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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect by George Foot Moore
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+Author: George Foot Moore
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [Ebook #31960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF‐8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
+
+
+
+
+
+                       The Covenanters of Damascus;
+
+                      A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+                            George Foot Moore
+
+                            Harvard University
+
+                        Harvard Theological Review
+
+                              Vol. 4, No. 3
+
+                                July, 1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT
+
+
+Among the Hebrew manuscripts recovered in 1896 from the Genizah of an old
+synagogue at Fostat, near Cairo, and now in the Cambridge University
+Library, England, were found eight leaves of a Hebrew manuscript which
+proved to be fragments of a book containing the teaching of a peculiar
+Jewish sect; a single leaf of a second manuscript, in part parallel to the
+first, in part supplementing it, was also discovered. These texts
+Professor Schechter has now published, with a translation and commentary,
+in the first volume of his _Documents of Jewish Sectaries_.(1) The longer
+and older of the manuscripts (A) is, in the opinion of the editor,
+probably of the tenth century; the other (B), of the eleventh or twelfth.
+
+What remains of the book may be divided into two parts. Pages 1-8 of A,
+and the single leaf of B, contain exhortations and warnings addressed to
+members of the sect, for which a ground and motive are often sought in the
+history of the Jewish people or of the sect itself, together with severe
+strictures upon such as have lapsed from the sound teaching, and polemics
+against the doctrine and practice of other bodies of Jews. The second
+part, pages 9-16, sets forth the constitution and government of the
+community, and its distinctive interpretation and application of the
+law,—what may be called sectarian _halakah_.
+
+Neither part is complete; the manuscript is mutilated and defective at the
+end, there is apparently a gap between the first and second parts, and it
+may be questioned whether the original beginning of the work is preserved.
+The lack of methodical arrangement in the contents leads Dr. Schechter to
+surmise that what we have in our hands is only a compilation of extracts
+from a larger work, put together with little regard for completeness or
+order. An orderly disposition, according to our notions of order, is not,
+however, so constant a characteristic of Jewish literature as to make this
+inference very convincing.
+
+Manuscript A was evidently written by a negligent scribe, perhaps after a
+poor or badly preserved copy; B, which represents a somewhat different
+recension of the work, exhibits, so far as it goes, a superior text. When
+it is added that both manuscripts are in many places defaced or torn, it
+may be imagined that the decipherment and interpretation present serious
+difficulties, and that, after all the pains which Dr. Schechter has spent
+upon the task, many uncertainties remain. Facsimiles of a page of each
+manuscript are given; but in view of the condition of the text a
+photographic reproduction of the whole is indispensable.
+
+The legal part of the book, so far as the text is fairly well preserved,
+is not exceptionally difficult; the rules are in general clearly defined,
+and if in the peculiar institutions of the sect there are many things we
+do not fully understand, this is due more to the brevity with which its
+organization is described and to the mutilation of the text than to lack
+of clearness in the description itself. The attempt to make out something
+of the history and relations of the sect from the first part of the book
+is, on the other hand, beset by many difficulties. What history is found
+there is not told for the sake of history, but used to point admonitions
+or emphasize warnings; and, after the manner of the apocalyptic
+literature, historical persons and events are referred to in roundabout
+phrases which envelop them in an affected mystery. Even when such
+references are to chapters of the national history with which we are
+moderately well acquainted, as in the Assumption of Moses, c. 5, ff., for
+example, they may be to us baffling enigmas; much more when they have to
+do, as is in large part the case in our texts, with the wholly unknown
+internal or external history of a sect. The obscurity is increased by the
+fact that the allusions are often a tissue of fragmentary quotations or
+reminiscences out of the Old Testament, chosen and combined, it seems, by
+purely verbal association, or taken in an occult allegorical sense.(2) The
+allegories of which an interpretation is given, as when Amos 5 26 f. is
+applied to the emigration to Damascus and the institutions and laws of the
+sect, and Ezekiel 44 15 to the classes of the community, do not encourage
+us to think that we should be able to divine the meaning by our unaided
+intelligence. It is a fortunate circumstance that the writer comes back
+more than once to the salient events in the sect’s history, for these
+repetitions of the same thing in different forms afford considerable help
+to the interpreter, so that the main facts may be made out with at least a
+considerable degree of probability.
+
+The principal seat of the sect was in the region of Damascus, where its
+adherents formed numerous communities. It was composed of Israelites who
+had migrated thither from Judaea; thither also had come “the interpreter
+of the law,” the founder of the sect; there it had been organized by a
+covenant repeatedly referred to as “the new covenant in the land of
+Damascus.” Many who entered into this new covenant at the beginning did
+not long remain true to it; the writer inveighs vehemently against those
+who fell away, accusing them not only of grave error, but of gross
+violations of the law; but this crisis had been passed, and when the book
+was written the community was apparently flourishing.
+
+The most coherent account of the origin of the sect is found on pages
+5-6:(3)
+
+
+    At the end of the devastation of the land arose men who removed
+    the boundary and led Israel astray; and the land was laid waste
+    because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments of God by
+    Moses and also against his holy Anointed,(4) and prophesied
+    falsehood to turn Israel back from following God. But God
+    remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he raised up
+    from Aaron discerning men and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+    them, and they dug the well. “The well, princes dug it, nobles of
+    the people delved it, with the legislator” (Numbers 21 18). The
+    well is the law, and they who dug it are the captivity of
+    Israel(5) who went forth from the land of Judah and sojourned in
+    the land of Damascus, all of whom God called princes because they
+    sought him.(6)... The legislator is the interpreter of the law, as
+    Isaiah said, “Bringing forth a tool for his work” (Isa. 54 16),
+    and the nobles of the people are those who came to delve the well
+    with the statutes which the legislator decreed that men should
+    walk in them in the complete end of wickedness; and besides these
+    they shall not obtain any (statutes) until the teacher of
+    righteousness shall arise in the last times.
+
+
+The migration is referred to in several other places: “The captivity of
+Israel, who migrated from the land of Judah” (4 2 f.);(7) “those who held
+firm made their escape to the northern land,” by which the region of
+Damascus is meant (7 13 f.; cf. 7 15, 18 f.). The time of the migration is
+plainly indicated in the passage quoted above (5 20 ff.). The men who,
+after the end of the devastation of the land, “removed the boundary,” and
+led Israel astray, speaking rebelliously against the commandments of God
+by Moses and against his holy Anointed, prophesying falsely to turn Israel
+away from following God, in consequence of which the land was laid waste,
+are most naturally taken for the hellenizing leaders of the Seleucid time.
+In this period, it seems that a number of Jews, including priests and
+levites, withdrew to the region of Damascus,(8) and there they
+subsequently bound themselves by covenant to live strictly in accordance
+with the law as defined by their legislator.
+
+With this the other allusions agree. Thus in A, p. 8 (= B, p. 19), at the
+end of a violent invective against the sinners, of whom it is said, “The
+princes of Judah are like those who remove the boundary,” we read that
+“they separated not from the people [and their sins, B], but
+presumptuously broke through all restraints, walking in the way of the
+wicked (heathen), of whom God said, ‘The venom of dragons is their wine,
+and the head of asps is cruel’(9) (Deut. 32 33). The dragons are the kings
+of the nations, and their wine means their ways, and the head of asps is
+the head of the Greek kings who came to inflict vengeance upon them.” This
+again is most naturally understood of Antiochus Epiphanes; the calamities
+he brought on the Jews were a direct consequence of the course of the
+hellenizing party.(10)
+
+A definite date for these occurrences is given in 1 5 ff.: “When God’s
+wrath was over, three hundred and ninety years after he gave them into the
+power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, he visited them, and caused to
+spring up from Israel and Aaron a root of his planting to inherit his land
+and to thrive on the good things of his earth. And they recognized their
+wickedness and knew that they were guilty men, and they were like blind
+men and like men groping their way for twenty years. And God took note of
+their deeds, that with perfect heart they sought him, and he raised up for
+them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the way of his heart.”
+
+The “root” which God, mindful of his covenant, caused to spring up from
+Aaron and Israel is the men with whom the religious revival, or
+reformation, began, the forefathers of the sect (see 6 2 f., and below, p.
+375);(11) the “teacher of righteousness” is the “interpreter of the law
+who came to Damascus” (6 7 f., 7 18 f.). The dates refer therefore to the
+origin of the sect. Three hundred and ninety years from the taking of
+Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (597 or 586 B.C.) would bring us, by our
+chronology, to 207 or 196 B.C. The Jewish chronology of the Persian period
+is, however, always too long by from forty to seventy years,(12) and
+assuming, as it is fair to do, that our author made the same error, the
+three hundred ninety years would run out in the middle of the third
+century. Dr. Schechter suspects, with much probability, that the original
+reading was “_four_ hundred and ninety years,” the common apocalyptic
+cycle (Dan. 9 2, 24; Enoch 89-90; 93, etc.). Making the same allowance for
+error, we should be brought again to a time not far removed from the
+punishment inflicted on the people by Antiochus Epiphanes (see above, p.
+333 f.).(13)
+
+There is nothing in the texts which demands a later date for the origin of
+the sect. The last event in the national history to which reference is
+made is the vengeance inflicted on the heathenizing rulers of the people
+by “the head of the Greek kings.” To the misfortunes of the people in the
+following centuries, such as the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey or its
+destruction by Titus, there is no allusion. It may perhaps be inferred not
+only that the schism antedated these calamities, but that the book was
+written before them. In the author’s frame of mind toward the religious
+leaders of Palestinian Jewry, he would have been likely to record such
+conspicuous judgments upon them. A comparison with the Assumption of Moses
+is instructive on this point. There the sweeping denunciation of the
+priesthood and the scribes, “their teachers in those times,” and of the
+godless Asmonaean priest-kings, is followed by the well-deserved judgment
+inflicted on them by Herod, and after him comes Varus, burning part of the
+temple, crucifying, and carrying off into slavery. The second of the
+Psalms of Solomon may also be compared.
+
+The schismatic character of the sect would also be explained if it arose
+in an age when the character of the political and religious heads of the
+Jewish people was such as to move God-fearing and law-abiding men to
+repudiate them with all their ways and works. For it is not merely with a
+sect, differing from the mass of their fellows in certain opinions and
+practices, that we have to do, but with a schism. The Covenanters of
+Damascus are radical come-outers, seceders not only from the land of
+Judaea, but from established Judaism, on which they look much as the
+Puritan Separatists in the seventeenth century looked on the English
+Church; they might have taken to themselves the prophetic word so often in
+the mouth of the Puritan, “Depart ye, depart ye, go ye out from thence,
+touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the midst of her; be ye clean, ye
+that bear the vessels of the Lord” (Isa. 52 11), as they do apply to the
+religious teachers of the Jewish church the most violent invectives of the
+same prophet (50 11, 59 4 ff.; see below, p. 344 f.). They will not even
+call themselves Jews, they are Israelites who went forth from the land of
+Judaea; their Messiah is to spring from Aaron and Israel, not from Judah;
+when the final judgment comes in its appointed time, it will no longer be
+permitted to make compact with the house of Judah, but every man must
+stand in his own stronghold;(14) when the glory of God shines out on
+Israel, all the wicked of Judah shall be cut off, in the day of its trial
+by fire. They reject the temple in Jerusalem, and will not offer on its
+altar. If we consider that the Essenes, notwithstanding their wider
+divergence from the common type of Judaism, seem to have regarded
+themselves as within the pale of the church, and to have been so regarded
+by others—enjoying, indeed, with the people the reputation of peculiar
+sanctity—the schismatic character of our sect appears in a still stronger
+light.
+
+The language of the book is not inconsistent with the age to which the
+contents would seem to assign it. The vocabulary is in the main Biblical,
+but there are a number of words which otherwise occur only in the writings
+of the Mishnic age or later. Some of these belong to the technical
+terminology of the law schools, some of them appear to be peculiar to the
+sect. A few of the Biblical words also are used in later senses and
+applications. It is proper to bear in mind, however, that the Hebrew
+originals of the works with which it would be most natural to compare our
+text, such as Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve
+Patriarchs, the Gospel, are not preserved; in fact, between the last books
+of the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature of the second Christian
+century there is a hiatus in the history of the Hebrew language, so that
+words which appear for the first time in the Mishna and kindred works may
+have been, and in many cases probably were, in use much earlier. It is
+unnecessary therefore to suppose that such words were introduced into our
+texts by later scribes, though the possibility of such changes must of
+course be admitted. The particular instances in which Dr. Schechter thinks
+that late and foreign influences are most clearly to be recognized—the
+title of the “censor” and the peculiar name for a house of worship—are
+discussed elsewhere.(15) More remarkable than the vocabulary of the book
+is its syntax. The consecutive constructions of the perfect and the
+imperfect are regularly employed, not only in imitation of Biblical models
+in narrative and prophetic passages, but in the legal part of the book;
+and in spite of some irregularities, which may in part at least be laid to
+the charge of scribes, the use of these tenses is generally correct. In
+this respect the Hebrew of the book differs entirely from that of the
+Mishna and the contemporary and later Midrashim, in which the
+characteristic features of classical tense-syntax have entirely
+disappeared, under the influence, it is generally supposed, of the Aramaic
+vernacular. In comparison with these writings the vocabulary also is
+notably free from foreign admixture. There are no words borrowed from
+Greek and Latin, and only one or two instances where an Aramaic term seems
+to have been adopted. The orthography also, in its more sparing use of the
+semivowels to indicate the vowels _u_ and _i_, resembles that of the
+Bible.
+
+                  ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
+
+The founder of the sect is called the “teacher of righteousness” (1
+11),(16) “the only, or beloved, teacher” (20 14);(17) “the only one” (20
+32); he is “the legislator,” that is, “the interpreter of the law” (6 7);
+and this interpreter of the law, who came to Damascus, is the star who,
+according to Balaam’s prophecy, was to issue from Jacob (7 18 f.).(18) He
+showed them how to walk in the way of God’s heart (1 11); as interpreter
+of the law he ordained them statutes to walk in till the end of
+wickedness—statutes which shall not be superseded by any others “until
+there arise the teacher of righteousness in the last days” (6 11 f.). To
+him, therefore, are attributed the distinctive principles and observances
+of the sect as they are set forth in this book. “His anointed,” through
+whom God made known to men his holy spirit, and who is true (2 12 f.), is
+in all probability the same person with the teacher, the star, just as the
+anointed from Aaron and Israel who is to arise in the future (20 1) is the
+same as the teacher of righteousness to whose voice they will then listen
+(20 32; see below, p. 343).
+
+Those of the emigrants who accepted the guidance of the teacher of
+righteousness, the interpreter of the law, entered into the “new covenant
+in the land of Damascus” (6 19, 8 21, 19 33 f., 20 12). The idea of the
+“new covenant” was doubtless suggested by Jer. 31 31 ff. (cf. 32 36 ff.;
+Ezek. 37 26, etc.), where the establishment of the new covenant, in the
+stead of the old covenant which their fathers broke, marks the restoration
+of God’s favor, the beginning of a new and better time. The same use of
+the passage in Jeremiah is made at length by the author of the Epistle to
+the Hebrews (8 6 ff.), The substance of the covenant may be gathered from
+6 11-7 5:
+
+
+    All who were brought into the covenant are not to enter into the
+    sanctuary to light its altar, but became closers of the door, as
+    God said, “Who among you will close its door?” and “Thou shalt not
+    light my altar in vain” (Mal. 1 10);(19) but shall observe to do
+    according to the interpretation of the law for the end of
+    wickedness, and to separate from the children of perdition, and to
+    keep aloof from unrighteous gain, which is unclean by vow and
+    ban,(20) and from the property of the sanctuary, and from robbing
+    the poor of the people and making widows their spoil and murdering
+    orphans; and to separate between the unclean and the clean, and to
+    show the difference between the holy and the common; and to
+    observe the Sabbath day as it is defined, and the season feasts,
+    and the fast-day, in accordance with the commandments of those who
+    entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus; to set
+    apart the sacred dues as they are defined; and that a man should
+    love his neighbor as himself, and sustain the poor and needy and
+    the proselyte, and to seek each the welfare of the other; and that
+    no man transgress the prohibited degrees, but guard against
+    fornication according to the rule; and that a man should reprove
+    his brother according to the commandment, and not bear a grudge
+    from day to day; and to separate from all forms of uncleanness
+    according to their several prescriptions; and that a man should
+    not defile his holy spirit, even as God separated for them (sc.
+    unclean from clean). All who walk in these precepts in perfection
+    of holiness, according to all the foundations of the covenant of
+    God,(21) have the assurance that they shall live a thousand
+    generations.
+
+
+Early in the history of the sect a serious defection occurred. Men who
+entered among the first into the covenant incurred guilt, like their
+forefathers, by following their sinful inclinations; they forsook the
+covenant of God and preferred their own will, and went about after the
+stubbornness of their heart, every man doing as he pleased (3 10 ff.); the
+men who entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus went back
+and proved false, and turned aside from the well of living waters (19 33
+f.). Their names were struck out of the registers of the sect, as were
+those of such as fell away in later times.
+
+We can readily imagine that many found the rule of the sect too strict and
+the discipline by which it was enforced too severe. Our texts, however,
+speak not of such occasional and individual lapses, but of the repudiation
+of the covenant by numbers at one time. It seems that another leader had
+arisen, of very different temper from the founder, who drew away many
+after him. In the eyes of those who remained steadfast in the faith, the
+new teacher was naturally a false prophet, a kind of antichrist. He is
+called the liar (“the man of lies,” 20 15), the scoffer (1 14); his
+adherents are scoffers,(22) who uttered error about the righteous
+statutes, and spurned the covenant and plighted faith which they
+established in the land of Damascus, that is to say, the new covenant.
+They and their families shall have no portion in the house of the law (20
+10 ff.). For their unfaithfulness they were delivered to the sword (3 10
+ff.), until of all the men of war who went with the liar none was left (20
+14 ff.).(23) This came to pass about forty years after the death of the
+unique teacher (_l.c._). If the emigration to Damascus occurred under
+Antiochus Epiphanes,(24) the end of the episode of the false prophet would
+fall about the beginning of the first century B.C., and we should have at
+least an upper limit for the writing of the book. The passion which every
+mention of this defection arouses suggests that it was fresh in memory,
+and would incline us to date the writing not very long after the time
+indicated. It should be observed, however, that the sentence which counts
+forty years from the death of the unrivalled teacher to the end of the
+liar’s army sits loose in the context, and may be a gloss, in which case
+the book might be some decades older.
+
+With the remnant who remained faithful through the great defection “God
+confirmed his covenant with Israel forever, revealing to them the secret
+of things in which all Israel was in error, his holy Sabbaths and his
+glorious festivals and his righteous testimonies and his true ways and the
+pleasure of his will, things which if a man do he shall live by them. He
+opened a way before them, and they dug a well for copious waters.” “In the
+abundance of his wonderful grace he atoned for their guilt and forgave
+their transgression, and built for them a sure house in Israel, the like
+of which did not arise in times past nor until now” (3 12-20). The
+prediction of the sure house (1 Sam. 2 35) seems to be fulfilled in the
+stability of the sect itself, or perhaps, with closer adherence to the
+prophecy, in that of its faithful priesthood.
+
+So much may be gathered from the book about the origin and history of the
+sect. We turn now to its expectation. As a teacher of righteousness, an
+anointed one (priest), was the founder of the sect, so in the last times a
+teacher of righteousness, an anointed one, shall appear (6 10 f.). Those
+who proved faithless to the covenant are cut off from the community, “from
+the time when the unique teacher was taken away until the anointed one
+from Aaron and Israel shall arise” (19 35-20 1), that is, during the whole
+of the present dispensation. Dr. Schechter regards the anointed one who is
+to appear in the future as the founder of the sect _redivivus:_ the
+present dispensation “seems to be the period intervening between the
+_first_ appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness (p. 1, l. 11) (the
+founder of the Sect), who was gathered in or died,(25) and the second
+appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness who is to rise in ‘the end of
+the days’ (p. 6, l. 11). Moreover, the Only Teacher, or Teacher of
+Righteousness, is identical with the Messiah, or the Anointed one from
+Aaron and Israel, whose advent is expected by the Sect.”(26) The texts,
+however, say nothing of the disappearance, or a second appearance, or
+reappearance, or return of the founder; nor do the words “until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last days,” “until the
+anointed shall arise from Aaron and Israel,” mean that he shall rise from
+the dead, as Dr. Schechter interprets them.(27) The Messiah whose advent
+the sect expects at the end of the present period of history is, as in the
+older parts of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, a priest; and the
+function of the priest-messiah is not, as in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
+to mediate between man and God, but to instruct men in righteousness, to
+guide them in the way of God’s heart. That the founder of the sect also
+was both priest and teacher is by no means sufficient to establish the
+identity of the two figures. It was the office of the priest to teach
+Israel the law, “all the statutes which the Lord hath spoken unto them
+through Moses” (Lev. 10 11; cf. Deut. 33 10); “the priest’s lips should
+keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth, for he is the
+messenger of the Lord of Hosts” (Mal. 2 7). Ezra is the type of a priest
+who had not only prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do
+it, but to teach in Israel statutes and judgments (Ezra 7 10); he was,
+according to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the restorer of Judaism. It
+was a departure from the ideal of the law itself that, when the priesthood
+showed itself unworthy of its calling, the teaching function was assumed
+by lay scribes, and even in later times there were many priestly teachers
+among the Scribes and among the Doctors. That our sect looks back to one
+such as its founder, and forward to another as the great teacher of the
+Messianic age, is in no way surprising. If the author had meant what Dr.
+Schechter thinks, it is fair to assume that he would have said it
+unmistakably; for the identity of the expected Messiah with the dead
+founder, if it was part of the belief of the sect, would of necessity be a
+singular and significant part of it.(28)
+
+The coming judgment of God is represented rather as a judgment on the
+faithless members of the sect, including those who have seceded from it or
+been expelled, than in its more general aspects. The long eschatological
+passage in B (20 15 to the end) is illegible in spots near the beginning,
+but the general tenor is clear:
+
+
+    In that consummation the anger of God will be inflamed against
+    Israel, as he said, “There is no king and no prince, and no judge
+    and none that reproves in righteousness” (cf. Hos. 3 4). Those who
+    turn from the transgression [of Jacob](29) and keep the covenant
+    of God will then confer with one another; their footsteps will be
+    firm in the way of God (and the prophecy will be fulfilled which
+    says), “And God hearkened to their words and heard, and a book of
+    remembrance was written before him for those that fear God and
+    think on his name” (Mal. 3 16), until deliverance and
+    righteousness emerge for those that fear God, “and ye shall return
+    and see the difference between righteous and wicked, and between a
+    servant of God and one who serves him not” (Mal. 3 18). And he
+    shows favor to those that love him and keep his commandments, for
+    a thousand generations....(30)
+
+    Each man according to his spirit, shall they be judged by his holy
+    counsel, and all who have broken through the bounds of the law, of
+    those who entered into the covenant, when the glory of God shines
+    out on Israel, shall be cut off from the midst of the camp, and
+    with them all the evil-doers of Judah, in the days when it is
+    tried in the fire. But all who held firmly by these precepts,
+    going out and coming in in conformity with the law, and listened
+    to the voice of the teacher, will confess(31) before God.... “We
+    have done evil, we, and our fathers also, when they went contrary
+    to the statutes of the covenant, and faithful are thy judgments
+    upon us.” And they will not act presumptuously against his holy
+    statutes and his righteous judgment and his faithful testimonies.
+    They will be instructed in the ancient judgments by which the
+    followers of the unique one were judged, and will hearken to the
+    words of the teacher of righteousness. And they will not
+    controvert the righteous statutes when they hear them; they will
+    rejoice and be glad, and their heart will be strong, and they will
+    show themselves mighty against all the people of the world.(32)
+    And God will atone for them, and they will see his salvation with
+    joy, because they trusted in his holy name.
+
+
+Here the fragment ends. The destruction of those who fall away from the
+sect is threatened in other places; it will suffice to quote the most
+important (19 5 ff.):
+
+
+    Upon all those who reject the commandments and the statutes, the
+    deserts of the wicked shall be requited when God visits the earth,
+    when the word comes to pass which was written by Zechariah the
+    prophet, “Sword, awake against my shepherd and against the man
+    that is my fellow, saith God; smite the shepherd, and let the
+    sheep be scattered, and I will turn my hand against the little
+    ones” (Zech. 13 7). But those who observe it (sc. the obligations
+    of the covenant) are “the poor of the flock” (Zech. 11 7). These
+    shall escape at the end of the visitation, but the former (sc.
+    those who reject the commandments) shall be given over to the
+    sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel comes, as it was at
+    the end of the first visitation, of which God said by Ezekiel that
+    a mark should be made on the foreheads of them that sigh and cry,
+    and the rest were delivered to the sword that executes the
+    judgment of the covenant. And so shall the judgment be of all who
+    enter into his covenant and do not hold firmly by these statutes,
+    they shall be visited even with extermination by the hand of
+    Belial. This is the day in which God will visit, as he spoke, “The
+    princes of Judah are become like men who remove the boundary; on
+    them will I pour out my fury like water” (Hos. 5 10). For they
+    entered into the covenant of repentance, but did not turn aside
+    from the way of faithless men, and wallowed in ways of fornication
+    and in unrighteous gain, and avenging themselves and bearing a
+    grudge against one another.
+
+
+It is possible, of course, that the judgment of the heathen world, which
+looms so large in most of the apocalypses, may have had a place in parts
+of the book now lost, but if it had been a very important feature in the
+expectation of the sect we should hardly fail to find at least allusions
+to it in the pages in our hands. The author is almost exclusively
+interested in the sect itself, in the division which had rent it, and in
+polemics against laxer interpretations of the law. This limitation of the
+horizon is characteristically sectarian, and may suggest, moreover, as has
+been said above, that the writer is not far removed in time from the split
+in the new organization.
+
+The polemic is especially pointed against certain opponents who are
+described as “those who build a wall and plaster it with stucco” (4 19; 8
+12).(33) They follow a commandment (_ṣau_); probably connoting, as in
+Hosea 5 11, from which the phrase is taken, an arbitrary rule of their
+own, a commandment of men.(34) God hates them, his anger is kindled
+against them (8 18). These “builders” are false teachers; Biblical
+denunciations of the false prophets are applied to them. (See especially 8
+12 f.) Points in which their teaching is particularly assailed are that
+they allow polygamy and the remarriage of divorced persons during the life
+of the other party, and hold it lawful for a man to marry his niece; that
+they defile the sanctuary by the laxity of some of their rules and
+practice about sexual uncleanness; they presume blasphemously to impugn
+the “statutes of the covenant of God” (the legislation of the sect),
+declaring that they are not right, and saying abominable things about them
+(4 20-5 14). The positions so hotly denounced, especially in the matter of
+marriage and divorce, are those of the Palestinian rabbis as we know them
+in the Mishna and kindred works, and in so far as the Pharisees had a
+dominating influence in the schools of the law they may be regarded as in
+a peculiar sense the object of this invective, which is, however, sweeping
+enough to include all rabbinical Judaism. Such verses as Isaiah 50 11 and
+59 4 ff. are hurled at them; they are compared to Johanneh and his
+brother, whom Belial raised up against Moses (5 17 ff.).(35)
+
+The sect prohibited polygamy, which they stigmatized as fornication,
+arguing from the creation—“a male and a female created he them” (cf. Matt.
+19 4), and from the story of the flood—“by pairs they went into the ark,”
+and from the law which forbade the prince to multiply wives unto himself
+(Deut. 17 17), that is, as they understood it, to take more than one wife.
+To forestall an objection, it is added: “But David had not read in the
+sealed book of the law which was in the ark, for it was not opened in
+Israel from the time of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the elders who
+worshipped the Astartes, but was hidden and not brought to light until
+Zadok arose” (5 2-5; see below, p. 359).
+
+Marriage with another woman while a man had a divorced wife living was
+apparently put in the same category with having two wives at the same time
+(4 20 f.; cf. Matt. 5 31 f.). Marriage with a niece (brother’s or sister’s
+daughter) they treated as incest, reasoning that marriage between a woman
+and her uncle stood on all fours with marriage between a man and his aunt,
+which was expressly forbidden as within the prohibited degrees of
+kinship.(36) The three snares of Belial by which he ensnared Israel are
+fornication (that is, plural or incestuous unions), wealth (that is,
+unrighteous gain), and the pollution of the sanctuary (4 15 f.; cf. 5 6
+f.).(37)
+
+The same rigorous tendency which appears in the attitude of the sect in
+regard to marriage pervades the whole legal part of the work before us.
+The rules for the observance of the Sabbath (10 14-11 21) will make this
+clear.
+
+
+    Concerning the Sabbath, to keep it as it is prescribed.
+
+    1. On the sixth day no man shall do any work from the time when
+    the disk of the sun is distant from the western portal(38) by its
+    diameter (?); for this is what he said: Observe the Sabbath day to
+    hallow it.
+
+    2. On the Sabbath a man shall not engage in any foolish
+    conversation; and he shall not exact repayment from his neighbor;
+    nor shall he give judgment in matters of property; he shall not
+    talk about matters of work and labor to be done on the next day.
+
+    3. A man shall not walk in the country to do the work of his
+    business on the Sabbath. He shall not walk outside of his town
+    above one thousand(39) cubits.
+
+    4. No man shall eat on the Sabbath anything except what was
+    previously prepared or what is spoiling in the field. He shall not
+    eat or drink anything but what was in the camp. If he be on the
+    way and descend to bathe, he may drink as he stands, but must not
+    draw water in any vessel.(40)
+
+    5. He must not send a foreigner to do his business on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    6. A man must not put on soiled garments or such as are brought by
+    a gentile, without washing them in water or rubbing them with
+    frankincense.(41)
+
+    7. A man shall not exchange pledges(42) of his own accord on the
+    Sabbath.
+
+    8. A man shall not follow his cattle, to pasture them outside his
+    town, except within 2000 cubits. He shall not lift his arm to
+    strike them with his fist; if the animal is breachy, let him not
+    take her out of the house.
+
+    9. A man shall not take anything out of a house into the street,
+    nor bring anything from the street into the house; and if he be in
+    the entry, he shall not pass anything out of it or bring anything
+    into it.
+
+    10. He shall not open on the Sabbath a vessel the cover of which
+    has been luted on.
+
+    11. A man shall not carry on his person spices, going out or
+    coming in on the Sabbath.
+
+    12. Within a house he shall not lift stone nor earth on the
+    Sabbath day.
+
+    13. The nurse shall not carry an infant in arms, going out or
+    coming in with it on the Sabbath.
+
+    14. A man shall not deal harshly with his slave or his maid or his
+    hired servant on the Sabbath.
+
+    15. A man shall not deliver cattle of their young on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    16. If a beast fall into a cistern or trap, a man shall not lift
+    it out on the Sabbath.
+
+    17. A man shall not pass the Sabbath in a place near the gentiles.
+
+    18. A man shall not profane the Sabbath for the sake of gain.
+
+    19. If a human being fall into a tank of water or into a place of
+    ... no man shall fetch him up by means of a ladder or a rope or
+    any implement.
+
+    20. No man shall bring upon the altar on the Sabbath anything
+    except the Sabbath burnt-offerings, for so it is written, “aside
+    from your Sabbaths.”
+
+
+The dietary laws afford other examples of the strict rules of the
+sect.(43) Fish may be eaten only if, while still alive, they have been
+split open and drained of their blood; grasshoppers and locusts must be
+put alive into the water or the fire (in which they are to be cooked);
+honey in the comb is apparently prohibited. So, again, in a house in which
+a death has occurred, fixtures, such as nails and pegs in the walls, are
+unclean; and wood, stone, and dust are capable of contracting and
+communicating various kinds of uncleanness (12 15-18). The sect sees in
+these stricter distinctions between clean and unclean the superiority of
+its ordinances over those of other Jews, whom they regard as sinfully lax.
+The Pharisees are to them gross latitudinarians!
