bodies, and thus form the mantle or covering,
+commonly called a <i>kaross</i>. This is their only
+clothing by day or night. The men wear old hats,
+which they obtain from the farmers, or else caps
+of their own manufacture. The women wear caps
+of skins, which they stiffen and finish with a high
+peak, and adorn with beads and metal rings. The
+dwelling of the Bushman is either a low wretched
+hut, or a circular cavity, on the open plain, into
+which, at night, he creeps with his wife and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+children, and which, though it shelters him from
+the wind, leaves him exposed to the rain. In
+this neighbourhood, in which rocks abound, they
+had formerly their habitations in them, as is
+proved by the many rude figures of oxen, horses,
+serpents, &amp;c. still existing. It is not a little interesting
+to see these poor degraded people, who
+formerly were considered and treated as little
+better than wild beasts in their rocky retreats.
+Many of those who have forsaken us live in such
+cavities not far from our settlement, and we have
+thus an opportunity of observing them in their
+natural condition. Several who, when they came
+to us from the farmers, were decently clothed and
+possessed a flock of sheep, which they had earned,
+in a short time returned to their fastnesses in a
+state of nakedness and indigence, rejoicing that
+they had got free from the farmers, and could live
+as they pleased in the indulgence of their sensual
+appetites. Such fugitives from civilised life, I
+have never seen otherwise occupied than with
+their bows and arrows. The bows are small, but
+made of good elastic wood; the arrows are formed
+of small reeds, the points furnished with a well-wrought
+piece of bone, and a double barb, which
+is steeped in a potent poison of a resiny appearance.
+This poison is distilled from the leaves of
+an indigenous tree. Many prefer these arrows to
+fire-arms, under the idea that they can kill more<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+game by means of a weapon that makes no report.
+On their return from the chase, they feast till
+they are tired and drowsy, and hunger alone
+rouses them to renewed exertion. In seasons of
+scarcity they devour all kinds of wild roots, ants,
+ants' eggs, locusts, snakes, and even roasted skins.
+Three women of this singular tribe were not long
+since met with, several days' journey from this
+place, who had forsaken their husbands, and lived
+very contentedly on wild honey and locusts. As
+enemies, the Bushmen are not to be despised.
+They are adepts in stealing cattle and sheep;
+and the wounds they inflict when pursued, are
+ordinarily fatal if the wounded part is not immediately
+cut out. The animals they are unable to
+carry off, they kill or mutilate.</p>
+
+<p>"To our great comfort, even some of these
+poor outcasts have shown eagerness to become
+acquainted with the way of salvation. The
+children of such as are inhabitants of the settlement,
+attend the school diligently, and of them
+we have the best hopes.</p>
+
+<p>"The language of the Bushman has not one
+pleasing feature; it seems to consist of a collection
+of snapping, hissing, grunting, sounds; all
+more or less nasal. Of their religious creed it is
+difficult to obtain any information; as far as I
+have been able to learn, they have a name for the
+Supreme Being; and the Kaffre word <i>tixo</i> is<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+derived from the <i>tixme</i> of the Bushmen. Sorcerers
+exist among them. One of the Bushmen
+residing here being sick, a sorceress was sent for
+before we were aware of it, who pretended, by
+the virtue of mystic dance, to extract an antelope
+horn from the head of the patient."<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>The Griquas.</i>&mdash;The Griquas, called also Baastaards,
+are a pastoral population, upwards of
+15,000 in number, on the north side of the
+great bend of the Orange River. They are the
+descendants of Dutch fathers and Hottentot
+mothers.</p>
+
+<p>A mixture of Griquas and Hottentots occurs
+also on the Kat River, a feeder of the Great
+Fish River, in the district of Somerset, and on
+the Kaffre frontier. Here they are distributed in
+a series of district locations, amid the dales and
+fastnesses of the eastern frontier. A great proportion
+of them are discharged soldiers&mdash;so that
+in reality, like the borderers of old, they form
+a sort of military colony.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Kaffres.</i>&mdash;The British districts in contact
+with the Kaffre populations are the eastern,
+and of these Albany and Somerset most especially.
+The Kaffre nation in most immediate contact with
+Albany and Somerset is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Amakosa.</i>&mdash;This is the population which
+constituted the authority of Hintza, and to which<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+Pato, Gaika, and the other chiefs of the last war
+belonged. To this, too, belong the troublesome
+chiefs of the present. Next to the Amakosa, and
+in alliance with them, come&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Amatembu</i>, or <i>Tambuki</i> (<i>Tambookies</i>), occupants
+of the upper part of the river Kei, as
+the Amakosa are of the lower Keiskamma.</p>
+
+<p>Between the Amatembu and Port Natal lie <i>the
+Amaponda</i>, or <i>Mambuki</i> (<i>Mambookies</i>), the northern
+extremity of which reaches the country of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Amazulu</i>, or <i>Zulu</i> (<i>Zooloos</i>), the chief
+frontagers (conjointly with the <i>Mambuki</i>) of Port
+Natal.</p>
+
+<p>The last division of the Kaffres of the coast is
+that of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fingos.</i>&mdash;In 1835, a numerous population,
+called Fingos, was found by Sir B. D'Urban in
+the Kaffre chief Hintza's country, and in a state
+of abject servitude to the Amakosas. They
+were from different tribes; darker and shorter
+than the Amakosas&mdash;but still true Kaffres.
+They were offered land between the lower Keiskamma
+and the Great Fish River, and were
+emancipated and brought safe into the colony to
+the amount of 17,000.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Since then, they have
+served as a sort of military police on the Kaffre
+frontier; and as shepherds in Australia&mdash;whither
+they have been advantageously introduced.</p>
+<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+<p>But, besides the Kaffres of the coast there are
+those of the interior. These speak a modified
+form of the Kosa (or Amakosa), called Si-<i>chuana</i>,
+the name of the people being Bi-<i>chuana</i>. They lie
+due north of the Koranas; beyond the boundaries
+of the colony; but not beyond the influence of
+its missionaries, or the range of its explorers.
+Litaku, Kurrichani, and other similar <i>towns</i> are
+<i>Sichuana</i>; the Kaffre civilization being said to
+attain its <i>maximum</i> hereabouts.</p>
+
+<p>There are plenty of points of contrast between
+the Kaffre and the typical Negro; so many indeed
+as to have suggested the doctrine that the
+former class belongs to some division of the
+human species other than the African. And
+these points of contrast are widely distributed, <i>i.e.</i>,
+they appear and re-appear, whatever may be the
+view taken of the Kaffre stock. They appear in
+the descriptions of their skin and skeletons; they
+appear in the notice of their language; and they
+appear in the history of the Kaffre wars of the
+Cape frontier&mdash;wars more obstinate and troublesome
+than any which have been conducted by the
+true Negro; and which approach the character of
+the Kabyle struggle for independence in Algeria.
+In investigating these differences we must guard
+against the exaggeration of their import.</p>
+
+<p>Physically, the Kaffre has the advantage of the
+Negro in the conformation of the face and skull.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+His forehead betokens greater capacity; being
+more prominent, more vaulted, and with a greater
+facial angle. His teeth, too, are more vertically
+inserted, and the nasal bones less depressed. I
+have not heard of aquiline noses in Kaffraria; but
+should not be surprised if I did.</p>
+
+<p>The cheek-bones of the Kaffre project outwards;
+and where the cheek-bones so project
+beyond a certain limit, the chin appears to taper
+downwards, and the vertex upwards. When this
+becomes exaggerated we hear of <i>lozenge-shaped</i>
+crania; the Malay skulls being currently quoted
+as instances thereof. Be this as it may, the
+breadth in the malar portion of the face is a
+remarkable feature in the Kaffre physiognomy.
+This he has in common with the Hottentot.
+His hair is also tufted like the Hottentot's: while
+his lips are thick like the Negro's. Tall in stature,
+wiry and elastic in his muscles, the Kaffre varies
+in colour, through all the shades of black and
+brown; being, in some portions of his area nearly
+as dark as the Negro, in others simply brown
+like the Arab. The eye is sometimes oblique;
+the opening generally narrow.</p>
+
+<p>An opinion often gives a better picture than a
+description. Kaffres, that have receded in the
+greatest degree from the Negro type, have been
+so likened to the more southern Arabs as to have<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+engendered the hypothesis of an infusion of Arab
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>The manners of the Kaffres of the Cape are
+those of pastoral tribes under chieftains; tribes
+which, from their habits and social relations, are
+naturally active, locomotive, warlike, and jealous
+of encroachment. Next to marauding on the
+hunting-grounds of an American Indian, interference
+with the pasture of a shepherd population
+is the surest way to warfare.</p>
+
+<p>It would be strange indeed if the Kaffre life
+and Kaffre physiognomy had no peculiarities.
+However little in the way of physical influence
+we may attribute to the geography of a country,
+no man ignores them altogether. Now Kaffreland
+has very nearly a latitude of its own; inhabited
+lands similarly related to the southern tropic
+being found in South America and Australia
+only. And it has a soil still more exclusively
+South-African. We connect the idea of the
+<i>desert</i> with that of sand; whilst <i>steppe</i> is a term
+which is limited to the vast tracts of central Asia.
+Now the Kaffre, and still more the Hottentot,
+area, dry like the desert, and elevated like the
+steppe, is partially a <i>karro</i>. Its soil is often a
+hard, cracked, and parched clay rather than a waste
+of sand, and it constitutes an argillaceous table-land.
+Its vegetation has strongly marked characters.
+Its Fauna has the same.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The language is peculiar. If English were
+spoken on Kosa or Sichuana principles we should
+say</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td><i>b</i>un beam</td><td class="center">instead of</td><td><i>s</i>un beam.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>l</i>oon light</td><td class="center">...</td><td><i>m</i>oon light.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>s</i>rand-son</td><td class="center">...</td><td><i>g</i>rand-son, &amp;c.,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="noin">since, in the Kaffre languages throughout, subordinate
+words in certain syntactic combinations,
+accommodate their initial letter to that of the
+leading word of the term.</p>
+
+<p>Their polity and manners, too, are peculiar.
+The head man of the village settles disputes; his
+tribunal being in the open air. From him an
+appeal lies to a chief of higher power; and from
+him to some superior, higher still. In this way
+there is a long chain of feudal or semi-feudal dependency.</p>
+
+<p>But the power of the chief is checked by that
+of the priest. A supposed skill in medicine,
+imaginary arts of divination, and an accredited
+power over the elements are the prerogatives of
+certain witches and wizards. Thus, when a murrain
+among the cattle, or the death of an important
+individual has taken place, the blame is laid
+upon some unfortunate victim whom the witch
+or wizard points out. And the ordeal to which
+he must submit, is equal in cruelty to those of
+the Gold Coast. He is beaten with sticks, and
+then pegged down to the ground. Whilst thus<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+helpless, a nest of venomous bush-ants is broken
+over his racked and quivering body. If this fail
+to extort a confession, he is singed to death with
+red-hot stones.</p>
+
+<p>This tells us what is meant by Kaffre chiefs
+and Kaffre wizards.</p>
+
+<p>The wife is the slave to the husband; and he
+<i>buys</i> her in order that she should be so. The
+purchase implies a seller. This is always a
+member of another tribe. Hence the wish
+of a Kaffre is to see his wife the mother of
+many children, girls being more valuable than
+boys.</p>
+
+<p>Why a man should not sell his offspring to the
+members of his own tribe is uncertain. It is
+clear, however, that the practice of doing so makes
+marriage between even distant relations next to
+impossible. To guard against the chances of this,
+a rigid and suspicious system of restraint has
+been developed in cases of consanguinity; and
+relations must do all they can to avoid meeting.
+To sit in the same room, to meet on the same
+road, is undesirable. To converse is but just
+allowable, and then all who choose must hear what
+is said. So thorough, however, has been the
+isolation in many cases, that persons of different
+sexes have lived as near neighbours for many
+years without having conversed with each other;
+and such communication as there has been, has<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+taken place through the medium of a third person.
+No gift will induce a Kaffre female to violate
+this law.</p>
+
+<p>Is the immolation of human beings at the
+death of chieftains a Kaffre custom, as it was
+one of western Africa? The following extract
+gives an answer in the affirmative, the only difference
+being the <i>pretext</i> of the murders. On
+the "death of the mother of Chaka, the great
+Zulu chief, a public mourning was held, which
+lasted for the space of two days, the people being
+assembled at the kraal of the chief to the number
+of sixty or eighty thousand souls. Mr. Fynn, who
+was present, describes the scene as the most terrific
+which it is possible for the human mind to conceive.
+The immense multitude were all engaged
+in rending the air with the most doleful shrieks,
+and discordant cries and lamentations; whilst, in
+the event of their ceasing to utter them, they
+were instantly butchered as guilty of a crime
+against the reigning tyrant. It is said that no
+less than six or seven thousand persons were
+destroyed on this occasion, charged with no other
+offence than exhausted nature in the performance
+of this horrid rite, their brains being mercilessly
+dashed out amidst the surrounding throng. As a
+suitable <i>finale</i> to this dreadful tragedy, it is said
+that ten females were actually buried alive with
+the royal corpse; whilst all who witnessed the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+funeral were obliged to remain on the spot for a
+whole year."</p>
+
+<p>Details of Kaffre manners may be multiplied
+almost <i>ad infinitum</i>; and as their history and
+habits are likely to fill a Blue Book, a short treatise
+can only notice their more prominent peculiarities.</p>
+
+<p>However, lest an undue inference be drawn
+from their contrast to the Hottentot, we must
+remember that the former has encroached upon
+the latter, and that such transitional populations
+as existed have been swept away.</p>
+
+<p>Now comes a coloured population&mdash;not indigenous,
+but the descendants of the <i>slaves</i> of the
+colony. This consists of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Negroes.</p>
+
+<p>2. Malays from the Indian Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>3. Malagasi from Madagascar.</p>
+
+<p>To which we must add, as of mixed blood, the
+offspring of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Negroes and Dutch, English, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>2. Malays and Dutch, English, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. Malagasi and Dutch, English, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>This seems to be the limit of the intermixture;
+since, between the Malays and Negroes,
+&amp;c., there is but little intermarriage. The <i>possible</i>
+elements, however, of hybridity are numerous,
+<i>e.g.</i>, Griquas and Negroes, Griquas and Malays,
+Malays and Kaffres, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>The so-called yellow men.</i>&mdash;On the 4th of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+August, 1782, the "Grosvenor" Indiaman was
+wrecked on the coast of Natal. Of the crew
+who escaped, some reached the Cape and others
+remained amongst the natives. In 1790, an expedition
+was undertaken in search of them.</p>
+
+<p>In this expedition, Mr. Van Reenens, considered
+that he had discovered a village where the
+people were descended from the whites, and in
+which there were three old women who had
+been wrecked when very young. They could not
+tell to what country they belonged; were treated
+as superior beings; and, when offered a safe
+convoy to the Cape, were at first pleased with the
+prospect, but eventually refused to leave their
+children and grandchildren. Now, whatever these
+old women were, they were not of the crew of
+the "Grosvenor," and I doubt whether they were
+Europeans at all.</p>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;Mr. Thomson, when at Litaku, heard
+of yellow <i>cannibals</i>, with long hair, whose invasions
+were the dread of the country; a statement
+which merely means that some tribes of South
+Africa, are lighter coloured, and more savage in
+their appetite than others.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, Lieutenant Farewell saw one of these
+yellow men at Natal, who was described as a cannibal,
+and <i>who shrunk abashed from the lieutenant</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Be it so. The evidence that "there are descendants
+of Europeans and Africans now widely<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+diffusing their offspring throughout the country;
+whose services might be turned to good account in
+civilizing the native tribes," is still incomplete.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mauritius.</i>&mdash;The coloured population, which is
+far greater than that of the white, consists in the
+Mauritius of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. True Africans&mdash;chiefly from the east coast,
+and, consequently, of the Kaffre stock; the word
+being used in its most general sense. Darker
+than the Kaffres of the Cape, they, nevertheless,
+recede from the Negro type in the shape of the
+jaw, lips, and forehead. The hair also is less
+woolly. They are strong and powerful individuals.</p>
+
+<p>2. Malagasi, or natives of Madagascar.&mdash;These
+are <i>not</i> Africans to the same extent as the
+Kaffres of the coast. As far back as the time of
+Reland it was known that the affinities of the
+Malagasi language were with the Malay and Polynesian
+tongues of Asia; but it was also known
+that the similarity in physiognomy was less than
+that of language. Hence came a conflict of difficulties.
+The speech indicated one origin, the
+colour another&mdash;whilst the fact of an island so
+near to Africa, and so far from Malacca, as Madagascar,
+being other than what its geographical position
+indicated, is, and has been, a mystery. Some
+writers have assumed an intermixture of blood;
+others have limited the Malay element to the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+dominant population. Lastly, Mr. Crawfurd has
+denied the inferences from the similarity of language
+<i>in toto</i>; considering that there is "nothing
+in common between the two races, and nothing in
+common between the character of their languages."
+The comparative philologist is slow to admit this&mdash;indeed,
+he denies it.</p>
+
+<p>The blacks form the great majority of the
+coloured population. Besides these, however,
+there are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. Arabs.</p>
+
+<p>4. Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>5. Hind&uacute;s, from the continent of India; convicts
+being transported to the Mauritius for life,
+and worked on the roads of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>6. Cingalese from Ceylon&mdash;the Kandian chiefs
+whose presence in their native country was thought
+likely to endanger the tranquillity of the island,
+were sent hither.</p>
+
+<p>The whites of the Mauritius are chiefly French;
+though not wholly of pure blood. The first settlers
+took their wives from Madagascar. The
+English form the smallest part of the population.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rodrigues</i>&mdash;occupied by a few French colonists
+from the Mauritius.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Seychelles</i>&mdash;The same; the coloured population
+outnumbering the white in the proportion
+of ten to one. Here there is a Portuguese admixture.
+From Maha, the chief town of the Seychelles,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+to Madagascar, is five hundred and seventy-six
+miles&mdash;a fact to be borne in mind when we
+speculate upon the origin of the population of
+that island.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>The Africans of British America.&mdash;Honduras,
+Belize, the West India Islands, and Demerara.</i>&mdash;The
+usual distribution of the population of these
+parts is&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">WHITE.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. European whites, born in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>2. Creoles, or whites born in the island.</p></div>
+
+<div class="hd1">COLOURED.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><i>a. Pure Blood.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. Mandingos, from the river-systems of the
+Senegal and Gambia.</p>
+
+<p>2. Coromantines&mdash;from the Ivory and Gold
+Coast.</p>
+
+<p>3. Whydahs&mdash;from Dahomey.</p>
+
+<p>4. Ibos&mdash;from the Lower Niger.</p>
+
+<p>5. Congos&mdash;from Portuguese Africa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="center"><i>b. Mixed Blood.</i></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Sambos, intermixture of the Negro and Mulatto.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mulattoes&mdash;Negro and white.</p>
+
+<p>3. Quadroons&mdash;Mulatto and white.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mestis&mdash;Quadroon and white.</p></div><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Such is what I find in Mr. Martin's valuable
+work on the Colonies, and it is, undoubtedly, a
+convenient and practical classification. Yet for the
+purposes of ethnology, it is deficient in detail.
+Without even guessing at the proportion of
+American slaves which the different parts of the
+western coast of Africa may have supplied, I subjoin
+a brief notice of tract between the Senegal
+and Benguela.</p>
+
+<p>1. First come the <i>Wolof</i>, between the Senegal
+and Cape Verde. To the back of these
+lie&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Serawolli</i>&mdash;and around Cape Verde&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Sereres</i>&mdash;none of these are truly
+Mandingo; nor is it certain that many slaves
+have come from them; such as do, however,
+are probably Mandingos in the current classification.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Fulahs of Fouta-Torro and Fouta-Jallo
+possess the higher part of the Senegambian system.
+Imperfect Mahometans, they are lighter-coloured
+than either the Wolof or the Mandingo. Notwithstanding
+the great Fulah conquests&mdash;for
+under a leader named Danfodio this has been
+one of the encroaching and subjugating families
+of Africa&mdash;there are still American slaves of
+Fulah blood&mdash;though, perhaps, but few. Mr.
+Hodgson procured his vocabulary from a Fulah
+slave of Virginia; and what we find in the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+United States, we may find in the British possessions
+also.</p>
+
+<p>5. The Mandingos Proper are the Negroes of
+the Gambia; but the following Africans, all
+within the range of the old slave trade, belong to
+the same class.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The Susu; whose language is spoken from
+the River Pongos to Sierra Leone.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The Timmani.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The Bullom&mdash;each in contact with that settlement.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The Vey&mdash;the written language already
+noticed.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> The Mendi&mdash;conterminous with the Vey.</p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> The Kissi&mdash;like the last two, spoken in the
+country behind Cape Mount, and on the boundaries
+of Liberia.</p>
+
+<p>South of the Gambia and north of the Pongos,
+the Mandingo tongues, though spoken in the interior,
+do not reach the coast. On the contrary,
+they encircle the populations on the mouths of
+the Cacheo, Rio Grande, and Nun&mdash;and truly
+barbarous populations these are. Of these the
+most northern are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Fel&uacute;p</i> (Feloops)&mdash;between the Gambia
+and Cacheo.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Papel</i>&mdash;south of the Cacheo.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>The Balantes</i>&mdash;south of the Papel.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>The Bagnon</i>&mdash;on the Lower Cacheo.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>10. <i>The Bissago</i>&mdash;islanders off the Cacheo.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Nal&uacute;</i> (<i>Naloos</i>)&mdash;on the Lower Nun.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Sapi</i>&mdash;<i>ibid</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After these come the Susu, &amp;c.; down to the
+tribes about Cape Mount and Cape Mesurado.</p>
+
+<p>Between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas
+come&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>The Krumen.</i> Next to them&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>The Quaquas</i>, of the Ivory Coast; speaking
+different Avekvom dialects.</p>
+
+<p>Somewhere hereabouts come the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>15, 16, 17. Kanga, Mangree, and Gien; three
+undetermined vocabularies of the "Mithridates."
+Then&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>18, 19, 20. The Fanti, Gha, and Adampi (?) of
+the Gold Coast. We now approach the great
+marts&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>21, 22. Benin and Dahomey; and&mdash;almost
+equal in infamous notoriety&mdash;the countries of the
+Delta, of the Niger, or of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>23, 24, 25. Ibu, Bonny, and Efik (Old Calabar)
+Africans; at the back of which lie&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>26, 27. Yarriba, and the Nufi country. In
+Fernando Po the population is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>28. Ediya. About the Bimbia river and mountain&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>29. Isubu.</p>
+
+<p>30, 31, 32. The <i>Banaka</i> (or <i>Batanga</i>), the
+<i>Panwi</i>, and the <i>Mpoongwe</i> take us from the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+Gaboon to Loango; forming a transition from the
+true Negroes to the Kaffres.</p>
+
+<p>33, 34, 35, 36. <i>Loango</i>, <i>Congo</i>, <i>Angola</i>, and
+<i>Benguela</i>&mdash;the Kaffre type, both in form and language,
+is now more closely approached. Below
+Benguela there has been little or no exportation.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "Journal of the Geographical Society," 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "United Service Magazine," Dec., 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Daniell in "Transactions of the Ethnological Society."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Dr. Daniell on the Natives of Old Calabar, "Transactions
+of the Ethnological Society."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Rask.&mdash;<i>Vejledning tel Acra-sproget, paa Kysten Ginea,
+med et Tillaeg om Akvambuisk.</i>&mdash;Copenhagen, 1828. <i>Introduction
+to the Acra Language, on the Coast of Guinea, with
+an Appendix on the Akvambu.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> "Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. i. no. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> "British Colonies." By M. Martin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> "Journal of the Geographical Society," vol. v. p. 319.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.</h3>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>ADEN.&mdash;THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.&mdash;THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES.&mdash;HONG
+KONG.&mdash;THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES; MAULMEIN,
+YE, TAVOY, TENASSERIM, THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO.&mdash;THE
+M&Ocirc;N, SIAMESE, AVANS, KARIENS, AND SILONG.&mdash;ARAKHAN.&mdash;MUGS,
+KHYENS.&mdash;CHITTAGONG, TIPPERA, AND SYLHET.&mdash;KUKI.&mdash;KASIA.&mdash;CACHARS.&mdash;ASSAM.&mdash;NAGAS.&mdash;SINGPHO.&mdash;JILI.&mdash;KHAMTI.&mdash;MISHIMI.&mdash;ABORS
+AND BOR-ABORS.&mdash;DUFLA.&mdash;AKA.&mdash;MUTTUCKS
+AND MIRI, AND OTHER TRIBES OF THE VALLEY
+OF ASSAM.&mdash;THE GARO.&mdash;CLASSIFICATION.&mdash;MR. BROWN'S
+TABLES.&mdash;THE BODO.&mdash;DHIMAL.&mdash;KOCCH.&mdash;LEPCHAS OF SIKKIM.&mdash;RAWAT
+OF KUMAON.&mdash;POLYANDRIA.&mdash;THE TAMULIAN
+POPULATIONS.&mdash;RAJMAHALI MOUNTAINEERS.&mdash;K&Uacute;LIS, KHONDS,
+GOANDS, CHENCHWARS.&mdash;TUDAS, ETC.&mdash;BHILS.&mdash;WARALIS.&mdash;THE
+TAMUL, TELINGA, KANARA AND MALAYALAM LANGUAGES.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Aden.</i>&mdash;The ethnology of the Arab stock would
+fill a volume. It is sufficient to state that the
+British political dependency of Aden is, ethnologically,
+an Arab town.</p>
+
+<p>Far more important possessions direct our attention
+towards India. Nevertheless, there are
+certain preliminaries to its ethnology.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mongolia and China&mdash;each of these countries
+illustrates an important ethnological phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p>The first is a physical one. Cheek-bones that
+project outwards, a broad and flat face, a depressed
+nose, an oblique eye, a somewhat slanting insertion
+of the teeth, a scanty beard, an undersized
+frame, and a tawny or yellow skin, characterize
+the Mongol of Mongolia.</p>
+
+<p>The second is a philological one. A comparative
+absence of grammatical inflexions, and a
+disproportionate preponderance of monosyllabic
+words, characterize the language of China.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the simple elementary facts; the
+former of which will be spoken of under the designation
+of <i>Mongolian conformation</i>; the second
+under that of <i>monosyllabic language</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Neither term is limited to the nation by which
+it has been illustrated. Plenty of populations
+besides those of Mongolia Proper are Mongol in
+physiognomy. Plenty of nations besides the
+Chinese are monosyllabic in language.</p>
+
+<p>All the nations speaking monosyllabic tongues
+are Mongol in physiognomy; though all the
+nations which have a Mongol physiognomy do <i>not</i>
+speak monosyllabic tongues. This makes the
+latter group, which for shortness will be called
+that of the <i>monosyllabic</i> nations or tribes&mdash;a section,
+or division, of the former.</p>
+
+<p>Little Tibet, Ladakh, Tibet Proper, Butan, and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+China, are all Mongol in form, and monosyllabic
+in language. So are Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambojia,
+and Cochin China, the countries which constitute
+the great peninsula, sometimes called <i>Indo-Chinese</i>,
+and sometimes <i>Transgangetic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The extremity however&mdash;the Malayan peninsula&mdash;is
+<i>not</i> monosyllabic.</p>
+
+<p><i>The British possessions of Hindostan are monosyllabic
+on their Tibetan and Burmese frontiers.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Hong-Kong.</i>&mdash;Aden was disposed of briefly. So
+is Hong-Kong; and that for the same reason.
+Politically, British, it is ethnologically Chinese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and the
+Mergui Archipelago.</i>&mdash;These constitute what are
+sometimes called the <i>ceded</i>, sometimes the <i>Tenasserim</i>
+provinces. They came into possession of
+the British at the close of the Burmese war of
+1825. Unlike our dependencies in Hindostan, they
+are cut off from connection with any of the great
+centres of British power in Asia&mdash;in which respect
+they agree with the smaller and still more isolated
+settlements of the Malaccan Peninsula. The
+power that ceded them was the Burmese, so that
+it is with the existing subjects of that empire that
+their present limits are in contact; though only
+for the northern part. To the south they abut
+upon Siam.</p>
+
+<p>The population throughout is monosyllabic;
+except so far as it is modified by foreign intermixture&mdash;of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+which by far the most important element
+is the Indian. Everything in the way of
+religious creed which is not native and pagan is
+Indian and Buddhist. The alphabets, too, of the
+lettered populations are Indian in origin.</p>
+
+<p>The population of the <i>continental</i> part of these
+British dependencies is referable to four divisions&mdash;of
+unequal and imperfectly ascertained value.
+1. The M&ocirc;n. 2. The Siamese. 3. The Avans.
+4. The Kariens.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The M&ocirc;n.</i>&mdash;M&ocirc;n is the native name of the
+indigenous population of Pegu, so that the M&ocirc;n
+of Maulmein, or Amherst, the most northern of
+the provinces in question, on the left bank of the
+lower Salw&iacute;n, are part and parcel of the present
+occupants of the delta of the Irawaddi, and the
+country about Cape Negrais. The Burmese call
+them <i>Talieng</i>, and under that designation they are
+described in Dr. Helfer's Report.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> The Siamese
+appellation is <i>Ming-m&ocirc;n</i>; apparently the native
+name in a state of composition. In the early
+Portuguese notices a still more composite form
+appears&mdash;and we hear of the ancient empire of
+<i>Kalamenham</i>, supposed to have been founded by
+the <i>Pandal&uacute;s</i> of M&ocirc;n or Pegu.</p>
+
+<p>None of the <i>lettered</i> languages of the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula are less known than that of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+Pegu. At the same time its unequivocally monosyllabic
+character is beyond doubt. The alphabet
+is a slight variation of the Avan.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical position of the M&ocirc;n at the
+extremity of a promontory, and on the delta of
+a river, taken along with their philological isolation,
+is remarkable. They have evidently been
+encroached upon by the Avans in latter times;
+whilst, at an earlier period, they themselves probably
+encroached upon others. Whether they
+are the oldest occupants of Maulmein is uncertain;
+it is only certain that they are older than
+their conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>To the M&ocirc;n of Pegu the exchange of Avan for
+British rule, has been a great and an appreciated
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Siamese.</i>&mdash;The native name for the
+Siamese language is <i>Tha'y</i>, and <i>Tha'y</i> is the
+national and indigenous denomination of the
+Siamese. It is the Avans who call them <i>Sian</i> or
+<i>Shan</i>; from whence the European term has been
+derived through the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>The Siamese population is of course greatest
+on the Siamese frontier; so that, increasing as
+we go south, it attains its <i>maximum</i> in Tenasserim
+just as the M&ocirc;n did in Maulmein. It seems,
+also, to have been introduced at different times; a
+fact which gives us a distinction between the
+native Siamese and the recent settlers.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Like the <i>M&ocirc;n</i>, the Tha'y, at least in its more
+classical dialect, is a lettered language; the alphabet,
+like the Buddhist religion, being Indian.
+Unlike, however, the <i>M&ocirc;n</i>, which is the only
+representative of the family to which it belongs,
+the <i>Tha'y</i> tribes constitute a vast class, falling
+into divisions and subdivisions, and exceedingly
+remarkable in respect to its geographical distribution.</p>
+
+<p>The Siamese of Siam, the kingdom of which
+Bankok is the capital, form but a fraction of this
+great stock. The <i>upper</i> half of the river Menam
+is occupied by what are called the <i>La&uacute;</i>, or
+<i>Laos</i>. These are partly wholly independent, and
+partly in nominal dependence upon China; and
+proportionate to their independence is the unlettered
+character of their language, and the absence
+of Indian influences. Nor is this all. The
+Menam is pre-eminently the river of the Tha'y
+stock, and along the water-system of the Menam
+its chief branches are to be found; their position
+being between the Burmese populations of the
+west, and the Khomen of Cambojia on the east.
+This distribution is <i>vertical</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, it is characterized
+by its length, rather than its breadth, and runs
+from south to north. So far does it reach in this
+direction that, as high as 28&deg; North lat., in upper
+Assam we find a branch of it. This is the <i>Khamti</i>.
+In a valuable comparison of languages, well-known<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+as "Brown's Tables,"<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> the proportion of the
+Khamti words to the South Siamese is ninety-two
+<i>per cent.</i></p>
+
+<p>Of the physical appearance of the Siamese, we
+find the best account in "Crawfurd's Embassy," the
+classical work for the ethnology of the southern
+part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their stature
+is low; the tallest man out of twenty having
+been five feet eight inches, the shortest five feet
+three. The complexion, darker than that of the
+Chinese, is lighter than that of the Malay; the
+eye oblique; the jaw square; and the cheek-bones
+broad.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tha'y</i> is an ethnological term, and denotes all
+the nations and tribes akin to the Siamese of the
+southern, the Khamti of the northern, or the La&uacute;
+of the intermediate area. The difference between
+the first and the last of these three should be
+noticed. Some members of the family are Indianized
+in religion, and organized in politics.
+Such are the Siamese of Bankok. Others retain
+both their independence and their original Paganism.
+Such are some of the La&uacute;. <i>Mutatis
+mutandis</i>, the same applies to the next family.</p>
+
+<p>This is the <i>Burmese</i>, to which both the Avans
+and the Kariens belong; but as it has been already
+stated that the divisions under consideration<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+are by no means of equal value, the two branches
+will be considered separately.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Avans.</i>&mdash;<i>Avan</i> is a more convenient
+term than <i>Burmese</i>, inasmuch as it is more definite;
+the <i>Burmese Empire</i> containing not only
+very distant members of the great <i>Burmese</i> family,
+but also populations which belong to other
+groups. <i>Ava</i>, on the other hand, is the centre
+of the dominant division.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the <i>M&ocirc;n</i>, or a family yet to be mentioned,
+represent the aborigines of <i>Maulmein</i>, it
+is certain that the Avans of that country are of
+comparatively recent introduction.</p>
+
+<p>Again, whether the <i>Tha'y</i>, or a family yet to
+be mentioned, represent the aborigines of <i>Tenasserim</i>,
+it is certain that the Avans of that country
+are of comparatively recent origin.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, there are Avans in each; and in
+Maulmein, although the M&ocirc;n preponderate in
+number, they all are able to speak the language
+of their conquerors. I say <i>conquerors</i>, because
+the Avans are for all the parts south of 18&deg;
+North lat., an intrusive population: the end of
+the eighteenth century being the date, when,
+under Alompra, an Avan or Umerap&uacute;ra dynasty
+broke up and subjected, in different degrees, the
+M&ocirc;n and Tha'y populations to the south, as well
+as several others more akin to itself on the east,
+west, and north.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Ava, next to those of China
+and Siam, best represents the civilization of those
+families whose tongue is monosyllabic. This implies
+that it has an organized polity, a lettered
+language, and a Buddhist creed; in other words
+that the influences of either China or India have
+acted on it. Of these two nations it is the latter
+which has most modified the Indianized members
+of the great Burmese stock. In strong contrast
+with these is the fourth and last branch of the
+<i>continental</i> population for the provinces in question,
+the</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Karien.</i>&mdash;The Kariens are partially independent;
+chiefly pagan; and their language, belonging
+to the same class with the Avan, is unlettered.
+They are the first of a long list.</p>
+
+<p>Their geographical distribution is remarkable,
+like that of the Tha'y. Its direction is north and
+south; its dimensions linear, rather than broad;
+and it bears nearly the same relation to the water-system
+of the Salw&iacute;n that that of the Siamese does
+to the river Menam. There are Kariens as far
+south as 11&deg; North lat. and there are Kariens as far
+north as 25&deg; North lat. Hence we have them in
+Maulmein, and in Tenasserim, and in the intermediate
+provinces of Ye and Tavoy as well. All
+these, like the M&ocirc;n, have been eased by the transfer
+from Avan oppression to British rule; though
+this says but little. Hence, with one exception,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+the other members of their family are decreasing;
+the exception being the so-called <i>Red</i> Karien.</p>
+
+<p>This epithet indicates a change in physiognomy;
+and, indeed, the physical conformation of the
+Burmese tribes requires attention. It is Mongolian
+in the way that the Siamese is Mongolian;
+but changes have set in. The beard increases;
+the hair becomes crisper; and the complexion
+darkens. The Kyo,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> the isolated occupants of a
+single village on the river Koladyng, are so much
+darker than their neighbours as to have been
+considered half Bengali; and, as a general rule,
+the nearer we approach India, the deeper becomes
+the complexion. The M&ocirc;n, too, of Pegu,
+are very dark. What is this the effect of? Certainly
+not of latitude, since we are moving northward.
+Of intermarriage? There is no proof of
+this. The greater amount of low alluvial soils,
+like those of the Ganges and Irawaddi, is, in
+my mind, the truer reason. But this is too
+general a question to be allowed to delay us.
+The Red Kariens are instances of an Asiatic tribe
+with an American colour; just as the Red Fulahs
+were in Africa. Such are the occupants of the
+<i>continent</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Silong.</i>&mdash;In the <i>islands</i> of the Mergui
+Archipelago, there is another variety; but whether<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+it form a class itself, or belong to any of the previous
+ones, is uncertain. Their language is said
+to be peculiar;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> but of this we have no specimen.
+As it is probably that of the oldest inhabitants
+of the continent opposite, this is to be
+regretted.</p>
+
+<p>They are called <i>Silong</i>, are a sort of sea-gipsy;
+and amount to about one thousand. Of all the
+creeds of either India or the Indo-Chinese peninsula
+theirs is the most primitive; so primitive as
+to be characterized by little except its negative
+characters. They believe that the land, air, trees,
+and waters are inhabited by <i>Nat</i>, or spirits, who
+direct the phenomena of Nature. How far they
+affect that of man, except indirectly, is unascertained.
+"We do not think about that," was the
+invariable answer, when any one was questioned
+about a future state. Too vague for monotheism,
+the Silong creed is also said to be too vague for
+idolatry, too vague for sacrifices.</p>
+
+<p>The Kariens, also, believe in <i>Nat</i>, but, as <i>they</i>
+believe in their influence on human affairs, they
+sacrifice to them accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Little, then, as we know, respecting these
+two families, we know that the common practice
+of <i>Nat</i> worship connects them; and this worship
+connects many other members of the <i>Burmese</i>
+stock. Consequently it helps us to place<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+the Silong in that group. It also favours the
+notion of the Tenasserim aborigines being Burmese.</p>
+
+<p>It is the delta of the Irawaddi which isolates
+the <i>Tenasserim provinces</i>; and the British dependency
+from which it separates them is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Arakhan.</i>&mdash;We are prepared for the ethnological
+position of the Arakhan populations.
+They are <i>Burmese</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We are likewise prepared for a division of
+them; there will be the Indianized and the
+Pagan&mdash;paganism and political independence going,
+to a certain degree, together.</p>
+
+<p>We are prepared for even minuter detail; the
+paganism will be Nat-worship; the Indian creed
+Buddhism: the alphabet also, where the language
+is written, will be Indian also. In Captain
+Tower's vocabulary,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> only seven words out of
+fifty differ between the Burmese of Arakhan, and
+the Burmese of Ava; and some of these are mere
+differences of pronunciation.</p>
+
+<p>The language itself is called <i>Rukheng</i> by those
+who use it; but the Bengali name is <i>Mug</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This applies to the Indianized part of the population,
+the analogues of the Avans and Siamese
+of Tenasserim, and of the M&ocirc;n of Maulmein.
+What are the Arakhan equivalents to the Karien?</p>
+
+<p><i>The Khyen.</i>&mdash;These inhabit the Yuma mountains<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+between Arakhan and Ava. A full notice of
+them is given by Lieutenant Trant, in the sixteenth
+volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But
+as they are chiefly independent tribes, it is enough
+to state that they form the Anglo-Burmese
+frontier. It is also added that there are numerous
+Khyen slaves in Arakhan.</p>
+
+<p>Farther notice of them is the less important,
+because a closely allied population will occur
+amongst the hill-tribes of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Chittagong.</i>&mdash;Hind&uacute; elements now increase.
+Even in Arakhan, Buddhism had ceased to be the
+only creed of western origin. There were Mahometans
+who spoke a mixed dialect called the
+<i>Ruinga</i>;<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and Brahminical Hind&uacute;s who spoke
+another called the <i>Rosawn</i>. In Chittagong, then,
+we must look about us for the aborigines; so intrusive
+have become the Hind&uacute; elements. Intrusive,
+however, they are, and intrusive they will
+be for some time to come.</p>
+
+<p>The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are important
+points of difference in Indian ethnology.
+On the <i>lower</i> ranges of the mountains on the
+north-east of Chittagong are the <i>Khumia</i> (<i>Choomeeas</i>)
+or <i>villagers</i>; <i>khum</i> (<i>choom</i>) meaning <i>village</i>.
+These are definitely distinguished from
+the Hind&uacute;s, by a flat nose, small eye, and broad
+round face, in other words by Mongolian characteristics<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+in the way of physiognomy. But the
+<i>Khumia</i> are less perfect samples of their class than
+the true mountaineers. These are the <i>Kuki</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>&mdash;hunters
+and warriors, divided into tribes, each
+under elective chiefs, themselves subordinate to a
+hereditary <i>Raja</i>,&mdash;at least such is the Hind&uacute;
+phraseology.</p>
+
+<p>Their creed consists in the belief of <i>Khogein
+Pootteeang</i> as a superior, and <i>Sheem Sauk</i> as an
+inferior deity; the destruction of numerous enemies
+being the best recommendation to their
+favour. A wooden figure, of human shape, represents
+the latter. The skulls of their enemies
+they keep as trophies. In the month of January
+there is a solemn festival.</p>
+
+<p>Language and tradition alike tell us that the
+Kuki (and most likely the Khumia as well) are
+unmodified Mugs. The displacement of their
+family has been twofold&mdash;first by Hind&uacute;s, secondly
+by Buddhist (or modified) Mugs at the time of the
+Burmese conquest. The Kuki population extends
+to the wilder parts of the district of <i>Tippera</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sylhet.</i>&mdash;On the southern frontier we have
+Kukis; on the eastern Cachari; on the northern
+Coosyas (<i>Kasia</i>). Due west of these last lie the
+Garo. I imagine that both these last-named
+populations are members of the same group&mdash;but
+cannot speak confidently. If so, we have departed<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+considerably from the more typical Burmese of
+Arakhan and Ava. Still we are within the same
+great class. The Garo will command a somewhat
+full notice.</p>
+
+<p>The Cachars depart still more from the more
+typical Burmese; the group to which they most
+closely belong being one which will also be enlarged
+on.</p>
+
+<p>North of the Kasia we reach the western portion
+of the southern frontier of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Assam.</i>&mdash;Here it will be convenient to take the
+whole of the valley&mdash;Upper as well as Middle and
+Lower Assam&mdash;although parts of the former are
+independent rather than British&mdash;and to go round
+it; beginning with the Kasia country and the
+Jaintia mountains on the south-west. I imagine&mdash;but
+am not certain&mdash;that the Kasia and Jaintia
+mountaineers are very closely allied.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the Cachars on the southern, or Manipur,
+frontier are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Nagas.</i>&mdash;These are in the same class with
+the Kuki; <i>i.e.</i>, the wild tribes of Manipur, speaking
+a not very altered dialect of the Burmese.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Singpho.</i>&mdash;This people is said to have come
+from a locality between their present position and
+the north-eastern corner of Assam and the Chinese
+frontier. An imperfect Buddhism, and an unappreciated
+alphabet of Siamese origin, are the
+chief phenomena of their civilization.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Jili.</i>&mdash;These are conterminous with the
+Singpho; to whom they are closely allied, in
+language, at least; seventy words out of one hundred
+agreeing in the two vocabularies.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Khamti</i> come in now. These have been
+mentioned as Tha'y in their most northern localities.
+They occupy north-eastern Assam, and
+are conterminous with the Singpho. The Khamti
+language, with its per-centage of ninety-two words
+common to it and the Siamese of Bankok, ten
+degrees southwards, has only three out of one
+hundred that agree with the Singpho, and ten in
+one hundred with the Jili. This shows the remarkable
+character of their ethnological distribution,
+and, at the same time, suggests the idea of
+great displacement.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mishimi.</i>&mdash;These occupy the north-east
+extremity of Assam. With the Mishimi we turn
+the corner, and find ourself on the northern or
+Tibetan frontier. Here it is the most western
+tribes which come first; and these are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Abors and Padam Bor-Abors.</i>&mdash;The first,
+like the Kuki, on the mountain-tops; the latter,
+like the Khumia, on the lower ranges.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Dufla.</i>&mdash;Mountaineers west of the Abors,
+with whom they are conterminous in about 94&deg;
+East lon.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Aka.</i>&mdash;Mountaineers west of the Dufla,
+with whom they are conterminous in about 92&deg;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+East lon. The Akas bound Lower Assam, the
+eastern part of which lies between them and the
+Cachari country.</p>
+
+<p>The tribes hitherto mentioned, although sufficiently
+numerous, represent the mountaineers of
+the Manipur and Tibetan <i>frontiers</i> only. The
+native tribes of the valley still stand over. These
+are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Muttuck</i> or <i>Moa Mareya</i>, <i>south</i> of the
+Brahmaputra, and so far Indianized as to be
+Brahminical in religion. Their locality is the
+south bank of the Brahmaputra; opposite to that
+of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Miri</i>, on the <i>north</i>.&mdash;The Miri are
+backed on the north by the Bor-Abors.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Mikir.</i>&mdash;Mr. Robertson looks upon these
+as an intrusive people from the Jaintia hills:
+their present locality being the district of Nowgong,
+where they are mixed up with&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Lalong.</i>&mdash;I cannot say whether the
+Lalong speak their originally monosyllabic
+tongue, or have learnt the Bengali&mdash;a phenomenon
+which does much to disguise the true ethnology of
+more than one of the forthcoming tribes; one of
+which is certainly&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Dhekra</i>, occupants of Lower Assam and
+Kamrup, where they are mixed up with other
+sections of the population.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Rabh&aacute;.</i>&mdash;Like the Dhekra, these are<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+Hind&uacute;s. Like the Dhekra they speak Bengali.
+Hence, like the Dhekra, their true affinities are
+disguised. It is, however, pretty generally admitted
+by the best authorities that what may be
+predicated of the Garo and Bodo&mdash;two families
+of which a fuller notice will be given in the sequel&mdash;may
+be predicated of the sections in question,
+as also of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Hajong</i> or <i>Hojai</i>.&mdash;Hind&uacute;s, speaking a
+form of the Bengali at the foot of the Garo hills;
+and who join the Rabh&aacute;, whose locality is between
+Gwahatti and Sylhet, <i>i.e.</i>, at the entrance of the
+Assam valley.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Garo</i> of the Garo hills to the north-east of
+Bengal now require notice. A mountaineer of
+these parts has much in common with the Coosya;
+yet the languages are, <i>perhaps</i>, mutually unintelligible.
+In form they are exceedingly alike.</p>
+
+<p>Now, a Garo<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is hardy, stout, and surly-looking,
+with a flattened nose, blue or brown eyes, large
+mouth, thick lips, round face, and brown complexion.
+Their <i>buniahs</i> (<i>booneeahs</i>) or chiefs, are
+distinguished by a silken turban. They have a
+prejudice against milk; but in the matter of
+other sorts of food are omnivorous. Their houses,
+called <i>chaungs</i>, are built on piles, from three to
+four feet from the ground, from ten to forty in
+breadth, and from thirty to one hundred and fifty<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+in length. They drink, feast, and dance freely;
+and, in their matrimonial forms, much resemble
+the Bodo. The youngest daughter inherits. The
+widow marries the brother of the deceased; if he
+die, the next; if all, the father.</p>
+
+<p>The dead are kept for four days; then burnt.
+Then the ashes are buried in a hole on the place
+where the fire was. A small thatched building is
+next raised over them; which is afterwards railed
+in. For a month, or more, a lamp is lit every
+night in this building. The clothes of the deceased
+hang on poles&mdash;one at each corner of the
+railing. When the pile is set fire to, there is
+great feasting and drunkenness.</p>
+
+<p>The Garo are no Hind&uacute;s. Neither are they
+unmodified pagans. Mahadeva they invoke&mdash;perhaps,
+worship. Nevertheless, their creed is
+mixed. They worship the sun and the moon,
+or rather the sun <i>or</i> the moon; since they ascertain
+which is to be invoked by taking a cup of
+water and some wheat. The priest then calls on
+the name of the sun, and drops corn into the
+water. If it sink, the sun is worshipped. If not,
+a similar experiment is tried with the name of the
+moon. Misfortunes are attributed to supernatural
+agency: and averted by sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes they swear on a stone; sometimes
+they take a tiger's bone between their teeth and
+then tell their tale.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lastly, they have an equivalent to the <i>Lycanthropy</i>
+of the older European nations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Among the Garrows a madness exists, which
+they call transformation into a tiger, from the
+person who is afflicted with this malady walking
+about like that animal, shunning all society. It
+is said, that, on their being first seized with this
+complaint they tear their hair and the rings from
+their ears, with such force as to break the lobe.
+It is supposed to be occasioned by a medicine
+applied to the forehead; but I endeavoured to
+procure some of the medicine thus used, without
+effect. I imagine it rather to be created by frequent
+intoxications, as the malady goes off in the
+course of a week or fortnight. During the time
+the person is in this state, it is with the utmost
+difficulty he is made to eat or drink. I questioned
+a man, who had thus been afflicted, as to
+the manner of his being seized, and he told me
+he only felt a giddiness without any pain, and
+that afterwards he did not know what happened
+to him."<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a paper of Captain C. S. Reynolds, in the
+"Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,"<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> we
+have the notice of a hitherto undescribed superstition;
+that of the <i>Korah</i>. A <i>Korah</i> is a dish of
+bell-metal, of uncertain manufacture. A small
+kind, called Deo Korah, is hung up as a household<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+god and worshipped. Should the monthly
+sacrifice of a fowl be neglected, punishment is expected.
+If "a person perform his devotion to the
+spirit which inhabits the Korah with increasing
+fervour and devotion, he is generally rewarded by
+seeing the embossed figures gradually expand.
+The Garos believe that when the whole household
+is wrapped in sleep, the Deo Korahs make expeditions
+in search of food, and when they have satisfied
+their appetites return to their snug retreats
+unobserved."</p>
+
+<p>The Miri are supposed to believe the same of
+what are called <i>Deo Guntas</i>, brought from Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>Now what is the classification of all these
+tribes? Preliminary to the answer on this point,
+there are eleven dialects spoken in the parts
+about Manipur&mdash;besides the proper language of
+Manipur itself&mdash;to be enumerated. These are
+as follows:&mdash;1. Songpu. 2. Kapwi. 3. Koreng.
+4. Maram. 5. Champhung. 6. Luhuppa. 7, 8,
+9. Northern, Central, and Southern Tangkhul.
+10. Khoibu; and 11. Maring. Now these twelve
+(the Manipur being included) have been tabulated
+by Mr. Brown, in such a way as to show the per-centage
+of words that each has with all the others;
+and not only these, but nearly all the tongues
+which we have had to deal with, are similarly put
+in order for being compared. The part of the
+table necessary for the present use is as follows:<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tab1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class="tr1"><td class="bl"></td>
+<td>&Aacute;<br />k<br />&aacute;</td>
+<td>&Aacute;<br />b<br />o<br />r</td>
+<td>M<br />i<br />s<br />h<br />i<br />m<br />&iacute;</td>
+<td>B<br />u<br />r<br />m<br />e<br />s<br />e</td>
+<td>K<br />a<br />r<br />e<br />n</td>
+<td>S<br />i<br />n<br />g<br />p<br />h<br />o</td>
+<td>J<br />i<br />l<br />&iacute;</td>
+<td>G<br />&aacute;<br />r<br />o</td>
+<td>M<br />a<br />n<br />i<br />p<br />u<br />r<br />&iacute;</td>
+<td>S<br />o<br />n<br />g<br />p<br />&uacute;</td>
+<td>K<br />a<br />p<br />w<br />&iacute;</td>
+<td>K<br />o<br />r<br />e<br />n<br />g</td>
+<td>M<br />a<br />r<br />&aacute;<br />m</td>
+<td>C<br />h<br />a<br />m<br />p<br />h<br />u<br />n<br />g</td>
+<td>L<br />u<br />h<br />u<br />p<br />p<br />a</td>
+<td>N.<br /><br />T<br />&aacute;<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td>
+<td>C.<br /><br />T<br />&aacute;<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td>
+<td>S.<br /><br />T<br />&aacute;<br />n<br />g<br />k<br />h<br />u<br />l</td>
+<td>K<br />h<br />o<br />i<br />b<br />&uacute;</td>
+<td>M<br />a<br />r<br />i<br />n<br />g</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl lft">&Aacute;k&aacute;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>47</td><td>20</td><td>17</td><td>12</td><td>15</td><td>15</td><td>5</td><td>11</td><td>3</td><td>10</td><td>3</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">&Aacute;bor</td><td>47</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>11</td><td>6</td><td>15</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Mishim&iacute;</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>11</td><td>0</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>10</td><td>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Burmese</td><td>17</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>23</td><td>23</td><td>26</td><td>12</td><td>16</td><td>8</td><td>20</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>16</td><td>16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Karen</td><td>12</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>17</td><td>21</td><td>8</td><td>15</td><td>10</td><td>15</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>4</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>10</td><td>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Singpho</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td>17</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>70</td><td>16</td><td>25</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>15</td><td>13</td><td>25</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Jil&iacute;</td><td>15</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>26</td><td>21</td><td>70</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>22</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td>21</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>18</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">G&aacute;ro</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>10</td><td>12</td><td>8</td><td>16</td><td>22</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>5</td><td>5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Manipur&iacute;</td><td>11</td><td>15</td><td>11</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>25</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>21</td><td>41</td><td>18</td><td>25</td><td>28</td><td>31</td><td>28</td><td>35</td><td>33</td><td>40</td><td>50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Songp&uacute;</td><td>3</td><td>6</td><td>0</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>5</td><td>21</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>35</td><td>50</td><td>53</td><td>20</td><td>23</td><td>15</td><td>15</td><td>13</td><td>8</td><td>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Kapw&iacute;</td><td>10</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>20</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td>6</td><td>41</td><td>35</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>30</td><td>33</td><td>20</td><td>35</td><td>30</td><td>40</td><td>45</td><td>38</td><td>40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Koreng</td><td>3</td><td>5</td><td>0</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>11</td><td>13</td><td>5</td><td>18</td><td>50</td><td>30</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>41</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>10</td><td>15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Mar&aacute;m</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>3</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>11</td><td>11</td><td>8</td><td>25</td><td>53</td><td>33</td><td>41</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>21</td><td>28</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>16</td><td>23</td><td>26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Champhung</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>5</td><td>11</td><td>4</td><td>13</td><td>11</td><td>5</td><td>28</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>18</td><td>21</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>40</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Luhuppa</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>11</td><td>12</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>31</td><td>23</td><td>35</td><td>21</td><td>28</td><td>40</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>63</td><td>55</td><td>36</td><td>33</td><td>40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">N. T&aacute;ngkhul</td><td>5</td><td>8</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>8</td><td>13</td><td>20</td><td>13</td><td>28</td><td>15</td><td>30</td><td>20</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>63</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>85</td><td>30</td><td>31</td><td>31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">C. T&aacute;ngkhul</td><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>6</td><td>13</td><td>12</td><td>25</td><td>20</td><td>11</td><td>35</td><td>15</td><td>40</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>55</td><td>85</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>41</td><td>45</td><td>41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">S. T&aacute;ngkhul</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>12</td><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>5</td><td>33</td><td>13</td><td>45</td><td>11</td><td>16</td><td>16</td><td>36</td><td>30</td><td>41</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>43</td><td>43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl lft">Khoib&uacute;</td><td>8</td><td>10</td><td>10</td><td>16</td><td>10</td><td>20</td><td>20</td><td>5</td><td>40</td><td>8</td><td>38</td><td>10</td><td>23</td><td>15</td><td>33</td><td>31</td><td>45</td><td>43</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>78</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr2"><td class="bl lft">Maring</td><td>10</td><td>18</td><td>8</td><td>16</td><td>15</td><td>18</td><td>20</td><td>5</td><td>50</td><td>15</td><td>40</td><td>15</td><td>26</td><td>25</td><td>40</td><td>31</td><td>41</td><td>43</td><td>78</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The last eleven dialects are not spoken in
+any British dependency; and they have only
+been mentioned for the sake of explaining the
+table.</p>
+
+<p>All belong to one and the same class; a point
+upon which I see no room for doubt; although
+respecting the <i>value</i> of that class I admit that
+some exists.</p>
+
+<p>For this, the term <i>Burmese</i> is as good as any
+other&mdash;without professing to be better; yet,
+should it seem too precise, there is no objection to
+the sufficiently general term of <i>monosyllabic</i> being
+substituted for it.</p>
+
+<p>The reader, however, may doubt the fact of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+affinities. This has been done. Long before the
+present writer knew of such dialects as the Jili,
+Mishimi, Aka, Abor, Singpho, and the like, he had
+satisfied himself that the Garo was monosyllabic,
+and had so expressed himself in 1844,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> when
+Brown's Tables had been published, though not
+seen by him. It was with surprise, then, that he
+found the author of them writing, that "it would
+be difficult to decide from the specimens before
+us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic
+or polysyllabic languages. It probably
+belongs to the latter."</p>
+
+<p>Again, Mr. Hodgson makes the Garo Tamulian,
+<i>i.e.</i>, polysyllabic; a fact which will be noticed
+again when the Bodo, Dhimal, and Kocch have
+been disposed of.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kocch</i>, <i>Bodo</i>, and <i>Dhimal</i> is the title of
+one of that writer's works&mdash;a model of an ethnological
+monograph. This gives us a new class.
+The Bodo of Hodgson are the wild tribes that
+skirt the Himalayas, from Assam to Sikkim.
+West of these, between the river Konki and the
+river Dhorla are the Dhimal, a small tribe mixed
+with Bodo; and, southwards, in Kocch Behar,
+are the Kocch. The two former are so much
+described together that a separation is difficult.
+This leaves us at liberty to follow the details of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+either one population or of both. The history of
+a Bodo from his cradle to his grave is as follows.
+The birth is attended with a <i>minimum</i> amount
+of ceremonies. Midwives there are none; but
+labours are easy. Neither has the priest much to
+do with ushering-in the new-comer to the world.
+A short period of uncleanness is recognized, but
+it is only a short one; the purification consisting
+in the acts of bathing and shaving performed by
+the parties themselves. Four or five days after
+delivery, the mother goes out into the world; and
+at that time, the child is named. Any passing
+event determines this; as there are no family
+names, and no names taken from their mythology.
+The account, however, of Mr. Hodgson, in this
+respect is somewhat obscure, "A Bhotia chief
+arrives at the village, and the child is named
+Jinkh&aacute;p; or a hill peasant arrives, and it is
+named Gongar, after the titular, or general designation
+of the Bhotias."</p>
+
+<p>As long as a mother can suckle a child (or
+<i>children</i>) she continues to do so, sometimes for so
+long a period as three years, when the last and
+last but one may be seen sucking together.</p>
+
+<p>The period of weaning is thus delayed; and,
+notwithstanding the current notion as to the
+prematurity of marriages in warm climates, that
+of wedlock is delayed as well: the male waits till
+he is twenty or twenty-five, the female till between<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+fifteen and twenty. The parties least concerned
+are the bride and bridegroom; the parents
+do the courtship. Those of the lady take a payment.
+This is called a <i>Jan</i> amongst the Bodo,
+and varies from ten to fifteen rupees. With the
+Dhimal it is a <i>Gandi</i>, and amounts to a higher
+sum, ranging from fifteen to forty-five. Failing
+this, service must be done by the youth; and a
+wife be earned as Jacob earned Leah and Rachel.
+This is the <i>Gabor</i> of the Bodo, and the <i>Gharjya</i>
+of the Dhimal.</p>
+
+<p>Such marriages are easily dissolved, <i>i.e.</i>, at
+the option of either party. In case, however,
+of infidelity on the part of a wife having caused
+a divorce, the wedding-money is repaid. Adoption
+is common, concubinage rare; each being
+on a level with marriage in respect to the <i>status</i>
+of the children. Of these, all males inherit alike;
+but the rights of the female are limited.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremony itself begins with a procession
+on the part of the bridegroom's friends to the
+bride's house, two females accompanying them.
+Of these, it is the business to put red-lead
+and oil on the bride-elect's hair. A feast follows;
+after which the husband takes his wife
+home. Thus far the Bodo forms agree with
+the Dhimal; but they differ in what follows.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bodo</i> sacrifices a cock and a hen in the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+names of the bridegroom and the bride, respectively
+to the Sun.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Dhimal</i> propitiate <i>Data</i> and <i>Bedata</i> by
+presents of betel-leaf and red-lead.</p>
+
+<p>Both bury their dead, and purify themselves
+by ablution in the nearest stream when the
+funeral procession is over. The family, however,
+of the deceased is considered as unclean
+for three days.</p>
+
+<p>A feast with sacrifices attends the purification.
+Before sitting down, they repair once
+more to the grave, and present the dead with some
+of the food from the banquet;&mdash;"take and eat,
+heretofore you have eaten and drunk with us;
+you can do so no more; you were one of us,
+you can be so no longer; we come no more to
+you; come you not to us." After this each
+member of the party takes from his wrist a
+bracelet of thread, and throws it on the grave.</p>
+
+<p>A ceremonial implies a priesthood. Under
+this class come the Deoshi, the Dhami, the
+Ojha, and the Phantwal.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these is the village, the second
+the district, priest.</p>
+
+<p>The Ojha is the village exorcist; and the
+Phantwal a subordinate of the Deoshi. The
+influence of this clerical body, although probably
+higher than Mr. Hodgson places it, is, evidently,
+anything but exorbitant.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I cannot find anything in the Bodo and Dhimal
+superstitions higher than what was found in Africa.
+Nor yet is anything <i>essentially</i> different. Similar
+intellectual conditions develop similar creeds, independent
+of intercourse; a fact which, the
+more we go into the natural history of religions,
+the more we shall verify. We read indeed of
+<i>oaths</i> and <i>ordeals</i>; but oaths and ordeals are by
+no means, what they have too loosely been supposed
+to be, appeals to the moral nature of the
+Divinity. The <i>dhoom</i> test, in Old Calabar, is an
+ordeal. The criminal tests of the Fantis are the
+same. Indeed, few, if any tribes, are without
+them. What the real ideas are which determine
+such and such-like ceremonies is difficult for intellectual
+adults to understand. The way towards
+their appreciation lies in the phenomena of a
+child's mind; the true clue to the psychology of
+rude populations.</p>
+
+<p>If we take the Bodo and Dhimal religions in
+detail we find ourselves in a familiar field, with
+well-known forms of superstition around us.</p>
+
+<p>Diseases are attributed to supernatural agency;
+and the medicine-man, exorcist, or Ojha, is more
+priest than surgeon.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>feticism</i> of Africa re-appears; at least such
+is my inference from the following extract. "<i>Batho</i>
+is clearly and indisputably identifiable with
+<i>something tangible</i>, <i>viz.</i>, the <i>Sij</i> or <i>Euphorbia</i>;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+though why that useless and even exotic plant
+should have been thus selected to type the Godhead,
+I have failed to learn."</p>
+
+<p>Euhemerism, or the worship of dead men
+deified, is to be found either in its germs or its
+rudiments; at any rate, one of their deities bears
+the name of Hajo, a known historic personage.
+But this may be referable to Hind&uacute; influences
+unequivocally traceable in other parts of the
+Pantheon.</p>
+
+<p>It is the rites and ceremonies of a country
+that give us its religion in the concrete. All
+beyond is an abstraction. These, with the Bodo
+and Dhimal, are numerous. Invocations, deprecations,
+and thanksgivings are all mentioned by
+Mr. Hodgson; and they are all attended by offerings
+or sacrifices; libations attend the sacrifices,
+and feasting follows the libations.</p>
+
+<p>The great festivals of the year are four for
+the Bodo, three for the Dhimal.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> In December or January, when the cotton-crop
+is ready, the Bodo hold their <i>Shurkhar</i>, the
+Dhimal their <i>Harejata</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> In February or March, the Bodo hold the
+<i>Wagaleno</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> In July or August, the rice comes into ear.
+This brings on the Bodo <i>Phulthepno</i>, and the
+Dhimal <i>Gavipuja</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All these are celebrated out of doors, and on
+agricultural occasions.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The fourth great festival is held at home;
+its time being the month of October; its name
+<i>Aihuno</i> in Bodo, and <i>Pochima paka</i> in Dhimal.
+Here, in the <i>Aihuno</i> at least, the family assembles,
+the priest joins it, and the Sij, or Euphorbia,
+represents Batho. This is placed in the
+middle of the room, has prayers offered to it,
+and a <i>cock</i> as a sacrifice; whilst Mainou's offering
+is a <i>hog</i>; Agrang's a <i>he-goat</i>, and so on,
+through the whole list of the nine <i>nooni madai</i>,
+or deities thus worshipped. As for the symbols
+which represent them, besides the Sij, which
+stands for Batho, there is a bamboo post about
+three feet high, surmounted by a small cup of
+rice, denoting Mainou; but the equivalents of
+the other seven are somewhat uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>The Wagaleno festival was witnessed by Mr.
+Hodgson and Dr. Campbell. The account of it
+is something lengthy. I mention it, however,
+for the sake of one of its principal actors&mdash;the
+D&eacute;&oacute;d&aacute;. This is the <i>possessed</i>, who, "when filled
+with the god, answers by inspiration to the question
+of the priest as to the prospects of the
+coming season. When we first discerned him, he
+was sitting on the ground, panting, and rolling
+his eyes so significantly that I at once conjectured
+his function. Shortly afterwards, the rite<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+still proceeding, the D&eacute;&oacute;d&aacute; got up, entered the
+circle, and commenced dancing with the rest,
+but more wildly. He held a short staff in his
+hand, with which, from time to time, he struck
+the bedizened poles, one by one, and lowering it
+as he struck. The chief dancer with the odd-shaped
+instrument waxed more and more vehement
+in his dance; the inspired grew more and
+more maniacal; the music more and more rapid;
+the incantation more and more solemn and earnest;
+till, at last, amid a general lowering of the heads
+of the decked bamboo poles, so that they met and
+formed a canopy over him, the D&eacute;&oacute;d&aacute; went off
+in an affected fit, and the ceremony closed without
+any revelation." This self-excited state of
+ecstasy is an element of most religions in the
+same stage of development; and a low level it
+indicates. In Greece, in Africa, and in Northern
+Asia, we find it as regularly as we find a coarse
+and material creed; and to the coarseness of the
+materialism of such a creed it is generally proportionate.</p>
+
+<p>Witches, and the discovery of them, and the
+influence of the evil eye are part and parcel of the
+Bodo and Dhimal superstitions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kocch</i> means a population, which possibly
+amounts to as much as a million souls, extended
+from about 88&deg; to 93&frac12;&deg; East long., and 25&deg; to 27&deg;
+North lat., and of which Kocch Behar is the political<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+centre. The term is <i>ethnological</i>&mdash;not political.
+It is ethnological, and not political, because,
+although originally native, it has since been partially
+abandoned. <i>All</i> the inhabitants of the parts
+in question <i>once</i> called themselves Kocch; and
+Kocch they were called by their neighbours the
+Mech. At this time the country was unequivocally
+other than Indian; <i>i.e.</i>, in the same category
+with that of the Garo and Bodo. Since then,
+however, great changes have taken place; so that,
+just as Wales is partially Anglicized, the Welsh
+language being replaced by the English, the
+Kocch&mdash;the native tongue&mdash;is under the process
+of being replaced by a Hind&uacute; dialect. Nevertheless,
+just as many a Welshman who speaks
+nothing but English is still a Welshman, so are
+the Kocch, who have changed their languages,
+Bodo, Garo, or something closely akin, in ethnological
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which different portions of the
+once great Kocch nation have abandoned or retained
+their original characteristics is easily measured.</p>
+
+<p>1. Those who have changed most speak a form
+of the Bengali, and are imperfect Mahometans;
+imperfect, because their creed is strongly tinctured
+with Hinduism. Thus the very epithet
+which they apply to themselves is Brahminical;
+<i>R&aacute;jbansi</i>=<i>Suryabansi</i>=<i>Sun-born</i>. The converted<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+Kocch of the Mahometan creed are chiefly of the
+lower order of the province of Behar.</p>
+
+<p>2. Those who have changed, but changed less
+than the <i>Mahometans</i> of Behar, are either Brahminists
+or Buddhists&mdash;speaking the same Bengali
+dialect as the last. These are chiefly the higher
+classes of the population of Behar. They are
+Kocch in the way that the Cornishmen are Welsh.
+They consider them <i>R&aacute;jbansi</i> also. Doubtless,
+their Hinduism is imperfect; <i>i.e.</i>, tinctured with
+the original paganism.</p>
+
+<p>3. The primitive, unconverted, or <i>Pani</i> Kocch,
+have either not changed at all, or changed but little.
+They retain the original name of Kocch; which
+is not endured by the others. They retain their
+original tongue, which, according to Buchanan,
+has no affinity with any of the Hind&uacute; tongues.
+They retain their original customs; and they retain
+their original paganism. Lastly, Mr. Hodgson
+attests the "entire conformity of the physiognomy
+of all&mdash;with that of the other aborigines
+around them." He adds that he cannot improve
+on Buchanan's account of them, which is as follows:&mdash;"The
+primitive or P&aacute;ni Kocch live amid
+the woods, frequently changing their abode in
+order to cultivate lands enriched by a fallow.
+They cultivate entirely with the hoe, and more
+carefully than their neighbours who use the
+plough, for they weed their crops, which the others<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+do not. As they keep hogs and poultry they
+are better fed than the Hind&uacute;s, and as they make
+a fermented liquor from rice, their diet is more
+strengthening. The clothing of the P&aacute;ni Kocch
+is made by the women, and is in general blue,
+dyed by themselves with their own indigo, the
+borders red, dyed with Morinda. The material is
+cotton of their own growth, and they are better
+clothed than the mass of the Bengalese. Their
+huts are at least as good, nor are they raised
+on posts like the houses of the Indo-Chinese,
+at least, not generally so. Their only arms are
+spears: but they use iron-shod implements of
+agriculture, which the Bengalese often do not.
+They eat swine, goats, sheep, deer, buffaloes, rhinoceros,
+fowls, and ducks&mdash;not beef, nor dogs,
+nor cats, nor frogs, nor snakes. They use tobacco
+and beer, but reject opium and hemp. They eat
+no tame animal without offering it to God (the
+Gods), and consider that he who is least restrained
+is most exalted, allowing the G&aacute;r&oacute;s to be their
+superiors, because the G&aacute;r&oacute;s may eat beef. The
+men are so gallant as to have made over all
+property to the women, who in return are most
+industrious, weaving, spinning, brewing, planting,
+sowing; in a word, doing all work not above
+their strength. When a woman dies the family
+property goes to her daughters, and when a man
+marries he lives with his wife's mother, obeying<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+her as his wife. Marriages are usually arranged
+by mothers in nonage, but consulting the destined
+bride. Grown up women may select a husband
+for themselves, and another, if the first die. A
+girl's marriage costs the mother ten rupees&mdash;a
+boy's five rupees. This sum is expended in a
+feast with sacrifice, which completes the ceremony.
+Few remain unmarried, or live long. I saw no
+grey hairs. Girls, who are frail, can always
+marry their lover. Under such rule, polygamy,
+concubinage, and adultery are not tolerated. The
+last subjects to a ruinous fine, which if not paid,
+the offender becomes a slave. No one can marry
+out of his own tribe. If he do, he is fined. Sutties
+are unknown, and widows always having property
+can pick out a new husband at discretion.