+
+Oaths are to be taken only by the covenant and the curses of the covenant,
+that is, the vows by which the members of the sect bind themselves, on
+their admission to it, to live in conformity with its rule and submit to
+the authority of those set over them, and the curses invoked on such as
+violate these obligations.(44) Oaths by God, whether under the name _Aleph
+Lamed_ (_El_ or _Elohim_) or _Aleph Daleth (Adonai)_ are prohibited;(45)
+nor is it permissible to mention in the oath the law of Moses; the formula
+of the oath is strictly sectarian (15 1 ff.).(46) But, though the name of
+God is not used, “if a man swear and transgress the oath, he profanes the
+name” (15 3). Obligations voluntarily assumed under oath (vows) are to be
+fulfilled to the letter; neither redemption nor annulment seems to be
+allowed, unless to carry out the vow would be a transgression of the
+covenant.
+
+Another point in which the sect is at variance with the great body of the
+Jews is the calendar. They represent the faithful remnant to whom God
+revealed the mysteries about which all Israel went astray, his holy
+sabbaths and his glorious festivals, and his righteous testimonies, and
+his true ways (3 12 ff.). The point of this appears when it is compared
+with Jubilees 1 14: “They will forget my law and all my commandments and
+all my judgments, and will go astray as to new moons and sabbaths and
+festivals and jubilees and ordinances” (cf. 6 34 ff., 23 19). The texts
+before us do not explain what the peculiarities of the sectarian calendar
+were, but inasmuch as the Book of Jubilees, under the title “The Book of
+the Division of the Times by their Jubilees and their Sabbatical Years,”
+is cited as an authority for the exact determination of “their ends” (the
+coming crisis of history), it may be inferred with much probability that
+our sect had a calendar constructed on principles similar to that of the
+Jubilees,(47) in which the seasons and festivals were not determined by
+lunar observations or astronomical tables, as among the Jews generally,
+but had a fixed place in a solar year. Such upsetting of the calendar is
+branded as heresy in Midrash Tehillim on Ps. 28 5: “They do not regard the
+work of the Lord, nor the operation of his hands.... ‘The operation of his
+hands’ means the new moons; as it is said, ‘God made the two great
+lights,’ and it is written, ‘He made the moon for festival seasons.’(48)
+These are the heretics who do not calculate (by the moon) the festival
+seasons and the equinoxes. ‘He will tear them down and not build them up.’
+He will tear them down, in this world, and not build them up, in the world
+to come.” Perhaps the Boëthusians, who hired false witnesses to deceive
+the authorities about the appearance of the new moon, were not merely
+animated by a desire to harass the rabbis, but were partisans of some such
+calendar reform.
+
+The organization of the sect furnished it an effective means of enforcing
+its rules by discipline. This organization is so peculiar that it must be
+described in some detail. Like the normal Jewish community, it consists of
+three classes, priests, levites, and Israelites, to whom as a fourth class
+may be added proselytes. In this order they are mustered and inscribed in
+the rolls of the camp. In some sense all the members of the sect are
+priests. Ezekiel 44 15 is quoted and explained: “ ‘The priests and the
+levites and the sons of Zadok who kept the charge of his sanctuary’
+[_sic_]. The priests are the exiles of Israel who migrated from the land
+of Judah and [the levites are](49) those who attached themselves to them;
+and the sons of Zadok are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by
+name, who arose in the last days.” Allegory apart, it appears that the
+priests were of the Zadokite line, but this legitimacy is assumed, not
+emphasized. Priests and levites formed part of every court of ten judges
+(see below, p. 351); and in every company of ten Israelites (the quorum of
+a religious assembly), a priest, well versed in the Book of
+Institutes,(50) must be present, to whose words all must conform. If the
+priest does not possess the requisite qualifications, and a competent
+levite is at hand, it shall be ordained that all who enter the camp shall
+go out and come in at his orders. In a case of leprosy the priest shall
+come and stand in the midst of the camp and the Supervisor shall instruct
+him in the interpretation of the law; even if the priest be an ignoramus,
+it is he who must shut up the leper, for the decision belongs to them (13
+1 ff.). To a priest is assigned also the duty of taking the census of the
+commonalty; he who fills this office must be between thirty and sixty
+years old, versed in the Book of [Institutes and] in all the prescriptions
+of the law, to pronounce them according to their prescriptions (14 3 ff.).
+
+A much more important place in the organization is filled by an officer
+whose title (_mebaḳḳer_) signifies “examiner,” “inspector,” and may
+perhaps best be rendered “Supervisor.”(51) Every “camp,” or settlement, of
+the sect had a Supervisor, and over these stood a “Supervisor of all the
+camps,” who must be a man in the prime of life, between thirty and fifty
+years of age. To the Supervisor of the individual camp it belonged to
+instruct the community “in the works of God, and make them familiar with
+his wonderful deeds of might, and recount before them the things that
+happened long ago...; and he shall have compassion on them as a father
+toward his children (13 7 ff.).”(52) We have seen that he has even to
+instruct the priest in the rules for the diagnosis of leprosy.(53) The
+admission of new members to the sect is also in his hands; no one is
+permitted to introduce a man into the congregation without his consent. He
+examines the candidates in regard to their character and intelligence,
+their physical strength and courage, and their possessions, and enrolls
+each in his proper place in the lot(54) of the camp (13 11 ff.). From the
+following badly defaced lines so much at least can be made out, that the
+Supervisor had extensive powers of control over the dealings of members of
+the sect with outsiders in the way of trade. He evidently had also a
+leading part in the administration of justice and the enforcement of the
+discipline of the sect, but the state of the text here denies us insight
+into the particulars.
+
+Courts were constituted of ten members,(55) chosen _ad hoc_ from the
+congregation, four of the tribe of Levi and Aaron and six Israelites, all
+well versed in the Book of Institutes and in the Foundations of the
+Covenant, between twenty-five and sixty years of age. No man of more than
+sixty shall be a judge, “for on account of the unfaithfulness of mankind
+his days were shortened, and through the wrath of God on the inhabitants
+of the earth he bade to remove their understanding before they completed
+their days (10 4 ff.).” The rules relating to the competence of witnesses
+are strict. No one may testify against the accused in a capital case who
+is not a god-fearing man old enough to be included in the census (that is,
+at least twenty years of age, Exod. 30 14); nor shall a man’s testimony be
+credited against his neighbor who is himself a wilful transgressor of any
+of the commandments, until he has come to repentance (9 23-10 3). A
+peculiar provision is made for the case that a single witness (on whose
+testimony therefore conviction could not be had) sees a capital offence
+committed. He is to make known the facts to the Supervisor, who records
+the testimony in writing. If subsequently the offence is committed again
+in the presence of another witness, the same process is repeated; on a
+second repetition, the testimony of the three single witnesses combined
+suffices for conviction (9 16 ff.).(56)
+
+Besides the penalties of the Mosaic law, the sect has a formidable means
+of discipline in expulsion, or as it is called “separation from the
+Purity,” which may in some cases be inflicted even on the testimony of one
+witness (9 21 ff.). Josephus vividly depicts the desperate straits into
+which those came who, for grave offences, were expelled from the Essene
+order; being unable to eat food not prepared by members of the order, they
+were exposed to starvation. This particular consequence would not follow
+separation from our sect; but the lot of the excommunicated man was
+evidently hard enough. “When his deeds come to light he is to be expelled
+from the congregation, as though his lot had never fallen in the midst of
+the disciples of God; according to his misdeeds men shall bear him in
+remembrance ... until the day when he returns to take his place in the
+station of the men of perfect holiness. No man shall have any dealings
+with him in matters of property or work, for all the saints of the Most
+High have cursed him” (20 3 ff.); such have no part in the “house of the
+law”; their names are erased from the rolls of the congregation (20 10
+f.). They are not only cut off from the communion of saints in this world,
+but are doomed to extermination by the hand of Belial (8 1 f., 19 14 f.).
+One who leads men astray and profanes the Sabbath and the festivals shall
+not be put to death, but shall be committed to the custody of men;(57) if
+he is cured of his error, they shall keep him for seven years, and
+afterwards he may come into the assembly (12 3 ff.). A member of the sect
+who seduces others to apostasy is more severely dealt with: “A man over
+whom the spirits of Belial have rule,(58) and who advocates defection
+(Deut. 13 6), shall be judged according to the law of the necromancer and
+the wizard” (12 2 f.; cf. Deut. 18 9).(59)
+
+The sect possessed the Jewish Scriptures. The books of the law are “the
+hut of the King” (i.e. the congregation)—the fallen hut which God had
+promised to raise up; “the pillar of your images” are the books of the
+prophets, whose words Israel despised. The founder of the sect, the star
+out of Jacob, is the interpreter of the law who came to Damascus (7 14
+ff.). The authority of the Pentateuch is appealed to in support of the
+position of the sect in the matter of marriage and divorce; their peculiar
+statutes and ordinances are the true interpretation and application of the
+law of God. The prophets are frequently cited, and allusions to passages
+in the prophets or reminiscences of their phraseology are much more
+numerous. There are similar reminiscences of the Psalms and of the
+Proverbs, and perhaps of other books among the Hagiographa. As regards the
+Old Testament scriptures, therefore, the sect stood on common ground with
+Palestinian orthodoxy.(60) The formula of citation is peculiar; a
+quotation is usually introduced by the words “as he said,” rarely “as God
+said”; or with the name of the sacred author, “as Moses said.” Besides the
+Biblical books, we have a quotation from Levi—probably the Testament of
+that Patriarch—introduced by the same phrase as quotations from the Bible;
+and the reader is referred to the Book of Jubilees by name for an exact
+computation of the last times. There is nothing to indicate that the
+authority attributed to these writings was inferior to that of the
+Hagiographa. The canon of the “Scriptures” was not defined, even in the
+rabbinical schools, until the second century of our era, and in the sects
+many books enjoyed high esteem which the orthodox repudiated.(61)
+
+To a different class belong, apparently, the Book of Institutes, and the
+Foundations of the Covenant, in which the judges must be well versed. To
+every religious gathering of ten men or more belongs a priest well versed
+in the Book of Institutes. The title Foundations of the Covenant suggests
+a writing (or a fixed tradition) dealing with the obligations and duties
+of members of the sect. The name here rendered Book of Institutes, on the
+other hand, is obscure,(62) but the fact that a knowledge of it is
+demanded of the priest and of the judges makes it likely that it contained
+the “statutes and ordinances” of the sect, its peculiar definitions and
+interpretations of the law, often referred to as _perush_; in technical
+phrase, a collection of sectarian _halakoth_, such as is preserved in the
+second part of the texts before us, which seems to be derived from such a
+legal manual. The objection to committing _halakah_ to writing which was
+long maintained in the rabbinical schools was not shared by the sects, and
+would be least likely to exist where the ordinances were not in theory a
+traditional law handed down from remote antiquity, but were attributed to
+an individual interpreter, the founder of the sect.
+
+The sect had houses of worship, which a man in a state of uncleanness is
+forbidden to enter (11 22),(63) but nothing more is said about them,
+except that when the trumpets of the congregation are blown, the blowing
+shall follow or precede the service, and not interrupt it. It is a natural
+surmise that they answered to the synagogues both as places of worship and
+of religious instruction, such, for example, as the Supervisor is required
+to give. The name, _Beth hishtahawōth_, literally, “house of bowing down”
+(in worship), is peculiar, and may have been chosen to distinguish these
+sectarian conventicles from the synagogues of regular Judaism, as the
+English nonconformists of various stripes would not call their
+meeting-houses churches. It is possible that the prayers of the sect may
+have been accompanied by genuflections and prostrations such as, though
+unknown in the synagogue, have formed in all ages and religions a common
+feature of Oriental worship; but it is also possible that “bowing down”
+simply stands by metonymy for worship, as is often the case with the
+corresponding Syriac verb, _segad_.(64)
+
+Sacrificial worship was also maintained.(65) The City of the Sanctuary was
+eminently holy; sexual intercourse within its limits is forbidden,
+“defiling the City of the Sanctuary with their impurity”
+(_beniddatham_).(66) To this city, probably, the sacrifices were brought
+to which there is frequent reference. “No one shall send to the altar
+burnt offerings or oblation, frankincense or wood, by a man who is unclean
+with any of the forms of uncleanness; for it is written, the sacrifice of
+the wicked is an abomination, but the prayer of the righteous is an
+acceptable oblation” (11 18 ff.). On the Sabbath nothing is to be brought
+upon the altar except the Sabbath burnt offerings—that is, we may suppose,
+the stated daily burnt offerings with the supplementary Sabbath victims
+(13 17 f.; see Num. 28 1-10). Votive sacrifices are also mentioned; it is
+forbidden to vow to the altar anything that has been procured by
+compulsion; the priest shall refuse to receive such offerings (16 13 f.).
+There is nothing to indicate where this sanctuary was situated, further
+than the natural presumption that it was in the region of Damascus, where
+the sect had established itself. The priests have the precedence of all
+others in the community; in its registers their names are enrolled in the
+first rank. Their place in the courts and in the local religious
+community, and their duties in the examination of lepers, have already
+been mentioned. Those who officiated at the sanctuary had doubtless their
+legal toll from private sacrifices of every kind. Lost property for which
+no owner appears falls to the priests; a man who has appropriated such
+property shall confess to the priest, and all that he pays in restitution
+belongs to the priest, besides the ram of the trespass offering (9 13
+ff.).
+
+A charitable fund is provided by monthly payment of certain dues by
+members of the community to the Supervisor. From this fund relief is given
+by the judges to the poor and needy, to the aged, to the wanderer (?), to
+such as have fallen into captivity to foreigners, and others (14 12 ff.).
+
+The religious conceptions and beliefs of the sect present little that is
+peculiar. For God the name _El_ is consistently used, without any
+epithets. _Adonai_ is mentioned only to forbid its use in oaths. The only
+other name which occurs is the Most High (once, in the phrase “the saints
+of the Most High,” that is, the members of the sect). There is repeated
+reference to the holy spirit: God, through his Anointed, made men know his
+holy spirit (2 12); the opponents of the sect, by blasphemous speech
+against the statutes of God’s covenant, defiled their holy spirit (5
+11);(67) its members are warned not to defile his holy spirit by failing
+to observe the distinctions of clean and unclean which God has ordained (7
+3 f.).
+
+The “Prince of Lights (_Urim_),” through whom Moses and Aaron arise, is
+perhaps, as the contrast to Belial suggests, one of the highest
+angels.(68) The destroying angels execute God’s inescapable judgment on
+those who turned out of the way and despised the statute (2 6). The fall
+of the Watchers, which is a favorite subject in the apocalyptic
+literature, is referred to in 2 18. The chief of the evil spirits is
+Belial: he is “let loose” during the whole of the present dispensation; he
+lays snares for men and entraps them, especially in the three sins of
+fornication, unrighteous gain, and the defilement of the sanctuary (4 15
+ff.); his spirits rule over men and lead them to apostasy (12 2 f.); he
+also exterminates the faithless in the day of God’s visitation (8 1 f.).
+Another name for the devil is Mastema (the commoner name in Jubilees),
+equivalent to Satan, “the adversary.” The angel of Mastema ceases to
+follow a man who resolves to return to the law of Moses (16 4 f.).
+According to Jubilees 10 8 f., 11 5, Mastema had permission from God to
+employ some of his evil spirits to corrupt men and lead them astray.
+
+Concerning the future life we read only that those who hold firmly to the
+law are “for eternal life,”(69) or, as it is elsewhere expressed, “have
+the assurance that they shall live a thousand generations.” To a
+punishment of the wicked after death(70) or to a resurrection of the dead
+there is no allusion whatever.
+
+The moral teachings of the sect have been frequently touched upon above in
+speaking of their rules of life. Man is led into sin not only by the
+snares of Belial, but by his own sinful inclination and adulterous eyes (2
+16; seemingly the _yeṣer hara’_ of the rabbis). It was through these that
+the Watchers fell; by them the generation of the flood sinned, and the
+sons of Jacob, and their descendants in Egypt and in Canaan, and brought
+judgment upon themselves (2 14 ff.). We have seen that the sect insisted
+upon monogamy, and perhaps rejected divorce altogether. Particular
+emphasis is laid in several places on the commandments, “thou shalt not
+take vengeance nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people,”
+“thou shalt reprove thy neighbor and not bear sin because of him” (Lev. 19
+17, 18).(71) Thus, at the beginning of the legal part of the book, the
+delivery of a fellow Israelite to the gentiles so that he is condemned by
+their law is said to fall under this prohibition, and further, “any man of
+those who enter into the covenant who brings up against his neighbor a
+matter not in the nature of a reproof before witnesses, but which he
+brings up in anger, or tells it to his elders to bring the man into
+disrepute, he is one that takes vengeance and bears a grudge.” It is
+forbidden also to exact of another an oath except in the presence of the
+judges; he who does so transgresses the law which forbids a man to take
+justice into his own hands. Every one who enters into the covenant pledges
+himself not only not to rob the poor and make widows his spoil, but to
+love his neighbor as himself, to seek the welfare of his fellow, and to
+sustain the poor and needy. As regards the relations of the members of the
+sect to gentiles, it is forbidden to shed the blood of a gentile or to
+take aught of their property, “in order to give them no occasion to
+blaspheme” (12 6 f.), that is, to prevent the profaning of God’s name (15
+3), a motive frequently urged in similar connection in the rabbinical
+writings. On the other hand, no man may sell to gentiles clean animals or
+birds, lest they offer them in sacrifice, nor grain, nor wine—naught of
+his possessions; nor shall he sell to them his slave or maid servant who
+have come with him into the covenant of Abraham (12 9 ff.), He may not
+pass the Sabbath in the neighborhood of gentiles. They are unclean, and
+garments they may have handled require purification.
+
+                  ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
+
+No record of a schismatic body such as reveals itself in our texts is
+preserved in the early catalogues of Jewish heresies, nor have references
+to it been discovered in rabbinical sources. Like many sects, it exhibits
+the separatist inclination to outdo the orthodox in zeal for the letter
+and in strenuousness of practice, and it is not surprising that its
+interpretations of the law frequently agree with those of other
+strict-constructionists, such as Samaritans, Sadducees, Karaites; but
+these coincidences illustrate a common tendency rather than prove
+historical connection. The relation to the Book of Jubilees is, however,
+such as to show that there was some affinity between our sect and the
+circles in which that work originated. Jubilees is cited as authority on
+the last times; its calendar probably contains the secrets of God’s holy
+sabbaths and glorious festivals about which all Israel was in error; the
+rules for the observance of the Sabbath in our book accord in many
+particulars with the injunctions in Jubilees 50 6 ff. (see also 2 26 ff.);
+and various other resemblances might be pointed out, such as the
+preference for the unornamented word God (in Jubilees, God, or the Lord),
+in contrast with the many mouth-filling periphrases in Enoch; the holy
+spirit in men; the name Mastema for the adversary instead of Satan; Belial
+who ensnares men, and the spirits of Belial which rule over sinners,
+besides others to which Dr. Schechter directs attention in his notes. The
+relation to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is less clear. The
+saying attributed to Levi (4 15) is not found in the Testament, and the
+other resemblances Dr. Schechter has noted are vague or belong to the
+commonplaces. The place of honor given to Judah in the Testaments, as we
+have them, is strikingly at variance with the attitude of our sect toward
+that tribe and its princes. The Levite Messiah of the Testaments is not
+precisely the same as the “Anointed from Aaron and Israel” in our book. In
+Jubilees also there are salient features, such as the more developed
+angelology and the form of the Messianic expectation, which hardly permit
+us to suppose that the book was a product of our sect, however highly it
+may have been esteemed by it.
+
+The sect gives especial honor to the sons of Zadok, the ancient priesthood
+of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezek. 44 15, 2 Chron. 31 10, Sirach 51 12
+Heb.); they are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by name, who
+arose in the latter times (4 3); it was Zadok who brought to light the
+Book of the Law which no one had seen since the death of Eleazar and
+Joshua (5 5). The context of the latter passage would suggest that Zadok
+the contemporary of David is meant, who after the deposition of Abiathar
+became Solomon’s chief priest.(72) The precedence given to the sons of
+Zadok may possibly have a side reference to the illegitimate high priests
+of Seleucid creation, such as Menelaus, though, if this were the
+intention, we should expect it to be emphasized.
+
+The passages quoted are the only places in the book in which the name
+Zadok or the sons of Zadok appear, and they are certainly a very slender
+reason for describing the body which produced the book as a “Zadokite”
+sect, whatever meaning may be attached to the term. On the contrary, one
+of the outstanding things in the constitution of the sect is the
+predominance of the lay element. The Supervisor is a layman; laymen form
+the majority in every court; the Messiah is the “Anointed from Aaron _and
+Israel_.” Whether the external testimony upon which Dr. Schechter relies
+for justification of the name is more adequate will be considered below.
+
+Zadok and the sons of Zadok suggest the Sadducees,(73) whose name,
+according to the most probable explanation, designates them as descendants
+(or followers and partisans) of Zadok. Here again it is a question whether
+Zadok of David’s time is meant, so that the Sadducees were the Zadokite
+aristocracy of the priesthood, as most modern scholars think, or whether
+the name of the Sadducee sect is derived from a heresiarch of much later
+times, as the Jewish legend represents which makes Zadok, from whom the
+sect descends, a recalcitrant disciple of Antigonus of Socho, about the
+middle of the second century B.C., contemporary, if we rightly interpret
+our texts, with the origin of the sect we are studying.
+
+With the Sadducees, as we know them from the New Testament, Josephus, and
+rabbinical sources, our sect cannot well be identified. There is, however,
+a sect sometimes associated with the Sadducees, namely, the Dositheans, in
+whose teachings and customs Dr. Schechter finds such resemblances as lead
+him to surmise that the Dositheans were an offshoot of our sect. The
+accounts of the Dositheans in writers of different ages and religious
+connections, from Origen and Epiphanius down to the Samaritan Chronicler
+Abul-Fath and the Moslem heresiographer Shahrastani, are notoriously
+confused and contradictory,(74) so that many scholars have felt
+constrained to conclude that there was more than one sect of the name. The
+Fathers generally agree in describing the Dositheans as a Samaritan
+heresy, though Epiphanius and Philaster have it that the author of the
+heresy was by extraction a Jew. They frequently bring him into connection
+with Simon Magus, in the time of the Apostles. According to Origen, he
+gave himself out for the Messiah foretold by Moses; his followers had
+books of his, and legends pretending that he had not died, but was still
+alive somewhere. Other Fathers give no date for the rise of the heresy,
+but by coupling it with the Sadducees seem to imply that it was older than
+Christianity; thus (Pseudo)Tertullian (probably after Hippolytus)(75) says
+that Dositheus the Samaritan was the first to reject the prophets as not
+inspired; the Sadducees, springing from this root of error, ventured to
+deny the resurrection also. From this Philaster probably drew the
+inference that Zadok, the founder of the Sadducees, was a disciple of
+Dositheus. The Samaritan and Moslem authors agree with the Fathers in
+treating the Dositheans as a Samaritan sect. Abul-Fath, a Samaritan writer
+of the fourteenth century, puts the beginnings of the sect in the first
+century B.C., at the time when the yoke of the Jews had been broken by the
+kings of the gentiles, and the Samaritans were able to return and restore
+their sanctuary, which had been destroyed by Simon and John Hyrcanus.(76)
+The Moslem writer Shahrastani, in his learned work on Religious Sects and
+Philosophical Schools (first half of the twelfth century), gives
+substantially the same date: the founder of the Dositheans, who professed
+to be the prophet foretold by Moses, the star spoken of in the law,
+appeared about a century before Christ.
+
+In this state of the evidence it is obvious that no argument can be based
+on the coincidence in time between the origin of the Dositheans and that
+of our sect. When the Fathers bring the names of Dositheus and Zadok into
+conjunction, it means no more than that they attributed certain errors to
+both Dositheans and Sadducees; just as the Talmudic legend which makes
+Zadok and Boëthus apostate disciples of Antigonus of Socho is but a
+mythological way of saying that Sadducees and Boëthusians were addicted to
+the same heresies concerning retribution, or as the coupling of Dositheus
+and Simon Magus means that both passed for Samaritan arch-heretics.
+
+The first point of agreement between the Dositheans and our sect which Dr.
+Schechter notes is in the calendar. Abul-Fath says that the Dositheans did
+away with the computation of the almanac (tables of lunar conjunctions),
+making all their months exactly thirty days long, and (thus) annulled the
+correct festivals and the ordinance of the fasts and the affliction (Day
+of Atonement).(77) The circle of thirty disciples, who, with a woman
+called Helena (Moon), formed the train of Dositheus, according to the
+Clementine Recognitions (ii, 8) symbolized the days of the month. If our
+sect employed the calendar of the Book of Jubilees, as seems highly
+probable, they also had thirty-day months; but it would not follow that
+the system was original with them, nor that the Dositheans must have
+adopted it from them. There were, in fact, from very remote times, two
+years in use within the area of the ancient civilizations, a lunar-solar
+year, consisting of twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days
+each, with a thirteenth month added every two or three years to maintain
+approximate agreement with the solar year and make the months fall in the
+same seasons, and a solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days,
+divided into twelve months of thirty days each without regard to the
+lunations, and five extra days (_epagomenae_). The former was the system
+of the Babylonians and the Greeks, as well as the Jews; the latter was in
+use in Egypt from immemorial times until the Roman reforms. From the
+Egyptians it was borrowed by the Abyssinians; it was employed also for
+some centuries before and after the Christian era in the calendars of Gaza
+and Ashkelon. The Persians had the same system; the Yashts contain a
+liturgy for the thirty regents of the days of the month, the five extra
+days being assigned to the divine Gathas. Probably under Persian
+influences, this calendar was established in Armenia, Cappadocia, and
+other parts of Asia Minor.(78)
+
+Jews and Samaritans not only lived in many of the lands of their
+dispersion among peoples who used the thirty-day month, but encountered
+this calendar in commercial centres on the very borders of Palestine with
+which they had close relations. The advantages of a system in which the
+festivals came on fixed dates, instead of shifting within wide limits, as
+they must in the lunar-solar year with its irregular intercalation, are
+obvious,(79) and an attempt to reform the Jewish calendar accordingly may
+have been made more than once and in more than one region. The peculiarity
+of the system of the Book of Jubilees is not the uniform length of the
+months, but the admission of only _four_ extra days, thus making an even
+fifty-two weeks (364 days), which was of more concern to the author than
+the increased error of a whole day in the solar year.(80) We do not know
+whether the Dositheans of Abul-Fath and the Sadducees of Kirkisani (of
+whom later) agreed in this point with Jubilees, or counted _five_ extra
+days like the rest of the world. The former may be thought probable, but
+it cannot be assumed as certain. The year of 365 days is also found in the
+Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, c. 6.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius(81) on the Dositheans as saying, “some of
+them abstain from a second marriage, but others never marry”; and,
+although “the text is not quite certain on this point,”(82) is inclined to
+perceive in the statement “at least an echo of the law of our sect
+prohibiting a second marriage as long as the first wife is alive.” The
+passage in Epiphanius is more than obscure, and the text is for that
+reason suspected. The passage runs: Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται, ἀλλὰ καί τινες
+αὐτῶν ἐγκρατεύονται ἀπὸ γάμων μετὰ τοῦ βιῶσαι, ἄλλοι δὲ καὶ παρθενεύουσιν.
+Whatever this may mean, it certainly is not, “some of them abstain from
+marriage after the death of their first wives,” nor does anything in the
+context justify the large changes in the text which would be required to
+force this sense upon it. Casaubon’s conjecture υἱῶσαι has nothing to
+commend it. The simplest solution of the difficulty would be to write
+συμβιῶσαι,(83) “some of them refrain from marital relations after having
+lived together, others preserve their virginity.” Whether this emendation
+is right or not, it is clear that Epiphanius describes his Dositheans as a
+kind of Encratite ascetics, while the prohibition of polygamy—whether
+contemporaneous or consecutive—by our sect has a totally different ground;
+of asceticism there is, indeed, no symptom in its ordinances.
+
+Dr. Schechter thinks that the statement of Epiphanius quoted above that
+the Dositheans “abstain from eating living creatures” “may have some
+connection with the law in our text on p. 12, l. 11, which may perhaps be
+understood to imply that the sect forbade honey, regarding it as _’eber
+min haḥai_ (a limb cut off from a living animal), which would agree with
+the testimony of Abul-Fath that they forbade the eating of eggs, except
+those which were found in a slaughtered fowl.” Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται does not
+mean “abstain from eating living creatures,” but “abstain from animal
+food,”(84) while our sect certainly did not include vegetarianism among
+its eccentricities, any more than the depreciation of marriage.
+
+Several authors describe the Dositheans as extravagant sabbatarians.
+Origen reports that their rule was, that in whatever place and in whatever
+posture the Sabbath found a man, there and thus he was to remain till its
+end. Abul-Fath gives a longer account of their Sabbath laws, which are
+much stricter than those of our texts. It was forbidden, for example, to
+feed domestic animals or give them drink on the Sabbath, they were to be
+provided on Friday with enough provender and water to last them through
+the Sabbath. Extreme sabbatarianism is, however, a sectarian propensity
+which does not have to be borrowed.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius further as saying that the Dositheans
+“have no intercourse with all people because they detest all mankind,” in
+which he thinks “we may readily recognize here the law of our Sect
+requiring the washing of the clothes when they were brought by a Gentile
+(because of the contamination), and the prohibition of staying over the
+Sabbath in the vicinity of Gentiles” (Introduction, pp. xxiii f.). What
+Epiphanius says is that the Dositheans agree with the rest of the
+Samaritans in the observance of circumcision and the Sabbath, and in
+avoiding contact with any one because they feel that all men (that is, all
+gentiles) are unclean. He had already described the customs of all the
+Samaritans: They wash themselves and their clothes in water when they come
+in contact with a foreigner; for they regard it as a defilement to come in
+contact with any one or even to touch a man of another religion.(85) It
+is, therefore, not a Dosithean peculiarity, but the general Samaritan
+usage which Epiphanius describes, and it is useless to search for remoter
+affinities.
+
+The marked hostility to the patriarch Judah with which Eulogius, the
+Patriarch of Alexandria (died 607 A.D.), charges Dositheus(86) is natural
+enough in a Samaritan heresiarch; in the same sentence Eulogius accuses
+him of scorning the prophets of God, which, again, is not peculiar to the
+Dositheans, but is the general Samaritan position. It has been remarked
+above (p. 353) that our sect gives especial honor to the books of the
+prophets “whose words Israel has despised”; and, however unfriendly the
+attitude of these seceders to the degenerate Judah of their time, there is
+no indication of animosity to the patriarch, as there is none in the
+Jubilees.
+
+From a much later time Dr. Schechter has gleaned some notices of a sect of
+“Zadokites” in whose tenets also he recognizes resemblances to those of
+our sect. Kirkisani, a Karaite author of the tenth century,(87) says:
+“Zadok was the first who exposed the Rabbanites and contradicted them
+publicly. He revealed a part of the truth, and composed books [a book] in
+which he frequently denounced the Rabbanites and criticised them. But he
+adduced no proof for anything he said, merely saying it by way of
+statement, except in one thing, namely, in his prohibition against
+marrying the daughter of the brother and the daughter of the sister. For
+he adduced as proof their being analogous to the paternal and maternal
+aunt.”(88)
+
+This is a matter about which our sectaries are especially fierce in their
+denunciations of the laxity of the orthodox. The argument they employ is
+the same which Kirkisani attributes to Zadok. It is, however, the obvious
+argument, if the principle of analogy be admitted in the interpretation of
+the law; it is common in the Karaite books, and is ascribed to the
+Samaritans also.(89) Kirkisani also says that the Zadokites absolutely
+forbade divorce, which the Scripture permitted, agreeing in this with the
+Christians and with the Isawites, whose founders, Jesus and Obadiah of
+Ispahan,(90) had likewise forbidden it. We are not told expressly that our
+sect prohibited divorce, but their prohibition of remarriage during the
+life of the divorced wife would have the same effect. Finally, Kirkisani
+says that the Zadokites fixed all the months at thirty days each,(91) and
+that they did not count the Sabbath among the seven days of the
+celebration of the Passover and the Tabernacles, making the feast consist
+of seven days exclusive of the Sabbath. Substantially the same statements
+are made about the Zadokites by another Karaite author, Hadassi, who
+flourished in the middle of the twelfth century, and perhaps derived his
+information from Kirkisani.
+
+What the “Zadokite” writings really were to which these authors refer is
+not known. It is certain, however, that both the Karaites and their
+opponents took them to be Sadducean works. In the passage about Zadok,
+part of which Dr. Schechter quotes (see above), Kirkisani says: “After the
+appearance of the Rabbanites (the first of whom was Simeon the Just), the
+Sadducees appeared; their leaders were Zadok and Boëthus.... Zadok was the
+first who exposed the Rabbanites,” etc.(92) Zadok’s disclosure of a part
+of truth was followed by the full discovery of the truth about the laws by
+Anan, the founder of the Karaites. Not only do the opponents of the
+Karaites stigmatize Anan and his followers as the remnants of the
+disciples of Zadok and Boëthus, but the older Karaites expressly claim
+this origin. Thus Joseph al-Baṣir (first half of the eleventh century)
+says that, in the times of the second temple, the Rabbanites, who were
+then called Pharisees, had the upper hand, while the Karaites, then known
+as Sadducees, were less influential.(93) The Karaite author of an
+anonymous commentary on Exodus preserved in manuscript in St.
+Petersburg(94) polemizes against a disciple of Saadia, the great _Malleus
+Karaeorum_, about the proper way of determining the beginning of the
+months (and consequently the dates of the feasts), which the Rabbanites
+fixed by calculation of the conjunctions, while the Karaites depended on
+observation of the visible new moon. The ancients, he says, required
+evidence of the appearance of the new moon.(95) Saadia, who mistakenly
+assumed that the beginning of the month had been determined astronomically
+from remote antiquity—the calendar was, in fact, of Sinaitic
+origin(96)—asserted that the taking of testimony about the appearance of
+the moon was an innovation occasioned by the contention of Zadok and
+Boëthus that the law required the beginning of the month to be determined
+by actual observation; witnesses were heard only to prove that observation
+confirmed the calculation. To this the author replies: “The book of the
+Zadokites (Sadducees) is well known, and there is no such thing in it as
+that man (Saadia) avers. In the book of Zadok are various things in which
+he dissents from the Rabbanites of the second temple with regard to
+sacrifices and other matters, but there is not a syllable of what the
+Fayyumite (Saadia) says.”(97) Saadia himself appears not to have
+questioned the authenticity of the writings that went under the name of
+Zadok, with which he seems to have been acquainted, directly or
+indirectly, for in a passage quoted by Yefet ben ’Ali he says that Zadok
+had proved from the one hundred and fifty days in the story of the flood
+just the opposite of what the Karaites try to prove from them.(98)
+
+Zadokite books thus meant, for all those from whom our information comes,
+Sadducean books; and so, in the sense that, whatever their age and origin,
+they contained substantially Sadducean teachings, most modern scholars,
+also, have understood the name.
+
+The possibility that Sadducean writings from the beginning of the
+Christian era had survived to the Middle Ages cannot well be denied,
+especially in view of the preservation of the book of the unknown sect
+that forms the subject of our present study in copies as late as the tenth
+or eleventh century; and even if the book which the Karaites took for
+Sadducean was erroneously attributed to that sect, there is no sufficient
+ground for identifying it with the texts in our hands or for ascribing it
+to our sect. A thirty-day month, and the prohibition of divorce and of
+marriage with a niece, are much too slender a foundation to support so
+large an inference, and it is hardly legitimate to argue that if we had
+the entire book, of which only a part—or, according to Dr. Schechter,
+excerpts—is preserved, we might find other and more significant
+agreements.
+
+Dr. Schechter has also remarked certain coincidences between the tenets of
+our sect and those of the Falashas, or Abyssinian Jews, whom, with Beer,
+he is disposed to connect in some way with the Dositheans. Their Sabbath
+laws resemble those in the Jubilees and in the texts before us; they also
+prohibit marriage with a niece; they have a tradition that the Pentateuch
+was brought to Abyssinia by Azariah, the son of Zadok (1 Kings 4 2);
+certain features of their calendar may possibly be related to that of the
+Zadokites as described by Kirkisani. Here, again, the correspondences are
+not numerous or distinctive enough to establish an historical connection.
+
+Putting together these scattered indicia, Dr. Schechter arrives at a
+theory of the history and relations of the sect which must be given in his
+own words:—
+
+
+    We may, then, formulate our hypothesis that our text is
+    constituted of fragments forming extracts from a Zadok book, known
+    to us chiefly from the writings of Kirkisani. The Sect which it
+    represented, did not however pass for any length of time under the
+    name of Zadokites, but was soon in some way amalgamated with and
+    perhaps also absorbed by the Dosithean Sect, and made more
+    proselytes among the Samaritans than among the Jews, with which
+    former sect it had many points of similarity. In the course of
+    time, however, the Dosithean Sect also disappeared, and we have
+    only some traces left of them in the lingering sect of the
+    Falashas, with whom they probably came into close contact at an
+    early period of their (the Falashas’) existence, and to whom they
+    handed down a good many of their practices. The only real
+    difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is, that according to our
+    Text the Sect had its original seat in Damascus, north of
+    Palestine, and it is difficult to see how they reached the
+    Dositheans, and subsequently the Falashas, who had their main
+    seats in the south of Palestine, or Egypt. But this could be
+    explained by assuming special missionary efforts on the part of
+    the Zadokites by sending their emissaries to Egypt, a country
+    which was especially favourable to such an enterprise because of
+    the existence of the Onias Temple there. The severance of the
+    Egyptian Jews from the Palestinian influence (though they did not
+    entirely give up their loyalty to the Jerusalem Sanctuary),
+    prepared the ground for the doctrines of such a Sect as the
+    Zadokites in which all allegiance to Judah and Jerusalem was
+    rejected, and in which the descendants of the House of Zadok (of
+    whom indeed Onias himself was one) represented both the Priest and
+    the Messiah.
+
+
+The evidence adduced in support of this ingenious hypothesis has already
+been examined in detail, and the results need only be summarized here:
+There is nothing in the book before us to warrant classing the men who
+made the new covenant in the land of Damascus as a Zadokite sect;(99)
+neither the external nor the internal evidence suffices to identify the
+work quoted by Kirkisani as Zadokite (by which he and all the rest
+understood Sadducean) with the book before us; the connection of the sect
+with the Dositheans rests in great part on misunderstanding of the
+testimonies about the Dositheans—misunderstandings, it is fair to say,
+which are not all original with Dr. Schechter,—in part upon points of
+resemblance which are not distinctive enough to prove anything. Of the
+peculiar organization of our sect, which would be conclusive, there is no
+trace anywhere.
+
+                  ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
+
+A much more sensational hypothesis was broached by Mr. G. Margoliouth in
+the _Athenaeum_ for November 26, 1910, under the title, “The Sadducean
+Christians of Damascus.” He takes “the root” which God caused to spring
+from Israel and Aaron (1 7) for the same person who is subsequently called
+the Anointed one (Messiah), and distinguishes this figure from the Teacher
+of Righteousness, also called the Anointed one, who appeared twenty years
+later. “Both these Messiahs were dead when the document was composed, but
+they were both expected to reappear in the latter days.”
+
+The first of them, the Messiah descended from Aaron and Israel, in
+consequence of whose work “they meditated over their sin, and knew that
+they were guilty men,” is John the Baptist. John’s father was a priest,
+and though his mother also is said to have been of priestly descent, “this
+need not stand in the way of believing that there was a strain of
+non-priestly Israelite blood in the family.” The Sadducees would naturally
+prefer a priestly Messiah to a Davidic one, and, when John won the
+recognition of the people as a prophet sent by God, it would not be
+strange if a priestly party acclaimed him as in some sense a Messiah, or
+anointed leader of the nation.
+
+The other Messiah, the Teacher of Righteousness, must then be Jesus. That
+he appeared twenty years after John, so far from being an argument against
+this identification, would relieve the difficulty of trying to crowd
+John’s whole history into little more than a year. “It is surely not
+necessary to defend the Lucan tradition on this point at all hazards, and
+it seems quite likely that the newly discovered document has at last given
+us the right perspective of events.”
+
+If these identifications are correct, the “man of scoffing,” or
+Belial,(100) who is sent to pervert the nation and turn it from the law,
+can be no other than the Apostle Paul, and it is noted for confirmation
+that “the period here assigned to his activity and that of his immediate
+following is about forty years, a space of time not far removed from the
+result of recent critical computation.”
+
+The New Covenant so often referred to in the texts is clearly to be
+connected with the identical conception and expression in the New
+Testament, nor does it seem to be accidental that the Teacher of
+Righteousness is several times spoken of as the “only” or “unique” one.
+
+Mr. Margoliouth presents his complete hypothesis as follows:—
+
+
+    The natural and apparently inevitable conclusion of the whole
+    matter, therefore, is that we have here to deal with a primitive
+    Judaeo-Christian body of people which consisted of priests and
+    Levites belonging to the Boëthusian section of the Sadducean
+    party,(101) fortified—as the document shows—by a considerable
+    Israelitish lay element, besides a real or contemplated admixture
+    of proselytes. They acknowledged, as we have seen, John the
+    Baptist, as a Messiah of the family of Aaron, and they also
+    believed in Jesus as a kind of second (or, perhaps, as
+    pre-eminent) Messiah whose special function it was to be a
+    “Teacher of Righteousness.” Paul they abhorred; and they strove
+    with all their might to combine the full observance of the Mosaic
+    Law, as they understood it, with the principles of the “new
+    covenant,” again as they understood it. On the destruction of the
+    Temple by Titus, finding that it would not serve any good purpose
+    to linger in Judaea, they determined to migrate to Damascus,(102)
+    intending to establish their central organization in that city,
+    and to found communities of the sect in different parts of the
+    neighboring country. It was at this juncture that the manifesto,
+    bearing as it does unmistakable marks of personal touch, was
+    composed by a leader of the movement.
+
+
+No scholar who has made an independent study of the texts published by Dr.
+Schechter can have failed to consider the question whether these
+schismatics, with their “unique teacher,”(103) their “new covenant,” their
+“Supervisor,” whose name and functions might be compared with those of a
+bishop ἐπίσκοπος, their loyalty to their dead leader, God’s Anointed one
+(Messiah), who made them know his holy spirit, and their expectation of an
+Anointed one in the last times, their hostility to the Pharisees, can have
+been a Jewish Christian sect.
+
+The more closely the documents are examined, however, the less tenable
+this conjecture appears. One feature of the sectarian eschatology which,
+if established, would afford the most striking coincidence with early
+Christian belief, namely, that the Messiah who died in the early days of
+the sect is to “reappear” (Margoliouth), or “rise again” (Schechter), has
+no support whatever in the text.(104) The “new covenant” in the land of
+Damascus is plainly the obligation by which the members of the sect bind
+themselves to the organization, with its peculiar interpretations of the
+law and its distinctive observances. Neither in the terms of the covenant
+nor in the law itself is there anything that suggests Christian origin or
+influence. That “a man should love his neighbor as himself” is not
+peculiarly or even preëminently a Christian precept. The Testaments of the
+Twelve Patriarchs reiterate it; by the most orthodox rabbis it was
+recognized as the most comprehensive commandment in the law.
+
+The things which the sect esteems of vital importance lie wholly in the
+sphere of the law; polemic zeal for a code which is at every point more
+rigorous than that of the Pharisees is the salient characteristic of both
+parts of the book. The moral precepts are the commonplaces of Judaism
+narrowed to a sectarian horizon.(105) The judgment of God is similarly
+circumscribed. It is not a judgment of the world or of the Jewish people,
+but of those who reject and controvert the legal interpretation of the
+sect, and of those who have fallen away from it.
+
+The code of law which is the constituent principle of the sect and the
+reason for its existence was given it by its founder, the Teacher of
+Righteousness. This unique teacher was not a prophetic reformer, but “the
+interpreter of the law who came to Damascus,” “the legislator.” The
+statutes he decreed are final; the sect “shall receive no others until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last times.”
+
+Mr. Margoliouth thinks that the “teacher of righteousness” to whom the
+sect attributed its institutions and laws was Jesus. The statement of this
+conjecture is its refutation. The rôle of a legislator is the last which
+the character and teaching of Jesus in the Gospels would suggest even to a
+sect in search of a founder. That he, whose disregard for the Pharisaic
+rules of Sabbath observance repeatedly got him into trouble, should,
+within a generation after his death, have been metamorphosed into the
+author of the sabbatical code in our texts, which out-pharisees the
+Pharisees at every point, surpasses ordinary powers of imagination. The
+Christian Jews of the first century in Palestine, so far as we know
+anything about them, conformed in the matter of observance to the
+authority of the scribes and Pharisees, and alleged the express command of
+Jesus for this practice (Matt. 23 2). Early Christian heresies sometimes
+exhibit ascetic features reminding us of the Essenes; but none of
+ultra-legalistic tendency is known.
+
+As our sect is very zealous for things which have no connection with
+Christianity, so on the other hand the texts disclose no trace of specific
+Christian beliefs or conceptions. For the Christian Jews of the first
+century, the belief that Jesus, who had been crucified under Pontius
+Pilate, was the Messiah of prophecy, that he had risen from the dead and
+ascended to heaven, whence he was presently to come in might and majesty,
+according to the vision of Daniel, to usher in the new era, was the pith
+and substance of their faith, the “heresy” by which they were separated
+from their countrymen, the focus of their polemic and apologetic in
+controversies with those who rejected their Messiah. It is impossible to
+imagine a writing as long as this, and imbued as strongly as this with a
+controversial spirit, proceeding from any Christian sect, in which there
+should not be so much as an allusion to any of these things; or that a
+sect which put John the Baptist in so high a place should not make
+something of baptism in the admission of members.
+
+Apart from these general considerations, Mr. Margoliouth’s identifications
+rest upon a palpable misinterpretation. On page 1 we read: “But because
+God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, he left Israel a
+remnant, and did not suffer them to be exterminated. And at the end of
+wrath ... he visited them and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a
+root of his planting _to inherit his land and to prosper on the good
+things of his earth_.” The italicized clauses prove beyond question that
+the “root” is not an individual, but is a collective designation for the
+first generation of the sect.(106) The parallel passage on p. 5 says
+explicitly: “God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he
+raised up from Aaron men of insight and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+them, and they dug the well.” “The well is the law, and they who dug it
+are the exiles of Israel who migrated to Judah and sojourned in the land
+of Damascus.” In the face of this perfectly plain meaning of the passage
+Mr. Margoliouth takes “the root” for the person designated in other places
+as “the Anointed from Aaron and Israel,” who led the people “to recognize
+their wickedness and know that they were guilty men.”(107) In this first
+Messiah he recognizes John the Baptist, and, consequently, in the Teacher
+of Righteousness who came after him, Jesus. The point of correspondence is
+the relation between the forerunner and his successor. The text, however,
+as I have just showed, says nothing of a precursor of the teacher of
+righteousness; on the contrary, it was this teacher who first brought
+light to the generation which in the consciousness of its sin was groping
+like the blind, and guided them in the way of God’s heart.(108)
+
+That by the “man of scoffing” the Apostle Paul is meant is for Mr.
+Margoliouth a corollary of the preceding identifications, and falls with
+them. The enemies of Paul were doubtless capable of calling him all sorts
+of hard names, but there is nothing in the epithets “scorner” and “liar,”
+or in the doings attributed to this figure, which fits Paul better than
+any other false teacher and sower of discord, while the reference to the
+fate of the men of war who followed the “man of lies” seems quite
+inapplicable to Paul.(109)
+
+That we should be unable to identify the Covenanters of Damascus with any
+sect previously known is not surprising. The three or four centuries in
+the middle of which the Christian era falls were prolific in sects and
+heresies of many complexions, as were the centuries following the rise of
+Islam. Through Philo, Josephus, the church Fathers, and the Talmud, we are
+acquainted with some of them; but it is probable that there were many
+others of which no reports have reached us. If we cannot, out of the
+collection at our disposal, put a label on our Covenanters, we may console
+ourselves with the reflection that here we know one Jewish sect from its
+own monuments, and that the texts in our hands, mutilated as they are,
+suffice to give us a much clearer notion of its peculiarities than we get
+of most of the other sects from the descriptions which have come down to
+us.
+
+Its affinities with various antipharisaic or antirabbinical parties, such
+as the Samaritans, the Sadducees, and, in later times, the Karaites, is
+obvious. It shared with all these a zeal for the letter and the literal
+interpretation, and a disposition to extend the law by analogy of
+principle, as a result of which their rules were in general much stricter
+than those of the Rabbis, who possessed in the theory of tradition and in
+their methods of exegesis the means of adapting the law to changed
+conditions, and who were also more disposed to give the precedence to the
+great principles of humanity in the law over its particular prescriptions
+when the two seemed to conflict. The organization of the sect, on the
+other hand, has no parallel within our knowledge. In view of the use of
+the name “camps” for the local communities, and the references to the
+“mustering” of the members, the “trumpets of the congregation,” and the
+like, it may be surmised that the organization of Israel in the wilderness
+suggested the plan, and that the Supervisors were meant to correspond to
+the chiefs of the tribes (for instance, Num. 1 10), each having authority
+over a separate camp.
+
+The sect seems to have perpetuated itself for a considerable time,
+otherwise this book would hardly have been preserved. It may perhaps be
+conjectured that it survived long enough to be gathered, along with
+numerous younger sects, into the capacious bosom of Karaism, of which it
+was in various points a precursor. Such an hypothesis would explain how it
+came about that copies of the book were made in the tenth century and
+later, we should then suppose by Karaite scribes.(110)
+
+Dr. Schechter has laid all students of Judaism under new obligations by
+the discovery and publication of these texts. They will join with their
+congratulations the hope that he may find yet other treasures among the
+accumulations of the Genizah.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 Documents of Jewish Sectaries. Volume I. Fragments of a Zadokite
+      Work. Edited, with Translation, Introduction, and Notes, by S.
+      Schechter. Cambridge University Press. 1910.
+
+    2 It may be added that the quotations are singularly inexact.
+
+    3 In my translation I have sometimes thought it possible to adhere to
+      the text where Dr. Schechter has preferred a conjectural emendation.
+
+    4 That is, probably, against the legitimate high priest of the time
+      (perhaps Onias).—The rendering “_by_ his Anointed” is grammatically
+      admissible, but would be unintelligible in this context.
+
+    5 It would be possible to render “the penitents of Israel.”
+
+    6 The four or five words which follow are unintelligible.
+
+    7 The references are to page and line of the Hebrew text.
+
+    8 Others sought refuge in Egypt; the temple of Onias at Leontopolis
+      had its origin in the same circumstances.
+
+    9 So they understood the words translated in the English version “the
+      cruel venom of asps.”
+
+   10 See 2 Macc. 4 16: “By reason of which (sc. their predilection for
+      Greek ways) a dire calamity befel them, and those for whose customs
+      they displayed such zeal and whom they wanted to imitate in
+      everything became their enemies and avengers.” Assumption of Moses,
+      5 1: “When the times of retribution shall draw near, and vengeance
+      arises through kings who share their guilt and punish them,” etc.,
+      describes the same situation.
+
+   11 Cf. “the whole race of the elect root,” Enoch 93 8.
+
+   12 See Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. iii. p.
+      189.
+
+   13 A comparison with the Apocalypse of the Ten Weeks in Enoch (93 + 91
+      12-17) is in point here. The sixth “week” (period of 490 years) ends
+      with the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar; in the seventh
+      a rebellious generation arises, all whose works are apostasy (the
+      hellenizers of the Seleucid time); at its end the “chosen righteous
+      men of the eternal plantation of righteousness” are chosen to
+      receive the sevenfold instruction about God’s whole creation
+      (apparently the cosmological revelations of Enoch); the historical
+      retrospect closes before the robbery and desecration of the temple
+      by Antiochus Epiphanes (170, 168 B.C.), of which the seer knows
+      nothing. The chronological error here amounts to sixty or seventy
+      years.
+
+      In the Introduction, p. xii, by a typographical error which is
+      repeated on p. xxii, Dr. Schechter says that the 390 years of the
+      text would bring us “to within a generation of Simon the Just, who
+      flourished about 290 B.C.,” and twenty years more would bring us
+      into the midst of the hellenistic persecutions preceding the
+      Maccabaean revolt (about 170 B.C.). Margoliouth, whose hypothesis
+      490 does not suit any better than 390, takes courage from
+      Schechter’s doubts to disregard the numbers altogether. Gressmann
+      (Internationale Wochenschrift, March 4, 1911) is led by metrical
+      considerations to treat all the chronological notices as
+      interpolations, and gives them no further consideration. But even if
+      the figures were introduced by a later hand, they may still
+      represent the tradition of the sect.
+
+   14 Perhaps we should emend _ma’mādō_, “station,” i.e. sect.
+
+   15 See below, p. 350, 354 f.
+
+   16 Cf. Isa. 30 20 f.
+
+   17 The Septuagint renders _yāḥīd_ most frequently by ἀγαπητός, less
+      often by μονογενής.
+
+   18 The same prophecy which was applied by Akiba to Bar Cocheba and by
+      the Dositheans to their founder (see below, p. 362).
+
+   19 The sect rejects the temple in Jerusalem and its worship. Cf. 20 21
+      f., in the last crisis, “they will lean upon God ... and will
+      declare the sanctuary unclean and will return to God.”
+
+   20 Perhaps better, keep aloof, by vow and ban, from unrighteous,
+      unclean gain.
+
+   21 See below, p. 353.
+
+   22 The name comes from Isa. 28 14, where the scorners are the rulers in
+      Jerusalem, who boast of their covenant with death and their compact
+      with hell, who have made lies their refuge and hidden themselves in
+      falsehood. See also Isa. 29 20.
+
+   23 It might be surmised that the false prophet had headed an
+      insurrection—perhaps a Messianic rising—which ended in disaster.
+
+   24 See above, p. 333.
+
+   25 Or, as Schechter elsewhere expresses it, “disappeared.” Among the
+      synonyms for death, Aaron ben Eliahu names “gather in” (Isa. 58 8).
+
+   26 Introduction, p. xiii.
+
+   27 P. xiii. “We gather from another passage that the Only Teacher found
+      his death in Damascus, but is expected to rise again (p. 19, l. 35;
+      p. 20, l. 1; cf. also p. 6, l. 11).” The verb _’āmad_ means, as
+      frequently in the later books of the Old Testament, “appear upon the
+      scene.” In this sense it occurs repeatedly in the book before us,
+      and there is nothing in the context here to suggest a different
+      interpretation.
+
+   28 Cf. Acts 1 11.
+
+   29 See Isa. 59 20.
+
+   30 The quotation is to be thus restored; see Exod. 20 6 and Deut. 7 9.
+      The next two or three lines are very obscure: “From the house of
+      Peleg, who went out (or, will go out) from the city of the
+      sanctuary, and they will rely on God (cf. Isa. 10 20) when the
+      transgression of Israel is at an end, and will declare the sanctuary
+      unclean, and will return to God. The prince (?) of the people with
+      few words (??).” The house of Peleg may be an etymological allegory
+      for the seceders; the city of the sanctuary is probably Jerusalem
+      (cf. 6 11 ff., above, p. 338); but neither the connection with the
+      preceding nor the meaning of the sequel is clear.
+
+   31 Text, “and confessed,” which leaves the sentence without a
+      predicate.
+
+   32 See also 7 20: “The sceptre” (Num. 24 17) “is the prince of all the
+      congregation; and when he arises he will destroy all the children of
+      Seth.”
+
+   33 It is not improbable that the author thought also of the other
+      meaning of the word _tāphēl_, here rendered “stucco,” viz. something
+      insipid, stupid; cf. Lam. 2 14, in a passage which, like Ezek. 13
+      10, refers to the false prophets. I see nothing to indicate that
+      “the wall” is the fence or hedge which the Pharisaean rabbis drew
+      around the law to protect it from infraction, as Dr. Schechter
+      thinks.
+
+   34 The text explains, “this is the prater of whom it says, they prate
+      unceasingly” (4 19 f.; cf. Mic. 2 11). Dr. Schechter regards this
+      explanation as “a disturbing parenthesis.”
+
+   35 The Jannes and Jambres of 2 Tim. 3 8.
+
+   36 Such marriages, especially with a sister’s daughter, are not only
+      permitted, but especially commended in the Talmud (Yebamoth 62b-63a;
+      see Maimonides, Issure Biah 2 14), and are still common in countries
+      where the Jews are free to follow the rabbinical law. On the Karaite
+      prohibition of marriage with a niece, see below, p. 366.
+
+   37 On the pollution of the sanctuary, cf. Assumption of Moses 5 3;
+      Testament of Levi 14 5 ff.; Psalms of Solomon 2 3.
+
+   38 On the portals of the sun, see Enoch 72, etc.
+
+   39 Perhaps an error of the text for 2000; see below, § 8.
+
+   40 Cf. Jubilees 50 8.
+
+   41 This holds on week-days as well as on the Sabbath.
+
+   42 Perhaps we should read, “make an ‘_erūb_’ ” (a legal fiction by
+      which dwellings or limits were treated as one). The Sadducees and
+      Samaritans rejected this evasion of the law.
+
+   43 See 12 12 ff.
+
+   44 Similarly the Essenes, at their reception into the order, bound
+      themselves by the “tremendous oaths” which Josephus describes, B. J.
+      ii, 8 7.
+
+   45 The oath by the Tetragrammaton included _a fortiori_.
+
+   46 The Essenes excluded oaths altogether, except in the initiation of
+      members. See also Slavonic Enoch 49 1; Philo, De spec. legibus ii,
+      1, and elsewhere (Charles, Secrets of Enoch, p. 65). Our sect
+      recognizes judicial oaths (9 8 ff.) and imprecations (9 12), as well
+      as vows under oath (16 6 ff.).
+
+   47 On the relation of the Jubilees to the sect, see further below, p.
+      359.
+
+   48 Cf. Jubilees 2 9, God appointed the sun ... for sabbaths, and
+      months, and feasts; and Jubilees 6 37, the observation of the moon
+      disturbs the calendar.
+
+   49 It seems necessary to supply these words.
+
+   50 “The book of _hagu_.” The rendering “Institutes” is not offered as a
+      translation of the name, but as indicating the probable character of
+      the work. See below, p. 353 f.
+
+   51 Dr. Schechter renders “Censor,” and remarks, “Such an office,
+      entirely unknown to Judaism, could only have been borrowed from the
+      Romans.” But the functions of the Inspector or Supervisor bear no
+      resemblance to those of the Roman censors; and for the identity of
+      the title the translator is solely accountable, not the constitution
+      of the sect. Mr. Margoliouth talks loosely about dependence on Roman
+      administrative models; it would be interesting to learn in what
+      particulars. With the very large authority vested in the Supervisor
+      may be compared that of the managers, or administrators
+      (ἐπιμεληταί), among the Essenes, “without whose directions they do
+      nothing”; though the functions of the managers in the Essene
+      coenobite establishments were of course quite different from those
+      of the Supervisors of our sect.
+
+   52 In the partly illegible lines that follow, his dealing with the
+      congregation is compared with that of a shepherd with his flock.—Dr.
+      W. H. Ward suggests that the title _mebaḳḳer_ may be connected with
+      Ezek. 34 11 f., where the verb is used of a shepherd’s looking out
+      for his flock.
+
+   53 As in Mishna _Yoma_ the High Priest has to be instructed by experts
+      in the ritual of the Day of Atonement, and made to swear not to
+      depart from his instructions.
+
+   54 Probably the lands belonging to the sect.
+
+   55 That a court must consist of ten judges, the Karaites deduce from
+      Ruth 4 2. So Anan quoted by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol.
+      xlv, p. 67, and p. 69, n. 1.
+
+   56 This seems to be the meaning of the somewhat obscure passage.
+
+   57 It is not clear whether imprisonment or surveillance is meant.
+
+   58 On the spirit of Belial (ruling over Israel) see Jubilees 1 20.
+
+   59 “Rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft,” 1 Sam. 15 23.
+
+   60 In contrast to the Samaritans.
+
+   61 In 8 18 ff., after saying, “Such will be the judgment of every one
+      who despises the commandments of God, and he forsook them and they
+      turned away in the stubbornness of their heart,” A adds: “This is
+      the word which Jeremiah spoke to Baruch the son of Neriah and Elisha
+      to his servant Gehazi,” referring probably to otherwise unknown
+      apocryphal books. Johanneh and his brother, whom Belial raised up
+      against Moses, are familiar figures of Jewish legend.
+
+   62 The simplest explanation of the form would be to take it as an
+      abstract noun of the type _fa‘l_, like _sáḥu_; “swimming” or _fi‘l,
+      fu‘l,_ like _séku_ (n. pr.), _tóhu_, _bóhu_, etc., from the verb
+      _hagah_ (root _hagw_), “reflect, give thought to something,” also
+      “read” (aloud), so that the noun might literally mean “study,”
+      equivalent to _midrash_, or perhaps “reading.”—If the opinion which
+      connects the sect with the Dositheans were tenable (see below, p.
+      360 ff.), another explanation of the name might be suggested by a
+      passage in Abul-Fath’s account of the origin of the Dositheans. He
+      narrates that a son of the Samaritan high priest, named Zar’ah, a
+      man preëminent for learning in his time, having been expelled from
+      the community for immorality, betook himself to Dositheus, who made
+      him the chief of his sect. This man “wrote a book in which he
+      vituperated all the Samaritan religious heads and set forth
+      heresies.” The words are, _haja fīhī kul al’ a’immetin wa’abda’a
+      fīhī_. Inasmuch as the Arabic _hajwun_ formally corresponds to the
+      Hebrew _hagu_, the Book of _Hagu_ in our texts might be identified
+      with this controversial writing of Zar’ah, the disciple of
+      Dositheus. The Hebrew verb _hagah_ is thought by Kohut (Aruch
+      Completum, III, 177) to occur in Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 1 4 and 3 33
+      in the sense “contemn, deride,” equivalent to the Arabic _haja_,
+      “lampoon, vituperate.” It might then be conjectured that Abul-Fath
+      had heard of a Dosithean book of _hagu_ (in Hebrew) and, taking the
+      word in its Arabic meaning, evolved his description of the character
+      of the work from this etymology.
+
+   63 Some Karaite authorities, also, transferring to the synagogue the
+      holiness of the temple, forbade a man in a state of uncleanness to
+      enter the inner room of the synagogue (Nissi; see Winter und
+      Wünsche, Die jüdische Litteratur, vol. ii, p. 74).
+
+   64 The coincidence of the name with the Arabic _masjid_, “place of
+      bowing down,” mosque, is hardly a sufficient reason for suspecting
+      Moslem influence, as Dr. Schechter does, who thinks it possible that
+      the word was introduced by a later (Falasha?) scribe as a substitute
+      for the original term.—Elia Bashiatzi (Adereth Eliahu, p. 58), a
+      Karaite writer of the 15th century, gives _Beth hishtaḥawīya,_
+      together with _Beth hakeneseth_ and _Beth hamidrash_, as the three
+      names of the place of worship. Moslem influence can here hardly be
+      questioned; in a later chapter Elia describes the postures of prayer
+      quite after the Moslem pattern, alleging Biblical authority for all
+      of them.
+
+   65 The opinion that after Josiah’s reform, or after the restoration of
+      the temple by Zerubbabel and Joshua, Jerusalem was the only place
+      where Jewish sacrifices were offered is refuted by an accumulating
+      volume of evidence from various regions. See D. S. Margoliouth,
+      Expositor, 1911, pp. 40 ff.
+
+   66 Cf. the accusation against the orthodox Jews (5 6): “They defile the
+      Sanctuary in that they do not separate according to the law,”
+      etc.—It is possible that the prohibition quoted above applied, not
+      to the inhabitants of the city, but to persons who visited it for
+      the purpose of worship, as is the rule for pilgrims to Mecca.