+The dead are kept two days, during which the
+family mourn, and the kindred and friends assemble
+and feast, dance and sing. The body is then
+burned by a river's side, and each person having
+bathed returns to his usual occupation. A funeral
+costs ten rupees, as several pigs must be sacrificed
+to the manes. This tribe has no letters; but a
+sort of priesthood called D&eacute;&oacute;shi, who marry and
+work like other people. Their office is not hereditary,
+and everybody employs what D&eacute;&oacute;shi he
+pleases, but some one always assists at every sacrifice
+and gets a share. The Kocch sacrifice to the
+sun, moon, and stars, to the gods of rivers, hills<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+and woods, and every year, at harvest-home, they
+offer fruits and a fowl to deceased parents, though
+they believe not in a future state! Their chief
+gods are Rishi and his wife J&aacute;g&oacute;. After the
+rains the whole tribe make a grand sacrifice to
+these gods, and occasionally also, in cases of distress.
+There are no images. The gods get the
+blood of sacrifices; their votaries, the meat. Disputes
+are settled among themselves by juries of
+Elders, the women being excluded here, however
+despotic at home. If a man incurs a fine, he
+cannot pay with purse, he must with person, becoming
+a bondman, on food and raiment only,
+unless his wife can and will redeem him."</p>
+
+<p>I must now request particular attention on the
+part of the reader to the terms which Mr. Hodgson
+applies to the physical conformation of these
+northern, or sub-Himalayan tribes; and still closer
+attention must be given to his nomenclature. He
+calls the stock in question <i>Tamulian</i>. This connects
+it with the <i>South</i> Indian. He contrasts it
+with the <i>Hind&uacute;</i>. By this he means the Brahminical
+elements of the Indian populations.</p>
+
+<p>Let us then see what points he considers to be
+<i>Tamulian</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1. There is "less height, less symmetry, more
+dumpiness and flesh."</p>
+
+<p>2. There is "a somewhat lozenge contour (of
+face) caused by the large cheek-bones."<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. There is "less perpendicularity of features
+in the front&mdash;a larger proportion of face to head&mdash;a
+broader flatter face&mdash;a shorter wider nose,
+often clubbed at the end, and furnished with
+round nostrils."</p>
+
+<p>4. There is a smaller eye, "less fully opened,
+and less evenly crossing the face by their line of
+aperture." In other words, there is the <i>oblique</i>
+eye, so much considered in the Chinese physiognomy.</p>
+
+<p>5. Lastly, there are larger ears, thicker lips,
+and less beard.</p>
+
+<p>I submit that all these points are Mongolian;
+and this is what Mr. Hodgson evidently thinks
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The whole class has passed beyond the hunter
+state, if ever such existed. It has passed beyond
+the pastoral or nomadic state also; if such existed.
+It is at present&mdash;and, perhaps, has always been&mdash;an
+agricultural state of society. On the other hand&mdash;the
+industrial state, the development represented
+by towns and commerce, has not been attained.</p>
+
+<p>The whole stock is essentially agricultural.
+Likewise, the agriculture is peculiar. We may
+explain it by the term <i>erratic</i>. They "never
+cultivate the same field beyond the second year,
+or remain in the same village beyond the fourth
+to sixth year. After the lapse of four or five
+years they frequently return to their old fields<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+and resume their cultivation, if in the interim the
+jungle has grown well, and they have not been
+anticipated by others, for there is no pretence of
+appropriation other than possessory, and if, therefore,
+another party have preceded them, or, if the
+slow growth of the jungle give no sufficient promise
+of a good stratum of ashes for the land when
+cleared by fire, they move on to another site, new
+or old. If old, they resume the identical fields
+they tilled before, but never the old houses or
+site of the old village, that being deemed unlucky.
+In general, however, they prefer new land to old,
+and having still abundance of unbroken forest
+around them, they are in constant movement,
+more especially as, should they find a new spot
+prove unfertile, they decamp after the first harvest
+is got in."</p>
+
+<p><i>Arva in annos mutant et superest ager.</i> This
+passage is explained by their customs.</p>
+
+<p>In respect to their social constitution, they
+dwell in small communities of from ten to forty
+houses; each of which community is under a
+<i>gr&agrave;</i> or head. This is Hind&uacute;&mdash;except that as the
+Hind&uacute; villages are both larger and more permanent,
+the functionaries, in addition to the <i>headman</i>,
+are more numerous. This is noted, because
+the difference in the two sorts of village government
+seems to be one of <i>degree</i> rather than
+<i>kind</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And now comes more in the way of classification.
+The Bodo are Kachars, or the Kachars are
+Bodo. Their languages are the same, so are
+their gods, so is their name; since Kachar is a
+Hind&uacute;, and no native term&mdash;the native name
+(<i>i.e.</i>, of the Kachars) being <i>Bodo</i>. On the other
+hand, the <i>Hind&uacute;</i> name of the Bodo is Mech.
+Whoever looks to a map will find that the outline
+of the Bodo area is very deeply indented; implying
+either a great original irregularity of area, or
+great subsequent displacement.</p>
+
+<p>Now follow the Garo. One fourth&mdash;fifteen out
+of sixty&mdash;of the words of Mr. Brown's Garo
+vocabulary is Bodo. The inference? That the
+Bodo and Garo are in the same category. What
+is this? Mr. Hodgson makes both Tamulian or
+Indian. In my own mind both are Burmese.
+But be this as it may, one fact is certain; <i>viz.</i>,
+that a transition between the tongues of the Indian
+and the tongues of the Indo-Chinese peninsula
+exists, and that the lines of demarcation which
+divide them are less broad and trenchant than is
+generally supposed.</p>
+
+<p>The Dhimal bring us to Sikkim. The dominant
+nation of Sikkim are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lepchas.</i>&mdash;Their language also is monosyllabic;
+but it is Tibetan rather than Burmese.
+They are a Sikkim rather than a British Indian
+population.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When we have passed the rajahship of Sikkim,
+we reach that of Nep&acirc;l. This, again, is independent.
+Such being the case, the line of frontier
+between the Hind&uacute; populations and the populations
+of the Bodo and Garo character lies beyond
+the pale of the British dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>But in proceeding westward, we pass Nep&acirc;l,
+and reach Kumaon.</p>
+
+<p>This is British, and, as it extends as far north
+as the Himalayas, it may contain monosyllabic
+languages, and tribes speaking them. It may
+present also instances of intermixture like those
+which we have already found in Behar&mdash;the line
+of demarcation being equally difficult and undefined.
+Difficult and undefined it really is&mdash;because,
+although it is an easy matter to take a
+portion of the Sirmor, Gurhwal, or Kumaon
+population, and say, "this is Hind&uacute; because both
+language and creed make it so," it is by no means
+so easy to prove that the blood, pedigree, or descent
+is Hind&uacute; also. To repeat an illustration
+already in use&mdash;many such populations may be
+Hind&uacute; only as the Cornishmen are English.</p>
+
+<p>Now the populations of the Tibetan stock to
+the west of Nep&acirc;l, so little known in detail, must
+be illustrated by means of our knowledge of the
+tribes of Nep&acirc;l and Tibet most closely related to
+them&mdash;by those of Nep&acirc;l on the east, and those
+of Tibet on the north.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For neither of these areas are there any very
+minute <i>data</i>. For the aborigines of <i>eastern</i> and
+<i>central</i> Nep&acirc;l, we have plenty of information.
+They are tribes speaking monosyllabic languages,
+and tribes in different degrees of intercourse
+with the Hind&uacute;s; being by name&mdash;1. The Magars.
+2. The Gurungs. 3. The Jariyas. 4. The
+Newars. 5. The Murmis. 6. The Kirata. 7. The
+Limbu; and 8. The Lepchas, common to the
+eastern boundary of Nep&acirc;l, to the western part
+of Butan, and to Sikkim. This, however, will
+not bring us far west enough for the Kumaon
+frontier; indeed, for the forests of Nep&acirc;l <i>west</i> of
+the Great Valley, we have the notice of one
+family only&mdash;the Chepang. For this, as for so
+much more, we are indebted to Mr. Hodgson. It
+falls into three tribes; the Chepang proper, the
+Kusunda, and the Haju. Its language (known
+to us by a vocabulary) is monosyllabic; its
+physical conformation, that of the unmodified
+Indian.</p>
+
+<p>So much for analogy. In the way of direct
+information we simply know that the Pariahs, or
+outcasts, of Kumaon<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> are called <i>Doms</i>. These
+have darker skins and curlier hair than the
+Hind&uacute;s. Are these enslaved and partially amalgamated<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+aborigines? Probably. Nay more; in
+the eastern part of the province, amidst the
+forests at the foot of the Himalayas, a community
+of about twenty families, pertinaciously adheres
+to the customs of their ancestors, resembles the
+<i>Doms</i> in looks, and is called <i>Rawat</i> or <i>Raji</i>.
+Though I have seen no specimen of their language,
+I have little doubt as to the <i>Rawat</i> of
+Kumaon being the equivalents to the Chepang of
+Nep&acirc;l.</p>
+
+<p>From Konawur we have three monosyllabic
+vocabularies, the Sumchu, the Theburskud, and
+the Milchan; but the exact amount to which the
+Tibetan and the Hind&uacute; populations indent each
+other along the western Himalayas is more than I
+can give.</p>
+
+<p>Here end the monosyllabic tongues spoken in
+British India. But they fringe the Himalayas
+throughout, and occur in the country of Gholab
+Singh, as well as in the independent rajahships
+between the Sutlege and Cashmeer. My latest
+researches have carried them even further westward
+than Little Tibet; as far as the Kohistan,
+or mountain country, of Cabul&mdash;the Der, Lughmani,
+Tirhai, and other languages, known, wholly
+or chiefly, through the vocabularies of Lieutenant
+Leach, being essentially monosyllabic in structure,
+and definitely connected with the tongues of
+Tibet, and Nep&acirc;l in respect to their vocables.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But this is episodical to the subject&mdash;a subject
+still requiring the notice of a very important
+phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyandria</i><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> is a term in ethnology, even as
+it is in botany. Its meaning, however, is different.
+Etymologically, it denotes a form of <i>polygamy</i>.
+<i>Polygamy</i>, however, being restricted to
+that particular form of marriage which consists in
+a multiplicity of <i>wives</i>, <i>polyandria</i> expresses the
+reverse, <i>viz.</i>, the plurality of <i>husbands</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the first glance, the word <i>polyandria</i> looks
+like a learned name for a common thing; and
+suggests the inquiry as to how it differs from
+simple promiscuity of intercourse; or, at least,
+how far the Tibetan wife differs from the fair frail
+one who was always constant to the 85th regiment.
+The answer is not easy. Still it is certain
+that some difference exists&mdash;if not in form, at
+least, in its effects. One of these, in certain
+countries where <i>polyandria</i> prevails, is the law of
+succession to property. This follows the female
+line, rather than the male.</p>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;the marriage of the widow with the
+surviving brother of her husband, is polyandria
+under another form.</p>
+
+<p>What the exact polyandria of Tibet is, is uncertain.
+I am not prepared to deny its existence
+even in so extreme a form as that of <i>one woman<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+being married to several husbands, all alive at once</i>.
+Still, I think it more likely that either the circle
+of community was limited to certain degrees of
+relationships, or else that the multiplied husbands
+were successive, rather than simultaneous. Still,
+the facts of the Tibetan <i>polyandria</i> require further
+investigation.</p>
+
+<p>One thing, only, is certain&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, that as an
+ethnological criterion the practice is of no great
+value. Capable, as it has been shown to be, of
+modification in form, it is anything but limited to
+either Tibet, or the families allied to the Tibetan.
+It occurs in many parts of the world. It is a
+Malabar practice; where it is, probably, as truly
+Tibetan as in Tibet itself. But it is also Jewish,
+African, Siberian, and North American; so that
+nothing would more mislead us in the classification
+of the varieties of man than to mistake it for
+a phenomenon <i>per se</i>, and allow it to separate
+allied, or to connect distinct populations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Necdum finitus Orestes.</i>&mdash;There are several populations
+which, on fair grounds, have been believed
+to be in the same category with the Dhekra,
+<i>i.e.</i>, which are Hind&uacute; in language and creed,
+though monosyllabic in blood. The Kudi, Batar,
+Kebrat, Pallah, Gangai, Maraha, Dhanak, Kichak,
+and Tharu, are oftener alluded to than described&mdash;though,
+doubtless, a better-informed investigator
+in such special matters than the present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+writer could find several definite details concerning
+them. They seem chiefly referable to Behar
+and north-eastern Bengal. The <i>Dhungers</i>&mdash;in
+the same class&mdash;the husbandmen of South Behar,
+bring us down to the vicinity of the population
+next to be noticed; a population which is generally
+considered with reference to the nations,
+tribes, and families of <i>Southern</i> rather than <i>Northern</i>
+India.</p>
+
+<p>The name of this family has already been mentioned.
+It is <i>Tamulian</i>; and the <i>Tamulian</i> physiognomy
+has been described. It has been seen
+to extend as far north as the Himalayas. If so,
+the nations already enumerated have been Tamulian;
+and no new class is now approaching. This
+may or may not be the case. Another change,
+however, is more undeniable. This is that of
+language. It is no longer referable to the
+Chinese type; since separate monosyllables have,
+more or less perfectly, become <i>agglutinated</i> into
+inflected forms, and the speech is as <i>poly</i>-syllabic
+as the other tongues of the world in general.
+As we approach the south this abandonment
+of the monosyllabic character increases, and from
+the <i>Tamul</i> language spoken between Pulicat and
+Cape Comorin, the term <i>Tamulian</i>&mdash;applicable in
+a general ethnological sense&mdash;is derived. <i>Agglutinated</i>
+(or <i>agglutinate</i>) is also a technical term.
+It means languages in the second stage of their<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+development; when words originally separate,
+such as adverbs of time, prepositions, and personal
+pronouns, have become permanently connected
+with the root, so as to form tenses, cases, and
+persons&mdash;the union of the two parts of an inflected
+word being still sufficiently recent and
+imperfect to leave their original separation and
+independence visible and manifest. When the
+incorporation or amalgamation, has become more
+complete; so complete, as in most cases to have
+obliterated all vestiges of an original independence;
+the <i>agglutinate</i> character has departed, the
+second stage of development has been passed,
+and the language is in the same class with
+those of Greece, Rome, and Germany, rather than
+in that of the tongues in question, and of many
+others.</p>
+
+<p>To return, however, to the <i>Tamulian</i> family,
+meaning thereby a branch of the great Mongolian
+stock, speaking, <i>either now or formerly</i>, a language
+more or less allied to the Tamul of the
+Dekhan.</p>
+
+<p>The first members of the class, as we proceed
+southwards from Behar, are certain hill-tribes
+of the Rajmahali Mountains&mdash;the Rajmahali
+mountaineers. Their Mongolian physiognomy is
+unequivocal;&mdash;a Mongolian physiognomy but
+conjoined with a dark skin. They have "broad
+faces, small eyes, and flattish or rather turned-up<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+noses. Their lips are thicker than those of the
+inhabitants of the plain."<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p>
+
+<p>The flattened nose reminded the writer of the
+Negro, and the general character of the features
+of the Chinese or Malay; though it is added that
+the resemblance is in a great degree lost on closer
+inspection. At the same time it has been sufficiently
+recognized to have originated the hypothesis
+of a descent from one of those nations as
+a means of accounting for it.</p>
+
+<p>With a slight tincture of Brahminic Hinduism,
+the Rajmahali mountaineers are Pagans. <i>Bedo</i> is
+one of their gods; doubtless the <i>Potteang</i> of the
+Kuki, and the <i>Batho</i> of the Bodo. <i>Gosaik</i>, too,
+is either the name of a god, or a holy epithet;
+this, also, being a mythological term current
+amongst many other tribes of India. Other elements
+in their imperfectly-known mythology
+deserve notice. Their priesthood contains both
+<i>Demauns</i> and <i>Dewassis</i>; the latter form being the
+Bodo <i>Deoshi</i>. As the names are alike, so are
+the functions. The <i>Dewassi</i> is an oracular seer.
+When he vouchsafes to give answers, his inspiration
+takes the form of frenzy&mdash;but he neither
+hurts nor speaks to any one. He makes signs for
+a cock, and for a hen's egg as well. The cock's
+head he wrenches off, and sucks the bleeding
+neck. The egg he eats. After this he seeks the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+solitude of the wood or stream; and is fed by the
+deity. Sometimes he has ridden a snake; sometimes
+put his hands in the mouth of a tiger with
+impunity. Trees too large to move, or too thorny
+to touch, he places on the roofs of houses. He
+sees Bedo Gosaik in visions; and, in the sacrifices
+therein enjoined, red paint, rice, and pigeons
+make a part. From the touch of women he
+abstains; so he does from the taste of flesh.
+Either would make his prophecies false.</p>
+
+<p>There are also certain sacrifices that the <i>Maungy</i>
+(chief?) of each village makes, and in which threads
+of red silk play a part.</p>
+
+<p>One of their gods&mdash;an elemental one&mdash;is the
+god of rain, and the dangers of a drought are
+averted by praying to him. A ceremony called
+the <i>Satane</i> determines the chief who takes the
+office of invoker.</p>
+
+<p>A black stone, called <i>Ruxy</i>, is much of the
+same sort of fetish with these mountaineers as
+the Sij with the Bodo. The name, too, Ruxy
+<i>Nad</i>, suggests the Nat worship of the Silong,
+Kariens, and others.</p>
+
+<p>The northern half of the Tamulian families
+are, like the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Bretons
+of France, members of the same ethnological
+group, but not in geographical contact with each
+other. Or, rather, they are, like the Celtic population
+of Wales and the Scottish Highlands, cut<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+off from one another by a vast tract of intervening
+Anglo-Saxons. Yet the time was when all was
+Celtic, from Cape Wrath to the Land's End;
+and when the original population extended, in
+its full integrity, over York and Nottingham,
+as well as over Merioneth and Argyleshire. And
+so it is with the populations in question. They
+stand apart from each other, like islands in an
+ocean; the intervening spaces being filled up by
+Hind&uacute;s. At the same time the isolation has
+been much overvalued, and, I imagine that when
+greater attention shall have been bestowed upon
+this important subject, connecting links which
+have hitherto been unnoticed will be detected.</p>
+
+<p>The next locality where we find a population
+akin to the Rajmahali mountaineers, is the mountain
+system of Orissa. These are called by the
+Hind&uacute;s <i>K&oacute;ls</i> (<i>Coolies</i>), <i>Khonds</i> and <i>S&uacute;rs</i>. Such,
+however, are no native designations&mdash;no more
+than the classical term <i>Barbarian</i>, or the English
+word <i>Tartar</i>. The people themselves have no
+collective name; but, being divided into tribes,
+have a separate one for each.</p>
+
+<p>I say that this branch of Tamulians is isolated,
+because I am not able to show its continuity; the
+range of hill-country which gives rise to the
+rivers between the Ganges and Mahanuddy being
+but imperfectly known.</p>
+
+<p>In Orissa, the most northern of the hill-tribes<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+are the K&oacute;l of Cuttack. South of these come the
+Khonds best studied in the neighbourhood of
+Goomsoor. The following is a list of their gods,
+and as <i>n</i> seems to stand for <i>d</i>, <i>Pennu</i> is but
+another name for <i>Bedo</i>, and <i>Gossa Pennu</i> for
+<i>Bedo Gosaik</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="bk2"><p>1. Bera <i>Pennu</i>, or the earth god.</p>
+
+<p>2. Bella <i>Pennu</i>, the sun god, and Danzu <i>Pennu</i>, the moon god.</p>
+
+<p>3. Sandhi <i>Pennu</i>, the god of limits.</p>
+
+<p>4. Loha <i>Pennu</i>, the iron god, or god of arms.</p>
+
+<p>5. Jugah <i>Pennu</i>, the god of small-pox.</p>
+
+<p>6. Madzu <i>Pennu</i>, or the village deity, the universal <i>genius loci</i>.</p>
+
+<p>7. Soro <i>Pennu</i>, the hill god.</p>
+
+<p>8. Jori <i>Pennu</i>, the god of streams.</p>
+
+<p>9. Gossa <i>Pennu</i>, the forest god.</p>
+
+<p>10. Munda <i>Pennu</i>, the tank god.</p>
+
+<p>11. Sugu <i>Pennu</i>, or Sidruja <i>Pennu</i>, the god of fountains.</p>
+
+<p>12. Pidzu <i>Pennu</i>, the god of rain.</p>
+
+<p>13. Pilamu <i>Pennu</i>, the god of hunting.</p>
+
+<p>14. The god of births.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The most southern of the Orissa hill-tribes are
+the <i>S&uacute;r</i>; connected by language with the preceding
+tribes; as they were with each other and
+the Rajmahali mountaineers.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These stand in remarkable contrast with the
+rest of the population of Orissa; whose language
+is the Udiya, a tongue which, according to many,
+belongs to a wholly different class, or, at least,
+to a different division of the present.</p>
+
+<p>South of Chicacole, however, the Tamul tongues
+are spoken continuously. I cannot say where the
+southern limits of the S&uacute;r population come in
+contact with the northern ones of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Chenchwars</i>&mdash;who occupy the same range of
+mountains, in the parts between the rivers Kistna
+and Pennar, and, probably, extending as far
+south as the neighbourhood of Madras. Their language
+is the Telugu, the language of the parts
+around, and of Tamul origin.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The contrast between
+the Chenchwars of the hills, and the Telingas
+of the lower country lies in their mythologies;
+the former retaining much of the original creed of
+their country, the latter being Brahminists.</p>
+
+<p>Below Madras, the mountain range changes its
+direction, and the next locality under notice is
+the Neilgherry hills.</p>
+
+<p>The families here are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Cohatars</i>&mdash;so little Indianized as to eat
+of the flesh of the cow, amounting to about two
+thousand in number, and occupants of the highest
+part of the range.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Tudas.</i>&mdash;An interesting monograph by
+Captain Harkness has drawn unusual attention to
+these mountaineers, the chief points of importance
+being the comparative absence of all elements of
+Brahminism, and the occurrence in their physiognomy
+of the most favourable points of Hind&uacute;
+beauty&mdash;regular and delicate features, oval face,
+and a clear brunette skin. Free from the other
+religious and social characteristics of Hinduism as
+the Tudas may be, they still admit a sort of caste;
+<i>e.g.</i>, whilst the <i>Peiki</i>, or <i>Toralli</i>, may perform any
+function, the <i>Kuta</i>, or <i>Tardas</i>, are limited.
+Neither did they always intermarry, though they
+do now; their offspring being called <i>Mookh</i>, or
+<i>descendants</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Curumbas</i>, called by the Tudas <i>Curbs</i>,
+inhabit a lower level than the preceding populations,
+but a higher one than&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Erulars</i> at the foot of the hills; falling
+into two divisions&mdash;<i>a</i>, the <i>Urali</i> (a name to be
+noticed), and <i>b</i>, the <i>Curutali</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Between the Neilgherries and Cape Comorin,
+the hill-tribes are worth enumerating, if only for
+the sake of showing their complexity. According
+to Lieutenant Conner in the "Madras Journal,"
+they are&mdash;1, Cowders; 2, Vaishvans; 3, M&uacute;davenmars;
+4, Arreamars, or Vailamers; 5, Ural-Uays.
+Besides these, there is a population of
+predial slaves, divided and subdivided.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+
+<ul><li>1. Vaituvan, Konaken.</li>
+
+<li>2. Polayers&mdash;
+
+<ul><li><i>a.</i> Vulluva.</li>
+
+<li><i>b.</i> Kunnaka.</li>
+
+<li><i>c.</i> Morny Pulayer.</li></ul></li>
+
+<li>3. Pariahs.</li>
+
+<li>4. Vaidurs.</li>
+
+<li>5. Ulanders and Naiadi.</li></ul>
+
+<p>To return to the Neilgherries, and follow the
+western Ghauts upwards, a population more
+numerous than any hitherto mentioned is that
+of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Buddugurs</i>, called also <i>Marv&eacute;s</i>. This name
+takes so many forms that <i>Berdar</i> may be one of
+them. One division of Buddugurs is called
+<i>Lingait</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot follow the Ghauts consecutively; however,
+when we reach the southern portion of the
+Mahratta country, we find in the rajahship of
+Satarah, two predatory tribes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Berdars</i>, supposed to be closely allied to
+Ramusi. The&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramusi</i> themselves connected by tradition and
+creed, with the <i>Lingait</i> Buddugurs. But not by
+language; or at any rate not wholly so. The
+Ramusi dialect is a mixture of Tulava and
+Marathi&mdash;the former being undoubted Tamul,
+but the latter in the same category with the
+Udiya.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The continuous Tamul languages are now left
+to the south of us, and the hill-tribes next in
+order, will have unlearnt their native tongues,
+and be found speaking the Hind&uacute; dialects of the
+countries around them. Hence, the evidence of
+their Tamulian descent will be less conclusive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Warali of the Konkan.</i>&mdash;Mountaineers of the
+northern Konkan. We have seen this name
+twice already, and we shall see it again. The
+evidence of their Tamulian extraction is imperfect.
+Their language is Marathi and their creed
+an imperfect Brahminism. Their mountaineer
+habits separate them from&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Katodi</i>&mdash;outcasts, who take their name
+from preparing the <i>kat</i>, or <i>cat-echu</i>, and who hang
+about the villages of the <i>plains</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The K&uacute;li.</i>&mdash;From Poonah to Gujerat, the occupants
+of the range of mountains parallel to the
+coast are called <i>K&uacute;li</i> (<i>Coolies</i>), the same in the
+eyes of the Hind&uacute;s of the western coast, as the <i>K&oacute;l</i>
+were in those of the Bengalese and Orissans; and
+similarly named. Their language is generally (perhaps
+always) that of the country around them, <i>viz.</i>,
+Marathi amongst the Mahrattas, and Gujerathi
+in Gujerat. However, difference of habits
+and creed sufficiently separate them from the
+Hind&uacute;s.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bhils.</i>&mdash;These are generally associated with
+the K&uacute;lis; from whom they chiefly differ geographically,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+belonging, as they do to the transverse
+ranges&mdash;the Satpura and Vindhia mountains&mdash;rather
+than to the main line of the Ghauts with
+its due north-and-south direction, and with its
+parallelism to the coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Paurias.</i>&mdash;Hill-tribes in Candeish, belonging
+to the Satpura range, and conterminous with
+the Bhil tribes, and with&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Wurali of the Satpura range.</i>&mdash;The Wurali
+re-appear for the fourth time. In the parts in
+question they are in contact with the Bhils and
+Paurias; from whom they keep themselves distinct;
+and from whom they differ in dialect.
+Still their language is Marathi. Pre-eminent as
+they are for their Paganism, their country contains
+ruins of brick buildings, and considerable
+excavations.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>These three are the hill-tribes of the water-shed
+of the rivers Tapti and Nerbudda. The water-system
+of the south-western feeders of the Ganges
+is more complex. Along the mountains between
+Candeish and Jeypur come&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Certain <i>Bhil</i> tribes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mewars</i>&mdash;under the Grasya chiefs of Joora,
+Meerpoor, Oguna, and Panurwa. The political
+relations of these tribes&mdash;in some cases of an undetermined
+nature&mdash;are with the Rajp&uacute;t governments;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+in other words, we are now amongst the
+aborigines of Rajasthan.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Minas.</i>&mdash;These, like the Mewars, are in
+geographical contact with certain Bhil tribes; in
+political contact with the Rajp&uacute;ts&mdash;the Mewars
+with those of Udip&uacute;r; the Minas with those of
+Ajmer, Jeypur, and Kota.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Moghis.</i>&mdash;At present, a free company rather
+than a population; although the representatives
+of what was once one&mdash;<i>viz.</i>, the aborigines of
+Jodpure. So little Brahminists are they that they
+eat of the flesh of the jackal and the cow, and
+indulge freely in fermented drinks.</p>
+
+<p>The hills that separate Malwah from the Haroti
+country, and from the south-eastern boundary of
+the valley of the River Chumbul are occupied
+by&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Saireas.</i>&mdash;This is a name which has occurred
+before and elsewhere;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> and is almost certainly,
+anything but native. Tribes, under this
+name, extend into Bundelcund.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>The Goands.</i>&mdash;The central parts between Candeish
+and Orissa, the head-waters of the Nerbudda
+and Tapti on the west, and of the Godavery
+on the east, still require notice. Here the hill
+population is at its <i>maximum</i>, both in point of
+numbers and characteristics; and the <i>Khond</i> forms<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+of the Tamul re-appear under the name <i>Goand</i>.
+Of these we have specimens from&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The Gawhilghur mountains near Ellichpoor.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> Chupprah.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Mundala in <i>Gundwana</i>, or the <i>Goand</i> country.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the chief hill-populations; which,
+although they belong to Tamulian stock, differ as
+to the extent to which they carry outward and
+visible signs of their origin. Some, like the Rajmahali,
+are merely separated geographically; and,
+perhaps, not even that. Others, like the Khonds
+of Orissa, are contrasted with the Tamuls of the
+south, by their inferior and social condition, and
+their non-Brahminical creeds. The Minas and
+Bhils differ in language; whilst the Ramusis
+and Berdars, probably, exhibit transitional forms
+of speech. The Tudas and Chenchwars surrounded
+by Telingas and Tamuls, as the Khonds
+and Goands are by Udiyas and Mahrattas, are
+merely the population of the parts around them
+with a primitive polity and religion.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lettered</i> languages of the Dekhan, where
+the Tamul character is unequivocal, but where the
+civilizational influences have chiefly been Hind&uacute;,
+are spoken in continuity from Chicacole, east, and
+the parts about Goa, west, to Cape Comorin, <i>i.e.</i>,
+in the Madras Presidency, and in the countries of
+Mysore, Travancore, and the coasts of Malabar<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+and Coromandel. Of these, the most northern&mdash;beginning
+on the eastern coast&mdash;is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Telinga or Telugu.</i>&mdash;Spoken from the
+parts about Chicacole to Pulicat, where it is succeeded
+by&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tamul Proper.</i>&mdash;The language of the Coromandel
+coast and the parts of the interior as
+far as Coimbatore. Each of these tongues has a
+double form, one for literature, and one for
+common use; the former being called the High,
+the latter the Low, Tamul or Telugu, as the case
+may be, and the creed which it embodies being
+either Brahminism, or some modification of it.</p>
+
+<p>In Travancore and on the Malabar coast the
+language is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Malayalma</i> or <i>Malayalam</i>&mdash;and in the
+greater part of Mysore&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kanara</i>&mdash;which, like the Tamul and Telinga,
+is both High and Low&mdash;literary or
+vulgar.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst these four well-known forms of the
+South Tamulian tongue, may be distributed
+several dialects and sub-dialects. Such as the
+Tulava for the parts between Goa and Mangalore,
+and the Coorgi of the Rajahship of Coorg, not to
+mention the several varieties in the language of
+the hill-tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Now all the populations of the present chapter
+agree in this particular&mdash;their language is generally<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+admitted to be Tamulian at the present moment,
+or if not, to have been so at some earlier period.
+With the languages next under notice, the original
+Tamulian character is not so admitted&mdash;indeed,
+it is so far denied as to make the affirmation
+of it partake of the nature of paradox.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction then is raised on the existence
+of the doubt in question, or rather on the differences
+that such a doubt implies. Hence the
+division of the languages of India into the Hind&uacute;
+and the Tamulian is practical rather than scientific&mdash;the
+<i>Hind&uacute;</i> meaning those for which a <i>Sanskrit</i>,
+rather than a <i>Tamul</i> affinity is claimed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sanskrit</i> is the name of a language; a name
+upon which nine-tenths of the controversial points
+in Indian ethnology and in Indian history turn.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi.
+part 2. See also pp. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a> of the present volume.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal
+of the Asiatic Society of Bengal."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Eliot, <i>ut supra</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> For Jan. 1849.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> "Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement
+of Science," 1844.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> "Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic
+Researches, vol. xvi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> From the Greek <i>polys</i>=<i>many</i>, and <i>an&aelig;r</i>=<i>man</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society,"
+vol. xiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol.
+viii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay
+Geographical Society," May to August 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> The Soars of Orissa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.&mdash;ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN
+LANGUAGES OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF
+EUROPE.&mdash;INFERENCES.&mdash;BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS&mdash;OF
+THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.&mdash;EXTRACT.&mdash;OF THE VEDAS.&mdash;EXTRACT.&mdash;INFERENCES.&mdash;THE
+HIND&Uacute;S.&mdash;SIKHS.&mdash;BILUCHI.&mdash;AFGHANS.&mdash;WANDERING
+TRIBES.&mdash;MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.&mdash;CEYLON.&mdash;BUDDHISM.&mdash;DEVIL-WORSHIP.&mdash;VADDAHS.</p></div>
+
+<p>The language called <i>Sanskrit</i> has a peculiar
+alphabet. It has long been written, and embodies
+an important literature. It has been well studied;
+and its ethnological affinities are understood.
+They are at least as remarkable as any other of
+its characters.</p>
+
+<p>Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects;
+just like the ancient Greek. Like the Doric,
+&AElig;olic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over
+distant countries, and cultivated at different periods.
+Like them, too, each is characterized by
+its peculiar literature.</p>
+
+<p>The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is the
+<i>Vedaic</i> dialect of the religious hymns called
+<i>Vedas</i>&mdash;of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of equal antiquity is the language<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+of the Persepolitan and other arrow-headed
+inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity,
+and range from the time of Cambyses to that of
+Artaxerxes.</p>
+
+<p>By <i>old</i> is meant <i>old in structure</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, betraying
+by its archaic forms, an early stage of development.
+It is by no means <i>old</i> in chronology. In
+the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare
+is older than the German of Goethe; yet the
+German of Goethe is the older tongue, because it
+retains more old inflections.</p>
+
+<p>The third form is called <i>Pali</i>. In this is
+written the oldest Indian inscription; one containing
+the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's
+successors. It is also the dialect of the
+chief Buddhist works.</p>
+
+<p>A fourth form is the <i>Bactrian</i>. This occurs in
+the coins of Macedonian and other Indianized
+kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the
+"Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.</p>
+
+<p>A fifth is the <i>Zend</i> of the Zendavesta, the
+Scriptures of the followers of Zoroaster.</p>
+
+<p>Others are called <i>Pracrit</i>. Some of the Sanskrit
+works are dramatic. In the modern comedies
+of Italy we find certain characters speaking
+the provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and
+other districts. The same took place here. In
+the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the
+standard language, put into the mouths of some of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+the subordinate characters. It is believed that these
+Pracrits represented certain local dialects, as opposed
+to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.</p>
+
+<p>Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage
+of Sanskrit words in it; just as every
+dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman.
+What does this prove? That depends upon
+the per-centage; and this differs in different
+languages. In a general way it may be stated
+that, amongst the tongues already enumerated, it
+is smallest in the isolated Tamulian tongues;
+larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest
+in the tongues about to be enumerated; these
+being the chief languages of modern Hindostan.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Marathi</i> of the Mahrattas. Here the
+Sanskrit words amount to four-fifths in the Marathi
+dictionaries.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Udiya</i>, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a
+per-centage of Sanskrit greater than that of the
+Marathi, but less than that of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Bengali</i>. Here it is at its <i>maximum</i>,
+and amounts to nine-tenths.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Hind&uacute;</i>, of Oude, and the parts between
+Bengal and the Punj&acirc;b, falling into the subordinate
+dialects of the Rajp&uacute;t country.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Gujerathi</i> of Gujerat.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Scindian</i> of Scinde.</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Multani</i> of M&uacute;ltan; probably a dialect
+of either the Gujerathi or<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>8. The <i>Punjabi</i> of the Punj&acirc;b.</p>
+
+<p>By going into minor differences this list might
+be enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>None of the previous languages were mentioned
+in the last chapter; in fact, they were those
+different Hind&uacute; tongues which were contrasted
+with the Tamulian, and which, in the northern
+part of the Peninsula had effected those displacements
+which separated, or were supposed to
+separate, the Rajmahali, K&oacute;l, and Khond
+dialects from each other. They formed the <i>sea</i> of
+speech, in which those tongues were <i>islands</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now what is the inference from these per-centages?
+from such a one as the Bengali, of
+ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove
+as to the character of the language in which they
+occur? Do they make the Sanskrit the basis of the
+tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English,
+or do they merely show it as a superadded foreign
+element, like the Norman&mdash;like that in kind, but
+far greater in degree? The answer to this will
+give us the philological position of the North-Indian
+tongues. It will make the Bengali either
+Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of foreign
+vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the
+older native tongue retained.</p>
+
+<p>If the question were settled by a reference to
+authorities, the answer would be that the Bengali
+was essentially Sanskrit.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It would be the same if we took only the <i>prim&acirc;
+facie</i> view of the matter.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.</p>
+
+<p>1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words
+it has been assumed that, whenever the modern
+and ancient tongues have any words in common,
+the former has always taken them from the latter,&mdash;an
+undue assumption, since the Sanskrit may
+easily have adopted native words.</p>
+
+<p>2. The grammatical inflections are so far from
+being as Sanskritic as the vocables, that they are
+either non-existent altogether, unequivocally Tamul,
+or else <i>controverted</i> Sanskrit.</p>
+
+<p>Here I pause,&mdash;giving, at present, no opinion
+upon the merits of the two views. The reader
+has seen the complications of the case; and is
+prepared for hearing that, though most of the
+highest authorities consider the languages of
+northern India to be related to the Sanskrit, just
+as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the
+Italian to the Latin; others deny such a connexion,
+affirming that as the real relations of the
+Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our
+own tongue, and of the Arabic to the Spanish,
+there is no such thing throughout the whole length
+and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended
+from the Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous
+tongue can be shown to have existed as a spoken
+and indigenous language.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack
+in India; and as the modern Persian is descended
+from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister to the
+Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality.
+The same doubts apply here.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the doubts that apply to an important
+question in Asiatic ethnology. I am not, at
+present, going beyond the simple fact of their
+existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion
+that the Sanskrit never was indigenous to any part
+of India, not even the most north-western; and
+there is an extension of this opinion which&mdash;rightly
+or wrongly&mdash;similarly excludes it from
+Persia. So much doubt should be relieved by
+the exhibition of some universally admitted fact
+as a set-off.</p>
+
+<p>Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape
+of a comment on the following tables.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> It is one
+of Dr. Trithem's.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">RUSSIAN.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Father</i></td><td class="td3">tewas</td><td class="td3">otets</td><td>pitr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mother</i></td><td class="td3">motina</td><td class="td3">mat'</td><td>m&#257;tr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Son</i></td><td class="td3">sunai</td><td class="td3">suin</td><td>s&#363;nu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Brother</i></td><td class="td3">brolis</td><td class="td3">brat</td><td>bhratr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Sister</i></td><td class="td3">sessu</td><td class="td3">sestra</td><td>svasr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Daughter-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">&mdash;</td><td class="td3">snokha</td><td>snush&#257;.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Father-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">&mdash;</td><td class="td3">svekor<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></td><td>&#347;vas&uacute;ra.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Mother-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">&mdash;</td><td class="td3">svekrov'<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></td><td>&#347;vas ru.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Brother-in-law</i></td><td class="td3">&mdash;</td><td class="td3">dever'<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></td><td>devr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>One</i></td><td class="td3">wienas</td><td class="td3">odin</td><td>eka.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Two</i></td><td class="td3">du</td><td class="td3">dva</td><td>dv&#257;.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Three</i></td><td class="td3">trys</td><td class="td3">tri</td><td>tri.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Four</i></td><td class="td3">keturi</td><td class="td3">chetuire</td><td>chatv&#257;rah.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Five</i></td><td class="td3">penki</td><td class="td3">piat'</td><td>pancha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Six</i></td><td class="td3">szessi</td><td class="td3">shest'</td><td>shash.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Seven</i></td><td class="td3">septyni</td><td class="td3">sedm'</td><td>saptan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Eight</i></td><td class="td3">asstuoni</td><td class="td3">osm'</td><td>ashtan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Nine</i></td><td class="td3">dewyni</td><td class="td3">deviat'</td><td>navan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ten</i></td><td class="td3">dessimtis</td><td class="td3">desiat'</td><td>das&aacute;.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The following similarities go the same way,
+<i>viz.</i>, towards the proof of a remarkable affinity
+with certain languages of <i>Europe</i>, there being
+none equally strong with any existing and undoubted
+Asiatic ones.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">ZEND.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>I</i></td><td class="td3">ass</td><td class="td3">aham</td><td>azem.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Thou</i></td><td class="td3">tu</td><td class="td3">twam</td><td>t&#363;m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>Ye</i></td><td class="td3">yus</td><td class="td3">y&#363;yam</td><td>y&#363;s.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>The</i><a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></td><td class="td3">tas</td><td class="td3">ta-<i>d</i></td><td>tad.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">&mdash;</td><td class="td3">szi</td><td class="td3">sah</td><td>ho.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span><br />
+Laups-inni = <i>I praise.</i></div>
+
+<p class="center noin"><i>Present.</i></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3">1. Laups</td><td class="td3">-innu</td><td class="td3">-innawa</td><td>-inname.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">2. &mdash;</td><td class="td3">-inni</td><td class="td3">-innata</td><td>-innata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">3. &mdash;</td><td class="td3">-inna</td><td class="td3">-inna</td><td>-inna.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span><br />
+Jaj-ami = <i>I conquer.</i></div>
+
+<p class="center noin"><i>Present.</i></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3">1. Jaj</td><td class="td3">-&#257;mi</td><td class="td3">-&#257;vah</td><td>-&#257;mah.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">2. &mdash;</td><td class="td3">-&#259;si</td><td class="td3">-&#259;thah</td><td>-&#259;tha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">3. &mdash;</td><td class="td3">-&#259;ti</td><td class="td3">-&#259;tah</td><td>-anti.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">LITHUANIC.</span><br />
+Esmi = <i>I am.</i></div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3">1. Esmi</td><td class="td3">eswa</td><td>esme.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">2. Essi</td><td class="td3">esta</td><td>esti.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">3. Esti</td><td class="td3">esti</td><td>esti.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="hd1"><span class="smcapl">SANSKRIT.</span><br />
+Asmi = <i>I am.</i></div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3">1. Asmi</td><td class="td3">swah</td><td>smah.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">2. Asi</td><td class="td3">sthah</td><td>stha.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3">3. Asti</td><td class="td3">stah</td><td>santi.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The inference from the vast series of philological
+facts, of which the following is a specimen, has,
+generally&mdash;perhaps <i>universally</i>&mdash;been as follows,
+<i>viz.</i>, that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied
+languages of Germany, Italy, and Greece&mdash;numerous,
+widely-spread, and unequivocally European&mdash;are
+<i>Asiatic</i> in origin; the Sanskrit being
+first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent
+the languages of that Asiatic locality. I
+merely express my dissent from this inference;
+adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit
+to the Hind&uacute; tongues are those of the Anglo-Norman
+to the English, and that its relation to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that
+of the Greek of Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon&mdash;greater,
+much greater in degree, but the same
+in kind.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next
+great characteristic. Brahminism may be viewed
+in two ways. We may either take it in its later
+forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin
+with it in its simplest and most unmodified stage,
+and notice the changes that have affected it as
+they occur. At the present its principles are to
+be found in the holy book called <i>Puranas</i>; the
+Brahminism of the <i>Puranas</i> standing in the same
+relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism
+of the Talmud, or the Romanism of the fathers
+does to primitive Judaism and Christianity. The
+pre-eminence of a sacred caste&mdash;the sanctitude of
+the cow&mdash;an impossible cosmogony&mdash;the worship
+of Siva and Vishnu&mdash;and an indefinite sort of
+recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali,
+and others, are the leading features here; the
+recognition of the Ramas and Krishnas being
+of an indefinite and equivocal character, because
+the extent to which the elements of their
+divine nature are referable to the idea of <i>dead
+men deified</i>, or the very opposite notion of <i>Gods<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+become incarnate</i>, are inextricably mixed together.
+The Puranas are referable to different dates
+between the twelfth and sixth centuries <span class="smcapl">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<p>The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas
+are the two great epics, the <i>Ramayana</i>, or the
+conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and the <i>Mahabharata</i>,
+or great war between the Sun and Moon
+dynasties. If we call the <i>worship of dead men
+deified</i>, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the
+Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements
+of the present Brahminism are to be attributed.
+They increased the <i>personality</i> of the previous religion.
+This is the natural effect of narrative poetry,
+and one of which we may measure the magnitude
+by looking at the influence and tendencies of the
+great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these
+which give us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and
+Vishnu, and which helped to determine the preponderance
+of the two last over Brahma&mdash;Brahma
+being the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and
+Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity
+which has been given to the <i>epics</i> is the second
+century <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>; and this is full high enough.</p>
+
+<p>The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu,"
+the oldest Indian code of laws, is simpler than
+that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less. Nevertheless,
+it contains the great text on the caste-system,
+the <i>fulcrum</i> of priestly pre-eminence.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="hd1">INSTITUTES OF MENU.</div>
+
+<p class="center noin"><i>Sir Graves Haughton's Translation.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being,
+supremely glorious, allotted separate duties to those who
+sprang respectively from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and
+his foot.</p>
+
+<p>2. To <i>Br&aacute;hmins</i> he assigned the duties of reading the
+<i>Veda</i>, of teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice,
+of giving alms, <i>if they be rich</i>, and, if <i>indigent</i>, of receiving
+gifts.</p>
+
+<p>3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read
+the <i>Veda</i>, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are,
+in a few words, the duties of a <i>Cshatriya</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice,
+to read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and
+to cultivate land, are <i>prescribed or permitted</i> to a <i>Vaisya</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a
+<i>S&uacute;dra</i>; namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without
+depreciating their worth.</p>
+
+<p>6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating
+Power declared the purest part of him to be his
+mouth.</p>
+
+<p>7. Since the Br&aacute;hmin sprang from the most excellent part,
+since he was the first born, and since he possesses the <i>Veda</i>,
+he is by right the chief of this whole creation.</p>
+
+<p>8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the
+beginning, from his own mouth, that having performed holy
+rites, he might present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes
+of rice to the progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of
+this world.</p>
+
+<p>9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+mouth the gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified
+butter, and the manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?</p>
+
+<p>10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which
+are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence;
+of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal
+class.</p>
+
+<p>11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned,
+those who know their duty; of those who know it, such as
+perform it virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek
+beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>12. The very birth of <i>Br&aacute;hmins</i> is a constant incarnation
+of <span class="smcap">Dherma</span>, <i>God of Justice</i>; for the <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i> is born to promote
+justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.</p>
+
+<p>13. When a <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i> springs to light, he is borne above
+the world, the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the
+treasury of duties, religious and civil.</p>
+
+<p>14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect, <i>though
+not in form</i>, the wealth of the <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i>; since the <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i>
+is entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of
+birth.</p>
+
+<p>15. The <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i> eats but his own food; wears but his
+own apparel; and bestows but his own in alms: through the
+benevolence of the <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i>, indeed, other mortals enjoy
+life.</p>
+
+<p>16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other
+classes in due order, the sage <span class="smcap">Menu</span>, sprung from the self-existing,
+promulged this code of laws.</p>
+
+<p>17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by
+every learned <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i>, and fully explained to his disciples,
+but <i>must be taught</i> by no other man <i>of an inferior class</i>.</p>
+
+<p>18. The <i>Br&aacute;hmin</i> who studies this book, having performed
+sacred rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in
+word, and in deed.</p>
+
+<p>19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+and on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He
+alone deserves to possess this whole earth.</p></div>
+
+<p>Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes,
+the importance assigned to caste; substitute
+for the Euhemerism of the Epics, an <i>elemental
+religion</i>, and we ascend to the religion of the
+Vedas; the nominal, but only the nominal basis,
+of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns,
+<i>Agni</i> is <i>fire</i>; <i>Indra</i>, the <i>sky</i>, <i>firmament</i>, or <i>atmosphere</i>;
+and <i>Marut</i>, the <i>cloud</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>RIGVEDA SANHITA.</h3>
+
+<p class="center noin"><i>Wilson's Translation.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><div class="hd1">I.</div>
+
+<p>1. I glorify <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the high priest of the sacrifice, the
+divine, the ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the
+gods), and is the possessor of great wealth.</p>
+
+<p>2. May that <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, who is to be celebrated by both ancient
+and modern sages, conduct the gods hither.</p>
+
+<p>3. Through <span class="smcap">Agni</span> the worshipper obtains that affluence,
+which increases day by day, which is the source of fame and
+the multiplier of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on
+every side the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.</p>
+
+<p>5. May <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of
+knowledge; he who is true, renowned, and divine, come
+hither with the gods!</p>
+
+<p>6. Whatever good thou mayest, <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, bestow upon the
+giver (of the oblation), that verily, <span class="smcap">Angiras</span>, shall revert to
+thee.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. We approach thee, <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, with reverential homage in
+our thoughts, daily, both morning and evening.</p>
+
+<p>8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant
+illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!</p>
+
+<p>9. <span class="smcap">Agni</span>, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son;
+be ever present with us for our good!</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">II.</div>
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">A&#347;wins</span>, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept
+with outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="smcap">A&#347;wins</span>, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion),
+endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our
+praises!</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">A&#347;wins</span>, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth,
+leaders in the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations
+sprinkled on the lopped sacred grass!</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations,
+ever pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are
+desirous of thee!</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated
+by the wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the
+priest), as he offers the libation!</p>
+
+<p>6. Fleet <span class="smcap">Indra</span> with the tawny coursers, come hither to the
+prayers (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered)
+food.</p>
+
+<p>7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers
+(of rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!</p>
+
+<p>8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of
+rain, come to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently'
+to the days!</p>
+
+<p>9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay,
+omniscient, devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the
+sacrifice!</p>
+
+<p>10. May <span class="smcap">Saraswat&iacute;</span>, the purifier, the bestower of food, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our
+offered viands to our rite!</p>
+
+<p>11. <span class="smcap">Saraswat&iacute;</span>, the inspirer of those who delight in truth,
+the instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!</p>
+
+<p>12. <span class="smcap">Saraswat&iacute;</span> makes manifest by her acts a mighty river,
+and (in her own form) enlightens all understandings.</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">III.</div>
+
+<p>1. Come, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, and be regaled with all viands and libations,
+and thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy
+foes)!</p>
+
+<p>2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating
+and efficacious (draught) to the rejoicing <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the accomplisher
+of all things.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these
+animating praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all
+mankind, (come) to these rites (with the gods)!</p>
+
+<p>4. I have addressed to thee, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the showerer (of blessings),
+the protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have
+reached thee, and of which thou hast approved!</p>
+
+<p>5. Place before us, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, precious and multiform riches,
+for enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!</p>
+
+<p>6. Opulent <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement
+of wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!</p>
+
+<p>7. Grant us, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, wealth beyond measure or calculation,
+inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.</p>
+
+<p>8. <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a
+thousand ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought
+from the field) in carts!</p>
+
+<p>9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property, <span class="smcap">Indra</span>,
+the lord of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to
+the place of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!</p>
+
+<p>10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+the vast prowess of <span class="smcap">Indra</span>, the mighty, the dweller in (an
+eternal mansion)!</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">IV.</div>
+
+<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Maruts</span> who are going forth decorate themselves
+like females: they are gliders (through the air), the sons of
+<span class="smcap">Rudra</span>, and the doers of good works, by which they promote
+the welfare of earth and heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid
+rocks), they delight in sacrifices!</p>
+
+<p>2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty,
+the sons of <span class="smcap">Rudra</span> have established their dwelling above the
+sky: glorifying him (<span class="smcap">Indra</span>) who merits to be glorified, they
+have inspired him with vigour: the sons of <span class="smcap">Prisni</span> have acquired
+dominion!</p>
+
+<p>3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with
+ornaments, they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant)
+decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters
+follow their path!</p>
+
+<p>4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various
+weapons: incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers
+(of mountains): <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, swift as thought, intrusted
+with the duty of sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your
+cars!</p>
+
+<p>5. When <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing)
+food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the
+drops fall from the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like
+a hide, with water!</p>
+
+<p>6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you
+(hither), and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled
+with good things: sit, <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, upon the broad seat of sacred
+grass, and regale yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!</p>
+
+<p>7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in
+(power); they have attained heaven by their greatness, and
+have made (for themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+whom <span class="smcap">Vishnu</span> defends (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires
+and confers delight, come (quickly) like birds, and sit down
+upon the pleasant and sacred grass!</p>
+
+<p>8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food,
+the swift-moving (<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>) have engaged in battles: all beings
+fear the <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful
+of aspect, like princes!</p>
+
+<p>9. <span class="smcap">Indra</span> wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt,
+which the skilful <span class="smcap">Twashtri</span> has framed for him, that
+he may achieve great exploits in war. He has slain <span class="smcap">Vritra</span>,
+and sent forth an ocean of water!</p>
+
+<p>10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove
+asunder the mountain that obstructed their path: the munificent
+<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, blowing upon their pipe, have conferred,
+when exhilarated by the <i>soma</i> juice, desirable (gifts upon
+the sacrificer)!</p>
+
+<p>11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where the
+<i>Muni</i> was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty <span class="smcap">Gotama</span>:
+the variously-radiant (<span class="smcap">Maruts</span>) come to his succour,
+gratifying the desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!</p>
+
+<p>12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three
+worlds, and are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of
+the libation), who addresses you with praise; bestow them,
+also, <span class="smcap">Maruts</span>, upon us, and grant us, bestowers of all good,
+riches, whence springs prosperity!</p></div>
+
+<p>If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns
+we shall find no definite and unimpeachable date.
+Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal
+evidence. The language is so much more archaic
+than that of the Institutes, and the mythology
+so much simpler; whilst the Institutes
+themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+to the Epics. Fixing these at about 200, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>;
+we allow so many centuries for the archaisms
+of Menu, and so many more for those of the
+Vedas. For the whole, eleven hundred has not
+been thought too little, which places the Vedas in
+the fourteenth century, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, and makes them the
+earliest, or nearly the earliest records in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that this is but an approximation,
+and, although all inquirers admit that creeds,
+languages, and social conditions present the
+phenomena of <i>growth</i>, the opinions as to the <i>rate</i>
+of such growths are varied, and none of much
+value. This is because the particular induction
+required for the formation of anything better than
+a mere impression has yet to be undertaken&mdash;till
+when, one man's guess is as good as another's.
+The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric
+rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine,
+or a polity, has neither bark nor wood, neither
+teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.</p>
+
+<p>Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred
+from the archaic character of their language, has
+been shaken by the discovery of the structure of
+the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions.
+It approaches that of the Vedas;
+being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of
+Menu. Yet its date is less than 500, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> Again,
+the Pali is less archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+Pali is the language of the oldest inscriptions in
+India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any
+sort, with a definite date.</p>
+
+<p>One of the few cases where the phenomena of
+<i>rate</i> have been studied with due attention, is in
+the evolution of the three languages of Denmark,
+Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What
+does this tell us? The last has altered so slowly
+that a modern Icelander can read the oldest works of
+his language. In Sweden, however, the speech <i>has</i>
+altered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these
+languages are unintelligible to the Icelander,
+and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>. As to their respective changes,
+Petersen shows that the Danish was always
+about a hundred years forwarder than the Swedish,
+having attained that point at (say) 1200, which
+the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however,
+changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the
+Danish having, as it were, the start of a century.
+The Norwegian, however, comported itself differently.
+Until the Reformation it hardly changed
+at all; less than the stationary Icelandic itself.
+Fifty years, however, of sudden and rapid transformation
+brought it, at once, to the stage which
+the Danish had been three hundred years in reaching.
+How many times must the observation of
+such phenomena be multiplied before we can
+strike an average as to the rate of change in languages,
+creeds, and polities?<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;it is by no means certain that the
+Institutes and the Vedas represent a contemporary
+state of things. All doctrinal writings
+contain something appertaining to a period older
+than that of their composition.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly,&mdash;the proof that all the writings in
+question belong to the same linear series, and
+represent the growth of <i>the same phenomena in the
+same place</i> is deficient. The &AElig;gyptologist believes
+that contemporary kings are mistaken for
+successive ones; the philologist, that difference
+of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts
+of a more specific nature dawn upon us when we
+attempt to realize the alphabet in which an
+Indian MS. of even only eight hundred years
+<span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, was written. No Indian MS. is fifteen
+hundred years old; no inscription older than
+Alexander's time. Nevertheless,&mdash;though I write
+upon this subject with diffidence&mdash;the Devanagari
+characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be deduced
+from the alphabet of the inscriptions;
+whilst these inscriptions themselves approach the
+alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion
+to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet
+of the Vedas is referable to that of the
+inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions betrays
+an origin external to India. Its introduction
+<i>may</i> be very early; nevertheless its epoch must
+be investigated with a full recognition of the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+comparatively modern date of even the earliest
+alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early
+as compared with such a date as 1400, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, the
+accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch, perhaps,
+a thousand years too early.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet,
+an architecture, a coinage, and an algebra at a
+period which no scepticism puts much later than
+250, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span>, is so undoubted, that they may pass as
+ethnological facts, <i>i.e.</i>, facts sufficiently true to
+be not merely admitted with what is called an
+<i>otiose</i> belief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionable
+<i>data</i> of history, and to be used as
+effects from which we may argue backwards&mdash;<i>more
+ethnologico</i>&mdash;to their antecedent causes; the
+appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and
+an induction of its own.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian
+civilization without impugning its indigenous
+origin, nor doubt this without stirring the question
+as to the countries from which it was introduced.
+These have been Persia, Assyria, Egypt,
+and Greece; the introduction being direct or
+indirect as the case might be.</p>
+
+<p>In this way are contrasted the views of the
+general ethnologist, with those of the special orientalist,
+in respect to the great and difficult question
+of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism
+of the former affect our views concerning<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+the descent of the Hind&uacute;s, the Mahrattas, the
+Bengali, and those other populations, to the
+languages whereof they applied? Not much.
+Whichever way we decide, the population may
+still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the
+language Sanskritic, it is Tamulian in the same
+way as the Cornish are Welsh; <i>i.e.</i>, Tamulian
+with a change of tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the
+Sanskrit literature unsettle but little. They
+merely make the introduction of certain foreign
+elements some centuries later.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the oldest of the great
+Hind&uacute; creeds, that of the <i>Sikhs</i> is the newest. Its
+founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was a
+contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind,
+a zealous man of action; himself succeeded by
+similar <i>g&uacute;r&uacute;s</i>, or priests, who eventually, by
+means of fanaticism, organization, and union
+with the state raised the power of the <i>Khalsa</i>
+to the formidable height from which it has so
+lately fallen. <i>Truth</i> is the great abstraction of the
+Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at
+once intolerant and eclectic may be seen from the
+following extracts.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> They certainly present the
+doctrine in a favourable light.</p>
+<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="hd1">I.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and Grace.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Truth which is, and truth, O N&acirc;nuk! which will remain.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention be fixed.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the dead.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O N&acirc;nuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">II.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by words?<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">III.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas, Vishnoos, and Sivas.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and holy men:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O N&acirc;nuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who can understand?<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">IV.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but found not the value of an oil seed.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were deceived by Maya.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owt&acirc;rs, and the wondrous Muhadeo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find Thee.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">V.</div>
+
+<div class="poem" style="width: 29em;">
+<span class="i0">He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of hell!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of creation.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">VI.</div>
+
+<div class="poem" style="width: 18em;">
+<span class="i0">Dwell thou in flames uninjured,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Make blocks of stone thy daily food,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Weigh the heavens in a balance,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And then ask of me to perform miracles.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">VII.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his eyes.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but neither does he regard.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he heed.<br /></span>
+<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span><span class="i0">O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">VIII.</div>
+
+<div class="poem" style="width: 23em;">
+<span class="i0">All say that there are four races,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But all are of the seed of Bruhm.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The world is but clay,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And of similar clay many pots are made.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">N&acirc;nuk says man will be judged by his actions,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And that without finding God there will be no salvation.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The body of man is composed of five elements;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who can say that one is high and another low?<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">IX.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">There are four races and four creeds in the world among Hindoos and Mahometans;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Hindoos dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Mahometans on the Kaaba;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Mahometans held by circumcision, the Hindoos by strings and frontal marks.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They each called on Ram and Ruheem, one name, and yet both forgot the road.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Forgetting the Veds and the Koran, they were inveigled in the snares of the world.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Truth remained on one side, while Moollas and Brahmins disputed,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And salvation was not attained.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="hd1">X.</div>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<span class="i0">God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and N&acirc;nuk was sent into the world.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">He established the custom that the disciple should wash the feet of his Gooroo, and drink the water;<br /></span>
+<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span><span class="i0">P&acirc;r Bruhm and Poorun Bruhm, in his Kulyoog, he showed were one.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The four feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were made of faith; the four castes were made one;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The high and the low became equal: the salutation of the feet (among disciples) he established in the world;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above the head.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In the Kulyoog he gave salvation; using the only true name, he taught men to worship the Lord.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To give salvation in the Kulyoog, Gooroo N&acirc;nuk came.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PARTS BEYOND THE INDUS.</h3>
+
+<p>The Punj&acirc;b is the most western locality of the
+Indian stock, whether we call the members of it
+Hind&uacute; or Tamulian. On crossing the Indus we
+reach a new ethnological area, only partially,
+and only recently British; <i>viz.</i>, the country of the
+Bil&uacute;ch, and the country of the Afghans. And
+here we must prepare for new terms; for hearing
+of <i>tribes</i> rather than <i>castes</i>; and for finding a
+polity more like that of the Jews and Arabs than
+the institutions of the Brahmins.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bil&uacute;ch.</i>&mdash;<i>Biluchi-stan</i> means the country of
+the <i>Bil&uacute;ch</i>, just as <i>Hindo-stan</i> and <i>Afghani-stan</i>
+mean that of the Hind&uacute;s and Afghans. It is the
+south-western quarter of Persia, that is the chief
+area of the tribes in question. Hence, however,
+they extend into Kutch Gundava, Scinde, and
+M&uacute;ltan, and the northern parts of Gujerat.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+Between Kelat, the Indus, and the sea, they are
+mixed with Brah&uacute;i.</p>
+
+<p>The Biluchi is a dialect of the Persian&mdash;sufficiently
+close to be understood by a Persian
+proper.</p>
+
+<p>There are no grounds for believing the Bil&uacute;ch
+to have been other than the aborigines of the
+country which they occupy; as their advent lies
+beyond the historical period; beyond the pale of
+admissible tradition. We may, perhaps, be told
+that they came from Arabia; an origin which
+their Mahometanism, their division into tribes,
+and their manners, suggest; an origin, too,
+which their physiognomy by no means impugns.
+Yet the tradition is not only unsupported, but
+equivocal. The <i>Arabia</i> that it refers to is, probably,
+the country of the ancient <i>Arabit&aelig;</i>; and
+that is neither more nor less than a part of the
+province of Mekran, within&mdash;or nearly within&mdash;the
+present Bil&uacute;ch domain. Hence, they may be
+<i>Arabite</i>, though not <i>Arabian</i>; or rather the old
+<i>Arabit&aelig;</i> of the <i>Arabius fluvius</i> were Bil&uacute;ch.</p>
+
+<p>But the Arabs are not the only members of the
+Semitic family with which the Bil&uacute;ch have been
+affiliated. A multiplicity of Jewish characteristics
+has been discerned. These are all the more
+visible from their contrast to the manners of the
+Hind&uacute;s. Intermediate in appearance to the
+Hind&uacute; and the Persian, the Bil&uacute;ch "cast of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+feature is certainly Jewish;"<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> his tribual divisions
+are equally so; whilst the Levitical punishment
+of adultery by stoning, and the transmission
+of the widow of a deceased brother to the brothers
+who survive, have been duly recognized as Hebrew
+characteristics. We know what follows all this;
+as surely as smoke shows fire. Levitical peculiarities
+suggest the ubiquitous decad of the lost
+tribes of Israel. We shall soon hear of these
+again.</p>
+
+<p>Tribes under chiefs&mdash;hereditary succession&mdash;pride
+of blood&mdash;clannish sentiments&mdash;feuds between
+tribe and tribe&mdash;the sacro-sanctity of revenge
+as a duty&mdash;the suspension of private wars
+when foreign foes threaten&mdash;greater rudeness
+amongst the mountains&mdash;comparative industry in
+the plains&mdash;the business of robbery tempered by
+the duties of hospitality&mdash;black mail, &amp;c. All
+this is equally Bil&uacute;ch, Arabian, and Highland
+Scotch; and it all shows the similarity of details
+which accompanies similarity of social institutions.
+Ethnological relationship it does <i>not</i> show.</p>
+
+<p>The word <i>Bil&uacute;ch</i> is Persian. The bearer of the
+designation either calls himself by the name of
+his tribe, or else glorifies himself by the term
+<i>Usul</i> or <i>Pure</i>. The tribes or <i>khoums</i> are numerous.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+Sir H. Pottinger gives the names of no less
+than fifty-eight; without going into their subdivisions.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, instead of details, we seek for
+classes of greater generality we find that <i>three</i>
+primary divisions comprise all the ramifications of
+the Bil&uacute;ch. The first of these is the <i>Rind</i>; the
+other two are the <i>Nihro</i> and the <i>Mughsi</i>. The
+daughter of a Rind may be given to a Rind as a
+wife; but to marry into a tribe of Nihro or
+Mughsi extraction is a degradation. Here the
+elements of <i>caste</i> intermix with those of <i>tribe</i> or
+<i>clan</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Afghans.</i>&mdash;<i>Afghani-stan</i> means the country of
+the Afghans, just as <i>Hindo-stan</i> and <i>Biluchi-stan</i>
+mean that of the Hind&uacute;s and Biluchi, respectively.</p>
+
+<p>In India the Afghans are called <i>Patan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Their language is called <i>Pushtu</i>. It is allied
+to the Persian&mdash;but less closely than the Bil&uacute;ch.</p>
+
+<p>Fully and accurately described in the admirable
+work of Lord Mountstuart Elphinstone, the
+Afghans have long commanded the attention of
+the ethnologist; and all that has been said about
+the Judaism of the Biluchi has been said in
+respect to them also, though not by so good a
+writer as the one just quoted. No wonder. Their
+tribual organization, if not more peculiar in character,
+has been more minutely described; a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+greater massiveness of frame and feature has been
+looked upon as eminently Judaic; and, lastly, an
+incorrect statement of Sir William Jones's, as to
+the Hebrew character of the Pushtu language, has
+added the authority of that respected scholar to
+the doctrine of the Semitic origin of the Afghans.
+Against this, however, stands the evidence of their
+peculiar and hitherto unplaced language. I say
+<i>unplaced</i>, because the criticism that separates the
+modern dialects of Hindostan from the Sanskrit,
+disconnects the Pushtu and the old Persian.
+Nevertheless, it is anything but either Hebrew or
+Arabic.</p>
+
+<p>Similarity of political constitution, and its attendant
+spirit of independence, have given a political
+importance to both the Bil&uacute;ch and the
+Afghan. Each is but partially&mdash;very partially&mdash;British;
+and each became dependent upon Britain,
+not because they were the Afghans and
+Bil&uacute;ch of their own rugged countries, but because
+they were part and parcel of certain territories
+in India. It was on the Indus that they were conquered;
+and it as Indians that they are British.</p>
+
+<p>Four great patriarchs are the hypothetical progenitors
+of the four primary Afghan divisions&mdash;though
+it is uncertain whether any such quaternion
+be more of an historical reality than the four
+castes of Brahminism. Subordinate to these four
+heads is the division called <i>Ul&uacute;s</i> (<i>Ooloos</i>).<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A minuter knowledge of the Afghan affiliations&mdash;real
+or supposed&mdash;is to be gained by premising
+that <i>khail</i> has much the same meaning as the
+Bil&uacute;ch <i>khoum</i>, so that it denotes a division of
+population which we may call <i>clan</i>, <i>tribe</i>, or <i>sept</i>;
+whilst the affix -<i>zye</i>, means <i>sons</i> or <i>offspring</i>.
+Hence, <i>Eusof-zye</i> is equivalent to what an Arab
+would call <i>Beni Yusuf</i>; a Greek, <i>Ioseph-id&aelig;</i>; or
+a Highland Gael, <i>MacJoseph</i>. All this is clear.
+When, however, we try to give precision to our
+nomenclature, and ask whether the <i>khail</i> contains
+a number of -<i>zye</i>, or the -<i>zye</i> a number of <i>khails</i>,
+difficulties begin. Sometimes the one, sometimes
+the other is the larger class. And a <i>khail</i> in one
+case may be divided into groups ending in -<i>zye</i>;
+in others, a group denoted by -<i>zye</i> may contain
+two or more <i>khails</i>. Each is a <i>generic</i> or <i>specific</i>
+designation as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>However, to proceed to instances, the following
+groups of Afghans may be constituted.</p>
+
+<p>1. Three sections&mdash;the <i>Acco-zye</i>, the <i>Mulle-zye</i>,
+and the <i>Lawe-zye</i>&mdash;are subdivisions of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Eusof.</i>&mdash;The Eusof and <i>Munder</i> being
+branches of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Eusof-zye.</i>&mdash;Now the <i>Eusof-zye</i> is one out
+of four divisions of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Khukkhi.</i>&mdash;The <i>Guggiani</i>, <i>Turcolani</i>, and
+<i>Mahomed-zye</i>, being the other three.</p>
+
+<p>5. Lastly, the <i>Khukkhi</i>, the <i>Otman-khail</i>, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+<i>Khyberi</i>, the <i>Bungush</i>, the <i>Khuttuk</i> and, probably,
+some others form the <i>Berdurani</i> Afghans.</p>
+
+<p>But as <i>Berdurani</i> is a geographical, or political,
+rather than a tribual designation; as it is the
+name by which the <i>north</i>-eastern Afghans were
+known to the Moghuls; and as it is equivalent to
+such an expression as <i>Western</i> or <i>Eastern Highlander</i>,
+rather than to names so specific as <i>Campbell</i>
+or <i>MacDonald</i>, it may be excluded from the
+true Afghan affiliations.</p>
+
+<p>With this deduction, however, the classification
+is sufficiently complex; besides which, it
+is, probably, much more systematic on paper
+than in reality. This, however, can only be
+indicated.</p>
+
+<p>The valley of Peshawar is the valley of the
+<i>Guggiani</i>, and <i>Mahomed-zye</i> Afghans.</p>
+
+<p>The parts round it belong to the <i>Eusof-zye</i>, the
+<i>Otman-khail</i>, the <i>Turcolani</i>, the <i>Momunds</i>, and
+the <i>Khyberi</i> of the Khyber Range and Pass.