+
+   67 The holy spirit in them. Dr. Schechter adduces parallels in Jewish
+      writings. Cf. Jubilees 1 21, 23, “Create in them a clean heart and a
+      holy spirit.”
+
+   68 Dr. Schechter conjectures that the author wrote _Sar ha-Panim_, the
+      Prince of the Presence, but the passages from Jubilees which he
+      quotes in support of this opinion are hardly convincing.
+
+   69 See Slavonic Enoch 42 5; cf. 9.
+
+   70 So far as may be argued from silence, this is an important
+      difference from Jubilees.
+
+   71 See 7 2; cf. Slavonic Enoch 50 4: “When you might have vengeance, do
+      not repay either your neighbor or your enemy. For God will repay as
+      your avenger in the day of the great judgment. Let it not be for you
+      to take vengeance.” (ed. Charles, p. 67); cf. Ecclus. 28 1.
+
+   72 That Zadok was the name of the “interpreter of the law,” the founder
+      of the sect, is a much less probable opinion; the name stands in no
+      connection with the origin of the sect or its legislation, but with
+      the bringing to light again of the Pentateuch. The author cannot
+      have supposed that the _written_ law remained unknown till the
+      second century B.C.; the reforms of Josiah, based on another
+      recovery of the book by Hilkiah, would preclude such a notion.
+
+   73 The coincidence of names does not count for very much. Abul-Fath
+      names two Samaritan “Zadokite” subsects among the later Dositheans
+      alone.
+
+   74 See Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, 1884, pp.
+      155 ff.; Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907, pp. 252 ff.
+
+   75 See also Epiphanius; the Sadducees were an offshoot from Dositheus.
+
+   76 Not in the time of Alexander the Great, as Dr. Schechter has from
+      Montgomery. Abul-Fath, indeed (and Adler’s Chronicle after him),
+      introduces this whole story before Alexander, and makes Simon a
+      protégé of Darius; but the testimony that Dositheus appeared after
+      the time of Hyrcanus, which, as a matter of Samaritan history, may
+      be conceived to rest on tradition, is not to be set aside because,
+      in fitting his Samaritan traditions into the framework of universal
+      history, Abul-Fath is in error by two or three centuries about the
+      date of Hyrcanus. This used to be understood; see, e.g., De Sacy,
+      Chrestomathie arabe, vol. ii (1806), p. 209.
+
+   77 Epiphanius avers, on the contrary, that the Dositheans kept their
+      festivals at the same time with the Jews.
+
+   78 See Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,
+      vol. i, pp. 437 ff., 517; Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und
+      technischen Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 170 f., 287. On the calendar of
+      Gaza, Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. ii, pp.
+      88 f.
+
+   79 We have experience of the inconvenience of this system in the
+      wandering of Easter and the Christian festivals dependent on it; a
+      reform by which Easter should come on a fixed date in the solar year
+      has repeatedly been proposed, and a movement is now on foot in
+      Europe to bring this about by agreement of governments and churches.
+
+   80 The year of 364-days is found also in Enoch 72-82, and (by the side
+      of the true solar year of 365-¼ and the lunar year of 354 days) in
+      the Slavonic Enoch. The intercalary days are introduced one at the
+      beginning of each quarter of the year (Enoch 75 1); this is also the
+      method in Jubilees; see 6 23. In effect this is equivalent to a year
+      in which eight months have thirty days and four—those in which the
+      equinoxes and solstices fall—have thirty-one (Enoch 72 13, 19). It
+      is not impossible that this system is implied in the chronology of
+      the flood in Genesis; see B. W. Bacon, Hebraica, vol. viii
+      (1891-1892), pp. 79-88, 124-139; Charles, Jubilees, p. 56.
+
+   81 This is not the place to discuss the value of Epiphanius’s
+      testimony. His description of the Scribes and Pharisees at least
+      admonishes to caution.
+
+   82 The text is certain enough, in the sense that all the manuscripts
+      hitherto collated have the same reading.
+
+   83 Nicetas, in reproducing Epiphanius’s account of the Dositheans, has
+      τεκνῶσαι, “after having begotten children,” which also agrees very
+      well with the context.
+
+   84 The familiar title of Porphyry’s book on vegetarianism, Περὶ ἀποχῆς
+      ἐμψύχων, will occur to every one. Epiphanius himself explains the
+      word in Haer. 18, 1, “they (Nasaraei) thought it unlawful to eat
+      meat.”
+
+   85 Haer. 9, 3; cf. 30, 2: “The Ebionites, like the Samaritans, avoid
+      touching an outsider.” A still more extreme fastidiousness on this
+      point is attributed by Josephus to the Essenes; cf. B. J. ii, 8, 10.
+
+   86 Photius, Bibliotheca Codicum, cod. 280 (ed. Bekker, p. 285).
+
+   87 The Kitab al-Anwār was published in 937, not 637, as by a misprint
+      on p. xviii.
+
+   88 Schechter’s translation, Introduction, p. xviii.
+
+   89 Schechter, p. xxxvii, n. 21.
+
+   90 Founder of a Jewish sect which arose in Persia about the end of the
+      seventh century.
+
+   91 On this point see above, p. 362.
+
+   92 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol.
+      xliv (1902). p. 162, n. 2.
+
+   93 Quoted by Poznanski, l. c., p. 170.
+
+   94 Harkavy attributed it conjecturally to Sahl ben Masliah; Poznanski,
+      whom Dr. Schechter follows, thinks it more likely that the author
+      was Hasan ben Mashiah.
+
+   95 As the Karaites do. See e.g. Mishna, Rosh ha-Shana, 1 7 ff., 2 1 f.
+
+   96 See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x (1898), pp. 159, 248,
+      273.
+
+   97 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol.
+      xliv, p. 176.—The point is that the “Zadokite” writings known to the
+      author said nothing about fixing the beginning of the month by
+      observation. Saadia doubtless based his assertion, not on anything
+      he found in “Zadokite” books, but on Rosh ha-Shanah 22 a-b.
+
+   98 Poznanski, l. c., p. 177; cf. also Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x,
+      pp. 246 ff.—Saadia probably means that “Zadok” argued from the fact
+      that the 150 days of Gen. 7 24, 8 3, make an even five months (7 11,
+      8 4), that each month had thirty days (cf. Jubilees 5 27), while for
+      the Karaites thirty days was only the extreme length of a lunar
+      month. See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, p. 241.
+
+   99 See above, p. 359 f.
+
+  100 In “Belial is let loose,” Mr. Margoliouth finds a witless pun on
+      Paul’s apostolic claims.
+
+  101 Mr. Margoliouth is led to the opinion that they were Boëthusians by
+      the obscure passage in 2 13, which he interprets, “in the
+      explanation of his name (sc. the Messiah’s) are also their
+      names,”—the name of the sect points mysteriously to the name of the
+      Messiah. “Now the Boëthusians derived their name from a priest named
+      Boëthus, and the meaning of βοηθὸς is the same as that of the Hebrew
+      name represented by Jesus. The inference would be that the section
+      of the Zadokite or Sadducees who adopted an attitude of belief
+      toward John the Baptist and Jesus were none other than the
+      Boëthusians (perhaps identical with the great company of believing
+      priests of Acts 6 7), who not unnaturally liked to dwell on the
+      identity of meaning between their names and that of the
+      Teacher.”—_Boëthos_, it may be remarked, is probably a Greek
+      equivalent for the name Ezra, not for Jeshua.
+
+  102 Mr. Margoliouth thinks that “the end of the destruction of the
+      land,” after which the migration to Damascus took place, “can hardly
+      be anything else than the completion of the Roman conquest in A.D.
+      70.” “At the end of the devastation of the land” means, however, not
+      when the destruction was complete, but when the period of desolation
+      was over. The phrase itself, therefore, is no more appropriate to
+      Titus than to Nebuchadnezzar—or to Hadrian. Mr. Margoliouth does not
+      say how he interprets the rest of the passage. Are the men who, at
+      the end of the devastation of the land, “removed the boundary and
+      led Israel astray,” the great rabbis of the generations after the
+      destruction of Jerusalem, and does the sequel, “and the land was
+      laid waste because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments
+      of God by Moses and against his holy Anointed one,” refer to the war
+      under Hadrian?
+
+  103 As has been noted above, _yāhīd_ is sometimes rendered in the Greek
+      Old Testament by μονογενής.
+
+  104 See above, p. 341.
+
+  105 The commandment to love one’s neighbor as himself, for example. In
+      the context of the covenant formula, in contrast to Jewish orthodoxy
+      no less than to Christianity, the neighbor is not the fellow man,
+      nor even the fellow Jew, but the fellow member of the schismatic
+      church.
+
+  106 See above, p. 334.
+
+  107 That the repentance of the people was brought about by the work of
+      “the root” is not suggested in any way in the text; on the contrary,
+      the only natural construction and interpretation of the passage
+      would make the penitent generation the same with that which is
+      called “the root.”
+
+  108 See above, p. 334.
+
+  109 Gressmann is sure that this “man of lies” must be Bar Coziba (Bar
+      Cocheba), the Messianic leader of the rebellion under Hadrian. He
+      might have added that the contrast to the true star out of Jacob,
+      the founder of the sect, would be peculiarly pertinent. The punning
+      etymology, “Say not ‘Star,’ but ‘liar’ ” (Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 2
+      2), is ascribed to the Patriarch Judah.
+
+  110 Perhaps the manuscripts may have been in the possession of some
+      Rabbanite controversialist in Egypt, and thus found their way, like
+      various Karaite writings, into the Genizah of the Synagogue.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect by George Foot Moore
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+Author: George Foot Moore
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [Ebook #31960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO 8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
+
+
+
+
+
+                       The Covenanters of Damascus;
+
+                      A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+                            George Foot Moore
+
+                            Harvard University
+
+                        Harvard Theological Review
+
+                              Vol. 4, No. 3
+
+                                July, 1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT
+
+
+Among the Hebrew manuscripts recovered in 1896 from the Genizah of an old
+synagogue at Fostat, near Cairo, and now in the Cambridge University
+Library, England, were found eight leaves of a Hebrew manuscript which
+proved to be fragments of a book containing the teaching of a peculiar
+Jewish sect; a single leaf of a second manuscript, in part parallel to the
+first, in part supplementing it, was also discovered. These texts
+Professor Schechter has now published, with a translation and commentary,
+in the first volume of his _Documents of Jewish Sectaries_.(1) The longer
+and older of the manuscripts (A) is, in the opinion of the editor,
+probably of the tenth century; the other (B), of the eleventh or twelfth.
+
+What remains of the book may be divided into two parts. Pages 1-8 of A,
+and the single leaf of B, contain exhortations and warnings addressed to
+members of the sect, for which a ground and motive are often sought in the
+history of the Jewish people or of the sect itself, together with severe
+strictures upon such as have lapsed from the sound teaching, and polemics
+against the doctrine and practice of other bodies of Jews. The second
+part, pages 9-16, sets forth the constitution and government of the
+community, and its distinctive interpretation and application of the
+law,--what may be called sectarian _halakah_.
+
+Neither part is complete; the manuscript is mutilated and defective at the
+end, there is apparently a gap between the first and second parts, and it
+may be questioned whether the original beginning of the work is preserved.
+The lack of methodical arrangement in the contents leads Dr. Schechter to
+surmise that what we have in our hands is only a compilation of extracts
+from a larger work, put together with little regard for completeness or
+order. An orderly disposition, according to our notions of order, is not,
+however, so constant a characteristic of Jewish literature as to make this
+inference very convincing.
+
+Manuscript A was evidently written by a negligent scribe, perhaps after a
+poor or badly preserved copy; B, which represents a somewhat different
+recension of the work, exhibits, so far as it goes, a superior text. When
+it is added that both manuscripts are in many places defaced or torn, it
+may be imagined that the decipherment and interpretation present serious
+difficulties, and that, after all the pains which Dr. Schechter has spent
+upon the task, many uncertainties remain. Facsimiles of a page of each
+manuscript are given; but in view of the condition of the text a
+photographic reproduction of the whole is indispensable.
+
+The legal part of the book, so far as the text is fairly well preserved,
+is not exceptionally difficult; the rules are in general clearly defined,
+and if in the peculiar institutions of the sect there are many things we
+do not fully understand, this is due more to the brevity with which its
+organization is described and to the mutilation of the text than to lack
+of clearness in the description itself. The attempt to make out something
+of the history and relations of the sect from the first part of the book
+is, on the other hand, beset by many difficulties. What history is found
+there is not told for the sake of history, but used to point admonitions
+or emphasize warnings; and, after the manner of the apocalyptic
+literature, historical persons and events are referred to in roundabout
+phrases which envelop them in an affected mystery. Even when such
+references are to chapters of the national history with which we are
+moderately well acquainted, as in the Assumption of Moses, c. 5, ff., for
+example, they may be to us baffling enigmas; much more when they have to
+do, as is in large part the case in our texts, with the wholly unknown
+internal or external history of a sect. The obscurity is increased by the
+fact that the allusions are often a tissue of fragmentary quotations or
+reminiscences out of the Old Testament, chosen and combined, it seems, by
+purely verbal association, or taken in an occult allegorical sense.(2) The
+allegories of which an interpretation is given, as when Amos 5 26 f. is
+applied to the emigration to Damascus and the institutions and laws of the
+sect, and Ezekiel 44 15 to the classes of the community, do not encourage
+us to think that we should be able to divine the meaning by our unaided
+intelligence. It is a fortunate circumstance that the writer comes back
+more than once to the salient events in the sect's history, for these
+repetitions of the same thing in different forms afford considerable help
+to the interpreter, so that the main facts may be made out with at least a
+considerable degree of probability.
+
+The principal seat of the sect was in the region of Damascus, where its
+adherents formed numerous communities. It was composed of Israelites who
+had migrated thither from Judaea; thither also had come "the interpreter
+of the law," the founder of the sect; there it had been organized by a
+covenant repeatedly referred to as "the new covenant in the land of
+Damascus." Many who entered into this new covenant at the beginning did
+not long remain true to it; the writer inveighs vehemently against those
+who fell away, accusing them not only of grave error, but of gross
+violations of the law; but this crisis had been passed, and when the book
+was written the community was apparently flourishing.
+
+The most coherent account of the origin of the sect is found on pages
+5-6:(3)
+
+
+    At the end of the devastation of the land arose men who removed
+    the boundary and led Israel astray; and the land was laid waste
+    because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments of God by
+    Moses and also against his holy Anointed,(4) and prophesied
+    falsehood to turn Israel back from following God. But God
+    remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he raised up
+    from Aaron discerning men and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+    them, and they dug the well. "The well, princes dug it, nobles of
+    the people delved it, with the legislator" (Numbers 21 18). The
+    well is the law, and they who dug it are the captivity of
+    Israel(5) who went forth from the land of Judah and sojourned in
+    the land of Damascus, all of whom God called princes because they
+    sought him.(6)... The legislator is the interpreter of the law, as
+    Isaiah said, "Bringing forth a tool for his work" (Isa. 54 16),
+    and the nobles of the people are those who came to delve the well
+    with the statutes which the legislator decreed that men should
+    walk in them in the complete end of wickedness; and besides these
+    they shall not obtain any (statutes) until the teacher of
+    righteousness shall arise in the last times.
+
+
+The migration is referred to in several other places: "The captivity of
+Israel, who migrated from the land of Judah" (4 2 f.);(7) "those who held
+firm made their escape to the northern land," by which the region of
+Damascus is meant (7 13 f.; cf. 7 15, 18 f.). The time of the migration is
+plainly indicated in the passage quoted above (5 20 ff.). The men who,
+after the end of the devastation of the land, "removed the boundary," and
+led Israel astray, speaking rebelliously against the commandments of God
+by Moses and against his holy Anointed, prophesying falsely to turn Israel
+away from following God, in consequence of which the land was laid waste,
+are most naturally taken for the hellenizing leaders of the Seleucid time.
+In this period, it seems that a number of Jews, including priests and
+levites, withdrew to the region of Damascus,(8) and there they
+subsequently bound themselves by covenant to live strictly in accordance
+with the law as defined by their legislator.
+
+With this the other allusions agree. Thus in A, p. 8 (= B, p. 19), at the
+end of a violent invective against the sinners, of whom it is said, "The
+princes of Judah are like those who remove the boundary," we read that
+"they separated not from the people [and their sins, B], but
+presumptuously broke through all restraints, walking in the way of the
+wicked (heathen), of whom God said, 'The venom of dragons is their wine,
+and the head of asps is cruel'(9) (Deut. 32 33). The dragons are the kings
+of the nations, and their wine means their ways, and the head of asps is
+the head of the Greek kings who came to inflict vengeance upon them." This
+again is most naturally understood of Antiochus Epiphanes; the calamities
+he brought on the Jews were a direct consequence of the course of the
+hellenizing party.(10)
+
+A definite date for these occurrences is given in 1 5 ff.: "When God's
+wrath was over, three hundred and ninety years after he gave them into the
+power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, he visited them, and caused to
+spring up from Israel and Aaron a root of his planting to inherit his land
+and to thrive on the good things of his earth. And they recognized their
+wickedness and knew that they were guilty men, and they were like blind
+men and like men groping their way for twenty years. And God took note of
+their deeds, that with perfect heart they sought him, and he raised up for
+them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the way of his heart."
+
+The "root" which God, mindful of his covenant, caused to spring up from
+Aaron and Israel is the men with whom the religious revival, or
+reformation, began, the forefathers of the sect (see 6 2 f., and below, p.
+375);(11) the "teacher of righteousness" is the "interpreter of the law
+who came to Damascus" (6 7 f., 7 18 f.). The dates refer therefore to the
+origin of the sect. Three hundred and ninety years from the taking of
+Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (597 or 586 B.C.) would bring us, by our
+chronology, to 207 or 196 B.C. The Jewish chronology of the Persian period
+is, however, always too long by from forty to seventy years,(12) and
+assuming, as it is fair to do, that our author made the same error, the
+three hundred ninety years would run out in the middle of the third
+century. Dr. Schechter suspects, with much probability, that the original
+reading was "_four_ hundred and ninety years," the common apocalyptic
+cycle (Dan. 9 2, 24; Enoch 89-90; 93, etc.). Making the same allowance for
+error, we should be brought again to a time not far removed from the
+punishment inflicted on the people by Antiochus Epiphanes (see above, p.
+333 f.).(13)
+
+There is nothing in the texts which demands a later date for the origin of
+the sect. The last event in the national history to which reference is
+made is the vengeance inflicted on the heathenizing rulers of the people
+by "the head of the Greek kings." To the misfortunes of the people in the
+following centuries, such as the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey or its
+destruction by Titus, there is no allusion. It may perhaps be inferred not
+only that the schism antedated these calamities, but that the book was
+written before them. In the author's frame of mind toward the religious
+leaders of Palestinian Jewry, he would have been likely to record such
+conspicuous judgments upon them. A comparison with the Assumption of Moses
+is instructive on this point. There the sweeping denunciation of the
+priesthood and the scribes, "their teachers in those times," and of the
+godless Asmonaean priest-kings, is followed by the well-deserved judgment
+inflicted on them by Herod, and after him comes Varus, burning part of the
+temple, crucifying, and carrying off into slavery. The second of the
+Psalms of Solomon may also be compared.
+
+The schismatic character of the sect would also be explained if it arose
+in an age when the character of the political and religious heads of the
+Jewish people was such as to move God-fearing and law-abiding men to
+repudiate them with all their ways and works. For it is not merely with a
+sect, differing from the mass of their fellows in certain opinions and
+practices, that we have to do, but with a schism. The Covenanters of
+Damascus are radical come-outers, seceders not only from the land of
+Judaea, but from established Judaism, on which they look much as the
+Puritan Separatists in the seventeenth century looked on the English
+Church; they might have taken to themselves the prophetic word so often in
+the mouth of the Puritan, "Depart ye, depart ye, go ye out from thence,
+touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the midst of her; be ye clean, ye
+that bear the vessels of the Lord" (Isa. 52 11), as they do apply to the
+religious teachers of the Jewish church the most violent invectives of the
+same prophet (50 11, 59 4 ff.; see below, p. 344 f.). They will not even
+call themselves Jews, they are Israelites who went forth from the land of
+Judaea; their Messiah is to spring from Aaron and Israel, not from Judah;
+when the final judgment comes in its appointed time, it will no longer be
+permitted to make compact with the house of Judah, but every man must
+stand in his own stronghold;(14) when the glory of God shines out on
+Israel, all the wicked of Judah shall be cut off, in the day of its trial
+by fire. They reject the temple in Jerusalem, and will not offer on its
+altar. If we consider that the Essenes, notwithstanding their wider
+divergence from the common type of Judaism, seem to have regarded
+themselves as within the pale of the church, and to have been so regarded
+by others--enjoying, indeed, with the people the reputation of peculiar
+sanctity--the schismatic character of our sect appears in a still stronger
+light.
+
+The language of the book is not inconsistent with the age to which the
+contents would seem to assign it. The vocabulary is in the main Biblical,
+but there are a number of words which otherwise occur only in the writings
+of the Mishnic age or later. Some of these belong to the technical
+terminology of the law schools, some of them appear to be peculiar to the
+sect. A few of the Biblical words also are used in later senses and
+applications. It is proper to bear in mind, however, that the Hebrew
+originals of the works with which it would be most natural to compare our
+text, such as Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve
+Patriarchs, the Gospel, are not preserved; in fact, between the last books
+of the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature of the second Christian
+century there is a hiatus in the history of the Hebrew language, so that
+words which appear for the first time in the Mishna and kindred works may
+have been, and in many cases probably were, in use much earlier. It is
+unnecessary therefore to suppose that such words were introduced into our
+texts by later scribes, though the possibility of such changes must of
+course be admitted. The particular instances in which Dr. Schechter thinks
+that late and foreign influences are most clearly to be recognized--the
+title of the "censor" and the peculiar name for a house of worship--are
+discussed elsewhere.(15) More remarkable than the vocabulary of the book
+is its syntax. The consecutive constructions of the perfect and the
+imperfect are regularly employed, not only in imitation of Biblical models
+in narrative and prophetic passages, but in the legal part of the book;
+and in spite of some irregularities, which may in part at least be laid to
+the charge of scribes, the use of these tenses is generally correct. In
+this respect the Hebrew of the book differs entirely from that of the
+Mishna and the contemporary and later Midrashim, in which the
+characteristic features of classical tense-syntax have entirely
+disappeared, under the influence, it is generally supposed, of the Aramaic
+vernacular. In comparison with these writings the vocabulary also is
+notably free from foreign admixture. There are no words borrowed from
+Greek and Latin, and only one or two instances where an Aramaic term seems
+to have been adopted. The orthography also, in its more sparing use of the
+semivowels to indicate the vowels _u_ and _i_, resembles that of the
+Bible.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+The founder of the sect is called the "teacher of righteousness" (1
+11),(16) "the only, or beloved, teacher" (20 14);(17) "the only one" (20
+32); he is "the legislator," that is, "the interpreter of the law" (6 7);
+and this interpreter of the law, who came to Damascus, is the star who,
+according to Balaam's prophecy, was to issue from Jacob (7 18 f.).(18) He
+showed them how to walk in the way of God's heart (1 11); as interpreter
+of the law he ordained them statutes to walk in till the end of
+wickedness--statutes which shall not be superseded by any others "until
+there arise the teacher of righteousness in the last days" (6 11 f.). To
+him, therefore, are attributed the distinctive principles and observances
+of the sect as they are set forth in this book. "His anointed," through
+whom God made known to men his holy spirit, and who is true (2 12 f.), is
+in all probability the same person with the teacher, the star, just as the
+anointed from Aaron and Israel who is to arise in the future (20 1) is the
+same as the teacher of righteousness to whose voice they will then listen
+(20 32; see below, p. 343).
+
+Those of the emigrants who accepted the guidance of the teacher of
+righteousness, the interpreter of the law, entered into the "new covenant
+in the land of Damascus" (6 19, 8 21, 19 33 f., 20 12). The idea of the
+"new covenant" was doubtless suggested by Jer. 31 31 ff. (cf. 32 36 ff.;
+Ezek. 37 26, etc.), where the establishment of the new covenant, in the
+stead of the old covenant which their fathers broke, marks the restoration
+of God's favor, the beginning of a new and better time. The same use of
+the passage in Jeremiah is made at length by the author of the Epistle to
+the Hebrews (8 6 ff.), The substance of the covenant may be gathered from
+6 11-7 5:
+
+
+    All who were brought into the covenant are not to enter into the
+    sanctuary to light its altar, but became closers of the door, as
+    God said, "Who among you will close its door?" and "Thou shalt not
+    light my altar in vain" (Mal. 1 10);(19) but shall observe to do
+    according to the interpretation of the law for the end of
+    wickedness, and to separate from the children of perdition, and to
+    keep aloof from unrighteous gain, which is unclean by vow and
+    ban,(20) and from the property of the sanctuary, and from robbing
+    the poor of the people and making widows their spoil and murdering
+    orphans; and to separate between the unclean and the clean, and to
+    show the difference between the holy and the common; and to
+    observe the Sabbath day as it is defined, and the season feasts,
+    and the fast-day, in accordance with the commandments of those who
+    entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus; to set
+    apart the sacred dues as they are defined; and that a man should
+    love his neighbor as himself, and sustain the poor and needy and
+    the proselyte, and to seek each the welfare of the other; and that
+    no man transgress the prohibited degrees, but guard against
+    fornication according to the rule; and that a man should reprove
+    his brother according to the commandment, and not bear a grudge
+    from day to day; and to separate from all forms of uncleanness
+    according to their several prescriptions; and that a man should
+    not defile his holy spirit, even as God separated for them (sc.
+    unclean from clean). All who walk in these precepts in perfection
+    of holiness, according to all the foundations of the covenant of
+    God,(21) have the assurance that they shall live a thousand
+    generations.
+
+
+Early in the history of the sect a serious defection occurred. Men who
+entered among the first into the covenant incurred guilt, like their
+forefathers, by following their sinful inclinations; they forsook the
+covenant of God and preferred their own will, and went about after the
+stubbornness of their heart, every man doing as he pleased (3 10 ff.); the
+men who entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus went back
+and proved false, and turned aside from the well of living waters (19 33
+f.). Their names were struck out of the registers of the sect, as were
+those of such as fell away in later times.
+
+We can readily imagine that many found the rule of the sect too strict and
+the discipline by which it was enforced too severe. Our texts, however,
+speak not of such occasional and individual lapses, but of the repudiation
+of the covenant by numbers at one time. It seems that another leader had
+arisen, of very different temper from the founder, who drew away many
+after him. In the eyes of those who remained steadfast in the faith, the
+new teacher was naturally a false prophet, a kind of antichrist. He is
+called the liar ("the man of lies," 20 15), the scoffer (1 14); his
+adherents are scoffers,(22) who uttered error about the righteous
+statutes, and spurned the covenant and plighted faith which they
+established in the land of Damascus, that is to say, the new covenant.
+They and their families shall have no portion in the house of the law (20
+10 ff.). For their unfaithfulness they were delivered to the sword (3 10
+ff.), until of all the men of war who went with the liar none was left (20
+14 ff.).(23) This came to pass about forty years after the death of the
+unique teacher (_l.c._). If the emigration to Damascus occurred under
+Antiochus Epiphanes,(24) the end of the episode of the false prophet would
+fall about the beginning of the first century B.C., and we should have at
+least an upper limit for the writing of the book. The passion which every
+mention of this defection arouses suggests that it was fresh in memory,
+and would incline us to date the writing not very long after the time
+indicated. It should be observed, however, that the sentence which counts
+forty years from the death of the unrivalled teacher to the end of the
+liar's army sits loose in the context, and may be a gloss, in which case
+the book might be some decades older.
+
+With the remnant who remained faithful through the great defection "God
+confirmed his covenant with Israel forever, revealing to them the secret
+of things in which all Israel was in error, his holy Sabbaths and his
+glorious festivals and his righteous testimonies and his true ways and the
+pleasure of his will, things which if a man do he shall live by them. He
+opened a way before them, and they dug a well for copious waters." "In the
+abundance of his wonderful grace he atoned for their guilt and forgave
+their transgression, and built for them a sure house in Israel, the like
+of which did not arise in times past nor until now" (3 12-20). The
+prediction of the sure house (1 Sam. 2 35) seems to be fulfilled in the
+stability of the sect itself, or perhaps, with closer adherence to the
+prophecy, in that of its faithful priesthood.
+
+So much may be gathered from the book about the origin and history of the
+sect. We turn now to its expectation. As a teacher of righteousness, an
+anointed one (priest), was the founder of the sect, so in the last times a
+teacher of righteousness, an anointed one, shall appear (6 10 f.). Those
+who proved faithless to the covenant are cut off from the community, "from
+the time when the unique teacher was taken away until the anointed one
+from Aaron and Israel shall arise" (19 35-20 1), that is, during the whole
+of the present dispensation. Dr. Schechter regards the anointed one who is
+to appear in the future as the founder of the sect _redivivus:_ the
+present dispensation "seems to be the period intervening between the
+_first_ appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness (p. 1, l. 11) (the
+founder of the Sect), who was gathered in or died,(25) and the second
+appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness who is to rise in 'the end of
+the days' (p. 6, l. 11). Moreover, the Only Teacher, or Teacher of
+Righteousness, is identical with the Messiah, or the Anointed one from
+Aaron and Israel, whose advent is expected by the Sect."(26) The texts,
+however, say nothing of the disappearance, or a second appearance, or
+reappearance, or return of the founder; nor do the words "until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last days," "until the
+anointed shall arise from Aaron and Israel," mean that he shall rise from
+the dead, as Dr. Schechter interprets them.(27) The Messiah whose advent
+the sect expects at the end of the present period of history is, as in the
+older parts of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, a priest; and the
+function of the priest-messiah is not, as in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
+to mediate between man and God, but to instruct men in righteousness, to
+guide them in the way of God's heart. That the founder of the sect also
+was both priest and teacher is by no means sufficient to establish the
+identity of the two figures. It was the office of the priest to teach
+Israel the law, "all the statutes which the Lord hath spoken unto them
+through Moses" (Lev. 10 11; cf. Deut. 33 10); "the priest's lips should
+keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth, for he is the
+messenger of the Lord of Hosts" (Mal. 2 7). Ezra is the type of a priest
+who had not only prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do
+it, but to teach in Israel statutes and judgments (Ezra 7 10); he was,
+according to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the restorer of Judaism. It
+was a departure from the ideal of the law itself that, when the priesthood
+showed itself unworthy of its calling, the teaching function was assumed
+by lay scribes, and even in later times there were many priestly teachers
+among the Scribes and among the Doctors. That our sect looks back to one
+such as its founder, and forward to another as the great teacher of the
+Messianic age, is in no way surprising. If the author had meant what Dr.
+Schechter thinks, it is fair to assume that he would have said it
+unmistakably; for the identity of the expected Messiah with the dead
+founder, if it was part of the belief of the sect, would of necessity be a
+singular and significant part of it.(28)
+
+The coming judgment of God is represented rather as a judgment on the
+faithless members of the sect, including those who have seceded from it or
+been expelled, than in its more general aspects. The long eschatological
+passage in B (20 15 to the end) is illegible in spots near the beginning,
+but the general tenor is clear:
+
+
+    In that consummation the anger of God will be inflamed against
+    Israel, as he said, "There is no king and no prince, and no judge
+    and none that reproves in righteousness" (cf. Hos. 3 4). Those who
+    turn from the transgression [of Jacob](29) and keep the covenant
+    of God will then confer with one another; their footsteps will be
+    firm in the way of God (and the prophecy will be fulfilled which
+    says), "And God hearkened to their words and heard, and a book of
+    remembrance was written before him for those that fear God and
+    think on his name" (Mal. 3 16), until deliverance and
+    righteousness emerge for those that fear God, "and ye shall return
+    and see the difference between righteous and wicked, and between a
+    servant of God and one who serves him not" (Mal. 3 18). And he
+    shows favor to those that love him and keep his commandments, for
+    a thousand generations....(30)
+
+    Each man according to his spirit, shall they be judged by his holy
+    counsel, and all who have broken through the bounds of the law, of
+    those who entered into the covenant, when the glory of God shines
+    out on Israel, shall be cut off from the midst of the camp, and
+    with them all the evil-doers of Judah, in the days when it is
+    tried in the fire. But all who held firmly by these precepts,
+    going out and coming in in conformity with the law, and listened
+    to the voice of the teacher, will confess(31) before God.... "We
+    have done evil, we, and our fathers also, when they went contrary
+    to the statutes of the covenant, and faithful are thy judgments
+    upon us." And they will not act presumptuously against his holy
+    statutes and his righteous judgment and his faithful testimonies.
+    They will be instructed in the ancient judgments by which the
+    followers of the unique one were judged, and will hearken to the
+    words of the teacher of righteousness. And they will not
+    controvert the righteous statutes when they hear them; they will
+    rejoice and be glad, and their heart will be strong, and they will
+    show themselves mighty against all the people of the world.(32)
+    And God will atone for them, and they will see his salvation with
+    joy, because they trusted in his holy name.
+
+
+Here the fragment ends. The destruction of those who fall away from the
+sect is threatened in other places; it will suffice to quote the most
+important (19 5 ff.):
+
+
+    Upon all those who reject the commandments and the statutes, the
+    deserts of the wicked shall be requited when God visits the earth,
+    when the word comes to pass which was written by Zechariah the
+    prophet, "Sword, awake against my shepherd and against the man
+    that is my fellow, saith God; smite the shepherd, and let the
+    sheep be scattered, and I will turn my hand against the little
+    ones" (Zech. 13 7). But those who observe it (sc. the obligations
+    of the covenant) are "the poor of the flock" (Zech. 11 7). These
+    shall escape at the end of the visitation, but the former (sc.
+    those who reject the commandments) shall be given over to the
+    sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel comes, as it was at
+    the end of the first visitation, of which God said by Ezekiel that
+    a mark should be made on the foreheads of them that sigh and cry,
+    and the rest were delivered to the sword that executes the
+    judgment of the covenant. And so shall the judgment be of all who
+    enter into his covenant and do not hold firmly by these statutes,
+    they shall be visited even with extermination by the hand of
+    Belial. This is the day in which God will visit, as he spoke, "The
+    princes of Judah are become like men who remove the boundary; on
+    them will I pour out my fury like water" (Hos. 5 10). For they
+    entered into the covenant of repentance, but did not turn aside
+    from the way of faithless men, and wallowed in ways of fornication
+    and in unrighteous gain, and avenging themselves and bearing a
+    grudge against one another.
+
+
+It is possible, of course, that the judgment of the heathen world, which
+looms so large in most of the apocalypses, may have had a place in parts
+of the book now lost, but if it had been a very important feature in the
+expectation of the sect we should hardly fail to find at least allusions
+to it in the pages in our hands. The author is almost exclusively
+interested in the sect itself, in the division which had rent it, and in
+polemics against laxer interpretations of the law. This limitation of the
+horizon is characteristically sectarian, and may suggest, moreover, as has
+been said above, that the writer is not far removed in time from the split
+in the new organization.
+
+The polemic is especially pointed against certain opponents who are
+described as "those who build a wall and plaster it with stucco" (4 19; 8
+12).(33) They follow a commandment (_sau_); probably connoting, as in
+Hosea 5 11, from which the phrase is taken, an arbitrary rule of their
+own, a commandment of men.(34) God hates them, his anger is kindled
+against them (8 18). These "builders" are false teachers; Biblical
+denunciations of the false prophets are applied to them. (See especially 8
+12 f.) Points in which their teaching is particularly assailed are that
+they allow polygamy and the remarriage of divorced persons during the life
+of the other party, and hold it lawful for a man to marry his niece; that
+they defile the sanctuary by the laxity of some of their rules and
+practice about sexual uncleanness; they presume blasphemously to impugn
+the "statutes of the covenant of God" (the legislation of the sect),
+declaring that they are not right, and saying abominable things about them
+(4 20-5 14). The positions so hotly denounced, especially in the matter of
+marriage and divorce, are those of the Palestinian rabbis as we know them
+in the Mishna and kindred works, and in so far as the Pharisees had a
+dominating influence in the schools of the law they may be regarded as in
+a peculiar sense the object of this invective, which is, however, sweeping
+enough to include all rabbinical Judaism. Such verses as Isaiah 50 11 and
+59 4 ff. are hurled at them; they are compared to Johanneh and his
+brother, whom Belial raised up against Moses (5 17 ff.).(35)
+
+The sect prohibited polygamy, which they stigmatized as fornication,
+arguing from the creation--"a male and a female created he them" (cf. Matt.
+19 4), and from the story of the flood--"by pairs they went into the ark,"
+and from the law which forbade the prince to multiply wives unto himself
+(Deut. 17 17), that is, as they understood it, to take more than one wife.
+To forestall an objection, it is added: "But David had not read in the
+sealed book of the law which was in the ark, for it was not opened in
+Israel from the time of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the elders who
+worshipped the Astartes, but was hidden and not brought to light until
+Zadok arose" (5 2-5; see below, p. 359).
+
+Marriage with another woman while a man had a divorced wife living was
+apparently put in the same category with having two wives at the same time
+(4 20 f.; cf. Matt. 5 31 f.). Marriage with a niece (brother's or sister's
+daughter) they treated as incest, reasoning that marriage between a woman
+and her uncle stood on all fours with marriage between a man and his aunt,
+which was expressly forbidden as within the prohibited degrees of
+kinship.(36) The three snares of Belial by which he ensnared Israel are
+fornication (that is, plural or incestuous unions), wealth (that is,
+unrighteous gain), and the pollution of the sanctuary (4 15 f.; cf. 5 6
+f.).(37)
+
+The same rigorous tendency which appears in the attitude of the sect in
+regard to marriage pervades the whole legal part of the work before us.
+The rules for the observance of the Sabbath (10 14-11 21) will make this
+clear.
+
+
+    Concerning the Sabbath, to keep it as it is prescribed.
+
+    1. On the sixth day no man shall do any work from the time when
+    the disk of the sun is distant from the western portal(38) by its
+    diameter (?); for this is what he said: Observe the Sabbath day to
+    hallow it.
+
+    2. On the Sabbath a man shall not engage in any foolish
+    conversation; and he shall not exact repayment from his neighbor;
+    nor shall he give judgment in matters of property; he shall not
+    talk about matters of work and labor to be done on the next day.
+
+    3. A man shall not walk in the country to do the work of his
+    business on the Sabbath. He shall not walk outside of his town
+    above one thousand(39) cubits.
+
+    4. No man shall eat on the Sabbath anything except what was
+    previously prepared or what is spoiling in the field. He shall not
+    eat or drink anything but what was in the camp. If he be on the
+    way and descend to bathe, he may drink as he stands, but must not
+    draw water in any vessel.(40)
+
+    5. He must not send a foreigner to do his business on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    6. A man must not put on soiled garments or such as are brought by
+    a gentile, without washing them in water or rubbing them with
+    frankincense.(41)
+
+    7. A man shall not exchange pledges(42) of his own accord on the
+    Sabbath.
+
+    8. A man shall not follow his cattle, to pasture them outside his
+    town, except within 2000 cubits. He shall not lift his arm to
+    strike them with his fist; if the animal is breachy, let him not
+    take her out of the house.
+
+    9. A man shall not take anything out of a house into the street,
+    nor bring anything from the street into the house; and if he be in
+    the entry, he shall not pass anything out of it or bring anything
+    into it.
+
+    10. He shall not open on the Sabbath a vessel the cover of which
+    has been luted on.
+
+    11. A man shall not carry on his person spices, going out or
+    coming in on the Sabbath.
+
+    12. Within a house he shall not lift stone nor earth on the
+    Sabbath day.
+
+    13. The nurse shall not carry an infant in arms, going out or
+    coming in with it on the Sabbath.
+
+    14. A man shall not deal harshly with his slave or his maid or his
+    hired servant on the Sabbath.
+
+    15. A man shall not deliver cattle of their young on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    16. If a beast fall into a cistern or trap, a man shall not lift
+    it out on the Sabbath.
+
+    17. A man shall not pass the Sabbath in a place near the gentiles.
+
+    18. A man shall not profane the Sabbath for the sake of gain.
+
+    19. If a human being fall into a tank of water or into a place of
+    ... no man shall fetch him up by means of a ladder or a rope or
+    any implement.
+
+    20. No man shall bring upon the altar on the Sabbath anything
+    except the Sabbath burnt-offerings, for so it is written, "aside
+    from your Sabbaths."
+
+
+The dietary laws afford other examples of the strict rules of the
+sect.(43) Fish may be eaten only if, while still alive, they have been
+split open and drained of their blood; grasshoppers and locusts must be
+put alive into the water or the fire (in which they are to be cooked);
+honey in the comb is apparently prohibited. So, again, in a house in which
+a death has occurred, fixtures, such as nails and pegs in the walls, are
+unclean; and wood, stone, and dust are capable of contracting and
+communicating various kinds of uncleanness (12 15-18). The sect sees in
+these stricter distinctions between clean and unclean the superiority of
+its ordinances over those of other Jews, whom they regard as sinfully lax.
+The Pharisees are to them gross latitudinarians!
+
+Oaths are to be taken only by the covenant and the curses of the covenant,
+that is, the vows by which the members of the sect bind themselves, on
+their admission to it, to live in conformity with its rule and submit to
+the authority of those set over them, and the curses invoked on such as
+violate these obligations.(44) Oaths by God, whether under the name _Aleph
+Lamed_ (_El_ or _Elohim_) or _Aleph Daleth (Adonai)_ are prohibited;(45)
+nor is it permissible to mention in the oath the law of Moses; the formula
+of the oath is strictly sectarian (15 1 ff.).(46) But, though the name of
+God is not used, "if a man swear and transgress the oath, he profanes the
+name" (15 3). Obligations voluntarily assumed under oath (vows) are to be
+fulfilled to the letter; neither redemption nor annulment seems to be
+allowed, unless to carry out the vow would be a transgression of the
+covenant.
+
+Another point in which the sect is at variance with the great body of the
+Jews is the calendar. They represent the faithful remnant to whom God
+revealed the mysteries about which all Israel went astray, his holy
+sabbaths and his glorious festivals, and his righteous testimonies, and
+his true ways (3 12 ff.). The point of this appears when it is compared
+with Jubilees 1 14: "They will forget my law and all my commandments and
+all my judgments, and will go astray as to new moons and sabbaths and
+festivals and jubilees and ordinances" (cf. 6 34 ff., 23 19). The texts
+before us do not explain what the peculiarities of the sectarian calendar
+were, but inasmuch as the Book of Jubilees, under the title "The Book of
+the Division of the Times by their Jubilees and their Sabbatical Years,"
+is cited as an authority for the exact determination of "their ends" (the
+coming crisis of history), it may be inferred with much probability that
+our sect had a calendar constructed on principles similar to that of the
+Jubilees,(47) in which the seasons and festivals were not determined by
+lunar observations or astronomical tables, as among the Jews generally,
+but had a fixed place in a solar year. Such upsetting of the calendar is
+branded as heresy in Midrash Tehillim on Ps. 28 5: "They do not regard the
+work of the Lord, nor the operation of his hands.... 'The operation of his
+hands' means the new moons; as it is said, 'God made the two great
+lights,' and it is written, 'He made the moon for festival seasons.'(48)
+These are the heretics who do not calculate (by the moon) the festival
+seasons and the equinoxes. 'He will tear them down and not build them up.'
+He will tear them down, in this world, and not build them up, in the world
+to come." Perhaps the Bo�thusians, who hired false witnesses to deceive
+the authorities about the appearance of the new moon, were not merely
+animated by a desire to harass the rabbis, but were partisans of some such
+calendar reform.
+
+The organization of the sect furnished it an effective means of enforcing
+its rules by discipline. This organization is so peculiar that it must be
+described in some detail. Like the normal Jewish community, it consists of
+three classes, priests, levites, and Israelites, to whom as a fourth class
+may be added proselytes. In this order they are mustered and inscribed in
+the rolls of the camp. In some sense all the members of the sect are
+priests. Ezekiel 44 15 is quoted and explained: " 'The priests and the
+levites and the sons of Zadok who kept the charge of his sanctuary'
+[_sic_]. The priests are the exiles of Israel who migrated from the land
+of Judah and [the levites are](49) those who attached themselves to them;
+and the sons of Zadok are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by
+name, who arose in the last days." Allegory apart, it appears that the
+priests were of the Zadokite line, but this legitimacy is assumed, not
+emphasized. Priests and levites formed part of every court of ten judges
+(see below, p. 351); and in every company of ten Israelites (the quorum of
+a religious assembly), a priest, well versed in the Book of
+Institutes,(50) must be present, to whose words all must conform. If the
+priest does not possess the requisite qualifications, and a competent
+levite is at hand, it shall be ordained that all who enter the camp shall
+go out and come in at his orders. In a case of leprosy the priest shall
+come and stand in the midst of the camp and the Supervisor shall instruct
+him in the interpretation of the law; even if the priest be an ignoramus,
+it is he who must shut up the leper, for the decision belongs to them (13
+1 ff.). To a priest is assigned also the duty of taking the census of the
+commonalty; he who fills this office must be between thirty and sixty
+years old, versed in the Book of [Institutes and] in all the prescriptions
+of the law, to pronounce them according to their prescriptions (14 3 ff.).
+
+A much more important place in the organization is filled by an officer
+whose title (_mebakker_) signifies "examiner," "inspector," and may
+perhaps best be rendered "Supervisor."(51) Every "camp," or settlement, of
+the sect had a Supervisor, and over these stood a "Supervisor of all the
+camps," who must be a man in the prime of life, between thirty and fifty
+years of age. To the Supervisor of the individual camp it belonged to
+instruct the community "in the works of God, and make them familiar with
+his wonderful deeds of might, and recount before them the things that
+happened long ago...; and he shall have compassion on them as a father
+toward his children (13 7 ff.)."(52) We have seen that he has even to
+instruct the priest in the rules for the diagnosis of leprosy.(53) The
+admission of new members to the sect is also in his hands; no one is
+permitted to introduce a man into the congregation without his consent. He
+examines the candidates in regard to their character and intelligence,
+their physical strength and courage, and their possessions, and enrolls
+each in his proper place in the lot(54) of the camp (13 11 ff.). From the
+following badly defaced lines so much at least can be made out, that the
+Supervisor had extensive powers of control over the dealings of members of
+the sect with outsiders in the way of trade. He evidently had also a
+leading part in the administration of justice and the enforcement of the
+discipline of the sect, but the state of the text here denies us insight
+into the particulars.
+
+Courts were constituted of ten members,(55) chosen _ad hoc_ from the
+congregation, four of the tribe of Levi and Aaron and six Israelites, all
+well versed in the Book of Institutes and in the Foundations of the
+Covenant, between twenty-five and sixty years of age. No man of more than
+sixty shall be a judge, "for on account of the unfaithfulness of mankind
+his days were shortened, and through the wrath of God on the inhabitants
+of the earth he bade to remove their understanding before they completed
+their days (10 4 ff.)." The rules relating to the competence of witnesses
+are strict. No one may testify against the accused in a capital case who
+is not a god-fearing man old enough to be included in the census (that is,
+at least twenty years of age, Exod. 30 14); nor shall a man's testimony be
+credited against his neighbor who is himself a wilful transgressor of any
+of the commandments, until he has come to repentance (9 23-10 3). A
+peculiar provision is made for the case that a single witness (on whose
+testimony therefore conviction could not be had) sees a capital offence
+committed. He is to make known the facts to the Supervisor, who records
+the testimony in writing. If subsequently the offence is committed again
+in the presence of another witness, the same process is repeated; on a
+second repetition, the testimony of the three single witnesses combined
+suffices for conviction (9 16 ff.).(56)
+
+Besides the penalties of the Mosaic law, the sect has a formidable means
+of discipline in expulsion, or as it is called "separation from the
+Purity," which may in some cases be inflicted even on the testimony of one
+witness (9 21 ff.). Josephus vividly depicts the desperate straits into
+which those came who, for grave offences, were expelled from the Essene
+order; being unable to eat food not prepared by members of the order, they
+were exposed to starvation. This particular consequence would not follow
+separation from our sect; but the lot of the excommunicated man was
+evidently hard enough. "When his deeds come to light he is to be expelled
+from the congregation, as though his lot had never fallen in the midst of
+the disciples of God; according to his misdeeds men shall bear him in
+remembrance ... until the day when he returns to take his place in the
+station of the men of perfect holiness. No man shall have any dealings
+with him in matters of property or work, for all the saints of the Most
+High have cursed him" (20 3 ff.); such have no part in the "house of the
+law"; their names are erased from the rolls of the congregation (20 10
+f.). They are not only cut off from the communion of saints in this world,
+but are doomed to extermination by the hand of Belial (8 1 f., 19 14 f.).
+One who leads men astray and profanes the Sabbath and the festivals shall
+not be put to death, but shall be committed to the custody of men;(57) if
+he is cured of his error, they shall keep him for seven years, and
+afterwards he may come into the assembly (12 3 ff.). A member of the sect
+who seduces others to apostasy is more severely dealt with: "A man over
+whom the spirits of Belial have rule,(58) and who advocates defection
+(Deut. 13 6), shall be judged according to the law of the necromancer and
+the wizard" (12 2 f.; cf. Deut. 18 9).(59)
+
+The sect possessed the Jewish Scriptures. The books of the law are "the
+hut of the King" (i.e. the congregation)--the fallen hut which God had
+promised to raise up; "the pillar of your images" are the books of the
+prophets, whose words Israel despised. The founder of the sect, the star
+out of Jacob, is the interpreter of the law who came to Damascus (7 14
+ff.). The authority of the Pentateuch is appealed to in support of the
+position of the sect in the matter of marriage and divorce; their peculiar
+statutes and ordinances are the true interpretation and application of the
+law of God. The prophets are frequently cited, and allusions to passages
+in the prophets or reminiscences of their phraseology are much more
+numerous. There are similar reminiscences of the Psalms and of the
+Proverbs, and perhaps of other books among the Hagiographa. As regards the
+Old Testament scriptures, therefore, the sect stood on common ground with
+Palestinian orthodoxy.(60) The formula of citation is peculiar; a
+quotation is usually introduced by the words "as he said," rarely "as God
+said"; or with the name of the sacred author, "as Moses said." Besides the
+Biblical books, we have a quotation from Levi--probably the Testament of
+that Patriarch--introduced by the same phrase as quotations from the Bible;
+and the reader is referred to the Book of Jubilees by name for an exact
+computation of the last times. There is nothing to indicate that the
+authority attributed to these writings was inferior to that of the
+Hagiographa. The canon of the "Scriptures" was not defined, even in the
+rabbinical schools, until the second century of our era, and in the sects
+many books enjoyed high esteem which the orthodox repudiated.(61)
+
+To a different class belong, apparently, the Book of Institutes, and the
+Foundations of the Covenant, in which the judges must be well versed. To
+every religious gathering of ten men or more belongs a priest well versed
+in the Book of Institutes. The title Foundations of the Covenant suggests
+a writing (or a fixed tradition) dealing with the obligations and duties
+of members of the sect. The name here rendered Book of Institutes, on the
+other hand, is obscure,(62) but the fact that a knowledge of it is
+demanded of the priest and of the judges makes it likely that it contained
+the "statutes and ordinances" of the sect, its peculiar definitions and
+interpretations of the law, often referred to as _perush_; in technical
+phrase, a collection of sectarian _halakoth_, such as is preserved in the
+second part of the texts before us, which seems to be derived from such a
+legal manual. The objection to committing _halakah_ to writing which was
+long maintained in the rabbinical schools was not shared by the sects, and
+would be least likely to exist where the ordinances were not in theory a
+traditional law handed down from remote antiquity, but were attributed to
+an individual interpreter, the founder of the sect.
+
+The sect had houses of worship, which a man in a state of uncleanness is
+forbidden to enter (11 22),(63) but nothing more is said about them,
+except that when the trumpets of the congregation are blown, the blowing
+shall follow or precede the service, and not interrupt it. It is a natural
+surmise that they answered to the synagogues both as places of worship and
+of religious instruction, such, for example, as the Supervisor is required
+to give. The name, _Beth hishtahawoth_, literally, "house of bowing down"
+(in worship), is peculiar, and may have been chosen to distinguish these
+sectarian conventicles from the synagogues of regular Judaism, as the
+English nonconformists of various stripes would not call their
+meeting-houses churches. It is possible that the prayers of the sect may
+have been accompanied by genuflections and prostrations such as, though
+unknown in the synagogue, have formed in all ages and religions a common
+feature of Oriental worship; but it is also possible that "bowing down"
+simply stands by metonymy for worship, as is often the case with the
+corresponding Syriac verb, _segad_.(64)
+
+Sacrificial worship was also maintained.(65) The City of the Sanctuary was
+eminently holy; sexual intercourse within its limits is forbidden,
+"defiling the City of the Sanctuary with their impurity"
+(_beniddatham_).(66) To this city, probably, the sacrifices were brought
+to which there is frequent reference. "No one shall send to the altar
+burnt offerings or oblation, frankincense or wood, by a man who is unclean
+with any of the forms of uncleanness; for it is written, the sacrifice of
+the wicked is an abomination, but the prayer of the righteous is an
+acceptable oblation" (11 18 ff.). On the Sabbath nothing is to be brought
+upon the altar except the Sabbath burnt offerings--that is, we may suppose,
+the stated daily burnt offerings with the supplementary Sabbath victims
+(13 17 f.; see Num. 28 1-10). Votive sacrifices are also mentioned; it is
+forbidden to vow to the altar anything that has been procured by
+compulsion; the priest shall refuse to receive such offerings (16 13 f.).
+There is nothing to indicate where this sanctuary was situated, further
+than the natural presumption that it was in the region of Damascus, where
+the sect had established itself. The priests have the precedence of all
+others in the community; in its registers their names are enrolled in the
+first rank. Their place in the courts and in the local religious
+community, and their duties in the examination of lepers, have already
+been mentioned. Those who officiated at the sanctuary had doubtless their
+legal toll from private sacrifices of every kind. Lost property for which
+no owner appears falls to the priests; a man who has appropriated such
+property shall confess to the priest, and all that he pays in restitution
+belongs to the priest, besides the ram of the trespass offering (9 13
+ff.).
+
+A charitable fund is provided by monthly payment of certain dues by
+members of the community to the Supervisor. From this fund relief is given
+by the judges to the poor and needy, to the aged, to the wanderer (?), to
+such as have fallen into captivity to foreigners, and others (14 12 ff.).
+
+The religious conceptions and beliefs of the sect present little that is
+peculiar. For God the name _El_ is consistently used, without any
+epithets. _Adonai_ is mentioned only to forbid its use in oaths. The only
+other name which occurs is the Most High (once, in the phrase "the saints
+of the Most High," that is, the members of the sect). There is repeated
+reference to the holy spirit: God, through his Anointed, made men know his
+holy spirit (2 12); the opponents of the sect, by blasphemous speech
+against the statutes of God's covenant, defiled their holy spirit (5
+11);(67) its members are warned not to defile his holy spirit by failing
+to observe the distinctions of clean and unclean which God has ordained (7
+3 f.).
+
+The "Prince of Lights (_Urim_)," through whom Moses and Aaron arise, is
+perhaps, as the contrast to Belial suggests, one of the highest
+angels.(68) The destroying angels execute God's inescapable judgment on
+those who turned out of the way and despised the statute (2 6). The fall
+of the Watchers, which is a favorite subject in the apocalyptic
+literature, is referred to in 2 18. The chief of the evil spirits is
+Belial: he is "let loose" during the whole of the present dispensation; he
+lays snares for men and entraps them, especially in the three sins of
+fornication, unrighteous gain, and the defilement of the sanctuary (4 15
+ff.); his spirits rule over men and lead them to apostasy (12 2 f.); he
+also exterminates the faithless in the day of God's visitation (8 1 f.).
+Another name for the devil is Mastema (the commoner name in Jubilees),
+equivalent to Satan, "the adversary." The angel of Mastema ceases to
+follow a man who resolves to return to the law of Moses (16 4 f.).
+According to Jubilees 10 8 f., 11 5, Mastema had permission from God to
+employ some of his evil spirits to corrupt men and lead them astray.
+
+Concerning the future life we read only that those who hold firmly to the
+law are "for eternal life,"(69) or, as it is elsewhere expressed, "have
+the assurance that they shall live a thousand generations." To a
+punishment of the wicked after death(70) or to a resurrection of the dead
+there is no allusion whatever.
+
+The moral teachings of the sect have been frequently touched upon above in
+speaking of their rules of life. Man is led into sin not only by the
+snares of Belial, but by his own sinful inclination and adulterous eyes (2
+16; seemingly the _yeser hara'_ of the rabbis). It was through these that
+the Watchers fell; by them the generation of the flood sinned, and the
+sons of Jacob, and their descendants in Egypt and in Canaan, and brought
+judgment upon themselves (2 14 ff.). We have seen that the sect insisted
+upon monogamy, and perhaps rejected divorce altogether. Particular
+emphasis is laid in several places on the commandments, "thou shalt not
+take vengeance nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people,"
+"thou shalt reprove thy neighbor and not bear sin because of him" (Lev. 19
+17, 18).(71) Thus, at the beginning of the legal part of the book, the
+delivery of a fellow Israelite to the gentiles so that he is condemned by
+their law is said to fall under this prohibition, and further, "any man of
+those who enter into the covenant who brings up against his neighbor a
+matter not in the nature of a reproof before witnesses, but which he
+brings up in anger, or tells it to his elders to bring the man into
+disrepute, he is one that takes vengeance and bears a grudge." It is
+forbidden also to exact of another an oath except in the presence of the
+judges; he who does so transgresses the law which forbids a man to take
+justice into his own hands. Every one who enters into the covenant pledges
+himself not only not to rob the poor and make widows his spoil, but to
+love his neighbor as himself, to seek the welfare of his fellow, and to
+sustain the poor and needy. As regards the relations of the members of the
+sect to gentiles, it is forbidden to shed the blood of a gentile or to
+take aught of their property, "in order to give them no occasion to
+blaspheme" (12 6 f.), that is, to prevent the profaning of God's name (15
+3), a motive frequently urged in similar connection in the rabbinical
+writings. On the other hand, no man may sell to gentiles clean animals or
+birds, lest they offer them in sacrifice, nor grain, nor wine--naught of
+his possessions; nor shall he sell to them his slave or maid servant who
+have come with him into the covenant of Abraham (12 9 ff.), He may not
+pass the Sabbath in the neighborhood of gentiles. They are unclean, and
+garments they may have handled require purification.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+No record of a schismatic body such as reveals itself in our texts is
+preserved in the early catalogues of Jewish heresies, nor have references
+to it been discovered in rabbinical sources. Like many sects, it exhibits
+the separatist inclination to outdo the orthodox in zeal for the letter
+and in strenuousness of practice, and it is not surprising that its
+interpretations of the law frequently agree with those of other
+strict-constructionists, such as Samaritans, Sadducees, Karaites; but
+these coincidences illustrate a common tendency rather than prove
+historical connection. The relation to the Book of Jubilees is, however,
+such as to show that there was some affinity between our sect and the
+circles in which that work originated. Jubilees is cited as authority on
+the last times; its calendar probably contains the secrets of God's holy
+sabbaths and glorious festivals about which all Israel was in error; the
+rules for the observance of the Sabbath in our book accord in many
+particulars with the injunctions in Jubilees 50 6 ff. (see also 2 26 ff.);
+and various other resemblances might be pointed out, such as the
+preference for the unornamented word God (in Jubilees, God, or the Lord),
+in contrast with the many mouth-filling periphrases in Enoch; the holy
+spirit in men; the name Mastema for the adversary instead of Satan; Belial
+who ensnares men, and the spirits of Belial which rule over sinners,
+besides others to which Dr. Schechter directs attention in his notes. The
+relation to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is less clear. The
+saying attributed to Levi (4 15) is not found in the Testament, and the
+other resemblances Dr. Schechter has noted are vague or belong to the
+commonplaces. The place of honor given to Judah in the Testaments, as we
+have them, is strikingly at variance with the attitude of our sect toward
+that tribe and its princes. The Levite Messiah of the Testaments is not
+precisely the same as the "Anointed from Aaron and Israel" in our book. In
+Jubilees also there are salient features, such as the more developed
+angelology and the form of the Messianic expectation, which hardly permit
+us to suppose that the book was a product of our sect, however highly it
+may have been esteemed by it.
+
+The sect gives especial honor to the sons of Zadok, the ancient priesthood
+of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezek. 44 15, 2 Chron. 31 10, Sirach 51 12
+Heb.); they are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by name, who
+arose in the latter times (4 3); it was Zadok who brought to light the
+Book of the Law which no one had seen since the death of Eleazar and
+Joshua (5 5). The context of the latter passage would suggest that Zadok
+the contemporary of David is meant, who after the deposition of Abiathar
+became Solomon's chief priest.(72) The precedence given to the sons of
+Zadok may possibly have a side reference to the illegitimate high priests
+of Seleucid creation, such as Menelaus, though, if this were the
+intention, we should expect it to be emphasized.
+
+The passages quoted are the only places in the book in which the name
+Zadok or the sons of Zadok appear, and they are certainly a very slender
+reason for describing the body which produced the book as a "Zadokite"
+sect, whatever meaning may be attached to the term. On the contrary, one
+of the outstanding things in the constitution of the sect is the
+predominance of the lay element. The Supervisor is a layman; laymen form
+the majority in every court; the Messiah is the "Anointed from Aaron _and
+Israel_." Whether the external testimony upon which Dr. Schechter relies
+for justification of the name is more adequate will be considered below.
+
+Zadok and the sons of Zadok suggest the Sadducees,(73) whose name,
+according to the most probable explanation, designates them as descendants
+(or followers and partisans) of Zadok. Here again it is a question whether
+Zadok of David's time is meant, so that the Sadducees were the Zadokite
+aristocracy of the priesthood, as most modern scholars think, or whether
+the name of the Sadducee sect is derived from a heresiarch of much later
+times, as the Jewish legend represents which makes Zadok, from whom the
+sect descends, a recalcitrant disciple of Antigonus of Socho, about the
+middle of the second century B.C., contemporary, if we rightly interpret
+our texts, with the origin of the sect we are studying.
+
+With the Sadducees, as we know them from the New Testament, Josephus, and
+rabbinical sources, our sect cannot well be identified. There is, however,
+a sect sometimes associated with the Sadducees, namely, the Dositheans, in
+whose teachings and customs Dr. Schechter finds such resemblances as lead
+him to surmise that the Dositheans were an offshoot of our sect. The
+accounts of the Dositheans in writers of different ages and religious
+connections, from Origen and Epiphanius down to the Samaritan Chronicler
+Abul-Fath and the Moslem heresiographer Shahrastani, are notoriously
+confused and contradictory,(74) so that many scholars have felt
+constrained to conclude that there was more than one sect of the name. The
+Fathers generally agree in describing the Dositheans as a Samaritan
+heresy, though Epiphanius and Philaster have it that the author of the
+heresy was by extraction a Jew. They frequently bring him into connection
+with Simon Magus, in the time of the Apostles. According to Origen, he
+gave himself out for the Messiah foretold by Moses; his followers had
+books of his, and legends pretending that he had not died, but was still
+alive somewhere. Other Fathers give no date for the rise of the heresy,
+but by coupling it with the Sadducees seem to imply that it was older than
+Christianity; thus (Pseudo)Tertullian (probably after Hippolytus)(75) says
+that Dositheus the Samaritan was the first to reject the prophets as not
+inspired; the Sadducees, springing from this root of error, ventured to
+deny the resurrection also. From this Philaster probably drew the
+inference that Zadok, the founder of the Sadducees, was a disciple of
+Dositheus. The Samaritan and Moslem authors agree with the Fathers in
+treating the Dositheans as a Samaritan sect. Abul-Fath, a Samaritan writer
+of the fourteenth century, puts the beginnings of the sect in the first
+century B.C., at the time when the yoke of the Jews had been broken by the
+kings of the gentiles, and the Samaritans were able to return and restore
+their sanctuary, which had been destroyed by Simon and John Hyrcanus.(76)
+The Moslem writer Shahrastani, in his learned work on Religious Sects and
+Philosophical Schools (first half of the twelfth century), gives
+substantially the same date: the founder of the Dositheans, who professed
+to be the prophet foretold by Moses, the star spoken of in the law,
+appeared about a century before Christ.