+These last fall into the <i>Afridi</i>, the <i>Shainwari</i>,
+and the <i>Uruk-zye</i>. Their country is chiefly to
+the north of the Salt Range.</p>
+
+<p>The river K&uacute;r&uacute;m gives us the two valleys of
+Dowr and Bunn&uacute;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>&mdash;the <i>Bunn&uacute;chi</i> being as pre-eminently<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+a mixed, as the mountaineers around
+them&mdash;the <i>Vizeri</i>&mdash;are a pure branch. These,
+and others, appear to belong to the great <i>Khuttuk</i>
+division.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>south</i>-eastern Afghans are called <i>Lohani</i>;
+and, as a proof of this designation being of the
+same geographico-political character as <i>Berdurani</i>,
+the Khuttuk Afghans are divided between the
+two sections; at least the particular Khuttuks
+called <i>Murwuti</i> are mentioned as Lohani, though
+the Khuttuk class in general is placed in the Berdurani
+branch. The chief Lohani Afghans are
+the <i>Shir&aacute;ni</i> near the Tukt-i-Solim&aacute;n mountain,
+and the <i>Stori&aacute;ni</i> (<i>Storeeanees</i>, <i>Oosteraunees</i>) conterminous
+with the most northern of the Bil&uacute;ch.</p>
+
+<p>Of these the B&uacute;gti and Murri are the chief
+populations of the frontier; whilst the <i>N&uacute;tkani</i>,
+<i>K&uacute;srani</i>, <i>Lund</i>, <i>Lughari</i>, <i>Gurkhari</i>, <i>Mudari</i>, and
+others, help to fill up the Muckelwand (or the
+parts immediately along the course of the Indus),
+and the Bil&uacute;ch portions of M&uacute;ltan.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Brah&uacute;i.</i>&mdash;The Brah&uacute;i, with whom it has
+been stated that the Bil&uacute;ch are intermixed, are
+pastoral tribes, with a coarser physiognomy, and
+a stouter make than their neighbours. Their language
+also is different. A specimen of it may be
+found amongst the well-known and important
+vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach; and this forms
+the subject of a memoir of no less a scholar than<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+Lassen. Without placing it, he remarks that
+the numerals are <i>South</i>-Indian (or Tamulian)
+rather than aught else. He might have said
+more. The Brah&uacute;i is a remarkable and unexplained
+branch of the Tamul; but whether it be
+of late introduction or indigenous origin in the
+parts where it now occurs is uncertain. The
+mountains between Kutch Gundava and Mekran
+seem to form the area of the Brah&uacute;i; some eastern
+branches of which population I presume to be
+British, mixed with Bil&uacute;ch.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p><i>Ceylon.</i>&mdash;The inhabitants of the northern part
+of Ceylon speak the Tamul language, and are
+Brahminists in creed. They are not, however,
+the true natives of the island. These latter use a
+Hind&uacute; tongue, called the <i>Singhalese</i>. Its philological
+relations are exactly those of the Mahratta,
+Bengali, and Udiya,&mdash;neither better nor
+worse defined, more or less unequivocal. Some
+make it out to be of Sanskrit, others of Tamulian
+origin. All that is certain is, that it is
+more Sanskritic than the proper Tamul, and
+more Tamul than the Bengali. It is <i>written</i>;
+and embodies a copious, but worthless literature,
+its alphabet being derived from that of the
+Pali language.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This introduces a new characteristic. The
+Pali has the same relation to Buddhism, that
+the Sanskrit has to Brahminism. It is the
+language of the Scriptures, the priest, and the
+scholar, and, although, at the present moment,
+it is as little recognized as a holy tongue on
+the continent of India, as the Greek of the
+New Testament is at Rome, it divides with the
+Arabic and Latin, the honour of being the
+most widely-spread literary language of the
+world. All the forms of Buddhism in the transgangetic
+peninsula are embodied in Pali writings.
+So are those of the Mongols; and so, to a great
+extent, those of the Tibetans as well. This makes
+the language and the creed nearly co-extensive.
+In China, however, and Japan, where great
+changes have taken place, and where either the
+development, or the deterioration of Buddhism
+has gone far enough to abolish the more palpable
+characteristics of the original Indian doctrine, the
+Pali language is no longer the medium. It <i>is</i> so,
+however, for the vast area already indicated.</p>
+
+<p>In Buddhism, as opposed to Brahminism, there
+is a greater tenderness of animal life in general,
+whilst less respect is paid to the ox-tribe in particular.
+There is less also of the system of caste;
+and, in consequence of this, fewer of those elements
+of priestly influence, which originate in the
+ideas of the hereditary transmission of sacro-sanctitude.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+Buddhism, too, has the credit of running
+further in the dream-land of subjective metaphysics
+than Brahminism,&mdash;though this, as far as
+my own very imperfect means of judging go, is
+doubtful. Into practical pantheism, and into the
+deification of human reason it <i>does</i> run.</p>
+
+<p>When self-contemplation has reached its highest
+degree of abstraction, the state of <i>Nirwana</i> is
+induced. This seems to mean the absorption
+of the spirit within itself; a condition which at
+once suggests adjectives like <i>impassive</i>, <i>subjective</i>,
+<i>exalted</i>, and <i>supra-sensual</i>, or substantives like
+<i>transcendentalism</i>, <i>egoism</i>, &amp;c., and the like; in
+some cases with definite ideas to correspond with
+the term; oftener as mere meaningless words.
+Such, however, is the nomenclature which is requisite;
+a nomenclature to which I have recourse,
+not for the sake of illustrating my subject, but
+with the view of giving a practical notion of its
+indistinctness.</p>
+
+<p>Buddha himself is a specimen and model of
+self-absorption, consummation, perfection, or exaltation
+rather than a deity, or even a prophet.
+He shows what purity can effect, rather than
+teaches what purity consists in. He may even
+have become what he was, by his own unaided
+powers of supra-sensual abstraction.</p>
+
+<p>All this is but a series of negations, at least in
+the way of theology. But his spirit, after the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+departure of his body from the earth,<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> became
+incarnate in the body of some successor&mdash;and so
+on <i>ad infinitum</i>. This connects Buddhism with
+the doctrine of metempsychosis; a doctrine which
+the incarnations of Brahminism also suggest.</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the speculative points of
+Buddhism. Its morality has been greatly, and,
+perhaps, unduly extolled. So much contemplation
+can scarcely exist without the condemnation
+of the more palpable sins of <i>commission</i>.
+Hence, those vices which are the offspring of
+passion and ignorance are condemned; as is but
+natural. The suspension of exertion precludes
+active vice. Of the active virtues, however, the
+recognition is as slight as may be; so slight as to
+make it doubtful whether Buddhism be a better
+rule for the formation of good citizens than Brahminism.
+Which has been the most resistant to
+the influences of Christianity is doubtful.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p>Just as the Anglo-Saxon language, although it
+originated in Germany, has survived and developed
+itself in Britain only, the Buddhist creed,
+once indigenous to the continent of Hindostan,
+is now found nowhere between the Himalayas
+and Cape Comorin; whilst beyond the pale<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+of India, it is as widely extended as the English
+language is beyond the limits of Germany. The
+rival religion of the Brahmins expelled it. Which
+of the two was the older is uncertain. Still more
+difficult is it to determine how far each is a separate
+substantive mythological growth, or merely a
+modification of the rival creed.</p>
+
+<p>I lay but little stress upon the internal evidence
+derivable from the character of the religions
+themselves. Both are complicated and
+artificial&mdash;both, perhaps, equally so. In contrast,
+however, to the more speculative and
+transcendental points, suggestive of recent development,
+there are others indicative of great
+antiquity. Nevertheless, it is as difficult to affirm
+that the primitive parts of the one creed are
+older than the most primitive parts of the other,
+as it is to affirm that the highest transcendentalisms
+are more recent.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of the oldest inscriptions being in the
+Pali dialect, is favourable to the greater antiquity
+of Buddhism, but it is not conclusive. The
+notion that Sanskrit itself is comparatively recent,
+of course subtracts from that of Brahminism.
+But this is far from being admitted. Besides
+which, it by no means follows, that because Brahminism
+is, comparatively speaking, recent, Buddhism
+must be ancient.</p>
+
+<p>The best clue in this labyrinth of conflicting<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+opinions is the study of the superstitions of the
+ruder tribes of the hill-ranges of India itself, of
+the sub-Himalayas, and of the Indo-Chinese peninsula;
+the result of which investigation will be
+that that creed which has most points in common
+with the primitive and unmodified mythologies of
+the Tamulian stock, and of those branches of the
+monosyllabic populations nearest akin thereto,
+has also the best claim to be considered as the
+older.</p>
+
+<p>In my own mind, I believe that the <i>Bedo</i> of
+the Rajmahali mountaineers, is the <i>Batho</i> of the
+Bodo, the <i>Pennu</i> of the Khonds, and the <i>Potteang</i>
+of the Kukis,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>&mdash;name for name. I believe this
+without doubt or hesitation. But if I ask myself
+the import of this identity, the answer is unsatisfactory.
+There is doubt and hesitation in
+abundance. <i>Bedo</i>, <i>Batho</i>, <i>Petto</i>, and <i>Potteang</i>,
+<i>may</i> represent the germ of what afterwards became
+<i>Buddh-ism</i>. They may exhibit the Indian creed
+in its <i>rudiments</i>. True. But they may also represent
+it in its <i>fragments</i>, so that <i>Bedo</i> and <i>Batho</i>
+may be but <i>Buddh</i>, distorted in form, and but
+imperfectly comprehended in import. In our
+own Gospel, the name for the place of punishment,
+which the Greeks called <i>Hades</i>, and the
+Hebrews typified by <i>Gehenna</i>, is the name of a
+Saxon goddess <i>Hela</i>; and, in this particular instance,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+a point of our original paganism has been
+taken up into our present Christianity. The
+same is the case with the Finnic nation, where
+<i>Yumala</i> signifies <i>God</i>; Yumala being as truly
+heathen as <i>Jupiter</i>. On the other hand we find
+amongst the genuine pagan Gallas of Africa, an
+object of respect or worship called <i>Miriam</i>.
+What is this? No true piece of heathendom at
+all. Dr. Beke has given good reasons for believing
+that it means the Virgin Mother of the Saviour,
+the only extant member of the Christian Revelation
+now known to that once imperfectly Christianized
+community.</p>
+
+<p>Buddhism, then, may claim a higher antiquity
+than Brahminism under the two following conditions.</p>
+
+<p>1. That the names <i>Batho</i>, &amp;c., be really a
+form of <i>Buddh</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. That they have belonged to superstitions in
+which they occur from the beginning; and are
+not in the same category with the <i>Miriam</i> of the
+Gallas, <i>i.e.</i>, recent introductions from a wholly
+different religion&mdash;grafts rather than embryos.</p>
+
+<p>How far this latter is the case must be ascertained
+by a wide and minute inquiry, foreign to
+the present work.</p>
+
+<p>It is no wonder that, side by side with a semi-philosophical
+creed like Buddhism, we should
+have such a phenomenon as Devil-worship. When<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+the spirit falls short of its due degree of self-sustained
+hardihood, fear finds its way to the
+heart. The evil powers are then propitiated;
+sometimes in a manner savouring of dignity,
+sometimes with groveling and grotesque cowardice.
+The Yezid of Mesopotamia, whose belief in the
+power of an evil spirit is derived from the Manicheism
+of old, shows his fear of the arch-enemy
+by simple and not unreasonable acts of negation.
+He does nothing that may offend; never mentions
+his name; and dwells on his attributes as
+little as possible. The devil-worshipper of
+Ceylon uses such invocations as the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">I.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Come, thou <i>sanguinary Devil</i>, at the sixth hour. Come,
+thou <i>fierce Devil</i>, upon this stage, and accept the offerings
+made to thee!</p>
+
+<p>The <i>ferocious Devil</i> seems to be coming measuring the
+ground by the length of his feet, and giving warnings of his
+approach by throwing stones and sand round about. He looks
+upon the meat-offering which is kneaded with blood and
+boiled rice.</p>
+
+<p>He stands there and plays in the shade of the tree called
+<i>Demby</i>. He removes the sickness of the person which he
+caused. He will accept the offerings prepared with blood,
+odour, and reddish boiled rice. Prepare these offerings in the
+shade of the <i>Demby</i> tree.</p>
+
+<p>Make a female figure of the <i>planets</i> with a monkey's face,
+and its body the colour of gold. Offer four offerings in the
+four corners. In the left corner, place some blood, and for<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+victims a fowl and a goat. In the evening, place the scene
+representing the planets on the high ground.</p>
+
+<p>The face resembles a monkey's face, and the head is the
+colour of gold. The head is reddish, and the bunch of hair is
+black and tied. He holds blood in the left-hand, and rides on
+a bullock. After this manner make the sanguinary figure of
+the planets.</p>
+
+<div class="hd1">II.</div>
+
+<p>O thou great devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>, preserve these sick persons
+without delay!</p>
+
+<p>On the way, as he was going, by supernatural power he
+made a great noise. He fought with the form of <i>Wessamoony</i>,
+and wounded his head. The planet <i>Saturn</i> saw a wolf in the
+midst of the forest, and broke his neck. The <i>Wessamoony</i>
+gave permission to the great devil called <i>Maha-Sohon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>O thou great devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>, take away these sicknesses
+by accepting the offerings made frequently to thee.&mdash;The
+qualities of this devil are these: he stretches his long chin,
+and opens wide his mouth like a cavern: he bears a spear in
+his right-hand, and grasps a great and strong elephant with his
+left-hand. He is watching and expecting to drink the blood
+of the elephant in the place where the two and three roads
+meet together.</p>
+
+<p>Influenced by supernatural power, he entered the body of
+the princess called <i>Godimbera</i>. He caused her to be sick
+with severe trembling sickness. Come thou poor and powerless
+devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i> to fight with me, and leave the princess,
+if thou hast sufficient strength.</p>
+
+<p>On hearing these sayings, he left her, and made himself
+like a blue cloud, and violently covered his whole body with
+flames of fire. Furiously staring with his eyes, he said,
+"Art thou come, blockhead, to fight with me who was born in
+the world of men? I will take you by the legs, and dash you<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+upon the great rock <i>Maha-meru</i>, and quickly bring you to nothing."</p>
+
+<p>Thou wast born on Sunday, the first day of the month, and
+didst receive permission from the <i>King of Death</i>, and didst
+brandish a sword like a plantain-leaf. Thou comest down at
+half-past seven, to accept the offerings made to thee.</p>
+
+<p>If the devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i> cause the chin-cough, leanness of
+the body, thirst, madness, and mad babblings, he will come
+down at half-past seven, and accept the offerings made to him.</p>
+
+<p>These are the marks of the devil <i>Maha-Sohon</i>: three marks
+on the head, one mark on the eye-brow and on the temple;
+three marks on the belly, a shining moon on the thigh, a lighted
+torch on the head, an offering and a flower on the breast.
+The chief god of the burying-place will say, May you live
+long!</p>
+
+<p>Make the figure of the <i>planets</i> called the emblem of the
+<i>great burying-place</i>, as follows: a spear grasped by the right-hand,
+an elephant's figure in the left-hand, and in the act of
+drinking the blood of the elephant by bruising its proboscis.</p>
+
+<p>Tip the point of the spear in the hand with blood, pointed
+towards the elephant's face in the left-hand. These effigies
+and offerings take and offer in the burying-place,&mdash;discerning
+well the sickness by means of the devil-dancer.</p>
+
+<p>Make a figure of the <i>wolf</i> with a large breast, full of hairs
+on the body, and with long teeth separated from each other.
+The effigy of the <i>Maha-Sohon</i> was made formerly so.</p>
+
+<p>These are the sicknesses which the great devil causes by
+living among the tombs: chin-cough, itching of the body, disorders
+in the bowels; windy complaints, dropsy, leanness of
+the body, weakness and consumptions.</p>
+
+<p>He walks on high upon the lofty stones. He walks on the
+ground where three ways meet. Therefore go not in the
+roads by night: if you do so, you must not expect to escape
+with your life.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Make two figures of a goose, one on each side. Make a
+lion and a dog to stand at the left-leg, bearing four drinking-cups
+on four paws&mdash;and make a moon's image, and put it in
+the burying-place.</p>
+
+<p>Comb the hair, and tie up a large bunch with a black string.
+Put round the neck a cobra-capella, and dress him in the garments
+by making nine folds round the waist. He stands on a
+rock eating men's flesh. The persons that were possessed
+with devils are put in the burying-place.</p>
+
+<p>Put a corpse at the feet, taking out the intestines through
+the mouth. The principal thing for this country, and for the
+Singhalese, is the worship of the planets.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In the centre of the island is the kingdom of
+Kandy; naturally fortified by impervious forests,
+and long independent. This creates a variety;
+the Kandyans being somewhat ruder than the
+other Singhalese. It is not, however, an important
+one. The really important ethnology of
+Ceylon is that of the <i>Vaddahs</i>, in the eastern
+districts, inland of Battacaloa. They are still
+unmodified by either the Hind&uacute; habits, or the
+great Indian creeds,&mdash;the true analogues of the
+Khonds, and K&oacute;ls, and Bhils, &amp;c. Their language,
+however, is Singhalese; an important fact,
+since it denotes one of two phenomena,&mdash;either
+the antiquity of the conquest of Ceylon supposing
+the extension of the Singhalese language to have
+been gradual, or the thorough-going character of
+it, if it be recent.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Who were the <i>Pad&aelig;i</i> of the following extract
+from Herodotus?<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>&mdash;"Other Indians there are,
+who live east of these. They are nomads, eaters
+of raw flesh; and called Pad&aelig;i. They are said
+to have the following customs. Whenever one of
+their countrymen is sick, whether man or woman,
+he is killed. The males kill the males, and
+amongst these the most intimate acquaintance
+kill their nearest friends; for they say that
+for a man to be wasted by disease is for their
+own meat to be spoilt. The man denies that he
+ails; but they, not letting him have his own way,
+kill and feast on him. If a female be sick, the
+women that are most intimate with her treat her
+as the males do the men. They sacrifice and
+feast upon all who arrive at old age. Few, however,
+go thus far, since they kill every one who
+falls sick before he reaches that stage of life."</p>
+
+<p>Name for name, the <i>Vaddahs</i> of Ceylon have a
+claim to be <i>Pad&aelig;i</i>. Besides which they are Indian.</p>
+
+<p>But, name for name, the <i>Battas</i><a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> of Sumatra
+have a claim as well; and although they are not
+exactly Indian, they are cannibals of the sort in
+question&mdash;or, at any rate, cannibals in a manner
+quite as remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>This gives us a conflict of difficulties. The
+solution of them lies in the fact of neither <i>Vaddah</i><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+nor <i>Batta</i> being <i>native</i> names; a fact which
+leaves us a liberty to suppose that the <i>Pad&aelig;i</i> of
+Herodotus were simply some wild Indian tribe
+sufficiently allied in manners to the <i>Vaddahs</i> of
+Ceylon, and the <i>Battas</i> of Sumatra, to be called
+by the same name, but without being necessarily
+either the one or the other; or even ethnologically
+connected with either.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Now look at the <i>gipsies</i> of Great Britain.
+They are wanderers without fixed habitations;
+whilst, at the same time, they are more abundant
+in some parts of the island than others. They
+have no very definite occupation; yet they are
+oftener tinkers and tinmen than aught else equally
+legal. They intermarry with the English but
+little. All this is <i>caste</i>, although we may not
+exactly call it so. Then, again, they have a
+peculiar language, although it is so imperfectly
+known to the majority of the British gipsies, as
+to have become well-nigh extinct.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> These gipsies
+are of Indian origin, and a wandering tribe
+of Hindostan, called Sikligurs, reminded Mr.
+Pickering of the European gipsies more than
+any other Indians he fell in with. Like these,
+the Sikligurs are <i>coves</i>, or tinkers.</p>
+<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+<p>This, however, is by the way. Although it is
+as well to make a note of the Indian extraction
+of the English and other European gipsies, it is
+not for this reason that they have been mentioned.
+They find a place here for the sake of illustrating
+what is meant by the <i>wandering tribes of India</i>,
+whilst at the same time they throw a slight
+illustration over the nature of <i>castes</i>. Lastly, they
+are essentially parts of an ethnological investigation&mdash;ethnological
+rather than either social or
+political. Their characteristics are referable to a
+difference of descent; and they are tinkers, wanderers,
+poachers, and smugglers, not so much
+because they are either gipsies, or Indians, as
+because they are of a different stock from the
+English. They are foreigners in the fullest sense
+of the term; and they differ from their fellow-citizens
+just as the Jew does&mdash;though less advantageously.</p>
+
+<p>Now India swarms with the analogues of the
+English gipsy; so much so as to make it likely
+that the latter is found as far from his original
+country as Wales and Norway, simply because
+he is a vagabond, not because he is an Indian.</p>
+
+<p>Of the chief of the tribes in question a good
+account is given by Mr. Balfour. This list,
+however, which is as follows, may be enlarged.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Gohur</i> are, perhaps, better known
+under the name of <i>Lumbarri</i>, and better still as<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+the <i>Brinjarri</i>, the bullock-drivers of many parts of
+India, but more especially of the Dekhan. They
+are corn-merchants as well. Their organization
+consists of divisions called <i>Tandas</i>, at the head
+of which is a <i>Naek</i>. Two Naeks paramount over
+the rest, reside permanently at Hyderabad, on
+the confines of the Mahratta and Telugu countries.
+The bullock, <i>Hatadia</i>, devoted to the God
+<i>Balajee</i>, is an object of worship. In a long line
+of Brinjarri met by Mr. Pickering,<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> one of the
+females was carrying a dog, which neither a
+Hind&uacute; nor a Parsi would have done. Many of
+them are Sikhs. There are, certainly, three divisions
+of the Gohuri&mdash;the Chouhane,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> the Rhatore,
+and the Powar, and probably&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Purmans</i> are another branch of them; consisting
+of about seventy-five families of agriculturists
+on the Bombay islets.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Bhowri</i>, called also <i>Hirn-shikarri</i> and
+<i>Hern-pardi</i>, though Bhowri is the native name,
+are hunters. They also fall into subordinate
+divisions.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Tarrem&uacute;ki</i>; so-called by themselves, but
+known in the Dekhan as <i>Ghissaris</i>, or <i>Bail-Kumbar</i>,
+and amongst the Mahrattas, as <i>Lohars</i>, are
+blacksmiths.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Korawi</i>, fall in tribes which neither eat
+with each other, nor intermarry, <i>viz.</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The Bajantri, who are musicians.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The Teling&mdash;basket-makers and prostitutes.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The Kolla.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The Soli.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Bhattu</i>, <i>Dummur</i>, or <i>Kollati</i>, are exorcists
+and exhibitors of feats of strength.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Muddikpur</i>, so called by themselves,
+though known under several other names, follow
+a variety of employments; some being ferrymen.</p>
+
+<p>All these tribes wander about the country without
+any permanent home, speak a peculiar dialect
+with a considerable proportion of Non-Sanskritic
+words, and preserve certain peculiarities of creed;
+though in different degrees&mdash;the Muddikpur being
+wholly or nearly pagan, the Tarrem&uacute;ki Brahminic.</p>
+
+<p>The wandering life of these, and other similar
+tribes is not, by itself, sufficient to justify us in
+separating them from the other Hind&uacute;s. But it
+does not stand alone. The fragments of an earlier
+paganism, and the fragments of an earlier language
+are phenomena which must be taken in
+conjunction with it. These suggest the likelihood
+of the Gohuri, the Bhatti, and their like, being
+in the same category with the Khonds and Bhils,
+&amp;c., <i>i.e.</i>, representatives of the earlier and more
+exclusively Tamulian populations. If the gipsy
+language of England had, instead of its Indian<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+elements, an equal number of words from the
+original British, it would present the same phenomena,
+and lead to the same inference as that
+which is drawn from the Bhatti, Bhowri, Tarrem&uacute;ki,
+and Gohuri vocabularies,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> <i>viz.</i>: the doctrine
+that fragments of the original population
+are to be sought for amongst the wanderers over
+the face of the country, as well as among the
+occupants of its mountain strongholds.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In a country like India, where differences of
+habit, business, extraction, and creed, are accompanied
+by an inordinate amount of separation
+between different sections and subsections of its
+population, and where slight barriers of diverse
+kinds prevent intermixture, the different sects of
+its numerous religions requires notice. This, however,
+may be short. As sectarianism is generally
+in the direct ratio to the complexity of the creed
+submitted to section, we may expect to find the
+forms of Brahminism and Buddhism, not less numerous
+than those of either Christianity or Mahometanism.
+And such is really the case. The sects
+are too numerous to enlarge upon. The Sikh creed
+has been noticed from its political importance.
+That of the Jains is also remarkable, since it most
+closely resembles Buddhism, without being absolutely<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+Buddhist in the current sense of the word.
+It is, possibly, the actual and original Buddhism
+of the continent of India&mdash;supposed to
+have been driven out bodily by Brahminism, but
+really with the true vitality of persecuted creeds,
+still surviving in disguise. Again, in India,
+though in a less degree than in China, Philosophy
+replaces belief&mdash;so much so, that the different
+forms of one negation&mdash;Natural Religion&mdash;must
+be classed amongst the creeds of Hindostan; by
+the side of which there stand many kinds of
+simple philosophy; just as was the case in ancient
+Greece, where, in one and the same city, there
+were the philosophers of the Academy and the
+believers in Zeus.</p>
+
+<p>There is, then, creed within creed in the two
+great religions of India&mdash;to say nothing about the
+numerous fragments of modified and unmodified
+paganism.</p>
+
+<p>And besides these there are the following introduced
+religions&mdash;each coinciding, more or less,
+with some ethnological division.</p>
+
+<p>1. Christianity from, at least, four different
+sources&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> That of the Christians of Thomas on the
+Malabar Coast. Here the doctrine is that of the
+Syrian Church, and the population being <i>perhaps</i> (?)
+Persian in origin.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The Romanism of the French and Portuguese;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+the latter having its greatest development
+in the Mahratta country, about Goa.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Dutch and Danish Protestantism.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> English and American Protestantism. To
+which add small infusions of the Armenian and
+Abyssinian churches.</p>
+
+<p>Of these it is only the Christians of St. Thomas
+that are of much ethnological importance.</p>
+
+<p>2. Judaism on the coast of Malabar; or the
+Judaism of the so-called <i>Black Jews</i>.</p>
+
+<p>3. Parseeism in Gujerat; of Persian origin,
+and, probably, nearly confined to individuals of
+Persian blood.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mahometanism.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Of foreign blood there are numerous infusions.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Arab.</i>&mdash;On the western coast, more especially
+amongst the Moplahs of the neighbourhood of
+Goa; where the stock seems to be Arabian on
+the father's, and Indian on the mother's side.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Persian.</i>&mdash;Amongst the Parsees and Saint
+Thomas Christians (?); and, far more unequivocally,
+and in greater proportions, amongst the
+<i>Moghul</i> families&mdash;these being always more or less
+Persian; but Persian with such heterogeneous intermixtures
+of Turk and Mongol blood besides as
+to make analysis almost impossible.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Afghan.</i>&mdash;The Rohillas of Rohilcund are
+Afghan in origin; so are the Patani&mdash;indeed, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+term <i>Patan</i> means an Afghan of Hindostan wherever
+he may be.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Jewish.</i></p>
+
+<p>5, 6, 7.&mdash;<i>Chinese</i>, <i>Malay</i>, <i>Burmese</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>European.</i></p>
+
+<p>Of the <i>Indians out of India</i>, by far the most are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Gipsies</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Banians</i>, who are the Hind&uacute; traders of
+Arabia, Persia, Cashmir, and other parts of the
+East.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Hill Coolies</i>, individuals of the Khond
+and K&uacute;li class, upon whom England is trying the
+experiment of what may end in a revival of the
+old crimping system, as a substitute for slave-labour
+in our intertropical colonies.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Such is a sketch of the ethnology of India; pre-eminently
+complex, but not pre-eminently mysterious;
+its chief problems being&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The general ethnological relations of the
+Tamulian stock.</p>
+
+<p>2. Those of the intrusive Brahminical Hind&uacute;s.</p>
+
+<p>3. The relation of the intrusive population to
+the aboriginal.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> "Transactions of Philological Society," No. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Latin <i>nurus</i>, from <i>snurus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Latin <i>socer</i>, Greek <span title="hekyros">&#7957;&#954;&#965;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Latin <i>socrus</i>, Greek <span title="hekyra">&#7957;&#954;&#965;&#961;&#945;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Latin <i>levir</i> (<i>devir</i>), Greek <span title="da&ecirc;r">&#948;&#945;&#951;&#961;</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Or <i>that</i>, <i>this</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> The full exposition of this doctrine is in the present
+writer's ethnological edition of the "Germania" of Tacitus;
+v. <i>&AElig;styi</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Taken from the Appendix to Captain Cunningham's
+"History of the Sikhs."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Captain Postans, in "Transactions of Ethnological
+Society," who, along with Sir H. Pottinger, is my chief
+authority.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> For a description of these parts see Major Edwardes'
+"Year on the Punj&acirc;b Frontier."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The best account of the Brah&uacute;i is to be found in Sir H.
+Pottinger's Travels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> In the sixth century, <span class="smcapl">B.C.</span> according to the Buddhist
+chronology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Such, at least, is the opinion of the author of "Christianity
+in Ceylon," Sir E. Tennent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Names explained in Chapter iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> From Callaway's "Translation of the <i>Kol&aacute;n Nattannawa</i>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Book iii. &sect;. 99.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> The same, probably, is the case with the <span class="smcap">Bidi</span> of Java.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> From this language, I imagine that the three following
+words have come into the English&mdash;two of them being slang
+and one a sporting term&mdash;<i>rum</i>, <i>cove</i>, <i>jockey</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," No. 145.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> These names introduce a difficulty: They are <i>Rajp&uacute;t</i>
+as well.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> All of which may be found in the paper already quoted;
+and all of which contain numerous Tamul roots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Since this was written Major-General Briggs' valuable
+paper on the <i>Aboriginal Tribes of India</i>, has been published
+in "Transactions of the British Association," &amp;c., for 1851.
+Having been seen in MS. by the present writer it has been
+freely used.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>BRITISH DEPENDENCIES IN THE MALAYAN PENINSULA.&mdash;THE
+OCEANIC STOCK AND ITS DIVISIONS.&mdash;THE MALAY, SEMANG,
+AND DYAK TYPES.&mdash;THE ORANG BINUA.&mdash;JAKUNS.&mdash;THE
+BIDUANDA KALLANG.&mdash;THE ORANG SLETAR.&mdash;THE SARAWAK
+TRIBES.&mdash;THE NEW ZEALANDERS.&mdash;THE AUSTRALIANS.&mdash;THE
+TASMANIANS.</p></div>
+
+<p>Our isolated and small settlements in the Malayan
+Peninsula,<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> the dep&ocirc;t at Labuan, Sir James
+Brooke's Rajahship of Sarawak, New Zealand,
+the joint protectorate of the Sandwich Islands
+and Tahiti, Australia, and Van Dieman's Land,
+bring us to a new division of the human species,
+which is conveniently called the <i>Oceanic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Its divisions and subdivisions are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="smcap" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Protonesians</td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Micronesians</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td class="tda" rowspan="5"><span style="font-size: 500%;">{</span></td><td>Amphinesians</td><td>Polynesians</td><td>Polynesians</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td>Malagasi</td><td>Proper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oceanic</td><td colspan="5"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td class="tda" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 300%;">{</span></td><td>Papuans</td><td colspan="2" rowspan="3"></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Kel&aelig;nonesians</td><td>Australians</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td><td>Tasmanians.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Our settlements are limited to the Protonesian,
+Proper Polynesian, Australian, and Tasmanian
+sections: and we have no political authority over
+any of the Malagasi, Micronesians, or Papuans.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the occupants of the
+Malayan Peninsula, all the Oceanic population
+occupy islands. This explains the term <i>Oceanic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Their <i>distribution</i> is as remarkable as their <i>extension</i>.
+The Amphinesian<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> stream of population,
+originating in the peninsula of Malacca, is
+continued through Borneo, the Moluccas, and the
+Philippines, Lord North's Island, Sonsoral, the
+Pelew group, the Caroline and Marianne Isles,
+the Ralik and Radack chains, the Kingsmill
+group and the Gilbert and Scarborough Islands,
+to the Navigators', Society, Friendly, Marquesas,
+Sandwich, and New Zealand groups; having become
+<i>Micronesian</i> rather than <i>Protonesian</i>, after
+passing the Philippines, and <i>Proper Polynesian</i>
+rather than <i>Micronesian</i>, after passing the Scarborough
+and Gilbert Archipelagoes. In this
+course it passes <i>round</i> New Guinea and Australia;
+in each of which islands the population is Kel&aelig;nonesian.</p>
+
+<p>The Malay of the Malacca peninsula is no
+longer either monosyllabic or uninflectional, although<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+in immediate contact with the southern
+dialects of the Siamese. Hence, the transition is
+abrupt; although by no means conclusive as to
+any broad and trenchant line of ethnological demarcation.</p>
+
+<p>The differences of physical form are less than
+those of language. No one has denied that the
+Malay configuration is a modification of the Mongolian&mdash;<i>at
+least in some of its varieties</i>.</p>
+
+<p>I say <i>at least in some of its varieties</i>, because
+within the narrow range of the Malaccan peninsula
+and the island of Borneo we find no less
+than three different types. In <i>Polynesia</i> one of
+these, and in <i>Kel&aelig;nonesia</i> another becomes exaggerated&mdash;so
+much so, as to suggest the idea of
+a different origin for the populations.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Malays</i> are referable to the first type.
+Mahometans in religion, they partake of the civilization
+of the Arab and Indian, and differ but
+slightly from the Indo-Chinese nations; the complexion
+being dark and the hair straight. The
+Mahometan Malays, however, are no true aborigines.
+They are not only a new people on the
+peninsula, but they consider themselves as such;
+and those occupants which they recognize as older
+than themselves, they call <i>Orang Binua</i>, or <i>men
+of the soil</i>. Of these some have a darker complexion
+and crisper hair than the intruding population:<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+and when we reach a particular section
+called&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Semang</i>, we find them described as
+having curly, crisp, matted, and even woolly hair,
+thick lips, and a black skin. These, like most of
+the other <i>Orang Binua</i>, are Pagans. Still their
+language is essentially Malay; and their physical
+conformation passes into that of the Malays by
+numerous transitions.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Thirdly, we find in Borneo the <i>Dyaks</i>.
+Many of these are as much fairer than the Malays
+as the Semang are darker. Their language, however,
+belongs to the Malay class; whilst their
+religion and civilization may reasonably be supposed
+to be that of the Malays previous to the
+influences of Brahminism from India, Mahometanism
+from Arabia, and the changes effected in
+their habits, language, and appearance effected
+thereby.</p>
+
+<p>It is not too much to say that within the peninsula
+of Malaya, the Johore Archipelago, and the
+island of Borneo, each of these types, and every
+intermediate form as well, is to be found.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malacca.</i>&mdash;The town of Malacca is a town of
+Mahometan Malays, but I believe that the eastern
+parts of Wellesley province are on the frontier of
+the <i>Jokong</i>, <i>Jakon</i>, or <i>Jakun</i>. These are <i>Orang
+Binua</i>, or aborigines&mdash;at least as compared with
+the true Malays.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the eighth century&mdash;I am drawing an illustration
+from the history of our own island, and its
+relations to continental Germany&mdash;the Anglo-Saxons
+of Great Britain, themselves originally
+Pagan Germans, took an interest in the spiritual
+welfare of the so-called Old Saxons, a tribe of
+Westphalia, immediately related to their own
+continental ancestors, these Old Saxons having
+retained their primitive Paganism. The mission
+partly succeeded, and partly failed.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if in addition to this partial success of
+the Anglo-Saxon mission, there had been a partial
+Anglo-Saxon colonization as well, and if, side by
+side with this, fragments of the old unmodified
+Paganism had survived amongst the fens and
+forests up to the present time, we should have had,
+in the relations of England and Germany, precisely
+what I imagine to have been the case with
+the Malayan peninsula and the island of Sumatra.
+Like Germany, the peninsula would have supplied
+the original stock to the island; but, in the
+island, that stock would have undergone certain
+modifications. With these modifications it would&mdash;so
+to say&mdash;have been <i>reflected</i> back upon the
+continent&mdash;<i>re</i>-colonizing the old mother-country.
+Now just what the Old Saxons of Westphalia
+were to the Anglo-Saxons of the eighth century,
+are the Jakun to the true Malays. They differ
+from them in being something other than Mahometan;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+<i>i.e.</i>, in being nearly what the Mahometan
+Malays were before their conversion.</p>
+
+<p>The Jakun are Malays, <i>minus</i> those points of
+Malay civilization which are referable to the
+religion of the Koran.</p>
+
+<p>But the Jakun are only a few out of many; a
+single branch of a great stem.</p>
+
+<p>The most convenient term for the members in
+general of this class is <i>Orang Binua</i>&mdash;a term
+already explained.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Biduanda Kallang.</i>&mdash;The next, then, of the
+<i>Orang Binua</i> that comes in contact with a British
+dependency&mdash;many others <i>not</i> thus politically
+connected with us being passed over&mdash;are the
+<i>Biduanda Kallang</i> of the parts about Sincapore.
+Their present locality is the banks of the most
+southern of the rivers of the peninsula, the Pulai.
+Thither they were removed when the British took
+possession of the island of Sincapore; of which
+they were previously the joint occupants&mdash;joint
+occupants, because they shared it with the tribe
+which will be next mentioned. They were an
+<i>Orang Laut</i> in one sense of the word, but not
+in another. <i>Orang</i> means <i>men</i> or <i>people</i>, and <i>laut</i>
+means <i>sea</i> in Malay; and the Biduanda Kallang
+were boatmen rather than agriculturists. But
+they were only freshwater sailors; since, though
+they lived on the water, they avoided the open
+sea. They formerly consisted of one hundred<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>
+families; but have been reduced by small-pox to
+eight.</p>
+
+<p>Their priest or physician is called <i>bomo</i>, and he
+invokes the <i>hantu</i>, or deities, the <i>anito</i> of the
+Philippine Islanders, the <i>tii</i> of the Tahitians;
+and, probably, the <i>Wandong</i> and <i>Vintana</i> of Australia
+and Madagascar respectively.</p>
+
+<p>They bury their dead after wrapping the corpse
+in a mat; and placing on the grave one cup of
+woman's milk, one of water, and one of rice;
+when they entreat the deceased to seek nothing
+more from them.</p>
+
+<p>Persons of even the remotest degree of relationship
+are forbidden to intermarry.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts of their physical appearance is
+taken from too few individuals to justify any
+generalization. Two, however, of them had the
+forehead broader than the cheek-bones, so that the
+head was pear-shaped. In a third, it was lozenge-shaped.
+The head was small, and the face flat.
+The lower jaw projected; but not the upper&mdash;so
+that "when viewed in profile, the features seem
+to be placed on a straight line, from which the prominent
+parts rise very slightly."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>The Orang Sletar.</i>&mdash;The original joint-occupants
+of Sincapore with the Biduanda Kallang,
+were the <i>Orang Sletar</i>, or <i>men of the river Sletar</i>;
+differing but little from the former. Of the two<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+families they are the shyer, and the more squalid;
+numbering about two hundred individuals and
+forty boats. Their dialect is Malay, spoken with
+a guttural pronunciation, and with a clipping of
+the words.</p>
+
+<p>At the birth of a child they have no ceremonies;
+at marriage a present of tobacco and rice to the
+bride's mother confirms the match; at death the
+deceased is wrapped in his garments and interred.</p>
+
+<p>Skin diseases and deformities are common;
+nevertheless, many of their women are given in
+marriage to both the Malays and Chinese; but I
+know of no account of the mixed progeny.</p>
+
+<p>A low retreating forehead throws the face of
+the <i>Orang Sletar</i> forwards, though the jaw is
+rather perpendicular than projecting.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such are the <i>Orang Binua</i> originally, or at
+present, in contact with the small and isolated possessions
+of the British in the Malayan peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Of the proper Malays I have said next to
+nothing. Excellent works give full accounts of
+them;<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> whilst it is not through <i>them</i> that the true
+ethnological problems are to be worked.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that when we reach Borneo, the equivalents
+to the <i>Orang Binua</i>, or the original populations<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+in opposition to the Mahometan Malays,
+become referable to a fresh type, and that instead
+of being <i>darker</i> than the true Malays they are
+often <i>lighter</i>. At any rate, one thing is certain,
+<i>viz.</i>, that, whether the skin be brown, blackish, or
+fair, the language belongs to the same stock.</p>
+
+<p>Again&mdash;although in one area the darker tribes
+may preponderate, it is not to the absolute exclusion
+of the fairer. The Dyaks of Borneo
+are, generally speaking, light-complexioned; yet,
+there is special evidence to the existence of dark
+tribes in that island. On the other hand there is
+equal evidence to the existence of families lighter-skinned
+than the true Malays in the peninsula.
+Nevertheless, as a general rule, the departure from
+the type of that population is towards darkness
+of colour on the continent, and towards lightness
+in Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>With what physical conditions these differences
+coincide is not always easy to be discerned. In
+the South Sea Islands, where in one and the
+same Archipelago, we find some tribes tall and
+fair, whereas others are dark and ill-featured, it
+has been remarked by Captain Beechy that this
+contrast of complexion coincides with the geological
+structure of the soil. The lower and more
+coralline the island, the blacker the islanders;
+the more elevated and volcanic, the lighter. In
+Africa, it is the low alluvia of rivers that favour<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span>
+the Negro configuration. Mountains or table-lands,
+on the other hand, give us red or yellow
+skins, rather than sable.</p>
+
+<p>The Dyaks, then, are light-coloured Pagans,
+speaking languages allied to the Malay; little
+touched by Arabic, and less by Hind&uacute; influences;
+with manners and customs that, more or less,
+re-appear amongst the Battas (or ruder tribes of
+Sumatra), and the so-called Harafuras of Celebes&mdash;and
+not only here but elsewhere. In other
+words, in all the islands, where Indian and Arabic
+civilization have not succeeded in wholly changing
+the primitive character, analogues of the
+<i>Orang Binua</i> are to be found; their greatest differences
+being those of stature and complexion&mdash;differences
+upon which good judges have laid
+great stress; but differences which will probably
+be found to coincide with certain geological conditions
+in the way of physical, and with a lower
+level of civilization in the way of moral causes&mdash;these
+moral causes having indirectly a physical
+action.</p>
+
+<p>The Dyaks, in general, use the <i>sumpitan</i>,
+or blow-pipe, about five feet long; out of
+which some tribes shoot simple, others poisoned
+arrows. The utmost distance that the sumpitan
+carries is about one hundred yards. At twenty it
+is sure in its aim. The differences between the
+Dyak weapon, and one in use with the Arawaks<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+of Guiana is but trifling&mdash;perhaps it amounts
+to nothing at all.</p>
+
+<p>Some Dyak tribes tattoo their bodies; others
+do not.</p>
+
+<p>Before a Dyak youth marries he must lay at
+the feet of the bride-elect the head of an enemy.
+This makes <i>head-hunting</i> a normal item of Dyak
+courtship.</p>
+
+<p>Traces of the Indian mythology&mdash;measures of
+the Indian influence in other respects&mdash;just exist
+amongst the Dyaks&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Battara</i> is a name in
+their Pantheon, and this is an alteration of the
+Brahminic <i>Avatar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The pirates who harass the coasts of Borneo
+and the Chinese Seas&mdash;destined, at some future
+time to be, like the Kaffres, but too well-known
+to the English tax-payers&mdash;are Malays rather
+than <i>Orang Binua</i>, or their equivalents; the
+navigation of the Dyaks being chiefly confined to
+rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The particular tribes of Sarawak are the following&mdash;the
+Lundu, the Sarambo, the Sing&eacute;,
+the Suntah, the Sow, and the Sibnow. It is
+almost unnecessary to name the great fountain-head
+for all our recent knowledge of Borneo&mdash;Sir
+James Brooke.</p>
+
+<p>The Dyak type predominates amongst the
+<i>Orang Binua</i> of Borneo. In the Philippines the
+Semang complexion re-appears. But the prolongation<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+of the eastward line of migration takes us
+through the Mariannes and Ladrones to Polynesia;
+and here the magnitude of the islands decreases;
+in other words, the influences of the sea-air
+become greater. The aliment becomes almost
+wholly vegetable. The separation from the civilizational
+influences of Asia amounts to absolute
+isolation. Of the general ethnology of the South
+Sea Islanders I say nothing. The reasons which
+took me over China, Arabia, and the Malayan
+peninsula, <i>sicco pede</i>, spare the necessity of details
+here.</p>
+
+<p>In the Sandwich Islands there is a constitution.
+In Tahiti, a school of native Christian Missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>New Zealand exhibits the contrast between
+the darker and lighter-coloured Oceanic populations
+in so remarkable a manner as to have engendered
+the notion that two stocks occupy the
+island. If it were so, the fact would be remarkable
+and mysterious. How <i>one</i> population found
+its way to a locality so distant is by no means an
+easy question; whilst the assumption of a second
+family of immigrants just doubles its difficulty.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In Java the proper Malay influences have been<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+so great as to leave but few traces of the <i>Orang
+Binua</i>; and, earlier even than these, those of
+India were actively at work.</p>
+
+<p>East of Bali, however, the <i>Orang Binua</i> re-appear,
+and here the type is that of the Semangs.
+From Ombay, parts of Ende, and parts of Sumbawa,
+we have short vocabularies&mdash;short, but not
+too scanty to set aside the hasty, but accredited,
+assertion of the Australian language, having
+nothing in common with those of the Indian
+Archipelago.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>I feel as satisfied that Australia was peopled
+from either Timor or Rotti, as I do about the
+Gallic origin of the ancient Britons.</p>
+
+<p>I believe this because the geographical positions
+of the countries suggest it.</p>
+
+<p>I believe it, because the older and more aboriginal
+populations of Timor and Rotti approach,
+in physical character, the Australian.</p>
+
+<p>I believe it, because the proportion of words
+in the vocabularies alluded to is greater than can
+be attributed to accident; whilst the words themselves
+are not of that kind which is introduced by
+intercourse. Besides which, no such intercourse
+either occurs at the present moment, or can be
+shown to have ever existed.</p>
+
+<p>Australia agrees with parts of Africa, South<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+America, and Polynesia, in being partially
+intertropical and wholly south of the equator&mdash;no
+part of continental Asia or Europe coming
+under these conditions. But it differs
+from Polynesia in being continental rather than
+insular in climate; from South America in the
+absence of great rivers and vast alluvial tracts;
+and from Africa in being wholly isolated from the
+Northern Hemisphere. It is with South Africa,
+however, that its closest analogies exist. Both
+have but small water-systems; both vast tracts of
+elevated barren country; and both a distinctive
+vegetation. The animal kingdoms, however, of
+the two areas have next to nothing in common.
+The comparative non-existence of Australian
+mammalia, higher in rank than the marsupials,
+is a subject for the zoologist. Ethnology only
+indicates its bearing upon the sustenance of man.
+Poor in the vegetable elements of food, and
+beggarly in respect to the animal, the vast continental
+expanse of Australia supports the scantiest
+aboriginal population of the world, and nourishes
+it worst. The steppes of Asia feed the horse;
+the <i>tundras</i>, the reindeer; the circumpolar icebergs,
+the seal; and each of these comparatively
+inhospitable tracts is more kindly towards its
+Mongolian, its Samoeid, and its Eskimo occupant,
+than Australia with its intertropical climate, but
+wide and isolated deserts.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Except that his hair (which is often either
+straight, or only crisp or wavy) has not attained
+its <i>maximum</i> of frizziness, and has seldom or
+never been called <i>woolly</i>, the Australian is a
+Semang under a South African climate, on a
+South African soil, and with more than a South
+African isolation.</p>
+
+<p>Few Australians count as far as five, and fewer
+still beyond it. This paucity of numerals is
+South American as well&mdash;the Brazilian and Carib,
+and other systems of numeration being equally
+limited.</p>
+
+<p>The sound of <i>s</i> is wanting in the majority of
+Australian languages. So it is in many of the
+Polynesian.</p>
+
+<p>The social constitution is of extreme simplicity.
+Many degrees removed from the industrial, almost
+as far from the agricultural state, the Australian
+is hardly even a hunter&mdash;except so far as the
+kangaroo or wombat are beasts of chase. Families&mdash;scarcely
+large enough to be called tribes
+or clans&mdash;wander over wide but allotted areas.
+Nowhere is the approach to an organized polity
+so imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>This makes the differences between section and
+section of the Australian population, both broad
+and numerous. Nevertheless, the fundamental
+unity of the whole is not only generally admitted,
+but&mdash;what is better&mdash;it has been well illustrated.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+The researches of Captain Grey, Teichelmann,
+Schurrmann, and others, have chiefly contributed
+to this.</p>
+
+<p>The appreciation of certain apparent characteristic
+peculiarities has been less satisfactory;
+differences having been over-rated and points of
+similarity wondered at rather than investigated.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known instrument called the <i>boomerang</i>
+is Australian, and it is, perhaps, exclusively
+so.</p>
+
+<p>Circumcision is an Australian practice&mdash;a practice
+common to certain Polynesians and Negroes,
+besides&mdash;to say nothing of the Jews and Mahometans.</p>
+
+<p>The recognition of the <i>maternal</i> rather than
+the <i>paternal</i> descent is Australian. Children
+take the name of their mother. What other
+points it has in common with the Malabar polyandria
+has yet to be ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>When an Australian dies, those words which
+are identical with his name, or (in case of compounds)
+with any part of it, cease to be used;
+and some synonym is adopted instead; just as if,
+in England, whenever a Mr. <i>Smith</i> departed this
+life, the parish to which he belonged should cease
+to talk of <i>blacksmiths</i>, and say <i>forgemen</i>, <i>forgers</i>,
+or something equally respectful to the deceased,
+instead. This custom re-appears in Polynesia,
+and in South America; Dobrizhoffer's account of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+the Abiponian custom being as follows:&mdash;The
+"Abiponian language is involved in new difficulties
+by a ridiculous custom which the savages
+have of continually abolishing words common to
+the whole nation, and substituting new ones in
+their stead. Funeral rites are the origin of this
+custom. The Abipones do not like that anything
+should remain to remind them of the dead.
+Hence appellative words bearing any affinity with
+the names of the deceased are presently abolished.
+During the first years that I spent
+amongst the Abipones, it was usual to say
+<i>Hegmalkam kaham&aacute;tek</i>, when will there be
+a slaughtering of oxen? On account of the
+death of some Abipon, the word <i>Kaham&aacute;tek</i>
+was interdicted, and, in its stead, they were all
+commanded by the voice of a crier to say, <i>Hegmalkam
+n&eacute;gerkat&agrave;?</i> The word <i>nihirenak</i>, a tiger,
+was exchanged for <i>apanigehak</i>; <i>pe&ucirc;</i>, a crocodile,
+for <i>Kaeprhak</i>, and <i>Ka&aacute;ma</i>, Spaniards, for <i>Rikil</i>,
+because these words bore some resemblance to the
+names of Abipones lately deceased. Hence it is
+that our vocabularies are so full of blots occasioned
+by our having such frequent occasions to
+obliterate interdicted words, and insert new
+ones."</p>
+
+<p>The following custom is Australian, and it
+belongs to a class which should always be noticed
+when found. This is because it appears and re-appears<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+in numerous parts of the world, in different
+forms, and, apparently, independent of
+ethnological affinities.</p>
+
+<p>A family selects some natural object as its
+symbol, badge, or armorial bearing.</p>
+
+<p>All natural objects of the same class then
+become sacred; <i>i.e.</i>, the family which has adopted,
+respects them also.</p>
+
+<p>The modes of showing this respect are various.
+If the object be an animal, it is not killed; if a
+plant, not plucked.</p>
+
+<p>The native term for the object thus chosen is
+<i>Kobong</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A man cannot marry a woman of the same
+<i>Kobong</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Until we know the sequence of the cause and
+effect in the case of the Australian <i>Kobong</i>, we
+have but little room for speculation as to its
+origin. Is the plant or animal adopted by a particular
+family selected because it was previously
+viewed with a mysterious awe, or is it invested
+with the attributes of sacro-sanctity because it
+has been chosen by the family? This has yet to
+be investigated.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, as Captain Gray truly remarks, the
+Australian <i>Kobong</i> has elements in common with
+the Polynesian <i>tabu</i>! Might he not have added
+that the <i>names</i> are probably the same? The
+change from <i>t</i> to <i>k</i>, and the difference between a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+nasal and a vowel termination, are by no means
+insuperable objections.</p>
+
+<p>He also adds that it has a counterpart with the
+American system of <i>totem</i>; although the exact
+degree to which the comparison runs on all fours
+is undetermined.</p>
+
+<p>But the disuse of certain words on the death of
+kinsmen, and the <i>Kobong</i> are not the only customs
+common to the Australian and American.</p>
+
+<p>The admission to the duties and privileges of
+manhood is preceded by a probation. What this
+is in the Mandan tribe of the Sioux Americans,
+and the extent to which it consists in the infliction
+and endurance of revolting and almost incredible
+cruelties, may be seen in Mr. Catlin's
+description&mdash;the description of an eye-witness.
+In Australia it is the <i>Babu</i> that cries for the
+youths that have arrived at puberty. Suddenly,
+and at night, a cry is heard in the woods. Upon
+hearing this, the men of the neighbourhood take
+the youths to a secluded spot previously fixed
+upon. The ceremony then takes place. Sham
+fights, dances, partial mutilations of the body,
+<i>e.g.</i>, the knocking out of a front tooth, are elements
+of it. And this is as much as is known of
+it; except that from the time of initiation to the
+time of marriage, the young men are forbidden to
+speak to, or even approach a female.</p>
+
+<p>Surely, it is the common conditions of a hunter<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+life which determine these probationary preparations
+for the hardships which accompany it in
+populations so remote as the Australian and the
+American of the prairie. I say of the prairie,
+because we shall find that in the proportion as
+the agricultural state replaces the erratic habits of
+the hunter, ceremonies of the sort in question
+decrease both in number and peculiarity of character.</p>
+
+<p>A third regulation forbids the use of the more
+enviable articles of diet, like fish, eggs, the emu,
+and the choicer sorts of opossum and kangaroo
+to the Australian youth.</p>
+
+<p>All that is known of the Australian religion is
+due to the researches of the United States Exploring
+Expedition. The most specific fact in
+this respect is the name <i>Wandong</i> as applied to the
+evil spirit. I believe this to be truly a word
+belonging to the Oceanic Pantheon in general,
+and&mdash;as stated above&mdash;to be the same as <i>Vintana</i>
+in Malagasi, and as the root <i>anit</i> in many of the
+Polynesian languages.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tasmanians.</i>&mdash;A few families, the remains
+of the aborigines of Van Dieman's Land, occupy
+Flinder's Island, whither they have been removed.</p>
+
+<p>I can give but little information concerning
+them.</p>
+
+<p>From the Australians they differ but slightly
+in mental capacity, and civilizational development.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+Perhaps their very low level in this respect is the
+lower of the two.</p>
+
+<p>The language seems to have fallen into not less
+than four mutually unintelligible forms of speech.</p>
+
+<p>Their <i>hair</i> constituted their chief physical difference.
+This was curled, frizzy, or mopped.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>a priori</i> view of their origin is that they
+crossed Torres Straits from Australia. I have,
+however, stated elsewhere that a case may be
+made out for either Timor or New Caledonia
+being their mother countries; in which case the
+stream of population has gone <i>round</i> Australia
+rather than <i>across</i> it. Certain peculiarities of the
+Tasmanian language give us the ground for thus
+demurring to the <i>prim&acirc; facie</i> view of their descent.
+The same help us to account for the differences in
+texture of the hair.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Malacca, Wellesley Province, Penang, and Sincapore.
+For excellent information about the ethnology of these parts
+see Newbold's "British Settlements," and the "Journal of the
+Indian Archipelago."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> From <span title="amphi">&#7936;&#956;&#966;&#8054;</span> (<i>amfi</i>) <i>roundabout</i>, and <span title="n&ecirc;sos">&#957;&#8134;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span> (<i>n&aelig;sos</i>) <i>an
+island</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Logan in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Logan and Thompson in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago,"
+vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Especially Crawfurd's "Indian Archipelago," Sir Stamford
+Raffles' "History of Java," and Marsden's "Sumatra."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Dr. Dieffenbach's work on New Zealand is the repertory
+of details here&mdash;a valuable and standard book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The collation of these may be seen in the Appendix to
+Mr. Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> In the Appendix to Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly," and
+in "Man and his Migrations."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr /><p><span class="pgn"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.</h3>
+
+<div class="bk1"><p>THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.&mdash;THE ALGONKIN
+STOCK.&mdash;THE IROQUOIS.&mdash;THE SIOUX.&mdash;ASSINEBOINS.&mdash;THE
+ESKIMO.&mdash;THE KOL&Uacute;CH.&mdash;THE NEHANNI.&mdash;DIGOTHI.&mdash;THE
+ATSINA.&mdash;INDIANS OF BRITISH OREGON, QUADRA'S AND
+VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.&mdash;HAIDAH.&mdash;CHIMSHEYAN.&mdash;BILLICHULA.&mdash;HAILTSA.&mdash;NUTKA.&mdash;ATNA.&mdash;KITUNAHA
+INDIANS.&mdash;PARTICULAR
+ALGONKIN TRIBES.&mdash;THE NASCOPI.&mdash;THE
+BETHUCK.&mdash;NUMERALS FROM FITZ-HUGH SOUND.&mdash;THE MOSKITO
+INDIANS.&mdash;SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF BRITISH
+GUIANA.&mdash;CARIBS.&mdash;WAROWS.&mdash;WAPISIANAS.&mdash;TARUMAS.&mdash;CARIBS
+OF ST. VINCENT.&mdash;TRINIDAD.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>The Athabaskans.</i>&mdash;The best starting-point for
+the ethnology of the British dependencies in
+America is the water-system of the largest of the
+rivers which empty themselves into the Polar
+Sea, a system which comprises the Rivers Peel,
+Dahodinni, and the Rivi&egrave;re aux Liards, tributaries
+to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear
+Lake, the Great Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska;
+a vast tract, and one which is <i>almost</i> wholly
+occupied by a population belonging to one and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+the same class; a class sometimes known under
+the name <i>Chepewyan</i>, or <i>Chepeyan</i>, sometimes
+under that of <i>Athabaskan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The water-system in question forms the centre
+of the great Athabaskan area&mdash;the centre, but not
+the whole. <i>Eastward</i>, there are Athabaskan tribes
+as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards
+as far as the immediate neighbourhood of the
+Pacific; and southwards as far as the head-waters
+of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths
+of the Athabaskan population, in respect to its
+political relations, is British; all that is not British
+being either Russian or American. To this
+we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory
+rather than Canada to which the British Athabaskans
+belong.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans
+are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>S&iacute;-&iacute;saw-dinni</i> (<i>See-eesaw-dinneh</i>), or
+<i>rising-sun-men</i>.&mdash;These, generally called either
+<i>Chipewyans</i>, or <i>Northern Indians</i>, are the most
+eastern members of the family, and extend from
+the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska.
+I imagine that the <i>Brushwood</i>, <i>Birchrind</i>,
+and <i>Sheep</i> Indians are particular divisions of
+this branch.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Beaver Indians.</i>&mdash;From the Lake Athabaska
+to the Rocky Mountain, <i>i.e.</i>, the valley of
+the Peace River.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Daho-dinni</i>.&mdash;On the head-waters of the
+Rivi&egrave;re aux Liards. Called also <i>Mauvais Monde</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Strong-Bows</i>.&mdash;Mountaineers of the
+upper part of the Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Kancho</i>.&mdash;Called also <i>Hare</i> and <i>Slave</i>
+Indians. Starved and miserable occupants of the
+parts along the River McKenzie between the
+Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional
+cannibalism, justified by the pressure of
+famine. Due east of these come&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Dog-ribs</i>, and</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Yellow-knives</i>, on the <i>Copper River</i>;
+these last being also called the Copper Indians.</p>
+
+<p>8, 9. The <i>Slaous-cud-dinni</i><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> of the McKenzie
+River is, probably, a division of some of the
+other groups rather than a separate substantive
+class.</p>
+
+<p>10. The <i>Takulli</i>.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>&mdash;These fall into eleven minor
+tribes or clans.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Ta&uacute;-tin</i>; probably the same as the
+<i>Naote-tains</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Tshilko-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Nasko-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The <i>Thetlio-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> The <i>Tsatsno-tin</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>f.</i> The <i>Nula&aacute;u-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>g.</i> The <i>Ntsa&aacute;u-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>h.</i> The <i>Natli&aacute;u-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>i.</i> The <i>Nikozli&aacute;u-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>j.</i> The <i>Tatshi&aacute;u-tin</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>k.</i> The <i>Babine</i> Indians.</p>
+
+<p>11. The <i>Susi</i> (<i>Sussees</i>).&mdash;On the head-waters
+of the Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+<p>New Caledonia is the chief area of the <i>Takulli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky
+Mountains, lie&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>12. The <i>Tsikani</i> (<i>Sicunnies</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Athabaskan is the <i>first</i> class in our list;
+and, if we look only at the area which its population
+occupies, it is a great one. All the Athabaskan
+languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Algonkins.</i>&mdash;The <i>second</i> class is the Algonkin.
+It is greater in every way than the Athabaskan&mdash;greater
+in respect to the number of its
+divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to
+the ground it covers, and greater in respect to
+the range of difference which it embraces. All
+the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is
+nearly equally divided between the United States
+and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+between the Canadas and our other possessions
+and the Hudson's Bay territory.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the Canadas, with one small but
+important exception, the whole of New Brunswick,
+Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince
+Edward's Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland
+are chiefly Algonkin.</p>
+
+<p>To this stock belonged and belong the extinct
+and extant Indians of New England, part of New
+York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even
+Kentucky and Tennessee; a point of American
+rather than of British ethnology, but a point
+necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating
+the magnitude of this stock.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans,
+the Narragansetts, the Massachuset, the Montaug,
+the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks,
+the Ottogamis, the Kikkap&uacute;s, the Potawhotamis,
+the Illinois, the Miami, the Piankeshaws,
+the Shawnos, &amp;c. belong to this stock&mdash;all
+within the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The British Algonkins are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Crees</i>; of which the <i>Skoffi</i> and <i>Sheshatap&uacute;sh</i>
+of Labrador are branches.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Ojibways</i>;<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> falling into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Ojibways Proper</i>, of which the <i>Sauteurs</i>
+are a section.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Ottawas</i> of the River Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The original Indians of Lake <i>Nipissing</i>; important
+because it is believed that the form of
+speech called <i>Algonkin</i>, a term since extended to
+the whole class, was their particular dialect.
+They are now either extinct or amalgamated with
+other tribes.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> The <i>Messisaugis</i>, to the north of Lake Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Micmacs</i> of New Brunswick, Gasp&eacute;,
+Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and part of Newfoundland;
+closely allied to the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Abnaki</i> of Mayne, and the British frontier;
+represented at present by the <i>St. John's Indians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Bethuck</i>&mdash;the aborigines of Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Blackfoots</i>, consisting of the&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Satsikaa</i>, or <i>Blackfoots Proper</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Kena</i>, or <i>Blood Indians</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Piegan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To these must be added numerous extinct
+tribes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Iroquois.</i>&mdash;The single and important exception
+to the Algonkin population of the Canadas
+is made by the existence of certain members of
+the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier;
+a class falling into two divisions. The
+<i>northern</i> Iroquois belong to New York and Pennsylvania,
+the <i>southern</i> to the Carolinas.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The former of these two falls into two great confederations,
+and into several unconfederate tribes.</p>
+
+<p>The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the
+now extinct <i>Mynkasar</i> and <i>Cochnowagoes</i>&mdash;extinct,
+unless either or both be represented by a
+small remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his
+great work on the Indian tribes, now in the course
+of publication, under the sanction of Congress,
+as the <i>St. Regis Indians</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of the second confederation the leading members
+were the <i>Wyandots</i>, or <i>Hurons</i>, of the parts
+between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.</p>
+
+<p>The first was that of the famous and formidable
+<i>Mohawks</i>. To these add the <i>Senekas</i>, the <i>Onondagos</i>,
+the <i>Cayugas</i>, and the <i>Oneidas</i>, and you
+have the <i>Five</i> Nations. Then add, as a later
+accession, from the southern Iroquois, the <i>Tuskaroras</i>,
+and the <i>Six</i> Nations are formed.</p>
+
+<p>Between these two there was war <i>even to the
+knife</i>; the greater portion of the Wyandot league
+belonging to the Algonkin class.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, a few representatives of the
+whole seven tribes<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> still remain extant, their
+present locality&mdash;a reserve&mdash;being the triangular
+peninsula which was the original Huron area.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier
+occupants were the <i>Hochelaga</i>; an Iroquois tribe
+also.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Sioux.</i>&mdash;In tracing the Nelson River from
+its embouchure in Hudson's Bay, towards its
+source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake
+Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement&mdash;the
+Red River rising within the boundary of the
+United States, flowing from south to north, and
+receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the
+Valley of the Assineboin is an interesting ethnological
+locality.</p>
+
+<p>Either the river takes its name from the population,
+or the population from the river; the
+division to which it belongs being a new one.
+Different from the Algonkins on the east, different
+from the Athabaskans on the north, and (in
+the present state of our knowledge) different from
+the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins
+have all their affinities southwards. In that
+direction the family to which they belong extends
+as far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom
+nine-tenths of the Valley of Missouri originally
+belonged&mdash;the Indians of the great Sioux class;
+Indians whose original hunting-grounds included
+the vast prairie-country from the Rocky Mountains
+to the Mississippi, and who again appear as
+an isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These
+isolated Sioux are the Winebagoes; the others
+being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the
+Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri,
+the Osage, the Konzas, the Ottos, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the
+Quappas,&mdash;all American, <i>i.e.</i>, belonging to the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with
+the sea. None of them belong to the great <i>forest</i>
+districts of America. Most of them hunt over
+the country of the buffalo. This makes them
+warlike, migratory hunters; with fewer approaches
+to agricultural or industrial civilization than any
+Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.</p>
+
+<p>Of this class the Assineboins are the British
+representatives. They are the chief <i>Red River</i>
+aborigines.</p>
+
+<p>It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members
+of the Algonkin stock, upon which the current
+and popular notions of the American Indian, the
+<i>Red Man</i>, as he is called&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem" style="width: 22em;">
+<span class="i0">The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &amp;c.,<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noin">have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the
+other hand, have not contributed much to our
+notions on this point. In the first place, they
+are less known; in the next, they are less typical.</p>
+
+<p>But this raises their value in the eyes of the
+ethnologist; and the very fact of their possessing
+certain characteristics, in a comparatively slight
+degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating
+the phenomena of <i>transition</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Previous, however, to this, we must get our<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+other <i>extreme</i>. This is to be found in the ethnology
+of&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Eskimo.</i>&mdash;It is a very easy matter for an
+artistic ethnologist to make some fine light-and-shade
+contrasts between two populations, where
+he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an
+Eskimo of Labrador at the other. An oblique
+eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow,
+with a crescentic fold overshadowing the <i>caruncula
+lacrymalis</i>, surmounted by a low forehead and
+black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of such
+inordinate development as to make the face as
+broad as it is long, are elements of ugliness which
+catch the imagination, and produce a caricature,
+where we want a picture. And they are elements
+of ugliness which can be accumulated. We may
+add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks so fleshy,
+as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the
+former untouched. We may then notice the state
+of the teeth, from the mastication of injurious
+substances; and having thus exhausted nature,
+we may revert to the deformities of art. We
+may observe that wherever there is a fleshy portion
+of the face that can be perforated by a stone knife,
+or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing
+and incisions; and that wherever there are incisions,
+bones, nails, feathers, and such like ornaments
+will be inserted. All this is the case.
+What European ladies do with their ears, the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+Eskimo does with the cartilage of his nose, the
+lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks.
+More than this&mdash;in the lower lip, parallel to the
+mouth, and taking the guise of a mouth additional,
+a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough
+to allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion
+of the tongue. The insertion of a shell or bone,
+cut into the shape of teeth, completes the adornment.</p>
+
+<p>Then comes the question of colour. The Indian
+has a tinge of red; a tinge which enables us to
+compare his skin to <i>copper</i>. The Eskimo is simply
+brown, swarthy, or tawny.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales
+are scarce in the south, and wood in the north of
+Greenland; and in consequence of this, there are
+regular meetings for the business of barter. This
+gives us the elements of commercial industry;
+elements which must themselves be taken in conjunction
+with the maritime habits of the people.
+What stronger contrast can we find to all this than
+the gloomy isolation of the hunters of the prairie-countries,
+whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?</p>
+
+<p>Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual
+capacity, to give the Eskimo credit for ingenuity
+and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type which
+we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently
+indocile and inflexible.</p>
+
+<p>Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+of great qualification&mdash;qualification which we find
+necessary, whether we look to the extent to which
+the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian
+the Eskimo&mdash;each receding from its own more
+extreme representative.</p>
+
+<p>The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly
+common amongst the Red Indian tribes; and
+rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither
+universal in the one, nor non-existent in the other.
+Oval features, a mixture of red in the complexion,
+an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst
+the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and
+women.</p>
+
+<p>In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less
+remarkable for inferiority than is generally supposed.
+His bulky, baggy dress makes him look
+square and short. Measurements, however, correct
+this impression. Men of the height of five
+feet ten inches have been noticed as particular
+specimens&mdash;better grown individuals than their
+fellows. And men under five feet have also been
+noticed for the contrary reasons. Numerous measurements,
+however, give about five feet as the
+height of an Eskimo woman, and five feet six
+inches as that of a man. This is more than so
+good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the
+Malays; whose person is squat, and whose average
+stature does not exceed five feet three or four
+inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+gives the Guiana Indians, as may be seen from
+the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="tab2" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class="tr3"><td class="bl" colspan="3"><i>Wapisianas.</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>Tarumas.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Mawackas.</i></td><td colspan="3"><i>Atorais.</i></td><td colspan="4"><i>Macusis.</i></td></tr>
+<tr class="tr4"><td class="bl">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td>Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td colspan="2">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td>Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td><td colspan="2">Aged.</td><td>ft.</td><td class="br">in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">12</td><td>4</td><td class="br">8<span class="abv">5</span>&#8260;<span class="blw">10</span></td>
+<td>14</td><td>4</td><td class="br">11<span class="abv">3</span>&#8260;<span class="blw">10</span></td>
+<td>15</td><td></td><td>4</td><td class="br">10</td>
+<td>35</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1<span class="abv">5</span>&#8260;<span class="blw">10</span></td>
+<td>14</td><td class="tdb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td rowspan="2">4</td><td class="br" rowspan="2">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">15</td><td>4</td><td class="br">6</td>
+<td class="bb br" colspan="3" rowspan="2"></td>
+<td>16</td><td class="bb tdb" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td class="bb" rowspan="2">4</td><td class="bb br" rowspan="2">9<span class="abv">5</span>&#8260;<span class="blw">10</span></td>
+<td>15</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1</td>
+<td>15</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr2"><td class="bl">16</td><td>5</td><td class="br">1<span class="abv">1</span>&#8260;<span class="blw">10</span></td>
+<td>17</td>
+<td class="br" colspan="3"></td>
+<td>14</td><td></td><td>5</td><td class="br">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="noin">It is more than the average of several other
+populations.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different
+from the American. It is, probably, larger in its
+dimensions; so that its cavity contains more cubic
+inches. The measurements, however, which suggest
+this view, are but few. On the other hand,
+the relations between the <i>width</i> and the <i>depth</i>
+of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.</p>
+
+<p>By <i>width</i> is meant the number of inches from
+side to side, from one parietal bone to the other;
+in other words, the <i>parietal diameter</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Depth</i> signifies the length of the <i>occipito-frontal</i>
+diameter, or the number of inches from the forehead
+to the back of the skull.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo
+crania examined by Dr. Morton, the parietal diameter
+so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal
+as for the skull in question to be as much as
+5&middot;4 inches in width, and as little as 5&middot;7 in depth;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain
+almost as broad as it is long. <i>Valeat quantum.</i>
+It is an extreme specimen. The remainder are
+as 5&middot;5 to 7&middot;3; as 5&middot;1 to 7&middot;5; and as 5 to 6&middot;7,
+proportions by no means exclusively Eskimo,
+and proportions which occur in very many of the
+undeniably American stocks.</p>
+
+<p>Likeness there is; and variety there is;&mdash;likeness
+in physical feature, likeness in language, and
+likeness in the general moral and intellectual
+characteristics. And then there is variety&mdash;variety
+in all the details of their arts; variety in their
+bows, their canoes, their dwellings, their fashions
+in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their
+fashions in the dressing of their hair.</p>
+
+<p>This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo
+at present. It is, however, preparatory to the
+general statement that <i>all the remaining</i> Indians of
+British North America recede from the Sioux and
+Iroquois type, and approach that of the family in
+question. Such, indeed, has been the case, though
+(perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the classes
+already considered&mdash;the Athabaskan.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Kol&uacute;ch.</i>&mdash;The extreme west of the British
+possessions beyond the Rocky Mountains, <i>north</i>
+of latitude 55&deg; is but imperfectly known. Indeed,
+for scientific, and, perhaps, for political
+purposes as well, the country is unfortunately
+divided. The Russians have the long but narrow<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations
+to its bays and archipelagoes. The
+British, on the contrary, though they possess the
+interior, have no great interest in the parts about
+the Russian boundary. In the way of trade,
+they are not sufficiently on the sea for the sea-otter,
+nor near enough the mountains for other
+fur-bearing animals.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian,
+the head-waters British. Beyond these, we
+have the water-system of the McKenzie&mdash;for
+that river, although falling into the Arctic Sea,
+has a western fork, which breaks through the
+barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in
+direction from west and south-west to north. Lake
+Simpson, Lake Dease, and the River Turnagain
+belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie
+being a range of highlands, if not of mountains.</p>
+
+<p>This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous
+on the south with that of the Takulli, and
+on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni.