+
+In this state of the evidence it is obvious that no argument can be based
+on the coincidence in time between the origin of the Dositheans and that
+of our sect. When the Fathers bring the names of Dositheus and Zadok into
+conjunction, it means no more than that they attributed certain errors to
+both Dositheans and Sadducees; just as the Talmudic legend which makes
+Zadok and Bo�thus apostate disciples of Antigonus of Socho is but a
+mythological way of saying that Sadducees and Bo�thusians were addicted to
+the same heresies concerning retribution, or as the coupling of Dositheus
+and Simon Magus means that both passed for Samaritan arch-heretics.
+
+The first point of agreement between the Dositheans and our sect which Dr.
+Schechter notes is in the calendar. Abul-Fath says that the Dositheans did
+away with the computation of the almanac (tables of lunar conjunctions),
+making all their months exactly thirty days long, and (thus) annulled the
+correct festivals and the ordinance of the fasts and the affliction (Day
+of Atonement).(77) The circle of thirty disciples, who, with a woman
+called Helena (Moon), formed the train of Dositheus, according to the
+Clementine Recognitions (ii, 8) symbolized the days of the month. If our
+sect employed the calendar of the Book of Jubilees, as seems highly
+probable, they also had thirty-day months; but it would not follow that
+the system was original with them, nor that the Dositheans must have
+adopted it from them. There were, in fact, from very remote times, two
+years in use within the area of the ancient civilizations, a lunar-solar
+year, consisting of twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days
+each, with a thirteenth month added every two or three years to maintain
+approximate agreement with the solar year and make the months fall in the
+same seasons, and a solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days,
+divided into twelve months of thirty days each without regard to the
+lunations, and five extra days (_epagomenae_). The former was the system
+of the Babylonians and the Greeks, as well as the Jews; the latter was in
+use in Egypt from immemorial times until the Roman reforms. From the
+Egyptians it was borrowed by the Abyssinians; it was employed also for
+some centuries before and after the Christian era in the calendars of Gaza
+and Ashkelon. The Persians had the same system; the Yashts contain a
+liturgy for the thirty regents of the days of the month, the five extra
+days being assigned to the divine Gathas. Probably under Persian
+influences, this calendar was established in Armenia, Cappadocia, and
+other parts of Asia Minor.(78)
+
+Jews and Samaritans not only lived in many of the lands of their
+dispersion among peoples who used the thirty-day month, but encountered
+this calendar in commercial centres on the very borders of Palestine with
+which they had close relations. The advantages of a system in which the
+festivals came on fixed dates, instead of shifting within wide limits, as
+they must in the lunar-solar year with its irregular intercalation, are
+obvious,(79) and an attempt to reform the Jewish calendar accordingly may
+have been made more than once and in more than one region. The peculiarity
+of the system of the Book of Jubilees is not the uniform length of the
+months, but the admission of only _four_ extra days, thus making an even
+fifty-two weeks (364 days), which was of more concern to the author than
+the increased error of a whole day in the solar year.(80) We do not know
+whether the Dositheans of Abul-Fath and the Sadducees of Kirkisani (of
+whom later) agreed in this point with Jubilees, or counted _five_ extra
+days like the rest of the world. The former may be thought probable, but
+it cannot be assumed as certain. The year of 365 days is also found in the
+Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, c. 6.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius(81) on the Dositheans as saying, "some of
+them abstain from a second marriage, but others never marry"; and,
+although "the text is not quite certain on this point,"(82) is inclined to
+perceive in the statement "at least an echo of the law of our sect
+prohibiting a second marriage as long as the first wife is alive." The
+passage in Epiphanius is more than obscure, and the text is for that
+reason suspected. The passage runs: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+Whatever this may mean, it certainly is not, "some of them abstain from
+marriage after the death of their first wives," nor does anything in the
+context justify the large changes in the text which would be required to
+force this sense upon it. Casaubon's conjecture {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} has nothing to
+commend it. The simplest solution of the difficulty would be to write
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~},(83) "some of them refrain from marital relations after having
+lived together, others preserve their virginity." Whether this emendation
+is right or not, it is clear that Epiphanius describes his Dositheans as a
+kind of Encratite ascetics, while the prohibition of polygamy--whether
+contemporaneous or consecutive--by our sect has a totally different ground;
+of asceticism there is, indeed, no symptom in its ordinances.
+
+Dr. Schechter thinks that the statement of Epiphanius quoted above that
+the Dositheans "abstain from eating living creatures" "may have some
+connection with the law in our text on p. 12, l. 11, which may perhaps be
+understood to imply that the sect forbade honey, regarding it as _'eber
+min hahai_ (a limb cut off from a living animal), which would agree with
+the testimony of Abul-Fath that they forbade the eating of eggs, except
+those which were found in a slaughtered fowl." {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} does not
+mean "abstain from eating living creatures," but "abstain from animal
+food,"(84) while our sect certainly did not include vegetarianism among
+its eccentricities, any more than the depreciation of marriage.
+
+Several authors describe the Dositheans as extravagant sabbatarians.
+Origen reports that their rule was, that in whatever place and in whatever
+posture the Sabbath found a man, there and thus he was to remain till its
+end. Abul-Fath gives a longer account of their Sabbath laws, which are
+much stricter than those of our texts. It was forbidden, for example, to
+feed domestic animals or give them drink on the Sabbath, they were to be
+provided on Friday with enough provender and water to last them through
+the Sabbath. Extreme sabbatarianism is, however, a sectarian propensity
+which does not have to be borrowed.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius further as saying that the Dositheans
+"have no intercourse with all people because they detest all mankind," in
+which he thinks "we may readily recognize here the law of our Sect
+requiring the washing of the clothes when they were brought by a Gentile
+(because of the contamination), and the prohibition of staying over the
+Sabbath in the vicinity of Gentiles" (Introduction, pp. xxiii f.). What
+Epiphanius says is that the Dositheans agree with the rest of the
+Samaritans in the observance of circumcision and the Sabbath, and in
+avoiding contact with any one because they feel that all men (that is, all
+gentiles) are unclean. He had already described the customs of all the
+Samaritans: They wash themselves and their clothes in water when they come
+in contact with a foreigner; for they regard it as a defilement to come in
+contact with any one or even to touch a man of another religion.(85) It
+is, therefore, not a Dosithean peculiarity, but the general Samaritan
+usage which Epiphanius describes, and it is useless to search for remoter
+affinities.
+
+The marked hostility to the patriarch Judah with which Eulogius, the
+Patriarch of Alexandria (died 607 A.D.), charges Dositheus(86) is natural
+enough in a Samaritan heresiarch; in the same sentence Eulogius accuses
+him of scorning the prophets of God, which, again, is not peculiar to the
+Dositheans, but is the general Samaritan position. It has been remarked
+above (p. 353) that our sect gives especial honor to the books of the
+prophets "whose words Israel has despised"; and, however unfriendly the
+attitude of these seceders to the degenerate Judah of their time, there is
+no indication of animosity to the patriarch, as there is none in the
+Jubilees.
+
+From a much later time Dr. Schechter has gleaned some notices of a sect of
+"Zadokites" in whose tenets also he recognizes resemblances to those of
+our sect. Kirkisani, a Karaite author of the tenth century,(87) says:
+"Zadok was the first who exposed the Rabbanites and contradicted them
+publicly. He revealed a part of the truth, and composed books [a book] in
+which he frequently denounced the Rabbanites and criticised them. But he
+adduced no proof for anything he said, merely saying it by way of
+statement, except in one thing, namely, in his prohibition against
+marrying the daughter of the brother and the daughter of the sister. For
+he adduced as proof their being analogous to the paternal and maternal
+aunt."(88)
+
+This is a matter about which our sectaries are especially fierce in their
+denunciations of the laxity of the orthodox. The argument they employ is
+the same which Kirkisani attributes to Zadok. It is, however, the obvious
+argument, if the principle of analogy be admitted in the interpretation of
+the law; it is common in the Karaite books, and is ascribed to the
+Samaritans also.(89) Kirkisani also says that the Zadokites absolutely
+forbade divorce, which the Scripture permitted, agreeing in this with the
+Christians and with the Isawites, whose founders, Jesus and Obadiah of
+Ispahan,(90) had likewise forbidden it. We are not told expressly that our
+sect prohibited divorce, but their prohibition of remarriage during the
+life of the divorced wife would have the same effect. Finally, Kirkisani
+says that the Zadokites fixed all the months at thirty days each,(91) and
+that they did not count the Sabbath among the seven days of the
+celebration of the Passover and the Tabernacles, making the feast consist
+of seven days exclusive of the Sabbath. Substantially the same statements
+are made about the Zadokites by another Karaite author, Hadassi, who
+flourished in the middle of the twelfth century, and perhaps derived his
+information from Kirkisani.
+
+What the "Zadokite" writings really were to which these authors refer is
+not known. It is certain, however, that both the Karaites and their
+opponents took them to be Sadducean works. In the passage about Zadok,
+part of which Dr. Schechter quotes (see above), Kirkisani says: "After the
+appearance of the Rabbanites (the first of whom was Simeon the Just), the
+Sadducees appeared; their leaders were Zadok and Bo�thus.... Zadok was the
+first who exposed the Rabbanites," etc.(92) Zadok's disclosure of a part
+of truth was followed by the full discovery of the truth about the laws by
+Anan, the founder of the Karaites. Not only do the opponents of the
+Karaites stigmatize Anan and his followers as the remnants of the
+disciples of Zadok and Bo�thus, but the older Karaites expressly claim
+this origin. Thus Joseph al-Basir (first half of the eleventh century)
+says that, in the times of the second temple, the Rabbanites, who were
+then called Pharisees, had the upper hand, while the Karaites, then known
+as Sadducees, were less influential.(93) The Karaite author of an
+anonymous commentary on Exodus preserved in manuscript in St.
+Petersburg(94) polemizes against a disciple of Saadia, the great _Malleus
+Karaeorum_, about the proper way of determining the beginning of the
+months (and consequently the dates of the feasts), which the Rabbanites
+fixed by calculation of the conjunctions, while the Karaites depended on
+observation of the visible new moon. The ancients, he says, required
+evidence of the appearance of the new moon.(95) Saadia, who mistakenly
+assumed that the beginning of the month had been determined astronomically
+from remote antiquity--the calendar was, in fact, of Sinaitic
+origin(96)--asserted that the taking of testimony about the appearance of
+the moon was an innovation occasioned by the contention of Zadok and
+Bo�thus that the law required the beginning of the month to be determined
+by actual observation; witnesses were heard only to prove that observation
+confirmed the calculation. To this the author replies: "The book of the
+Zadokites (Sadducees) is well known, and there is no such thing in it as
+that man (Saadia) avers. In the book of Zadok are various things in which
+he dissents from the Rabbanites of the second temple with regard to
+sacrifices and other matters, but there is not a syllable of what the
+Fayyumite (Saadia) says."(97) Saadia himself appears not to have
+questioned the authenticity of the writings that went under the name of
+Zadok, with which he seems to have been acquainted, directly or
+indirectly, for in a passage quoted by Yefet ben 'Ali he says that Zadok
+had proved from the one hundred and fifty days in the story of the flood
+just the opposite of what the Karaites try to prove from them.(98)
+
+Zadokite books thus meant, for all those from whom our information comes,
+Sadducean books; and so, in the sense that, whatever their age and origin,
+they contained substantially Sadducean teachings, most modern scholars,
+also, have understood the name.
+
+The possibility that Sadducean writings from the beginning of the
+Christian era had survived to the Middle Ages cannot well be denied,
+especially in view of the preservation of the book of the unknown sect
+that forms the subject of our present study in copies as late as the tenth
+or eleventh century; and even if the book which the Karaites took for
+Sadducean was erroneously attributed to that sect, there is no sufficient
+ground for identifying it with the texts in our hands or for ascribing it
+to our sect. A thirty-day month, and the prohibition of divorce and of
+marriage with a niece, are much too slender a foundation to support so
+large an inference, and it is hardly legitimate to argue that if we had
+the entire book, of which only a part--or, according to Dr. Schechter,
+excerpts--is preserved, we might find other and more significant
+agreements.
+
+Dr. Schechter has also remarked certain coincidences between the tenets of
+our sect and those of the Falashas, or Abyssinian Jews, whom, with Beer,
+he is disposed to connect in some way with the Dositheans. Their Sabbath
+laws resemble those in the Jubilees and in the texts before us; they also
+prohibit marriage with a niece; they have a tradition that the Pentateuch
+was brought to Abyssinia by Azariah, the son of Zadok (1 Kings 4 2);
+certain features of their calendar may possibly be related to that of the
+Zadokites as described by Kirkisani. Here, again, the correspondences are
+not numerous or distinctive enough to establish an historical connection.
+
+Putting together these scattered indicia, Dr. Schechter arrives at a
+theory of the history and relations of the sect which must be given in his
+own words:--
+
+
+    We may, then, formulate our hypothesis that our text is
+    constituted of fragments forming extracts from a Zadok book, known
+    to us chiefly from the writings of Kirkisani. The Sect which it
+    represented, did not however pass for any length of time under the
+    name of Zadokites, but was soon in some way amalgamated with and
+    perhaps also absorbed by the Dosithean Sect, and made more
+    proselytes among the Samaritans than among the Jews, with which
+    former sect it had many points of similarity. In the course of
+    time, however, the Dosithean Sect also disappeared, and we have
+    only some traces left of them in the lingering sect of the
+    Falashas, with whom they probably came into close contact at an
+    early period of their (the Falashas') existence, and to whom they
+    handed down a good many of their practices. The only real
+    difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is, that according to our
+    Text the Sect had its original seat in Damascus, north of
+    Palestine, and it is difficult to see how they reached the
+    Dositheans, and subsequently the Falashas, who had their main
+    seats in the south of Palestine, or Egypt. But this could be
+    explained by assuming special missionary efforts on the part of
+    the Zadokites by sending their emissaries to Egypt, a country
+    which was especially favourable to such an enterprise because of
+    the existence of the Onias Temple there. The severance of the
+    Egyptian Jews from the Palestinian influence (though they did not
+    entirely give up their loyalty to the Jerusalem Sanctuary),
+    prepared the ground for the doctrines of such a Sect as the
+    Zadokites in which all allegiance to Judah and Jerusalem was
+    rejected, and in which the descendants of the House of Zadok (of
+    whom indeed Onias himself was one) represented both the Priest and
+    the Messiah.
+
+
+The evidence adduced in support of this ingenious hypothesis has already
+been examined in detail, and the results need only be summarized here:
+There is nothing in the book before us to warrant classing the men who
+made the new covenant in the land of Damascus as a Zadokite sect;(99)
+neither the external nor the internal evidence suffices to identify the
+work quoted by Kirkisani as Zadokite (by which he and all the rest
+understood Sadducean) with the book before us; the connection of the sect
+with the Dositheans rests in great part on misunderstanding of the
+testimonies about the Dositheans--misunderstandings, it is fair to say,
+which are not all original with Dr. Schechter,--in part upon points of
+resemblance which are not distinctive enough to prove anything. Of the
+peculiar organization of our sect, which would be conclusive, there is no
+trace anywhere.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+A much more sensational hypothesis was broached by Mr. G. Margoliouth in
+the _Athenaeum_ for November 26, 1910, under the title, "The Sadducean
+Christians of Damascus." He takes "the root" which God caused to spring
+from Israel and Aaron (1 7) for the same person who is subsequently called
+the Anointed one (Messiah), and distinguishes this figure from the Teacher
+of Righteousness, also called the Anointed one, who appeared twenty years
+later. "Both these Messiahs were dead when the document was composed, but
+they were both expected to reappear in the latter days."
+
+The first of them, the Messiah descended from Aaron and Israel, in
+consequence of whose work "they meditated over their sin, and knew that
+they were guilty men," is John the Baptist. John's father was a priest,
+and though his mother also is said to have been of priestly descent, "this
+need not stand in the way of believing that there was a strain of
+non-priestly Israelite blood in the family." The Sadducees would naturally
+prefer a priestly Messiah to a Davidic one, and, when John won the
+recognition of the people as a prophet sent by God, it would not be
+strange if a priestly party acclaimed him as in some sense a Messiah, or
+anointed leader of the nation.
+
+The other Messiah, the Teacher of Righteousness, must then be Jesus. That
+he appeared twenty years after John, so far from being an argument against
+this identification, would relieve the difficulty of trying to crowd
+John's whole history into little more than a year. "It is surely not
+necessary to defend the Lucan tradition on this point at all hazards, and
+it seems quite likely that the newly discovered document has at last given
+us the right perspective of events."
+
+If these identifications are correct, the "man of scoffing," or
+Belial,(100) who is sent to pervert the nation and turn it from the law,
+can be no other than the Apostle Paul, and it is noted for confirmation
+that "the period here assigned to his activity and that of his immediate
+following is about forty years, a space of time not far removed from the
+result of recent critical computation."
+
+The New Covenant so often referred to in the texts is clearly to be
+connected with the identical conception and expression in the New
+Testament, nor does it seem to be accidental that the Teacher of
+Righteousness is several times spoken of as the "only" or "unique" one.
+
+Mr. Margoliouth presents his complete hypothesis as follows:--
+
+
+    The natural and apparently inevitable conclusion of the whole
+    matter, therefore, is that we have here to deal with a primitive
+    Judaeo-Christian body of people which consisted of priests and
+    Levites belonging to the Bo�thusian section of the Sadducean
+    party,(101) fortified--as the document shows--by a considerable
+    Israelitish lay element, besides a real or contemplated admixture
+    of proselytes. They acknowledged, as we have seen, John the
+    Baptist, as a Messiah of the family of Aaron, and they also
+    believed in Jesus as a kind of second (or, perhaps, as
+    pre-eminent) Messiah whose special function it was to be a
+    "Teacher of Righteousness." Paul they abhorred; and they strove
+    with all their might to combine the full observance of the Mosaic
+    Law, as they understood it, with the principles of the "new
+    covenant," again as they understood it. On the destruction of the
+    Temple by Titus, finding that it would not serve any good purpose
+    to linger in Judaea, they determined to migrate to Damascus,(102)
+    intending to establish their central organization in that city,
+    and to found communities of the sect in different parts of the
+    neighboring country. It was at this juncture that the manifesto,
+    bearing as it does unmistakable marks of personal touch, was
+    composed by a leader of the movement.
+
+
+No scholar who has made an independent study of the texts published by Dr.
+Schechter can have failed to consider the question whether these
+schismatics, with their "unique teacher,"(103) their "new covenant," their
+"Supervisor," whose name and functions might be compared with those of a
+bishop {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, their loyalty to their dead leader, God's Anointed one
+(Messiah), who made them know his holy spirit, and their expectation of an
+Anointed one in the last times, their hostility to the Pharisees, can have
+been a Jewish Christian sect.
+
+The more closely the documents are examined, however, the less tenable
+this conjecture appears. One feature of the sectarian eschatology which,
+if established, would afford the most striking coincidence with early
+Christian belief, namely, that the Messiah who died in the early days of
+the sect is to "reappear" (Margoliouth), or "rise again" (Schechter), has
+no support whatever in the text.(104) The "new covenant" in the land of
+Damascus is plainly the obligation by which the members of the sect bind
+themselves to the organization, with its peculiar interpretations of the
+law and its distinctive observances. Neither in the terms of the covenant
+nor in the law itself is there anything that suggests Christian origin or
+influence. That "a man should love his neighbor as himself" is not
+peculiarly or even pre�minently a Christian precept. The Testaments of the
+Twelve Patriarchs reiterate it; by the most orthodox rabbis it was
+recognized as the most comprehensive commandment in the law.
+
+The things which the sect esteems of vital importance lie wholly in the
+sphere of the law; polemic zeal for a code which is at every point more
+rigorous than that of the Pharisees is the salient characteristic of both
+parts of the book. The moral precepts are the commonplaces of Judaism
+narrowed to a sectarian horizon.(105) The judgment of God is similarly
+circumscribed. It is not a judgment of the world or of the Jewish people,
+but of those who reject and controvert the legal interpretation of the
+sect, and of those who have fallen away from it.
+
+The code of law which is the constituent principle of the sect and the
+reason for its existence was given it by its founder, the Teacher of
+Righteousness. This unique teacher was not a prophetic reformer, but "the
+interpreter of the law who came to Damascus," "the legislator." The
+statutes he decreed are final; the sect "shall receive no others until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last times."
+
+Mr. Margoliouth thinks that the "teacher of righteousness" to whom the
+sect attributed its institutions and laws was Jesus. The statement of this
+conjecture is its refutation. The r�le of a legislator is the last which
+the character and teaching of Jesus in the Gospels would suggest even to a
+sect in search of a founder. That he, whose disregard for the Pharisaic
+rules of Sabbath observance repeatedly got him into trouble, should,
+within a generation after his death, have been metamorphosed into the
+author of the sabbatical code in our texts, which out-pharisees the
+Pharisees at every point, surpasses ordinary powers of imagination. The
+Christian Jews of the first century in Palestine, so far as we know
+anything about them, conformed in the matter of observance to the
+authority of the scribes and Pharisees, and alleged the express command of
+Jesus for this practice (Matt. 23 2). Early Christian heresies sometimes
+exhibit ascetic features reminding us of the Essenes; but none of
+ultra-legalistic tendency is known.
+
+As our sect is very zealous for things which have no connection with
+Christianity, so on the other hand the texts disclose no trace of specific
+Christian beliefs or conceptions. For the Christian Jews of the first
+century, the belief that Jesus, who had been crucified under Pontius
+Pilate, was the Messiah of prophecy, that he had risen from the dead and
+ascended to heaven, whence he was presently to come in might and majesty,
+according to the vision of Daniel, to usher in the new era, was the pith
+and substance of their faith, the "heresy" by which they were separated
+from their countrymen, the focus of their polemic and apologetic in
+controversies with those who rejected their Messiah. It is impossible to
+imagine a writing as long as this, and imbued as strongly as this with a
+controversial spirit, proceeding from any Christian sect, in which there
+should not be so much as an allusion to any of these things; or that a
+sect which put John the Baptist in so high a place should not make
+something of baptism in the admission of members.
+
+Apart from these general considerations, Mr. Margoliouth's identifications
+rest upon a palpable misinterpretation. On page 1 we read: "But because
+God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, he left Israel a
+remnant, and did not suffer them to be exterminated. And at the end of
+wrath ... he visited them and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a
+root of his planting _to inherit his land and to prosper on the good
+things of his earth_." The italicized clauses prove beyond question that
+the "root" is not an individual, but is a collective designation for the
+first generation of the sect.(106) The parallel passage on p. 5 says
+explicitly: "God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he
+raised up from Aaron men of insight and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+them, and they dug the well." "The well is the law, and they who dug it
+are the exiles of Israel who migrated to Judah and sojourned in the land
+of Damascus." In the face of this perfectly plain meaning of the passage
+Mr. Margoliouth takes "the root" for the person designated in other places
+as "the Anointed from Aaron and Israel," who led the people "to recognize
+their wickedness and know that they were guilty men."(107) In this first
+Messiah he recognizes John the Baptist, and, consequently, in the Teacher
+of Righteousness who came after him, Jesus. The point of correspondence is
+the relation between the forerunner and his successor. The text, however,
+as I have just showed, says nothing of a precursor of the teacher of
+righteousness; on the contrary, it was this teacher who first brought
+light to the generation which in the consciousness of its sin was groping
+like the blind, and guided them in the way of God's heart.(108)
+
+That by the "man of scoffing" the Apostle Paul is meant is for Mr.
+Margoliouth a corollary of the preceding identifications, and falls with
+them. The enemies of Paul were doubtless capable of calling him all sorts
+of hard names, but there is nothing in the epithets "scorner" and "liar,"
+or in the doings attributed to this figure, which fits Paul better than
+any other false teacher and sower of discord, while the reference to the
+fate of the men of war who followed the "man of lies" seems quite
+inapplicable to Paul.(109)
+
+That we should be unable to identify the Covenanters of Damascus with any
+sect previously known is not surprising. The three or four centuries in
+the middle of which the Christian era falls were prolific in sects and
+heresies of many complexions, as were the centuries following the rise of
+Islam. Through Philo, Josephus, the church Fathers, and the Talmud, we are
+acquainted with some of them; but it is probable that there were many
+others of which no reports have reached us. If we cannot, out of the
+collection at our disposal, put a label on our Covenanters, we may console
+ourselves with the reflection that here we know one Jewish sect from its
+own monuments, and that the texts in our hands, mutilated as they are,
+suffice to give us a much clearer notion of its peculiarities than we get
+of most of the other sects from the descriptions which have come down to
+us.
+
+Its affinities with various antipharisaic or antirabbinical parties, such
+as the Samaritans, the Sadducees, and, in later times, the Karaites, is
+obvious. It shared with all these a zeal for the letter and the literal
+interpretation, and a disposition to extend the law by analogy of
+principle, as a result of which their rules were in general much stricter
+than those of the Rabbis, who possessed in the theory of tradition and in
+their methods of exegesis the means of adapting the law to changed
+conditions, and who were also more disposed to give the precedence to the
+great principles of humanity in the law over its particular prescriptions
+when the two seemed to conflict. The organization of the sect, on the
+other hand, has no parallel within our knowledge. In view of the use of
+the name "camps" for the local communities, and the references to the
+"mustering" of the members, the "trumpets of the congregation," and the
+like, it may be surmised that the organization of Israel in the wilderness
+suggested the plan, and that the Supervisors were meant to correspond to
+the chiefs of the tribes (for instance, Num. 1 10), each having authority
+over a separate camp.
+
+The sect seems to have perpetuated itself for a considerable time,
+otherwise this book would hardly have been preserved. It may perhaps be
+conjectured that it survived long enough to be gathered, along with
+numerous younger sects, into the capacious bosom of Karaism, of which it
+was in various points a precursor. Such an hypothesis would explain how it
+came about that copies of the book were made in the tenth century and
+later, we should then suppose by Karaite scribes.(110)
+
+Dr. Schechter has laid all students of Judaism under new obligations by
+the discovery and publication of these texts. They will join with their
+congratulations the hope that he may find yet other treasures among the
+accumulations of the Genizah.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 Documents of Jewish Sectaries. Volume I. Fragments of a Zadokite
+      Work. Edited, with Translation, Introduction, and Notes, by S.
+      Schechter. Cambridge University Press. 1910.
+
+    2 It may be added that the quotations are singularly inexact.
+
+    3 In my translation I have sometimes thought it possible to adhere to
+      the text where Dr. Schechter has preferred a conjectural emendation.
+
+    4 That is, probably, against the legitimate high priest of the time
+      (perhaps Onias).--The rendering "_by_ his Anointed" is grammatically
+      admissible, but would be unintelligible in this context.
+
+    5 It would be possible to render "the penitents of Israel."
+
+    6 The four or five words which follow are unintelligible.
+
+    7 The references are to page and line of the Hebrew text.
+
+    8 Others sought refuge in Egypt; the temple of Onias at Leontopolis
+      had its origin in the same circumstances.
+
+    9 So they understood the words translated in the English version "the
+      cruel venom of asps."
+
+   10 See 2 Macc. 4 16: "By reason of which (sc. their predilection for
+      Greek ways) a dire calamity befel them, and those for whose customs
+      they displayed such zeal and whom they wanted to imitate in
+      everything became their enemies and avengers." Assumption of Moses,
+      5 1: "When the times of retribution shall draw near, and vengeance
+      arises through kings who share their guilt and punish them," etc.,
+      describes the same situation.
+
+   11 Cf. "the whole race of the elect root," Enoch 93 8.
+
+   12 See Sch�rer, Geschichte des j�dischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. iii. p.
+      189.
+
+   13 A comparison with the Apocalypse of the Ten Weeks in Enoch (93 + 91
+      12-17) is in point here. The sixth "week" (period of 490 years) ends
+      with the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar; in the seventh
+      a rebellious generation arises, all whose works are apostasy (the
+      hellenizers of the Seleucid time); at its end the "chosen righteous
+      men of the eternal plantation of righteousness" are chosen to
+      receive the sevenfold instruction about God's whole creation
+      (apparently the cosmological revelations of Enoch); the historical
+      retrospect closes before the robbery and desecration of the temple
+      by Antiochus Epiphanes (170, 168 B.C.), of which the seer knows
+      nothing. The chronological error here amounts to sixty or seventy
+      years.
+
+      In the Introduction, p. xii, by a typographical error which is
+      repeated on p. xxii, Dr. Schechter says that the 390 years of the
+      text would bring us "to within a generation of Simon the Just, who
+      flourished about 290 B.C.," and twenty years more would bring us
+      into the midst of the hellenistic persecutions preceding the
+      Maccabaean revolt (about 170 B.C.). Margoliouth, whose hypothesis
+      490 does not suit any better than 390, takes courage from
+      Schechter's doubts to disregard the numbers altogether. Gressmann
+      (Internationale Wochenschrift, March 4, 1911) is led by metrical
+      considerations to treat all the chronological notices as
+      interpolations, and gives them no further consideration. But even if
+      the figures were introduced by a later hand, they may still
+      represent the tradition of the sect.
+
+   14 Perhaps we should emend _ma'mado_, "station," i.e. sect.
+
+   15 See below, p. 350, 354 f.
+
+   16 Cf. Isa. 30 20 f.
+
+   17 The Septuagint renders _yahid_ most frequently by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, less
+      often by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+   18 The same prophecy which was applied by Akiba to Bar Cocheba and by
+      the Dositheans to their founder (see below, p. 362).
+
+   19 The sect rejects the temple in Jerusalem and its worship. Cf. 20 21
+      f., in the last crisis, "they will lean upon God ... and will
+      declare the sanctuary unclean and will return to God."
+
+   20 Perhaps better, keep aloof, by vow and ban, from unrighteous,
+      unclean gain.
+
+   21 See below, p. 353.
+
+   22 The name comes from Isa. 28 14, where the scorners are the rulers in
+      Jerusalem, who boast of their covenant with death and their compact
+      with hell, who have made lies their refuge and hidden themselves in
+      falsehood. See also Isa. 29 20.
+
+   23 It might be surmised that the false prophet had headed an
+      insurrection--perhaps a Messianic rising--which ended in disaster.
+
+   24 See above, p. 333.
+
+   25 Or, as Schechter elsewhere expresses it, "disappeared." Among the
+      synonyms for death, Aaron ben Eliahu names "gather in" (Isa. 58 8).
+
+   26 Introduction, p. xiii.
+
+   27 P. xiii. "We gather from another passage that the Only Teacher found
+      his death in Damascus, but is expected to rise again (p. 19, l. 35;
+      p. 20, l. 1; cf. also p. 6, l. 11)." The verb _'amad_ means, as
+      frequently in the later books of the Old Testament, "appear upon the
+      scene." In this sense it occurs repeatedly in the book before us,
+      and there is nothing in the context here to suggest a different
+      interpretation.
+
+   28 Cf. Acts 1 11.
+
+   29 See Isa. 59 20.
+
+   30 The quotation is to be thus restored; see Exod. 20 6 and Deut. 7 9.
+      The next two or three lines are very obscure: "From the house of
+      Peleg, who went out (or, will go out) from the city of the
+      sanctuary, and they will rely on God (cf. Isa. 10 20) when the
+      transgression of Israel is at an end, and will declare the sanctuary
+      unclean, and will return to God. The prince (?) of the people with
+      few words (??)." The house of Peleg may be an etymological allegory
+      for the seceders; the city of the sanctuary is probably Jerusalem
+      (cf. 6 11 ff., above, p. 338); but neither the connection with the
+      preceding nor the meaning of the sequel is clear.
+
+   31 Text, "and confessed," which leaves the sentence without a
+      predicate.
+
+   32 See also 7 20: "The sceptre" (Num. 24 17) "is the prince of all the
+      congregation; and when he arises he will destroy all the children of
+      Seth."
+
+   33 It is not improbable that the author thought also of the other
+      meaning of the word _taphel_, here rendered "stucco," viz. something
+      insipid, stupid; cf. Lam. 2 14, in a passage which, like Ezek. 13
+      10, refers to the false prophets. I see nothing to indicate that
+      "the wall" is the fence or hedge which the Pharisaean rabbis drew
+      around the law to protect it from infraction, as Dr. Schechter
+      thinks.
+
+   34 The text explains, "this is the prater of whom it says, they prate
+      unceasingly" (4 19 f.; cf. Mic. 2 11). Dr. Schechter regards this
+      explanation as "a disturbing parenthesis."
+
+   35 The Jannes and Jambres of 2 Tim. 3 8.
+
+   36 Such marriages, especially with a sister's daughter, are not only
+      permitted, but especially commended in the Talmud (Yebamoth 62b-63a;
+      see Maimonides, Issure Biah 2 14), and are still common in countries
+      where the Jews are free to follow the rabbinical law. On the Karaite
+      prohibition of marriage with a niece, see below, p. 366.
+
+   37 On the pollution of the sanctuary, cf. Assumption of Moses 5 3;
+      Testament of Levi 14 5 ff.; Psalms of Solomon 2 3.
+
+   38 On the portals of the sun, see Enoch 72, etc.
+
+   39 Perhaps an error of the text for 2000; see below, � 8.
+
+   40 Cf. Jubilees 50 8.
+
+   41 This holds on week-days as well as on the Sabbath.
+
+   42 Perhaps we should read, "make an '_erub_' " (a legal fiction by
+      which dwellings or limits were treated as one). The Sadducees and
+      Samaritans rejected this evasion of the law.
+
+   43 See 12 12 ff.
+
+   44 Similarly the Essenes, at their reception into the order, bound
+      themselves by the "tremendous oaths" which Josephus describes, B. J.
+      ii, 8 7.
+
+   45 The oath by the Tetragrammaton included _a fortiori_.
+
+   46 The Essenes excluded oaths altogether, except in the initiation of
+      members. See also Slavonic Enoch 49 1; Philo, De spec. legibus ii,
+      1, and elsewhere (Charles, Secrets of Enoch, p. 65). Our sect
+      recognizes judicial oaths (9 8 ff.) and imprecations (9 12), as well
+      as vows under oath (16 6 ff.).
+
+   47 On the relation of the Jubilees to the sect, see further below, p.
+      359.
+
+   48 Cf. Jubilees 2 9, God appointed the sun ... for sabbaths, and
+      months, and feasts; and Jubilees 6 37, the observation of the moon
+      disturbs the calendar.
+
+   49 It seems necessary to supply these words.
+
+   50 "The book of _hagu_." The rendering "Institutes" is not offered as a
+      translation of the name, but as indicating the probable character of
+      the work. See below, p. 353 f.
+
+   51 Dr. Schechter renders "Censor," and remarks, "Such an office,
+      entirely unknown to Judaism, could only have been borrowed from the
+      Romans." But the functions of the Inspector or Supervisor bear no
+      resemblance to those of the Roman censors; and for the identity of
+      the title the translator is solely accountable, not the constitution
+      of the sect. Mr. Margoliouth talks loosely about dependence on Roman
+      administrative models; it would be interesting to learn in what
+      particulars. With the very large authority vested in the Supervisor
+      may be compared that of the managers, or administrators
+      ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}), among the Essenes, "without whose directions they do
+      nothing"; though the functions of the managers in the Essene
+      coenobite establishments were of course quite different from those
+      of the Supervisors of our sect.
+
+   52 In the partly illegible lines that follow, his dealing with the
+      congregation is compared with that of a shepherd with his flock.--Dr.
+      W. H. Ward suggests that the title _mebakker_ may be connected with
+      Ezek. 34 11 f., where the verb is used of a shepherd's looking out
+      for his flock.
+
+   53 As in Mishna _Yoma_ the High Priest has to be instructed by experts
+      in the ritual of the Day of Atonement, and made to swear not to
+      depart from his instructions.
+
+   54 Probably the lands belonging to the sect.
+
+   55 That a court must consist of ten judges, the Karaites deduce from
+      Ruth 4 2. So Anan quoted by Poznanski, Revue des �tudes juives, vol.
+      xlv, p. 67, and p. 69, n. 1.
+
+   56 This seems to be the meaning of the somewhat obscure passage.
+
+   57 It is not clear whether imprisonment or surveillance is meant.
+
+   58 On the spirit of Belial (ruling over Israel) see Jubilees 1 20.
+
+   59 "Rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft," 1 Sam. 15 23.
+
+   60 In contrast to the Samaritans.
+
+   61 In 8 18 ff., after saying, "Such will be the judgment of every one
+      who despises the commandments of God, and he forsook them and they
+      turned away in the stubbornness of their heart," A adds: "This is
+      the word which Jeremiah spoke to Baruch the son of Neriah and Elisha
+      to his servant Gehazi," referring probably to otherwise unknown
+      apocryphal books. Johanneh and his brother, whom Belial raised up
+      against Moses, are familiar figures of Jewish legend.
+
+   62 The simplest explanation of the form would be to take it as an
+      abstract noun of the type _fa'l_, like _s�hu_; "swimming" or _fi'l,
+      fu'l,_ like _s�ku_ (n. pr.), _t�hu_, _b�hu_, etc., from the verb
+      _hagah_ (root _hagw_), "reflect, give thought to something," also
+      "read" (aloud), so that the noun might literally mean "study,"
+      equivalent to _midrash_, or perhaps "reading."--If the opinion which
+      connects the sect with the Dositheans were tenable (see below, p.
+      360 ff.), another explanation of the name might be suggested by a
+      passage in Abul-Fath's account of the origin of the Dositheans. He
+      narrates that a son of the Samaritan high priest, named Zar'ah, a
+      man pre�minent for learning in his time, having been expelled from
+      the community for immorality, betook himself to Dositheus, who made
+      him the chief of his sect. This man "wrote a book in which he
+      vituperated all the Samaritan religious heads and set forth
+      heresies." The words are, _haja fihi kul al' a'immetin wa'abda'a
+      fihi_. Inasmuch as the Arabic _hajwun_ formally corresponds to the
+      Hebrew _hagu_, the Book of _Hagu_ in our texts might be identified
+      with this controversial writing of Zar'ah, the disciple of
+      Dositheus. The Hebrew verb _hagah_ is thought by Kohut (Aruch
+      Completum, III, 177) to occur in Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 1 4 and 3 33
+      in the sense "contemn, deride," equivalent to the Arabic _haja_,
+      "lampoon, vituperate." It might then be conjectured that Abul-Fath
+      had heard of a Dosithean book of _hagu_ (in Hebrew) and, taking the
+      word in its Arabic meaning, evolved his description of the character
+      of the work from this etymology.
+
+   63 Some Karaite authorities, also, transferring to the synagogue the
+      holiness of the temple, forbade a man in a state of uncleanness to
+      enter the inner room of the synagogue (Nissi; see Winter und
+      W�nsche, Die j�dische Litteratur, vol. ii, p. 74).
+
+   64 The coincidence of the name with the Arabic _masjid_, "place of
+      bowing down," mosque, is hardly a sufficient reason for suspecting
+      Moslem influence, as Dr. Schechter does, who thinks it possible that
+      the word was introduced by a later (Falasha?) scribe as a substitute
+      for the original term.--Elia Bashiatzi (Adereth Eliahu, p. 58), a
+      Karaite writer of the 15th century, gives _Beth hishtahawiya,_
+      together with _Beth hakeneseth_ and _Beth hamidrash_, as the three
+      names of the place of worship. Moslem influence can here hardly be
+      questioned; in a later chapter Elia describes the postures of prayer
+      quite after the Moslem pattern, alleging Biblical authority for all
+      of them.
+
+   65 The opinion that after Josiah's reform, or after the restoration of
+      the temple by Zerubbabel and Joshua, Jerusalem was the only place
+      where Jewish sacrifices were offered is refuted by an accumulating
+      volume of evidence from various regions. See D. S. Margoliouth,
+      Expositor, 1911, pp. 40 ff.
+
+   66 Cf. the accusation against the orthodox Jews (5 6): "They defile the
+      Sanctuary in that they do not separate according to the law,"
+      etc.--It is possible that the prohibition quoted above applied, not
+      to the inhabitants of the city, but to persons who visited it for
+      the purpose of worship, as is the rule for pilgrims to Mecca.
+
+   67 The holy spirit in them. Dr. Schechter adduces parallels in Jewish
+      writings. Cf. Jubilees 1 21, 23, "Create in them a clean heart and a
+      holy spirit."
+
+   68 Dr. Schechter conjectures that the author wrote _Sar ha-Panim_, the
+      Prince of the Presence, but the passages from Jubilees which he
+      quotes in support of this opinion are hardly convincing.
+
+   69 See Slavonic Enoch 42 5; cf. 9.
+
+   70 So far as may be argued from silence, this is an important
+      difference from Jubilees.
+
+   71 See 7 2; cf. Slavonic Enoch 50 4: "When you might have vengeance, do
+      not repay either your neighbor or your enemy. For God will repay as
+      your avenger in the day of the great judgment. Let it not be for you
+      to take vengeance." (ed. Charles, p. 67); cf. Ecclus. 28 1.
+
+   72 That Zadok was the name of the "interpreter of the law," the founder
+      of the sect, is a much less probable opinion; the name stands in no
+      connection with the origin of the sect or its legislation, but with
+      the bringing to light again of the Pentateuch. The author cannot
+      have supposed that the _written_ law remained unknown till the
+      second century B.C.; the reforms of Josiah, based on another
+      recovery of the book by Hilkiah, would preclude such a notion.
+
+   73 The coincidence of names does not count for very much. Abul-Fath
+      names two Samaritan "Zadokite" subsects among the later Dositheans
+      alone.
+
+   74 See Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, 1884, pp.
+      155 ff.; Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907, pp. 252 ff.
+
+   75 See also Epiphanius; the Sadducees were an offshoot from Dositheus.
+
+   76 Not in the time of Alexander the Great, as Dr. Schechter has from
+      Montgomery. Abul-Fath, indeed (and Adler's Chronicle after him),
+      introduces this whole story before Alexander, and makes Simon a
+      prot�g� of Darius; but the testimony that Dositheus appeared after
+      the time of Hyrcanus, which, as a matter of Samaritan history, may
+      be conceived to rest on tradition, is not to be set aside because,
+      in fitting his Samaritan traditions into the framework of universal
+      history, Abul-Fath is in error by two or three centuries about the
+      date of Hyrcanus. This used to be understood; see, e.g., De Sacy,
+      Chrestomathie arabe, vol. ii (1806), p. 209.
+
+   77 Epiphanius avers, on the contrary, that the Dositheans kept their
+      festivals at the same time with the Jews.
+
+   78 See Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,
+      vol. i, pp. 437 ff., 517; Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und
+      technischen Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 170 f., 287. On the calendar of
+      Gaza, Sch�rer, Geschichte des j�dischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. ii, pp.
+      88 f.
+
+   79 We have experience of the inconvenience of this system in the
+      wandering of Easter and the Christian festivals dependent on it; a
+      reform by which Easter should come on a fixed date in the solar year
+      has repeatedly been proposed, and a movement is now on foot in
+      Europe to bring this about by agreement of governments and churches.
+
+   80 The year of 364-days is found also in Enoch 72-82, and (by the side
+      of the true solar year of 365-� and the lunar year of 354 days) in
+      the Slavonic Enoch. The intercalary days are introduced one at the
+      beginning of each quarter of the year (Enoch 75 1); this is also the
+      method in Jubilees; see 6 23. In effect this is equivalent to a year
+      in which eight months have thirty days and four--those in which the
+      equinoxes and solstices fall--have thirty-one (Enoch 72 13, 19). It
+      is not impossible that this system is implied in the chronology of
+      the flood in Genesis; see B. W. Bacon, Hebraica, vol. viii
+      (1891-1892), pp. 79-88, 124-139; Charles, Jubilees, p. 56.
+
+   81 This is not the place to discuss the value of Epiphanius's
+      testimony. His description of the Scribes and Pharisees at least
+      admonishes to caution.
+
+   82 The text is certain enough, in the sense that all the manuscripts
+      hitherto collated have the same reading.
+
+   83 Nicetas, in reproducing Epiphanius's account of the Dositheans, has
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, "after having begotten children," which also agrees very
+      well with the context.
+
+   84 The familiar title of Porphyry's book on vegetarianism, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, will occur to every one. Epiphanius himself explains the
+      word in Haer. 18, 1, "they (Nasaraei) thought it unlawful to eat
+      meat."
+
+   85 Haer. 9, 3; cf. 30, 2: "The Ebionites, like the Samaritans, avoid
+      touching an outsider." A still more extreme fastidiousness on this
+      point is attributed by Josephus to the Essenes; cf. B. J. ii, 8, 10.
+
+   86 Photius, Bibliotheca Codicum, cod. 280 (ed. Bekker, p. 285).
+
+   87 The Kitab al-Anwar was published in 937, not 637, as by a misprint
+      on p. xviii.
+
+   88 Schechter's translation, Introduction, p. xviii.
+
+   89 Schechter, p. xxxvii, n. 21.
+
+   90 Founder of a Jewish sect which arose in Persia about the end of the
+      seventh century.
+
+   91 On this point see above, p. 362.
+
+   92 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des �tudes juives, vol.
+      xliv (1902). p. 162, n. 2.
+
+   93 Quoted by Poznanski, l. c., p. 170.
+
+   94 Harkavy attributed it conjecturally to Sahl ben Masliah; Poznanski,
+      whom Dr. Schechter follows, thinks it more likely that the author
+      was Hasan ben Mashiah.
+
+   95 As the Karaites do. See e.g. Mishna, Rosh ha-Shana, 1 7 ff., 2 1 f.
+
+   96 See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x (1898), pp. 159, 248,
+      273.
+
+   97 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des �tudes juives, vol.
+      xliv, p. 176.--The point is that the "Zadokite" writings known to the
+      author said nothing about fixing the beginning of the month by
+      observation. Saadia doubtless based his assertion, not on anything
+      he found in "Zadokite" books, but on Rosh ha-Shanah 22 a-b.
+
+   98 Poznanski, l. c., p. 177; cf. also Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x,
+      pp. 246 ff.--Saadia probably means that "Zadok" argued from the fact
+      that the 150 days of Gen. 7 24, 8 3, make an even five months (7 11,
+      8 4), that each month had thirty days (cf. Jubilees 5 27), while for
+      the Karaites thirty days was only the extreme length of a lunar
+      month. See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, p. 241.
+
+   99 See above, p. 359 f.
+
+  100 In "Belial is let loose," Mr. Margoliouth finds a witless pun on
+      Paul's apostolic claims.
+
+  101 Mr. Margoliouth is led to the opinion that they were Bo�thusians by
+      the obscure passage in 2 13, which he interprets, "in the
+      explanation of his name (sc. the Messiah's) are also their
+      names,"--the name of the sect points mysteriously to the name of the
+      Messiah. "Now the Bo�thusians derived their name from a priest named
+      Bo�thus, and the meaning of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} is the same as that of the Hebrew
+      name represented by Jesus. The inference would be that the section
+      of the Zadokite or Sadducees who adopted an attitude of belief
+      toward John the Baptist and Jesus were none other than the
+      Bo�thusians (perhaps identical with the great company of believing
+      priests of Acts 6 7), who not unnaturally liked to dwell on the
+      identity of meaning between their names and that of the
+      Teacher."--_Bo�thos_, it may be remarked, is probably a Greek
+      equivalent for the name Ezra, not for Jeshua.
+
+  102 Mr. Margoliouth thinks that "the end of the destruction of the
+      land," after which the migration to Damascus took place, "can hardly
+      be anything else than the completion of the Roman conquest in A.D.
+      70." "At the end of the devastation of the land" means, however, not
+      when the destruction was complete, but when the period of desolation
+      was over. The phrase itself, therefore, is no more appropriate to
+      Titus than to Nebuchadnezzar--or to Hadrian. Mr. Margoliouth does not
+      say how he interprets the rest of the passage. Are the men who, at
+      the end of the devastation of the land, "removed the boundary and
+      led Israel astray," the great rabbis of the generations after the
+      destruction of Jerusalem, and does the sequel, "and the land was
+      laid waste because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments
+      of God by Moses and against his holy Anointed one," refer to the war
+      under Hadrian?
+
+  103 As has been noted above, _yahid_ is sometimes rendered in the Greek
+      Old Testament by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+  104 See above, p. 341.
+
+  105 The commandment to love one's neighbor as himself, for example. In
+      the context of the covenant formula, in contrast to Jewish orthodoxy
+      no less than to Christianity, the neighbor is not the fellow man,
+      nor even the fellow Jew, but the fellow member of the schismatic
+      church.
+
+  106 See above, p. 334.
+
+  107 That the repentance of the people was brought about by the work of
+      "the root" is not suggested in any way in the text; on the contrary,
+      the only natural construction and interpretation of the passage
+      would make the penitent generation the same with that which is
+      called "the root."
+
+  108 See above, p. 334.
+
+  109 Gressmann is sure that this "man of lies" must be Bar Coziba (Bar
+      Cocheba), the Messianic leader of the rebellion under Hadrian. He
+      might have added that the contrast to the true star out of Jacob,
+      the founder of the sect, would be peculiarly pertinent. The punning
+      etymology, "Say not 'Star,' but 'liar' " (Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 2
+      2), is ascribed to the Patriarch Judah.
+
+  110 Perhaps the manuscripts may have been in the possession of some
+      Rabbanite controversialist in Egypt, and thus found their way, like
+      various Karaite writings, into the Genizah of the Synagogue.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
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+  <div class="tei tei-front" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 2.00em">
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <div id="pgheader" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em">The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect by George Foot Moore</p></div><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost
+          and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it,
+          give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project
+          Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this
+          eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+Author: George Foot Moore
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [Ebook #31960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
+</pre></div>
+    </div>
+    <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      
+    </div>
+
+    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Covenanters of Damascus;</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">George Foot Moore</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Harvard University</span></p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Harvard Theological Review</p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Vol. 4, No. 3</p>
+      <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">July, 1911</p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+      <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>
+      <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Footnotes</a></li></ul>
+    </div>
+
+  </div>
+<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a>
+<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>
+<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect</span></h1>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Among the Hebrew manuscripts recovered in 1896 from the
+Genizah of an old synagogue at Fostat, near Cairo, and now in
+the Cambridge University Library, England, were found eight
+leaves of a Hebrew manuscript which proved to be fragments of
+a book containing the teaching of a peculiar Jewish sect; a single
+leaf of a second manuscript, in part parallel to the first, in part
+supplementing it, was also discovered. These texts Professor
+Schechter has now published, with a translation and commentary,
+in the first volume of his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Documents of Jewish
+Sectaries</span></span>.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a>
+The longer and older of the manuscripts (A) is, in the opinion
+of the editor, probably of the tenth century; the other (B), of
+the eleventh or twelfth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What remains of the book may be divided into two parts.
+Pages 1-8 of A, and the single leaf of B, contain exhortations and
+warnings addressed to members of the sect, for which a ground
+and motive are often sought in the history of the Jewish people
+or of the sect itself, together with severe strictures upon such as
+have lapsed from the sound teaching, and polemics against the
+doctrine and practice of other bodies of Jews. The second part,
+pages 9-16, sets forth the constitution and government of the
+community, and its distinctive interpretation and application of
+the law,—what may be called sectarian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">halakah</span></span>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Neither part is complete; the manuscript is mutilated and
+defective at the end, there is apparently a gap between the first
+and second parts, and it may be questioned whether the original
+beginning of the work is preserved. The lack of methodical
+arrangement in the contents leads Dr. Schechter to surmise that
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+what we have in our hands is only a compilation of extracts from
+a larger work, put together with little regard for completeness or
+order. An orderly disposition, according to our notions of order,
+is not, however, so constant a characteristic of Jewish literature
+as to make this inference very convincing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Manuscript A was evidently written by a negligent scribe,
+perhaps after a poor or badly preserved copy; B, which represents
+a somewhat different recension of the work, exhibits, so far as it
+goes, a superior text. When it is added that both manuscripts
+are in many places defaced or torn, it may be imagined that the
+decipherment and interpretation present serious difficulties, and
+that, after all the pains which Dr. Schechter has spent upon the
+task, many uncertainties remain. Facsimiles of a page of each
+manuscript are given; but in view of the condition of the text a
+photographic reproduction of the whole is indispensable.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The legal part of the book, so far as the text is fairly well preserved,
+is not exceptionally difficult; the rules are in general
+clearly defined, and if in the peculiar institutions of the sect there
+are many things we do not fully understand, this is due more to
+the brevity with which its organization is described and to the
+mutilation of the text than to lack of clearness in the description
+itself. The attempt to make out something of the history and
+relations of the sect from the first part of the book is, on the other
+hand, beset by many difficulties. What history is found there
+is not told for the sake of history, but used to point admonitions
+or emphasize warnings; and, after the manner of the apocalyptic
+literature, historical persons and events are referred to in roundabout
+phrases which envelop them in an affected mystery. Even
+when such references are to chapters of the national history with
+which we are moderately well acquainted, as in the Assumption of
+Moses, c. 5, ff., for example, they may be to us baffling enigmas;
+much more when they have to do, as is in large part the case in
+our texts, with the wholly unknown internal or external history of
+a sect. The obscurity is increased by the fact that the allusions
+are often a tissue of fragmentary quotations or reminiscences out
+of the Old Testament, chosen and combined, it seems, by purely
+verbal association, or taken in an occult allegorical sense.<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> The
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+allegories of which an interpretation is given, as when Amos 5 26 f.
+is applied to the emigration to Damascus and the institutions
+and laws of the sect, and Ezekiel 44 15 to the classes of the
+community, do not encourage us to think that we should be able
+to divine the meaning by our unaided intelligence. It is a fortunate
+circumstance that the writer comes back more than once to
+the salient events in the sect's history, for these repetitions of the
+same thing in different forms afford considerable help to the interpreter,
+so that the main facts may be made out with at least
+a considerable degree of probability.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The principal seat of the sect was in the region of Damascus,
+where its adherents formed numerous communities. It was
+composed of Israelites who had migrated thither from Judaea;
+thither also had come <span class="tei tei-q">“the interpreter of the law,”</span> the founder
+of the sect; there it had been organized by a covenant repeatedly
+referred to as <span class="tei tei-q">“the new covenant in the land of Damascus.”</span>
+Many who entered into this new covenant at the beginning did
+not long remain true to it; the writer inveighs vehemently
+against those who fell away, accusing them not only of grave
+error, but of gross violations of the law; but this crisis had been
+passed, and when the book was written the community was
+apparently flourishing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The most coherent account of the origin of the sect is found
+on pages 5-6:<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+At the end of the devastation of the land arose men who removed
+the boundary and led Israel astray; and the land was laid waste because
+they spoke rebelliously against the commandments of God by Moses and
+also against his holy Anointed,</span><a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> and prophesied falsehood to turn Israel
+back from following God. But God remembered the covenant with the
+forefathers, and he raised up from Aaron discerning men and from Israel
+wise men, and he heard them, and they dug the well. </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The well, princes
+dug it, nobles of the people delved it, with the legislator</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Numbers 21 18).
+The well is the law, and they who dug it are the captivity of Israel</span><a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+who went forth from the land of Judah and sojourned in the land of
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+Damascus, all of whom God called princes because they sought him.</span><a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">...
+The legislator is the interpreter of the law, as Isaiah said, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Bringing forth
+a tool for his work</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Isa. 54 16), and the nobles of the people are those
+who came to delve the well with the statutes which the legislator decreed
+that men should walk in them in the complete end of wickedness; and
+besides these they shall not obtain any (statutes) until the teacher of
+righteousness shall arise in the last times.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The migration is referred to in several other places: <span class="tei tei-q">“The
+captivity of Israel, who migrated from the land of Judah”</span>
+(4 2 f.);<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“those who held firm made their escape to the northern
+land,”</span> by which the region of Damascus is meant (7 13 f.; cf.
+7 15, 18 f.). The time of the migration is plainly indicated in
+the passage quoted above (5 20 ff.). The men who, after the
+end of the devastation of the land, <span class="tei tei-q">“removed the boundary,”</span>
+and led Israel astray, speaking rebelliously against the commandments
+of God by Moses and against his holy Anointed, prophesying
+falsely to turn Israel away from following God, in consequence
+of which the land was laid waste, are most naturally
+taken for the hellenizing leaders of the Seleucid time. In this
+period, it seems that a number of Jews, including priests and
+levites, withdrew to the region of Damascus,<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> and there they
+subsequently bound themselves by covenant to live strictly in
+accordance with the law as defined by their legislator.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+With this the other allusions agree. Thus in A, p. 8 (= B, p.
+19), at the end of a violent invective against the sinners, of whom
+it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">“The princes of Judah are like those who remove the
+boundary,”</span> we read that <span class="tei tei-q">“they separated not from the people
+[and their sins, B], but presumptuously broke through all restraints,
+walking in the way of the wicked (heathen), of whom
+God said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘The venom of dragons is their wine, and the head
+of asps is cruel’</span><a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> (Deut. 32 33). The dragons are the kings of the
+nations, and their wine means their ways, and the head of asps
+is the head of the Greek kings who came to inflict vengeance upon
+them.”</span> This again is most naturally understood of Antiochus
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Epiphanes; the calamities he brought on the Jews were a direct
+consequence of the course of the hellenizing party.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A definite date for these occurrences is given in 1 5 ff.: <span class="tei tei-q">“When
+God's wrath was over, three hundred and ninety years after he
+gave them into the power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon,
+he visited them, and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a
+root of his planting to inherit his land and to thrive on the good
+things of his earth. And they recognized their wickedness and
+knew that they were guilty men, and they were like blind men and
+like men groping their way for twenty years. And God took note
+of their deeds, that with perfect heart they sought him, and he
+raised up for them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the
+way of his heart.”</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The <span class="tei tei-q">“root”</span> which God, mindful of his covenant, caused to
+spring up from Aaron and Israel is the men with whom the religious
+revival, or reformation, began, the forefathers of the sect
+(see 6 2 f., and below, p. <a href="#Pg375" class="tei tei-ref">375</a>);<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a>
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“teacher of righteousness”</span> is
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“interpreter of the law who came to Damascus”</span> (6 7 f., 7 18
+f.). The dates refer therefore to the origin of the sect. Three
+hundred and ninety years from the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar
+(597 or 586 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>) would bring us, by our chronology,
+to 207 or 196 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> The Jewish chronology of the Persian period
+is, however, always too long by from forty to seventy years,<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a>
+and assuming, as it is fair to do, that our author made the same
+error, the three hundred ninety years would run out in the middle
+of the third century. Dr. Schechter suspects, with much probability,
+that the original reading was <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four</span></em> hundred and ninety
+years,”</span> the common apocalyptic cycle (Dan. 9 2, 24; Enoch
+89-90; 93, etc.). Making the same allowance for error, we
+should be brought again to a time not far removed from the punishment
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+inflicted on the people by Antiochus Epiphanes (see
+above, p. <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a> f.).<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+There is nothing in the texts which demands a later date for the
+origin of the sect. The last event in the national history to which
+reference is made is the vengeance inflicted on the heathenizing
+rulers of the people by <span class="tei tei-q">“the head of the Greek kings.”</span> To the
+misfortunes of the people in the following centuries, such as the
+taking of Jerusalem by Pompey or its destruction by Titus, there
+is no allusion. It may perhaps be inferred not only that the
+schism antedated these calamities, but that the book was written
+before them. In the author's frame of mind toward the religious
+leaders of Palestinian Jewry, he would have been likely to
+record such conspicuous judgments upon them. A comparison
+with the Assumption of Moses is instructive on this point. There
+the sweeping denunciation of the priesthood and the scribes,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“their teachers in those times,”</span> and of the godless Asmonaean
+priest-kings, is followed by the well-deserved judgment inflicted
+on them by Herod, and after him comes Varus, burning part of
+the temple, crucifying, and carrying off into slavery. The second
+of the Psalms of Solomon may also be compared.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The schismatic character of the sect would also be explained
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+if it arose in an age when the character of the political and religious
+heads of the Jewish people was such as to move God-fearing
+and law-abiding men to repudiate them with all their ways and
+works. For it is not merely with a sect, differing from the mass
+of their fellows in certain opinions and practices, that we have to
+do, but with a schism. The Covenanters of Damascus are radical
+come-outers, seceders not only from the land of Judaea, but
+from established Judaism, on which they look much as the Puritan
+Separatists in the seventeenth century looked on the English
+Church; they might have taken to themselves the prophetic word
+so often in the mouth of the Puritan, <span class="tei tei-q">“Depart ye, depart ye,
+go ye out from thence, touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the
+midst of her; be ye clean, ye that bear the vessels of the Lord”</span>
+(Isa. 52 11), as they do apply to the religious teachers of the Jewish
+church the most violent invectives of the same prophet (50 11,
+59 4 ff.; see below, p. <a href="#Pg344" class="tei tei-ref">344</a> f.). They will not even call
+themselves Jews, they are Israelites who went forth from the land of Judaea;
+their Messiah is to spring from Aaron and Israel, not from Judah;
+when the final judgment comes in its appointed time, it will no
+longer be permitted to make compact with the house of Judah,
+but every man must stand in his own stronghold;<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> when the glory
+of God shines out on Israel, all the wicked of Judah shall be cut
+off, in the day of its trial by fire. They reject the temple in Jerusalem,
+and will not offer on its altar. If we consider that the Essenes,
+notwithstanding their wider divergence from the common
+type of Judaism, seem to have regarded themselves as within the
+pale of the church, and to have been so regarded by others—enjoying,
+indeed, with the people the reputation of peculiar sanctity—the
+schismatic character of our sect appears in a still stronger
+light.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The language of the book is not inconsistent with the age to
+which the contents would seem to assign it. The vocabulary
+is in the main Biblical, but there are a number of words which
+otherwise occur only in the writings of the Mishnic age or later.
+Some of these belong to the technical terminology of the law
+schools, some of them appear to be peculiar to the sect. A few
+of the Biblical words also are used in later senses and applications.
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+It is proper to bear in mind, however, that the Hebrew originals
+of the works with which it would be most natural to compare our
+text, such as Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the
+Twelve Patriarchs, the Gospel, are not preserved; in fact, between
+the last books of the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature
+of the second Christian century there is a hiatus in the history
+of the Hebrew language, so that words which appear for the
+first time in the Mishna and kindred works may have been, and
+in many cases probably were, in use much earlier. It is unnecessary
+therefore to suppose that such words were introduced into
+our texts by later scribes, though the possibility of such changes
+must of course be admitted. The particular instances in which
+Dr. Schechter thinks that late and foreign influences are most
+clearly to be recognized—the title of the <span class="tei tei-q">“censor”</span> and the
+peculiar name for a house of worship—are discussed elsewhere.<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a>
+More remarkable than the vocabulary of the book is its syntax.