+How far, however, it extends towards the Russian
+boundary and in the north-west direction I
+cannot say.</p>
+
+<p>The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British
+representatives of the class called Kol&uacute;ch.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>
+Assuming this&mdash;although from the want of a<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence
+is wanting&mdash;I begin with the notice of the
+<i>Nehannis</i>, as known to the Hudson's Bay Company,
+and afterwards superadd a sketch of the
+<i>Sitkans</i>, as known to the Russians of New Archangel;
+the two notices together giving us the
+special description of a family, and the general
+view of the class to which that family belongs.</p>
+
+<p>That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent,
+is no more than is expected. We are
+far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo.
+That they are ruled by a woman should surprise
+us. Such, however, is the case. A female rules
+them&mdash;and rules them, too, with a rod of iron.
+Respect for sex has here attained its height. It
+had begun to be recognized amongst the Athabaskans.</p>
+
+<p>The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but
+they are also civilized enough to barter; buying
+of the inland tribes, and selling to the Russians&mdash;a
+practice which seems to divert the furs of British
+territory to the markets of Muscovy. But this is
+no business of the ethnologist's. They are slavers
+and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond
+of music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body;
+bold and treacherous in temper; and with the
+common Kol&uacute;ch physiognomy and habits.</p>
+
+<p><i>These</i> we must collect from the descriptions of
+the Russian Kol&uacute;ches&mdash;the locality where they<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+have been best studied being Sitka Sound, or
+New Archangel. We must do it, however, <i>mutatis
+mutandis</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, remembering that the Sitkans
+are Kol&uacute;ch of an Archipelago, the Nehanni Kol&uacute;ch
+of a continent.</p>
+
+<p>The Kol&uacute;ch complexion is light; the hair long
+and lank; the eyes black; and the lip and chin
+often bearded.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Kon&aelig;gi</i> are the natives of the island
+Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from whom the chief
+details of the Sitkan Kol&uacute;ch are taken, especially
+states that, with few exceptions, their
+manners and customs are those of these same
+Kon&aelig;gi; one of the minor points of difference
+being the greater liveliness of the Sitkans, and
+one of the more important ones, their treatment
+of the dead. They <i>burn</i> the bodies (as do the
+Takulli Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in
+wooden boxes placed upon pillars, painted or
+carved, more or less elaborately, according to the
+wealth of the deceased.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of a <i>toyon</i>, or chief, one of his
+slaves is killed and burned with him. If, however,
+the deceased be of inferior rank the victim
+is <i>buried</i>. If the death be in battle, the head,
+instead of being burned, is kept in a wooden box
+of its own. But it is not with the shaman as with
+the warrior. The shaman is merely interred;
+since he is supposed to be too full of the evil<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+spirit to be consumed by fire. The reason why
+burning is preferred to burying is because the
+possession of a piece of flesh is supposed to
+enable its owner to do what mischief he pleases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Now the Kon&aelig;gi are admitted Eskimo.</i></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the similarity between the
+Sitkans and Kon&aelig;gi there is no want of true
+American customs amongst them. Cruelty to
+prisoners, indifference to pain when inflicted on
+themselves, and the habit of scalping are common
+to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and
+those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On
+the other hand, they share the skill in painting
+and carving with the Chen&uacute;ks and the aborigines
+of the Oregon.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Digothi.</i>&mdash;The Dahodinni are Athabaskan
+rather than Kol&uacute;ch; the Nehanni Kol&uacute;ch rather
+than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni
+country is partially encircled by Kol&uacute;ch
+populations, and that a fresh branch of this stock
+re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the
+Lower McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River,
+and at the termination of the great Rocky Range
+on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the <i>Digothi</i>
+or <i>Loucheux</i>; the only family not belonging to the
+Eskimo class, which comes in contact with the
+ocean; and, consequently, the only unequivocally
+Indian population which interrupts the continuity
+of the Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span>
+Perhaps the alluvium of a great river like the
+McKenzie, has determined this displacement.
+Such an occupancy would be as naturally coveted
+by an inland population, as undervalued by a
+maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have
+the appearance of being an encroaching tenantry;
+indeed, few Indians have had their physical appearance
+described in terms equally favourable.
+Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine
+sparkling eyes, and regular teeth, they approach
+the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass them
+in stature. The same authority which expressly
+states that the Nehanni are not generally tall,
+speaks to the athletic proportions and tall stature
+of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances
+are handsome and expressive.</p>
+
+<p>Whence came they? From the south-east, from
+Russian America. Their points of contrast to the
+Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast
+to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points
+of similarity to the Kol&uacute;ch do more. The Loucheux
+possessive pronoun is the same as the
+Kenay. Thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">ENGLISH.</span></td><td class="td3"><span class="smcapl">LOUCHEUX.</span></td><td><span class="smcapl">KENAY.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>My</i>-son</td><td class="td3"><i>se</i>-jay</td><td><i>ssi</i>-ja.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="td3"><i>My</i>-daughter</td><td class="td3"><i>se</i>-zay</td><td><i>ssa</i>-za.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux
+and Nehanni are required before we can
+decidedly pronounce them to be Kol&uacute;ch; indeed,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter
+amongst the Athabaskans.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fall Indians.</i>&mdash;In a MS. communicated by
+Mr. Gallatin to Dr. Prichard, and, by the latter
+kindly lent to myself, and examined by me some
+years back, was a vocabulary of the language of
+the Indians of the Falls of the Saskatchewan. In
+this their native name was written <i>Ahnenin</i>. Mr.
+Hale, however, calls them <i>Atsina</i>. Which is correct
+is difficult to say.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gros ventres</i> is another of their designations;
+<i>Minetari of the Prairie</i> another. This last is
+inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since the true
+<i>Minetari</i> are a Sioux tribe, different in language,
+manners, and descent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arrapaho</i> is a third synonym; and this is important,
+since there are other <i>Arrapahoes</i> as far
+south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.</p>
+
+<p>The identity of name is <i>prim&acirc; facie</i> evidence of
+two tribes so distant as those of Arkansas and the
+Saskatchewan being either offsets from one another,
+or else from some common stock; but it is not
+more. Nothing can be less conclusive. This has
+just been shown to be in the case of the term
+<i>Minetari</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar;
+though the confederacy to which the Indians who
+speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.</p>
+
+<p>Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary;<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+neither do we know whether the name
+be native or not.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>A tract still stands over for notice. As we
+have no exact northern limits for the Nehanni,
+no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no
+exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts
+due east of the Russian boundary are undescribed.</p>
+
+<p>I can only <i>contribute</i> to the ethnology here.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ugalentses.</i>&mdash;Round Mount St. Elias we
+have a population of <i>Ugalentses</i> or Ugalyakhmutsi.
+Though said to consist of less than forty families,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>
+as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable
+that some of them are British.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tshugatsi</i>.&mdash;In contact with the Ugalents,
+who are transitional between the true Eskimo and
+the true Kol&uacute;ch, the Tshugatsi are unequivocally
+Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's
+Sound are their locality.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Haidah.</i>&mdash;Queen Charlotte's, and the
+southern extremity of the Prince of Wales' Archipelago,
+are the parts to which the Indians speaking
+the Haidah language have been referred. In case,
+however, any members of their family extend into
+the British territory, they are mentioned here.</p>
+
+<p>Three Haidah tribes are more particularly
+named&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Skittegat</i>.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Cumshahas</i>&mdash;a name remarkably like
+that of the <i>Chimsheyan</i>, hereafter to be noticed.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Kygani</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Tungaas.</i>&mdash;This is the name of the language
+of the most Northern Indians, with which
+the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It
+is Kol&uacute;ch; and more Russian than British.</p>
+
+<p>The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole
+of his valuable remarks upon the North-western
+Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion
+already made as to the extent which we have
+formed our ideas of the Aboriginal American
+upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively;
+and his facts are a correction to our inferences.
+In what way do the moral and intellectual characters
+of the Western Indians differ from those
+of the Eastern? I shall give the answer in
+Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are less inflexible
+in character. Their range of ideas is greater.
+They are imitative and docile. They are comparatively
+humane.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> No scalping. No excessive
+torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.</p>
+
+<p>Now&mdash;whether negative or positive&mdash;there is not
+one of those characteristics wherein the Western
+American differs from the Eastern, in which he
+does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo.
+In the absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+the council fire, the wampum-belt, the
+hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the
+Eskimo differs from the Ojibway, the Huron,
+and the Mohawk. True. But the Haidah and
+the Chimsheyan do the same.</p>
+
+<p>The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is
+Shamanistic; like the Negro of Africa they attribute
+to some material object mysterious powers.
+As far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism.
+But, then, like the Finn, and the Samoeid
+of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or
+reverence in others, the excitement of fasting,
+charms, and dreams. As far as the term has
+been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our
+notions as to the religion of the Indians be rendered
+unduly favourable through the ideas of
+pure theism, called up by the missionary term
+<i>Great Spirit</i>, we must simply remember, in the
+first place, that the term is <i>ours</i>, not <i>theirs</i>; and
+that those who, by looking to facts rather than
+words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion
+that the creed of the Indians of the St.
+Lawrence and Mississippi is neither better nor
+worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia.
+Both are alike, Shamanistic. And so
+is the Eskimo.</p>
+
+<p>The names in detail of the Indians of British
+Oregon, over and above those of the Athabaskan
+family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+Scouler still being the authority, and, along with
+him, Mr. Tolmie and Mr. Hale.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Chimsheyan</i>, or <i>Chimmesyan</i>, on the sea-coast
+and islands about 55&deg; North lat. Their
+tribes are the <i>Naaskok</i>, the <i>Chimsheyan Proper</i>,
+the <i>Kitshatlah</i>, and the <i>Kethumish</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Billichula</i>, on the mouth of the Salmon
+River.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Hailtsa</i>, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury
+Island to Broughton's Archipelago, and
+(perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and Vancouver's
+Island. Their tribes are the <i>Hyshalla</i>,
+the <i>Hyhysh</i>, the <i>Esleytuk</i>, the <i>Weekenoch</i>, the
+<i>Nalatsenoch</i>, the <i>Quagheuil</i>, the <i>Ttatla-shequilla</i>,
+and the <i>Lequeeltoch</i>. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh
+Sound will be noticed in the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Nutka Sound Indians</i> occupy the greater
+part of Quadra's and Vancouver's Island, speak the
+<i>Wakash</i> language, and fall into the following
+tribes&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>The Naspatl.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>The Nutkans Proper.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <i>The Tlaoquatsh.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> <i>The Nittenat.</i></p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Shushwah</i>, or <i>Atna</i>, are bounded on the
+north by the Takulli, belong to the interior rather
+than the coast, are members of a large family,
+called the <i>Tsihaili-Selish</i>, extending far into the
+United States. According to Mr. Hale, they present<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+the remarkable phenomenon of an aboriginal
+stock having increased from about four hundred
+to twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Kitunaha</i>, <i>Cutanies</i>, or <i>Flat-bows</i>, hardy,
+brave and shrewd hunters on the Kitunaha, or
+Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the Blackfoots,
+are the Oregon Indians whose habits most
+closely approach those of the Indians to the east
+of the Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>To some of these I now return, since three points
+of Algonkin ethnology require special notice.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>The Nascopi</i> or <i>Skoffi</i>.&mdash;This is a frontier
+tribe. Much as we connect the ideas of cold and
+cheerless sterility with the inclement climate and
+naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we
+connect the Eskimo as a population with a similarly
+inhospitable country, it is only the coast of
+that vast region which is thus tenanted. On
+Hudson's Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits
+of Belleisle there are Eskimo; along the intervening
+coast there are Eskimo, and as far south
+as Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior
+there are no Eskimo. Instead of them we
+find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatap&uacute;sh&mdash;subsections
+(as stated before) of the same section of the
+great Algonkin stock. In them we have a measure
+of the effect of external conditions upon
+different members of the same class. Between<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span>
+the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay and the Pamticos
+of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25&deg; of
+latitude combined with a difference of other physical
+conditions which more than equals the difference
+between north and south. Yet the contrast
+between the Algonkin and other inhabitants
+of Labrador is as evident (though not, perhaps, so
+great) as that between the Greenlander and the
+Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable
+from the Laplander so is the Skoffi
+from Eskimo.</p>
+
+<p>Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins,
+the Nascopi hunts and fishes for his livelihood
+exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal
+migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that,
+upon his net. This he sets under the ice, during
+the earlier months of the winter. After December,
+however, he would set them in vain; the fish
+being, then, all in the deep water. Woman, generally
+a drudge in North America, is pre-eminently
+so with the Nascopis. All that the man does,
+is the <i>killing</i> of the game. The woman brings it
+home. The woman also drags the loaded sledges
+from squatting to squatting, clears the ground,
+and collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and
+smokes. Of such domestic slaves more than one
+is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi recognizes
+marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this
+sense the contracting parties are respectively the<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+parents of the couple&mdash;the bride and bridegroom
+being the last parties consulted. When all has
+been arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's
+tent, remains there a year, and then
+departs as an independent member of the community.
+Cousins are addressed as brothers or
+sisters; marriage between near relations is allowed;
+and so is the marriage of more than one sister
+successively.</p>
+
+<p>The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the
+other Cree tribes; their Christianity still more
+partial and still more nominal. Sometimes rolling
+in abundance, sometimes starving, they are
+attached to the Whites by but few artificial wants;
+the few fur-bearing animals of their country being
+highly prized, and, consequently, going a long
+way as elements of barter. Their dress is almost
+wholly of reindeer skin; their travelling gear a
+leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In
+this bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his
+knees up to his chin, and defies both wind and
+snow.</p>
+
+<p>This account has been condensed from M'Lean's
+"Five and Twenty Years' Service in the Hudson's
+Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder
+in his own words: "The horrid practice still
+obtains among the Nascopis of destroying their
+parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates
+them for further exertion. I must, however, do<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+them the justice to say, that the parent himself
+expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural
+deed would probably never be committed,
+for they, in general, treat their old people with
+much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest
+relative, performs the office of executioner&mdash;the
+self-devoted victim being disposed of by strangulation."</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>The Aborigines of Newfoundland.</i>&mdash;Sebastian
+Cabot brought three Newfoundlanders to England.
+They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate
+raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic
+of the Eskimo; and, thus far, the evidence is in
+favour of the savages in question belonging to
+that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by
+what follows; since Purchas states that two
+years after he saw two of them, dressed like
+Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not
+discover from Englishmen, till I learned what
+they were."</p>
+
+<p>Now as the Bethuck&mdash;the aborigines in question&mdash;have
+either been cruelly exterminated, or exist
+in such small numbers as not to have been seen
+for many years, it has been a matter of doubt
+whether they were Eskimo or Micmacs, the
+present occupants of the island. Reasons against
+either of these views are supplied by a hitherto
+unpublished Bethuck vocabulary, with which I
+have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr. King,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span>
+of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a
+<i>separate section</i> of the Algonkins. Such I believe
+them to have been, and have placed them accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <i>The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals.</i>&mdash;These are
+nearly the same as the Hailtsa. On the other
+hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in
+-<i>scum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really
+to connect the Blackfoot with the Hailtsa, it brings
+the Algonkin class of languages across the whole
+breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores
+of the Pacific.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England,
+any more than the Tahitians are of France, or the
+Sandwich Islanders of America, France, and England
+conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate:
+and the Moskito Indians are the subjects
+of a native king.</p>
+
+<p>The present reigning monarch was educated
+under English auspices at Jamaica, and, upon
+attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town.
+I believe that his name is that of the grandfather
+of our late gracious majesty. King George, then,
+king of the Moskitos, has a territory extending
+from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower
+part of the River San Juan; a territory whereof,
+inconveniently for Great Britain, the United<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+States, and the commerce of the world at large,
+the limits and definition are far from being universally
+recognized. Nicaragua has claims, and
+the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor
+of the Brazil, are the only resident sovereigns of
+the New World.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects of the former are, really, the
+aborigines of the whole line of coast between
+Nicaragua and Honduras&mdash;there being no Indians
+remaining in the former republic, and but few in
+the latter. Of these, too&mdash;the Nicaraguans&mdash;we
+have no definite ethnological information. Mr.
+Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands
+of the lakes of the interior. Colonel Galindo also
+mentions them; but I infer, from his account,
+that their original language is lost, and that
+Spanish is their present tongue; just as it is said to
+be that of the aborigines of St. Salvador and Costa
+Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And
+the difficulty is increased when we resort to history,
+tradition, and arch&aelig;ology. History makes
+them Mexicans&mdash;Asteks from the kingdom of
+Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just
+as the Ph&#339;nicians were of Carthage. Arch&aelig;ology
+goes the same way. A detailed description of
+Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology
+which is anxiously expected. At any rate,
+stone ruins and carved decorations have been<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written
+about Yucatan and Guatemala, may be repeated in
+the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The difficulty
+will be but increased; since whatever facts makes
+Nicaragua Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They
+are now in contact with Spaniards and Englishmen&mdash;populations
+whose civilization differs from
+their own; and populations who are evidently
+intrusive and of recent origin. Precisely the same
+would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made
+Mexican. The civilization would be of another
+sort; the population which introduced it would
+be equally intrusive; and the only difference
+would be a difference of stage and degree&mdash;a little
+earlier in the way of time, and a little less contrast
+in the way of skill and industry.</p>
+
+<p>But the evidence in favour of the Mexican
+origin of the Nicaraguans, is doubtful; and so is
+the fact of their having wholly lost their native
+tongue; and until one of these two opinions be
+proved, it will be well to suspend our judgment as
+to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed, either
+of them be true, their ethnological position will be
+a difficult question. With nothing in Honduras
+to compare them with&mdash;with nothing tangible, or
+with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua&mdash;with
+only very general miscellaneous affinities
+in Guatemala&mdash;their ethnological affinities
+are as peculiar as their political constitution.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has
+undoubted <i>general affinities with those of America
+at large</i>; and this is all that it is safe to say at
+present. But it is safe to say <i>this</i>. We have
+plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of
+Mr. Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.</p>
+
+<p>The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is
+that they were never subject to the Spaniards.
+Each continent affords a specimen of this isolated
+freedom&mdash;the independence of some exceptional
+and impracticable tribes, as compared
+with the universal empire of some encroaching
+European power. The Circassians in Caucasus,
+the Tshuktshi Koriaks in North-eastern Asia,
+and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their
+relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of
+an amicable description. So they were with
+the Negroes&mdash;maroon and imported. And this,
+perhaps, has determined their <i>differenti&aelig;</i>. They
+are intertropical American aborigines, who have
+become partially European, without becoming
+Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>Their physical conformation is that of the
+South rather than the North American; and,
+here it must be remembered, that we are passing
+from one moiety of the new hemisphere to the
+other. With a skin which is olive-coloured rather
+than red, they have small limbs and undersized
+frames; whilst their habits are, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>,<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+those of the intertropical African. This means,
+that the exuberance of soil, and the heat of the
+climate, makes them agriculturists rather than
+shepherds, and idlers rather than agriculturists;
+since the least possible amount of exertion gives
+them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants
+which are compatible with indolence that they
+care to satisfy. They presume rather than improve
+upon the warmth of their suns, and the
+fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they
+get drunk; when they work hardest, they cut
+mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the
+native industry. <i>Wulasha</i> is the name of their
+Evil Spirit, and <i>Liwaia</i> that of a water-god.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot but think that there is much intermixture
+amongst them. At the same time, the <i>data</i>
+for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their
+greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the
+Negro; their next greatest with the Englishman.
+Of the population of the interior, we know next
+to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>They are frontagers to the river San Juan.
+This gives them their value in politics.</p>
+
+<p>They are the only well-known extant Indians
+between Guatemala and Veragua. This gives
+them their value in ethnology.</p>
+
+<p>The populations to which they were most immediately
+allied, have disappeared from history.
+This isolates them; so that there is no class to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+which they can be subordinated. At the same
+time, they are quite as like the nearest known
+tribes as the <i>American</i> ethnologist is prepared to
+expect.</p>
+
+<p>What they were in their truly natural state,
+when, unmodified by either Englishman or Spaniard,
+Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous
+civilization (such as it was) of their coast,
+is uncertain.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>That the difference between the North and
+South American aborigines has been over-rated,
+is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do
+so, decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk,
+who is at once minute in taking notice,
+and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to
+that of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge
+upon the extent to which the Indians of the New
+World in general look "like children of one
+family." On the other hand, however, there are
+writers like D'Orbigny. These expatiate upon the
+difference between members of the same class, so
+as to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or
+Peruvians from Athabaskans, but Peruvians from
+Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is no paradox to assert that these two
+views, instead of contradicting, support each
+other. A writer exhibits clear and undeniable
+differences between two American tribes in geographical<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+juxtaposition to one another. But
+does this prove a difference of origin, stock, or
+race? Not necessarily. Such differences may
+be, and often are, partial. More than this&mdash;they
+may be more than neutralized by undeniable
+marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they
+prove is the extent to which really allied populations
+may be contrasted in respect to certain
+particular characters.</p>
+
+<p>Stature is the chief point in which the North
+American has the advantage of the Southern, <i>e.g.</i>,
+the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R.
+Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general
+rule. Yet a vast number of the Indians of the
+Oregon, are shorter than the South American
+Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large
+as compared with the trunk, and the trunk with
+the limbs; the hands small; the foot large; the skin
+soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indians of British Guiana.</i>&mdash;These are distributed
+amongst four divisions, of very unequal
+magnitude and importance.&mdash;1. The Carib.
+2. The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The
+Taruma.</p>
+
+<p>The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R.
+Schomburgk was eighteen.</p>
+
+<p>1. The great <i>Carib</i> group falls into three
+divisions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The Caribs Proper.<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The Tamanaks.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The Arawaks.</p>
+
+<p>Of these, it is only members of the first and
+last that occupy British Guiana.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Arawaks.</i>&mdash;The Arawaks are our nearest
+neighbours, and, consequently, the most Europeanized.
+Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they
+and the Warows amount to about three thousand,
+and from Bernau we infer, that this number is
+nearly equally divided between the two; since he
+reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred.
+Each family has its distinctive tattoo, and these
+families are twenty-seven in number.</p>
+
+<p>The children may marry into their father's
+family, but not into that of their mother. Now
+as the caste is derived from their mother, this is
+an analogue of the North American <i>totem</i>. Polygamy
+is chiefly the privilege of the chiefs. The
+<i>Pe-i-man</i> is the Arawak <i>Shaman</i>. He it is who
+names the children&mdash;<i>for a consideration</i>. Failing
+this, the progeny goes nameless; and to go nameless
+is to be obnoxious to all sorts of misfortunes.</p>
+
+<p>Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son
+of a conjuror enters his twentieth year, his right
+ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring, and
+he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>In imitating what they see, and remembering
+what they hear, the Arawak has, at least, an
+average capacity. Neither is he destitute of<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration
+is of the rudest kind.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class="tr4"><td>Aba-da-kabo</td><td>=</td><td>once my hand</td><td>=</td><td><i>five</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr4"><td>Biama-da-kabo</td><td>=</td><td>twice my hand</td><td>=</td><td><i>ten</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr class="tr4"><td>Aba-olake</td><td>=</td><td>one man</td><td>=</td><td><i>twenty</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and
+some neatness in the dressing of their hair is perceptible.
+It is tied up on the crown of the
+head.</p>
+
+<p>The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the
+lightest coloured families being as fair as Spaniards.
+This is on the evidence of Bernau, who
+adds, that, as children grow in knowledge and
+receive instruction, the forehead rises, and the
+physiognomy improves.</p>
+
+<p>The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are
+Carib at all, are Caribs Proper, rather than Arawaks.
+Of these, the chief are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Accaways</i>,&mdash;occupants of the rivers Mazaruni
+and Putara, with about six hundred fighting
+men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel;
+firm friends and bitter enemies. When resisted,
+they kill; when unopposed, enslave.</p>
+
+<p>The law of revenge predominates in this tribe;
+for&mdash;like certain Australians&mdash;they attribute all
+deaths to contrivances of an enemy. Workers in
+poison themselves, they suspect it with others.</p>
+
+<p>Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>
+then their nudity is more complete; inasmuch as,
+instead of clothing, they paint themselves; arnotto
+being their red, lana their blue pigment. They
+pierce the <i>septum</i> of the nose, and wear wood in
+the holes, like the Eskimo, Loucheux, and others.
+They paint the face in streaks, and the body
+variously&mdash;sometimes blue on one side, and red
+on the other. They rub their bodies with carapa
+oil, to keep off insects; and <i>one</i> of the ingredients
+of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant
+called <i>muneery</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Their forehead is depressed.</p>
+
+<p>They give nicknames to each other and to
+strangers, irrespective of rank; and the better
+their authorities take it the greater their influence.</p>
+
+<p>It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit
+of the deceased hovers over the dwelling in which
+death took place, and that it will not tolerate
+disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse <i>in</i> the
+hammock, and <i>under</i> the hut in which it became
+one. This they burn and desert.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Carab&iacute;si.</i>&mdash;Twenty years ago the Carab&iacute;si
+(<i>Carabeese</i>, <i>Carabisce</i>) mustered one thousand
+fighting men. It would now be difficult to raise
+one hundred. But the diminution of their
+numbers and importance began earlier still.
+Beyond the proper Carab&iacute;si area, there are numerous
+Carab&iacute;si names of rivers, islands, and<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+other geographical objects. Hence, their area
+has decreased.</p>
+
+<p>Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers,
+dogs, rats, frogs, insects, and other sorts of food,
+unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by
+their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the
+part which they perforate, and wherein they wear
+their usual pins; besides which they fasten a
+large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of
+the head.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary cases the hammock in which the
+death took place, serves as a coffin, the body
+is buried, and a funeral procession made once or
+twice round the grave; but the bodies of persons
+of importance are watched and washed by the
+nearest female relations, and when nothing but
+the skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned,
+painted, packed in a basket and preserved. When,
+however, there is a change of habitation they are
+<i>burned</i>; after which the ashes are collected, and
+kept.</p>
+
+<p>Here we have interment and cremation in one
+and the same tribe; a circumstance which should
+guard us against exaggerating their value as
+characteristic and distinguishing customs.</p>
+
+<p>Again. The <i>Macusi</i> is closely akin to the Carab&iacute;si;
+yet the Macusi buries his dead in a sitting
+posture without coffins, and with but few ceremonies.
+Now the sitting posture is common to<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+the Peruvians, the Oregon Indians, and numerous
+tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers it to
+be one of the most remarkable characteristics of
+the Red Man of America in general.</p>
+
+<p>The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man
+of note dies his relations plant a field of cassava;
+just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a cocoa-nut
+tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve
+moons are over, and the cassava is ripe, they
+re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each other
+cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are
+then <i>hung up</i> on the spot where the person died.
+Six moons later a second meeting takes place&mdash;and,
+this time, the whips are <i>buried</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Waika</i> are a small tribe of the <i>Accaways</i>;
+the <i>Zapara</i> of the <i>Macusis</i>. Besides these, the
+following Guiana Indians are Carib.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Arecuna</i>; of which the <i>Soerikong</i> are a
+section.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Waiyamara</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Guinau</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Maiongkong</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Woyawai</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Mawakwa</i>, or Frog Indians&mdash;a tribe that
+flattens the head.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Piano-ghotto</i>; of which the <i>Zaramata</i> and
+<i>Drio</i> are sections.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Tiveri-ghotto</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Warow</i>, <i>Waraw</i>, <i>Warau</i>, or <i>Guarauno</i>.&mdash;These<span class="pgn"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+are the Indians of the Delta of the Orinoco,
+and the parts between that river and the Pomaroon.
+Their language is peculiar, but by no
+means without miscellaneous affinities. They are
+the fluviatile boatmen of South America. Their
+habit of taking up their residence in trees when
+the ground is flooded, has given both early and
+late writers an opportunity of enlarging upon
+their semi-arboreal habits.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Wapisianas</i> fall into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Wapisianas</i> Proper&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Atorai</i>, of which the <i>Taurai</i>, or <i>Dauri</i>
+(the same word under another form), and the extinct,
+or nearly extinct, <i>Amaripas</i> are divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Parauana</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Tarumas</i>, on the Upper Essequibo,
+have their probable affinities with the uninvestigated
+tribes of Central South America.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are
+those of St. Vincents. In no other West Indian
+islands are there any aborigines extant.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> <i>Dinni</i>, <i>tinni</i>, <i>din</i>, <i>tin</i>, &amp;c.=<i>man</i> in the Athabaskan
+tongues.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> Called also <i>Carriers</i>, <i>Nagail</i>, and <i>Chin Indians</i>; though
+whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> By no means to be confounded with the <i>Chepewyans</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas,
+Tuskaroras, and Hurons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the
+British Association," 1847, p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Thirty-eight.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have
+already been noticed.</p></div>
+</div>
+
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+By <span class="smcap">Robert Gordon Latham</span>, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College,
+Cambridge; Vice-President of the Ethnological Society of London;
+Corresponding Member of the Ethnological Society of New York. 8vo.
+illustrated, price 21<i>s.</i></p>
+
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+
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+Fishes, by Mr. Yarrell; the Birds' Eggs, by Mr. Hewitson; the Starfishes,
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+
+<hr class="adt" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, PATERNOSTER ROW.</big></p></div>
+
+<div class="trn">
+<p><big><b>Transcriber's Amendments:</b></big></p>
+
+<div class="bk2"><p>p. <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, fn. <a href="#Footnote_10_10">10</a>, 'Fallermayer' amended to <i>Fallmerayer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, 'Britany' amended to <i>Brittany</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, 'Notiti&aelig; ...' amended to <i>Notitia Utriusque Imperii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, 'Caffres' amended to <i>Kaffres</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, 'Woloffs' amended to <i>Wolofs</i>;<br />
+'Cabyles' amended to <i>Kabyles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, 'Avekoom' amended to <i>Avekvom</i>;<br />
+'Woloff' amended to <i>Wolof</i>;<br />
+'Bambarra' amended to <i>Bambara</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, 'Woloffs' amended to <i>Wolofs</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, 'languge' amended to <i>language</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, 'Yorriba' amended to <i>Yarriba</i>;<br />
+'Callabar' amended to <i>Calabar</i>;<br />
+'Mosketo' amended to <i>Mosquito</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, 'Amokosa' amended to <i>Amakosa</i>: '<i>The Amakosa.</i>&mdash;This'.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, 'Caffraria' amended to <i>Kaffraria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, 'Crawford' amended to <i>Crawfurd</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, 'Trangangetic' amended to <i>Transgangetic</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to <i>Crawfurd's Embassy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, 'Kamti' amended to <i>Khamti</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, 'ecstacy' amended to <i>ecstasy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, 'Pottaing' amended to <i>Potteang</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, 'Kuttak' amended to <i>Cuttack</i>;<br />
+'Penna' amended to <i>Pennu</i> (twice).</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, 'Cicacole' amended to <i>Chicacole</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, 'jackall' amended to <i>jackal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, 'Rajaship' amended to <i>Rajahship</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, 'Levitican' amended to <i>Levitical</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, 'Peshawer' amended to <i>Peshawar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to <i>Maha-Sohon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, 'Singalese' amended to <i>Singhalese</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, 'Binjarri' amended to <i>Brinjarri</i>;<br />
+'Telagu' amended to <i>Telugu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, 'Taremuki' amended to <i>Tarrem&uacute;ki</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, 'Bowri' amended to <i>Bhowri</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, 'Guzerat' amended to <i>Gujerat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, 'Skofi' amended to <i>Skoffi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, 'tatooing' amended to <i>tattooing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, 'tatooings' amended to <i>tattooings</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, 'Saskachewan' amended to <i>Saskatchewan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, 'tatoo' amended to <i>tattoo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, 'Caribis' amended to <i>Carab&iacute;si</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><big><b>Further Notes:</b></big></p>
+
+<div class="bk2"><p>p. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows '&Aacute;k&aacute;' and '&Aacute;bor' repositioned
+to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. T&aacute;ngkhul'
+(column), which originally read '&mdash;', has been amended to '11'.</p>
+
+<p>p. <a href="#Page_172">172-175</a>, corrections to extracts taken from <i>A History of the Sikhs</i>,
+by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.</p></div></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies
+and Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies and
+Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Ethnology of the British Colonies and Dependencies
+
+Author: Robert Gordon Latham
+
+Release Date: February 16, 2010 [EBook #31296]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Colin Bell, Stephen Blundell and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Archaic, dialect and variant spellings (including quoted proper
+    nouns) remain as printed, except where noted. Minor typographical
+    errors have been corrected without note; significant amendments have
+    been listed at the end of the text.
+
+    Greek text has been transliterated and appears between {braces}.
+
+    Non-standard characters have been transcribed as follows:
+
+      [oe], oe ligature;
+      [=a], [=u], macron over _a_ or _u_;
+      [)a], breve over _a_;
+      ['s], acute accent over _s_.
+
+
+
+
+                             THE
+                          ETHNOLOGY
+                             OF
+                    THE BRITISH COLONIES
+                             AND
+                        DEPENDENCIES.
+
+                             BY
+                 R. G. LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,
+ CORRESPONDING MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, NEW YORK,
+                          ETC. ETC.
+
+                          [Device]
+
+                           LONDON:
+              JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+
+                         M.DCCC.LI.
+
+
+
+
+              LONDON:
+ Printed by SAMUEL BENTLEY and CO.,
+      Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+                                                                    PAGE
+ Heligoland and the Frisians.--Gibraltar and the Spanish Stock.--
+ Malta.--The Ionian Islands.--The Channel Islands.                     1
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+ The Gambia Settlements.--Sierra Leone.--The Gold Coast.--The
+ Cape.--The Mauritius.--The Negroes of America.                       34
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+               BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+ Aden.--The Mongolian Variety.--The Monosyllabic Languages.--Hong
+ Kong.--The Tenasserim Provinces; Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim,
+ the Mergui Archipelago.--The Mon, Siamese, Avans, Kariens, and
+ Silong.--Arakhan.--Mugs, Khyens.--Chittagong, Tippera, and
+ Sylhet.--Kuki.--Kasia.--Cachars.--Assam.--Nagas.--Singpho.--Jili.
+ --Khamti.--Mishimi.--Abors and Bor-Abors.--Dufla.--Aka.--Muttucks
+ and Miri, and other Tribes of the Valley of Assam.--The Garo.--
+ Classification.--Mr. Brown's Tables.--The Bodo.--Dhimal.--Kocch.
+ --Lepchas of Sikkim.--Rawat of Kumaon.--Polyandria.--The Tamulian
+ Populations.--Rajmahali Mountaineers.--Kulis, Khonds, Goands,
+ Chenchwars.--Tudas, &c.--Bhils.--Waralis.--The Tamul, Telinga,
+ Kanara, and Malayalam Languages.                                     92
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+ The Sanskrit Language.--Its Relations to certain Modern Languages
+ of India; to the Slavonic and Lithuanic of Europe.--Inferences.--
+ Brahminism of the Puranas.--Of the Institutes of Menu.--Extract.
+ --Of the Vedas.--Extract.--Inferences.--The Hindus.--Sikhs.--
+ Biluchi.--Afghans.--Wandering Tribes.--Miscellaneous Populations.
+ --Ceylon.--Buddhism.--Devil-worship.--Vaddahs.                      150
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+ British Dependencies in the Malayan Peninsula.--The Oceanic Stock
+ and its Divisions.--The Malay, Semang, and Dyak Types.--The Orang
+ Binua.--Jakuns.--The Biduanda Kallang.--The Orang Sletar.--The
+ Sarawak Tribes.--The New Zealanders.--The Australians.--The
+ Tasmanians.                                                         203
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                        DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+ The Athabaskans of the Hudson's Bay Country.--The Algonkin Stock.
+ --The Iroquois.--The Sioux.--Assineboins.--The Eskimo.--The
+ Koluch.--The Nehanni.--Digothi.--The Atsina.--Indians of British
+ Oregon, Quadra's and Vancouver's Island.--Haidah.--Chimsheyan.--
+ Billichula.--Hailtsa.--Nutka.--Atna.--Kitunaha Indians.--
+ Particular Algonkin Tribes.--The Nascopi.--The Bethuck.--Numerals
+ from Fitz-Hugh Sound.--The Moskito Indians.--South American
+ Indians of British Guiana.--Caribs.--Warows.--Wapisianas.--
+ Tarumas.--Caribs of St. Vincent.--Trinidad.                         224
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The following pages represent a Course of Six Lectures delivered at the
+Royal Institution, Manchester, in the months of February and March of
+the present year; the matter being now laid before the public in a
+somewhat fuller and more systematic form than was compatible with the
+original delivery.
+
+
+
+
+         ETHNOLOGY
+            OF
+ THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN EUROPE.
+
+    HELIGOLAND AND THE FRISIANS.--GIBRALTAR AND THE SPANISH
+    STOCK.--MALTA.--THE IONIAN ISLANDS.--THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.
+
+
+_Heligoland._--We learn from a passage in the _Germania_ of Tacitus,
+that certain tribes agreed with each other in the worship of a goddess
+who was revered as _Earth the Mother_; that a sacred grove, in a sacred
+island, was dedicated to her; and that, in that grove, there stood a
+holy wagon, covered with a pall, and touched by the priest only. The
+goddess herself was drawn by heifers; and as long as she vouchsafed her
+presence among men, there was joy, and feasts, and hospitality; and
+peace amongst otherwise fierce tribes instead of war and violence. After
+a time, however, the goddess withdrew herself to her secret
+temple--satiated with the converse of mankind; and then the wagon, the
+pall, and the deity herself were bathed in the holy lake. The
+administrant slaves were sucked up by its waters. There was terror and
+there was ignorance; the reality being revealed to those alone who thus
+suddenly passed from life to death.
+
+Now we know, by name at least, five of the tribes who are thus connected
+by a common worship--mysterious and obscure as it is. They are the
+Reudigni, the Aviones, the Eudoses, the Suardones, and the Nuithones.
+
+Two others we know by something more than name--the Varini and the
+Langobardi.
+
+The eighth is our own parent stock--the _Angli_.
+
+Such is one of the earliest notices of the old creed of our German
+forefathers; and, fragmentary and indefinite as it is, it is one of the
+fullest which has reached us. I subjoin the original text, premising
+that, instead of _Herthum_, certain MSS. read _Nerthum_.
+
+"----Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis
+nationibus cincti, non per obsequium sed pr[oe]liis et periclitando tuti
+sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et _Angli_, et Varini, et Eudoses, et
+Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur: nec quidquam
+notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, Terram
+matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis,
+arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani Castum nemus, dicatumque in eo
+vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse
+penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis multa cum veneratione
+prosequitur. Laeti tunc dies, festa loca, quaecumque adventu hospitioque
+dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum; pax et
+quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam
+conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat; mox vehiculum et vestes, et,
+si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant,
+quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque
+ignorantia, quid sit id, quod tantum perituri vident."--"De Moribus
+Germanorum," 40.
+
+What connects the passage with the ethnology of Heligoland? Heligoland
+is, probably, the _island of the Holy Grove_. Its present name indicates
+this--_the holy land_. Its position in the main sea, or _Ocean_, does
+the same. So does its vicinity to the country of Germans.
+
+At the same time it must not be concealed from the reader that the Isle
+of Rugen, off the coast of Pomerania, has its claims. It is an
+island--but not an island of the _Ocean_. It is full of religious
+remains--but those remains are _Slavonic_ rather than _German_.
+
+I believe, for my own part, that the seat of the worship of _Earth the
+Mother_, was the island which we are now considering.
+
+In respect to its inhabitants, it must serve as a slight text for a long
+commentary. A population of about two thousand fishers; characterized,
+like the ancient Venetians, by an utter absence of horses, mules,
+ponies, asses, carts, wagons, or any of the ordinary applications of
+animal power to the purposes of locomotion, confined to a small rock,
+and but little interrupted with foreign elements, is, if considered in
+respect to itself alone, no great subject for either the ethnologist or
+the geographer. But what if its relations to the population of the
+continent be remarkable? What if the source of its population be other
+than that which, from the occupants of the nearest portion of the
+continent, we are prepared to expect? In this case, the narrow area of
+an isolated rock assumes an importance which its magnitude would never
+have created.
+
+The nearest part of the opposite continent is German--Cuxhaven, Bremen,
+and Hamburg, being all German towns. And what the towns are the country
+is also--or nearly so. It is German--which Heligoland is _not_.
+
+The Heligolanders are no Germans, but _Frisians_. I have lying before me
+the Heligoland version of _God save the Queen_. A Dutchman would
+understand this, easier than a Low German, a Low German easier than an
+Englishman, and (I _think_) an Englishman easier than a German of
+Bavaria. The same applies to another sample of the Heligoland muse--_the
+contented Heligolander's wife_ (_Dii tofreden Hjelgeluennerin_), a pretty
+little song in Hettema's collection of Frisian poems; with which,
+however, the native literature ends. There is plenty of Frisian verse in
+general; but little enough of the particular Frisian of Heligoland.
+
+A difference like that between the Frisians of Heligoland and the
+Germans of Hanover, is always suggestive of an ethnological alternative;
+since it is a general rule, supported both by induction and common
+sense, that, except under certain modifying circumstances, islands
+derive their inhabitants from the nearest part of the nearest continent.
+When, however, the populations differ, one of two views has to be taken.
+Either some more distant point than the one which geographical proximity
+suggests has supplied the original occupants, or a change has taken
+place on the part of one or both of the populations since the period of
+the original migration.
+
+Which has been the case here? The latter. The present Germans of the
+coast between the Elbe and Weser are not the Germans who peopled
+Heligoland, nor yet the descendants of them. Allied to them they are;
+inasmuch as Germany is a wide country, and German a comprehensive term;
+but they are not the same. The two peoples, though like, are different.
+
+Of what sort, then, were the men and women that the present Germans of
+the Oldenburg and Hanoverian coast have displaced and superseded? Let us
+investigate. Whoever rises from the perusal of those numerous notices of
+the ancient Germans which we find in the classical writers, to the usual
+tour of Rhenish Germany, will find a notable contrast between the
+natives of that region as they _were_ and as they _are_. His mind may be
+full of their _golden_ hair, expecting to find it _flaxen_ at least.
+Blue and grey eyes, too, he will expect to preponderate over the black
+and hazel. This is what he will have read about, and what he will _not_
+find--at least along the routine lines of travel. As little will there
+be of massive muscularity in the limbs, and height in the stature. Has
+the type changed, or have the old records been inaccurate? Has the wrong
+part of Germany been described? or has the contrast between the Goth and
+the Italian engendered an exaggeration of the differences? It is no part
+of the present treatise to enter upon this question. It is enough to
+indicate the difference between the actual German of the greater part of
+Germany in respect to the colour of his hair, eyes, and skin, and the
+epithets of the classical writers.
+
+But all is not bare from Dan to Beersheba. The German of the old
+Germanic type is to be found if sought for. His locality, however, is
+away from the more frequented parts of his country. Still it is the part
+which Tacitus knew best, and which he more especially described. This is
+the parts on the Lower rather than the Upper Rhine; and it is the parts
+about the Ems and Weser rather than those of the Rhine at all--sacred as
+is this latter stream to the patriotism of the Prussian and Suabian. It
+is Lower rather than Upper Germany, Holland rather than Germany at all,
+and Friesland rather than any of the other Dutch provinces. It is
+Westphalia, and Oldenburg, as much, perhaps, as Friesland. The tract
+thus identified extends far into the Cimbric Peninsula,--so that the
+Jutlander, though a Dane in tongue, is a Low German in appearance.
+
+The preceding observations are by no means the present writer's, who has
+no wish to be responsible for the apparent paradox that the _Germans in
+Germany are not Germanic_. It is little more than a repetition of one of
+Prichard's,[1] in which he is supported by both Niebuhr and the
+Chevalier Bunsen. The former expressly states that the yellow or red
+hair, blue eyes, and light complexion has now become uncommon, whilst
+the latter has "often looked in vain for the auburn or golden locks and
+the light cerulean eyes of the old Germans, and never verified the
+picture given by the ancients of his countrymen, till he visited
+Scandinavia; there he found himself surrounded by the Germans of
+Tacitus."
+
+For _Scandinavia_, I would simply substitute the _fen districts of
+Friesland, Oldenburg, Hanover, and Holstein_--all of them the old area
+of the Frisian.
+
+Such is the physiognomy. What are the other peculiarities of the
+Frisian? His language, his distribution, his history.
+
+The Frisian of Friesland, is not the Dutch of Holland; nor yet a mere
+provincial dialect of it. Instead of the infinitive moods and plural
+numbers ending in -_n_ as in Holland, the former end in -_a_, the latter
+in -_ar_. And so they did when the language was first reduced to
+writing,--which it has been for nearly a thousand years. So they did
+when the laws of the Old Frisian republic were composed, and when the
+so-called _Old_ Frisian was the language of the country. So they did in
+the sixteenth century, when the popular poet, Gysbert Japicx, wrote in
+the _Middle_ Frisian; and so they do now--when, under the auspices of
+Postumus and Hettema, we have Frisian translations of Shakespeare's "As
+You Like it," "Julius Caesar," and "Cymbeline."
+
+Now the oldest Frisian is older than the oldest Dutch; in other words,
+of the two languages it was the former which was first reduced to
+writing. Yet the doctrine that it is the mother-tongue of the Dutch, is
+as inaccurate as the opposite notion of its being a mere provincial
+dialect. I state this, because I doubt whether the Dutch forms in -_n_,
+could well be evolved out of the Frisian in -_r_, or -_a_. The -_n_
+belongs to the older form,--which at one time was common to both
+languages, but which in the Frisian became omitted as early as the tenth
+century; whereas, in the Dutch, it remains up to the present day.
+
+If the Frisian differ from the Dutch, it differs still more from the
+proper Low German dialects of Westphalia, Oldenburg, and Holstein; all
+of which have the differential characteristics of the Dutch in a greater
+degree than the Dutch itself.
+
+The closest likeness to the Frisian has ceased to exist as a language.
+It has disappeared on the Continent. It has changed in the island which
+adopted it. That island is Great Britain.
+
+No existing nation, as tested by its language, is so near the Angle of
+England as the Frisian of Friesland. This, to the Englishman, is the
+great element of its interest.
+
+The history of the Frisian Germans must begin with their present
+distribution. They constitute the present agricultural population of the
+province of Friesland; so that if Dutch be the language of the towns, it
+is Frisian which we find in the villages and lone farm-houses. And this
+is the case with that remarkable series of islands which runs like a row
+of breakwaters from the Helder to the Weser, and serves as a front to
+the continent behind them. Such are Ameland, Terschelling, Wangeroog,
+and the others--each with its dialect or sub-dialect.
+
+But beyond this, the continuity of the range of language is broken.
+Frisian is _not_ the present dialect of Groningen. Nor yet of Oldenburg
+generally--though in one or two of the fenniest villages of that duchy a
+remnant of it still continues to be spoken; and is known to philologists
+and antiquarians as the _Saterland_ dialect.
+
+It was spoken in parts of East Friesland as late as the middle of the
+last century--but only in parts; the Low German, or Platt-Deutsch, being
+the current tongue of the districts around.
+
+It is spoken--as already stated--in Heligoland.
+
+And, lastly, it is spoken in an isolated locality as far north as the
+Duchy of Sleswick, in the neighbourhood of Husum and Bredsted.
+
+It was these Frisians of Sleswick who alone, during the late struggle of
+Denmark against Germany, looked upon the contest with the same
+indifference as the frogs viewed the battles of the oxen. They were not
+Germans to favour the aggressors from the South, nor Danes to feel the
+patriotism of the Northmen. They were neither one nor the other--simply
+Frisians, members of an isolated and disconnected brotherhood.
+
+The epithet _free_ originated with the Frisians of Friesland Proper, and
+it has adhered to them. With their language they have preserved many of
+their old laws and privileges, and from first to last, have always
+contrived that the authority of the sovereigns of the Netherlands should
+sit lightly on them.
+
+Nevertheless, they are a broken and disjointed population; inasmuch, as
+the natural inference from their present distribution is the doctrine
+that, at some earlier period, they were spread over the whole of the
+sea-coast from Holland to Jutland, in other words, that they were the
+oldest inhabitants of Friesland, Oldenburg, Lower Hanover, and Holstein.
+If so, they must have been the _Frisii_ of Tacitus. No one doubts this.
+They must also have been the _Chauci_ of that writer, the German form of
+whose names, as we know from the oldest Anglo-Saxon poems, was _Hocing_.
+This is not so universally admitted; nevertheless, it is difficult to
+say who the Chauci were if they were not Frisians, or why we find
+Frisians to the north of the Elbe, unless the population was at one time
+continuous.
+
+When was this continuity disturbed? From the earliest times the
+sea-coast of Germany seems to have been Frisian, and from the earliest
+times the tribes of the interior seem to have moved from the inland
+country towards the sea. Their faces were turned towards Britain; or, if
+not towards Britain, towards France, or the Baltic. I believe, then,
+that as early as 100 B.C. the displacement of some of the occupants of
+the Frisian area had begun; this being an inference from the statement
+of Caesar, that the Batavians of Holland were, in his own time,
+considered to have been an immigrant population. From these Batavians
+have come the present Dutch, and as the present Dutch differ from the
+Frisians of A.D. 1851, so did their respective great ancestors in B.C.
+100--there, or thereabouts. But the encroachment of the Dutch upon the
+Frisian was but slow. The map tells us this. Just as in some parts of
+Great Britain we have _Shiptons_ and _Charltons_, whereas in others the
+form is _Skipton_ and _Carlton_; just as in Scotland they talk of the
+_kirk_, and in England of the _church_;[2] and just as such differences
+are explained by the difference of dialect on the part of the original
+occupants, so do we see in Holland that certain places have the names in
+a Dutch, and others in a Frisian form. The Dutch compounds of _man_ are
+like the English, and end in -_n_. The Frisians never end so. They drop
+the consonant, and end in -_a_; as _Hettema_, _Halberts-ma_, &c.
+Again--all three languages--English, Dutch, and Frisian--have numerous
+compounds of the word _ham_=_home_, as _Threekingham_, _Eastham_,
+_Petersham_, &c. In English the form is what we have just seen. In
+Holland the termination is -_hem_, as in _Arn-hem_, _Berg-hem_. In
+Frisian the vowel is _u_, and the _h_ is omitted altogether, _e.g._,
+_Dokk-um_, _Borst-um_, &c.
+
+Bearing this in mind, we may take up a map of the Netherlands. Nine
+places out of ten in Friesland end in -_um_, and none in -_hem_. In
+Groningen the proportion is less; and in Guelderland and Overijssel, it
+is less still. Nevertheless, as far south as the Maas, and in parts of
+the true Dutch Netherlands, where no approach to the Frisian language
+can now be discovered, a certain per-centage of Frisian forms for
+geographical localities occurs.[3]
+
+The remainder of the displacement of the Frisians was, most probably,
+effected by the introduction of the Low Germans of the empire of
+Charlemagne, into the present countries of Oldenburg and Hanover; and I
+believe that the same series of conquests, which then broke up the
+speakers of the Frisian, annihilated the Germanic representatives of the
+Anglo-Saxons of England; since it is an undeniable fact that of the
+numerous dialects of the country called Lower Saxony, all (with the
+exception of the Frisian) are forms of the Platt-Deutsch, and none of
+them descendants of the Anglo-Saxon. Hence, as far as the language
+represents the descent, whatever we Anglo-Saxons may be in Great
+Britain, America, Hindostan, Australia, New Zealand, or Africa, we are
+the least of our kith and kin in Germany. And we can afford to be so.
+Otherwise, if we were a petty people, and given to ethnological
+sentimentality, we might talk about the Franks of Charlemagne, as the
+Celts talk of us; for, without doubt, the same Franks either
+exterminated or denationalized us in the land of our birth, and
+displaced the language of Alfred and AElfric in the country upon which it
+first reflected a literature.
+
+There are no absolute descendants of the ancestors of the English in
+their ancestral country of Germany; the Germans that eliminated them
+being but step-brothers at best. But there is something of the sort. The
+conquest that destroyed the Angles, broke up the Frisians. Each shared
+each other's ruin. This gives the common bond of misfortune. But there
+is more than this. It is quite safe to say that the Saxons and
+Frisians[4] were closely--_very_ closely--connected in respect to all
+the great elements of ethnological affinity--language, traditions,
+geographical position, history. Nor is this confined to mere
+generalities. The opinion, first, I believe, indicated by Archbishop
+Usher, and recommended to further consideration by Mr. Kemble, that the
+Frisians took an important part in the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Great
+Britain is gaining ground. True, indeed, it is that the current texts
+from Beda and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle make no mention of them. They
+speak only of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. And true it is, that no
+provincial dialect has been discovered in England which stands in the
+same contrast to the languages of the parts about it, as the Frisian
+does to the Dutch and Low German. Yet it is also true that, according to
+some traditions, Hengist was a Frisian hero. And it is equally true
+that, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, we find more than one incidental
+mention of Frisians in England--their presence being noticed as a matter
+of course, and without any reference to their introduction. This is
+shown in the following extract:--"That same year, the armies from among
+the East-Anglians, and from among the North-Humbrians, harassed the land
+of the West-Saxons chiefly, most of all by their _aescs_, which they had
+built many years before. Then King Alfred commanded long ships to be
+built to oppose the aescs; they were full-nigh twice as long as the
+others; some had sixty oars, and some had more; they were both swifter
+and steadier, and also higher than the others. They were shapen neither
+like the Frisian nor the Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they
+would be most efficient. Then some time in the same year, there came six
+ships to Wight, and there did much harm, as well as in Devon, and
+elsewhere along the sea-coast. Then the king commanded nine of the new
+ships to go thither, and they obstructed their passage from the port
+towards the outer sea. Then went they with three of their ships out
+against them; and three lay in the upper part of the port in the dry;
+the men were gone from them ashore. Then took they two of the three
+ships at the outer part of the port, and killed the men, and the other
+ship escaped; in that also the men were killed except five; they got
+away because the other ships were aground. They also were aground very
+disadvantageously, three lay aground on that side of the deep on which
+the Danish ships were aground, and all the rest upon the other side, so
+that no one of them could get to the others. But when the water had
+ebbed many furlongs from the ships, the Danish men went from their three
+ships to the other three which were left by the tide on their side, and
+then they there fought against them. There was slain Lucumon the king's
+reeve, and Wulfheard the Frisian, and AEbbe the Frisian, and AEthelhere
+the Frisian, and AEthelferth the king's _geneat_, and of all the men,
+Frisians and English, seventy-two; and of the Danish men one hundred and
+twenty."
+
+Lastly, we have the evidence of Procopius that "three numerous nations
+inhabit Britain,--the Angles, the Frisians, and the Britons."[5]
+
+Whatever interpretation we may put upon the preceding extracts, it is
+certain that the Frisians are the nearest German representatives of our
+Germanic ancestors; whilst it is not uninteresting to find that the
+little island of Heligoland, is the only part of the British Empire
+where the ethnological and political relations coincide.
+
+_Gibraltar._--This isolated possession serves as a text for the
+ethnology of Spain; and there is no country wherein the investigation is
+more difficult.
+
+It is difficult, if we look at the analysis of the present population,
+and attempt to ascertain the proportion of its different ingredients.
+There is Moorish blood, and there is Gothic, Roman, and Ph[oe]nician;
+some little Greek, and, older than any, the primitive and original
+Iberic. Perhaps, too, there is a Celtic element,--at least such is the
+inference from the term _Celtiberian_. Yet it is doubtful whether it be
+a true one; and, even if it be, there still stands over the question
+whether the _Celtic_ or the _Iberic_ element be the older.
+
+When this is settled, the hardest problem of all remains behind; _viz._,
+the ethnological position of the Iberians. What they were, in
+themselves, we partially know from history; and what their descendants
+are we know also from their language. But we only know them as an
+isolated branch of the human species. Their _relation_ to the
+neighbouring families is a mystery. Reasons may be given for connecting
+them with the Celts of Gaul; reasons for connecting them with the
+Africans of the other side of the Straits; and reasons for connecting
+them with tribes and families so distant in place, and so different in
+manners as the Finns of Finland, and the Laps of Lapland. Nay
+more,--affinities have been found between their language and the Hebrew,
+Arabic, and Syriac; between it and the Georgian; between it and half the
+tongues of the Old World. Even in the forms of speech of America,
+_analogies_ have been either found or fancied.
+
+Be this, however, as it may, the oldest inhabitants of the Spanish
+peninsula were the different tribes of the Iberians proper, and the
+Celtiberians; the first being the most easily disposed of. They it was,
+whose country was partially colonized by Ph[oe]nician colonists; either
+directly from Tyre and Sidon, or indirectly from Carthage. They it was
+who, at a somewhat later period, came in contact with the Greeks of
+Marseilles and their own town of _Emporia_. They it was who could not
+fail to receive some intermixture of African blood; whether it were from
+Africans crossing over on their own account, or from the Libyans,
+Gaetulians, and Mauritanians of the Carthaginian levies.
+
+And now the great western peninsula becomes the battle-ground for Rome
+and Carthage; the theatre of the Scipios on the one side, and the great
+family of the Barcas on the other. On Iberian ground does Hannibal swear
+his deadly and undying enmity to Rome. At this time, the numerous
+primitive tribes of Spain may boast a civilization equal to that of the
+most favoured spots of the earth,--Greece, and the parts between the
+Nile, the Euphrates and the Mediterranean alone being excepted. As
+tested by their agricultural mode of life, their commercial and mining
+industry, their susceptibility of discipline as soldiers, and, above
+all, by the size and number of their cities, the Iberian of Spain is on
+the same level with the Celt of Gaul, and the Celt of Gaul on that of
+the Italian of Italy,--_i.e._, _as far as the civilization of the latter
+is his own, and not of Greek origin_. But this is a point of European
+rather than Spanish ethnology.
+
+That the obstinate spirit of resistance to organized armies by means of
+a _guerilla_ warfare, the savage patriotism which suggests such
+expressions as _war even to the knife_, and the endurance behind stone
+walls, which characterizes the modern Spaniards, is foreshadowed in the
+times of their earliest history, has often been remarked, and that
+truly. Numantia is an early Saragossa, Saragossa a modern Numantia.
+Viriathus has had innumerable counterparts. Where the indomitable
+Cantabrian held out against the power of Rome, the Biscayan of the year
+1851 adheres to his privileges and his language; and what the Cantabrian
+was to the Roman, the Asturian was to the Moor. Both trusted their
+freedom to their impracticable mountains and stubborn spirits--and kept
+it accordingly. It is an easy matter to refer the peculiarities of the
+Spanish character to the infusion of Oriental blood; and with some of
+them it may be the case. But with many of them, the reference is a false
+one. Half the Spanish character was Iberic and Lusitanian before either
+Jew or Saracen had seen the Rock of Gibraltar.
+
+Of the early Spanish religion, we know but little. A remarkable passage
+in Strabo speaks to their literature. They had an _alphabet_. This is
+known from coins and inscriptions. And it was of foreign origin--Greek
+or Ph[oe]nician. This nothing but the most inconsiderate and uncritical
+patriotism can deny. Denied, however, it has been; and the indigenous
+and independent evolution of an alphabet has been claimed; the
+particular tribe to which it has more especially been ascribed being the
+_Turdetani_. These--and the passage I am about to quote is the passage
+of Strabo just alluded to--are "put forward as the wisest of the Iberi,
+and they have the use of letters; and they have records of ancient
+history, and poems, and metrical laws for six thousand years--as they
+say."[6]
+
+Now, whatever may be the doubts implied by the last three words of this
+extract, the evidence is to the effect that the old Iberians were a
+lettered nation; the antiquity of their civilization being another
+question. To modify our scepticism on the point, the text has been
+tampered with, and it has been proposed to read _poems_ ({epon}) instead
+of years ({eton}). The change, to be sure, is slight enough--that of a
+single letter--from _p_ ({p}) to _t_ ({t}); nevertheless, as it is more
+than cautious criticism will allow, the reading must stand as it is, and
+the claim of the Turdetanians must be for a literature nearly as old as
+the supposed age of the world in the current century,--a long date, and
+a date which would be improbable, even if we divided it by twelve, and
+rendered {etos} by _month_ instead of _year_. It denotes either some
+shorter period (perhaps a day) or nothing at all.
+
+So much for the Iberians; of which the Lusitanians of Portugal were a
+branch; and of which there were several divisions and subdivisions
+involving considerable varieties both of manners and language. In
+respect to the latter there is the special evidence of Strabo that their
+tongues and alphabets differed. And so did their mythologies. The
+Callaici had the reputation of being _atheists_; whilst the Celtiberi
+worshipped an anonymous God,[7] at the full of the moon, with feasts and
+dances.
+
+But who were the Celtiberi? I have already said that there were
+difficulties upon this point. The name makes them a mixed people; half
+Celt and half Iberic. If so, the French influence in the Spanish
+Peninsula was as great in the time of Hannibal, as it was wished to be
+in the time of Louis XIV.
+
+With the exception of Niebuhr, the chief authorities have considered the
+Iberi as the aborigines, and the Celts as emigrants from Gaul. To this,
+however, Niebuhr took exceptions. He considered the warlike character of
+the Iberians; and this made him unwilling to think that any invader from
+the north had displaced them. And he considered the geographical
+_distribution_ of the Celtiberi. This was not in the fertile plains nor
+along the banks of fertilizing rivers, nor yet in the districts of the
+golden corn and the precious wool of Hispania, but in the rougher
+mountain tracts, in the quarters whereto an aboriginal inhabitant would
+be more likely to retire, than an invading conqueror to covet, I admit
+the difficulty implied in his objection; but I admit it only as a
+_presumption_--against which there is a decided preponderance of
+material facts.
+
+In the first place, there are the oldest names of the geographical
+localities throughout Spain. These, as shown by the well-known monograph
+of Humboldt, are _not_ Celtic, and are _Iberic_.
+
+In the next place, the Celtic frontier was by no means so near the
+geographical boundary of the Peninsula as it is often supposed to have
+been. Instead of the Celtic of Gaul reaching the Pyrenees, the Iberic of
+Spain reached the Loire--so that the province of Aquitania, although
+Gallic in politics, was Iberic in ethnology. This, again, is shown by
+Humboldt.
+
+For my own part, instead of discussing the relation of the Celts of
+Celtiberia to the other inhabitants of Spain, I would open a new
+question, and investigate the grounds upon which we believe in an
+intermixture at all. Whatever respect we may pay to the statements of
+the classical writers, the _name_ itself is not conclusive; since it
+would be just as likely to be given from an approach on the part of an
+Iberic population to the Celtic manners, or from the adoption of any
+_supposed_ Celtic characteristic, as from absolute ethnological
+intermixture. Like modern observers, the ancient writers were too fond
+of gratuitously assuming an intermixture of blood for the explanation
+of the results of common physical or social conditions. Hence--without
+pressing my opinion on the reader--I confine myself to an expression of
+doubt as to the existence of Celts amongst the Celtiberi _at all_.
+
+But this only simplifies the question as to the ethnological position of
+the Iberic variety of the human species. It does not even suggest an
+answer. They were the aborigines of Spain. They are the ancestors of the
+present Biscayans. Their tongue survives in the north-west provinces of
+Spain, and in the north-east corner of France. It _has no recognized
+affinity with any known tongue; and it has undeniable points of contrast
+with all the languages of the countries around._
+
+Yet it is only by means of the Basque language that the problem can be
+attempted. The physical conformation of the still extant Iberians, has
+nothing definitely characteristic about it. The ancient mythology has
+died away. The tribes most immediately allied have ceased to be other
+than unmixed. So the language alone remains--and that has yet to find
+its interpreter.
+
+An Iberic basis--Greek, Ph[oe]nician, and Mauritanian
+intermixtures--possibly a Celtic element--Roman sufficient to change the
+language through four-fifths of the Peninsula--Gothic blood introduced
+by the followers of Euric--Arabian influences, second in importance to
+those of Rome only--such is the analysis of ethnological elements of the
+Spanish stock. The proportions, of course, differ in different parts of
+the Peninsula, and, although they are nowhere ascertained, it is
+reasonable to suppose that the Arab blood increases as we go southwards,
+and the Gothic and Iberic as we approach the Pyrenees. This makes
+Gibraltar the most Moorish part of Europe; and such I believe it to be.
+
+_Malta._--When we have subtracted the English, Italians, Greeks, and
+other nations of the Levant from the population of Malta, there still
+remain the primitive islanders, with their peculiar language.
+
+Now this language is a form of the Arabic; and, with the exception of
+some of the dialects of Syria, it is the only instance of that language
+in the mouth of a Christian population. So thoroughly are the language
+and the religion of the Koran co-extensive.
+
+At what period this tongue found its way to Malta is undetermined. As
+compared with any of the present languages of the island it is
+_ancient_. But it is not certain that, though old, it is the earliest.
+Carthaginians may have preceded the Arabs; Greeks the Carthaginians;
+and, possibly, Sicanians, or the earliest occupants of Sicily, the
+Greeks. I am unable, however, to carry my reader beyond the simple fact
+of the _language being Arabic_.
+
+The only other Arabic dependency of Great Britain is Aden.[8]
+
+_The Ionian Islands._--The reader may have remarked the peculiar
+character of European ethnology. It consists chiefly in the _analysis_
+of the component parts of particular populations; and this it
+investigates so exclusively as to leave no room for the description of
+manners, customs, physiognomy, and the like--paramount in importance as
+these matters are when we come to the other quarters of the world. There
+are two reasons for this difference. First--the peculiarities of the
+European nations are by no means of the same extent and character with
+those of the ruder families of mankind. A similar civilization, and a
+similar religion, have effected a remarkable amount of uniformity; and,
+hence, the differences are those that the historian deals with more
+appropriately than the ethnologist. Secondly--such external and palpable
+differences as exist are generally known and appreciated. The
+_analysis_ of blood, or stock, which, partially, accounts for them, is
+less completely understood.
+
+Hence, in treating of the Maltese, there was no description of the
+Arabic stock at all. All that was stated was a reason for believing that
+the Maltese belonged to it. Such also, to a great degree, was the case
+with the Gibraltar population, and the Heligolanders. And such will be
+the case with the Ionian Islanders. It will not be thought necessary to
+enlarge upon the Greeks; it will only be requisite to ask how far the
+group in question is Grecian.
+
+The very oldest population of the Ionian Islands I believe to have been
+_barbarous_--a term which, in the present classical localities, is
+convenient.
+
+In the smaller islands, such as Ithaca and Zacynthus, the population had
+become Hellenized at the time of the composition of the Homeric poems.
+In Corcyra, on the other hand, the original barbarism lasted longer.
+Such, at least, is the way in which I interpret the passages in the
+Odyssey concerning the Phaeacians (who were certainly not Greek), and the
+later language of Thucydides respecting the relations of the Corinthian
+colonies of Epidamnus, and Corcyra. The whole context leads to the
+belief that, originally, the {apoikoi} were Greeks in contact with a
+population which was _not_ Greek.
+
+In respect to the stock to which these early and ante-Hellenic
+islanders belonged, the presumption is in favour of its having been the
+Illyrian; a stock known only in its probable remains--the Skipitar
+(Albanians, or Arnaouts) of Albania.
+
+Time, however, made them all equally Hellenic, a result which was,
+probably, completed before the decline of Greek independence; since
+which epoch there have been the following elements of intermixture:--
+
+1. Albanian blood, from the opposite coast.
+
+2. Slavonic, from Dalmatia.
+
+3. Italian, from Italy.
+
+4. Turk--I have no pretence to the minute ethnological knowledge which
+would enable me even to guess at the proportions.
+
+Upon the whole, however, I believe the Ionian islanders to be what their
+language represents them--Greek. At the same time they are Greeks of an
+exceedingly mixed blood.[9]
+
+Again--of the foreign elements I imagine the Italian to be the chief.
+This, however, is an impression rather than a matured opinion.
+
+The Slavonic element, too, is likely to be considerable. The Byzantine
+historians speak of numerous and permanent settlements, during the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, both in Thessaly, and in the Morea;
+statements which the frequency of Slavonic names for Greek geographical
+localities confirms.[10] Neither, however, outweighs the undoubted
+Hellenic character of the language, which is still the representative of
+the great medium of the fathers of literature and philosophy.
+
+_The Channel Islands._--As Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Sark, are no
+parts of Great Britain, and are, nevertheless, European, I make a brief
+mention of them; although they are neither colonies nor dependencies:
+indeed, in strict history, Great Britain is a dependency of theirs.
+
+They are _Norman_ rather than _French_, and the illustration of this
+distinction, which will re-appear when we come to the Canadas--concludes
+the chapter.
+
+The _earliest_ population of France was twofold--Celtic for the north,
+Iberic for the south.
+
+Its _second_ population was Roman.
+
+Its language is Roman--all that remains of the old tongues of the tribes
+which Caesar conquered being (1) certain words in the present French,
+(2) the Breton of Brittany, which is closely akin to the Welsh Celtic,
+and (3) the Basque dialects of Gascony, which is Iberic.
+
+Now whether the old Gallic blood be as fully displaced by that of the
+Roman conquerors, as the old Gallic language has been displaced by the
+Latin is uncertain. It is only certain that the old and indigenous
+elements of the French nation, however indeterminate in amount--were not
+of a uniform character, _i.e._, neither wholly Celtic, nor wholly
+Iberic; but Celtic for one part of the country, and Iberic for another.
+
+The ancient tribes of Normandy were _Celtic_. Hence, when the third
+element of the present Norman population was introduced, all that was
+not Italian was Welsh--just as it was in Picardy and Orleans, and just
+as it was _not_ in Gascony and Poitou. _There_ the old element was
+Iberic.
+
+The _third element_--just alluded to--was Germanic; Germanic of
+different kinds, but chiefly Frank or Burgundian.
+
+The _fourth_ great element was the Norse or Scandinavian; introduced by
+the so-called _Sea-kings_ of Denmark and Norway in the ninth and tenth
+centuries. These, as the empire of Charlemagne declined, insulted and
+dismembered it. They converted Neustria in _Normandy_=_the country of
+the Northmen_. The exact amount of their influence has not been
+ascertained; nor is the investigation easy. The process, however, by
+which we measured the original extent of the Frisian area is applicable
+to that of the Northmen. There are Norse names for French localities. Of
+these the most important are the compounds of -_tot_, -_fleur_, and
+-_bec_; like Yve-_tot_, Har-_fleur_, and Caude-_bec_.
+
+ FRENCH.    NORSE.    ENGLISH.
+
+  -tot       toft     _village_.
+  -fleur     floet     _stream_.
+  -bec       beck     _brook_.[11]
+
+Names of places thus ending are almost exclusively limited to Normandy;
+occurring, even there, most numerously within a few miles of either the
+sea or the Seine.
+
+Furthermore, there is a fresh element suggested by a term of the
+"Notitia Utriusque Imperii," a document of the latter end of the fourth
+century. This is _Litus Saxonicum per Britannias_, a tract extending
+from the Wash to Portsmouth. Now the opposite shore of the continent was
+a _litus Saxonicum_ also; within which lay Normandy. I believe that
+these Saxons were part of the same branch of Germans which invaded
+England; in other words, that portions of France, like portions of
+England, were _Anglicized_; the two processes differing in respect to
+their extent and duration. What was general and permanent on the
+island, was partial and temporary on the continent. That there were
+Saxons at Bayeux in the tenth century is asserted by express evidence.
+
+Taking in the account the preceding invasions, and remembering that,
+both from Germany and Italy, Normandy is one of the most distant of the
+French provinces, we arrive at the following analysis.
+
+The Channel Islanders are what the Normans are.
+
+The Normans are Romanized Celts; the Roman element being somewhat less
+than it is elsewhere.
+
+The Frank and Burgundian elements are also less.
+
+But a Saxon element is greater.
+
+And a Norse element is pre-eminently Norman.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] "Natural History of Man," p. 197.
+
+[2] The form in _c_ and _sk_ (_Skipton_ and _Carlton_) being of Danish,
+whilst those in _ch_ and _sh_ are of Anglo-Saxon origin.--_See_
+"Quarterly Review," No. CLXIV.
+
+[3] The details of this investigation are given in full in the present
+writer's "Taciti Germania with Ethnological notes," now in course of
+publication.
+
+[4] I include in this term the so-called old Saxons of Westphalia.
+
+[5] The original passage is as follows:--"{Brittian de ten neson ethne
+tria polyanthropotata echousi, basileus te heis auton hekasto
+ephesteken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi toutois Angiloi te kai
+Phrissones kai hoi te neso homonymoi Brittones. Tosaute de he tonde ton
+ethnon polyanthropia phainetai ousa hoste ana pan etos kata pollous
+enthende metanistamenoi xyn gynaixi kai paisin es Phrangous
+chorousin.}"--Procop. B. G. iv. 20.
+
+Reasons which have induced me to go farther than any previous writer in
+respect to the importance of the Frisian element in the Anglo-Saxon
+invasion, and to believe that instead of _Saxon_ being a native German
+name for any portion of the Germanic population, it was only a Celtic
+and Roman term for the Germans of the sea-coast, and (amongst these) for
+the Frisians most especially, are given, at large, in my ethnological
+edition of the "Germania of Tacitus."
+
+[6] {Sophotatoi d' exetazontai ton Iberon houtoi, kai grammatike
+chrontai; kai tes palaias mnemes echousi ta syngrammata, kai poiemata
+kai nomous emmetrous hexakischilion eton, hos phasi.}
+
+[7] This was probably the case with the Callaici.
+
+[8] The famous Knighthood of Malta--_without fear_, but (though,
+perhaps, the best of its class) not _without reproach_, has no place
+here. Its ethnology belongs to the different countries which it
+dignified by its valour, or dishonoured by its profligacy.
+
+[9] This I believe to have been the case with the ancient Greeks also;
+though the proof would require an elaborate monograph.
+
+[10] The two together have led to a doctrine which has been best
+developed by Fallmerayer. It is this--_that the modern Greeks are
+Sclavonians_. The Russian school are the chief believers of this. In the
+few countries where ethnology is scientific rather than political, the
+more moderate opinion of the modern Greeks being a mixed stock prevails.
+
+[11] Or _beck_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AFRICA.
+
+    THE GAMBIA SETTLEMENTS.--SIERRA LEONE.--THE GOLD COAST.--THE
+    CAPE.--THE MAURITIUS.--THE NEGROES OF AMERICA.
+
+
+_The Gambia._--All our settlements on the Gambia are in the Mandingo
+country.
+
+Of all the true and unequivocal Negroes, the Mandingos are the most
+civilized; the basis of their civilization being Arab, and their
+religion that of the Koran. Hence, they have priests, or Marabouts, the
+use of the Arabic alphabet, and a monotheistic creed.
+
+Of all the Negroes, too, the Mandingos are the most commercial, not as
+mere slave-dealers, but as truly industrial merchants.
+
+Of all the families of the African stock, with the exception of the
+Kaffres, the Mandingo is the most widely spread. It also falls into
+numerous divisions and subdivisions. Hence the term has a twofold power.
+Sometimes it is a generic name for a large group; sometimes the
+designation of a particular section of that group. The Mandingos of the
+Lower Gambia are Mandingos in the restricted meaning of the word.
+
+For the Mandingo tribes, when we use the term in a general sense, the
+most convenient classification is into the _Mahometan_ and the _Pagan_.
+That this division should exist is natural; since, with the exception of
+the Wolofs, the Mandingos are the most northern of all the western
+Negroes, and, consequently, those who are most in contact with the
+Mahometan Arabs, and the equally Mahometan Kabyles of Barbary and the
+Great Desert,--a fact sufficient to account for the monotheistic creeds
+of the northern tribes.
+
+As for the Paganism of the others, we must remember how far southwards
+and inland the same great stock extends--indefinitely towards the
+interior, and as far as the back of the Ashanti country, in the
+direction of the equator.
+
+This prepares us for finding Mandingos at our next settlement.
+
+_Sierra Leone._--The native populations which encircle this settlement
+are two--the _Timmani_ towards the north, and _Bullom_ towards the
+south.
+
+Both are Negroes of the most typical kind, in respect to their physical
+conformation.
+
+Both are Pagans.
+
+Both speak what seem to be mutually unintelligible languages, but which
+have an undoubted relationship to each other, and to the numerous
+Mandingo dialects as well. It is this which induces me to place them in
+the same section with the more civilized Africans of the Gambia.
+
+It is safe to say that they are amongst the rudest members of the stock;
+indeed it is only in the eyes of the etymologist that they are Mandingo
+at all. Practically, they, and several tribes like them, are Mandingo,
+in the way that a wolf is a dog, or a goat a sheep.
+
+The Bullom and Timmani are the frontagers to Sierra Leone; and it was
+with Bullom and Timmani potentates that the land of the settlement was
+bargained for. The settlers themselves are of different origin. Mixed
+beyond all other populations of Africa, the occupants of Free Town are
+in the same category with the Negroes of Jamaica and St. Domingo;
+concerning whom we can only predicate that they have dark skins, and
+that they come from Africa. The analysis of their several origins, and
+their distribution amongst the separate branches of the African family,
+would be one of the most difficult feats in minute ethnology; and this
+would be but a fraction of the investigation. When the several countries
+which supplied the several victims of the slave-trade had been
+ascertained, the complicated question of _intermixture_ would stand
+over; and there we should find lineages of every degree of
+hybridism--children, whose ancestors originated on different sides of
+Africa, themselves the parents of a lighter-coloured offspring, the
+effect of European intercourse.
+
+At present it is sufficient to state that the nucleus of the Free Town
+population consists of what is called the _Maroon_ Negroes. These were
+slaves of Jamaica, who, having recovered their freedom during the
+Spanish dominion in the island, were removed, by the English, in the
+first instance to Nova Scotia, and afterwards to their present locality.
+
+Round this has collected an equally miscellaneous population of rescued
+slaves; and, besides these, there are immigrants, labourers, and
+barterers from all the neighbouring parts of the Continent--Krumen more
+especially.
+
+A writer who, when we come to the Negroes of the Gold Coast, will be
+freely quoted, calls the Krumen the _Scotchmen_ of Africa, since, with
+unusual industry, enterprise, and perseverance, they leave, without
+reluctance, their own country to push their fortunes wherever they can
+find a wider field. They are ready for any employment which may enable
+them to increase their means, and ensure a return to their own country
+in a state of improved prosperity. There the Kruman's ambition is to
+purchase one or two head of cattle, and one or two head of wives, to
+enjoy the luxuries of rum and tobacco, and pass the remainder of his
+days as
+
+    "A gentleman of Africa who sits at home at ease."
+
+Half the Africans that we see in Liverpool are Krumen, who have left
+their own country when young, and taken employment on board a ship,
+where they exhibit a natural aptitude for the sea. Without being nice as
+to the destination of the vessel in which they engage, they return home
+as soon as they can; and rarely or never contract matrimony before their
+return. In Cape Coast Town, as well as in Sierra Leone, they form a
+bachelor community--quiet and orderly; and in that respect stand in
+strong contrast to the other tribes around them. Besides which, with all
+their blackness, and all their typical Negro character, they are
+distinguishable from most other western Africans; having the advantage
+of them in make, features, and industry.
+
+A Kruman is pre-eminently the _free labourer_ of Africa. In the slave
+trade he has engaged less than any of his neighbours, attaches himself
+readily to the whites, and, in his native country, as well as in Sierra
+Leone, Coast Town, and other places of his temporary denizenship, is
+quick of perception and amenable to instruction. His language is the
+_Grebo_ tongue, and it has been reduced to writing by the American
+missionaries of Cape Palmas. It has decided affinities with those of
+the Mandingo tongues to the north, the Fanti dialects of the Gold Coast,
+and, in all probability, still closer ones with those of the Ivory
+coast. These last, however, are but imperfectly known; indeed, a single
+vocabulary of the _Avekvom_ language, in the "American Oriental
+Journal," furnishes nine-tenths of our philological data for the parts
+between Cape Palmas and Cape Apollonia.
+
+The best measure of the heterogeneousness of the Sierra Leone population
+is to be found in Mrs. Kilham's vocabularies. That lady collected, at
+Free Town, specimens of thirty-one African tongues, from Negroes then
+and there resident. Of these--
+
+A. Eight belonged to the Mandingo group, _viz._, Mandingo Proper, Susu,
+Bambara, Kossa, Pessa, Kissi, Bullom, and Timmani.
+
+B. Two were dialects of the Grebo (Kru): the Kru, and the Bassa.
+
+C. Two were Fanti: the Fanti and the Ashanti, closely allied dialects.
+
+D. Two were Dahoman: the Fot, and the Popo.
+
+E. Two Benin: the Benin Proper, and the Moko, languages of a tract but
+little known.
+
+F. One Wolof, from the Senegal.
+
+G. Eight from the parts between the rivers Formosa and Loango, _viz._,
+the Bongo, the Ako, the Ibu, the Rungo, the Akuonga, the Karaba, the
+Uobo, the Kouri.
+
+H. One from the river Kongo, _i.e._, the Kongo properly so-called.
+
+I. Two from the Lower Niger, but, still separated from the coast--the
+Tapua (Nufi) and Appa.
+
+K. Three from the widely-spread nations of the interior--the Fulah, the
+Haussa, and the Bornu.
+
+I do not say that all Mrs. Kilham's specimens represent mutually
+unintelligible tongues; probably they do not. At the same time, as
+several decidedly different languages are omitted, the list understates,
+rather than exaggerates, the number of the divisions and subdivisions of
+the western African populations, as inferred from the divisions and
+subdivisions of the language.
+
+Thus, no samples are given of the--
+
+1. _Sereres._--Pastoral tribes about Cape Verde.
+
+2. _Serawolli._--On the Middle Senegal, different, in many respects,
+from the Sereres, the Wolofs, and the Fulahs; nations with which they
+are in geographical contact.
+
+3. _The Feloops._--Between the Gambia and Cacheo, along the coast.
+
+4. _The Papels._--South of the Cacheo; and also coastmen.
+
+5. _The Balantes._--Coast-men to the south of the Papels.
+
+6. _The Bagnon._--Conterminous with the Feloops of the river Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Bissago._--Fierce occupants of the islands so-called.
+
+8. _The Naloos._--On the Nun and river Grande.
+
+9. _The Sapi._--Conterminous with the Naloo, and like all the preceding
+tribes, from the Feloops downwards, pre-eminently rude, fierce,
+intractable, and imperfectly known.
+
+Southward, the unrepresented languages are equally numerous--especially
+for the Ivory Coast, and for the Delta of the Niger. Of these I shall
+only notice one--the Vey.
+
+The settlement with which the tribes speaking the Vey language is in
+contact is one of which the tongue is English, but not the political
+relations. It is the American free Negro settlement of Liberia.
+
+In the Vey language, it had been known for some time to the American
+missionaries, that there were _written books_, a fact not likely to be
+undervalued by those who felt warmly on the social and civilizational
+prospects of the coloured divisions of our species. One of these books
+was discovered by Lieutenant Forbes, of H.M.S. the Bonetta; local
+inquiry was further made by the Rev. W. S. Koelle; and the MS. was
+critically analyzed by Mr. Norris, of the Asiatic Society.[12]
+
+The phenomenon, if properly measured, is by no means a very significant
+one; since, although the Vey alphabet, the invention of a man now
+living, so far differs from the Mandingo, as to be spelt by the
+_syllable_ rather than the _letter_, it is anything but an independent
+creation of the Negro brain. Doala Bukara, its composer, an imperfect
+Mahometan, had seen Mahometan books, and, although he was no Christian,
+had seen an English Bible also. He knew, then, what spelling or writing
+was. He knew, too, the phonetic analysis of the Mandingo, a tongue
+closely allied to his own. And this is nine parts out of ten in the
+so-called invention of alphabets.
+
+The true claims of Doala, in this way, are those of the phonetic
+reformers in England, as compared with those of Toth or Cadmus--real but
+moderate. His own account of the matter, as he gave it to Mr. Koelle,
+was, that the fact of sounds being _written_, haunted him in a dream,
+wherein he was shown a series of signs adapted to his native tongue.
+These he forgot in the morning; but remembered the impression. So he
+consulted his friends; and they and he, laying their heads together,
+coined new ones. The king of the country made its introduction a matter
+of state, and built a large house in Dshondu, as a day-school. But a
+war with the Guru people disturbed both the learners and teachers, so
+that the latter removed to Bandakoro, where all grown-up people, of both
+sexes, can now read and write.
+
+This alphabet is a _syllabarium_.
+
+The books written in it are essentially Mahometan; the Koran appearing
+in them much in the same way as the Bible appears in the more degenerate
+legends of the middle ages.
+
+How far the Vey alphabet will be an instrument of civilization, is a
+difficult question. For my own part, I half regret its evolution; since
+the Arabic that served for the Mandingo, would have served for the Vey
+as well--or if not the Arabic, the English.
+
+As a measure of African capacity it is of some value; and in this
+respect, it speaks for the Negro just as the Cherokee alphabet speaks
+for the American Indian. This latter was invented by a native named
+Sequoyah. Like Doala, he knew what reading was. Like Doala, too, he had
+a language adapted to a _syllabarium_. Hence, both the Vey and the
+Cherokee, the two latest coinages in the way of alphabets, are both
+syllabic.
+
+We now move southwards to the--
+
+_Gold Coast Settlements._--The climate of Western Africa requires
+notice. It suits the native, but destroys the European. Of the two
+settlements, already mentioned, the Gambia is the most deadly; though
+Sierra Leone has the worst name. _Both_ are on the coast; both,
+consequently, on the lower courses of the rivers, and both on low
+levels. The import of these remarks applies to the Negroes of America.
+At present, it ushers in a brief notice of the climate of the Gold
+Coast; this district being chosen for the purpose of description because
+it makes the nearest approach to the equator of any English settlement
+in Africa. Consequently, it may serve as a typical sample of the
+malarious parts of the coast in question.
+
+From April till August is the rainy season, which gradually passes into
+the dry; heavy fogs forming during the transition. These last till the
+end of September. Occasional showers, too, continue till November. Then
+the weather becomes really clear and dry, until, towards the end of
+January, the dry parching wind, called the Harmattan, sets in, with its
+over-stimulant action upon the human system, and clouds of penetrating
+impalpable sand. If this is not blowing, the atmosphere is loaded with
+moisture; and this it is, combined with the heat of an intertropical
+sun, and the effluvia engendered by the decay of an over-luxuriant
+vegetation, which makes Western Africa the white man's grave. Not that
+the soil, even on the coast, is always swampy and alluvial. About Cape
+Coast it is rocky and undulating. Still, it is inordinately wooded, as
+well as full of spots where water accumulates and exhalations multiply.
+Yet the thermometer ranges between 78 deg. and 86 deg. Fahrenheit--a low
+_maximum_ for the neighbourhood of the equator; a high one, however, to
+feel cold in. Nevertheless, such is the case. "From this peculiarity of
+the atmosphere, the sensations of an individual almost invariably
+indicate a degree of _cold_, especially when sitting in a room, or not
+taking bodily exercise; so that, to ensure a feeling of comfortable
+warmth, it becomes necessary to dress in a thicker material than what is
+usually considered best adapted for tropical wear, and to have a fire
+lighted in one's bedroom for some time before one retires to rest."[13]
+
+The chief Africans of these parts--and we now approach the great
+_officina servorum_--alone tolerant of the heats, and droughts, and
+rains, and exhalations are--
+
+1. The Fantis.
+
+2. The Ghans.
+
+3. The Avekvom (?)
+
+A. _The Fantis._--Of the true natives of the country these are the
+chief.
+
+The term _Fanti_, like the term _Mandingo_, has a double sense--a
+general and a specific signification.
+
+The particular population of the parts about Cape Coast is Fanti in the
+limited sense of the term.
+
+The great section of the Negro family, which comprises, besides the
+Fantis Proper, the Ashanti, Boroom, and several other populations, is
+_Fanti_ in the wide sense of the term.
+
+The Fanti, Ashanti, and Boroom forms of speech are merely dialects of
+one and the same language.
+
+A great proportion of the vocabularies of "Bowdich's Ashanti" are the
+same.
+
+So are the Fetu, Affotoo, and other vocabularies of the "Mithridates."
+
+The inhabitants of the Native Town of Cape Coast, a mixed population of
+Krumen, Fantis, and Mulattoes, amounting to as many as 10,000, are no
+true specimens of the African of the Gold Coast. European influences
+have too long been at work on them. Before the town was English it was
+Dutch; and it was English as early as 1661.
+
+More than this. It is not certain that their fathers' fathers were the
+_exact_ aborigines; in other words, a tribe akin to, but slightly
+different from them, seems to have been the earlier possessors. These
+were the Fetu--the remains of which can doubtless be met with among the
+populations of the neighbourhood; since we find in the "Mithridates" a
+_Fetu_ vocabulary and an _Affotoo_ one as well.
+
+Now the Fantis that thus displaced the Fetu, were themselves fugitives
+from the conquering Ashantis; all, however, being the members of one
+stock, and the pressure being from the highlands of the interior towards
+the lowlands of the coast.
+
+All three are truly Negro in conformation, and miserably Pagan in creed,
+the best measure of their political capacity being the organized kingdom
+of the Ashantis; and the lowest form of it, the system of clanships,
+chieftainships, or captainships of the proper Fantis of the coast. The
+details of these are of importance.
+
+I cannot ascertain upon what principle those different divisions which
+are sometimes called _tribes_, sometimes _clans_, are formed; since it
+is by no means safe to assume that they necessarily consist of
+descendants from one common ancestor. The investigations concerning the
+_tribes_ of ancient Rome show this.
+
+It is easier to enumerate their external characteristics, and material
+elements of their union. In the Native Town there are four quarters,
+each occupied by a separate section of the population. This section has
+its own proper head, its own proper standards, and its own proper band
+of music.
+
+What follows seems to apply to the rude state of society in the country
+around. Each division has its badge or device; so that we have the
+tribe, or clan, of the leopard, the cat, the dog, the hawk, the parrot,
+&c. On certain days there are certain festivals and processions, when
+the chief is carried in a long basket on the heads of two men, with
+umbrellas above him, and attendants around proportionate to his rank.
+When in distress, the Fanti has a claim upon the good offices of his
+tribe.
+
+When a Fanti government becomes extensive enough to require
+organization, we find absolute monarchs with satraps (caboceers) under
+them; under these the heads of the different villages or towns, and
+under these captains of hundreds, fifties, and tens--an organization
+which is, perhaps, of military rather than social origin. The Ashanti
+kingdom gives us the best measure of extent to which a branch of the
+Fanti stock has developed itself into a political influence. As for the
+_Constitution_, it is a simple and unmitigated despotism; of which the
+most remarkable point is the law of succession. This follows the female
+lines, so that the heir-apparent is the eldest son of the reigning
+king's eldest sister. The same applies to the caboceers; except that, in
+cases of mental or physical incapacity, the rightful heir is set aside,
+and a path opened to the ambition of private adventurers.
+
+Slavery is what we expect; and on the coast of Guinea it meets us at
+every turn, though not in the worst forms of the _Trade_. This
+flourishes in Dahomey, and along the whole of the Bight of Benin. In the
+Fanti countries, however, the milder form of _domestic_ servitude
+preponderates; and along with it a chronic state of warfare. These two
+evils are connected with one another, as cause and effect. The conquest
+supplies the slaves; the slaves provoke the conquest.
+
+Besides this there is a sort of temporary servitude, which reminds us of
+the _Nexi_ of the Romans. This occurs when "a person, in order to raise
+a particular sum of money, voluntarily sells himself for a certain
+period, or until such time as he is enabled to pay the amount so
+borrowed, together with whatever interest may have been agreed upon.
+This is called the system of pawning, and the people so sold, pawns.
+Thus a native, in order to make a great display on any particular
+occasion, as on his marriage, or to have a grand 'custom' for a deceased
+relative, will forfeit his labour for a definite time, or give one of
+his slaves for a period agreed upon. Neither these pawns, however, nor
+the domestic slaves, entertain any feeling of disgrace, but on the
+contrary are happy and contented."[14]
+
+Everything connected with the administration of justice is rude and
+savage; the severity of the punishment upon detection being the chief
+preventive. The awards, of course, depend much upon the individual
+character of the chiefs; and there are but few who have not exhibited
+horrible proofs of cruelty. These, however, are no measures of the
+temper of the people at large. The legitimate, normal, established, and
+familiar forms of torture give us this. It may just be a shade or two
+better than that of the autocrats--though bad at best. I still draw upon
+the writer already quoted. "The most common mode of torture is what is
+termed tying Guinea-fashion. In this the arms are closely drawn together
+behind the back, by means of a cord tied tightly round them, about
+midway between the elbows and shoulders. A piece of wood to act as a
+rack, having been previously introduced, is then used so as to tighten
+the cord, and so intense is the agony that one application is generally
+sufficient to occasion the wretch so tortured to confess to anything
+that is required of him. There are various other modes of torture in
+common use among the natives of Guinea. One is tying the head, feet, and
+hands, in such a way that by turning the body backwards, they may be
+drawn together by the cords employed. Another is securing a wrist or
+ankle to a block of wood by an iron staple. By means of a hammer any
+degree of pressure may thus be applied, while the suffering so produced
+is continuous, only being relieved by the wood being split, and the
+staples removed, but this may not be done until a crime has been
+confessed by a person who never committed it, and even then his limb has
+generally been destroyed. It would not be interesting to here enumerate
+the various tortures employed by a barbarous people, but when we
+recollect the refinement of the art of torture in our own country in the
+days of the maiden, the boot, and thumb-screws, we will cease to wonder
+that substitutes for these should be used in a country where
+civilization has not yet begun to elevate a people who are generally
+allowed to be the lowest of the human race.
+
+"There are some superstitious rites employed by Fetish-men for the
+detection of crime; and whether it is that these people really possess
+such powerful influence over their wretched dupes, as to frighten into
+confession of his guilt the perpetrator of crime, or whether it is that
+they manage by their numerous spies to obtain a clue sufficient in most
+cases to lead to the detection of the person, is more than I can venture
+to assert; but, be the means employed what they may, a Fetish-man will
+assuredly very often bring a crime home to the right person, even after
+the most patient investigation in the ordinary way has failed to elicit
+the slightest clue.
+
+"There is also what is called Trial by Dhoom. This consists in whoever
+are suspected of having committed a crime being made to swallow a
+decoction of _dhoom_ wood of the country, and it is believed that
+whoever is innocent will immediately eject the deleterious draught, but
+the guilty person will die. This, however, is not much to be depended
+upon; for while it causes death in one instance, it may do so in all who
+partake of it; or on the other hand, from some accident in its
+preparation, it may be productive of no effect either upon the guilty or
+the innocent.
+
+"The Rice test, although practised in this part of Africa, is, I
+believe, not peculiar to it, being also employed in the West Indies, and
+South America. Although no doubt originally introduced by a people in a
+low state of civilization, it is interesting in so far that it
+exemplifies the powerful influence which the mind possesses over the
+corporeal functions, and as it appears to have been in use among the
+blacks for centuries, we may give them the credit of having been
+practically aware that 'conscience doth make cowards of us all,' long
+before the Bard of Avon chronicled the fact. In the employment of this
+test in Guinea, those who are suspected of having committed a crime are
+assembled, and to each a small portion of rice is given, which they are
+required to masticate, and afterwards produce on the hand; and it is
+invariably the case that while all but the real culprit will produce
+their rice in a soft pulpy mass, his will be as dry as if ground in a
+mill, the salivary glands having, under the influence exerted upon the
+nervous system by fear, refused to perform their ordinary functions."
+
+Something like this is common in many savage countries. In the shape of
+the _dhoom_ test, it re-appears in Old Calabar, and, probably,
+elsewhere. There, the "king and chief inhabitants ordinarily constitute
+a court of justice, in which all country disputes are adjusted, and to
+which every prisoner suspected of capital offences is brought, to
+undergo examination and judgment. If found guilty, they are usually
+forced to swallow a deadly potion made from the poisonous seeds of an
+aquatic leguminous plant, which rapidly destroys life. This poison is
+obtained by pounding the seeds, and macerating them in water, which
+acquires a white milky colour. The condemned person, after swallowing a
+certain portion of the liquid, is ordered to walk about, until its
+effects become palpable. If, however, after the lapse of a definite
+period, the accused should be so fortunate as to throw the poison from
+off his stomach, he is considered as innocent, and allowed to depart
+unmolested. In native _parlance_ this ordeal is designated as 'chopping
+nut.'"[15]
+
+The hardest workers amongst the Fantis are the fishers, who use a canoe
+of wood of the bombax, from ten to twelve feet in length, and
+strengthened by cross timbers. The net--a casting net--is made from the
+fibres of the aloe or the pine-apple, and is about twenty feet in
+diameter (?).
+
+Next to these come the farmers, whose rough agriculture consists in the
+cultivation of maize, bananas, yams, and pumpkins; and lastly, the
+gold-seekers. Of this there is abundance; and where the European coin of
+the coast ceases, the native currency of gold-dust begins. Sums of so
+small a value as three half-pence are thus paid; smaller ones being
+represented by cowries.
+
+The highest of their arts is that of manufacturing gold ornaments, and
+this is the hereditary craft of certain families. These transmit the
+secret of their skill from father to son, and keep the corporation to
+which they belong up to a due degree of closeness, by avoiding
+intermarriage with any of the more unskilled labourers. A little
+weaving, and a little potting, constitute the remaining arts of the
+Fanti--as far, at least, as they are either _fine_ or _useful_.
+
+The craft of the _Fetish-man_ comes under none of the preceding
+categories. He is the priest, sorcerer, or medicine man; the
+representative of "Paganism, in its lowest and most hideous form, the
+objects of their worship being the most repulsive reptiles, and their
+ceremonies the most degrading. They certainly have some idea of the
+existence of a First Cause, and believe themselves to be in the power of
+the _Great Fetish_, their protection or destruction being dependent upon
+the will of this power, of whose attributes they know nothing further.
+They also believe in the existence of a spirit of evil, and on some
+parts of the coast consider his power over them so great, that they
+address their supplications, and erect, for his especial service, small
+mud huts, usually of a conical shape, built under the shade of some
+stately palm or wild fig-tree, in one of the most inviting spots to be
+found. These huts bear the unattractive name among Europeans of 'devil's
+temples.' It will be seen thus, that this belief in the existence of the
+Great Fetish professed by the Fantees, is a faint glimmering of that
+natural religion which all nations possess. Of the creation of our
+species, they do not appear to entertain very correct ideas, unless it
+be that they owe their being to this Fetish, who, they say, in the
+beginning made two people, one of whom was black, the other white, and
+that both originally occupied the Fantee country. It would seem,
+however, from their account, that, after these two men were brought into
+existence, the Fetish was at a loss to know how to dispose of them, and
+in order to prevent any jealousy arising between them, had recourse to a
+sort of lottery, where there were all prizes and no blanks. Two packets
+were accordingly placed before them, and the black man drew first; nor
+was he disappointed with his prize, for it consisted of such a quantity
+of gold-dust, that it has not been taken out of the country yet. The
+remaining packet was of course the lawful property of the white man, and
+in the long run he had no cause to complain--for, on being opened, it
+was found to contain a book which taught him everything; and so do the
+poor wretches account for the superior intellect of whites, and the
+inexhaustible treasures of their own country.
+
+"In the neighbourhood of Cape Coast, the natives seem to believe that
+this Fetish occupies more especially particular localities, and exists
+in the form of a particular animal, so that an isolated portion of rock
+is frequently called a Fetish-stone, and snakes even of the most
+poisonous description, in a certain locality, are preserved and allowed
+to propagate, undisturbed, their venomous species. In some places on
+the coast, temples dedicated to snake-worship are built, and the Fetish
+men, or priests, connected with them are frequently esteemed
+particularly holy, no doubt from the familiar terms upon which they, in
+course of time, become with the horrid reptiles, upon which the people
+look as the personification of their Fetish. The offerings made at these
+temples are often very valuable, the cupidity of the deities within not
+being easily satisfied. Gold-dust and clothes are the most acceptable
+offerings; but when these are not to be obtained, it is perfectly
+wonderful how large a quantity of rum and tobacco the _snakes_ will
+consume before they vouchsafe their good offices for the removal of a
+disease from a cow, a wife, a child, or the detection of a thief, who,
+not unlikely, has been employed by themselves.
+
+"These Fetish men and women, too, for there are Fetish women, and,
+consequently Fetish children, have spies in different directions,
+forming as many links of communication between the priesthood in various
+parts of the country, so that very few occurrences take place of which
+they have not the means of making themselves acquainted."[16]
+
+The same writer continues, "Religious observances, properly so called,
+the Fantees have none, but each particular class has a certain day of
+the week upon which they cease from following their ordinary
+avocations--thus, a fisherman will not go to sea on a Tuesday; nor will
+a bushman enter the forest on a Friday--these days being dedicated to
+the Fetish, and thus, in some degree, representing the Sabbath of
+Christian nations. There are, in addition, several days throughout the
+year--apparently occurring at the desire of the Fetish men--in which the
+Fantees abstain from work, and during a period of war, it often happens
+that the movements of the opposing armies are much interfered with by
+the numerous occasions upon which it becomes necessary to propitiate the
+Fetish. One of these especial Fetish days may be here noticed, it being,
+apparently, the most important of those that occur during the whole
+year, and its object no less important than driving the devil out of the
+village. The period when this desirable object is effected, occurs
+during the month of December, the night-time being chosen as the most
+fitting for the ceremony. As soon as darkness has closed in, the
+inhabitants of a village collect at an appointed rendezvous, with sticks
+and staves, and under the directions of a leader, sally out, entering
+every house in their way, through the various apartments of which they
+knock about, and yell and howl with such violence that they would
+actually scare any devil but a most impertinent one. Having, as they
+think, completely rid the town of him, they pursue the retreating enemy
+for some distance into the bush, after which they return and spend the
+remainder of the night in carousals.
+
+"There is another festival, which, as it partakes somewhat of a
+religious nature, may also be noticed here, _viz._, the yam-custom,
+which is held in September, to celebrate the goodness of the Fetish, in
+having granted an abundant harvest. On this occasion, the king of the
+village and the staff of Fetish men connected with it, take part. All
+the people who can by any possibility attend, assemble, a procession is
+formed, and then the most extraordinary mixture of costumes, the noises
+produced by numerous tom-toms, horns made from elephants' tusks, and the
+still ruder, if possible, rattle of two pieces of wood, or common metal,
+which the women beat together to a tune similar to what in Ireland is
+known as the Kentish fire. The constant firing of musketry, and the
+obscene dances performed by the two sexes form one of the most debasing
+and savage exhibitions it is possible to see. In this way does the
+procession parade the principal streets, the king seated in his basket
+carried by his slaves, and protected by the umbrellas, according to his
+rank--the Fetish-men dressed in white robes, also in their baskets. On
+arriving at the king's house sacrifices are usually offered--some fowls
+or eggs being now substituted in the vicinity of our settlements for a
+human being, but we have still too good reasons to believe, that even as
+near as the capital of Ashantee many human lives are sacrificed on this
+particular occasion, as well as in other festivals of various
+descriptions. The offerings being made, the Fetish-man partakes of the
+yam; the king then eats of the valued root; and after these two have
+pronounced them ripe and fit for food, the people consider themselves at
+liberty to commence digging.
+
+"A being named _Tahbil_ resides in the substance of the rock, upon which
+Cape Coast is built, and watches the town. Every morning, offerings of
+food or flowers are left for him on the rock. Most villages have a
+corresponding deity; and in earlier times, there is good reason for
+believing that human beings were sacrificed to him."
+
+Likely enough--as may be seen from the practices at Fanti funerals, and
+as may be inferred from the analogy of the other parts of Western
+Africa.
+
+If the survivors of a deceased Fanti be poor, the corpse is quietly
+interred in one of the denser spots of the jungles; and if rich, the
+funeral is at once costly and bloody; since gold and jewels are buried
+along with the dead body, and human victims as well. The ceremonial is
+as follows. The coffin is carried to the grave by slaves, when the
+retainers and friends press forwards, fix the number required (in
+general four), stun the selected individuals by a sudden blow on the
+head, throw the still breathing bodies into the grave of their master,
+and, whilst life yet remains, cover in the earth.
+
+This horrible custom is truly West-African. How near we must approach
+the Mandingo frontier, before we get rid of it on the north, or how far
+south it extends, I am not exactly able to say. In Dahomey, where it
+attains its _maximum_ development, it is worse than amongst the
+Ashantis, and amongst the Ashantis worse than in the proper Fanti
+districts. It certainly reaches as far southwards as Old Calabar, where,
+upon the death of Ephraim, a well-known Caboceer, "some hundreds of men,
+women, and children were immolated to his manes,--decapitation, burning
+alive, and the administration of the poison-nut, being the methods
+resorted to for terminating their existence. When King Eyeo, father of
+the present Chief of Creek Town, died, an eye-witness, who had only
+arrived just after the completion of the funeral rites, informed me that
+a large pit had been dug, in which several of the deceased's wives were
+bound and thrown in, until a certain number had been procured; the earth
+was then thrown over them, and so great was the agony of these victims,
+that the ground for several minutes was agitated with their convulsive
+throes. So fearful, in former times, was the observance of this
+barbarous custom, that many towns narrowly escaped depopulation. The
+graves of the kings are invariably concealed, so as, it is stated, to
+prevent an enemy from obtaining their skulls as trophies, which is not
+the case with those of the common people."[17]
+
+I have said that it is in Dahomey, where the immolation of human beings
+is the bloodiest; and I now add that it is in Dahomey where those who
+look for the more characteristic peculiarities of the Negro stock, must
+search. But it is the bad side which will preponderate; it is the
+darkest practices which will develop themselves most typically. What we
+find in germs and remnants elsewhere, grow, in Dahomey, to inordinate
+and incredible proportions.
+
+The sacro-sanctitude of the snake is doubled in Dahomey.
+
+Slavery, bad along the whole Bight of Benin, is worse, still, in
+Dahomey.
+
+In Akkim we find a _female_ colonel. In Dahomey there is an army of
+Amazons, as indicated by Mr. Duncan, and as described in detail by
+Captain Forbes.
+
+_The Gha._--Accra, and the forts lately purchased from the
+Danes--Christiansborg and others,--are the localities of the _Gha_
+nation. I say _Gha_ (or _Ghan_) because the author of a paper soon about
+to be noticed states, that this is the indigenous name of the people
+which we call _Acra_, _Akra_, _Accrah_, or _Inkra_--and it is always
+best to give the native name if we can.
+
+Adelung, on the authority of Romer and Isert, gives the following
+account of the Negroes speaking the Gha language. He calls it Akra.
+
+They began with conquering and reducing to a state of servitude the
+_Adampi_, or _Tambi_, Negroes of the hill country; these being a portion
+of their own stock, and speaking a mutually intelligible language.
+
+But, in time, they were themselves conquered by the _Akvambu_, and broke
+up into two parts. One of these remained _in situ_, and is represented
+by the present Gha of Christiansborg. The other fled to the Little Popo,
+an island off the coast of Dahomey, and there settled.
+
+What remained then on the Gold Coast were the Gha and Akvambu; and these
+were afterwards conquered by the Akkim Fantis, themselves eventually
+reduced by the Ashantis.
+
+In no more than nine or ten villages, lying within nine or ten miles of
+Fort St. James and Christiansborg, was the Akra language spoken in the
+time of Protten (A.D. 1794), and of the Ghas thus speaking it each
+understood the Fanti.
+
+This makes the Gha a decreasing, and, for practical purposes, an
+unimportant population. At the same time I should be glad to direct the
+attention of some investigator to their ethnology. Their exact relations
+to the Akvambu are uncertain. The only work known to me where specimens
+of the latter language are to be found is out of reach.[18]
+
+Then as to the _Adampi_. Bowdich states that it radically differs from
+the Gha; the numerals, which agree, being borrowed from the one tongue
+into the other. But his collation rests on only seven words.
+
+Again,--_Adampi_, _Tembi_, and _Tambu_ are words so much alike as to
+pass for the same. Yet a _Tembu_ vocabulary in the "Mithridates" differs
+from a _Tambu_ one in the same work--
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.      TAMBU.
+
+ _Sky_       so          giom.
+ _Sun_       wis         pum.
+ _Moon_      igodi       horamb.
+ _Man_       naa         nyummu.
+  ...        ibalu       numero.
+ _Woman_     alo         in.
+ _Head_      knynoo      ii.
+ _Foot_      navorree    nandi.
+ _One_       kuddum      kaki.
+ _Two_       noalee      ennu.
+ _Three_     nodoso      ettee.
+
+Again--the _Tembu_ is related to the vocabulary of a language called
+_Kouri_, which the _Tambu_ is _not_.
+
+ ENGLISH.    TEMBU.    KOURI.
+
+ _Sun_       wis       nosi.
+ _Man_       ibalu     abalu.
+ _Woman_     alo       alu.
+ _One_       kuddum    kotum.
+ _Two_       noalee    nalee.
+ _Three_     nodoso    natisu.
+
+Thirdly, the _Tjemba_ of Balbi's "Atlas Ethnologique" is called
+_Kassenti_.
+
+Lastly, the _Gha_, as far as very short comparison goes, is neither
+_Tambu_ nor _Tembu_: nor yet _Kouri_--though it has a few resemblances
+to all.
+
+The author of the paper alluded to above is the Rev. Mr. Hanson--himself
+a Gha by birth. It was laid before the British Association in 1849. Two
+points characterize the theory that it exhibits; but as the publication
+of the paper _in extenso_, is contemplated, I merely state what they
+are.
+
+1. A remarkable number of customs common to the _Jews_ and the _Gha_.
+
+2. The probable origin of the latter population in some part of the
+interior of Africa, north of their present locality, and, perhaps, in
+the parts about Timbuktu.
+
+_The Quaquas._--I am not sure that this name is the best that can be
+given to the class in question. Hence, it is merely provisional. The
+language that is spoken by them is called the _Avekvom_. They constitute
+the chief population of the _Ivory_--just as the Krumen do that of the
+_Grain_ and the Fantis that of the _Gold_--Coast. _Apollonia_ is the
+English dependency where we find members of the _Quaqua_ stock.
+
+The Avekvom dialects of the Quaqua tribes seem to belong to a different
+tongue from that of the Krumen and Fantis; and I imagine that the three
+are mutually unintelligible. Still, it is difficult to predicate this
+from the mere inspection of vocabularies; the more so, as no language of
+the western coast of Africa is less known than the Avekvom--the only
+specimen of any length being one in the last number of the "Journal of
+the American Oriental Society." With numerous miscellaneous affinities,
+it is more Fanti and Grebo than aught else; and, perhaps, is
+transitional in character to those two languages.
+
+At any rate it is no isolated tongue, as may be seen from the following
+table, where _Yebu_ means the language of the Yarriba country, at the
+back of Dahomey, and _Efik_ that of Old Calabar:--
+
+ ENGLISH.          AVEKVOM.        OTHER IBO-ASHANTI LANGUAGES.
+
+ _Arm_             ebo             ubok, _Efik_.
+ _Blood_           evie            eyip, _Efik_; eye, _Yebu_.
+ _Bone_            ewi             beu, _Fanti_.
+ _Box_             ebru            branh, _Grebo_.
+ _Canoe_           edie            tonh, _Grebo_.
+ _Chair_           fata            bada, _Grebo_.
+ _Dark_            eshim           esum, _Fanti_; ekim, _Efik_.
+ _Dog_             etye            aja, ayga, _Yebu_.
+ _Door_            eshinavi        usuny, _Efik_.
+ _Ear_             eshibe          esoa, _Fanti_.
+ _Fire_            eya             ija, _Fanti_.
+ _Fish_            etsi            eja, eya, _Fanti_.
+ _Fowl_            esu             suseo, _Mandingo_; edia, _Yebu_.
+ _Ground-nut_      ngeti           nkatye, _Fanti_.
+ _Hair_            emu             ihwi, _Fanti_.
+ _Honey_           ajo             ewo, _Fanti_; oyi, _Yebu_.
+ _House_           eva             ifi, _Fanti_; ufog, _Efik_.
+ _Moon_            efe             habo, _Grebo_; ofiong, _Efik_.
+ _Mosquito_        efo             obong, _Fanti_.
+ _Oil_             inyu            ingo, _Fanti_.
+ _Rain_            efuzumo-sohn    sanjio, _Mandingo_.
+ _Rainy season_    eshi            ojo, _rain_, _Yebu_.
+ _Salt_            etsa            ta, _Grebo_.
+ _Sand_            esian-na        utan, _Efik_.
+ _Sea_             etyu            idu, _Grebo_.
+ _Stone_           desi            sia, shia, _Grebo_.
+ _Thread_          jesi            gise, _Grebo_.
+ _Tooth_           enena           nyeng, _Mandingo_; gne, _Grebo_.
+ _Water_           esonh           nsu, _Fanti_.
+ _Wife_            emise           muso, _Mandingo_; mbesia, _Fanti_.
+ _Cry_             yaru            isu, _Fanti_.
+ _Give_            nae             nye, _Grebo_; no, _Efik_.
+ _Go_              le              olo, _Yebu_.
+ _Kill_            bai             fa, _Mandingo_; pa, _Yebu_.
+
+There has been war and displacement here as well as in the Gha country.
+In the seventeenth century the parts about Cape Apollonia were contended
+for by two tribes called the Issini (or Oshin) and the Ghiomo. The
+former gave way to the latter, and having retreated to the country of
+the Veteres, were joined by that tribe against the Esiep.
+
+A Quaqua prayer is given in the "Mithridates." It is uttered every
+morning by the tribes on the Issini, after a previous ablution in that
+river--_Anghiume mame maro, mame orie, mame shikke e okkori, mame akaka,
+mame frembi, mame anguan e awnsan_--_O Anghiume! give rice, give yams,
+give gold, give aigris, give slaves, give riches, give (to be) strong
+and swift._
+
+What is here written about the ethnology of Apollonia is written
+doubtfully; since here, as at Acra, the simple ethnology of the pure and
+proper Fantis becomes complicated.
+
+_The Cape of Good Hope._--The aboriginal population of the Cape is
+divided between two great families:--
+
+1. The Hottentot.
+
+2. The Kaffre.
+
+1. _The Hottentots._--Of the two families this is the most western; it
+is the one which the colonists came first in contact with, and it is the
+one which has been most displaced by Europeans. The names of fourteen
+extinct tribes of Hottentots are known; of which it is only necessary to
+mention the Gunyeman and Sussaqua the nearest the Cape, and the Heykom,
+so far eastwards and northwards as Port Natal. The displacement of these
+last has not been effected by Europeans. African subdued African; and it
+was the Kaffres who did the work of conquest here.
+
+Of the extant Hottentots, within the limits of the colony of the Cape,
+the most remote are the _Gonaqua_, on the head-waters of the Great Fish
+River; or rather on the water-shed between it and the Orange River. They
+are fast becoming either extinct, or amalgamated with the Kaffres;
+inasmuch as they are the Hottentots of the Amakosa frontier, and suffer,
+at least, as much from the Kaffres as from their white neighbours.
+
+The _Namaquas_ occupy the _lower_ part of the Orange River, the Great
+and Little Namaqualand.
+
+_The Koranas._--This branch of the Hottentots has its locality on the
+middle part of the Gariep, with the Griquas to the north, the Bechuana
+Kaffres to the east, and the Saabs in the middle of them. Their number
+is, perhaps, 10,000. Their exact relation to the other Hottentots is
+uncertain. They are a better formed people than the Gonaqua and Namaqua,
+but whether they be the best samples of the Hottentot stock altogether
+is uncertain. Probably a tribe far up in the north-western parts of
+South Africa, and beyond Namaqualand, may dispute the honour with them.
+These are the Dammaras--themselves disputed Hottentots. Their country
+lies beyond the British colony, but it must be noticed for the sake of
+taking in all the branches of the stock in question. It is the tract
+between Benguela and Namaqualand, marked in the maps as _sterile
+country_; in the northern parts of which we sometimes find notices of a
+fierce nation called _Jagas_. Walvisch Bay lies in the middle of it. Now
+some writers make the Dammaras of this country Hottentot; others Kaffre;
+and that both rightly and wrongly. They are both--partly one, partly the
+other; since Dammara is a geographical term, and some of the tribes to
+which it applies are Kaffre, some Hottentot. The Dammaras of the plains,
+or the Cattle Dammaras are the former; the Dammaras[19] of the hills,
+the latter. Between the Dammara and the Korana a much nearer approach
+to Kaffre type is made than is usually supposed.
+
+A branch of the Koranas--those of the valley of the Hartebeest
+River--deserves particular attention. They caution us against
+overvaluing differences; and Dr. Prichard has quoted the evidence of Mr.
+Thompson with this especial object. They are Koranas who have suffered
+in war, lost their cattle, and been partially expatriated by the more
+powerful sections of their stock. Hence, want and poverty have acted
+upon them; and the effect has been that they have become hunters instead
+of shepherds, have been reduced to a precarious subsistence, and as the
+consequence of altered circumstances, have receded from the level of the
+other Koranas, and approached that of the--
+
+_Saabs or Bushmen._--These belong to the parts between the Roggeveld and
+Orange River; parts which rival the _sterile country_ of the map in
+barrenness. As is the country so are the inhabitants; starved, miserable
+hunters--hunters rather than shepherds or herdsmen.
+
+The Lap is not more strongly contrasted with the Finlander, than the
+Korana with the Saab; and the deadly enmity between these two
+populations is as marked as the differences in their physical
+appearances. I think, however, that undue inferences have been drawn
+from the difference; in other words, that the distance between the
+Korana and the Saab has been exaggerated. The languages are
+unequivocally allied.
+
+I think, too, that a similarly undue inference has been drawn from the
+extent to which the Kaffre and the Korana are _alike_; inasmuch as an
+infusion of Kaffre has been assumed for the sake of accounting for it.
+Of this, however, no proof exists.
+
+The Saabs are described as having constitutions "so much enfeebled by
+the dissolute life they lead, and the constant smoking of _dacha_, that
+nearly all, including the young people, look old and wrinkled;
+nevertheless, they are remarkable for vanity, and decorate their ears,
+legs, and arms with beads, and iron, copper, or brass rings. The women
+likewise stain their faces red, or paint them, either wholly or in part.
+Their clothing consists of a few sheepskins, which hang about their
+bodies, and thus form the mantle or covering, commonly called a
+_kaross_. This is their only clothing by day or night. The men wear old
+hats, which they obtain from the farmers, or else caps of their own
+manufacture. The women wear caps of skins, which they stiffen and finish
+with a high peak, and adorn with beads and metal rings. The dwelling of
+the Bushman is either a low wretched hut, or a circular cavity, on the
+open plain, into which, at night, he creeps with his wife and children,
+and which, though it shelters him from the wind, leaves him exposed to
+the rain. In this neighbourhood, in which rocks abound, they had
+formerly their habitations in them, as is proved by the many rude
+figures of oxen, horses, serpents, &c. still existing. It is not a
+little interesting to see these poor degraded people, who formerly were
+considered and treated as little better than wild beasts in their rocky
+retreats. Many of those who have forsaken us live in such cavities not
+far from our settlement, and we have thus an opportunity of observing
+them in their natural condition. Several who, when they came to us from
+the farmers, were decently clothed and possessed a flock of sheep, which
+they had earned, in a short time returned to their fastnesses in a state
+of nakedness and indigence, rejoicing that they had got free from the
+farmers, and could live as they pleased in the indulgence of their
+sensual appetites. Such fugitives from civilised life, I have never seen
+otherwise occupied than with their bows and arrows. The bows are small,
+but made of good elastic wood; the arrows are formed of small reeds, the
+points furnished with a well-wrought piece of bone, and a double barb,
+which is steeped in a potent poison of a resiny appearance. This poison
+is distilled from the leaves of an indigenous tree. Many prefer these
+arrows to fire-arms, under the idea that they can kill more game by
+means of a weapon that makes no report. On their return from the chase,
+they feast till they are tired and drowsy, and hunger alone rouses them
+to renewed exertion. In seasons of scarcity they devour all kinds of
+wild roots, ants, ants' eggs, locusts, snakes, and even roasted skins.
+Three women of this singular tribe were not long since met with, several
+days' journey from this place, who had forsaken their husbands, and
+lived very contentedly on wild honey and locusts. As enemies, the
+Bushmen are not to be despised. They are adepts in stealing cattle and
+sheep; and the wounds they inflict when pursued, are ordinarily fatal if
+the wounded part is not immediately cut out. The animals they are unable
+to carry off, they kill or mutilate.
+
+"To our great comfort, even some of these poor outcasts have shown
+eagerness to become acquainted with the way of salvation. The children
+of such as are inhabitants of the settlement, attend the school
+diligently, and of them we have the best hopes.
+
+"The language of the Bushman has not one pleasing feature; it seems to
+consist of a collection of snapping, hissing, grunting, sounds; all more
+or less nasal. Of their religious creed it is difficult to obtain any
+information; as far as I have been able to learn, they have a name for
+the Supreme Being; and the Kaffre word _tixo_ is derived from the
+_tixme_ of the Bushmen. Sorcerers exist among them. One of the Bushmen
+residing here being sick, a sorceress was sent for before we were aware
+of it, who pretended, by the virtue of mystic dance, to extract an
+antelope horn from the head of the patient."[20]
+
+_The Griquas._--The Griquas, called also Baastaards, are a pastoral
+population, upwards of 15,000 in number, on the north side of the great
+bend of the Orange River. They are the descendants of Dutch fathers and
+Hottentot mothers.
+
+A mixture of Griquas and Hottentots occurs also on the Kat River, a
+feeder of the Great Fish River, in the district of Somerset, and on the
+Kaffre frontier. Here they are distributed in a series of district
+locations, amid the dales and fastnesses of the eastern frontier. A
+great proportion of them are discharged soldiers--so that in reality,
+like the borderers of old, they form a sort of military colony.
+
+2. _The Kaffres._--The British districts in contact with the Kaffre
+populations are the eastern, and of these Albany and Somerset most
+especially. The Kaffre nation in most immediate contact with Albany and
+Somerset is--
+
+_The Amakosa._--This is the population which constituted the authority
+of Hintza, and to which Pato, Gaika, and the other chiefs of the last
+war belonged. To this, too, belong the troublesome chiefs of the
+present. Next to the Amakosa, and in alliance with them, come--
+
+_The Amatembu_, or _Tambuki_ (_Tambookies_), occupants of the upper part
+of the river Kei, as the Amakosa are of the lower Keiskamma.
+
+Between the Amatembu and Port Natal lie _the Amaponda_, or _Mambuki_
+(_Mambookies_), the northern extremity of which reaches the country of--
+
+_The Amazulu_, or _Zulu_ (_Zooloos_), the chief frontagers (conjointly
+with the _Mambuki_) of Port Natal.
+
+The last division of the Kaffres of the coast is that of--
+
+_The Fingos._--In 1835, a numerous population, called Fingos, was found
+by Sir B. D'Urban in the Kaffre chief Hintza's country, and in a state
+of abject servitude to the Amakosas. They were from different tribes;
+darker and shorter than the Amakosas--but still true Kaffres. They were
+offered land between the lower Keiskamma and the Great Fish River, and
+were emancipated and brought safe into the colony to the amount of
+17,000.[21] Since then, they have served as a sort of military police on
+the Kaffre frontier; and as shepherds in Australia--whither they have
+been advantageously introduced.
+
+But, besides the Kaffres of the coast there are those of the interior.
+These speak a modified form of the Kosa (or Amakosa), called
+Si-_chuana_, the name of the people being Bi-_chuana_. They lie due
+north of the Koranas; beyond the boundaries of the colony; but not
+beyond the influence of its missionaries, or the range of its explorers.
+Litaku, Kurrichani, and other similar _towns_ are _Sichuana_; the Kaffre
+civilization being said to attain its _maximum_ hereabouts.
+
+There are plenty of points of contrast between the Kaffre and the
+typical Negro; so many indeed as to have suggested the doctrine that the
+former class belongs to some division of the human species other than
+the African. And these points of contrast are widely distributed,
+_i.e._, they appear and re-appear, whatever may be the view taken of the
+Kaffre stock. They appear in the descriptions of their skin and
+skeletons; they appear in the notice of their language; and they appear
+in the history of the Kaffre wars of the Cape frontier--wars more
+obstinate and troublesome than any which have been conducted by the true
+Negro; and which approach the character of the Kabyle struggle for
+independence in Algeria. In investigating these differences we must
+guard against the exaggeration of their import.
+
+Physically, the Kaffre has the advantage of the Negro in the
+conformation of the face and skull. His forehead betokens greater
+capacity; being more prominent, more vaulted, and with a greater facial
+angle. His teeth, too, are more vertically inserted, and the nasal bones
+less depressed. I have not heard of aquiline noses in Kaffraria; but
+should not be surprised if I did.
+
+The cheek-bones of the Kaffre project outwards; and where the
+cheek-bones so project beyond a certain limit, the chin appears to taper
+downwards, and the vertex upwards. When this becomes exaggerated we hear
+of _lozenge-shaped_ crania; the Malay skulls being currently quoted as
+instances thereof. Be this as it may, the breadth in the malar portion
+of the face is a remarkable feature in the Kaffre physiognomy. This he
+has in common with the Hottentot. His hair is also tufted like the
+Hottentot's: while his lips are thick like the Negro's. Tall in stature,
+wiry and elastic in his muscles, the Kaffre varies in colour, through
+all the shades of black and brown; being, in some portions of his area
+nearly as dark as the Negro, in others simply brown like the Arab. The
+eye is sometimes oblique; the opening generally narrow.
+
+An opinion often gives a better picture than a description. Kaffres,
+that have receded in the greatest degree from the Negro type, have been
+so likened to the more southern Arabs as to have engendered the
+hypothesis of an infusion of Arab blood.
+
+The manners of the Kaffres of the Cape are those of pastoral tribes
+under chieftains; tribes which, from their habits and social relations,
+are naturally active, locomotive, warlike, and jealous of encroachment.
+Next to marauding on the hunting-grounds of an American Indian,
+interference with the pasture of a shepherd population is the surest way
+to warfare.
+
+It would be strange indeed if the Kaffre life and Kaffre physiognomy had
+no peculiarities. However little in the way of physical influence we may
+attribute to the geography of a country, no man ignores them altogether.
+Now Kaffreland has very nearly a latitude of its own; inhabited lands
+similarly related to the southern tropic being found in South America
+and Australia only. And it has a soil still more exclusively
+South-African. We connect the idea of the _desert_ with that of sand;
+whilst _steppe_ is a term which is limited to the vast tracts of central
+Asia. Now the Kaffre, and still more the Hottentot, area, dry like the
+desert, and elevated like the steppe, is partially a _karro_. Its soil
+is often a hard, cracked, and parched clay rather than a waste of sand,
+and it constitutes an argillaceous table-land. Its vegetation has
+strongly marked characters. Its Fauna has the same.
+
+The language is peculiar. If English were spoken on Kosa or Sichuana
+principles we should say
+
+ _b_un beam   instead of _s_un beam.
+ _l_oon light    ...     _m_oon light.
+ _s_rand-son     ...     _g_rand-son, &c.,
+
+since, in the Kaffre languages throughout, subordinate words in certain
+syntactic combinations, accommodate their initial letter to that of the
+leading word of the term.
+
+Their polity and manners, too, are peculiar. The head man of the village
+settles disputes; his tribunal being in the open air. From him an appeal
+lies to a chief of higher power; and from him to some superior, higher
+still. In this way there is a long chain of feudal or semi-feudal
+dependency.
+
+But the power of the chief is checked by that of the priest. A supposed
+skill in medicine, imaginary arts of divination, and an accredited power
+over the elements are the prerogatives of certain witches and wizards.
+Thus, when a murrain among the cattle, or the death of an important
+individual has taken place, the blame is laid upon some unfortunate
+victim whom the witch or wizard points out. And the ordeal to which he
+must submit, is equal in cruelty to those of the Gold Coast. He is
+beaten with sticks, and then pegged down to the ground. Whilst thus
+helpless, a nest of venomous bush-ants is broken over his racked and
+quivering body. If this fail to extort a confession, he is singed to
+death with red-hot stones.
+
+This tells us what is meant by Kaffre chiefs and Kaffre wizards.
+
+The wife is the slave to the husband; and he _buys_ her in order that
+she should be so. The purchase implies a seller. This is always a member
+of another tribe. Hence the wish of a Kaffre is to see his wife the
+mother of many children, girls being more valuable than boys.
+
+Why a man should not sell his offspring to the members of his own tribe
+is uncertain. It is clear, however, that the practice of doing so makes
+marriage between even distant relations next to impossible. To guard
+against the chances of this, a rigid and suspicious system of restraint
+has been developed in cases of consanguinity; and relations must do all
+they can to avoid meeting. To sit in the same room, to meet on the same
+road, is undesirable. To converse is but just allowable, and then all
+who choose must hear what is said. So thorough, however, has been the
+isolation in many cases, that persons of different sexes have lived as
+near neighbours for many years without having conversed with each other;
+and such communication as there has been, has taken place through the
+medium of a third person. No gift will induce a Kaffre female to violate
+this law.
+
+Is the immolation of human beings at the death of chieftains a Kaffre
+custom, as it was one of western Africa? The following extract gives an
+answer in the affirmative, the only difference being the _pretext_ of
+the murders. On the "death of the mother of Chaka, the great Zulu chief,
+a public mourning was held, which lasted for the space of two days, the
+people being assembled at the kraal of the chief to the number of sixty
+or eighty thousand souls. Mr. Fynn, who was present, describes the scene
+as the most terrific which it is possible for the human mind to
+conceive. The immense multitude were all engaged in rending the air with
+the most doleful shrieks, and discordant cries and lamentations; whilst,
+in the event of their ceasing to utter them, they were instantly
+butchered as guilty of a crime against the reigning tyrant. It is said
+that no less than six or seven thousand persons were destroyed on this
+occasion, charged with no other offence than exhausted nature in the
+performance of this horrid rite, their brains being mercilessly dashed
+out amidst the surrounding throng. As a suitable _finale_ to this
+dreadful tragedy, it is said that ten females were actually buried alive
+with the royal corpse; whilst all who witnessed the funeral were
+obliged to remain on the spot for a whole year."
+
+Details of Kaffre manners may be multiplied almost _ad infinitum_; and
+as their history and habits are likely to fill a Blue Book, a short
+treatise can only notice their more prominent peculiarities.
+
+However, lest an undue inference be drawn from their contrast to the
+Hottentot, we must remember that the former has encroached upon the
+latter, and that such transitional populations as existed have been
+swept away.
+
+Now comes a coloured population--not indigenous, but the descendants of
+the _slaves_ of the colony. This consists of--
+
+1. Negroes.
+
+2. Malays from the Indian Archipelago.
+
+3. Malagasi from Madagascar.
+
+To which we must add, as of mixed blood, the offspring of--
+
+1. Negroes and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+2. Malays and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+3. Malagasi and Dutch, English, &c.
+
+This seems to be the limit of the intermixture; since, between the
+Malays and Negroes, &c., there is but little intermarriage. The
+_possible_ elements, however, of hybridity are numerous, _e.g._, Griquas
+and Negroes, Griquas and Malays, Malays and Kaffres, &c.
+
+_The so-called yellow men._--On the 4th of August, 1782, the
+"Grosvenor" Indiaman was wrecked on the coast of Natal. Of the crew who
+escaped, some reached the Cape and others remained amongst the natives.
+In 1790, an expedition was undertaken in search of them.
+
+In this expedition, Mr. Van Reenens, considered that he had discovered a
+village where the people were descended from the whites, and in which
+there were three old women who had been wrecked when very young. They
+could not tell to what country they belonged; were treated as superior
+beings; and, when offered a safe convoy to the Cape, were at first
+pleased with the prospect, but eventually refused to leave their
+children and grandchildren. Now, whatever these old women were, they
+were not of the crew of the "Grosvenor," and I doubt whether they were
+Europeans at all.
+
+Again--Mr. Thomson, when at Litaku, heard of yellow _cannibals_, with
+long hair, whose invasions were the dread of the country; a statement
+which merely means that some tribes of South Africa, are lighter
+coloured, and more savage in their appetite than others.
+
+Lastly, Lieutenant Farewell saw one of these yellow men at Natal, who
+was described as a cannibal, and _who shrunk abashed from the
+lieutenant_.
+
+Be it so. The evidence that "there are descendants of Europeans and
+Africans now widely diffusing their offspring throughout the country;
+whose services might be turned to good account in civilizing the native
+tribes," is still incomplete.
+
+_Mauritius._--The coloured population, which is far greater than that of
+the white, consists in the Mauritius of--
+
+1. True Africans--chiefly from the east coast, and, consequently, of the
+Kaffre stock; the word being used in its most general sense. Darker than
+the Kaffres of the Cape, they, nevertheless, recede from the Negro type
+in the shape of the jaw, lips, and forehead. The hair also is less
+woolly. They are strong and powerful individuals.
+
+2. Malagasi, or natives of Madagascar.--These are _not_ Africans to the
+same extent as the Kaffres of the coast. As far back as the time of
+Reland it was known that the affinities of the Malagasi language were
+with the Malay and Polynesian tongues of Asia; but it was also known
+that the similarity in physiognomy was less than that of language. Hence
+came a conflict of difficulties. The speech indicated one origin, the
+colour another--whilst the fact of an island so near to Africa, and so
+far from Malacca, as Madagascar, being other than what its geographical
+position indicated, is, and has been, a mystery. Some writers have
+assumed an intermixture of blood; others have limited the Malay element
+to the dominant population. Lastly, Mr. Crawfurd has denied the
+inferences from the similarity of language _in toto_; considering that
+there is "nothing in common between the two races, and nothing in common
+between the character of their languages." The comparative philologist
+is slow to admit this--indeed, he denies it.
+
+The blacks form the great majority of the coloured population. Besides
+these, however, there are--
+
+3. Arabs.
+
+4. Chinese.
+
+5. Hindus, from the continent of India; convicts being transported to
+the Mauritius for life, and worked on the roads of the colony.
+
+6. Cingalese from Ceylon--the Kandian chiefs whose presence in their
+native country was thought likely to endanger the tranquillity of the
+island, were sent hither.
+
+The whites of the Mauritius are chiefly French; though not wholly of
+pure blood. The first settlers took their wives from Madagascar. The
+English form the smallest part of the population.
+
+_Rodrigues_--occupied by a few French colonists from the Mauritius.
+
+_The Seychelles_--The same; the coloured population outnumbering the
+white in the proportion of ten to one. Here there is a Portuguese
+admixture. From Maha, the chief town of the Seychelles, to Madagascar,
+is five hundred and seventy-six miles--a fact to be borne in mind when
+we speculate upon the origin of the population of that island.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Africans of British America.--Honduras, Belize, the West India
+Islands, and Demerara._--The usual distribution of the population of
+these parts is--
+
+WHITE.
+
+    1. European whites, born in Europe.
+    2. Creoles, or whites born in the island.
+
+COLOURED.
+
+  _a. Pure Blood._
+
+    1. Mandingos, from the river-systems of the Senegal and Gambia.
+    2. Coromantines--from the Ivory and Gold Coast.
+    3. Whydahs--from Dahomey.
+    4. Ibos--from the Lower Niger.
+    5. Congos--from Portuguese Africa.
+
+  _b. Mixed Blood._
+
+    1. Sambos, intermixture of the Negro and Mulatto.
+    2. Mulattoes--Negro and white.
+    3. Quadroons--Mulatto and white.
+    4. Mestis--Quadroon and white.
+
+Such is what I find in Mr. Martin's valuable work on the Colonies, and
+it is, undoubtedly, a convenient and practical classification. Yet for
+the purposes of ethnology, it is deficient in detail. Without even
+guessing at the proportion of American slaves which the different parts
+of the western coast of Africa may have supplied, I subjoin a brief
+notice of tract between the Senegal and Benguela.
+
+1. First come the _Wolof_, between the Senegal and Cape Verde. To the
+back of these lie--
+
+2. The _Serawolli_--and around Cape Verde--
+
+3. The _Sereres_--none of these are truly Mandingo; nor is it certain
+that many slaves have come from them; such as do, however, are probably
+Mandingos in the current classification.
+
+4. The Fulahs of Fouta-Torro and Fouta-Jallo possess the higher part of
+the Senegambian system. Imperfect Mahometans, they are lighter-coloured
+than either the Wolof or the Mandingo. Notwithstanding the great Fulah
+conquests--for under a leader named Danfodio this has been one of the
+encroaching and subjugating families of Africa--there are still American
+slaves of Fulah blood--though, perhaps, but few. Mr. Hodgson procured
+his vocabulary from a Fulah slave of Virginia; and what we find in the
+United States, we may find in the British possessions also.
+
+5. The Mandingos Proper are the Negroes of the Gambia; but the following
+Africans, all within the range of the old slave trade, belong to the
+same class.
+
+_a._ The Susu; whose language is spoken from the River Pongos to Sierra
+Leone.
+
+_b._ The Timmani.
+
+_c._ The Bullom--each in contact with that settlement.
+
+_d._ The Vey--the written language already noticed.
+
+_e._ The Mendi--conterminous with the Vey.
+
+_f._ The Kissi--like the last two, spoken in the country behind Cape
+Mount, and on the boundaries of Liberia.
+
+South of the Gambia and north of the Pongos, the Mandingo tongues,
+though spoken in the interior, do not reach the coast. On the contrary,
+they encircle the populations on the mouths of the Cacheo, Rio Grande,
+and Nun--and truly barbarous populations these are. Of these the most
+northern are--
+
+6. _The Felup_ (Feloops)--between the Gambia and Cacheo.
+
+7. _The Papel_--south of the Cacheo.
+
+8. _The Balantes_--south of the Papel.
+
+9. _The Bagnon_--on the Lower Cacheo.
+
+10. _The Bissago_--islanders off the Cacheo.
+
+11. _Nalu_ (_Naloos_)--on the Lower Nun.
+
+12. _Sapi_--_ibid_.
+
+After these come the Susu, &c.; down to the tribes about Cape Mount and
+Cape Mesurado.
+
+Between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas come--
+
+13. _The Krumen._ Next to them--
+
+14. _The Quaquas_, of the Ivory Coast; speaking different Avekvom
+dialects.
+
+Somewhere hereabouts come the--
+
+15, 16, 17. Kanga, Mangree, and Gien; three undetermined vocabularies of
+the "Mithridates." Then--
+
+18, 19, 20. The Fanti, Gha, and Adampi (?) of the Gold Coast. We now
+approach the great marts--
+
+21, 22. Benin and Dahomey; and--almost equal in infamous notoriety--the
+countries of the Delta, of the Niger, or of the--
+
+23, 24, 25. Ibu, Bonny, and Efik (Old Calabar) Africans; at the back of
+which lie--
+
+26, 27. Yarriba, and the Nufi country. In Fernando Po the population
+is--
+
+28. Ediya. About the Bimbia river and mountain--
+
+29. Isubu.
+
+30, 31, 32. The _Banaka_ (or _Batanga_), the _Panwi_, and the _Mpoongwe_
+take us from the Gaboon to Loango; forming a transition from the true
+Negroes to the Kaffres.
+
+33, 34, 35, 36. _Loango_, _Congo_, _Angola_, and _Benguela_--the Kaffre
+type, both in form and language, is now more closely approached. Below
+Benguela there has been little or no exportation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[12] "Journal of the Geographical Society," 1850.
+
+[13] "United Service Magazine," Dec., 1850.
+
+[14] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[15] Daniell in "Transactions of the Ethnological Society."
+
+[16] "United Service Journal," Nov., 1850.
+
+[17] Dr. Daniell on the Natives of Old Calabar, "Transactions of the
+Ethnological Society."
+
+[18] Rask.--_Vejledning tel Acra-sproget, paa Kysten Ginea, med et
+Tillaeg om Akvambuisk._--Copenhagen, 1828. _Introduction to the Acra
+Language, on the Coast of Guinea, with an Appendix on the Akvambu._
+
+[19] "Journal of the American Oriental Society," vol. i. no. 4.
+
+[20] "British Colonies." By M. Martin.
+
+[21] "Journal of the Geographical Society," vol. v. p. 319.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+BRITISH COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
+
+    ADEN.--THE MONGOLIAN VARIETY.--THE MONOSYLLABIC LANGUAGES.--HONG
+    KONG.--THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES; MAULMEIN, YE, TAVOY, TENASSERIM,
+    THE MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO.--THE MON, SIAMESE, AVANS, KARIENS, AND
+    SILONG.--ARAKHAN.--MUGS, KHYENS.--CHITTAGONG, TIPPERA, AND
+    SYLHET.--KUKI.--KASIA.--CACHARS.--ASSAM.--NAGAS.--SINGPHO.--JILI.--
+    KHAMTI.--MISHIMI.--ABORS AND BOR-ABORS.--DUFLA.--AKA.--MUTTUCKS AND
+    MIRI, AND OTHER TRIBES OF THE VALLEY OF ASSAM.--THE GARO.--
+    CLASSIFICATION.--MR. BROWN'S TABLES.--THE BODO.--DHIMAL.--KOCCH.--
+    LEPCHAS OF SIKKIM.--RAWAT OF KUMAON.--POLYANDRIA.--THE TAMULIAN
+    POPULATIONS.--RAJMAHALI MOUNTAINEERS.--KULIS, KHONDS, GOANDS,
+    CHENCHWARS.--TUDAS, ETC.--BHILS.--WARALIS.--THE TAMUL, TELINGA,
+    KANARA AND MALAYALAM LANGUAGES.
+
+
+_Aden._--The ethnology of the Arab stock would fill a volume. It is
+sufficient to state that the British political dependency of Aden is,
+ethnologically, an Arab town.
+
+Far more important possessions direct our attention towards India.
+Nevertheless, there are certain preliminaries to its ethnology.
+
+Mongolia and China--each of these countries illustrates an important
+ethnological phenomenon.
+
+The first is a physical one. Cheek-bones that project outwards, a broad
+and flat face, a depressed nose, an oblique eye, a somewhat slanting
+insertion of the teeth, a scanty beard, an undersized frame, and a tawny
+or yellow skin, characterize the Mongol of Mongolia.
+
+The second is a philological one. A comparative absence of grammatical
+inflexions, and a disproportionate preponderance of monosyllabic words,
+characterize the language of China.
+
+So much for the simple elementary facts; the former of which will be
+spoken of under the designation of _Mongolian conformation_; the second
+under that of _monosyllabic language_.
+
+Neither term is limited to the nation by which it has been illustrated.
+Plenty of populations besides those of Mongolia Proper are Mongol in
+physiognomy. Plenty of nations besides the Chinese are monosyllabic in
+language.
+
+All the nations speaking monosyllabic tongues are Mongol in physiognomy;
+though all the nations which have a Mongol physiognomy do _not_ speak
+monosyllabic tongues. This makes the latter group, which for shortness
+will be called that of the _monosyllabic_ nations or tribes--a section,
+or division, of the former.
+
+Little Tibet, Ladakh, Tibet Proper, Butan, and China, are all Mongol in
+form, and monosyllabic in language. So are Ava, Pegu, Siam, Cambojia,
+and Cochin China, the countries which constitute the great peninsula,
+sometimes called _Indo-Chinese_, and sometimes _Transgangetic_.
+
+The extremity however--the Malayan peninsula--is _not_ monosyllabic.
+
+_The British possessions of Hindostan are monosyllabic on their Tibetan
+and Burmese frontiers._
+
+_Hong-Kong._--Aden was disposed of briefly. So is Hong-Kong; and that
+for the same reason. Politically, British, it is ethnologically Chinese.
+
+_Maulmein, Ye, Tavoy, Tenasserim, and the Mergui Archipelago._--These
+constitute what are sometimes called the _ceded_, sometimes the
+_Tenasserim_ provinces. They came into possession of the British at the
+close of the Burmese war of 1825. Unlike our dependencies in Hindostan,
+they are cut off from connection with any of the great centres of
+British power in Asia--in which respect they agree with the smaller and
+still more isolated settlements of the Malaccan Peninsula. The power
+that ceded them was the Burmese, so that it is with the existing
+subjects of that empire that their present limits are in contact; though
+only for the northern part. To the south they abut upon Siam.
+
+The population throughout is monosyllabic; except so far as it is
+modified by foreign intermixture--of which by far the most important
+element is the Indian. Everything in the way of religious creed which is
+not native and pagan is Indian and Buddhist. The alphabets, too, of the
+lettered populations are Indian in origin.
+
+The population of the _continental_ part of these British dependencies
+is referable to four divisions--of unequal and imperfectly ascertained
+value. 1. The Mon. 2. The Siamese. 3. The Avans. 4. The Kariens.
+
+1. _The Mon._--Mon is the native name of the indigenous population of
+Pegu, so that the Mon of Maulmein, or Amherst, the most northern of the
+provinces in question, on the left bank of the lower Salwin, are part
+and parcel of the present occupants of the delta of the Irawaddi, and
+the country about Cape Negrais. The Burmese call them _Talieng_, and
+under that designation they are described in Dr. Helfer's Report.[22]
+The Siamese appellation is _Ming-mon_; apparently the native name in a
+state of composition. In the early Portuguese notices a still more
+composite form appears--and we hear of the ancient empire of
+_Kalamenham_, supposed to have been founded by the _Pandalus_ of Mon or
+Pegu.
+
+None of the _lettered_ languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula are less
+known than that of Pegu. At the same time its unequivocally
+monosyllabic character is beyond doubt. The alphabet is a slight
+variation of the Avan.
+
+The geographical position of the Mon at the extremity of a promontory,
+and on the delta of a river, taken along with their philological
+isolation, is remarkable. They have evidently been encroached upon by
+the Avans in latter times; whilst, at an earlier period, they themselves
+probably encroached upon others. Whether they are the oldest occupants
+of Maulmein is uncertain; it is only certain that they are older than
+their conquerors.
+
+To the Mon of Pegu the exchange of Avan for British rule, has been a
+great and an appreciated advantage.
+
+2. _The Siamese._--The native name for the Siamese language is _Tha'y_,
+and _Tha'y_ is the national and indigenous denomination of the Siamese.
+It is the Avans who call them _Sian_ or _Shan_; from whence the European
+term has been derived through the Portuguese.
+
+The Siamese population is of course greatest on the Siamese frontier; so
+that, increasing as we go south, it attains its _maximum_ in Tenasserim
+just as the Mon did in Maulmein. It seems, also, to have been introduced
+at different times; a fact which gives us a distinction between the
+native Siamese and the recent settlers.
+
+Like the _Mon_, the Tha'y, at least in its more classical dialect, is a
+lettered language; the alphabet, like the Buddhist religion, being
+Indian. Unlike, however, the _Mon_, which is the only representative of
+the family to which it belongs, the _Tha'y_ tribes constitute a vast
+class, falling into divisions and subdivisions, and exceedingly
+remarkable in respect to its geographical distribution.
+
+The Siamese of Siam, the kingdom of which Bankok is the capital, form
+but a fraction of this great stock. The _upper_ half of the river Menam
+is occupied by what are called the _Lau_, or _Laos_. These are partly
+wholly independent, and partly in nominal dependence upon China; and
+proportionate to their independence is the unlettered character of their
+language, and the absence of Indian influences. Nor is this all. The
+Menam is pre-eminently the river of the Tha'y stock, and along the
+water-system of the Menam its chief branches are to be found; their
+position being between the Burmese populations of the west, and the
+Khomen of Cambojia on the east. This distribution is _vertical_, _i.e._,
+it is characterized by its length, rather than its breadth, and runs
+from south to north. So far does it reach in this direction that, as
+high as 28 deg. North lat., in upper Assam we find a branch of it. This
+is the _Khamti_. In a valuable comparison of languages, well-known as
+"Brown's Tables,"[23] the proportion of the Khamti words to the South
+Siamese is ninety-two _per cent._
+
+Of the physical appearance of the Siamese, we find the best account in
+"Crawfurd's Embassy," the classical work for the ethnology of the
+southern part of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Their stature is low; the
+tallest man out of twenty having been five feet eight inches, the
+shortest five feet three. The complexion, darker than that of the
+Chinese, is lighter than that of the Malay; the eye oblique; the jaw
+square; and the cheek-bones broad.
+
+_Tha'y_ is an ethnological term, and denotes all the nations and tribes
+akin to the Siamese of the southern, the Khamti of the northern, or the
+Lau of the intermediate area. The difference between the first and the
+last of these three should be noticed. Some members of the family are
+Indianized in religion, and organized in politics. Such are the Siamese
+of Bankok. Others retain both their independence and their original
+Paganism. Such are some of the Lau. _Mutatis mutandis_, the same applies
+to the next family.
+
+This is the _Burmese_, to which both the Avans and the Kariens belong;
+but as it has been already stated that the divisions under
+consideration are by no means of equal value, the two branches will be
+considered separately.
+
+3. _The Avans._--_Avan_ is a more convenient term than _Burmese_,
+inasmuch as it is more definite; the _Burmese Empire_ containing not
+only very distant members of the great _Burmese_ family, but also
+populations which belong to other groups. _Ava_, on the other hand, is
+the centre of the dominant division.
+
+Whether the _Mon_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent the
+aborigines of _Maulmein_, it is certain that the Avans of that country
+are of comparatively recent introduction.
+
+Again, whether the _Tha'y_, or a family yet to be mentioned, represent
+the aborigines of _Tenasserim_, it is certain that the Avans of that
+country are of comparatively recent origin.
+
+Nevertheless, there are Avans in each; and in Maulmein, although the Mon
+preponderate in number, they all are able to speak the language of their
+conquerors. I say _conquerors_, because the Avans are for all the parts
+south of 18 deg. North lat., an intrusive population: the end of the
+eighteenth century being the date, when, under Alompra, an Avan or
+Umerapura dynasty broke up and subjected, in different degrees, the Mon
+and Tha'y populations to the south, as well as several others more akin
+to itself on the east, west, and north.
+
+The kingdom of Ava, next to those of China and Siam, best represents the
+civilization of those families whose tongue is monosyllabic. This
+implies that it has an organized polity, a lettered language, and a
+Buddhist creed; in other words that the influences of either China or
+India have acted on it. Of these two nations it is the latter which has
+most modified the Indianized members of the great Burmese stock. In
+strong contrast with these is the fourth and last branch of the
+_continental_ population for the provinces in question, the
+
+4. _Karien._--The Kariens are partially independent; chiefly pagan; and
+their language, belonging to the same class with the Avan, is
+unlettered. They are the first of a long list.
+
+Their geographical distribution is remarkable, like that of the Tha'y.
+Its direction is north and south; its dimensions linear, rather than
+broad; and it bears nearly the same relation to the water-system of the
+Salwin that that of the Siamese does to the river Menam. There are
+Kariens as far south as 11 deg. North lat. and there are Kariens as far
+north as 25 deg. North lat. Hence we have them in Maulmein, and in
+Tenasserim, and in the intermediate provinces of Ye and Tavoy as well.
+All these, like the Mon, have been eased by the transfer from Avan
+oppression to British rule; though this says but little. Hence, with one
+exception, the other members of their family are decreasing; the
+exception being the so-called _Red_ Karien.
+
+This epithet indicates a change in physiognomy; and, indeed, the
+physical conformation of the Burmese tribes requires attention. It is
+Mongolian in the way that the Siamese is Mongolian; but changes have set
+in. The beard increases; the hair becomes crisper; and the complexion
+darkens. The Kyo,[24] the isolated occupants of a single village on the
+river Koladyng, are so much darker than their neighbours as to have been
+considered half Bengali; and, as a general rule, the nearer we approach
+India, the deeper becomes the complexion. The Mon, too, of Pegu, are
+very dark. What is this the effect of? Certainly not of latitude, since
+we are moving northward. Of intermarriage? There is no proof of this.
+The greater amount of low alluvial soils, like those of the Ganges and
+Irawaddi, is, in my mind, the truer reason. But this is too general a
+question to be allowed to delay us. The Red Kariens are instances of an
+Asiatic tribe with an American colour; just as the Red Fulahs were in
+Africa. Such are the occupants of the _continent_.
+
+5. _The Silong._--In the _islands_ of the Mergui Archipelago, there is
+another variety; but whether it form a class itself, or belong to any
+of the previous ones, is uncertain. Their language is said to be
+peculiar;[25] but of this we have no specimen. As it is probably that of
+the oldest inhabitants of the continent opposite, this is to be
+regretted.
+
+They are called _Silong_, are a sort of sea-gipsy; and amount to about
+one thousand. Of all the creeds of either India or the Indo-Chinese
+peninsula theirs is the most primitive; so primitive as to be
+characterized by little except its negative characters. They believe
+that the land, air, trees, and waters are inhabited by _Nat_, or
+spirits, who direct the phenomena of Nature. How far they affect that of
+man, except indirectly, is unascertained. "We do not think about that,"
+was the invariable answer, when any one was questioned about a future
+state. Too vague for monotheism, the Silong creed is also said to be too
+vague for idolatry, too vague for sacrifices.
+
+The Kariens, also, believe in _Nat_, but, as _they_ believe in their
+influence on human affairs, they sacrifice to them accordingly.
+
+Little, then, as we know, respecting these two families, we know that
+the common practice of _Nat_ worship connects them; and this worship
+connects many other members of the _Burmese_ stock. Consequently it
+helps us to place the Silong in that group. It also favours the notion
+of the Tenasserim aborigines being Burmese.
+
+It is the delta of the Irawaddi which isolates the _Tenasserim
+provinces_; and the British dependency from which it separates them is--
+
+_Arakhan._--We are prepared for the ethnological position of the Arakhan
+populations. They are _Burmese_.
+
+We are likewise prepared for a division of them; there will be the
+Indianized and the Pagan--paganism and political independence going, to
+a certain degree, together.
+
+We are prepared for even minuter detail; the paganism will be
+Nat-worship; the Indian creed Buddhism: the alphabet also, where the
+language is written, will be Indian also. In Captain Tower's
+vocabulary,[26] only seven words out of fifty differ between the Burmese
+of Arakhan, and the Burmese of Ava; and some of these are mere
+differences of pronunciation.
+
+The language itself is called _Rukheng_ by those who use it; but the
+Bengali name is _Mug_.
+
+This applies to the Indianized part of the population, the analogues of
+the Avans and Siamese of Tenasserim, and of the Mon of Maulmein. What
+are the Arakhan equivalents to the Karien?
+
+_The Khyen._--These inhabit the Yuma mountains between Arakhan and Ava.
+A full notice of them is given by Lieutenant Trant, in the sixteenth
+volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But as they are chiefly independent
+tribes, it is enough to state that they form the Anglo-Burmese frontier.
+It is also added that there are numerous Khyen slaves in Arakhan.
+
+Farther notice of them is the less important, because a closely allied
+population will occur amongst the hill-tribes of--
+
+_Chittagong._--Hindu elements now increase. Even in Arakhan, Buddhism
+had ceased to be the only creed of western origin. There were Mahometans
+who spoke a mixed dialect called the _Ruinga_;[27] and Brahminical
+Hindus who spoke another called the _Rosawn_. In Chittagong, then, we
+must look about us for the aborigines; so intrusive have become the
+Hindu elements. Intrusive, however, they are, and intrusive they will be
+for some time to come.
+
+The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are important points of
+difference in Indian ethnology. On the _lower_ ranges of the mountains
+on the north-east of Chittagong are the _Khumia_ (_Choomeeas_) or
+_villagers_; _khum_ (_choom_) meaning _village_. These are definitely
+distinguished from the Hindus, by a flat nose, small eye, and broad
+round face, in other words by Mongolian characteristics in the way of
+physiognomy. But the _Khumia_ are less perfect samples of their class
+than the true mountaineers. These are the _Kuki_,[28]--hunters and
+warriors, divided into tribes, each under elective chiefs, themselves
+subordinate to a hereditary _Raja_,--at least such is the Hindu
+phraseology.
+
+Their creed consists in the belief of _Khogein Pootteeang_ as a
+superior, and _Sheem Sauk_ as an inferior deity; the destruction of
+numerous enemies being the best recommendation to their favour. A wooden
+figure, of human shape, represents the latter. The skulls of their
+enemies they keep as trophies. In the month of January there is a solemn
+festival.
+
+Language and tradition alike tell us that the Kuki (and most likely the
+Khumia as well) are unmodified Mugs. The displacement of their family
+has been twofold--first by Hindus, secondly by Buddhist (or modified)
+Mugs at the time of the Burmese conquest. The Kuki population extends to
+the wilder parts of the district of _Tippera_.
+
+_Sylhet._--On the southern frontier we have Kukis; on the eastern
+Cachari; on the northern Coosyas (_Kasia_). Due west of these last lie
+the Garo. I imagine that both these last-named populations are members
+of the same group--but cannot speak confidently. If so, we have
+departed considerably from the more typical Burmese of Arakhan and Ava.
+Still we are within the same great class. The Garo will command a
+somewhat full notice.
+
+The Cachars depart still more from the more typical Burmese; the group
+to which they most closely belong being one which will also be enlarged
+on.
+
+North of the Kasia we reach the western portion of the southern frontier
+of--
+
+_Assam._--Here it will be convenient to take the whole of the
+valley--Upper as well as Middle and Lower Assam--although parts of the
+former are independent rather than British--and to go round it;
+beginning with the Kasia country and the Jaintia mountains on the
+south-west. I imagine--but am not certain--that the Kasia and Jaintia
+mountaineers are very closely allied.
+
+Next to the Cachars on the southern, or Manipur, frontier are--
+
+_The Nagas._--These are in the same class with the Kuki; _i.e._, the
+wild tribes of Manipur, speaking a not very altered dialect of the
+Burmese.
+
+_The Singpho._--This people is said to have come from a locality between
+their present position and the north-eastern corner of Assam and the
+Chinese frontier. An imperfect Buddhism, and an unappreciated alphabet
+of Siamese origin, are the chief phenomena of their civilization.
+
+_The Jili._--These are conterminous with the Singpho; to whom they are
+closely allied, in language, at least; seventy words out of one hundred
+agreeing in the two vocabularies.
+
+The _Khamti_ come in now. These have been mentioned as Tha'y in their
+most northern localities. They occupy north-eastern Assam, and are
+conterminous with the Singpho. The Khamti language, with its per-centage
+of ninety-two words common to it and the Siamese of Bankok, ten degrees
+southwards, has only three out of one hundred that agree with the
+Singpho, and ten in one hundred with the Jili. This shows the remarkable
+character of their ethnological distribution, and, at the same time,
+suggests the idea of great displacement.
+
+_The Mishimi._--These occupy the north-east extremity of Assam. With the
+Mishimi we turn the corner, and find ourself on the northern or Tibetan
+frontier. Here it is the most western tribes which come first; and these
+are--
+
+_The Abors and Padam Bor-Abors._--The first, like the Kuki, on the
+mountain-tops; the latter, like the Khumia, on the lower ranges.
+
+_The Dufla._--Mountaineers west of the Abors, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 94 deg. East lon.
+
+_The Aka._--Mountaineers west of the Dufla, with whom they are
+conterminous in about 92 deg. East lon. The Akas bound Lower Assam, the
+eastern part of which lies between them and the Cachari country.
+
+The tribes hitherto mentioned, although sufficiently numerous, represent
+the mountaineers of the Manipur and Tibetan _frontiers_ only. The native
+tribes of the valley still stand over. These are--
+
+1. The _Muttuck_ or _Moa Mareya_, _south_ of the Brahmaputra, and so far
+Indianized as to be Brahminical in religion. Their locality is the south
+bank of the Brahmaputra; opposite to that of--
+
+2. _The Miri_, on the _north_.--The Miri are backed on the north by the
+Bor-Abors.
+
+3. _The Mikir._--Mr. Robertson looks upon these as an intrusive people
+from the Jaintia hills: their present locality being the district of
+Nowgong, where they are mixed up with--
+
+4. _The Lalong._--I cannot say whether the Lalong speak their originally
+monosyllabic tongue, or have learnt the Bengali--a phenomenon which does
+much to disguise the true ethnology of more than one of the forthcoming
+tribes; one of which is certainly--
+
+5. _The Dhekra_, occupants of Lower Assam and Kamrup, where they are
+mixed up with other sections of the population.
+
+6. _The Rabha._--Like the Dhekra, these are Hindus. Like the Dhekra
+they speak Bengali. Hence, like the Dhekra, their true affinities are
+disguised. It is, however, pretty generally admitted by the best
+authorities that what may be predicated of the Garo and Bodo--two
+families of which a fuller notice will be given in the sequel--may be
+predicated of the sections in question, as also of--
+
+7. _The Hajong_ or _Hojai_.--Hindus, speaking a form of the Bengali at
+the foot of the Garo hills; and who join the Rabha, whose locality is
+between Gwahatti and Sylhet, _i.e._, at the entrance of the Assam
+valley.
+
+The _Garo_ of the Garo hills to the north-east of Bengal now require
+notice. A mountaineer of these parts has much in common with the Coosya;
+yet the languages are, _perhaps_, mutually unintelligible. In form they
+are exceedingly alike.
+
+Now, a Garo[29] is hardy, stout, and surly-looking, with a flattened
+nose, blue or brown eyes, large mouth, thick lips, round face, and brown
+complexion. Their _buniahs_ (_booneeahs_) or chiefs, are distinguished
+by a silken turban. They have a prejudice against milk; but in the
+matter of other sorts of food are omnivorous. Their houses, called
+_chaungs_, are built on piles, from three to four feet from the ground,
+from ten to forty in breadth, and from thirty to one hundred and fifty
+in length. They drink, feast, and dance freely; and, in their
+matrimonial forms, much resemble the Bodo. The youngest daughter
+inherits. The widow marries the brother of the deceased; if he die, the
+next; if all, the father.
+
+The dead are kept for four days; then burnt. Then the ashes are buried
+in a hole on the place where the fire was. A small thatched building is
+next raised over them; which is afterwards railed in. For a month, or
+more, a lamp is lit every night in this building. The clothes of the
+deceased hang on poles--one at each corner of the railing. When the pile
+is set fire to, there is great feasting and drunkenness.
+
+The Garo are no Hindus. Neither are they unmodified pagans. Mahadeva
+they invoke--perhaps, worship. Nevertheless, their creed is mixed. They
+worship the sun and the moon, or rather the sun _or_ the moon; since
+they ascertain which is to be invoked by taking a cup of water and some
+wheat. The priest then calls on the name of the sun, and drops corn into
+the water. If it sink, the sun is worshipped. If not, a similar
+experiment is tried with the name of the moon. Misfortunes are
+attributed to supernatural agency: and averted by sacrifice.
+
+Sometimes they swear on a stone; sometimes they take a tiger's bone
+between their teeth and then tell their tale.
+
+Lastly, they have an equivalent to the _Lycanthropy_ of the older
+European nations:--
+
+"Among the Garrows a madness exists, which they call transformation into
+a tiger, from the person who is afflicted with this malady walking about
+like that animal, shunning all society. It is said, that, on their being
+first seized with this complaint they tear their hair and the rings from
+their ears, with such force as to break the lobe. It is supposed to be
+occasioned by a medicine applied to the forehead; but I endeavoured to
+procure some of the medicine thus used, without effect. I imagine it
+rather to be created by frequent intoxications, as the malady goes off
+in the course of a week or fortnight. During the time the person is in
+this state, it is with the utmost difficulty he is made to eat or drink.
+I questioned a man, who had thus been afflicted, as to the manner of his
+being seized, and he told me he only felt a giddiness without any pain,
+and that afterwards he did not know what happened to him."[30]
+
+In a paper of Captain C. S. Reynolds, in the "Journal of the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal,"[31] we have the notice of a hitherto undescribed
+superstition; that of the _Korah_. A _Korah_ is a dish of bell-metal, of
+uncertain manufacture. A small kind, called Deo Korah, is hung up as a
+household god and worshipped. Should the monthly sacrifice of a fowl be
+neglected, punishment is expected. If "a person perform his devotion to
+the spirit which inhabits the Korah with increasing fervour and
+devotion, he is generally rewarded by seeing the embossed figures
+gradually expand. The Garos believe that when the whole household is
+wrapped in sleep, the Deo Korahs make expeditions in search of food, and
+when they have satisfied their appetites return to their snug retreats
+unobserved."
+
+The Miri are supposed to believe the same of what are called _Deo
+Guntas_, brought from Tibet.
+
+Now what is the classification of all these tribes? Preliminary to the
+answer on this point, there are eleven dialects spoken in the parts
+about Manipur--besides the proper language of Manipur itself--to be
+enumerated. These are as follows:--1. Songpu. 2. Kapwi. 3. Koreng. 4.
+Maram. 5. Champhung. 6. Luhuppa. 7, 8, 9. Northern, Central, and
+Southern Tangkhul. 10. Khoibu; and 11. Maring. Now these twelve (the
+Manipur being included) have been tabulated by Mr. Brown, in such a way
+as to show the per-centage of words that each has with all the others;
+and not only these, but nearly all the tongues which we have had to deal
+with, are similarly put in order for being compared. The part of the
+table necessary for the present use is as follows:--
+
+                                                         |N.|C.|S.|
+                                                   |C |  |  |  |  |
+                                    |M |           |h |  |T |T |T |
+                  |M |B |  |S |     |a |           |a |L |a |a |a |
+                  |i |u |  |i |     |n |S |  |K |  |m |u |n |n |n |K |M
+                  |s |r |K |n |     |i |o |K |o |M |p |h |g |g |g |h |a
+               |A |h |m |a |g |J |G |p |n |a |r |a |h |u |k |k |k |o |r
+            |A |b |i |e |r |p |i |a |u |g |p |e |r |u |p |h |h |h |i |i
+            |k |o |m |s |e |h |l |r |r |p |w |n |a |n |p |u |u |u |b |n
+            |a |r |i |e |n |o |i |o |i |u |i |g |m |g |a |l |l |l |u |g
+ -----------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--
+ Aka        |  |47|20|17|12|15|15| 5|11| 3|10| 3| 8| 8| 8| 5| 6|10| 8|10
+ Abor       |47|  |20|11|10|18|11| 6|15| 6|11| 5| 8| 6| 8| 8| 8|10|10|18
+ Mishimi    |20|20|  |10|10|10|13|10|11| 0|11| 0| 3| 5| 6| 8| 6|13|10| 8
+ Burmese    |17|11|10|  |23|23|26|12|16| 8|20| 6|11|11|11|10|13|13|16|16
+ Karen      |12|10|10|23|  |17|21| 8|15|10|15| 8|12| 4|12| 8|12|12|10|15
+ Singpho    |15|18|10|23|17|  |70|16|25|10|18|11|11|13|15|13|25|13|20|18
+ Jili       |15|11|13|26|21|70|  |22|16|10|21|13|11|11|18|20|20|13|20|20
+ Garo       | 5| 6|10|12| 8|16|22|  |10| 5| 6| 5| 8| 5| 8|13|11| 5| 5| 5
+ Manipuri   |11|15|11|16|15|25|16|10|  |21|41|18|25|28|31|28|35|33|40|50
+ Songpu     | 3| 6| 0| 8|10|10|10| 5|21|  |35|50|53|20|23|15|15|13| 8|15
+ Kapwi      |10|11|11|20|15|18|21| 6|41|35|  |30|33|20|35|30|40|45|38|40
+ Koreng     | 3| 5| 0| 6| 8|11|13| 5|18|50|30|  |41|18|21|20|20|11|10|15
+ Maram      | 8| 8| 3|11|12|11|11| 8|25|53|33|41|  |21|28|25|20|16|23|26
+ Champhung  | 8| 6| 5|11| 4|13|11| 5|28|20|20|18|21|  |40|20|20|16|15|25
+ Luhuppa    | 8| 8| 6|11|12|15|18| 8|31|23|35|21|28|40|  |63|55|36|33|40
+ N. Tangkhul| 5| 8| 8|10| 8|13|20|13|28|15|30|20|25|20|63|  |85|30|31|31
+ C. Tangkhul| 6| 8| 6|13|12|25|20|11|35|15|40|20|20|20|55|85|  |41|45|41
+ S. Tangkhul|10|10|13|13|12|13|13| 5|33|13|45|11|16|16|36|30|41|  |43|43
+ Khoibu     | 8|10|10|16|10|20|20| 5|40| 8|38|10|23|15|33|31|45|43|  |78
+ Maring     |10|18| 8|16|15|18|20| 5|50|15|40|15|26|25|40|31|41|43|78|
+
+The last eleven dialects are not spoken in any British dependency; and
+they have only been mentioned for the sake of explaining the table.
+
+All belong to one and the same class; a point upon which I see no room
+for doubt; although respecting the _value_ of that class I admit that
+some exists.
+
+For this, the term _Burmese_ is as good as any other--without professing
+to be better; yet, should it seem too precise, there is no objection to
+the sufficiently general term of _monosyllabic_ being substituted for
+it.
+
+The reader, however, may doubt the fact of the affinities. This has
+been done. Long before the present writer knew of such dialects as the
+Jili, Mishimi, Aka, Abor, Singpho, and the like, he had satisfied
+himself that the Garo was monosyllabic, and had so expressed himself in
+1844,[32] when Brown's Tables had been published, though not seen by
+him. It was with surprise, then, that he found the author of them
+writing, that "it would be difficult to decide from the specimens before
+us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic or polysyllabic
+languages. It probably belongs to the latter."
+
+Again, Mr. Hodgson makes the Garo Tamulian, _i.e._, polysyllabic; a fact
+which will be noticed again when the Bodo, Dhimal, and Kocch have been
+disposed of.
+
+_The Kocch_, _Bodo_, and _Dhimal_ is the title of one of that writer's
+works--a model of an ethnological monograph. This gives us a new class.
+The Bodo of Hodgson are the wild tribes that skirt the Himalayas, from
+Assam to Sikkim. West of these, between the river Konki and the river
+Dhorla are the Dhimal, a small tribe mixed with Bodo; and, southwards,
+in Kocch Behar, are the Kocch. The two former are so much described
+together that a separation is difficult. This leaves us at liberty to
+follow the details of either one population or of both. The history of
+a Bodo from his cradle to his grave is as follows. The birth is attended
+with a _minimum_ amount of ceremonies. Midwives there are none; but
+labours are easy. Neither has the priest much to do with ushering-in the
+new-comer to the world. A short period of uncleanness is recognized, but
+it is only a short one; the purification consisting in the acts of
+bathing and shaving performed by the parties themselves. Four or five
+days after delivery, the mother goes out into the world; and at that
+time, the child is named. Any passing event determines this; as there
+are no family names, and no names taken from their mythology. The
+account, however, of Mr. Hodgson, in this respect is somewhat obscure,
+"A Bhotia chief arrives at the village, and the child is named Jinkhap;
+or a hill peasant arrives, and it is named Gongar, after the titular, or
+general designation of the Bhotias."
+
+As long as a mother can suckle a child (or _children_) she continues to
+do so, sometimes for so long a period as three years, when the last and
+last but one may be seen sucking together.
+
+The period of weaning is thus delayed; and, notwithstanding the current
+notion as to the prematurity of marriages in warm climates, that of
+wedlock is delayed as well: the male waits till he is twenty or
+twenty-five, the female till between fifteen and twenty. The parties
+least concerned are the bride and bridegroom; the parents do the
+courtship. Those of the lady take a payment. This is called a _Jan_
+amongst the Bodo, and varies from ten to fifteen rupees. With the Dhimal
+it is a _Gandi_, and amounts to a higher sum, ranging from fifteen to
+forty-five. Failing this, service must be done by the youth; and a wife
+be earned as Jacob earned Leah and Rachel. This is the _Gabor_ of the
+Bodo, and the _Gharjya_ of the Dhimal.
+
+Such marriages are easily dissolved, _i.e._, at the option of either
+party. In case, however, of infidelity on the part of a wife having
+caused a divorce, the wedding-money is repaid. Adoption is common,
+concubinage rare; each being on a level with marriage in respect to the
+_status_ of the children. Of these, all males inherit alike; but the
+rights of the female are limited.
+
+The ceremony itself begins with a procession on the part of the
+bridegroom's friends to the bride's house, two females accompanying
+them. Of these, it is the business to put red-lead and oil on the
+bride-elect's hair. A feast follows; after which the husband takes his
+wife home. Thus far the Bodo forms agree with the Dhimal; but they
+differ in what follows.
+
+_The Bodo_ sacrifices a cock and a hen in the names of the bridegroom
+and the bride, respectively to the Sun.
+
+_The Dhimal_ propitiate _Data_ and _Bedata_ by presents of betel-leaf
+and red-lead.
+
+Both bury their dead, and purify themselves by ablution in the nearest
+stream when the funeral procession is over. The family, however, of the
+deceased is considered as unclean for three days.
+
+A feast with sacrifices attends the purification. Before sitting down,
+they repair once more to the grave, and present the dead with some of
+the food from the banquet;--"take and eat, heretofore you have eaten and
+drunk with us; you can do so no more; you were one of us, you can be so
+no longer; we come no more to you; come you not to us." After this each
+member of the party takes from his wrist a bracelet of thread, and
+throws it on the grave.
+
+A ceremonial implies a priesthood. Under this class come the Deoshi, the
+Dhami, the Ojha, and the Phantwal.
+
+The first of these is the village, the second the district, priest.
+
+The Ojha is the village exorcist; and the Phantwal a subordinate of the
+Deoshi. The influence of this clerical body, although probably higher
+than Mr. Hodgson places it, is, evidently, anything but exorbitant.
+
+I cannot find anything in the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions higher than
+what was found in Africa. Nor yet is anything _essentially_ different.
+Similar intellectual conditions develop similar creeds, independent of
+intercourse; a fact which, the more we go into the natural history of
+religions, the more we shall verify. We read indeed of _oaths_ and
+_ordeals_; but oaths and ordeals are by no means, what they have too
+loosely been supposed to be, appeals to the moral nature of the
+Divinity. The _dhoom_ test, in Old Calabar, is an ordeal. The criminal
+tests of the Fantis are the same. Indeed, few, if any tribes, are
+without them. What the real ideas are which determine such and such-like
+ceremonies is difficult for intellectual adults to understand. The way
+towards their appreciation lies in the phenomena of a child's mind; the
+true clue to the psychology of rude populations.
+
+If we take the Bodo and Dhimal religions in detail we find ourselves in
+a familiar field, with well-known forms of superstition around us.
+
+Diseases are attributed to supernatural agency; and the medicine-man,
+exorcist, or Ojha, is more priest than surgeon.
+
+The _feticism_ of Africa re-appears; at least such is my inference from
+the following extract. "_Batho_ is clearly and indisputably identifiable
+with _something tangible_, _viz._, the _Sij_ or _Euphorbia_; though why
+that useless and even exotic plant should have been thus selected to
+type the Godhead, I have failed to learn."
+
+Euhemerism, or the worship of dead men deified, is to be found either in
+its germs or its rudiments; at any rate, one of their deities bears the
+name of Hajo, a known historic personage. But this may be referable to
+Hindu influences unequivocally traceable in other parts of the Pantheon.
+
+It is the rites and ceremonies of a country that give us its religion in
+the concrete. All beyond is an abstraction. These, with the Bodo and
+Dhimal, are numerous. Invocations, deprecations, and thanksgivings are
+all mentioned by Mr. Hodgson; and they are all attended by offerings or
+sacrifices; libations attend the sacrifices, and feasting follows the
+libations.
+
+The great festivals of the year are four for the Bodo, three for the
+Dhimal.
+
+_a._ In December or January, when the cotton-crop is ready, the Bodo
+hold their _Shurkhar_, the Dhimal their _Harejata_.
+
+_b._ In February or March, the Bodo hold the _Wagaleno_.
+
+_c._ In July or August, the rice comes into ear. This brings on the Bodo
+_Phulthepno_, and the Dhimal _Gavipuja_.
+
+All these are celebrated out of doors, and on agricultural occasions.
+
+_d._ The fourth great festival is held at home; its time being the month
+of October; its name _Aihuno_ in Bodo, and _Pochima paka_ in Dhimal.
+Here, in the _Aihuno_ at least, the family assembles, the priest joins
+it, and the Sij, or Euphorbia, represents Batho. This is placed in the
+middle of the room, has prayers offered to it, and a _cock_ as a
+sacrifice; whilst Mainou's offering is a _hog_; Agrang's a _he-goat_,
+and so on, through the whole list of the nine _nooni madai_, or deities
+thus worshipped. As for the symbols which represent them, besides the
+Sij, which stands for Batho, there is a bamboo post about three feet
+high, surmounted by a small cup of rice, denoting Mainou; but the
+equivalents of the other seven are somewhat uncertain.
+
+The Wagaleno festival was witnessed by Mr. Hodgson and Dr. Campbell. The
+account of it is something lengthy. I mention it, however, for the sake
+of one of its principal actors--the Deoda. This is the _possessed_, who,
+"when filled with the god, answers by inspiration to the question of the
+priest as to the prospects of the coming season. When we first discerned
+him, he was sitting on the ground, panting, and rolling his eyes so
+significantly that I at once conjectured his function. Shortly
+afterwards, the rite still proceeding, the Deoda got up, entered the
+circle, and commenced dancing with the rest, but more wildly. He held a
+short staff in his hand, with which, from time to time, he struck the
+bedizened poles, one by one, and lowering it as he struck. The chief
+dancer with the odd-shaped instrument waxed more and more vehement in
+his dance; the inspired grew more and more maniacal; the music more and
+more rapid; the incantation more and more solemn and earnest; till, at
+last, amid a general lowering of the heads of the decked bamboo poles,
+so that they met and formed a canopy over him, the Deoda went off in an
+affected fit, and the ceremony closed without any revelation." This
+self-excited state of ecstasy is an element of most religions in the
+same stage of development; and a low level it indicates. In Greece, in
+Africa, and in Northern Asia, we find it as regularly as we find a
+coarse and material creed; and to the coarseness of the materialism of
+such a creed it is generally proportionate.
+
+Witches, and the discovery of them, and the influence of the evil eye
+are part and parcel of the Bodo and Dhimal superstitions.
+
+_Kocch_ means a population, which possibly amounts to as much as a
+million souls, extended from about 88 deg. to 93-1/2 deg. East long., and
+25 deg. to 27 deg. North lat., and of which Kocch Behar is the political
+centre. The term is _ethnological_--not political. It is ethnological,
+and not political, because, although originally native, it has since been
+partially abandoned. _All_ the inhabitants of the parts in question
+_once_ called themselves Kocch; and Kocch they were called by their
+neighbours the Mech. At this time the country was unequivocally other
+than Indian; _i.e._, in the same category with that of the Garo and
+Bodo. Since then, however, great changes have taken place; so that, just
+as Wales is partially Anglicized, the Welsh language being replaced by
+the English, the Kocch--the native tongue--is under the process of being
+replaced by a Hindu dialect. Nevertheless, just as many a Welshman who
+speaks nothing but English is still a Welshman, so are the Kocch, who
+have changed their languages, Bodo, Garo, or something closely akin, in
+ethnological position.
+
+The extent to which different portions of the once great Kocch nation
+have abandoned or retained their original characteristics is easily
+measured.
+
+1. Those who have changed most speak a form of the Bengali, and are
+imperfect Mahometans; imperfect, because their creed is strongly
+tinctured with Hinduism. Thus the very epithet which they apply to
+themselves is Brahminical; _Rajbansi_=_Suryabansi_=_Sun-born_. The
+converted Kocch of the Mahometan creed are chiefly of the lower order
+of the province of Behar.
+
+2. Those who have changed, but changed less than the _Mahometans_ of
+Behar, are either Brahminists or Buddhists--speaking the same Bengali
+dialect as the last. These are chiefly the higher classes of the
+population of Behar. They are Kocch in the way that the Cornishmen are
+Welsh. They consider them _Rajbansi_ also. Doubtless, their Hinduism is
+imperfect; _i.e._, tinctured with the original paganism.
+
+3. The primitive, unconverted, or _Pani_ Kocch, have either not changed
+at all, or changed but little. They retain the original name of Kocch;
+which is not endured by the others. They retain their original tongue,
+which, according to Buchanan, has no affinity with any of the Hindu
+tongues. They retain their original customs; and they retain their
+original paganism. Lastly, Mr. Hodgson attests the "entire conformity of
+the physiognomy of all--with that of the other aborigines around them."
+He adds that he cannot improve on Buchanan's account of them, which is
+as follows:--"The primitive or Pani Kocch live amid the woods,
+frequently changing their abode in order to cultivate lands enriched by
+a fallow. They cultivate entirely with the hoe, and more carefully than
+their neighbours who use the plough, for they weed their crops, which
+the others do not. As they keep hogs and poultry they are better fed
+than the Hindus, and as they make a fermented liquor from rice, their
+diet is more strengthening. The clothing of the Pani Kocch is made by
+the women, and is in general blue, dyed by themselves with their own
+indigo, the borders red, dyed with Morinda. The material is cotton of
+their own growth, and they are better clothed than the mass of the
+Bengalese. Their huts are at least as good, nor are they raised on posts
+like the houses of the Indo-Chinese, at least, not generally so. Their
+only arms are spears: but they use iron-shod implements of agriculture,
+which the Bengalese often do not. They eat swine, goats, sheep, deer,
+buffaloes, rhinoceros, fowls, and ducks--not beef, nor dogs, nor cats,
+nor frogs, nor snakes. They use tobacco and beer, but reject opium and
+hemp. They eat no tame animal without offering it to God (the Gods), and
+consider that he who is least restrained is most exalted, allowing the
+Garos to be their superiors, because the Garos may eat beef. The men are
+so gallant as to have made over all property to the women, who in return
+are most industrious, weaving, spinning, brewing, planting, sowing; in a
+word, doing all work not above their strength. When a woman dies the
+family property goes to her daughters, and when a man marries he lives
+with his wife's mother, obeying her as his wife. Marriages are usually
+arranged by mothers in nonage, but consulting the destined bride. Grown
+up women may select a husband for themselves, and another, if the first
+die. A girl's marriage costs the mother ten rupees--a boy's five rupees.
+This sum is expended in a feast with sacrifice, which completes the
+ceremony. Few remain unmarried, or live long. I saw no grey hairs.
+Girls, who are frail, can always marry their lover. Under such rule,
+polygamy, concubinage, and adultery are not tolerated. The last subjects
+to a ruinous fine, which if not paid, the offender becomes a slave. No
+one can marry out of his own tribe. If he do, he is fined. Sutties are
+unknown, and widows always having property can pick out a new husband at
+discretion. The dead are kept two days, during which the family mourn,
+and the kindred and friends assemble and feast, dance and sing. The body
+is then burned by a river's side, and each person having bathed returns
+to his usual occupation. A funeral costs ten rupees, as several pigs
+must be sacrificed to the manes. This tribe has no letters; but a sort
+of priesthood called Deoshi, who marry and work like other people. Their
+office is not hereditary, and everybody employs what Deoshi he pleases,
+but some one always assists at every sacrifice and gets a share. The
+Kocch sacrifice to the sun, moon, and stars, to the gods of rivers,
+hills and woods, and every year, at harvest-home, they offer fruits and
+a fowl to deceased parents, though they believe not in a future state!
+Their chief gods are Rishi and his wife Jago. After the rains the whole
+tribe make a grand sacrifice to these gods, and occasionally also, in
+cases of distress. There are no images. The gods get the blood of
+sacrifices; their votaries, the meat. Disputes are settled among
+themselves by juries of Elders, the women being excluded here, however
+despotic at home. If a man incurs a fine, he cannot pay with purse, he
+must with person, becoming a bondman, on food and raiment only, unless
+his wife can and will redeem him."
+
+I must now request particular attention on the part of the reader to the
+terms which Mr. Hodgson applies to the physical conformation of these
+northern, or sub-Himalayan tribes; and still closer attention must be
+given to his nomenclature. He calls the stock in question _Tamulian_.
+This connects it with the _South_ Indian. He contrasts it with the
+_Hindu_. By this he means the Brahminical elements of the Indian
+populations.
+
+Let us then see what points he considers to be _Tamulian_.
+
+1. There is "less height, less symmetry, more dumpiness and flesh."
+
+2. There is "a somewhat lozenge contour (of face) caused by the large
+cheek-bones."
+
+3. There is "less perpendicularity of features in the front--a larger
+proportion of face to head--a broader flatter face--a shorter wider
+nose, often clubbed at the end, and furnished with round nostrils."
+
+4. There is a smaller eye, "less fully opened, and less evenly crossing
+the face by their line of aperture." In other words, there is the
+_oblique_ eye, so much considered in the Chinese physiognomy.
+
+5. Lastly, there are larger ears, thicker lips, and less beard.
+
+I submit that all these points are Mongolian; and this is what Mr.
+Hodgson evidently thinks also.
+
+The whole class has passed beyond the hunter state, if ever such
+existed. It has passed beyond the pastoral or nomadic state also; if
+such existed. It is at present--and, perhaps, has always been--an
+agricultural state of society. On the other hand--the industrial state,
+the development represented by towns and commerce, has not been
+attained.
+
+The whole stock is essentially agricultural. Likewise, the agriculture
+is peculiar. We may explain it by the term _erratic_. They "never
+cultivate the same field beyond the second year, or remain in the same
+village beyond the fourth to sixth year. After the lapse of four or five
+years they frequently return to their old fields and resume their
+cultivation, if in the interim the jungle has grown well, and they have
+not been anticipated by others, for there is no pretence of
+appropriation other than possessory, and if, therefore, another party
+have preceded them, or, if the slow growth of the jungle give no
+sufficient promise of a good stratum of ashes for the land when cleared
+by fire, they move on to another site, new or old. If old, they resume
+the identical fields they tilled before, but never the old houses or
+site of the old village, that being deemed unlucky. In general, however,
+they prefer new land to old, and having still abundance of unbroken
+forest around them, they are in constant movement, more especially as,
+should they find a new spot prove unfertile, they decamp after the first
+harvest is got in."
+
+_Arva in annos mutant et superest ager._ This passage is explained by
+their customs.
+
+In respect to their social constitution, they dwell in small communities
+of from ten to forty houses; each of which community is under a _gra_ or
+head. This is Hindu--except that as the Hindu villages are both larger
+and more permanent, the functionaries, in addition to the _headman_, are
+more numerous. This is noted, because the difference in the two sorts of
+village government seems to be one of _degree_ rather than _kind_.
+
+And now comes more in the way of classification. The Bodo are Kachars,
+or the Kachars are Bodo. Their languages are the same, so are their
+gods, so is their name; since Kachar is a Hindu, and no native term--the
+native name (_i.e._, of the Kachars) being _Bodo_. On the other hand,
+the _Hindu_ name of the Bodo is Mech. Whoever looks to a map will find
+that the outline of the Bodo area is very deeply indented; implying
+either a great original irregularity of area, or great subsequent
+displacement.
+
+Now follow the Garo. One fourth--fifteen out of sixty--of the words of
+Mr. Brown's Garo vocabulary is Bodo. The inference? That the Bodo and
+Garo are in the same category. What is this? Mr. Hodgson makes both
+Tamulian or Indian. In my own mind both are Burmese. But be this as it
+may, one fact is certain; _viz._, that a transition between the tongues
+of the Indian and the tongues of the Indo-Chinese peninsula exists, and
+that the lines of demarcation which divide them are less broad and
+trenchant than is generally supposed.
+
+The Dhimal bring us to Sikkim. The dominant nation of Sikkim are--
+
+_The Lepchas._--Their language also is monosyllabic; but it is Tibetan
+rather than Burmese. They are a Sikkim rather than a British Indian
+population.
+
+When we have passed the rajahship of Sikkim, we reach that of Nepal.
+This, again, is independent. Such being the case, the line of frontier
+between the Hindu populations and the populations of the Bodo and Garo
+character lies beyond the pale of the British dependencies.
+
+But in proceeding westward, we pass Nepal, and reach Kumaon.
+
+This is British, and, as it extends as far north as the Himalayas, it
+may contain monosyllabic languages, and tribes speaking them. It may
+present also instances of intermixture like those which we have already
+found in Behar--the line of demarcation being equally difficult and
+undefined. Difficult and undefined it really is--because, although it is
+an easy matter to take a portion of the Sirmor, Gurhwal, or Kumaon
+population, and say, "this is Hindu because both language and creed make
+it so," it is by no means so easy to prove that the blood, pedigree, or
+descent is Hindu also. To repeat an illustration already in use--many
+such populations may be Hindu only as the Cornishmen are English.
+
+Now the populations of the Tibetan stock to the west of Nepal, so little
+known in detail, must be illustrated by means of our knowledge of the
+tribes of Nepal and Tibet most closely related to them--by those of
+Nepal on the east, and those of Tibet on the north.
+
+For neither of these areas are there any very minute _data_. For the
+aborigines of _eastern_ and _central_ Nepal, we have plenty of
+information. They are tribes speaking monosyllabic languages, and tribes
+in different degrees of intercourse with the Hindus; being by name--1.
+The Magars. 2. The Gurungs. 3. The Jariyas. 4. The Newars. 5. The
+Murmis. 6. The Kirata. 7. The Limbu; and 8. The Lepchas, common to the
+eastern boundary of Nepal, to the western part of Butan, and to Sikkim.
+This, however, will not bring us far west enough for the Kumaon
+frontier; indeed, for the forests of Nepal _west_ of the Great Valley,
+we have the notice of one family only--the Chepang. For this, as for so
+much more, we are indebted to Mr. Hodgson. It falls into three tribes;
+the Chepang proper, the Kusunda, and the Haju. Its language (known to us
+by a vocabulary) is monosyllabic; its physical conformation, that of the
+unmodified Indian.
+
+So much for analogy. In the way of direct information we simply know
+that the Pariahs, or outcasts, of Kumaon[33] are called _Doms_. These
+have darker skins and curlier hair than the Hindus. Are these enslaved
+and partially amalgamated aborigines? Probably. Nay more; in the
+eastern part of the province, amidst the forests at the foot of the
+Himalayas, a community of about twenty families, pertinaciously adheres
+to the customs of their ancestors, resembles the _Doms_ in looks, and is
+called _Rawat_ or _Raji_. Though I have seen no specimen of their
+language, I have little doubt as to the _Rawat_ of Kumaon being the
+equivalents to the Chepang of Nepal.
+
+From Konawur we have three monosyllabic vocabularies, the Sumchu, the
+Theburskud, and the Milchan; but the exact amount to which the Tibetan
+and the Hindu populations indent each other along the western Himalayas
+is more than I can give.
+
+Here end the monosyllabic tongues spoken in British India. But they
+fringe the Himalayas throughout, and occur in the country of Gholab
+Singh, as well as in the independent rajahships between the Sutlege and
+Cashmeer. My latest researches have carried them even further westward
+than Little Tibet; as far as the Kohistan, or mountain country, of
+Cabul--the Der, Lughmani, Tirhai, and other languages, known, wholly or
+chiefly, through the vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach, being essentially
+monosyllabic in structure, and definitely connected with the tongues of
+Tibet, and Nepal in respect to their vocables.
+
+But this is episodical to the subject--a subject still requiring the
+notice of a very important phenomenon.
+
+_Polyandria_[34] is a term in ethnology, even as it is in botany. Its
+meaning, however, is different. Etymologically, it denotes a form of
+_polygamy_. _Polygamy_, however, being restricted to that particular
+form of marriage which consists in a multiplicity of _wives_,
+_polyandria_ expresses the reverse, _viz._, the plurality of _husbands_.
+
+At the first glance, the word _polyandria_ looks like a learned name for
+a common thing; and suggests the inquiry as to how it differs from
+simple promiscuity of intercourse; or, at least, how far the Tibetan
+wife differs from the fair frail one who was always constant to the 85th
+regiment. The answer is not easy. Still it is certain that some
+difference exists--if not in form, at least, in its effects. One of
+these, in certain countries where _polyandria_ prevails, is the law of
+succession to property. This follows the female line, rather than the
+male.
+
+Again--the marriage of the widow with the surviving brother of her
+husband, is polyandria under another form.
+
+What the exact polyandria of Tibet is, is uncertain. I am not prepared
+to deny its existence even in so extreme a form as that of _one woman
+being married to several husbands, all alive at once_. Still, I think it
+more likely that either the circle of community was limited to certain
+degrees of relationships, or else that the multiplied husbands were
+successive, rather than simultaneous. Still, the facts of the Tibetan
+_polyandria_ require further investigation.
+
+One thing, only, is certain--_viz._, that as an ethnological criterion
+the practice is of no great value. Capable, as it has been shown to be,
+of modification in form, it is anything but limited to either Tibet, or
+the families allied to the Tibetan. It occurs in many parts of the
+world. It is a Malabar practice; where it is, probably, as truly Tibetan
+as in Tibet itself. But it is also Jewish, African, Siberian, and North
+American; so that nothing would more mislead us in the classification of
+the varieties of man than to mistake it for a phenomenon _per se_, and
+allow it to separate allied, or to connect distinct populations.
+
+_Necdum finitus Orestes._--There are several populations which, on fair
+grounds, have been believed to be in the same category with the Dhekra,
+_i.e._, which are Hindu in language and creed, though monosyllabic in
+blood. The Kudi, Batar, Kebrat, Pallah, Gangai, Maraha, Dhanak, Kichak,
+and Tharu, are oftener alluded to than described--though, doubtless, a
+better-informed investigator in such special matters than the present
+writer could find several definite details concerning them. They seem
+chiefly referable to Behar and north-eastern Bengal. The _Dhungers_--in
+the same class--the husbandmen of South Behar, bring us down to the
+vicinity of the population next to be noticed; a population which is
+generally considered with reference to the nations, tribes, and families
+of _Southern_ rather than _Northern_ India.
+
+The name of this family has already been mentioned. It is _Tamulian_;
+and the _Tamulian_ physiognomy has been described. It has been seen to
+extend as far north as the Himalayas. If so, the nations already
+enumerated have been Tamulian; and no new class is now approaching. This
+may or may not be the case. Another change, however, is more undeniable.
+This is that of language. It is no longer referable to the Chinese type;
+since separate monosyllables have, more or less perfectly, become
+_agglutinated_ into inflected forms, and the speech is as
+_poly_-syllabic as the other tongues of the world in general. As we
+approach the south this abandonment of the monosyllabic character
+increases, and from the _Tamul_ language spoken between Pulicat and Cape
+Comorin, the term _Tamulian_--applicable in a general ethnological
+sense--is derived. _Agglutinated_ (or _agglutinate_) is also a technical
+term. It means languages in the second stage of their development; when
+words originally separate, such as adverbs of time, prepositions, and
+personal pronouns, have become permanently connected with the root, so
+as to form tenses, cases, and persons--the union of the two parts of an
+inflected word being still sufficiently recent and imperfect to leave
+their original separation and independence visible and manifest. When
+the incorporation or amalgamation, has become more complete; so
+complete, as in most cases to have obliterated all vestiges of an
+original independence; the _agglutinate_ character has departed, the
+second stage of development has been passed, and the language is in the
+same class with those of Greece, Rome, and Germany, rather than in that
+of the tongues in question, and of many others.
+
+To return, however, to the _Tamulian_ family, meaning thereby a branch
+of the great Mongolian stock, speaking, _either now or formerly_, a
+language more or less allied to the Tamul of the Dekhan.
+
+The first members of the class, as we proceed southwards from Behar, are
+certain hill-tribes of the Rajmahali Mountains--the Rajmahali
+mountaineers. Their Mongolian physiognomy is unequivocal;--a Mongolian
+physiognomy but conjoined with a dark skin. They have "broad faces,
+small eyes, and flattish or rather turned-up noses. Their lips are
+thicker than those of the inhabitants of the plain."[35]
+
+The flattened nose reminded the writer of the Negro, and the general
+character of the features of the Chinese or Malay; though it is added
+that the resemblance is in a great degree lost on closer inspection. At
+the same time it has been sufficiently recognized to have originated the
+hypothesis of a descent from one of those nations as a means of
+accounting for it.
+
+With a slight tincture of Brahminic Hinduism, the Rajmahali mountaineers
+are Pagans. _Bedo_ is one of their gods; doubtless the _Potteang_ of the
+Kuki, and the _Batho_ of the Bodo. _Gosaik_, too, is either the name of
+a god, or a holy epithet; this, also, being a mythological term current
+amongst many other tribes of India. Other elements in their
+imperfectly-known mythology deserve notice. Their priesthood contains
+both _Demauns_ and _Dewassis_; the latter form being the Bodo _Deoshi_.
+As the names are alike, so are the functions. The _Dewassi_ is an
+oracular seer. When he vouchsafes to give answers, his inspiration takes
+the form of frenzy--but he neither hurts nor speaks to any one. He makes
+signs for a cock, and for a hen's egg as well. The cock's head he
+wrenches off, and sucks the bleeding neck. The egg he eats. After this
+he seeks the solitude of the wood or stream; and is fed by the deity.
+Sometimes he has ridden a snake; sometimes put his hands in the mouth of
+a tiger with impunity. Trees too large to move, or too thorny to touch,
+he places on the roofs of houses. He sees Bedo Gosaik in visions; and,
+in the sacrifices therein enjoined, red paint, rice, and pigeons make a
+part. From the touch of women he abstains; so he does from the taste of
+flesh. Either would make his prophecies false.
+
+There are also certain sacrifices that the _Maungy_ (chief?) of each
+village makes, and in which threads of red silk play a part.
+
+One of their gods--an elemental one--is the god of rain, and the dangers
+of a drought are averted by praying to him. A ceremony called the
+_Satane_ determines the chief who takes the office of invoker.
+
+A black stone, called _Ruxy_, is much of the same sort of fetish with
+these mountaineers as the Sij with the Bodo. The name, too, Ruxy _Nad_,
+suggests the Nat worship of the Silong, Kariens, and others.
+
+The northern half of the Tamulian families are, like the Welsh, the
+Cornish, and the Bretons of France, members of the same ethnological
+group, but not in geographical contact with each other. Or, rather, they
+are, like the Celtic population of Wales and the Scottish Highlands,
+cut off from one another by a vast tract of intervening Anglo-Saxons.
+Yet the time was when all was Celtic, from Cape Wrath to the Land's End;
+and when the original population extended, in its full integrity, over
+York and Nottingham, as well as over Merioneth and Argyleshire. And so
+it is with the populations in question. They stand apart from each
+other, like islands in an ocean; the intervening spaces being filled up
+by Hindus. At the same time the isolation has been much overvalued, and,
+I imagine that when greater attention shall have been bestowed upon this
+important subject, connecting links which have hitherto been unnoticed
+will be detected.
+
+The next locality where we find a population akin to the Rajmahali
+mountaineers, is the mountain system of Orissa. These are called by the
+Hindus _Kols_ (_Coolies_), _Khonds_ and _Surs_. Such, however, are no
+native designations--no more than the classical term _Barbarian_, or the
+English word _Tartar_. The people themselves have no collective name;
+but, being divided into tribes, have a separate one for each.
+
+I say that this branch of Tamulians is isolated, because I am not able
+to show its continuity; the range of hill-country which gives rise to
+the rivers between the Ganges and Mahanuddy being but imperfectly known.
+
+In Orissa, the most northern of the hill-tribes are the Kol of Cuttack.
+South of these come the Khonds best studied in the neighbourhood of
+Goomsoor. The following is a list of their gods, and as _n_ seems to
+stand for _d_, _Pennu_ is but another name for _Bedo_, and _Gossa Pennu_
+for _Bedo Gosaik_:--
+
+  1. Bera _Pennu_, or the earth god.
+  2. Bella _Pennu_, the sun god, and Danzu _Pennu_, the moon god.
+  3. Sandhi _Pennu_, the god of limits.
+  4. Loha _Pennu_, the iron god, or god of arms.
+  5. Jugah _Pennu_, the god of small-pox.
+  6. Madzu _Pennu_, or the village deity, the universal _genius loci_.
+  7. Soro _Pennu_, the hill god.
+  8. Jori _Pennu_, the god of streams.
+  9. Gossa _Pennu_, the forest god.
+  10. Munda _Pennu_, the tank god.
+  11. Sugu _Pennu_, or Sidruja _Pennu_, the god of fountains.
+  12. Pidzu _Pennu_, the god of rain.
+  13. Pilamu _Pennu_, the god of hunting.
+  14. The god of births.[36]
+
+The most southern of the Orissa hill-tribes are the _Sur_; connected by
+language with the preceding tribes; as they were with each other and the
+Rajmahali mountaineers.
+
+These stand in remarkable contrast with the rest of the population of
+Orissa; whose language is the Udiya, a tongue which, according to many,
+belongs to a wholly different class, or, at least, to a different
+division of the present.
+
+South of Chicacole, however, the Tamul tongues are spoken continuously.
+I cannot say where the southern limits of the Sur population come in
+contact with the northern ones of the--
+
+_Chenchwars_--who occupy the same range of mountains, in the parts
+between the rivers Kistna and Pennar, and, probably, extending as far
+south as the neighbourhood of Madras. Their language is the Telugu, the
+language of the parts around, and of Tamul origin.[37] The contrast
+between the Chenchwars of the hills, and the Telingas of the lower
+country lies in their mythologies; the former retaining much of the
+original creed of their country, the latter being Brahminists.
+
+Below Madras, the mountain range changes its direction, and the next
+locality under notice is the Neilgherry hills.
+
+The families here are--
+
+1. _The Cohatars_--so little Indianized as to eat of the flesh of the
+cow, amounting to about two thousand in number, and occupants of the
+highest part of the range.
+
+2. _The Tudas._--An interesting monograph by Captain Harkness has drawn
+unusual attention to these mountaineers, the chief points of importance
+being the comparative absence of all elements of Brahminism, and the
+occurrence in their physiognomy of the most favourable points of Hindu
+beauty--regular and delicate features, oval face, and a clear brunette
+skin. Free from the other religious and social characteristics of
+Hinduism as the Tudas may be, they still admit a sort of caste; _e.g._,
+whilst the _Peiki_, or _Toralli_, may perform any function, the _Kuta_,
+or _Tardas_, are limited. Neither did they always intermarry, though
+they do now; their offspring being called _Mookh_, or _descendants_.
+
+3. _The Curumbas_, called by the Tudas _Curbs_, inhabit a lower level
+than the preceding populations, but a higher one than--
+
+4. _The Erulars_ at the foot of the hills; falling into two
+divisions--_a_, the _Urali_ (a name to be noticed), and _b_, the
+_Curutali_.
+
+Between the Neilgherries and Cape Comorin, the hill-tribes are worth
+enumerating, if only for the sake of showing their complexity. According
+to Lieutenant Conner in the "Madras Journal," they are--1, Cowders; 2,
+Vaishvans; 3, Mudavenmars; 4, Arreamars, or Vailamers; 5, Ural-Uays.
+Besides these, there is a population of predial slaves, divided and
+subdivided.
+
+  1. Vaituvan, Konaken.
+  2. Polayers--
+       _a._ Vulluva.
+       _b._ Kunnaka.
+       _c._ Morny Pulayer.
+  3. Pariahs.
+  4. Vaidurs.
+  5. Ulanders and Naiadi.
+
+To return to the Neilgherries, and follow the western Ghauts upwards, a
+population more numerous than any hitherto mentioned is that of the--
+
+_Buddugurs_, called also _Marves_. This name takes so many forms that
+_Berdar_ may be one of them. One division of Buddugurs is called
+_Lingait_.
+
+I cannot follow the Ghauts consecutively; however, when we reach the
+southern portion of the Mahratta country, we find in the rajahship of
+Satarah, two predatory tribes:--
+
+_The Berdars_, supposed to be closely allied to Ramusi. The--
+
+_Ramusi_ themselves connected by tradition and creed, with the _Lingait_
+Buddugurs. But not by language; or at any rate not wholly so. The Ramusi
+dialect is a mixture of Tulava and Marathi--the former being undoubted
+Tamul, but the latter in the same category with the Udiya.
+
+The continuous Tamul languages are now left to the south of us, and the
+hill-tribes next in order, will have unlearnt their native tongues, and
+be found speaking the Hindu dialects of the countries around them.
+Hence, the evidence of their Tamulian descent will be less conclusive.
+
+_Warali of the Konkan._--Mountaineers of the northern Konkan. We have
+seen this name twice already, and we shall see it again. The evidence of
+their Tamulian extraction is imperfect. Their language is Marathi and
+their creed an imperfect Brahminism. Their mountaineer habits separate
+them from--
+
+_The Katodi_--outcasts, who take their name from preparing the _kat_, or
+_cat-echu_, and who hang about the villages of the _plains_.
+
+_The Kuli._--From Poonah to Gujerat, the occupants of the range of
+mountains parallel to the coast are called _Kuli_ (_Coolies_), the same
+in the eyes of the Hindus of the western coast, as the _Kol_ were in
+those of the Bengalese and Orissans; and similarly named. Their language
+is generally (perhaps always) that of the country around them, _viz._,
+Marathi amongst the Mahrattas, and Gujerathi in Gujerat. However,
+difference of habits and creed sufficiently separate them from the
+Hindus.
+
+_The Bhils._--These are generally associated with the Kulis; from whom
+they chiefly differ geographically, belonging, as they do to the
+transverse ranges--the Satpura and Vindhia mountains--rather than to the
+main line of the Ghauts with its due north-and-south direction, and with
+its parallelism to the coast.
+
+_The Paurias._--Hill-tribes in Candeish, belonging to the Satpura range,
+and conterminous with the Bhil tribes, and with--
+
+_The Wurali of the Satpura range._--The Wurali re-appear for the fourth
+time. In the parts in question they are in contact with the Bhils and
+Paurias; from whom they keep themselves distinct; and from whom they
+differ in dialect. Still their language is Marathi. Pre-eminent as they
+are for their Paganism, their country contains ruins of brick buildings,
+and considerable excavations.[38]
+
+These three are the hill-tribes of the water-shed of the rivers Tapti
+and Nerbudda. The water-system of the south-western feeders of the
+Ganges is more complex. Along the mountains between Candeish and Jeypur
+come--
+
+Certain _Bhil_ tribes.
+
+_The Mewars_--under the Grasya chiefs of Joora, Meerpoor, Oguna, and
+Panurwa. The political relations of these tribes--in some cases of an
+undetermined nature--are with the Rajput governments; in other words,
+we are now amongst the aborigines of Rajasthan.
+
+_The Minas._--These, like the Mewars, are in geographical contact with
+certain Bhil tribes; in political contact with the Rajputs--the Mewars
+with those of Udipur; the Minas with those of Ajmer, Jeypur, and Kota.
+
+_The Moghis._--At present, a free company rather than a population;
+although the representatives of what was once one--_viz._, the
+aborigines of Jodpure. So little Brahminists are they that they eat of
+the flesh of the jackal and the cow, and indulge freely in fermented
+drinks.
+
+The hills that separate Malwah from the Haroti country, and from the
+south-eastern boundary of the valley of the River Chumbul are occupied
+by--
+
+_The Saireas._--This is a name which has occurred before and
+elsewhere;[39] and is almost certainly, anything but native. Tribes,
+under this name, extend into Bundelcund.[40]
+
+_The Goands._--The central parts between Candeish and Orissa, the
+head-waters of the Nerbudda and Tapti on the west, and of the Godavery
+on the east, still require notice. Here the hill population is at its
+_maximum_, both in point of numbers and characteristics; and the _Khond_
+forms of the Tamul re-appear under the name _Goand_. Of these we have
+specimens from--
+
+_a._ The Gawhilghur mountains near Ellichpoor.
+
+_b._ Chupprah.
+
+_c._ Mundala in _Gundwana_, or the _Goand_ country.
+
+Such are the chief hill-populations; which, although they belong to
+Tamulian stock, differ as to the extent to which they carry outward and
+visible signs of their origin. Some, like the Rajmahali, are merely
+separated geographically; and, perhaps, not even that. Others, like the
+Khonds of Orissa, are contrasted with the Tamuls of the south, by their
+inferior and social condition, and their non-Brahminical creeds. The
+Minas and Bhils differ in language; whilst the Ramusis and Berdars,
+probably, exhibit transitional forms of speech. The Tudas and Chenchwars
+surrounded by Telingas and Tamuls, as the Khonds and Goands are by
+Udiyas and Mahrattas, are merely the population of the parts around them
+with a primitive polity and religion.
+
+The _lettered_ languages of the Dekhan, where the Tamul character is
+unequivocal, but where the civilizational influences have chiefly been
+Hindu, are spoken in continuity from Chicacole, east, and the parts
+about Goa, west, to Cape Comorin, _i.e._, in the Madras Presidency, and
+in the countries of Mysore, Travancore, and the coasts of Malabar and
+Coromandel. Of these, the most northern--beginning on the eastern
+coast--is--
+
+_The Telinga or Telugu._--Spoken from the parts about Chicacole to
+Pulicat, where it is succeeded by--
+
+_The Tamul Proper._--The language of the Coromandel coast and the parts
+of the interior as far as Coimbatore. Each of these tongues has a double
+form, one for literature, and one for common use; the former being
+called the High, the latter the Low, Tamul or Telugu, as the case may
+be, and the creed which it embodies being either Brahminism, or some
+modification of it.
+
+In Travancore and on the Malabar coast the language is--
+
+_The Malayalma_ or _Malayalam_--and in the greater part of Mysore--
+
+_The Kanara_--which, like the Tamul and Telinga, is both High and
+Low--literary or vulgar.
+
+Amongst these four well-known forms of the South Tamulian tongue, may be
+distributed several dialects and sub-dialects. Such as the Tulava for
+the parts between Goa and Mangalore, and the Coorgi of the Rajahship of
+Coorg, not to mention the several varieties in the language of the
+hill-tribes.
+
+Now all the populations of the present chapter agree in this
+particular--their language is generally admitted to be Tamulian at the
+present moment, or if not, to have been so at some earlier period. With
+the languages next under notice, the original Tamulian character is not
+so admitted--indeed, it is so far denied as to make the affirmation of
+it partake of the nature of paradox.
+
+The distinction then is raised on the existence of the doubt in
+question, or rather on the differences that such a doubt implies. Hence
+the division of the languages of India into the Hindu and the Tamulian
+is practical rather than scientific--the _Hindu_ meaning those for which
+a _Sanskrit_, rather than a _Tamul_ affinity is claimed.
+
+_Sanskrit_ is the name of a language; a name upon which nine-tenths of
+the controversial points in Indian ethnology and in Indian history
+turn.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[23] "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. vi. part 2.
+See also pp. 112, 113 of the present volume.
+
+[24] Described by Lieutenants Phayre and Latter in "Journal of the
+Asiatic Society of Bengal."
+
+[25] Dr. Helfer, "Asiatic Society of Bengal," vol. viii.
+
+[26] "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[27] Dr. Buchanan, "Asiatic Researches," vol. v.
+
+[28] Macrae in "Asiatic Researches," vol. vii.
+
+[29] Eliot, in "Asiatic Transactions," vol. iii.
+
+[30] Eliot, _ut supra_.
+
+[31] For Jan. 1849.
+
+[32] "Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science," 1844.
+
+[33] "Statistical Sketch of Kumaon," by G. W. Traill, Asiatic
+Researches, vol. xvi.
+
+[34] From the Greek _polys_=_many_, and _anaer_=_man_.
+
+[35] Eliot in "Asiatic Researches," vol. iv.
+
+[36] Captain S. C. Macpherson, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol.
+xiii.
+
+[37] See Lieut. Newbold, "Journal of the Asiatic Society," vol. viii.
+
+[38] Lieut. C. P. Rigby, in "Transactions of the Bombay Geographical
+Society," May to August 1850.
+
+[39] The Soars of Orissa.
+
+[40] Col. Todd, "Travels in Western India."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+    THE SANSKRIT LANGUAGE.--ITS RELATIONS TO CERTAIN MODERN LANGUAGES
+    OF INDIA; TO THE SLAVONIC AND LITHUANIC OF EUROPE.--INFERENCES.--
+    BRAHMINISM OF THE PURANAS--OF THE INSTITUTES OF MENU.--EXTRACT.--OF
+    THE VEDAS.--EXTRACT.--INFERENCES.--THE HINDUS.--SIKHS.--BILUCHI.--
+    AFGHANS.--WANDERING TRIBES.--MISCELLANEOUS POPULATIONS.--CEYLON.--
+    BUDDHISM.--DEVIL-WORSHIP.--VADDAHS.
+
+
+The language called _Sanskrit_ has a peculiar alphabet. It has long been
+written, and embodies an important literature. It has been well studied;
+and its ethnological affinities are understood. They are at least as
+remarkable as any other of its characters.
+
+Like most other tongues, it falls into dialects; just like the ancient
+Greek. Like the Doric, AEolic, and Ionic, these dialects were spoken over
+distant countries, and cultivated at different periods. Like them, too,
+each is characterized by its peculiar literature.
+
+The Sanskrit itself, in its oldest form, is the _Vedaic_ dialect of the
+religious hymns called _Vedas_--of great, but of exaggerated, antiquity.
+
+Another form of equal antiquity is the language of the Persepolitan and
+other arrow-headed inscriptions. These are of a known antiquity, and
+range from the time of Cambyses to that of Artaxerxes.
+
+By _old_ is meant _old in structure_, _i.e._, betraying by its archaic
+forms, an early stage of development. It is by no means _old_ in
+chronology. In the way of chronology, the English of Shakespeare is
+older than the German of Goethe; yet the German of Goethe is the older
+tongue, because it retains more old inflections.
+
+The third form is called _Pali_. In this is written the oldest Indian
+inscription; one containing the name of Antiochus, one of Alexander's
+successors. It is also the dialect of the chief Buddhist works.
+
+A fourth form is the _Bactrian_. This occurs in the coins of Macedonian
+and other Indianized kings of Bactria, and is best studied in the
+"Ariana Antiqua," of Wilson.
+
+A fifth is the _Zend_ of the Zendavesta, the Scriptures of the followers
+of Zoroaster.
+
+Others are called _Pracrit_. Some of the Sanskrit works are dramatic. In
+the modern comedies of Italy we find certain characters speaking the
+provincial dialects of Naples, Bologna, and other districts. The same
+took place here. In the Sanskrit plays we find deflexions from the
+standard language, put into the mouths of some of the subordinate
+characters. It is believed that these Pracrits represented certain local
+dialects, as opposed to the purer and more classical Sanskrit.
+
+Every spoken dialect of Hindostan has a per-centage of Sanskrit words in
+it; just as every dialect of England has an amount of Anglo-Norman. What
+does this prove? That depends upon the per-centage; and this differs in
+different languages. In a general way it may be stated that, amongst the
+tongues already enumerated, it is smallest in the isolated Tamulian
+tongues; larger in the Tamul of the Dekhan; and largest in the tongues
+about to be enumerated; these being the chief languages of modern
+Hindostan.
+
+1. The _Marathi_ of the Mahrattas. Here the Sanskrit words amount to
+four-fifths in the Marathi dictionaries.
+
+2. The _Udiya_, of Cuttack and Orissa, with a per-centage of Sanskrit
+greater than that of the Marathi, but less than that of--
+
+3. The _Bengali_. Here it is at its _maximum_, and amounts to
+nine-tenths.
+
+4. The _Hindu_, of Oude, and the parts between Bengal and the Punjab,
+falling into the subordinate dialects of the Rajput country.
+
+5. The _Gujerathi_ of Gujerat.
+
+6. The _Scindian_ of Scinde.
+
+7. The _Multani_ of Multan; probably a dialect of either the Gujerathi
+or--
+
+8. The _Punjabi_ of the Punjab.
+
+By going into minor differences this list might be enlarged.
+
+None of the previous languages were mentioned in the last chapter; in
+fact, they were those different Hindu tongues which were contrasted with
+the Tamulian, and which, in the northern part of the Peninsula had
+effected those displacements which separated, or were supposed to
+separate, the Rajmahali, Kol, and Khond dialects from each other. They
+formed the _sea_ of speech, in which those tongues were _islands_.
+
+Now what is the inference from these per-centages? from such a one as
+the Bengali, of ninety out of one hundred? What do they prove as to the
+character of the language in which they occur? Do they make the Sanskrit
+the basis of the tongue, just as the Anglo-Saxon is of the English, or
+do they merely show it as a superadded foreign element, like the
+Norman--like that in kind, but far greater in degree? The answer to this
+will give us the philological position of the North-Indian tongues. It
+will make the Bengali either Tamul, with an unprecedented amount of
+foreign vocables, or Sanskrit, with a few words of the older native
+tongue retained.
+
+If the question were settled by a reference to authorities, the answer
+would be that the Bengali was essentially Sanskrit.
+
+It would be the same if we took only the _prima facie_ view of the
+matter.
+
+Yet the answer is traversed by two facts.
+
+1. In making the per-centage of Sanskrit words it has been assumed that,
+whenever the modern and ancient tongues have any words in common, the
+former has always taken them from the latter,--an undue assumption,
+since the Sanskrit may easily have adopted native words.
+
+2. The grammatical inflections are so far from being as Sanskritic as
+the vocables, that they are either non-existent altogether,
+unequivocally Tamul, or else _controverted_ Sanskrit.
+
+Here I pause,--giving, at present, no opinion upon the merits of the two
+views. The reader has seen the complications of the case; and is
+prepared for hearing that, though most of the highest authorities
+consider the languages of northern India to be related to the Sanskrit,
+just as the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, and the Italian to the Latin;
+others deny such a connexion, affirming that as the real relations of
+the Sanskrit are those of the Norman-French to our own tongue, and of
+the Arabic to the Spanish, there is no such thing throughout the whole
+length and breadth of Hindostan as a dialect descended from the
+Sanskrit, or a spot whereon that famous tongue can be shown to have
+existed as a spoken and indigenous language.
+
+But, perhaps, we may find in Persia what we lack in India; and as the
+modern Persian is descended from the Zend, and as the Zend is a sister
+to the Sanskrit, Persia may, perhaps, supply such a locality. The same
+doubts apply here.
+
+Such are the doubts that apply to an important question in Asiatic
+ethnology. I am not, at present, going beyond the simple fact of their
+existence. Rightly or wrongly, there is an opinion that the Sanskrit
+never was indigenous to any part of India, not even the most
+north-western; and there is an extension of this opinion which--rightly
+or wrongly--similarly excludes it from Persia. So much doubt should be
+relieved by the exhibition of some universally admitted fact as a
+set-off.
+
+Such a contrast shall be supplied, in the shape of a comment on the
+following tables.[41] It is one of Dr. Trithem's.
+
+ ENGLISH.             LITHUANIC.    RUSSIAN.        SANSKRIT.
+
+ _Father_             tewas         otets           pitr.
+ _Mother_             motina        mat'            m[=a]tr.
+ _Son_                sunai         suin            s[=u]nu.
+ _Brother_            brolis        brat            bhratr.
+ _Sister_             sessu         sestra          svasr.
+ _Daughter-in-law_     --           snokha          snush[=a].[42]
+ _Father-in-law_       --           svekor[43]      ['s]vasura.
+ _Mother-in-law_       --           svekrov'[44]    ['s]vas ru.
+ _Brother-in-law_      --           dever'[45]      devr.
+ _One_                wienas        odin            eka.
+ _Two_                du            dva             dv[=a].
+ _Three_              trys          tri             tri.
+ _Four_               keturi        chetuire        chatv[=a]rah.
+ _Five_               penki         piat'           pancha.
+ _Six_                szessi        shest'          shash.
+ _Seven_              septyni       sedm'           saptan.
+ _Eight_              asstuoni      osm'            ashtan.
+ _Nine_               dewyni        deviat'         navan.
+ _Ten_                dessimtis     desiat'         dasa.
+
+The following similarities go the same way, _viz._, towards the proof of
+a remarkable affinity with certain languages of _Europe_, there being
+none equally strong with any existing and undoubted Asiatic ones.
+
+ ENGLISH.     LITHUANIC.    SANSKRIT.    ZEND.
+
+ _I_          ass           aham         azem.
+ _Thou_       tu            twam         t[=u]m.
+ _Ye_         yus           y[=u]yam     y[=u]s.
+ _The_[46]    tas           ta-_d_       tad.
+   --         szi           sah          ho.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Laups-inni = _I praise._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Laups    -innu    -innawa    -inname.
+ 2.  --      -inni    -innata    -innata.
+ 3.  --      -inna    -inna      -inna.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Jaj-ami = _I conquer._
+
+ _Present._
+
+ 1. Jaj    -[=a]mi    -[=a]vah     -[=a]mah.
+ 2. --     -[)a]si    -[)a]thah    -[)a]tha.
+ 3. --     -[)a]ti    -[)a]tah     -anti.
+
+
+ LITHUANIC.
+
+ Esmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Esmi    eswa    esme.
+ 2. Essi    esta    esti.
+ 3. Esti    esti    esti.
+
+
+ SANSKRIT.
+
+ Asmi = _I am._
+
+ 1. Asmi    swah     smah.
+ 2. Asi     sthah    stha.
+ 3. Asti    stah     santi.
+
+The inference from the vast series of philological facts, of which the
+following is a specimen, has, generally--perhaps _universally_--been as
+follows, _viz._, that the Lithuanic, Slavonic, and the allied languages
+of Germany, Italy, and Greece--numerous, widely-spread, and
+unequivocally European--are _Asiatic_ in origin; the Sanskrit being
+first referred to Asia, and then assumed to represent the languages of
+that Asiatic locality. I merely express my dissent from this inference;
+adding my belief that the relations of the Sanskrit to the Hindu tongues
+are those of the Anglo-Norman to the English, and that its relation to
+those of the south-eastern Slavonic area, is that of the Greek of
+Bactria, to the Greek of Macedon--greater, much greater in degree, but
+the same in kind.[47]
+
+The Brahminic creed of Hindostan is the next great characteristic.
+Brahminism may be viewed in two ways. We may either take it in its later
+forms, and trace its history backwards, or begin with it in its simplest
+and most unmodified stage, and notice the changes that have affected it
+as they occur. At the present its principles are to be found in the holy
+book called _Puranas_; the Brahminism of the _Puranas_ standing in the
+same relation to certain earlier forms, as the Rabbinism of the Talmud,
+or the Romanism of the fathers does to primitive Judaism and
+Christianity. The pre-eminence of a sacred caste--the sanctitude of the
+cow--an impossible cosmogony--the worship of Siva and Vishnu--and an
+indefinite sort of recognition of beings like Rama, Krishna, Kali, and
+others, are the leading features here; the recognition of the Ramas and
+Krishnas being of an indefinite and equivocal character, because the
+extent to which the elements of their divine nature are referable to the
+idea of _dead men deified_, or the very opposite notion of _Gods become
+incarnate_, are inextricably mixed together. The Puranas are referable
+to different dates between the twelfth and sixth centuries A.D.
+
+The germs of the Brahminism of the Puranas are the two great epics, the
+_Ramayana_, or the conquest of Hindostan by Rama, and the _Mahabharata_,
+or great war between the Sun and Moon dynasties. If we call the _worship
+of dead men deified_, Euhemerism, it is the Ramayana and the
+Mahabharata, to which the Euhemerist elements of the present Brahminism
+are to be attributed. They increased the _personality_ of the previous
+religion. This is the natural effect of narrative poetry, and one of
+which we may measure the magnitude by looking at the influence and
+tendencies of the great Homeric poems of Greece. It is these which give
+us Kali, Rama, Krishna, Siva, and Vishnu, and which helped to determine
+the preponderance of the two last over Brahma--Brahma being the Creator;
+Vishnu, the Preserver; and Siva, the Destroyer. The highest antiquity
+which has been given to the _epics_ is the second century B.C.; and this
+is full high enough.
+
+The Brahminism of the "Institutes of Menu," the oldest Indian code of
+laws, is simpler than that of the epics. Its Euhemerism is less.
+Nevertheless, it contains the great text on the caste-system, the
+_fulcrum_ of priestly pre-eminence.
+
+
+INSTITUTES OF MENU.
+
+_Sir Graves Haughton's Translation._
+
+    1. For the sake of preserving this universe, the Being, supremely
+    glorious, allotted separate duties to those who sprang respectively
+    from his mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot.
+
+    2. To _Brahmins_ he assigned the duties of reading the _Veda_, of
+    teaching it, of sacrificing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of
+    giving alms, _if they be rich_, and, if _indigent_, of receiving
+    gifts.
+
+    3. To defend the people, to give alms, to sacrifice, to read the
+    _Veda_, to shun the allurements of sensual gratification, are, in a
+    few words, the duties of a _Cshatriya_.
+
+    4. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses, to sacrifice, to
+    read the scripture, to carry on trade, to lend at interest, and to
+    cultivate land, are _prescribed or permitted_ to a _Vaisya_.
+
+    5. One principal duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a _Sudra_;
+    namely, to serve the before-mentioned classes, without depreciating
+    their worth.
+
+    6. Man is declared purer above the navel; but the Self-Creating
+    Power declared the purest part of him to be his mouth.
+
+    7. Since the Brahmin sprang from the most excellent part, since he
+    was the first born, and since he possesses the _Veda_, he is by
+    right the chief of this whole creation.
+
+    8. Him, the Being, who exists of himself, produced in the beginning,
+    from his own mouth, that having performed holy rites, he might
+    present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes of rice to the
+    progenitors of mankind, for the preservation of this world.
+
+    9. What created being then can surpass Him, with whose mouth the
+    gods of the firmament continually feast on clarified butter, and the
+    manes of ancestors, on hallowed cakes?
+
+    10. Of created things, the most excellent are those which are
+    animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of
+    the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.
+
+    11. Of priests those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who
+    know their duty; of those who know it, such as perform it
+    virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a
+    perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.
+
+    12. The very birth of _Brahmins_ is a constant incarnation of
+    DHERMA, _God of Justice_; for the _Brahmin_ is born to promote
+    justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.
+
+    13. When a _Brahmin_ springs to light, he is borne above the world,
+    the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of
+    duties, religious and civil.
+
+    14. Whatever exists in the universe, is all in effect, _though not
+    in form_, the wealth of the _Brahmin_; since the _Brahmin_ is
+    entitled to it all by his primogeniture and eminence of birth.
+
+    15. The _Brahmin_ eats but his own food; wears but his own apparel;
+    and bestows but his own in alms: through the benevolence of the
+    _Brahmin_, indeed, other mortals enjoy life.
+
+    16. To declare the sacerdotal duties, and those of the other classes
+    in due order, the sage MENU, sprung from the self-existing,
+    promulged this code of laws.
+
+    17. A code which must be studied with extreme care by every learned
+    _Brahmin_, and fully explained to his disciples, but _must be
+    taught_ by no other man _of an inferior class_.
+
+    18. The _Brahmin_ who studies this book, having performed sacred
+    rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word, and in
+    deed.
+
+    19. He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors, and
+    on his descendants, as far as the seventh person; and He alone
+    deserves to possess this whole earth.
+
+Subtract from the Brahminism of the Institutes, the importance assigned
+to caste; substitute for the Euhemerism of the Epics, an _elemental
+religion_, and we ascend to the religion of the Vedas; the nominal, but
+only the nominal basis, of all Hinduism. In the following Vedaic hymns,
+_Agni_ is _fire_; _Indra_, the _sky_, _firmament_, or _atmosphere_; and
+_Marut_, the _cloud_.
+
+
+RIGVEDA SANHITA.
+
+_Wilson's Translation._
+
+
+    I.
+
+    1. I glorify AGNI, the high priest of the sacrifice, the divine, the
+    ministrant, who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the
+    possessor of great wealth.
+
+    2. May that AGNI, who is to be celebrated by both ancient and modern
+    sages, conduct the gods hither.
+
+    3. Through AGNI the worshipper obtains that affluence, which
+    increases day by day, which is the source of fame and the multiplier
+    of mankind.
+
+    4. AGNI, the unobstructed sacrifice of which thou art on every side
+    the protector, assuredly reaches the gods.
+
+    5. May AGNI, the presenter of oblations, the attainer of knowledge;
+    he who is true, renowned, and divine, come hither with the gods!
+
+    6. Whatever good thou mayest, AGNI, bestow upon the giver (of the
+    oblation), that verily, ANGIRAS, shall revert to thee.
+
+    7. We approach thee, AGNI, with reverential homage in our thoughts,
+    daily, both morning and evening.
+
+    8. Thee, the radiant, the protector of sacrifices, the constant
+    illuminator of truth, increasing in thine own dwelling!
+
+    9. AGNI, be unto us easy of access, as is a father to a son; be ever
+    present with us for our good!
+
+
+    II.
+
+    1. A['S]WINS, cherishers of pious acts, long-armed, accept with
+    outstretched hands the sacrificial viands!
+
+    2. A['S]WINS, abounding in mighty acts, guides (of devotion),
+    endowed with fortitude, listen with unaverted minds to our praises!
+
+    3. A['S]WINS, destroyers of foes, exempt from untruth, leaders in
+    the van of heroes, come to the mixed libations sprinkled on the
+    lopped sacred grass!
+
+    4. INDRA, of wonderful splendour, come hither; these libations, ever
+    pure, expressed by the fingers (of the priests), are desirous of
+    thee!
+
+    5. INDRA, apprehended by the understanding and appreciated by the
+    wise, approach and accept the prayers (of the priest), as he offers
+    the libation!
+
+    6. Fleet INDRA with the tawny coursers, come hither to the prayers
+    (of the priests), and in this libation accept our (proffered) food.
+
+    7. Universal Gods! protectors and supporters of men, bestowers (of
+    rewards), come to the libation of the worshipper!
+
+    8. May the swift-moving universal Gods, the shedders of rain, come
+    to the libation, as the solar rays come 'diligently' to the days!
+
+    9. May the universal Gods, who are exempt from decay, omniscient,
+    devoid of malice, and bearers of riches, accept the sacrifice!
+
+    10. May SARASWATI, the purifier, the bestower of food, the
+    recompenser of worship with wealth, be attracted by our offered
+    viands to our rite!
+
+    11. SARASWATI, the inspirer of those who delight in truth, the
+    instructress of the right-minded, has accepted our sacrifice!
+
+    12. SARASWATI makes manifest by her acts a mighty river, and (in her
+    own form) enlightens all understandings.
+
+
+    III.
+
+    1. Come, INDRA, and be regaled with all viands and libations, and
+    thence, mighty in strength, be victorious (over thy foes)!
+
+    2. The libation being prepared, present the exhilarating and
+    efficacious (draught) to the rejoicing INDRA, the accomplisher of
+    all things.
+
+    3. INDRA, with the handsome chin, be pleased with these animating
+    praises: do thou, who art to be reverenced by all mankind, (come) to
+    these rites (with the gods)!
+
+    4. I have addressed to thee, INDRA, the showerer (of blessings), the
+    protector (of thy worshippers), praises which have reached thee, and
+    of which thou hast approved!
+
+    5. Place before us, INDRA, precious and multiform riches, for
+    enough, and more than enough, are assuredly thine!
+
+    6. Opulent INDRA, encourage us in this rite for the acquirement of
+    wealth, for we are diligent and renowned!
+
+    7. Grant us, INDRA, wealth beyond measure or calculation,
+    inexhaustible, the source of cattle, of food, of all life.
+
+    8. INDRA, grant us great renown and wealth acquired in a thousand
+    ways, and those (articles) of food (which are brought from the
+    field) in carts!
+
+    9. We invoke, for the preservation of our property, INDRA, the lord
+    of wealth, the object of sacred verses, the repairer (to the place
+    of sacrifice), praising him with our praises!
+
+    10. With libations repeatedly effused, the sacrificer glorifies the
+    vast prowess of INDRA, the mighty, the dweller in (an eternal
+    mansion)!
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    1. The MARUTS who are going forth decorate themselves like females:
+    they are gliders (through the air), the sons of RUDRA, and the doers
+    of good works, by which they promote the welfare of earth and
+    heaven: heroes, who grind (the solid rocks), they delight in
+    sacrifices!
+
+    2. They, inaugurated by the gods, have attained majesty, the sons of
+    RUDRA have established their dwelling above the sky: glorifying him
+    (INDRA) who merits to be glorified, they have inspired him with
+    vigour: the sons of PRISNI have acquired dominion!
+
+    3. When the sons of the earth embellish themselves with ornaments,
+    they shine resplendent in their persons with (brilliant)
+    decorations; they keep aloof every adversary: the waters follow
+    their path!
+
+    4. They who are worthily worshipped shine with various weapons:
+    incapable of being overthrown, they are the overthrowers (of
+    mountains): MARUTS, swift as thought, intrusted with the duty of
+    sending rain, yoke the spotted deer to your cars!
+
+    5. When MARUTS, urging on the cloud, for the sake of (providing)
+    food, you have yoked the deer to your chariots, the drops fall from
+    the radiant (sun), and moisten the earth, like a hide, with water!
+
+    6. Let your quick-paced smooth-gliding coursers bear you (hither),
+    and, moving swiftly, come with your hands filled with good things:
+    sit, MARUTS, upon the broad seat of sacred grass, and regale
+    yourselves with the sweet sacrificial food!
+
+    7. Confiding in their own strength, they have increased in (power);
+    they have attained heaven by their greatness, and have made (for
+    themselves) a spacious abode: may they, for whom VISHNU defends
+    (the sacrifice) that bestows all desires and confers delight, come
+    (quickly) like birds, and sit down upon the pleasant and sacred
+    grass!
+
+    8. Like heroes, like combatants, like men anxious for food, the
+    swift-moving (MARUTS) have engaged in battles: all beings fear the
+    MARUTS, who are the leaders (of the rain), and awful of aspect, like
+    princes!
+
+    9. INDRA wields the well-made, golden, many-bladed thunderbolt,
+    which the skilful TWASHTRI has framed for him, that he may achieve
+    great exploits in war. He has slain VRITRA, and sent forth an ocean
+    of water!
+
+    10. By their power, they bore the well aloft, and clove asunder the
+    mountain that obstructed their path: the munificent MARUTS, blowing
+    upon their pipe, have conferred, when exhilarated by the _soma_
+    juice, desirable (gifts upon the sacrificer)!
+
+    11. They brought the crooked well to the place (where the _Muni_
+    was), and sprinkled the water upon the thirsty GOTAMA: the
+    variously-radiant (MARUTS) come to his succour, gratifying the
+    desire of the sage with life-sustaining waters!
+
+    12. Whatever blessings (are diffused) through the three worlds, and
+    are in your gift, do you bestow upon the donor (of the libation),
+    who addresses you with praise; bestow them, also, MARUTS, upon us,
+    and grant us, bestowers of all good, riches, whence springs
+    prosperity!
+
+If we investigate the antiquity of these hymns we shall find no definite
+and unimpeachable date. Their epoch is assigned on the score of internal
+evidence. The language is so much more archaic than that of the
+Institutes, and the mythology so much simpler; whilst the Institutes
+themselves are similarly circumstanced in respect to the Epics. Fixing
+these at about 200, B.C.; we allow so many centuries for the archaisms
+of Menu, and so many more for those of the Vedas. For the whole, eleven
+hundred has not been thought too little, which places the Vedas in the
+fourteenth century, B.C., and makes them the earliest, or nearly the
+earliest records in the world.
+
+It is clear that this is but an approximation, and, although all
+inquirers admit that creeds, languages, and social conditions present
+the phenomena of _growth_, the opinions as to the _rate_ of such growths
+are varied, and none of much value. This is because the particular
+induction required for the formation of anything better than a mere
+impression has yet to be undertaken--till when, one man's guess is as
+good as another's. The age of a tree may be reckoned from its concentric
+rings, but the age of a language, a doctrine, or a polity, has neither
+bark nor wood, neither teeth like a horse, nor a register like a child.
+
+Now the antiquity of the Vedas, as inferred from the archaic character
+of their language, has been shaken by the discovery of the structure of
+the Persepolitan dialect of the arrow-headed inscriptions. It approaches
+that of the Vedas; being, in some points, older than the Sanskrit of
+Menu. Yet its date is less than 500, B.C. Again, the Pali is less
+archaic than the Sanskrit; yet the Pali is the language of the oldest
+inscriptions in India, indeed, of the oldest Indian records of any sort,
+with a definite date.
+
+One of the few cases where the phenomena of _rate_ have been studied
+with due attention, is in the evolution of the three languages of
+Denmark, Norway, and Sweden out of the Icelandic. What does this tell
+us? The last has altered so slowly that a modern Icelander can read the
+oldest works of his language. In Sweden, however, the speech _has_
+altered. So it has in Denmark; whilst both these languages are
+unintelligible to the Icelander, and _vice versa_. As to their
+respective changes, Petersen shows that the Danish was always about a
+hundred years forwarder than the Swedish, having attained that point at
+(say) 1200, which the Swedish did not reach till 1300. Both, however,
+changed; and that, at a uniform rate; the Danish having, as it were, the
+start of a century. The Norwegian, however, comported itself
+differently. Until the Reformation it hardly changed at all; less than
+the stationary Icelandic itself. Fifty years, however, of sudden and
+rapid transformation brought it, at once, to the stage which the Danish
+had been three hundred years in reaching. How many times must the
+observation of such phenomena be multiplied before we can strike an
+average as to the rate of change in languages, creeds, and polities?
+
+Again--it is by no means certain that the Institutes and the Vedas
+represent a contemporary state of things. All doctrinal writings contain
+something appertaining to a period older than that of their composition.
+
+Lastly,--the proof that all the writings in question belong to the same
+linear series, and represent the growth of _the same phenomena in the
+same place_ is deficient. The AEgyptologist believes that contemporary
+kings are mistaken for successive ones; the philologist, that difference
+of dialects simulates a difference of age. Doubts of a more specific
+nature dawn upon us when we attempt to realize the alphabet in which an
+Indian MS. of even only eight hundred years B.C., was written. No Indian
+MS. is fifteen hundred years old; no inscription older than Alexander's
+time. Nevertheless,--though I write upon this subject with
+diffidence--the Devanagari characters of the Sanskrit MSS. can be
+deduced from the alphabet of the inscriptions; whilst these inscriptions
+themselves approach the alphabets of the Semitic character in proportion
+to their antiquity: so that the oldest alphabet of the Vedas is
+referable to that of the inscriptions, and that of the inscriptions
+betrays an origin external to India. Its introduction _may_ be very
+early; nevertheless its epoch must be investigated with a full
+recognition of the comparatively modern date of even the earliest
+alphabets of Persia, and the parts westward; early as compared with such
+a date as 1400, B.C., the accredited epoch of the Vedas; an epoch,
+perhaps, a thousand years too early.
+
+Nevertheless, the existence of an alphabet, an architecture, a coinage,
+and an algebra at a period which no scepticism puts much later than 250,
+B.C., is so undoubted, that they may pass as ethnological facts, _i.e._,
+facts sufficiently true to be not merely admitted with what is called an
+_otiose_ belief, but to be classed with the most unexceptionable _data_
+of history, and to be used as effects from which we may argue
+backwards--_more ethnologico_--to their antecedent causes; the
+appreciation of these requiring a philosophy and an induction of its
+own.
+
+We cannot detract from the antiquity of Indian civilization without
+impugning its indigenous origin, nor doubt this without stirring the
+question as to the countries from which it was introduced. These have
+been Persia, Assyria, Egypt, and Greece; the introduction being direct
+or indirect as the case might be.
+
+In this way are contrasted the views of the general ethnologist, with
+those of the special orientalist, in respect to the great and difficult
+question of Indian antiquity. Yet, how far does the scepticism of the
+former affect our views concerning the descent of the Hindus, the
+Mahrattas, the Bengali, and those other populations, to the languages
+whereof they applied? Not much. Whichever way we decide, the population
+may still be Tamulian; only, in case we make the language Sanskritic, it
+is Tamulian in the same way as the Cornish are Welsh; _i.e._, Tamulian
+with a change of tongue.
+
+The doubts, too, as to the antiquity of the Sanskrit literature unsettle
+but little. They merely make the introduction of certain foreign
+elements some centuries later.
+
+Whatever may be the oldest of the great Hindu creeds, that of the
+_Sikhs_ is the newest. Its founder, Nanuk, in the fifteenth century, was
+a contemplative enthusiast; his successor, Govind, a zealous man of
+action; himself succeeded by similar _gurus_, or priests, who
+eventually, by means of fanaticism, organization, and union with the
+state raised the power of the _Khalsa_ to the formidable height from
+which it has so lately fallen. _Truth_ is the great abstraction of the
+Sikh creeds; and the extent to which it is at once intolerant and
+eclectic may be seen from the following extracts.[48] They certainly
+present the doctrine in a favourable light.
+
+
+    I.
+
+    The true name is God; without fear, without enmity; the Being
+              without death; the Giver of salvation; the Gooroo and
+              Grace.
+    Remember the primal truth; truth which was before the world began.
+    Truth which is, and truth, O Nanuk! which will remain.
+    By reflection it cannot be attained, how much soever the attention
+              be fixed.
+    A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one accompanies the
+              dead.
+    How can truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled?
+    O Nanuk! by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    Time is the only God; the First and the Last, the Endless Being; the
+              Creator, the Destroyer; He who can make and unmake.
+    God who created angels and demons, who created the East and the
+              West, the North and the South; How can He be expressed by
+              words?
+
+
+    III.
+
+    Numerous Mahomets have there been, and multitudes of Bruhmas,
+              Vishnoos, and Sivas.
+    Thousands of Peers and Prophets, and tens of thousands of saints and
+              holy men:
+    But the chief of Lords is the one Lord, the true name of God.
+    O Nanuk! of God, His qualities, without end, beyond reckoning, who
+              can understand?
+
+
+    IV.
+
+    Many Bruhmas wearied themselves with the study of the Veds, but
+              found not the value of an oil seed.
+    Holy men and saints are sought about anxiously, but they were
+              deceived by Maya.
+    There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent Owtars, and
+              the wondrous Muhadeo.
+    Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not find
+              Thee.
+
+
+    V.
+
+    He who speaks of me as the Lord, him will I sink into the pit of
+              hell!
+    Consider me as the slave of God; of that have no doubt in thy mind.
+    I am but the slave of the Lord, come to behold the wonders of
+              creation.
+
+
+    VI.
+
+    Dwell thou in flames uninjured,
+    Remain unharmed amid ice eternal,
+    Make blocks of stone thy daily food,
+    Spurn the earth before thee with thy foot,
+    Weigh the heavens in a balance,
+    And then ask of me to perform miracles.
+
+
+    VII.
+
+    Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in his
+              eyes.
+    Ram and Ruheem, the Poorans, and the Koran, have many votaries, but
+              neither does he regard.
+    Simruts, Shasters, and Veds, differ in many things; not one does he
+              heed.
+    O God! under Thy favour has all been done, nought is of myself.
+
+
+    VIII.
+
+    All say that there are four races,
+    But all are of the seed of Bruhm.
+    The world is but clay,
+    And of similar clay many pots are made.
+    Nanuk says man will be judged by his actions,
+    And that without finding God there will be no salvation.
+    The body of man is composed of five elements;
+    Who can say that one is high and another low?
+
+
+    IX.
+
+    There are four races and four creeds in the world among Hindoos and
+              Mahometans;
+    Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly;
+    The Hindoos dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Mahometans on the
+              Kaaba;
+    The Mahometans held by circumcision, the Hindoos by strings and
+              frontal marks.
+    They each called on Ram and Ruheem, one name, and yet both forgot
+              the road.
+    Forgetting the Veds and the Koran, they were inveigled in the snares
+              of the world.
+    Truth remained on one side, while Moollas and Brahmins disputed,
+    And salvation was not attained.
+
+
+    X.
+
+    God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and Nanuk was sent
+              into the world.
+    He established the custom that the disciple should wash the feet of
+              his Gooroo, and drink the water;
+    Par Bruhm and Poorun Bruhm, in his Kulyoog, he showed were one.
+    The four feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were made of
+              faith; the four castes were made one;
+    The high and the low became equal: the salutation of the feet (among
+              disciples) he established in the world;
+    Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above the head.
+    In the Kulyoog he gave salvation; using the only true name, he
+              taught men to worship the Lord.
+    To give salvation in the Kulyoog, Gooroo Nanuk came.
+
+
+PARTS BEYOND THE INDUS.
+
+The Punjab is the most western locality of the Indian stock, whether we
+call the members of it Hindu or Tamulian. On crossing the Indus we reach
+a new ethnological area, only partially, and only recently British;
+_viz._, the country of the Biluch, and the country of the Afghans. And
+here we must prepare for new terms; for hearing of _tribes_ rather than
+_castes_; and for finding a polity more like that of the Jews and Arabs
+than the institutions of the Brahmins.
+
+_The Biluch._--_Biluchi-stan_ means the country of the _Biluch_, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Afghani-stan_ mean that of the Hindus and Afghans. It
+is the south-western quarter of Persia, that is the chief area of the
+tribes in question. Hence, however, they extend into Kutch Gundava,
+Scinde, and Multan, and the northern parts of Gujerat. Between Kelat,
+the Indus, and the sea, they are mixed with Brahui.
+
+The Biluchi is a dialect of the Persian--sufficiently close to be
+understood by a Persian proper.
+
+There are no grounds for believing the Biluch to have been other than
+the aborigines of the country which they occupy; as their advent lies
+beyond the historical period; beyond the pale of admissible tradition.
+We may, perhaps, be told that they came from Arabia; an origin which
+their Mahometanism, their division into tribes, and their manners,
+suggest; an origin, too, which their physiognomy by no means impugns.
+Yet the tradition is not only unsupported, but equivocal. The _Arabia_
+that it refers to is, probably, the country of the ancient _Arabitae_;
+and that is neither more nor less than a part of the province of Mekran,
+within--or nearly within--the present Biluch domain. Hence, they may be
+_Arabite_, though not _Arabian_; or rather the old _Arabitae_ of the
+_Arabius fluvius_ were Biluch.
+
+But the Arabs are not the only members of the Semitic family with which
+the Biluch have been affiliated. A multiplicity of Jewish
+characteristics has been discerned. These are all the more visible from
+their contrast to the manners of the Hindus. Intermediate in appearance
+to the Hindu and the Persian, the Biluch "cast of feature is certainly
+Jewish;"[49] his tribual divisions are equally so; whilst the Levitical
+punishment of adultery by stoning, and the transmission of the widow of
+a deceased brother to the brothers who survive, have been duly
+recognized as Hebrew characteristics. We know what follows all this; as
+surely as smoke shows fire. Levitical peculiarities suggest the
+ubiquitous decad of the lost tribes of Israel. We shall soon hear of
+these again.
+
+Tribes under chiefs--hereditary succession--pride of blood--clannish
+sentiments--feuds between tribe and tribe--the sacro-sanctity of revenge
+as a duty--the suspension of private wars when foreign foes
+threaten--greater rudeness amongst the mountains--comparative industry
+in the plains--the business of robbery tempered by the duties of
+hospitality--black mail, &c. All this is equally Biluch, Arabian, and
+Highland Scotch; and it all shows the similarity of details which
+accompanies similarity of social institutions. Ethnological relationship
+it does _not_ show.
+
+The word _Biluch_ is Persian. The bearer of the designation either calls
+himself by the name of his tribe, or else glorifies himself by the term
+_Usul_ or _Pure_. The tribes or _khoums_ are numerous. Sir H. Pottinger
+gives the names of no less than fifty-eight; without going into their
+subdivisions.
+
+If, however, instead of details, we seek for classes of greater
+generality we find that _three_ primary divisions comprise all the
+ramifications of the Biluch. The first of these is the _Rind_; the other
+two are the _Nihro_ and the _Mughsi_. The daughter of a Rind may be
+given to a Rind as a wife; but to marry into a tribe of Nihro or Mughsi
+extraction is a degradation. Here the elements of _caste_ intermix with
+those of _tribe_ or _clan_.
+
+_Afghans._--_Afghani-stan_ means the country of the Afghans, just as
+_Hindo-stan_ and _Biluchi-stan_ mean that of the Hindus and Biluchi,
+respectively.
+
+In India the Afghans are called _Patan_.
+
+Their language is called _Pushtu_. It is allied to the Persian--but less
+closely than the Biluch.
+
+Fully and accurately described in the admirable work of Lord Mountstuart
+Elphinstone, the Afghans have long commanded the attention of the
+ethnologist; and all that has been said about the Judaism of the Biluchi
+has been said in respect to them also, though not by so good a writer as
+the one just quoted. No wonder. Their tribual organization, if not more
+peculiar in character, has been more minutely described; a greater
+massiveness of frame and feature has been looked upon as eminently
+Judaic; and, lastly, an incorrect statement of Sir William Jones's, as
+to the Hebrew character of the Pushtu language, has added the authority
+of that respected scholar to the doctrine of the Semitic origin of the
+Afghans. Against this, however, stands the evidence of their peculiar
+and hitherto unplaced language. I say _unplaced_, because the criticism
+that separates the modern dialects of Hindostan from the Sanskrit,
+disconnects the Pushtu and the old Persian. Nevertheless, it is anything
+but either Hebrew or Arabic.
+
+Similarity of political constitution, and its attendant spirit of
+independence, have given a political importance to both the Biluch and
+the Afghan. Each is but partially--very partially--British; and each
+became dependent upon Britain, not because they were the Afghans and
+Biluch of their own rugged countries, but because they were part and
+parcel of certain territories in India. It was on the Indus that they
+were conquered; and it as Indians that they are British.
+
+Four great patriarchs are the hypothetical progenitors of the four
+primary Afghan divisions--though it is uncertain whether any such
+quaternion be more of an historical reality than the four castes of
+Brahminism. Subordinate to these four heads is the division called
+_Ulus_ (_Ooloos_).
+
+A minuter knowledge of the Afghan affiliations--real or supposed--is to
+be gained by premising that _khail_ has much the same meaning as the
+Biluch _khoum_, so that it denotes a division of population which we may
+call _clan_, _tribe_, or _sept_; whilst the affix -_zye_, means _sons_
+or _offspring_. Hence, _Eusof-zye_ is equivalent to what an Arab would
+call _Beni Yusuf_; a Greek, _Ioseph-idae_; or a Highland Gael,
+_MacJoseph_. All this is clear. When, however, we try to give precision
+to our nomenclature, and ask whether the _khail_ contains a number of
+-_zye_, or the -_zye_ a number of _khails_, difficulties begin.
+Sometimes the one, sometimes the other is the larger class. And a
+_khail_ in one case may be divided into groups ending in -_zye_; in
+others, a group denoted by -_zye_ may contain two or more _khails_. Each
+is a _generic_ or _specific_ designation as the case may be.
+
+However, to proceed to instances, the following groups of Afghans may be
+constituted.
+
+1. Three sections--the _Acco-zye_, the _Mulle-zye_, and the
+_Lawe-zye_--are subdivisions of the--
+
+2. _Eusof._--The Eusof and _Munder_ being branches of the--
+
+3. _Eusof-zye._--Now the _Eusof-zye_ is one out of four divisions of
+the--
+
+4. _Khukkhi._--The _Guggiani_, _Turcolani_, and _Mahomed-zye_, being the
+other three.
+
+5. Lastly, the _Khukkhi_, the _Otman-khail_, the _Khyberi_, the
+_Bungush_, the _Khuttuk_ and, probably, some others form the _Berdurani_
+Afghans.
+
+But as _Berdurani_ is a geographical, or political, rather than a
+tribual designation; as it is the name by which the _north_-eastern
+Afghans were known to the Moghuls; and as it is equivalent to such an
+expression as _Western_ or _Eastern Highlander_, rather than to names so
+specific as _Campbell_ or _MacDonald_, it may be excluded from the true
+Afghan affiliations.
+
+With this deduction, however, the classification is sufficiently
+complex; besides which, it is, probably, much more systematic on paper
+than in reality. This, however, can only be indicated.
+
+The valley of Peshawar is the valley of the _Guggiani_, and
+_Mahomed-zye_ Afghans.
+
+The parts round it belong to the _Eusof-zye_, the _Otman-khail_, the
+_Turcolani_, the _Momunds_, and the _Khyberi_ of the Khyber Range and
+Pass. These last fall into the _Afridi_, the _Shainwari_, and the
+_Uruk-zye_. Their country is chiefly to the north of the Salt Range.
+
+The river Kurum gives us the two valleys of Dowr and Bunnu[50]--the
+_Bunnuchi_ being as pre-eminently a mixed, as the mountaineers around
+them--the _Vizeri_--are a pure branch. These, and others, appear to
+belong to the great _Khuttuk_ division.
+
+The _south_-eastern Afghans are called _Lohani_; and, as a proof of this
+designation being of the same geographico-political character as
+_Berdurani_, the Khuttuk Afghans are divided between the two sections;
+at least the particular Khuttuks called _Murwuti_ are mentioned as
+Lohani, though the Khuttuk class in general is placed in the Berdurani
+branch. The chief Lohani Afghans are the _Shirani_ near the
+Tukt-i-Soliman mountain, and the _Storiani_ (_Storeeanees_,
+_Oosteraunees_) conterminous with the most northern of the Biluch.
+
+Of these the Bugti and Murri are the chief populations of the frontier;
+whilst the _Nutkani_, _Kusrani_, _Lund_, _Lughari_, _Gurkhari_,
+_Mudari_, and others, help to fill up the Muckelwand (or the parts
+immediately along the course of the Indus), and the Biluch portions of
+Multan.
+
+_The Brahui._--The Brahui, with whom it has been stated that the Biluch
+are intermixed, are pastoral tribes, with a coarser physiognomy, and a
+stouter make than their neighbours. Their language also is different. A
+specimen of it may be found amongst the well-known and important
+vocabularies of Lieutenant Leach; and this forms the subject of a memoir
+of no less a scholar than Lassen. Without placing it, he remarks that
+the numerals are _South_-Indian (or Tamulian) rather than aught else. He
+might have said more. The Brahui is a remarkable and unexplained branch
+of the Tamul; but whether it be of late introduction or indigenous
+origin in the parts where it now occurs is uncertain. The mountains
+between Kutch Gundava and Mekran seem to form the area of the Brahui;
+some eastern branches of which population I presume to be British, mixed
+with Biluch.[51]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Ceylon._--The inhabitants of the northern part of Ceylon speak the
+Tamul language, and are Brahminists in creed. They are not, however, the
+true natives of the island. These latter use a Hindu tongue, called the
+_Singhalese_. Its philological relations are exactly those of the
+Mahratta, Bengali, and Udiya,--neither better nor worse defined, more or
+less unequivocal. Some make it out to be of Sanskrit, others of Tamulian
+origin. All that is certain is, that it is more Sanskritic than the
+proper Tamul, and more Tamul than the Bengali. It is _written_; and
+embodies a copious, but worthless literature, its alphabet being derived
+from that of the Pali language.
+
+This introduces a new characteristic. The Pali has the same relation to
+Buddhism, that the Sanskrit has to Brahminism. It is the language of the
+Scriptures, the priest, and the scholar, and, although, at the present
+moment, it is as little recognized as a holy tongue on the continent of
+India, as the Greek of the New Testament is at Rome, it divides with the
+Arabic and Latin, the honour of being the most widely-spread literary
+language of the world. All the forms of Buddhism in the transgangetic
+peninsula are embodied in Pali writings. So are those of the Mongols;
+and so, to a great extent, those of the Tibetans as well. This makes the
+language and the creed nearly co-extensive. In China, however, and
+Japan, where great changes have taken place, and where either the
+development, or the deterioration of Buddhism has gone far enough to
+abolish the more palpable characteristics of the original Indian
+doctrine, the Pali language is no longer the medium. It _is_ so,
+however, for the vast area already indicated.
+
+In Buddhism, as opposed to Brahminism, there is a greater tenderness of
+animal life in general, whilst less respect is paid to the ox-tribe in
+particular. There is less also of the system of caste; and, in
+consequence of this, fewer of those elements of priestly influence,
+which originate in the ideas of the hereditary transmission of
+sacro-sanctitude. Buddhism, too, has the credit of running further in
+the dream-land of subjective metaphysics than Brahminism,--though this,
+as far as my own very imperfect means of judging go, is doubtful. Into
+practical pantheism, and into the deification of human reason it _does_
+run.
+
+When self-contemplation has reached its highest degree of abstraction,
+the state of _Nirwana_ is induced. This seems to mean the absorption of
+the spirit within itself; a condition which at once suggests adjectives
+like _impassive_, _subjective_, _exalted_, and _supra-sensual_, or
+substantives like _transcendentalism_, _egoism_, &c., and the like; in
+some cases with definite ideas to correspond with the term; oftener as
+mere meaningless words. Such, however, is the nomenclature which is
+requisite; a nomenclature to which I have recourse, not for the sake of
+illustrating my subject, but with the view of giving a practical notion
+of its indistinctness.
+
+Buddha himself is a specimen and model of self-absorption, consummation,
+perfection, or exaltation rather than a deity, or even a prophet. He
+shows what purity can effect, rather than teaches what purity consists
+in. He may even have become what he was, by his own unaided powers of
+supra-sensual abstraction.
+
+All this is but a series of negations, at least in the way of theology.
+But his spirit, after the departure of his body from the earth,[52]
+became incarnate in the body of some successor--and so on _ad
+infinitum_. This connects Buddhism with the doctrine of metempsychosis;
+a doctrine which the incarnations of Brahminism also suggest.
+
+Such are some of the speculative points of Buddhism. Its morality has
+been greatly, and, perhaps, unduly extolled. So much contemplation can
+scarcely exist without the condemnation of the more palpable sins of
+_commission_. Hence, those vices which are the offspring of passion and
+ignorance are condemned; as is but natural. The suspension of exertion
+precludes active vice. Of the active virtues, however, the recognition
+is as slight as may be; so slight as to make it doubtful whether
+Buddhism be a better rule for the formation of good citizens than
+Brahminism. Which has been the most resistant to the influences of
+Christianity is doubtful.[53]
+
+Just as the Anglo-Saxon language, although it originated in Germany, has
+survived and developed itself in Britain only, the Buddhist creed, once
+indigenous to the continent of Hindostan, is now found nowhere between
+the Himalayas and Cape Comorin; whilst beyond the pale of India, it is
+as widely extended as the English language is beyond the limits of
+Germany. The rival religion of the Brahmins expelled it. Which of the
+two was the older is uncertain. Still more difficult is it to determine
+how far each is a separate substantive mythological growth, or merely a
+modification of the rival creed.
+
+I lay but little stress upon the internal evidence derivable from the
+character of the religions themselves. Both are complicated and
+artificial--both, perhaps, equally so. In contrast, however, to the more
+speculative and transcendental points, suggestive of recent development,
+there are others indicative of great antiquity. Nevertheless, it is as
+difficult to affirm that the primitive parts of the one creed are older
+than the most primitive parts of the other, as it is to affirm that the
+highest transcendentalisms are more recent.
+
+The fact of the oldest inscriptions being in the Pali dialect, is
+favourable to the greater antiquity of Buddhism, but it is not
+conclusive. The notion that Sanskrit itself is comparatively recent, of
+course subtracts from that of Brahminism. But this is far from being
+admitted. Besides which, it by no means follows, that because Brahminism
+is, comparatively speaking, recent, Buddhism must be ancient.
+
+The best clue in this labyrinth of conflicting opinions is the study of
+the superstitions of the ruder tribes of the hill-ranges of India
+itself, of the sub-Himalayas, and of the Indo-Chinese peninsula; the
+result of which investigation will be that that creed which has most
+points in common with the primitive and unmodified mythologies of the
+Tamulian stock, and of those branches of the monosyllabic populations
+nearest akin thereto, has also the best claim to be considered as the
+older.
+
+In my own mind, I believe that the _Bedo_ of the Rajmahali mountaineers,
+is the _Batho_ of the Bodo, the _Pennu_ of the Khonds, and the
+_Potteang_ of the Kukis,[54]--name for name. I believe this without
+doubt or hesitation. But if I ask myself the import of this identity,
+the answer is unsatisfactory. There is doubt and hesitation in
+abundance. _Bedo_, _Batho_, _Petto_, and _Potteang_, _may_ represent the
+germ of what afterwards became _Buddh-ism_. They may exhibit the Indian
+creed in its _rudiments_. True. But they may also represent it in its
+_fragments_, so that _Bedo_ and _Batho_ may be but _Buddh_, distorted in
+form, and but imperfectly comprehended in import. In our own Gospel, the
+name for the place of punishment, which the Greeks called _Hades_, and
+the Hebrews typified by _Gehenna_, is the name of a Saxon goddess
+_Hela_; and, in this particular instance, a point of our original
+paganism has been taken up into our present Christianity. The same is
+the case with the Finnic nation, where _Yumala_ signifies _God_; Yumala
+being as truly heathen as _Jupiter_. On the other hand we find amongst
+the genuine pagan Gallas of Africa, an object of respect or worship
+called _Miriam_. What is this? No true piece of heathendom at all. Dr.
+Beke has given good reasons for believing that it means the Virgin
+Mother of the Saviour, the only extant member of the Christian
+Revelation now known to that once imperfectly Christianized community.
+
+Buddhism, then, may claim a higher antiquity than Brahminism under the
+two following conditions.
+
+1. That the names _Batho_, &c., be really a form of _Buddh_.
+
+2. That they have belonged to superstitions in which they occur from the
+beginning; and are not in the same category with the _Miriam_ of the
+Gallas, _i.e._, recent introductions from a wholly different
+religion--grafts rather than embryos.
+
+How far this latter is the case must be ascertained by a wide and minute
+inquiry, foreign to the present work.
+
+It is no wonder that, side by side with a semi-philosophical creed like
+Buddhism, we should have such a phenomenon as Devil-worship. When the
+spirit falls short of its due degree of self-sustained hardihood, fear
+finds its way to the heart. The evil powers are then propitiated;
+sometimes in a manner savouring of dignity, sometimes with groveling and
+grotesque cowardice. The Yezid of Mesopotamia, whose belief in the power
+of an evil spirit is derived from the Manicheism of old, shows his fear
+of the arch-enemy by simple and not unreasonable acts of negation. He
+does nothing that may offend; never mentions his name; and dwells on his
+attributes as little as possible. The devil-worshipper of Ceylon uses
+such invocations as the following:--
+
+    I.
+
+    Come, thou _sanguinary Devil_, at the sixth hour. Come, thou _fierce
+    Devil_, upon this stage, and accept the offerings made to thee!
+
+    The _ferocious Devil_ seems to be coming measuring the ground by the
+    length of his feet, and giving warnings of his approach by throwing
+    stones and sand round about. He looks upon the meat-offering which
+    is kneaded with blood and boiled rice.
+
+    He stands there and plays in the shade of the tree called _Demby_.
+    He removes the sickness of the person which he caused. He will
+    accept the offerings prepared with blood, odour, and reddish boiled
+    rice. Prepare these offerings in the shade of the _Demby_ tree.
+
+    Make a female figure of the _planets_ with a monkey's face, and its
+    body the colour of gold. Offer four offerings in the four corners.
+    In the left corner, place some blood, and for victims a fowl and a
+    goat. In the evening, place the scene representing the planets on
+    the high ground.
+
+    The face resembles a monkey's face, and the head is the colour of
+    gold. The head is reddish, and the bunch of hair is black and tied.
+    He holds blood in the left-hand, and rides on a bullock. After this
+    manner make the sanguinary figure of the planets.
+
+
+    II.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, preserve these sick persons without
+    delay!
+
+    On the way, as he was going, by supernatural power he made a great
+    noise. He fought with the form of _Wessamoony_, and wounded his
+    head. The planet _Saturn_ saw a wolf in the midst of the forest, and
+    broke his neck. The _Wessamoony_ gave permission to the great devil
+    called _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+    O thou great devil _Maha-Sohon_, take away these sicknesses by
+    accepting the offerings made frequently to thee.--The qualities of
+    this devil are these: he stretches his long chin, and opens wide his
+    mouth like a cavern: he bears a spear in his right-hand, and grasps
+    a great and strong elephant with his left-hand. He is watching and
+    expecting to drink the blood of the elephant in the place where the
+    two and three roads meet together.
+
+    Influenced by supernatural power, he entered the body of the
+    princess called _Godimbera_. He caused her to be sick with severe
+    trembling sickness. Come thou poor and powerless devil _Maha-Sohon_
+    to fight with me, and leave the princess, if thou hast sufficient
+    strength.
+
+    On hearing these sayings, he left her, and made himself like a blue
+    cloud, and violently covered his whole body with flames of fire.
+    Furiously staring with his eyes, he said, "Art thou come, blockhead,
+    to fight with me who was born in the world of men? I will take you
+    by the legs, and dash you upon the great rock _Maha-meru_, and
+    quickly bring you to nothing."
+
+    Thou wast born on Sunday, the first day of the month, and didst
+    receive permission from the _King of Death_, and didst brandish a
+    sword like a plantain-leaf. Thou comest down at half-past seven, to
+    accept the offerings made to thee.
+
+    If the devil _Maha-Sohon_ cause the chin-cough, leanness of the
+    body, thirst, madness, and mad babblings, he will come down at
+    half-past seven, and accept the offerings made to him.
+
+    These are the marks of the devil _Maha-Sohon_: three marks on the
+    head, one mark on the eye-brow and on the temple; three marks on the
+    belly, a shining moon on the thigh, a lighted torch on the head, an
+    offering and a flower on the breast. The chief god of the
+    burying-place will say, May you live long!
+
+    Make the figure of the _planets_ called the emblem of the _great
+    burying-place_, as follows: a spear grasped by the right-hand, an
+    elephant's figure in the left-hand, and in the act of drinking the
+    blood of the elephant by bruising its proboscis.
+
+    Tip the point of the spear in the hand with blood, pointed towards
+    the elephant's face in the left-hand. These effigies and offerings
+    take and offer in the burying-place,--discerning well the sickness
+    by means of the devil-dancer.
+
+    Make a figure of the _wolf_ with a large breast, full of hairs on
+    the body, and with long teeth separated from each other. The effigy
+    of the _Maha-Sohon_ was made formerly so.
+
+    These are the sicknesses which the great devil causes by living
+    among the tombs: chin-cough, itching of the body, disorders in the
+    bowels; windy complaints, dropsy, leanness of the body, weakness and
+    consumptions.
+
+    He walks on high upon the lofty stones. He walks on the ground where
+    three ways meet. Therefore go not in the roads by night: if you do
+    so, you must not expect to escape with your life.
+
+    Make two figures of a goose, one on each side. Make a lion and a dog
+    to stand at the left-leg, bearing four drinking-cups on four
+    paws--and make a moon's image, and put it in the burying-place.
+
+    Comb the hair, and tie up a large bunch with a black string. Put
+    round the neck a cobra-capella, and dress him in the garments by
+    making nine folds round the waist. He stands on a rock eating men's
+    flesh. The persons that were possessed with devils are put in the
+    burying-place.
+
+    Put a corpse at the feet, taking out the intestines through the
+    mouth. The principal thing for this country, and for the Singhalese,
+    is the worship of the planets.[55]
+
+In the centre of the island is the kingdom of Kandy; naturally fortified
+by impervious forests, and long independent. This creates a variety; the
+Kandyans being somewhat ruder than the other Singhalese. It is not,
+however, an important one. The really important ethnology of Ceylon is
+that of the _Vaddahs_, in the eastern districts, inland of Battacaloa.
+They are still unmodified by either the Hindu habits, or the great
+Indian creeds,--the true analogues of the Khonds, and Kols, and Bhils,
+&c. Their language, however, is Singhalese; an important fact, since it
+denotes one of two phenomena,--either the antiquity of the conquest of
+Ceylon supposing the extension of the Singhalese language to have been
+gradual, or the thorough-going character of it, if it be recent.
+
+Who were the _Padaei_ of the following extract from
+Herodotus?[56]--"Other Indians there are, who live east of these. They
+are nomads, eaters of raw flesh; and called Padaei. They are said to have
+the following customs. Whenever one of their countrymen is sick, whether
+man or woman, he is killed. The males kill the males, and amongst these
+the most intimate acquaintance kill their nearest friends; for they say
+that for a man to be wasted by disease is for their own meat to be
+spoilt. The man denies that he ails; but they, not letting him have his
+own way, kill and feast on him. If a female be sick, the women that are
+most intimate with her treat her as the males do the men. They sacrifice
+and feast upon all who arrive at old age. Few, however, go thus far,
+since they kill every one who falls sick before he reaches that stage of
+life."
+
+Name for name, the _Vaddahs_ of Ceylon have a claim to be _Padaei_.
+Besides which they are Indian.
+
+But, name for name, the _Battas_[57] of Sumatra have a claim as well;
+and although they are not exactly Indian, they are cannibals of the sort
+in question--or, at any rate, cannibals in a manner quite as remarkable.
+
+This gives us a conflict of difficulties. The solution of them lies in
+the fact of neither _Vaddah_ nor _Batta_ being _native_ names; a fact
+which leaves us a liberty to suppose that the _Padaei_ of Herodotus were
+simply some wild Indian tribe sufficiently allied in manners to the
+_Vaddahs_ of Ceylon, and the _Battas_ of Sumatra, to be called by the
+same name, but without being necessarily either the one or the other; or
+even ethnologically connected with either.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now look at the _gipsies_ of Great Britain. They are wanderers without
+fixed habitations; whilst, at the same time, they are more abundant in
+some parts of the island than others. They have no very definite
+occupation; yet they are oftener tinkers and tinmen than aught else
+equally legal. They intermarry with the English but little. All this is
+_caste_, although we may not exactly call it so. Then, again, they have
+a peculiar language, although it is so imperfectly known to the majority
+of the British gipsies, as to have become well-nigh extinct.[58] These
+gipsies are of Indian origin, and a wandering tribe of Hindostan, called
+Sikligurs, reminded Mr. Pickering of the European gipsies more than any
+other Indians he fell in with. Like these, the Sikligurs are _coves_, or
+tinkers.
+
+This, however, is by the way. Although it is as well to make a note of
+the Indian extraction of the English and other European gipsies, it is
+not for this reason that they have been mentioned. They find a place
+here for the sake of illustrating what is meant by the _wandering tribes
+of India_, whilst at the same time they throw a slight illustration over
+the nature of _castes_. Lastly, they are essentially parts of an
+ethnological investigation--ethnological rather than either social or
+political. Their characteristics are referable to a difference of
+descent; and they are tinkers, wanderers, poachers, and smugglers, not
+so much because they are either gipsies, or Indians, as because they are
+of a different stock from the English. They are foreigners in the
+fullest sense of the term; and they differ from their fellow-citizens
+just as the Jew does--though less advantageously.
+
+Now India swarms with the analogues of the English gipsy; so much so as
+to make it likely that the latter is found as far from his original
+country as Wales and Norway, simply because he is a vagabond, not
+because he is an Indian.
+
+Of the chief of the tribes in question a good account is given by Mr.
+Balfour. This list, however, which is as follows, may be enlarged.
+
+1. The _Gohur_ are, perhaps, better known under the name of _Lumbarri_,
+and better still as the _Brinjarri_, the bullock-drivers of many parts
+of India, but more especially of the Dekhan. They are corn-merchants as
+well. Their organization consists of divisions called _Tandas_, at the
+head of which is a _Naek_. Two Naeks paramount over the rest, reside
+permanently at Hyderabad, on the confines of the Mahratta and Telugu
+countries. The bullock, _Hatadia_, devoted to the God _Balajee_, is an
+object of worship. In a long line of Brinjarri met by Mr. Pickering,[59]
+one of the females was carrying a dog, which neither a Hindu nor a Parsi
+would have done. Many of them are Sikhs. There are, certainly, three
+divisions of the Gohuri--the Chouhane,[60] the Rhatore, and the Powar,
+and probably--
+
+_The Purmans_ are another branch of them; consisting of about
+seventy-five families of agriculturists on the Bombay islets.
+
+2. _The Bhowri_, called also _Hirn-shikarri_ and _Hern-pardi_, though
+Bhowri is the native name, are hunters. They also fall into subordinate
+divisions.
+
+3. _The Tarremuki_; so-called by themselves, but known in the Dekhan as
+_Ghissaris_, or _Bail-Kumbar_, and amongst the Mahrattas, as _Lohars_,
+are blacksmiths.
+
+4. _The Korawi_, fall in tribes which neither eat with each other, nor
+intermarry, _viz._:--
+
+_a._ The Bajantri, who are musicians.
+
+_b._ The Teling--basket-makers and prostitutes.
+
+_c._ The Kolla.
+
+_d._ The Soli.
+
+5. _The Bhattu_, _Dummur_, or _Kollati_, are exorcists and exhibitors of
+feats of strength.
+
+6. _The Muddikpur_, so called by themselves, though known under several
+other names, follow a variety of employments; some being ferrymen.
+
+All these tribes wander about the country without any permanent home,
+speak a peculiar dialect with a considerable proportion of
+Non-Sanskritic words, and preserve certain peculiarities of creed;
+though in different degrees--the Muddikpur being wholly or nearly pagan,
+the Tarremuki Brahminic.
+
+The wandering life of these, and other similar tribes is not, by itself,
+sufficient to justify us in separating them from the other Hindus. But
+it does not stand alone. The fragments of an earlier paganism, and the
+fragments of an earlier language are phenomena which must be taken in
+conjunction with it. These suggest the likelihood of the Gohuri, the
+Bhatti, and their like, being in the same category with the Khonds and
+Bhils, &c., _i.e._, representatives of the earlier and more exclusively
+Tamulian populations. If the gipsy language of England had, instead of
+its Indian elements, an equal number of words from the original
+British, it would present the same phenomena, and lead to the same
+inference as that which is drawn from the Bhatti, Bhowri, Tarremuki, and
+Gohuri vocabularies,[61] _viz._: the doctrine that fragments of the
+original population are to be sought for amongst the wanderers over the
+face of the country, as well as among the occupants of its mountain
+strongholds.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In a country like India, where differences of habit, business,
+extraction, and creed, are accompanied by an inordinate amount of
+separation between different sections and subsections of its population,
+and where slight barriers of diverse kinds prevent intermixture, the
+different sects of its numerous religions requires notice. This,
+however, may be short. As sectarianism is generally in the direct ratio
+to the complexity of the creed submitted to section, we may expect to
+find the forms of Brahminism and Buddhism, not less numerous than those
+of either Christianity or Mahometanism. And such is really the case. The
+sects are too numerous to enlarge upon. The Sikh creed has been noticed
+from its political importance. That of the Jains is also remarkable,
+since it most closely resembles Buddhism, without being absolutely
+Buddhist in the current sense of the word. It is, possibly, the actual
+and original Buddhism of the continent of India--supposed to have been
+driven out bodily by Brahminism, but really with the true vitality of
+persecuted creeds, still surviving in disguise. Again, in India, though
+in a less degree than in China, Philosophy replaces belief--so much so,
+that the different forms of one negation--Natural Religion--must be
+classed amongst the creeds of Hindostan; by the side of which there
+stand many kinds of simple philosophy; just as was the case in ancient
+Greece, where, in one and the same city, there were the philosophers of
+the Academy and the believers in Zeus.
+
+There is, then, creed within creed in the two great religions of
+India--to say nothing about the numerous fragments of modified and
+unmodified paganism.
+
+And besides these there are the following introduced religions--each
+coinciding, more or less, with some ethnological division.
+
+1. Christianity from, at least, four different sources--
+
+_a._ That of the Christians of Thomas on the Malabar Coast. Here the
+doctrine is that of the Syrian Church, and the population being
+_perhaps_ (?) Persian in origin.
+
+_b._ The Romanism of the French and Portuguese; the latter having its
+greatest development in the Mahratta country, about Goa.
+
+_c._ Dutch and Danish Protestantism.
+
+_d._ English and American Protestantism. To which add small infusions of
+the Armenian and Abyssinian churches.
+
+Of these it is only the Christians of St. Thomas that are of much
+ethnological importance.
+
+2. Judaism on the coast of Malabar; or the Judaism of the so-called
+_Black Jews_.
+
+3. Parseeism in Gujerat; of Persian origin, and, probably, nearly
+confined to individuals of Persian blood.
+
+4. Mahometanism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Of foreign blood there are numerous infusions.
+
+1. _Arab._--On the western coast, more especially amongst the Moplahs of
+the neighbourhood of Goa; where the stock seems to be Arabian on the
+father's, and Indian on the mother's side.
+
+2. _Persian._--Amongst the Parsees and Saint Thomas Christians (?); and,
+far more unequivocally, and in greater proportions, amongst the _Moghul_
+families--these being always more or less Persian; but Persian with such
+heterogeneous intermixtures of Turk and Mongol blood besides as to make
+analysis almost impossible.
+
+3. _Afghan._--The Rohillas of Rohilcund are Afghan in origin; so are the
+Patani--indeed, the term _Patan_ means an Afghan of Hindostan wherever
+he may be.
+
+4. _Jewish._
+
+5, 6, 7.--_Chinese_, _Malay_, _Burmese_, &c.
+
+8. _European._
+
+Of the _Indians out of India_, by far the most are--
+
+1. The _Gipsies_.
+
+2. The _Banians_, who are the Hindu traders of Arabia, Persia, Cashmir,
+and other parts of the East.
+
+3. The _Hill Coolies_, individuals of the Khond and Kuli class, upon
+whom England is trying the experiment of what may end in a revival of
+the old crimping system, as a substitute for slave-labour in our
+intertropical colonies.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is a sketch of the ethnology of India; pre-eminently complex, but
+not pre-eminently mysterious; its chief problems being--
+
+1. The general ethnological relations of the Tamulian stock.
+
+2. Those of the intrusive Brahminical Hindus.
+
+3. The relation of the intrusive population to the aboriginal.[62]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] "Transactions of Philological Society," No. 94.
+
+[42] Latin _nurus_, from _snurus_.
+
+[43] Latin _socer_, Greek {hekyros}.
+
+[44] Latin _socrus_, Greek {hekyra}.
+
+[45] Latin _levir_ (_devir_), Greek {daer}.
+
+[46] Or _that_, _this_.
+
+[47] The full exposition of this doctrine is in the present writer's
+ethnological edition of the "Germania" of Tacitus; v. _AEstyi_.
+
+[48] Taken from the Appendix to Captain Cunningham's "History of the
+Sikhs."
+
+[49] Captain Postans, in "Transactions of Ethnological Society," who,
+along with Sir H. Pottinger, is my chief authority.
+
+[50] For a description of these parts see Major Edwardes' "Year on the
+Punjab Frontier."
+
+[51] The best account of the Brahui is to be found in Sir H. Pottinger's
+Travels.
+
+[52] In the sixth century, B.C. according to the Buddhist chronology.
+
+[53] Such, at least, is the opinion of the author of "Christianity in
+Ceylon," Sir E. Tennent.
+
+[54] Names explained in Chapter iii.
+
+[55] From Callaway's "Translation of the _Kolan Nattannawa_."
+
+[56] Book iii. Sec.. 99.
+
+[57] The same, probably, is the case with the BIDI of Java.
+
+[58] From this language, I imagine that the three following words have
+come into the English--two of them being slang and one a sporting
+term--_rum_, _cove_, _jockey_.
+
+[59] "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," No. 145.
+
+[60] These names introduce a difficulty: They are _Rajput_ as well.
+
+[61] All of which may be found in the paper already quoted; and all of
+which contain numerous Tamul roots.
+
+[62] Since this was written Major-General Briggs' valuable paper on the
+_Aboriginal Tribes of India_, has been published in "Transactions of the
+British Association," &c., for 1851. Having been seen in MS. by the
+present writer it has been freely used.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+    BRITISH DEPENDENCIES IN THE MALAYAN PENINSULA.--THE OCEANIC STOCK
+    AND ITS DIVISIONS.--THE MALAY, SEMANG, AND DYAK TYPES.--THE ORANG
+    BINUA.--JAKUNS.--THE BIDUANDA KALLANG.--THE ORANG SLETAR.--THE
+    SARAWAK TRIBES.--THE NEW ZEALANDERS.--THE AUSTRALIANS.--THE
+    TASMANIANS.
+
+
+Our isolated and small settlements in the Malayan Peninsula,[63] the
+depot at Labuan, Sir James Brooke's Rajahship of Sarawak, New Zealand,
+the joint protectorate of the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti, Australia,
+and Van Dieman's Land, bring us to a new division of the human species,
+which is conveniently called the _Oceanic_.
+
+Its divisions and subdivisions are as follows:--
+
+                         { PROTONESIANS { MICRONESIANS
+         { AMPHINESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS -{ POLYNESIANS
+         {               { MALAGASI     {   PROPER
+ OCEANIC-{
+         {               { PAPUANS
+         { KELAENONESIANS-{ AUSTRALIANS
+                         { TASMANIANS.
+
+Our settlements are limited to the Protonesian, Proper Polynesian,
+Australian, and Tasmanian sections: and we have no political authority
+over any of the Malagasi, Micronesians, or Papuans.
+
+With the exception of the occupants of the Malayan Peninsula, all the
+Oceanic population occupy islands. This explains the term _Oceanic_.
+
+Their _distribution_ is as remarkable as their _extension_. The
+Amphinesian[64] stream of population, originating in the peninsula of
+Malacca, is continued through Borneo, the Moluccas, and the Philippines,
+Lord North's Island, Sonsoral, the Pelew group, the Caroline and
+Marianne Isles, the Ralik and Radack chains, the Kingsmill group and the
+Gilbert and Scarborough Islands, to the Navigators', Society, Friendly,
+Marquesas, Sandwich, and New Zealand groups; having become _Micronesian_
+rather than _Protonesian_, after passing the Philippines, and _Proper
+Polynesian_ rather than _Micronesian_, after passing the Scarborough and
+Gilbert Archipelagoes. In this course it passes _round_ New Guinea and
+Australia; in each of which islands the population is Kelaenonesian.
+
+The Malay of the Malacca peninsula is no longer either monosyllabic or
+uninflectional, although in immediate contact with the southern
+dialects of the Siamese. Hence, the transition is abrupt; although by no
+means conclusive as to any broad and trenchant line of ethnological
+demarcation.
+
+The differences of physical form are less than those of language. No one
+has denied that the Malay configuration is a modification of the
+Mongolian--_at least in some of its varieties_.
+
+I say _at least in some of its varieties_, because within the narrow
+range of the Malaccan peninsula and the island of Borneo we find no less
+than three different types. In _Polynesia_ one of these, and in
+_Kelaenonesia_ another becomes exaggerated--so much so, as to suggest the
+idea of a different origin for the populations.
+
+_a._ The _Malays_ are referable to the first type. Mahometans in
+religion, they partake of the civilization of the Arab and Indian, and
+differ but slightly from the Indo-Chinese nations; the complexion being
+dark and the hair straight. The Mahometan Malays, however, are no true
+aborigines. They are not only a new people on the peninsula, but they
+consider themselves as such; and those occupants which they recognize as
+older than themselves, they call _Orang Binua_, or _men of the soil_. Of
+these some have a darker complexion and crisper hair than the intruding
+population: and when we reach a particular section called--
+
+_b._ The _Semang_, we find them described as having curly, crisp,
+matted, and even woolly hair, thick lips, and a black skin. These, like
+most of the other _Orang Binua_, are Pagans. Still their language is
+essentially Malay; and their physical conformation passes into that of
+the Malays by numerous transitions.
+
+_c._ Thirdly, we find in Borneo the _Dyaks_. Many of these are as much
+fairer than the Malays as the Semang are darker. Their language,
+however, belongs to the Malay class; whilst their religion and
+civilization may reasonably be supposed to be that of the Malays
+previous to the influences of Brahminism from India, Mahometanism from
+Arabia, and the changes effected in their habits, language, and
+appearance effected thereby.
+
+It is not too much to say that within the peninsula of Malaya, the
+Johore Archipelago, and the island of Borneo, each of these types, and
+every intermediate form as well, is to be found.
+
+_Malacca._--The town of Malacca is a town of Mahometan Malays, but I
+believe that the eastern parts of Wellesley province are on the frontier
+of the _Jokong_, _Jakon_, or _Jakun_. These are _Orang Binua_, or
+aborigines--at least as compared with the true Malays.
+
+In the eighth century--I am drawing an illustration from the history of
+our own island, and its relations to continental Germany--the
+Anglo-Saxons of Great Britain, themselves originally Pagan Germans, took
+an interest in the spiritual welfare of the so-called Old Saxons, a
+tribe of Westphalia, immediately related to their own continental
+ancestors, these Old Saxons having retained their primitive Paganism.
+The mission partly succeeded, and partly failed.
+
+Now, if in addition to this partial success of the Anglo-Saxon mission,
+there had been a partial Anglo-Saxon colonization as well, and if, side
+by side with this, fragments of the old unmodified Paganism had survived
+amongst the fens and forests up to the present time, we should have had,
+in the relations of England and Germany, precisely what I imagine to
+have been the case with the Malayan peninsula and the island of Sumatra.
+Like Germany, the peninsula would have supplied the original stock to
+the island; but, in the island, that stock would have undergone certain
+modifications. With these modifications it would--so to say--have been
+_reflected_ back upon the continent--_re_-colonizing the old
+mother-country. Now just what the Old Saxons of Westphalia were to the
+Anglo-Saxons of the eighth century, are the Jakun to the true Malays.
+They differ from them in being something other than Mahometan; _i.e._,
+in being nearly what the Mahometan Malays were before their conversion.
+
+The Jakun are Malays, _minus_ those points of Malay civilization which
+are referable to the religion of the Koran.
+
+But the Jakun are only a few out of many; a single branch of a great
+stem.
+
+The most convenient term for the members in general of this class is
+_Orang Binua_--a term already explained.
+
+_The Biduanda Kallang._--The next, then, of the _Orang Binua_ that comes
+in contact with a British dependency--many others _not_ thus politically
+connected with us being passed over--are the _Biduanda Kallang_ of the
+parts about Sincapore. Their present locality is the banks of the most
+southern of the rivers of the peninsula, the Pulai. Thither they were
+removed when the British took possession of the island of Sincapore; of
+which they were previously the joint occupants--joint occupants, because
+they shared it with the tribe which will be next mentioned. They were an
+_Orang Laut_ in one sense of the word, but not in another. _Orang_ means
+_men_ or _people_, and _laut_ means _sea_ in Malay; and the Biduanda
+Kallang were boatmen rather than agriculturists. But they were only
+freshwater sailors; since, though they lived on the water, they avoided
+the open sea. They formerly consisted of one hundred families; but have
+been reduced by small-pox to eight.
+
+Their priest or physician is called _bomo_, and he invokes the _hantu_,
+or deities, the _anito_ of the Philippine Islanders, the _tii_ of the
+Tahitians; and, probably, the _Wandong_ and _Vintana_ of Australia and
+Madagascar respectively.
+
+They bury their dead after wrapping the corpse in a mat; and placing on
+the grave one cup of woman's milk, one of water, and one of rice; when
+they entreat the deceased to seek nothing more from them.
+
+Persons of even the remotest degree of relationship are forbidden to
+intermarry.
+
+The accounts of their physical appearance is taken from too few
+individuals to justify any generalization. Two, however, of them had the
+forehead broader than the cheek-bones, so that the head was pear-shaped.
+In a third, it was lozenge-shaped. The head was small, and the face
+flat. The lower jaw projected; but not the upper--so that "when viewed
+in profile, the features seem to be placed on a straight line, from
+which the prominent parts rise very slightly."[65]
+
+_The Orang Sletar._--The original joint-occupants of Sincapore with the
+Biduanda Kallang, were the _Orang Sletar_, or _men of the river Sletar_;
+differing but little from the former. Of the two families they are the
+shyer, and the more squalid; numbering about two hundred individuals and
+forty boats. Their dialect is Malay, spoken with a guttural
+pronunciation, and with a clipping of the words.
+
+At the birth of a child they have no ceremonies; at marriage a present
+of tobacco and rice to the bride's mother confirms the match; at death
+the deceased is wrapped in his garments and interred.
+
+Skin diseases and deformities are common; nevertheless, many of their
+women are given in marriage to both the Malays and Chinese; but I know
+of no account of the mixed progeny.
+
+A low retreating forehead throws the face of the _Orang Sletar_
+forwards, though the jaw is rather perpendicular than projecting.[66]
+
+Such are the _Orang Binua_ originally, or at present, in contact with
+the small and isolated possessions of the British in the Malayan
+peninsula.
+
+Of the proper Malays I have said next to nothing. Excellent works give
+full accounts of them;[67] whilst it is not through _them_ that the true
+ethnological problems are to be worked.
+
+I believe that when we reach Borneo, the equivalents to the _Orang
+Binua_, or the original populations in opposition to the Mahometan
+Malays, become referable to a fresh type, and that instead of being
+_darker_ than the true Malays they are often _lighter_. At any rate, one
+thing is certain, _viz._, that, whether the skin be brown, blackish, or
+fair, the language belongs to the same stock.
+
+Again--although in one area the darker tribes may preponderate, it is
+not to the absolute exclusion of the fairer. The Dyaks of Borneo are,
+generally speaking, light-complexioned; yet, there is special evidence
+to the existence of dark tribes in that island. On the other hand there
+is equal evidence to the existence of families lighter-skinned than the
+true Malays in the peninsula. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the
+departure from the type of that population is towards darkness of colour
+on the continent, and towards lightness in Borneo.
+
+With what physical conditions these differences coincide is not always
+easy to be discerned. In the South Sea Islands, where in one and the
+same Archipelago, we find some tribes tall and fair, whereas others are
+dark and ill-featured, it has been remarked by Captain Beechy that this
+contrast of complexion coincides with the geological structure of the
+soil. The lower and more coralline the island, the blacker the
+islanders; the more elevated and volcanic, the lighter. In Africa, it is
+the low alluvia of rivers that favour the Negro configuration.
+Mountains or table-lands, on the other hand, give us red or yellow
+skins, rather than sable.
+
+The Dyaks, then, are light-coloured Pagans, speaking languages allied to
+the Malay; little touched by Arabic, and less by Hindu influences; with
+manners and customs that, more or less, re-appear amongst the Battas (or
+ruder tribes of Sumatra), and the so-called Harafuras of Celebes--and
+not only here but elsewhere. In other words, in all the islands, where
+Indian and Arabic civilization have not succeeded in wholly changing
+the primitive character, analogues of the _Orang Binua_ are to be
+found; their greatest differences being those of stature and
+complexion--differences upon which good judges have laid great stress;
+but differences which will probably be found to coincide with certain
+geological conditions in the way of physical, and with a lower level of
+civilization in the way of moral causes--these moral causes having
+indirectly a physical action.
+
+The Dyaks, in general, use the _sumpitan_, or blow-pipe, about five feet
+long; out of which some tribes shoot simple, others poisoned arrows. The
+utmost distance that the sumpitan carries is about one hundred yards. At
+twenty it is sure in its aim. The differences between the Dyak weapon,
+and one in use with the Arawaks of Guiana is but trifling--perhaps it
+amounts to nothing at all.
+
+Some Dyak tribes tattoo their bodies; others do not.
+
+Before a Dyak youth marries he must lay at the feet of the bride-elect
+the head of an enemy. This makes _head-hunting_ a normal item of Dyak
+courtship.
+
+Traces of the Indian mythology--measures of the Indian influence in
+other respects--just exist amongst the Dyaks--_e.g._, _Battara_ is a
+name in their Pantheon, and this is an alteration of the Brahminic
+_Avatar_.
+
+The pirates who harass the coasts of Borneo and the Chinese
+Seas--destined, at some future time to be, like the Kaffres, but too
+well-known to the English tax-payers--are Malays rather than _Orang
+Binua_, or their equivalents; the navigation of the Dyaks being chiefly
+confined to rivers.
+
+The particular tribes of Sarawak are the following--the Lundu, the
+Sarambo, the Singe, the Suntah, the Sow, and the Sibnow. It is almost
+unnecessary to name the great fountain-head for all our recent knowledge
+of Borneo--Sir James Brooke.
+
+The Dyak type predominates amongst the _Orang Binua_ of Borneo. In the
+Philippines the Semang complexion re-appears. But the prolongation of
+the eastward line of migration takes us through the Mariannes and
+Ladrones to Polynesia; and here the magnitude of the islands decreases;
+in other words, the influences of the sea-air become greater. The
+aliment becomes almost wholly vegetable. The separation from the
+civilizational influences of Asia amounts to absolute isolation. Of the
+general ethnology of the South Sea Islanders I say nothing. The reasons
+which took me over China, Arabia, and the Malayan peninsula, _sicco
+pede_, spare the necessity of details here.
+
+In the Sandwich Islands there is a constitution. In Tahiti, a school of
+native Christian Missionaries.
+
+New Zealand exhibits the contrast between the darker and
+lighter-coloured Oceanic populations in so remarkable a manner as to
+have engendered the notion that two stocks occupy the island. If it were
+so, the fact would be remarkable and mysterious. How _one_ population
+found its way to a locality so distant is by no means an easy question;
+whilst the assumption of a second family of immigrants just doubles its
+difficulty.[68]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Java the proper Malay influences have been so great as to leave but
+few traces of the _Orang Binua_; and, earlier even than these, those of
+India were actively at work.
+
+East of Bali, however, the _Orang Binua_ re-appear, and here the type is
+that of the Semangs. From Ombay, parts of Ende, and parts of Sumbawa, we
+have short vocabularies--short, but not too scanty to set aside the
+hasty, but accredited, assertion of the Australian language, having
+nothing in common with those of the Indian Archipelago.[69]
+
+I feel as satisfied that Australia was peopled from either Timor or
+Rotti, as I do about the Gallic origin of the ancient Britons.
+
+I believe this because the geographical positions of the countries
+suggest it.
+
+I believe it, because the older and more aboriginal populations of Timor
+and Rotti approach, in physical character, the Australian.
+
+I believe it, because the proportion of words in the vocabularies
+alluded to is greater than can be attributed to accident; whilst the
+words themselves are not of that kind which is introduced by
+intercourse. Besides which, no such intercourse either occurs at the
+present moment, or can be shown to have ever existed.
+
+Australia agrees with parts of Africa, South America, and Polynesia, in
+being partially intertropical and wholly south of the equator--no part
+of continental Asia or Europe coming under these conditions. But it
+differs from Polynesia in being continental rather than insular in
+climate; from South America in the absence of great rivers and vast
+alluvial tracts; and from Africa in being wholly isolated from the
+Northern Hemisphere. It is with South Africa, however, that its closest
+analogies exist. Both have but small water-systems; both vast tracts of
+elevated barren country; and both a distinctive vegetation. The animal
+kingdoms, however, of the two areas have next to nothing in common. The
+comparative non-existence of Australian mammalia, higher in rank than
+the marsupials, is a subject for the zoologist. Ethnology only indicates
+its bearing upon the sustenance of man. Poor in the vegetable elements
+of food, and beggarly in respect to the animal, the vast continental
+expanse of Australia supports the scantiest aboriginal population of the
+world, and nourishes it worst. The steppes of Asia feed the horse; the
+_tundras_, the reindeer; the circumpolar icebergs, the seal; and each of
+these comparatively inhospitable tracts is more kindly towards its
+Mongolian, its Samoeid, and its Eskimo occupant, than Australia with its
+intertropical climate, but wide and isolated deserts.
+
+Except that his hair (which is often either straight, or only crisp or
+wavy) has not attained its _maximum_ of frizziness, and has seldom or
+never been called _woolly_, the Australian is a Semang under a South
+African climate, on a South African soil, and with more than a South
+African isolation.
+
+Few Australians count as far as five, and fewer still beyond it. This
+paucity of numerals is South American as well--the Brazilian and Carib,
+and other systems of numeration being equally limited.
+
+The sound of _s_ is wanting in the majority of Australian languages. So
+it is in many of the Polynesian.
+
+The social constitution is of extreme simplicity. Many degrees removed
+from the industrial, almost as far from the agricultural state, the
+Australian is hardly even a hunter--except so far as the kangaroo or
+wombat are beasts of chase. Families--scarcely large enough to be called
+tribes or clans--wander over wide but allotted areas. Nowhere is the
+approach to an organized polity so imperfect.
+
+This makes the differences between section and section of the Australian
+population, both broad and numerous. Nevertheless, the fundamental unity
+of the whole is not only generally admitted, but--what is better--it has
+been well illustrated. The researches of Captain Grey, Teichelmann,
+Schurrmann, and others, have chiefly contributed to this.
+
+The appreciation of certain apparent characteristic peculiarities has
+been less satisfactory; differences having been over-rated and points of
+similarity wondered at rather than investigated.
+
+The well-known instrument called the _boomerang_ is Australian, and it
+is, perhaps, exclusively so.
+
+Circumcision is an Australian practice--a practice common to certain
+Polynesians and Negroes, besides--to say nothing of the Jews and
+Mahometans.
+
+The recognition of the _maternal_ rather than the _paternal_ descent is
+Australian. Children take the name of their mother. What other points it
+has in common with the Malabar polyandria has yet to be ascertained.
+
+When an Australian dies, those words which are identical with his name,
+or (in case of compounds) with any part of it, cease to be used; and
+some synonym is adopted instead; just as if, in England, whenever a Mr.
+_Smith_ departed this life, the parish to which he belonged should cease
+to talk of _blacksmiths_, and say _forgemen_, _forgers_, or something
+equally respectful to the deceased, instead. This custom re-appears in
+Polynesia, and in South America; Dobrizhoffer's account of the
+Abiponian custom being as follows:--The "Abiponian language is involved
+in new difficulties by a ridiculous custom which the savages have of
+continually abolishing words common to the whole nation, and
+substituting new ones in their stead. Funeral rites are the origin of
+this custom. The Abipones do not like that anything should remain to
+remind them of the dead. Hence appellative words bearing any affinity
+with the names of the deceased are presently abolished. During the first
+years that I spent amongst the Abipones, it was usual to say _Hegmalkam
+kahamatek_, when will there be a slaughtering of oxen? On account of the
+death of some Abipon, the word _Kahamatek_ was interdicted, and, in its
+stead, they were all commanded by the voice of a crier to say,
+_Hegmalkam negerkata?_ The word _nihirenak_, a tiger, was exchanged for
+_apanigehak_; _peu_, a crocodile, for _Kaeprhak_, and _Kaama_,
+Spaniards, for _Rikil_, because these words bore some resemblance to the
+names of Abipones lately deceased. Hence it is that our vocabularies are
+so full of blots occasioned by our having such frequent occasions to
+obliterate interdicted words, and insert new ones."
+
+The following custom is Australian, and it belongs to a class which
+should always be noticed when found. This is because it appears and
+re-appears in numerous parts of the world, in different forms, and,
+apparently, independent of ethnological affinities.
+
+A family selects some natural object as its symbol, badge, or armorial
+bearing.
+
+All natural objects of the same class then become sacred; _i.e._, the
+family which has adopted, respects them also.
+
+The modes of showing this respect are various. If the object be an
+animal, it is not killed; if a plant, not plucked.
+
+The native term for the object thus chosen is _Kobong_.
+
+A man cannot marry a woman of the same _Kobong_.
+
+Until we know the sequence of the cause and effect in the case of the
+Australian _Kobong_, we have but little room for speculation as to its
+origin. Is the plant or animal adopted by a particular family selected
+because it was previously viewed with a mysterious awe, or is it
+invested with the attributes of sacro-sanctity because it has been
+chosen by the family? This has yet to be investigated.
+
+Meanwhile, as Captain Gray truly remarks, the Australian _Kobong_ has
+elements in common with the Polynesian _tabu_! Might he not have added
+that the _names_ are probably the same? The change from _t_ to _k_, and
+the difference between a nasal and a vowel termination, are by no means
+insuperable objections.
+
+He also adds that it has a counterpart with the American system of
+_totem_; although the exact degree to which the comparison runs on all
+fours is undetermined.
+
+But the disuse of certain words on the death of kinsmen, and the
+_Kobong_ are not the only customs common to the Australian and American.
+
+The admission to the duties and privileges of manhood is preceded by a
+probation. What this is in the Mandan tribe of the Sioux Americans, and
+the extent to which it consists in the infliction and endurance of
+revolting and almost incredible cruelties, may be seen in Mr. Catlin's
+description--the description of an eye-witness. In Australia it is the
+_Babu_ that cries for the youths that have arrived at puberty. Suddenly,
+and at night, a cry is heard in the woods. Upon hearing this, the men of
+the neighbourhood take the youths to a secluded spot previously fixed
+upon. The ceremony then takes place. Sham fights, dances, partial
+mutilations of the body, _e.g._, the knocking out of a front tooth, are
+elements of it. And this is as much as is known of it; except that from
+the time of initiation to the time of marriage, the young men are
+forbidden to speak to, or even approach a female.
+
+Surely, it is the common conditions of a hunter life which determine
+these probationary preparations for the hardships which accompany it in
+populations so remote as the Australian and the American of the prairie.
+I say of the prairie, because we shall find that in the proportion as
+the agricultural state replaces the erratic habits of the hunter,
+ceremonies of the sort in question decrease both in number and
+peculiarity of character.
+
+A third regulation forbids the use of the more enviable articles of
+diet, like fish, eggs, the emu, and the choicer sorts of opossum and
+kangaroo to the Australian youth.
+
+All that is known of the Australian religion is due to the researches of
+the United States Exploring Expedition. The most specific fact in this
+respect is the name _Wandong_ as applied to the evil spirit. I believe
+this to be truly a word belonging to the Oceanic Pantheon in general,
+and--as stated above--to be the same as _Vintana_ in Malagasi, and as
+the root _anit_ in many of the Polynesian languages.
+
+_The Tasmanians._--A few families, the remains of the aborigines of Van
+Dieman's Land, occupy Flinder's Island, whither they have been removed.
+
+I can give but little information concerning them.
+
+From the Australians they differ but slightly in mental capacity, and
+civilizational development. Perhaps their very low level in this
+respect is the lower of the two.
+
+The language seems to have fallen into not less than four mutually
+unintelligible forms of speech.
+
+Their _hair_ constituted their chief physical difference. This was
+curled, frizzy, or mopped.
+
+The _a priori_ view of their origin is that they crossed Torres Straits
+from Australia. I have, however, stated elsewhere that a case may be
+made out for either Timor or New Caledonia being their mother countries;
+in which case the stream of population has gone _round_ Australia rather
+than _across_ it. Certain peculiarities of the Tasmanian language give
+us the ground for thus demurring to the _prima facie_ view of their
+descent. The same help us to account for the differences in texture of
+the hair.[70]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[63] Malacca, Wellesley Province, Penang, and Sincapore. For excellent
+information about the ethnology of these parts see Newbold's "British
+Settlements," and the "Journal of the Indian Archipelago."
+
+[64] From {amphi} (_amfi_) _roundabout_, and {nesos} (_naesos_) _an
+island_.
+
+[65] Logan in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[66] Logan and Thompson in "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. i.
+
+[67] Especially Crawfurd's "Indian Archipelago," Sir Stamford Raffles'
+"History of Java," and Marsden's "Sumatra."
+
+[68] Dr. Dieffenbach's work on New Zealand is the repertory of details
+here--a valuable and standard book.
+
+[69] The collation of these may be seen in the Appendix to Mr. Jukes'
+"Voyage of the Fly."
+
+[70] In the Appendix to Jukes' "Voyage of the Fly," and in "Man and his
+Migrations."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+DEPENDENCIES IN AMERICA.
+
+    THE ATHABASKANS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COUNTRY.--THE ALGONKIN
+    STOCK.--THE IROQUOIS.--THE SIOUX.--ASSINEBOINS.--THE ESKIMO.--THE
+    KOLUCH.--THE NEHANNI.--DIGOTHI.--THE ATSINA.--INDIANS OF BRITISH
+    OREGON, QUADRA'S AND VANCOUVER'S ISLAND.--HAIDAH.--CHIMSHEYAN.--
+    BILLICHULA.--HAILTSA.--NUTKA.--ATNA.--KITUNAHA INDIANS.--PARTICULAR
+    ALGONKIN TRIBES.--THE NASCOPI.--THE BETHUCK.--NUMERALS FROM
+    FITZ-HUGH SOUND.--THE MOSKITO INDIANS.--SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS OF
+    BRITISH GUIANA.--CARIBS.--WAROWS.--WAPISIANAS.--TARUMAS.--CARIBS OF
+    ST. VINCENT.--TRINIDAD.
+
+
+_The Athabaskans._--The best starting-point for the ethnology of the
+British dependencies in America is the water-system of the largest of
+the rivers which empty themselves into the Polar Sea, a system which
+comprises the Rivers Peel, Dahodinni, and the Riviere aux Liards,
+tributaries to the McKenzie, as well as the Great Bear Lake, the Great
+Slave Lake, and Lake Athabaska; a vast tract, and one which is _almost_
+wholly occupied by a population belonging to one and the same class; a
+class sometimes known under the name _Chepewyan_, or _Chepeyan_,
+sometimes under that of _Athabaskan_.
+
+The water-system in question forms the centre of the great Athabaskan
+area--the centre, but not the whole. _Eastward_, there are Athabaskan
+tribes as far as the coasts of Hudson's Bay; westwards as far as the
+immediate neighbourhood of the Pacific; and southwards as far as the
+head-waters of the Saskatchewan. Full nineteen-twentieths of the
+Athabaskan population, in respect to its political relations, is
+British; all that is not British being either Russian or American. To
+this we may add, that it is the Hudson's Bay territory rather than
+Canada to which the British Athabaskans belong.
+
+The divisions and subdivisions of the Athabaskans are as follows:--
+
+1. The _Si-isaw-dinni_ (_See-eesaw-dinneh_), or
+_rising-sun-men_.--These, generally called either _Chipewyans_, or
+_Northern Indians_, are the most eastern members of the family, and
+extend from the mouth of the Churchill River to Lake Athabaska. I
+imagine that the _Brushwood_, _Birchrind_, and _Sheep_ Indians are
+particular divisions of this branch.
+
+2. _The Beaver Indians._--From the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountain,
+_i.e._, the valley of the Peace River.
+
+3. The _Daho-dinni_.--On the head-waters of the Riviere aux Liards.
+Called also _Mauvais Monde_.
+
+4. The _Strong-Bows_.--Mountaineers of the upper part of the Rocky
+Mountains.
+
+5. The _Kancho_.--Called also _Hare_ and _Slave_ Indians. Starved and
+miserable occupants of the parts along the River McKenzie between the
+Slave and Great Bear Lakes. Accused of occasional cannibalism, justified
+by the pressure of famine. Due east of these come--
+
+6. The _Dog-ribs_, and
+
+7. The _Yellow-knives_, on the _Copper River_; these last being also
+called the Copper Indians.
+
+8, 9. The _Slaous-cud-dinni_[71] of the McKenzie River is, probably, a
+division of some of the other groups rather than a separate substantive
+class.
+
+10. The _Takulli_.[72]--These fall into eleven minor tribes or clans.
+
+_a._ The _Tau-tin_; probably the same as the _Naote-tains_.
+
+_b._ The _Tshilko-tin_.
+
+_c._ The _Nasko-tin_.
+
+_d._ The _Thetlio-tin_.
+
+_e._ The _Tsatsno-tin_.
+
+_f._ The _Nulaau-tin_.
+
+_g._ The _Ntsaau-tin_.
+
+_h._ The _Natliau-tin_.
+
+_i._ The _Nikozliau-tin_.
+
+_j._ The _Tatshiau-tin_.
+
+_k._ The _Babine_ Indians.
+
+11. The _Susi_ (_Sussees_).--On the head-waters of the Saskatchewan.
+
+New Caledonia is the chief area of the _Takulli_.
+
+Adjacent to them, but to the east of the Rocky Mountains, lie--
+
+12. The _Tsikani_ (_Sicunnies_).
+
+The Athabaskan is the _first_ class in our list; and, if we look only at
+the area which its population occupies, it is a great one. All the
+Athabaskan languages or dialects are mutually intelligible.
+
+_The Algonkins._--The _second_ class is the Algonkin. It is greater in
+every way than the Athabaskan--greater in respect to the number of its
+divisions and subdivisions, greater in respect to the ground it covers,
+and greater in respect to the range of difference which it embraces. All
+the Algonkin languages are not mutually intelligible.
+
+Unlike the Athabaskan the Algonkin stock is nearly equally divided
+between the United States and Great Britain.
+
+Unlike, too, the Athabaskan, it is divided between the Canadas and our
+other possessions and the Hudson's Bay territory.
+
+The whole of the Canadas, with one small but important exception, the
+whole of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's
+Isle, is Algonkin. Labrador and Newfoundland are chiefly Algonkin.
+
+To this stock belonged and belong the extinct and extant Indians of New
+England, part of New York, part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia, part of the Carolinas, and part of even Kentucky and
+Tennessee; a point of American rather than of British ethnology, but a
+point necessary to be noted for the sake of duly appreciating the
+magnitude of this stock.
+
+Amongst others, the Pequods, the Mohicans, the Narragansetts, the
+Massachuset, the Montaug, the Delaware, the Menomini, the Sauks, the
+Ottogamis, the Kikkapus, the Potawhotamis, the Illinois, the Miami, the
+Piankeshaws, the Shawnos, &c. belong to this stock--all within the
+United States.
+
+The British Algonkins are as follows:--
+
+1. The _Crees_; of which the _Skoffi_ and _Sheshatapush_ of Labrador are
+branches.
+
+2. The _Ojibways_;[73] falling into--
+
+_a._ The _Ojibways Proper_, of which the _Sauteurs_ are a section.
+
+_b._ The _Ottawas_ of the River Ottawa.
+
+_c._ The original Indians of Lake _Nipissing_; important because it is
+believed that the form of speech called _Algonkin_, a term since
+extended to the whole class, was their particular dialect. They are now
+either extinct or amalgamated with other tribes.
+
+_d._ The _Messisaugis_, to the north of Lake Ontario.
+
+3. The _Micmacs_ of New Brunswick, Gaspe, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and
+part of Newfoundland; closely allied to the--
+
+4. _Abnaki_ of Mayne, and the British frontier; represented at present
+by the _St. John's Indians_.
+
+5. The _Bethuck_--the aborigines of Newfoundland.
+
+6. The _Blackfoots_, consisting of the--
+
+_a._ _Satsikaa_, or _Blackfoots Proper_.
+
+_b._ The _Kena_, or _Blood Indians_.
+
+_c._ The _Piegan_.
+
+To these must be added numerous extinct tribes.
+
+_The Iroquois._--The single and important exception to the Algonkin
+population of the Canadas is made by the existence of certain members of
+the great Iroquois class on the New York frontier; a class falling into
+two divisions. The _northern_ Iroquois belong to New York and
+Pennsylvania, the _southern_ to the Carolinas.
+
+The former of these two falls into two great confederations, and into
+several unconfederate tribes.
+
+The chief of the unconfederate tribes are the now extinct _Mynkasar_ and
+_Cochnowagoes_--extinct, unless either or both be represented by a small
+remnant mentioned by Schoolcraft, in his great work on the Indian
+tribes, now in the course of publication, under the sanction of
+Congress, as the _St. Regis Indians_.
+
+Of the second confederation the leading members were the _Wyandots_, or
+_Hurons_, of the parts between Lakes Simcoe, Huron, and Erie.
+
+The first was that of the famous and formidable _Mohawks_. To these add
+the _Senekas_, the _Onondagos_, the _Cayugas_, and the _Oneidas_, and
+you have the _Five_ Nations. Then add, as a later accession, from the
+southern Iroquois, the _Tuskaroras_, and the _Six_ Nations are formed.
+
+Between these two there was war _even to the knife_; the greater portion
+of the Wyandot league belonging to the Algonkin class.
+
+Nevertheless, a few representatives of the whole seven tribes[74] still
+remain extant, their present locality--a reserve--being the triangular
+peninsula which was the original Huron area.
+
+Again, in the present site of Montreal, the earlier occupants were the
+_Hochelaga_; an Iroquois tribe also.
+
+_The Sioux._--In tracing the Nelson River from its embouchure in
+Hudson's Bay, towards its source in the Rocky Mountains, we reach Lake
+Winnepeg, and the Red River Settlement--the Red River rising within the
+boundary of the United States, flowing from south to north, and
+receiving, as a feeder, the Assineboin. Now the Valley of the Assineboin
+is an interesting ethnological locality.
+
+Either the river takes its name from the population, or the population
+from the river; the division to which it belongs being a new one.
+Different from the Algonkins on the east, different from the Athabaskans
+on the north, and (in the present state of our knowledge) different from
+the Arrapahoes on the west, the Assineboins have all their affinities
+southwards. In that direction the family to which they belong extends as
+far as Louisiana. These Indians it is to whom nine-tenths of the Valley
+of Missouri originally belonged--the Indians of the great Sioux class;
+Indians whose original hunting-grounds included the vast prairie-country
+from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi, and who again appear as an
+isolated detachment on Lake Michigan. These isolated Sioux are the
+Winebagoes; the others being the Dahcota, the Yankton, the Teton, the
+Upsaroka, the Mandan, the Minetari, the Missouri, the Osage, the Konzas,
+the Ottos, the Omahaws, the Puncas, the Ioways, and the Quappas,--all
+American, _i.e._, belonging to the United States.
+
+None of the Sioux tribe come in contact with the sea. None of them
+belong to the great _forest_ districts of America. Most of them hunt
+over the country of the buffalo. This makes them warlike, migratory
+hunters; with fewer approaches to agricultural or industrial
+civilization than any Indians equally favoured by soil and climate.
+
+Of this class the Assineboins are the British representatives. They are
+the chief _Red River_ aborigines.
+
+It is the Iroquois, the Sioux, and certain members of the Algonkin
+stock, upon which the current and popular notions of the American
+Indian, the _Red Man_, as he is called--
+
+    The Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear, &c.,
+
+have been formed. The Athabaskans, on the other hand, have not
+contributed much to our notions on this point. In the first place, they
+are less known; in the next, they are less typical.
+
+But this raises their value in the eyes of the ethnologist; and the very
+fact of their possessing certain characteristics, in a comparatively
+slight degree, makes them all the fitter for illustrating the phenomena
+of _transition_.
+
+Previous, however, to this, we must get our other _extreme_. This is to
+be found in the ethnology of--
+
+_The Eskimo._--It is a very easy matter for an artistic ethnologist to
+make some fine light-and-shade contrasts between two populations, where
+he has an Iroquois or a Sioux at one end, and an Eskimo of Labrador at
+the other. An oblique eye, bleared and sore from the glare of the snow,
+with a crescentic fold overshadowing the _caruncula lacrymalis_,
+surmounted by a low forehead and black shaggy locks, with cheek-bones of
+such inordinate development as to make the face as broad as it is long,
+are elements of ugliness which catch the imagination, and produce a
+caricature, where we want a picture. And they are elements of ugliness
+which can be accumulated. We may add to them, a nose so flat, and cheeks
+so fleshy, as for a ruler, placed across the latter, to leave the former
+untouched. We may then notice the state of the teeth, from the
+mastication of injurious substances; and having thus exhausted nature,
+we may revert to the deformities of art. We may observe that wherever
+there is a fleshy portion of the face that can be perforated by a stone
+knife, or pierced by a whalebone, there will be tattooing and incisions;
+and that wherever there are incisions, bones, nails, feathers, and such
+like ornaments will be inserted. All this is the case. What European
+ladies do with their ears, the Eskimo does with the cartilage of his
+nose, the lips, the corners of his mouth, and the cheeks. More than
+this--in the lower lip, parallel to the mouth, and taking the guise of a
+mouth additional, a slit is made quite through the lip, large enough to
+allow the escape of spittle and the protrusion of the tongue. The
+insertion of a shell or bone, cut into the shape of teeth, completes the
+adornment.
+
+Then comes the question of colour. The Indian has a tinge of red; a
+tinge which enables us to compare his skin to _copper_. The Eskimo is
+simply brown, swarthy, or tawny.
+
+Again, the Eskimo hold periodical fairs. Whales are scarce in the south,
+and wood in the north of Greenland; and in consequence of this, there
+are regular meetings for the business of barter. This gives us the
+elements of commercial industry; elements which must themselves be taken
+in conjunction with the maritime habits of the people. What stronger
+contrast can we find to all this than the gloomy isolation of the
+hunters of the prairie-countries, whether Sioux, Iroquois, or Algonkin?
+
+Again, it is safe, in the way of intellectual capacity, to give the
+Eskimo credit for ingenuity and imitativeness. The Indian, of the type
+which we have chosen to judge him by, is pre-eminently indocile and
+inflexible.
+
+Yet all this, with much more besides, is capable of great
+qualification--qualification which we find necessary, whether we look to
+the extent to which the Eskimos approach the Indian, or the Indian the
+Eskimo--each receding from its own more extreme representative.
+
+The prominence of the nasal bones is certainly common amongst the Red
+Indian tribes; and rare amongst the Eskimo. Yet it is neither universal
+in the one, nor non-existent in the other. Oval features, a mixture of
+red in the complexion, an aquiline nose, have all been observed amongst
+the more favoured of the Circumpolar men and women.
+
+In respect, too, to stature, the Eskimo is less remarkable for
+inferiority than is generally supposed. His bulky, baggy dress makes him
+look square and short. Measurements, however, correct this impression.
+Men of the height of five feet ten inches have been noticed as
+particular specimens--better grown individuals than their fellows. And
+men under five feet have also been noticed for the contrary reasons.
+Numerous measurements, however, give about five feet as the height of an
+Eskimo woman, and five feet six inches as that of a man. This is more
+than so good an authority as Mr. Crawfurd gives to the Malays; whose
+person is squat, and whose average stature does not exceed five feet
+three or four inches. It is more, too, than Sir R. Schomburgk gives the
+Guiana Indians, as may be seen from the following table:--
+
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ |               | Aged. | ft.   in.   |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Wapisianas._ |  12   |  4   8-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  4   6      |
+ |               |  16   |  5   1-1/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Tarumas._    |  14   |  4  11-3/10 |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Mawackas._   |  15   |  4  10      |
+ |               |  16}  |  4   9-5/10 |
+ |               |  17}  |             |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Atorais._    |  35   |  5   1-5/10 |
+ |               |  15   |  5   1      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+ | _Macusis._    |  14}  |  4   8      |
+ |               |  15}  |             |
+ |               |  14   |  5   0      |
+ +---------------+-------+-------------+
+
+It is more than the average of several other populations.
+
+Neither is the Eskimo skull so wholly different from the American. It
+is, probably, larger in its dimensions; so that its cavity contains more
+cubic inches. The measurements, however, which suggest this view, are
+but few. On the other hand, the relations between the _width_ and the
+_depth_ of the skull, are considered important and distinctive.
+
+By _width_ is meant the number of inches from side to side, from one
+parietal bone to the other; in other words, the _parietal diameter_.
+
+_Depth_ signifies the length of the _occipito-frontal_ diameter, or the
+number of inches from the forehead to the back of the skull.
+
+Now, in one out of four of the Eskimo crania examined by Dr. Morton, the
+parietal diameter so nearly approaches the occipito-frontal as for the
+skull in question to be as much as 5.4 inches in width, and as little as
+5.7 in depth; a measurement which makes the Eskimo brain almost as
+broad as it is long. _Valeat quantum._ It is an extreme specimen. The
+remainder are as 5.5 to 7.3; as 5.1 to 7.5; and as 5 to 6.7, proportions
+by no means exclusively Eskimo, and proportions which occur in very many
+of the undeniably American stocks.
+
+Likeness there is; and variety there is;--likeness in physical feature,
+likeness in language, and likeness in the general moral and intellectual
+characteristics. And then there is variety--variety in all the details
+of their arts; variety in their bows, their canoes, their dwellings,
+their fashions in the way of incisions and tattooings, and their
+fashions in the dressing of their hair.
+
+This is as much as can be said about the Eskimo at present. It is,
+however, preparatory to the general statement that _all the remaining_
+Indians of British North America recede from the Sioux and Iroquois
+type, and approach that of the family in question. Such, indeed, has
+been the case, though (perhaps) in a less degree, with one of the
+classes already considered--the Athabaskan.
+
+_The Koluch._--The extreme west of the British possessions beyond the
+Rocky Mountains, _north_ of latitude 55 deg. is but imperfectly known.
+Indeed, for scientific, and, perhaps, for political purposes as well,
+the country is unfortunately divided. The Russians have the long but
+narrow strip of coast; and, consequently, limit their investigations to
+its bays and archipelagoes. The British, on the contrary, though they
+possess the interior, have no great interest in the parts about the
+Russian boundary. In the way of trade, they are not sufficiently on the
+sea for the sea-otter, nor near enough the mountains for other
+fur-bearing animals.
+
+Now, the mouth of the Stikin River is Russian, the head-waters British.
+Beyond these, we have the water-system of the McKenzie--for that river,
+although falling into the Arctic Sea, has a western fork, which breaks
+through the barrier of the Rocky Mountains, and changes in direction
+from west and south-west to north. Lake Simpson, Lake Dease, and the
+River Turnagain belong to this branch; the tract in which they lie being
+a range of highlands, if not of mountains.
+
+This is the country of the Nehannis; conterminous on the south with that
+of the Takulli, and on the north-east with that of the Dahodinni. How
+far, however, it extends towards the Russian boundary and in the
+north-west direction I cannot say.
+
+The Nehannis are, probably, the chief British representatives of the
+class called Koluch.[75] Assuming this--although from the want of a
+special Nehanni vocabulary, the philological evidence is wanting--I
+begin with the notice of the _Nehannis_, as known to the Hudson's Bay
+Company, and afterwards superadd a sketch of the _Sitkans_, as known to
+the Russians of New Archangel; the two notices together giving us the
+special description of a family, and the general view of the class to
+which that family belongs.
+
+That the Nehannis are brave, warlike, and turbulent, is no more than is
+expected. We are far beyond the latitude of the peaceful Eskimo. That
+they are ruled by a woman should surprise us. Such, however, is the
+case. A female rules them--and rules them, too, with a rod of iron.
+Respect for sex has here attained its height. It had begun to be
+recognized amongst the Athabaskans.
+
+The Nehannis are strong enough to rob; but they are also civilized
+enough to barter; buying of the inland tribes, and selling to the
+Russians--a practice which seems to divert the furs of British territory
+to the markets of Muscovy. But this is no business of the ethnologist's.
+They are slavers and slave-owners; ingenious and imitative; fond of
+music and dancing; fish-eaters; active in body; bold and treacherous in
+temper; and with the common Koluch physiognomy and habits.
+
+_These_ we must collect from the descriptions of the Russian
+Koluches--the locality where they have been best studied being Sitka
+Sound, or New Archangel. We must do it, however, _mutatis mutandis_,
+_i.e._, remembering that the Sitkans are Koluch of an Archipelago, the
+Nehanni Koluch of a continent.
+
+The Koluch complexion is light; the hair long and lank; the eyes black;
+and the lip and chin often bearded.
+
+The _Konaegi_ are the natives of the island Kadiak. Now Lisiansky, from
+whom the chief details of the Sitkan Koluch are taken, especially states
+that, with few exceptions, their manners and customs are those of these
+same Konaegi; one of the minor points of difference being the greater
+liveliness of the Sitkans, and one of the more important ones, their
+treatment of the dead. They _burn_ the bodies (as do the Takulli
+Athabaskans) and deposit the ashes in wooden boxes placed upon pillars,
+painted or carved, more or less elaborately, according to the wealth of
+the deceased.
+
+On the death of a _toyon_, or chief, one of his slaves is killed and
+burned with him. If, however, the deceased be of inferior rank the
+victim is _buried_. If the death be in battle, the head, instead of
+being burned, is kept in a wooden box of its own. But it is not with the
+shaman as with the warrior. The shaman is merely interred; since he is
+supposed to be too full of the evil spirit to be consumed by fire. The
+reason why burning is preferred to burying is because the possession of
+a piece of flesh is supposed to enable its owner to do what mischief he
+pleases.
+
+_Now the Konaegi are admitted Eskimo._
+
+Notwithstanding the similarity between the Sitkans and Konaegi there is
+no want of true American customs amongst them. Cruelty to prisoners,
+indifference to pain when inflicted on themselves, and the habit of
+scalping are common to the Indians of King George's Archipelago, and
+those of the water-system of the Mississippi. On the other hand, they
+share the skill in painting and carving with the Chenuks and the
+aborigines of the Oregon.
+
+_The Digothi._--The Dahodinni are Athabaskan rather than Koluch; the
+Nehanni Koluch rather than Athabaskan. Now I imagine that the Dahodinni
+country is partially encircled by Koluch populations, and that a fresh
+branch of this stock re-appears when we proceed northwards. On the Lower
+McKenzie, in the valley of the Peel River, and at the termination of the
+great Rocky Range on the shore of the Polar Sea, we find the _Digothi_
+or _Loucheux_; the only family not belonging to the Eskimo class, which
+comes in contact with the ocean; and, consequently, the only
+unequivocally Indian population which interrupts the continuity of the
+Eskimo from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic. Perhaps the alluvium of
+a great river like the McKenzie, has determined this displacement. Such
+an occupancy would be as naturally coveted by an inland population, as
+undervalued by a maritime one. At any rate, the Loucheux have the
+appearance of being an encroaching tenantry; indeed, few Indians have
+had their physical appearance described in terms equally favourable.
+Black-haired and fair-complexioned, with fine sparkling eyes, and
+regular teeth, they approach the Nehanni in physiognomy, and surpass
+them in stature. The same authority which expressly states that the
+Nehanni are not generally tall, speaks to the athletic proportions and
+tall stature of the Loucheux; adding that their countenances are
+handsome and expressive.
+
+Whence came they? From the south-east, from Russian America. Their
+points of contrast to the Eskimo indicate this. Their points of contrast
+to the Athabaskans indicate it also. Their points of similarity to the
+Koluch do more. The Loucheux possessive pronoun is the same as the
+Kenay. Thus--
+
+ ENGLISH.         LOUCHEUX.    KENAY.
+
+ _My_-son         _se_-jay     _ssi_-ja.
+ _My_-daughter    _se_-zay     _ssa_-za.
+
+Fuller descriptions, however, of both the Loucheux and Nehanni are
+required before we can decidedly pronounce them to be Koluch; indeed,
+so high an authority as Gallatin places the latter amongst the
+Athabaskans.
+
+_The Fall Indians._--In a MS. communicated by Mr. Gallatin to Dr.
+Prichard, and, by the latter kindly lent to myself, and examined by me
+some years back, was a vocabulary of the language of the Indians of the
+Falls of the Saskatchewan. In this their native name was written
+_Ahnenin_. Mr. Hale, however, calls them _Atsina_. Which is correct is
+difficult to say.
+
+_Gros ventres_ is another of their designations; _Minetari of the
+Prairie_ another. This last is inconvenient, as well as incorrect, since
+the true _Minetari_ are a Sioux tribe, different in language, manners,
+and descent.
+
+_Arrapaho_ is a third synonym; and this is important, since there are
+other _Arrapahoes_ as far south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.
+
+The identity of name is _prima facie_ evidence of two tribes so distant
+as those of Arkansas and the Saskatchewan being either offsets from one
+another, or else from some common stock; but it is not more. Nothing can
+be less conclusive. This has just been shown to be in the case of the
+term _Minetari_.
+
+The Ahnenin, or Atsina language is peculiar; though the confederacy to
+which the Indians who speak it belong, is the Blackfoot.
+
+Of the southern Arrapaho we have no vocabulary; neither do we know
+whether the name be native or not.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A tract still stands over for notice. As we have no exact northern
+limits for the Nehanni, no exact western ones for the Dahodinni, and no
+exact southern ones for the Loucheux, the parts due east of the Russian
+boundary are undescribed.
+
+I can only _contribute_ to the ethnology here.
+
+_The Ugalentses._--Round Mount St. Elias we have a population of
+_Ugalentses_ or Ugalyakhmutsi. Though said to consist of less than forty
+families,[76] as their manners are migratory, it is highly probable that
+some of them are British.
+
+_The Tshugatsi_.--In contact with the Ugalents, who are transitional
+between the true Eskimo and the true Koluch, the Tshugatsi are
+unequivocally Eskimo. The parts about Prince William's Sound are their
+locality.
+
+_The Haidah._--Queen Charlotte's, and the southern extremity of the
+Prince of Wales' Archipelago, are the parts to which the Indians
+speaking the Haidah language have been referred. In case, however, any
+members of their family extend into the British territory, they are
+mentioned here.
+
+Three Haidah tribes are more particularly named--
+
+_a._ The _Skittegat_.
+
+_b._ The _Cumshahas_--a name remarkably like that of the _Chimsheyan_,
+hereafter to be noticed.
+
+_c._ The _Kygani_.
+
+_The Tungaas._--This is the name of the language of the most Northern
+Indians, with which the Hudson's Bay Company comes in contact. It is
+Koluch; and more Russian than British.
+
+The chief authority is Dr. Scouler. The whole of his valuable remarks
+upon the North-western Indians, is a commentary upon the assertion
+already made as to the extent which we have formed our ideas of the
+Aboriginal American upon the Algonkins and Iroquois exclusively; and his
+facts are a correction to our inferences. In what way do the moral and
+intellectual characters of the Western Indians differ from those of the
+Eastern? I shall give the answer in Dr. Scouler's only terms. They are
+less inflexible in character. Their range of ideas is greater. They are
+imitative and docile. They are comparatively humane.[77] No scalping. No
+excessive torture of prisoners. No probationary inflictions.
+
+Now--whether negative or positive--there is not one of those
+characteristics wherein the Western American differs from the Eastern,
+in which he does not, at the same time, approach the Eskimo. In the
+absence of the scalping-knife, the tomahawk, the council fire, the
+wampum-belt, the hero chief, and the metaphorical orator, the Eskimo
+differs from the Ojibway, the Huron, and the Mohawk. True. But the
+Haidah and the Chimsheyan do the same.
+
+The religion of the Algonkin and Iroquois is Shamanistic; like the Negro
+of Africa they attribute to some material object mysterious powers. As
+far as the term has been defined, this is Feticism. But, then, like the
+Finn, and the Samoeid of Siberia, they either seek for themselves or
+reverence in others, the excitement of fasting, charms, and dreams. As
+far as the term has been defined this is Shamanism. Now lest our notions
+as to the religion of the Indians be rendered unduly favourable through
+the ideas of pure theism, called up by the missionary term _Great
+Spirit_, we must simply remember, in the first place, that the term is
+_ours_, not _theirs_; and that those who, by looking to facts rather
+than words, have criticised it, have arrived at the conclusion that the
+creed of the Indians of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi is neither
+better nor worse than the creed of the Indians of the Columbia. Both are
+alike, Shamanistic. And so is the Eskimo.
+
+The names in detail of the Indians of British Oregon, over and above
+those of the Athabaskan family already enumerated, are as follows; Dr.
+Scouler still being the authority, and, along with him, Mr. Tolmie and
+Mr. Hale.
+
+1. The _Chimsheyan_, or _Chimmesyan_, on the sea-coast and islands about
+55 deg. North lat. Their tribes are the _Naaskok_, the _Chimsheyan Proper_,
+the _Kitshatlah_, and the _Kethumish_.
+
+2. The _Billichula_, on the mouth of the Salmon River.
+
+3. The _Hailtsa_, on the sea-coast, from Hawkesbury Island to
+Broughton's Archipelago, and (perhaps) the northern part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island. Their tribes are the _Hyshalla_, the _Hyhysh_, the
+_Esleytuk_, the _Weekenoch_, the _Nalatsenoch_, the _Quagheuil_, the
+_Ttatla-shequilla_, and the _Lequeeltoch_. The numerals from Fitz-Hugh
+Sound will be noticed in the sequel.
+
+4. _The Nutka Sound Indians_ occupy the greater part of Quadra's and
+Vancouver's Island, speak the _Wakash_ language, and fall into the
+following tribes--
+
+_a._ _The Naspatl._
+
+_b._ _The Nutkans Proper._
+
+_c._ _The Tlaoquatsh._
+
+_d._ _The Nittenat._
+
+5. _The Shushwah_, or _Atna_, are bounded on the north by the Takulli,
+belong to the interior rather than the coast, are members of a large
+family, called the _Tsihaili-Selish_, extending far into the United
+States. According to Mr. Hale, they present the remarkable phenomenon
+of an aboriginal stock having increased from about four hundred to
+twelve hundred, instead of diminishing.
+
+6. _The Kitunaha_, _Cutanies_, or _Flat-bows_, hardy, brave and shrewd
+hunters on the Kitunaha, or Flat-bow River, and conterminous with the
+Blackfoots, are the Oregon Indians whose habits most closely approach
+those of the Indians to the east of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To some of these I now return, since three points of Algonkin ethnology
+require special notice.
+
+_a._ _The Nascopi_ or _Skoffi_.--This is a frontier tribe. Much as we
+connect the ideas of cold and cheerless sterility with the inclement
+climate and naked moorlands of Labrador, and much as we connect the
+Eskimo as a population with a similarly inhospitable country, it is only
+the coast of that vast region which is thus tenanted. On Hudson's
+Straits there are Eskimo; on the Straits of Belleisle there are Eskimo;
+along the intervening coast there are Eskimo, and as far south as
+Anticosti there are Eskimo, but in the interior there are no Eskimo.
+Instead of them we find the Skoffi, and the Sheshatapush--subsections
+(as stated before) of the same section of the great Algonkin stock. In
+them we have a measure of the effect of external conditions upon
+different members of the same class. Between the Skoffi of Mosquito Bay
+and the Pamticos of Cape Hatteras we have more than 25 deg. of latitude
+combined with a difference of other physical conditions which more than
+equals the difference between north and south. Yet the contrast between
+the Algonkin and other inhabitants of Labrador is as evident (though
+not, perhaps, so great) as that between the Greenlander and the
+Virginian; so that just as the Norwegian is distinguishable from the
+Laplander so is the Skoffi from Eskimo.
+
+Dirtier and coarser than any other Algonkins, the Nascopi hunts and
+fishes for his livelihood exclusively; depending most upon the autumnal
+migrations of the reindeer; and, next to that, upon his net. This he
+sets under the ice, during the earlier months of the winter. After
+December, however, he would set them in vain; the fish being, then, all
+in the deep water. Woman, generally a drudge in North America, is
+pre-eminently so with the Nascopis. All that the man does, is the
+_killing_ of the game. The woman brings it home. The woman also drags
+the loaded sledges from squatting to squatting, clears the ground, and
+collects fuel; whilst the man sits idle and smokes. Of such domestic
+slaves more than one is allowed; so that as far as the Nascopi
+recognizes marriage at all, he is a polygamist. In this sense the
+contracting parties are respectively the parents of the couple--the
+bride and bridegroom being the last parties consulted. When all has been
+arranged, the youth proceeds to his father-in-law's tent, remains there
+a year, and then departs as an independent member of the community.
+Cousins are addressed as brothers or sisters; marriage between near
+relations is allowed; and so is the marriage of more than one sister
+successively.
+
+The Paganism of the Nascopi is that of the other Cree tribes; their
+Christianity still more partial and still more nominal. Sometimes
+rolling in abundance, sometimes starving, they are attached to the
+Whites by but few artificial wants; the few fur-bearing animals of their
+country being highly prized, and, consequently, going a long way as
+elements of barter. Their dress is almost wholly of reindeer skin; their
+travelling gear a leathern bag with down in it, and a kettle. In this
+bag the Nascopi thrusts his legs, draws his knees up to his chin, and
+defies both wind and snow.
+
+This account has been condensed from M'Lean's "Five and Twenty Years'
+Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory." I subjoin the remainder in his
+own words: "The horrid practice still obtains among the Nascopis of
+destroying their parents and relatives, when old age incapacitates them
+for further exertion. I must, however, do them the justice to say, that
+the parent himself expresses a wish to depart, otherwise the unnatural
+deed would probably never be committed, for they, in general, treat
+their old people with much care and tenderness. The son, or nearest
+relative, performs the office of executioner--the self-devoted victim
+being disposed of by strangulation."
+
+_b._ _The Aborigines of Newfoundland._--Sebastian Cabot brought three
+Newfoundlanders to England. They were clothed in beasts' skin, and ate
+raw flesh. This last is an accredited characteristic of the Eskimo; and,
+thus far, the evidence is in favour of the savages in question belonging
+to that stock. Yet it is more than neutralized by what follows; since
+Purchas states that two years after he saw two of them, dressed like
+Englishmen, "which, at that time, I could not discover from Englishmen,
+till I learned what they were."
+
+Now as the Bethuck--the aborigines in question--have either been cruelly
+exterminated, or exist in such small numbers as not to have been seen
+for many years, it has been a matter of doubt whether they were Eskimo
+or Micmacs, the present occupants of the island. Reasons against either
+of these views are supplied by a hitherto unpublished Bethuck
+vocabulary, with which I have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr.
+King, of the Ethnological Society. This makes them a _separate section_
+of the Algonkins. Such I believe them to have been, and have placed them
+accordingly.
+
+_c._ _The Fitz-Hugh Sound Numerals._--These are nearly the same as the
+Hailtsa. On the other hand, they agree with the Blackfoot in ending in
+-_scum_.
+
+Now if the resemblance go farther, so as really to connect the Blackfoot
+with the Hailtsa, it brings the Algonkin class of languages across the
+whole breadth of the continent, and as far as the shores of the Pacific.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Moskito Indians are no subjects of England, any more than the
+Tahitians are of France, or the Sandwich Islanders of America, France,
+and England conjointly. The Moskito coast is a Protectorate: and the
+Moskito Indians are the subjects of a native king.
+
+The present reigning monarch was educated under English auspices at
+Jamaica, and, upon attaining his majority, crowned at Grey Town. I
+believe that his name is that of the grandfather of our late gracious
+majesty. King George, then, king of the Moskitos, has a territory
+extending from the neighbourhood of Truxillo to the lower part of the
+River San Juan; a territory whereof, inconveniently for Great Britain,
+the United States, and the commerce of the world at large, the limits
+and definition are far from being universally recognized. Nicaragua has
+claims, and the Isthmus canal suffers accordingly.
+
+The king of the Moskito coast, and the emperor of the Brazil, are the
+only resident sovereigns of the New World.
+
+The subjects of the former are, really, the aborigines of the whole line
+of coast between Nicaragua and Honduras--there being no Indians
+remaining in the former republic, and but few in the latter. Of these,
+too--the Nicaraguans--we have no definite ethnological information. Mr.
+Squier speaks of them as occupants of the islands of the lakes of the
+interior. Colonel Galindo also mentions them; but I infer, from his
+account, that their original language is lost, and that Spanish is their
+present tongue; just as it is said to be that of the aborigines of St.
+Salvador and Costa Rica. This makes it difficult to fix them. And the
+difficulty is increased when we resort to history, tradition, and
+archaeology. History makes them Mexicans--Asteks from the kingdom of
+Montezuma, and colonists of the Peninsula, just as the Ph[oe]nicians
+were of Carthage. Archaeology goes the same way. A detailed description
+of Mr. Squier's discoveries, is an accession to ethnology which is
+anxiously expected. At any rate, stone ruins and carved decorations have
+been found; so that what Mr. Stephenson has written about Yucatan and
+Guatemala, may be repeated in the case of Nicaragua. Be it so. The
+difficulty will be but increased; since whatever facts makes Nicaragua
+Mexican, isolates the Moskitos. They are now in contact with Spaniards
+and Englishmen--populations whose civilization differs from their own;
+and populations who are evidently intrusive and of recent origin.
+Precisely the same would be the case, if the Nicaraguans were made
+Mexican. The civilization would be of another sort; the population which
+introduced it would be equally intrusive; and the only difference would
+be a difference of stage and degree--a little earlier in the way of
+time, and a little less contrast in the way of skill and industry.
+
+But the evidence in favour of the Mexican origin of the Nicaraguans, is
+doubtful; and so is the fact of their having wholly lost their native
+tongue; and until one of these two opinions be proved, it will be well
+to suspend our judgment as to the isolation of the Moskitos. If, indeed,
+either of them be true, their ethnological position will be a difficult
+question. With nothing in Honduras to compare them with--with nothing
+tangible, or with an apparently incompatible affinity in Nicaragua--with
+only very general miscellaneous affinities in Guatemala--their
+ethnological affinities are as peculiar as their political
+constitution. Nevertheless, isolated as their language is, it has
+undoubted _general affinities with those of America at large_; and this
+is all that it is safe to say at present. But it is safe to say _this_.
+We have plenty of data for their tongue, in a grammar of Mr.
+Henderson's, published at New York, 1846.
+
+The chief fact in the history of the Moskitos, is that they were never
+subject to the Spaniards. Each continent affords a specimen of this
+isolated freedom--the independence of some exceptional and impracticable
+tribes, as compared with the universal empire of some encroaching
+European power. The Circassians in Caucasus, the Tshuktshi Koriaks in
+North-eastern Asia, and the Kaffres in Africa, show this. Their
+relations with the buccaneers were, probably, of an amicable
+description. So they were with the Negroes--maroon and imported. And
+this, perhaps, has determined their _differentiae_. They are
+intertropical American aborigines, who have become partially European,
+without becoming Spanish.
+
+Their physical conformation is that of the South rather than the North
+American; and, here it must be remembered, that we are passing from one
+moiety of the new hemisphere to the other. With a skin which is
+olive-coloured rather than red, they have small limbs and undersized
+frames; whilst their habits are, _mutatis mutandis_, those of the
+intertropical African. This means, that the exuberance of soil, and the
+heat of the climate, makes them agriculturists rather than shepherds,
+and idlers rather than agriculturists; since the least possible amount
+of exertion gives them roots and fruits; whilst it is only those wants
+which are compatible with indolence that they care to satisfy. They
+presume rather than improve upon the warmth of their suns, and the
+fertility of the soil. When they get liquor, they get drunk; when they
+work hardest, they cut mahogany. Canoes and harpoons represent the
+native industry. _Wulasha_ is the name of their Evil Spirit, and
+_Liwaia_ that of a water-god.
+
+I cannot but think that there is much intermixture amongst them. At the
+same time, the _data_ for ascertaining the amount are wanting. Their
+greatest intercourse has, probably, been with the Negro; their next
+greatest with the Englishman. Of the population of the interior, we know
+next to nothing. Here their neighbours are Spaniards.
+
+They are frontagers to the river San Juan. This gives them their value
+in politics.
+
+They are the only well-known extant Indians between Guatemala and
+Veragua. This gives them their value in ethnology.
+
+The populations to which they were most immediately allied, have
+disappeared from history. This isolates them; so that there is no class
+to which they can be subordinated. At the same time, they are quite as
+like the nearest known tribes as the _American_ ethnologist is prepared
+to expect.
+
+What they were in their truly natural state, when, unmodified by either
+Englishman or Spaniard, Black or Indian, they represented the indigenous
+civilization (such as it was) of their coast, is uncertain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+That the difference between the North and South American aborigines has
+been over-rated, is beyond doubt. The tendency, however, to do so,
+decreases. An observer like Sir R. Schomburgk, who is at once minute in
+taking notice, and quick at finding parallels, adds his suffrage to that
+of Cicca de Leon and others, who enlarge upon the extent to which the
+Indians of the New World in general look "like children of one family."
+On the other hand, however, there are writers like D'Orbigny. These
+expatiate upon the difference between members of the same class, so as
+to separate, not only Caribs from Algonkins, or Peruvians from
+Athabaskans, but Peruvians from Caribs, and Patagonians from Brazilians.
+
+Now it is no paradox to assert that these two views, instead of
+contradicting, support each other. A writer exhibits clear and
+undeniable differences between two American tribes in geographical
+juxtaposition to one another. But does this prove a difference of
+origin, stock, or race? Not necessarily. Such differences may be, and
+often are, partial. More than this--they may be more than neutralized by
+undeniable marks of affinity. In such a case, all that they prove is the
+extent to which really allied populations may be contrasted in respect
+to certain particular characters.
+
+Stature is the chief point in which the North American has the advantage
+of the Southern, _e.g._, the Algonkin over the Carib. Such is Sir R.
+Schomburgk's remark; and such is the general rule. Yet a vast number of
+the Indians of the Oregon, are shorter than the South American
+Patagonian and Pampa tribes. The head is large as compared with the
+trunk, and the trunk with the limbs; the hands small; the foot large;
+the skin soft, though with larger pores than in Europe.
+
+_Indians of British Guiana._--These are distributed amongst four
+divisions, of very unequal magnitude and importance.--1. The Carib. 2.
+The Warow. 3. The Wapisiana. 4. The Taruma.
+
+The number of vocabularies collected by Sir R. Schomburgk was eighteen.
+
+1. The great _Carib_ group falls into three divisions:--
+
+_a._ The Caribs Proper.
+
+_b._ The Tamanaks.
+
+_c._ The Arawaks.
+
+Of these, it is only members of the first and last that occupy British
+Guiana.
+
+_The Arawaks._--The Arawaks are our nearest neighbours, and,
+consequently, the most Europeanized. Sir R. Schomburgk says, that they
+and the Warows amount to about three thousand, and from Bernau we infer,
+that this number is nearly equally divided between the two; since he
+reckons the Arawaks at about fifteen hundred. Each family has its
+distinctive tattoo, and these families are twenty-seven in number.
+
+The children may marry into their father's family, but not into that of
+their mother. Now as the caste is derived from their mother, this is an
+analogue of the North American _totem_. Polygamy is chiefly the
+privilege of the chiefs. The _Pe-i-man_ is the Arawak _Shaman_. He it is
+who names the children--_for a consideration_. Failing this, the progeny
+goes nameless; and to go nameless is to be obnoxious to all sorts of
+misfortunes.
+
+Imposture is hereditary; and as soon as the son of a conjuror enters his
+twentieth year, his right ear is pierced, he is required to wear a ring,
+and he is trusted with the secrets of the craft.
+
+In imitating what they see, and remembering what they hear, the Arawak
+has, at least, an average capacity. Neither is he destitute of
+ingenuity. Notation he has none; and the numeration is of the rudest
+kind.
+
+ Aba-da-kabo   = once my hand  = _five_.
+ Biama-da-kabo = twice my hand = _ten_.
+ Aba-olake     = one man       = _twenty_.
+
+Perfect nudity is rare amongst the women; and some neatness in the
+dressing of their hair is perceptible. It is tied up on the crown of the
+head.
+
+The nearer the coast the darker the skin; the lightest coloured families
+being as fair as Spaniards. This is on the evidence of Bernau, who adds,
+that, as children grow in knowledge and receive instruction, the
+forehead rises, and the physiognomy improves.
+
+The other Guiana Indians, so far as they are Carib at all, are Caribs
+Proper, rather than Arawaks. Of these, the chief are--
+
+_The Accaways_,--occupants of the rivers Mazaruni and Putara, with about
+six hundred fighting men. They are jealous, quarrelsome, and cruel; firm
+friends and bitter enemies. When resisted, they kill; when unopposed,
+enslave.
+
+The law of revenge predominates in this tribe; for--like certain
+Australians--they attribute all deaths to contrivances of an enemy.
+Workers in poison themselves, they suspect it with others.
+
+Their skin is redder than the Arawaks', but then their nudity is more
+complete; inasmuch as, instead of clothing, they paint themselves;
+arnotto being their red, lana their blue pigment. They pierce the
+_septum_ of the nose, and wear wood in the holes, like the Eskimo,
+Loucheux, and others. They paint the face in streaks, and the body
+variously--sometimes blue on one side, and red on the other. They rub
+their bodies with carapa oil, to keep off insects; and _one_ of the
+ingredients of their numerous poisons, is a kind of black ant called
+_muneery_.
+
+Their forehead is depressed.
+
+They give nicknames to each other and to strangers, irrespective of
+rank; and the better their authorities take it the greater their
+influence.
+
+It is the belief of the Accaways that the spirit of the deceased hovers
+over the dwelling in which death took place, and that it will not
+tolerate disturbance. Hence they bury the corpse _in_ the hammock, and
+_under_ the hut in which it became one. This they burn and desert.
+
+_The Carabisi._--Twenty years ago the Carabisi (_Carabeese_,
+_Carabisce_) mustered one thousand fighting men. It would now be
+difficult to raise one hundred. But the diminution of their numbers and
+importance began earlier still. Beyond the proper Carabisi area, there
+are numerous Carabisi names of rivers, islands, and other geographical
+objects. Hence, their area has decreased.
+
+Omnivorous enough to devour greedily tigers, dogs, rats, frogs, insects,
+and other sorts of food, unpopular elsewhere, they are distinguished by
+their ornaments as well. The under-lip is the part which they perforate,
+and wherein they wear their usual pins; besides which they fasten a
+large lump of arnotto to the hair of the front of the head.
+
+In ordinary cases the hammock in which the death took place, serves as a
+coffin, the body is buried, and a funeral procession made once or twice
+round the grave; but the bodies of persons of importance are watched and
+washed by the nearest female relations, and when nothing but the
+skeleton remains, the bones are cleaned, painted, packed in a basket and
+preserved. When, however, there is a change of habitation they are
+_burned_; after which the ashes are collected, and kept.
+
+Here we have interment and cremation in one and the same tribe; a
+circumstance which should guard us against exaggerating their value as
+characteristic and distinguishing customs.
+
+Again. The _Macusi_ is closely akin to the Carabisi; yet the Macusi
+buries his dead in a sitting posture without coffins, and with but few
+ceremonies. Now the sitting posture is common to the Peruvians, the
+Oregon Indians, and numerous tribes of Brazil; indeed, Morton considers
+it to be one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Red Man of
+America in general.
+
+The Arawak custom is peculiar. When a man of note dies his relations
+plant a field of cassava; just as the Nicobar Islanders plant a
+cocoa-nut tree. Then they lament loudly. But when twelve moons are over,
+and the cassava is ripe, they re-assemble, feast, dance, and lash each
+other cruelly, and severely with whips. The whips are then _hung up_ on
+the spot where the person died. Six moons later a second meeting takes
+place--and, this time, the whips are _buried_.
+
+The _Waika_ are a small tribe of the _Accaways_; the _Zapara_ of the
+_Macusis_. Besides these, the following Guiana Indians are Carib.
+
+The _Arecuna_; of which the _Soerikong_ are a section.
+
+The _Waiyamara_.
+
+The _Guinau_.
+
+The _Maiongkong_.
+
+The _Woyawai_.
+
+The _Mawakwa_, or Frog Indians--a tribe that flattens the head.
+
+The _Piano-ghotto_; of which the _Zaramata_ and _Drio_ are sections.
+
+The _Tiveri-ghotto_.
+
+2. _The Warow_, _Waraw_, _Warau_, or _Guarauno_.--These are the Indians
+of the Delta of the Orinoco, and the parts between that river and the
+Pomaroon. Their language is peculiar, but by no means without
+miscellaneous affinities. They are the fluviatile boatmen of South
+America. Their habit of taking up their residence in trees when the
+ground is flooded, has given both early and late writers an opportunity
+of enlarging upon their semi-arboreal habits.
+
+3. _The Wapisianas_ fall into--
+
+_a._ The _Wapisianas_ Proper--
+
+_b._ The _Atorai_, of which the _Taurai_, or _Dauri_ (the same word
+under another form), and the extinct, or nearly extinct, _Amaripas_ are
+divisions.
+
+_c._ The _Parauana_.
+
+4. The _Tarumas_, on the Upper Essequibo, have their probable affinities
+with the uninvestigated tribes of Central South America.
+
+The Indians of Trinidad are Carib. So are those of St. Vincents. In no
+other West Indian islands are there any aborigines extant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[71] _Dinni_, _tinni_, _din_, _tin_, &c.=_man_ in the Athabaskan
+tongues.
+
+[72] Called also _Carriers_, _Nagail_, and _Chin Indians_; though
+whether the last two names are correct is uncertain.
+
+[73] By no means to be confounded with the _Chepewyans_.
+
+[74] The Mohawks, Senekas, Onondagos, Cayugas, Oneidas, Tuskaroras, and
+Hurons.
+
+[75] See a paper of Mr. Isbester's in the "Transactions of the British
+Association," 1847, p. 121.
+
+[76] Thirty-eight.
+
+[77] This requires modification. The Sitkan practices have already been
+noticed.
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
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+    Edition. 16mo. 2_s._
+
+INSTRUMENTA ECCLESIASTICA. Edited by the Ecclesiological, late Cambridge
+Camden, Society. Second Series. Parts 1 to 3, each 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE VARIETIES OF MAN. By ROBERT GORDON LATHAM,
+M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge; Vice-President of the
+Ethnological Society of London; Corresponding Member of the Ethnological
+Society of New York. 8vo. illustrated, price 21_s._
+
+A HISTORY OF BRITISH MOLLUSCA AND THEIR SHELLS. By PROFESSOR EDWARD
+FORBES, F.R.S., and SYLVANUS HANLEY, B.A., F.L.S. Parts 25 to 34. 8vo.
+2_s._ 6_d._ plain, or royal 8vo. coloured, 5_s._ each.
+
+    This Work is in continuation of the series of "British Histories,"
+    of which the Quadrupeds and Reptiles, by Professor Bell; the Birds
+    and Fishes, by Mr. Yarrell; the Birds' Eggs, by Mr. Hewitson; the
+    Starfishes, by Professor Forbes; the Zoophytes, by Dr. Johnston; the
+    Trees, by Mr. Selby; and the Fossil Mammals and Birds, by Professor
+    Owen, are already published. Each Work is sold separately, and is
+    perfectly distinct and complete in itself.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                  JOHN VAN VOORST, 1, PATERNOSTER ROW.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Amendments:
+
+ p. 30, fn. 10, 'Fallermayer' amended to _Fallmerayer_.
+
+ p. 31, 'Britany' amended to _Brittany_.
+
+ p. 32, 'Notitiae ...' amended to _Notitia Utriusque Imperii_.
+
+ p. 34, 'Caffres' amended to _Kaffres_.
+
+ p. 35, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_;
+        'Cabyles' amended to _Kabyles_.
+
+ p. 39, 'Avekoom' amended to _Avekvom_;
+        'Woloff' amended to _Wolof_;
+        'Bambarra' amended to _Bambara_.
+
+ p. 40, 'Woloffs' amended to _Wolofs_.
+
+ p. 65, 'languge' amended to _language_.
+
+ p. 67, 'Yorriba' amended to _Yarriba_;
+        'Callabar' amended to _Calabar_;
+        'Mosketo' amended to _Mosquito_.
+
+ p. 75, 'Amokosa' amended to _Amakosa_: '_The Amakosa._--This'.
+
+ p. 84, 'Caffraria' amended to _Kaffraria_.
+
+ p. 86, 'Crawford' amended to _Crawfurd_.
+
+ p. 94, 'Trangangetic' amended to _Transgangetic_.
+
+ p. 98, 'Crawford's Embassy' amended to _Crawfurd's Embassy_.
+
+ p. 107, 'Kamti' amended to _Khamti_.
+
+ p. 121, 'ecstacy' amended to _ecstasy_.
+
+ p. 137, 'Pottaing' amended to _Potteang_.
+
+ p. 140, 'Kuttak' amended to _Cuttack_;
+         'Penna' amended to _Pennu_ (twice).
+
+ p. 141, 'Cicacole' amended to _Chicacole_.
+
+ p. 146, 'jackall' amended to _jackal_.
+
+ p. 148, 'Rajaship' amended to _Rajahship_.
+
+ p. 177, 'Levitican' amended to _Levitical_.
+
+ p. 181, 'Peshawer' amended to _Peshawar_.
+
+ p. 192, 'Maha-Sodon' amended to _Maha-Sohon_.
+
+ p. 193, 'Singalese' amended to _Singhalese_.
+
+ p. 197, 'Binjarri' amended to _Brinjarri_;
+         'Telagu' amended to _Telugu_.
+
+ p. 198, 'Taremuki' amended to _Tarremuki_.
+
+ p. 199, 'Bowri' amended to _Bhowri_.
+
+ p. 201, 'Guzerat' amended to _Gujerat_.
+
+ p. 228, 'Skofi' amended to _Skoffi_.
+
+ p. 233, 'tatooing' amended to _tattooing_.
+
+ p. 237, 'tatooings' amended to _tattooings_.
+
+ p. 243, 'Saskachewan' amended to _Saskatchewan_.
+
+ p. 259, 'tatoo' amended to _tattoo_.
+
+ p. 262, 'Caribis' amended to _Carabisi_.
+
+
+Further Notes:
+
+ p. 113, Brown's Table: Horizontal rows 'Aka' and 'Abor' repositioned
+         to match data; the value for 'Koreng' (row) and 'S. Tangkhul'
+         (column), which originally read '--', has been amended to '11'.
+
+ p. 172-175, corrections to extracts taken from _A History of the Sikhs_,
+         by J. D. Cunningham, 2nd Ed., London, 1853.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Ethnology of the British Colonies
+and Dependencies, by Robert Gordon Latham
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ETHNOLOGY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES ***
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