+The consecutive constructions of the perfect and the imperfect
+are regularly employed, not only in imitation of Biblical models
+in narrative and prophetic passages, but in the legal part of the
+book; and in spite of some irregularities, which may in part at
+least be laid to the charge of scribes, the use of these tenses is
+generally correct. In this respect the Hebrew of the book differs
+entirely from that of the Mishna and the contemporary and later
+Midrashim, in which the characteristic features of classical tense-syntax
+have entirely disappeared, under the influence, it is generally
+supposed, of the Aramaic vernacular. In comparison with
+these writings the vocabulary also is notably free from foreign
+admixture. There are no words borrowed from Greek and Latin,
+and only one or two instances where an Aramaic term seems to
+have been adopted. The orthography also, in its more sparing
+use of the semivowels to indicate the vowels <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">u</span></span>
+and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></span>, resembles
+that of the Bible.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The founder of the sect is called the <span class="tei tei-q">“teacher of righteousness”</span>
+(1 11),<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“the only,
+or beloved, teacher”</span> (20 14);<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“the only
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+one”</span> (20 32); he is <span class="tei tei-q">“the legislator,”</span> that is, <span class="tei tei-q">“the interpreter
+of the law”</span> (6 7); and this interpreter of the law, who came to
+Damascus, is the star who, according to Balaam's prophecy,
+was to issue from Jacob (7 18 f.).<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a>
+He showed them how to walk
+in the way of God's heart (1 11); as interpreter of the law he
+ordained them statutes to walk in till the end of wickedness—statutes
+which shall not be superseded by any others <span class="tei tei-q">“until
+there arise the teacher of righteousness in the last days”</span> (6 11 f.).
+To him, therefore, are attributed the distinctive principles and
+observances of the sect as they are set forth in this book. <span class="tei tei-q">“His
+anointed,”</span> through whom God made known to men his holy
+spirit, and who is true (2 12 f.), is in all probability the same
+person with the teacher, the star, just as the anointed from Aaron
+and Israel who is to arise in the future (20 1) is the same as the
+teacher of righteousness to whose voice they will then listen
+(20 32; see below, p. <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref">343</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Those of the emigrants who accepted the guidance of the
+teacher of righteousness, the interpreter of the law, entered into
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“new covenant in the land of Damascus”</span> (6 19, 8 21, 19 33 f.,
+20 12). The idea of the <span class="tei tei-q">“new covenant”</span> was doubtless suggested
+by Jer. 31 31 ff. (cf. 32 36 ff.; Ezek. 37 26, etc.), where the establishment
+of the new covenant, in the stead of the old covenant
+which their fathers broke, marks the restoration of God's favor,
+the beginning of a new and better time. The same use of the
+passage in Jeremiah is made at length by the author of the Epistle
+to the Hebrews (8 6 ff.), The substance of the covenant may
+be gathered from 6 11-7 5:
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+All who were brought into the covenant are not to enter into the sanctuary
+to light its altar, but became closers of the door, as God said, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Who
+among you will close its door?</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> and </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Thou shalt not light my altar in
+vain</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Mal. 1 10);</span><a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> but
+shall observe to do according to the interpretation
+of the law for the end of wickedness, and to separate from the children
+of perdition, and to keep aloof from unrighteous gain, which is unclean
+by vow and ban,</span><a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> and from the property of the sanctuary, and from
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+robbing the poor of the people and making widows their spoil and murdering
+orphans; and to separate between the unclean and the clean,
+and to show the difference between the holy and the common; and to
+observe the Sabbath day as it is defined, and the season feasts, and the
+fast-day, in accordance with the commandments of those who entered
+into the new covenant in the land of Damascus; to set apart the sacred
+dues as they are defined; and that a man should love his neighbor as himself,
+and sustain the poor and needy and the proselyte, and to seek each
+the welfare of the other; and that no man transgress the prohibited degrees,
+but guard against fornication according to the rule; and that a
+man should reprove his brother according to the commandment, and
+not bear a grudge from day to day; and to separate from all forms of
+uncleanness according to their several prescriptions; and that a man
+should not defile his holy spirit, even as God separated for them (sc.
+unclean from clean). All who walk in these precepts in perfection of
+holiness, according to all the foundations of the covenant of God,</span><a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+have the assurance that they shall live a thousand generations.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Early in the history of the sect a serious defection occurred.
+Men who entered among the first into the covenant incurred
+guilt, like their forefathers, by following their sinful inclinations;
+they forsook the covenant of God and preferred their own will,
+and went about after the stubbornness of their heart, every man
+doing as he pleased (3 10 ff.); the men who entered into the new
+covenant in the land of Damascus went back and proved false,
+and turned aside from the well of living waters (19 33 f.). Their
+names were struck out of the registers of the sect, as were those
+of such as fell away in later times.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+We can readily imagine that many found the rule of the sect
+too strict and the discipline by which it was enforced too severe.
+Our texts, however, speak not of such occasional and individual
+lapses, but of the repudiation of the covenant by numbers at one
+time. It seems that another leader had arisen, of very different
+temper from the founder, who drew away many after him. In
+the eyes of those who remained steadfast in the faith, the new
+teacher was naturally a false prophet, a kind of antichrist. He
+is called the liar (<span class="tei tei-q">“the man of lies,”</span> 20 15), the scoffer (1 14); his
+adherents are scoffers,<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> who uttered error about the righteous
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+statutes, and spurned the covenant and plighted faith which
+they established in the land of Damascus, that is to say, the new
+covenant. They and their families shall have no portion in the
+house of the law (20 10 ff.). For their unfaithfulness they were
+delivered to the sword (3 10 ff.), until of all the men of war who
+went with the liar none was left (20 14 ff.).<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> This came to pass
+about forty years after the death of the unique teacher (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">l.c.</span></span>). If
+the emigration to Damascus occurred under Antiochus Epiphanes,<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a>
+the end of the episode of the false prophet would fall about
+the beginning of the first century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, and we should have at
+least an upper limit for the writing of the book. The passion
+which every mention of this defection arouses suggests that it
+was fresh in memory, and would incline us to date the writing
+not very long after the time indicated. It should be observed,
+however, that the sentence which counts forty years from the
+death of the unrivalled teacher to the end of the liar's army
+sits loose in the context, and may be a gloss, in which case the
+book might be some decades older.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+With the remnant who remained faithful through the great
+defection <span class="tei tei-q">“God confirmed his covenant with Israel forever, revealing
+to them the secret of things in which all Israel was in error,
+his holy Sabbaths and his glorious festivals and his righteous testimonies
+and his true ways and the pleasure of his will, things
+which if a man do he shall live by them. He opened a way before
+them, and they dug a well for copious waters.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“In the abundance
+of his wonderful grace he atoned for their guilt and forgave
+their transgression, and built for them a sure house in Israel,
+the like of which did not arise in times past nor until now”</span> (3 12-20).
+The prediction of the sure house (1 Sam. 2 35) seems to be
+fulfilled in the stability of the sect itself, or perhaps, with closer
+adherence to the prophecy, in that of its faithful priesthood.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+So much may be gathered from the book about the origin and
+history of the sect. We turn now to its expectation. As a
+teacher of righteousness, an anointed one (priest), was the founder
+of the sect, so in the last times a teacher of righteousness, an
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+anointed one, shall appear (6 10 f.). Those who proved faithless
+to the covenant are cut off from the community, <span class="tei tei-q">“from the time
+when the unique teacher was taken away until the anointed one
+from Aaron and Israel shall arise”</span> (19 35-20 1), that is, during
+the whole of the present dispensation. Dr. Schechter regards
+the anointed one who is to appear in the future as the founder
+of the sect <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">redivivus:</span></span> the present dispensation <span class="tei tei-q">“seems to be the
+period intervening between the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">first</span></em> appearance of the Teacher
+of Righteousness (p. 1, l. 11) (the founder of the Sect), who was
+gathered in or died,<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a>
+and the second appearance of the Teacher of
+Righteousness who is to rise in <span class="tei tei-q">‘the end of the days’</span> (p. 6, l. 11).
+Moreover, the Only Teacher, or Teacher of Righteousness, is
+identical with the Messiah, or the Anointed one from Aaron and
+Israel, whose advent is expected by the Sect.”</span><a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> The texts,
+however, say nothing of the disappearance, or a second appearance,
+or reappearance, or return of the founder; nor do the words
+<span class="tei tei-q">“until the teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last days,”</span>
+<span class="tei tei-q">“until the anointed shall arise from Aaron and Israel,”</span> mean that
+he shall rise from the dead, as Dr. Schechter interprets them.<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a>
+The Messiah whose advent the sect expects at the end of the present
+period of history is, as in the older parts of the Testaments of
+the Twelve Patriarchs, a priest; and the function of the priest-messiah
+is not, as in the Epistle to the Hebrews, to mediate between
+man and God, but to instruct men in righteousness, to guide
+them in the way of God's heart. That the founder of the sect
+also was both priest and teacher is by no means sufficient to establish
+the identity of the two figures. It was the office of the priest
+to teach Israel the law, <span class="tei tei-q">“all the statutes which the Lord hath
+spoken unto them through Moses”</span> (Lev. 10 11; cf. Deut. 33 10);
+<span class="tei tei-q">“the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the law at his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of Hosts”</span>
+(Mal. 2 7). Ezra is the type of a priest who had not only prepared
+his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do it, but to
+teach in Israel statutes and judgments (Ezra 7 10); he was,
+according to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the restorer of
+Judaism. It was a departure from the ideal of the law itself
+that, when the priesthood showed itself unworthy of its calling,
+the teaching function was assumed by lay scribes, and even in
+later times there were many priestly teachers among the Scribes
+and among the Doctors. That our sect looks back to one such as
+its founder, and forward to another as the great teacher of the
+Messianic age, is in no way surprising. If the author had meant
+what Dr. Schechter thinks, it is fair to assume that he would have
+said it unmistakably; for the identity of the expected Messiah
+with the dead founder, if it was part of the belief of the sect,
+would of necessity be a singular and significant part of it.<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The coming judgment of God is represented rather as a judgment
+on the faithless members of the sect, including those who
+have seceded from it or been expelled, than in its more general
+aspects. The long eschatological passage in B (20 15 to the end)
+is illegible in spots near the beginning, but the general tenor is
+clear:
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+In that consummation the anger of God will be inflamed against
+Israel, as he said, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">There is no king and no prince, and no judge and
+none that reproves in righteousness</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (cf. Hos. 3 4). Those who turn
+from the transgression [of Jacob]</span><a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+and keep the covenant of God will
+then confer with one another; their footsteps will be firm in the way of
+God (and the prophecy will be fulfilled which says), </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And God hearkened
+to their words and heard, and a book of remembrance was written
+before him for those that fear God and think on his name</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Mal. 3 16),
+until deliverance and righteousness emerge for those that fear God,
+</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">and ye shall return and see the difference between righteous and wicked,
+and between a servant of God and one who serves him not</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Mal. 3 18).
+And he shows favor to those that love him and keep his commandments,
+for a thousand generations....</span><a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+Each man according to his spirit, shall they be judged by his holy
+counsel, and all who have broken through the bounds of the law, of
+those who entered into the covenant, when the glory of God shines out
+on Israel, shall be cut off from the midst of the camp, and with them
+all the evil-doers of Judah, in the days when it is tried in the fire. But
+all who held firmly by these precepts, going out and coming in in conformity with
+the law, and listened to the voice of the teacher, will confess</span><a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+before God.... </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">We have done evil, we, and our fathers also,
+when they went contrary to the statutes of the covenant, and faithful are
+thy judgments upon us.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> And they will not act presumptuously against
+his holy statutes and his righteous judgment and his faithful testimonies.
+They will be instructed in the ancient judgments by which
+the followers of the unique one were judged, and will hearken to the
+words of the teacher of righteousness. And they will not controvert
+the righteous statutes when they hear them; they will rejoice and be
+glad, and their heart will be strong, and they will show themselves
+mighty against all the people of the world.</span><a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+And God will atone for
+them, and they will see his salvation with joy, because they trusted
+in his holy name.
+</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Here the fragment ends. The destruction of those who fall
+away from the sect is threatened in other places; it will suffice
+to quote the most important (19 5 ff.):
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+Upon all those who reject the commandments and the statutes, the
+deserts of the wicked shall be requited when God visits the earth, when
+the word comes to pass which was written by Zechariah the prophet,
+</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Sword, awake against my shepherd and against the man that is my
+fellow, saith God; smite the shepherd, and let the sheep be scattered,
+and I will turn my hand against the little ones</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Zech. 13 7). But
+those who observe it (sc. the obligations of the covenant) are </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">the poor
+of the flock</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Zech. 11 7). These shall escape at the end of the visitation,
+but the former (sc. those who reject the commandments) shall be
+given over to the sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel comes,
+as it was at the end of the first visitation, of which God said by Ezekiel
+that a mark should be made on the foreheads of them that sigh and cry,
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+and the rest were delivered to the sword that executes the judgment
+of the covenant. And so shall the judgment be of all who enter into
+his covenant and do not hold firmly by these statutes, they shall be
+visited even with extermination by the hand of Belial. This is the day
+in which God will visit, as he spoke, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The princes of Judah are become
+like men who remove the boundary; on them will I pour out my fury
+like water</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> (Hos. 5 10). For they entered into the covenant of repentance,
+but did not turn aside from the way of faithless men, and wallowed
+in ways of fornication and in unrighteous gain, and avenging themselves
+and bearing a grudge against one another.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+It is possible, of course, that the judgment of the heathen world,
+which looms so large in most of the apocalypses, may have had
+a place in parts of the book now lost, but if it had been a very
+important feature in the expectation of the sect we should hardly
+fail to find at least allusions to it in the pages in our hands. The
+author is almost exclusively interested in the sect itself, in the
+division which had rent it, and in polemics against laxer interpretations
+of the law. This limitation of the horizon is characteristically
+sectarian, and may suggest, moreover, as has been
+said above, that the writer is not far removed in time from the
+split in the new organization.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The polemic is especially pointed against certain opponents
+who are described as <span class="tei tei-q">“those who build a wall and plaster it with
+stucco”</span> (4 19; 8 12).<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> They follow a commandment (<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">ṣau</span></span>);
+probably connoting, as in Hosea 5 11, from which the phrase is
+taken, an arbitrary rule of their own, a commandment of men.<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a>
+God hates them, his anger is kindled against them (8 18). These
+<span class="tei tei-q">“builders”</span> are false teachers; Biblical denunciations of the false
+prophets are applied to them. (See especially 8 12 f.) Points
+in which their teaching is particularly assailed are that they allow
+polygamy and the remarriage of divorced persons during the life of
+the other party, and hold it lawful for a man to marry his niece;
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+that they defile the sanctuary by the laxity of some of their rules
+and practice about sexual uncleanness; they presume blasphemously
+to impugn the <span class="tei tei-q">“statutes of the covenant of God”</span> (the
+legislation of the sect), declaring that they are not right, and
+saying abominable things about them (4 20-5 14). The positions
+so hotly denounced, especially in the matter of marriage
+and divorce, are those of the Palestinian rabbis as we know them
+in the Mishna and kindred works, and in so far as the Pharisees
+had a dominating influence in the schools of the law they may
+be regarded as in a peculiar sense the object of this invective,
+which is, however, sweeping enough to include all rabbinical
+Judaism. Such verses as Isaiah 50 11 and 59 4 ff. are hurled
+at them; they are compared to Johanneh and his brother, whom
+Belial raised up against Moses (5 17 ff.).<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The sect prohibited polygamy, which they stigmatized as fornication,
+arguing from the creation—<span class="tei tei-q">“a male and a female created
+he them”</span> (cf. Matt. 19 4), and from the story of the flood—<span class="tei tei-q">“by
+pairs they went into the ark,”</span> and from the law which forbade
+the prince to multiply wives unto himself (Deut. 17 17), that is,
+as they understood it, to take more than one wife. To forestall
+an objection, it is added: <span class="tei tei-q">“But David had not read in the sealed
+book of the law which was in the ark, for it was not opened in
+Israel from the time of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the
+elders who worshipped the Astartes, but was hidden and not
+brought to light until Zadok arose”</span> (5 2-5; see below, p.
+<a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Marriage with another woman while a man had a divorced wife
+living was apparently put in the same category with having two
+wives at the same time (4 20 f.; cf. Matt. 5 31 f.). Marriage
+with a niece (brother's or sister's daughter) they treated as incest,
+reasoning that marriage between a woman and her uncle stood
+on all fours with marriage between a man and his aunt, which was
+expressly forbidden as within the prohibited degrees of kinship.<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a>
+The three snares of Belial by which he ensnared Israel
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+are fornication (that is, plural or incestuous unions), wealth (that
+is, unrighteous gain), and the pollution of the sanctuary (4 15 f.;
+cf. 5 6 f.).<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The same rigorous tendency which appears in the attitude of
+the sect in regard to marriage pervades the whole legal part of
+the work before us. The rules for the observance of the Sabbath
+(10 14-11 21) will make this clear.
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+Concerning the Sabbath, to keep it as it is prescribed.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+1. On the sixth day no man shall do any work from the time when
+the disk of the sun is distant from the western portal</span><a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> by its diameter (?);
+for this is what he said: Observe the Sabbath day to hallow it.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+2. On the Sabbath a man shall not engage in any foolish conversation;
+and he shall not exact repayment from his neighbor; nor shall he
+give judgment in matters of property; he shall not talk about matters
+of work and labor to be done on the next day.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+3. A man shall not walk in the country to do the work of his business
+on the Sabbath. He shall not walk outside of his town above one
+thousand</span><a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> cubits.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+4. No man shall eat on the Sabbath anything except what was previously
+prepared or what is spoiling in the field. He shall not eat or
+drink anything but what was in the camp. If he be on the way and
+descend to bathe, he may drink as he stands, but must not draw water
+in any vessel.</span><a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+5. He must not send a foreigner to do his business on the Sabbath day.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+6. A man must not put on soiled garments or such as are brought by
+a gentile, without washing them in water or rubbing them with
+frankincense.</span><a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+7. A man shall not exchange pledges</span><a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> of his own accord on the
+Sabbath.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+8. A man shall not follow his cattle, to pasture them outside his town,
+except within 2000 cubits. He shall not lift his arm to strike them with
+his fist; if the animal is breachy, let him not take her out of the
+house.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+9. A man shall not take anything out of a house into the street, nor
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+bring anything from the street into the house; and if he be in the entry,
+he shall not pass anything out of it or bring anything into it.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+10. He shall not open on the Sabbath a vessel the cover of which has
+been luted on.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+11. A man shall not carry on his person spices, going out or coming
+in on the Sabbath.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+12. Within a house he shall not lift stone nor earth on the Sabbath
+day.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+13. The nurse shall not carry an infant in arms, going out or coming
+in with it on the Sabbath.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+14. A man shall not deal harshly with his slave or his maid or his
+hired servant on the Sabbath.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+15. A man shall not deliver cattle of their young on the Sabbath
+day.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+16. If a beast fall into a cistern or trap, a man shall not lift it out on
+the Sabbath.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+17. A man shall not pass the Sabbath in a place near the gentiles.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+18. A man shall not profane the Sabbath for the sake of gain.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+19. If a human being fall into a tank of water or into a place of ... no
+man shall fetch him up by means of a ladder or a rope or any
+implement.
+</span></p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+20. No man shall bring upon the altar on the Sabbath anything except
+the Sabbath burnt-offerings, for so it is written, </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">aside from your
+Sabbaths.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The dietary laws afford other examples of the strict rules of
+the sect.<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> Fish
+may be eaten only if, while still alive, they have
+been split open and drained of their blood; grasshoppers and
+locusts must be put alive into the water or the fire (in which they
+are to be cooked); honey in the comb is apparently prohibited.
+So, again, in a house in which a death has occurred, fixtures,
+such as nails and pegs in the walls, are unclean; and wood, stone,
+and dust are capable of contracting and communicating various
+kinds of uncleanness (12 15-18). The sect sees in these stricter
+distinctions between clean and unclean the superiority of its
+ordinances over those of other Jews, whom they regard as sinfully
+lax. The Pharisees are to them gross latitudinarians!
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Oaths are to be taken only by the covenant and the curses of
+the covenant, that is, the vows by which the members of the sect
+bind themselves, on their admission to it, to live in conformity
+with its rule and submit to the authority of those set over them,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+and the curses invoked on such as violate these obligations.<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a>
+Oaths by God, whether under the name
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aleph Lamed</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span> or
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elohim</span></span>) or
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aleph Daleth (Adonai)</span></span> are prohibited;<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a>
+nor is it permissible
+to mention in the oath the law of Moses; the formula
+of the oath is strictly sectarian (15 1 ff.).<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a>
+But, though the name
+of God is not used, <span class="tei tei-q">“if a man swear and transgress the oath, he
+profanes the name”</span> (15 3). Obligations voluntarily assumed
+under oath (vows) are to be fulfilled to the letter; neither redemption
+nor annulment seems to be allowed, unless to carry
+out the vow would be a transgression of the covenant.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Another point in which the sect is at variance with the great
+body of the Jews is the calendar. They represent the faithful
+remnant to whom God revealed the mysteries about which all
+Israel went astray, his holy sabbaths and his glorious festivals,
+and his righteous testimonies, and his true ways (3 12 ff.). The
+point of this appears when it is compared with Jubilees 1 14:
+<span class="tei tei-q">“They will forget my law and all my commandments and all
+my judgments, and will go astray as to new moons and sabbaths
+and festivals and jubilees and ordinances”</span> (cf. 6 34 ff.,
+23 19). The texts before us do not explain what the peculiarities
+of the sectarian calendar were, but inasmuch as the Book of
+Jubilees, under the title <span class="tei tei-q">“The Book of the Division of the Times
+by their Jubilees and their Sabbatical Years,”</span> is cited as an
+authority for the exact determination of <span class="tei tei-q">“their ends”</span> (the coming
+crisis of history), it may be inferred with much probability
+that our sect had a calendar constructed on principles similar
+to that of the Jubilees,<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> in which the seasons and festivals were
+not determined by lunar observations or astronomical tables, as
+among the Jews generally, but had a fixed place in a solar year.
+Such upsetting of the calendar is branded as heresy in Midrash
+Tehillim on Ps. 28 5: <span class="tei tei-q">“They do not regard the work of the Lord,
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+nor the operation of his hands.... <span class="tei tei-q">‘The operation of his hands’</span>
+means the new moons; as it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘God made the two great lights,’</span> and it
+is written, <span class="tei tei-q">‘He made the moon for festival seasons.’</span><a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a>
+These are the heretics who do not calculate (by the moon) the
+festival seasons and the equinoxes. <span class="tei tei-q">‘He will tear them down
+and not build them up.’</span> He will tear them down, in this world,
+and not build them up, in the world to come.”</span> Perhaps the
+Boëthusians, who hired false witnesses to deceive the authorities
+about the appearance of the new moon, were not merely animated
+by a desire to harass the rabbis, but were partisans of
+some such calendar reform.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The organization of the sect furnished it an effective means of
+enforcing its rules by discipline. This organization is so peculiar
+that it must be described in some detail. Like the normal Jewish
+community, it consists of three classes, priests, levites, and
+Israelites, to whom as a fourth class may be added proselytes.
+In this order they are mustered and inscribed in the rolls of the
+camp. In some sense all the members of the sect are priests.
+Ezekiel 44 15 is quoted and explained: <span class="tei tei-q">“ <span class="tei tei-q">‘The priests and the
+levites and the sons of Zadok who kept the charge of his sanctuary’</span>
+[<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">sic</span></span>]. The priests are the exiles of Israel who migrated from
+the land of Judah and [the levites are]<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> those who attached
+themselves to them; and the sons of Zadok are the chosen ones
+of Israel, men designated by name, who arose in the last days.”</span>
+Allegory apart, it appears that the priests were of the Zadokite
+line, but this legitimacy is assumed, not emphasized. Priests
+and levites formed part of every court of ten judges (see below, p.
+<a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref">351</a>); and in every company of ten Israelites (the quorum of a
+religious assembly), a priest, well versed in the Book of
+Institutes,<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a>
+must be present, to whose words all must conform. If
+the priest does not possess the requisite qualifications, and a
+competent levite is at hand, it shall be ordained that all who
+enter the camp shall go out and come in at his orders. In a
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+case of leprosy the priest shall come and stand in the midst of
+the camp and the Supervisor shall instruct him in the interpretation
+of the law; even if the priest be an ignoramus, it is he who
+must shut up the leper, for the decision belongs to them (13 1 ff.).
+To a priest is assigned also the duty of taking the census of the
+commonalty; he who fills this office must be between thirty and
+sixty years old, versed in the Book of [Institutes and] in all the
+prescriptions of the law, to pronounce them according to their
+prescriptions (14 3 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A much more important place in the organization is filled by
+an officer whose title (<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">mebaḳḳer</span></span>)
+signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“examiner,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“inspector,”</span>
+and may perhaps best be rendered <span class="tei tei-q">“Supervisor.”</span><a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> Every <span class="tei tei-q">“camp,”</span>
+or settlement, of the sect had a Supervisor, and over these stood
+a <span class="tei tei-q">“Supervisor of all the camps,”</span> who must be a man in the prime
+of life, between thirty and fifty years of age. To the Supervisor
+of the individual camp it belonged to instruct the community
+<span class="tei tei-q">“in the works of God, and make them familiar with his wonderful
+deeds of might, and recount before them the things that
+happened long ago...; and he shall have compassion on them
+as a father toward his children (13 7 ff.).”</span><a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> We have seen that
+he has even to instruct the priest in the rules for the diagnosis
+of leprosy.<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> The admission of new members to the sect is also
+in his hands; no one is permitted to introduce a man into the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+congregation without his consent. He examines the candidates
+in regard to their character and intelligence, their physical strength
+and courage, and their possessions, and enrolls each in his proper
+place in the lot<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> of the camp (13 11 ff.). From the following
+badly defaced lines so much at least can be made out, that the
+Supervisor had extensive powers of control over the dealings of
+members of the sect with outsiders in the way of trade. He evidently
+had also a leading part in the administration of justice
+and the enforcement of the discipline of the sect, but the state
+of the text here denies us insight into the particulars.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Courts were constituted of ten members,<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> chosen <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ad hoc</span></span> from
+the congregation, four of the tribe of Levi and Aaron and six
+Israelites, all well versed in the Book of Institutes and in the
+Foundations of the Covenant, between twenty-five and sixty
+years of age. No man of more than sixty shall be a judge, <span class="tei tei-q">“for
+on account of the unfaithfulness of mankind his days were shortened,
+and through the wrath of God on the inhabitants of the
+earth he bade to remove their understanding before they completed
+their days (10 4 ff.).”</span> The rules relating to the competence of
+witnesses are strict. No one may testify against the accused
+in a capital case who is not a god-fearing man old enough to be
+included in the census (that is, at least twenty years of age, Exod.
+30 14); nor shall a man's testimony be credited against his neighbor
+who is himself a wilful transgressor of any of the commandments,
+until he has come to repentance (9 23-10 3). A peculiar
+provision is made for the case that a single witness (on whose
+testimony therefore conviction could not be had) sees a capital
+offence committed. He is to make known the facts to the Supervisor,
+who records the testimony in writing. If subsequently
+the offence is committed again in the presence of another witness,
+the same process is repeated; on a second repetition, the testimony
+of the three single witnesses combined suffices for conviction
+(9 16 ff.).<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Besides the penalties of the Mosaic law, the sect has a formidable
+means of discipline in expulsion, or as it is called <span class="tei tei-q">“separation
+from the Purity,”</span> which may in some cases be inflicted even
+on the testimony of one witness (9 21 ff.). Josephus vividly
+depicts the desperate straits into which those came who, for
+grave offences, were expelled from the Essene order; being unable
+to eat food not prepared by members of the order, they were
+exposed to starvation. This particular consequence would not
+follow separation from our sect; but the lot of the excommunicated
+man was evidently hard enough. <span class="tei tei-q">“When his deeds come
+to light he is to be expelled from the congregation, as though
+his lot had never fallen in the midst of the disciples of God; according
+to his misdeeds men shall bear him in remembrance ... until
+the day when he returns to take his place in the station
+of the men of perfect holiness. No man shall have any dealings
+with him in matters of property or work, for all the saints of the
+Most High have cursed him”</span> (20 3 ff.); such have no part in
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“house of the law”</span>; their names are erased from the rolls
+of the congregation (20 10 f.). They are not only cut off from
+the communion of saints in this world, but are doomed to extermination
+by the hand of Belial (8 1 f., 19 14 f.). One who leads
+men astray and profanes the Sabbath and the festivals shall not
+be put to death, but shall be committed to the custody of men;<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a>
+if he is cured of his error, they shall keep him for seven years,
+and afterwards he may come into the assembly (12 3 ff.). A
+member of the sect who seduces others to apostasy is more severely
+dealt with: <span class="tei tei-q">“A man over whom the spirits of Belial have rule,<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a>
+and who advocates defection (Deut. 13 6), shall be judged according
+to the law of the necromancer and the wizard”</span> (12 2 f.; cf.
+Deut. 18 9).<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The sect possessed the Jewish Scriptures. The books of the
+law are <span class="tei tei-q">“the hut of the King”</span> (i.e. the congregation)—the fallen
+hut which God had promised to raise up; <span class="tei tei-q">“the pillar of your
+images”</span> are the books of the prophets, whose words Israel despised.
+The founder of the sect, the star out of Jacob, is the
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+interpreter of the law who came to Damascus (7 14 ff.). The
+authority of the Pentateuch is appealed to in support of the position
+of the sect in the matter of marriage and divorce; their
+peculiar statutes and ordinances are the true interpretation and
+application of the law of God. The prophets are frequently
+cited, and allusions to passages in the prophets or reminiscences
+of their phraseology are much more numerous. There are similar
+reminiscences of the Psalms and of the Proverbs, and perhaps of
+other books among the Hagiographa. As regards the Old Testament
+scriptures, therefore, the sect stood on common ground
+with Palestinian orthodoxy.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> The formula of citation is peculiar;
+a quotation is usually introduced by the words <span class="tei tei-q">“as he said,”</span>
+rarely <span class="tei tei-q">“as God said”</span>; or with the name of the sacred author,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“as Moses said.”</span> Besides the Biblical books, we have a quotation
+from Levi—probably the Testament of that Patriarch—introduced
+by the same phrase as quotations from the Bible;
+and the reader is referred to the Book of Jubilees by name for an
+exact computation of the last times. There is nothing to indicate
+that the authority attributed to these writings was inferior to
+that of the Hagiographa. The canon of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Scriptures”</span> was
+not defined, even in the rabbinical schools, until the second century
+of our era, and in the sects many books enjoyed high esteem
+which the orthodox repudiated.<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+To a different class belong, apparently, the Book of Institutes,
+and the Foundations of the Covenant, in which the judges must
+be well versed. To every religious gathering of ten men or more
+belongs a priest well versed in the Book of Institutes. The title
+Foundations of the Covenant suggests a writing (or a fixed tradition)
+dealing with the obligations and duties of members of the
+sect. The name here rendered Book of Institutes, on the other
+hand, is obscure,<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a>
+but the fact that a knowledge of it is demanded
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of the priest and of the judges makes it likely that it contained
+the <span class="tei tei-q">“statutes and ordinances”</span> of the sect, its peculiar definitions
+and interpretations of the law, often referred to as
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">perush</span></span>;
+in technical phrase, a collection of sectarian
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">halakoth</span></span>, such as is
+preserved in the second part of the texts before us, which seems
+to be derived from such a legal manual. The objection to committing
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">halakah</span></span>
+to writing which was long maintained in the
+rabbinical schools was not shared by the sects, and would be
+least likely to exist where the ordinances were not in theory a
+traditional law handed down from remote antiquity, but were
+attributed to an individual interpreter, the founder of the
+sect.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The sect had houses of worship, which a man in a state of
+uncleanness is forbidden to enter (11 22),<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> but nothing more is
+said about them, except that when the trumpets of the congregation
+are blown, the blowing shall follow or precede the service,
+and not interrupt it. It is a natural surmise that they answered
+to the synagogues both as places of worship and of religious
+instruction, such, for example, as the Supervisor is required to
+give. The name, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth hishtahawōth</span></span>,
+literally, <span class="tei tei-q">“house of bowing
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+down”</span> (in worship), is peculiar, and may have been chosen to
+distinguish these sectarian conventicles from the synagogues
+of regular Judaism, as the English nonconformists of various
+stripes would not call their meeting-houses churches. It is possible
+that the prayers of the sect may have been accompanied
+by genuflections and prostrations such as, though unknown in
+the synagogue, have formed in all ages and religions a common
+feature of Oriental worship; but it is also possible that <span class="tei tei-q">“bowing
+down”</span> simply stands by metonymy for worship, as is often the
+case with the corresponding Syriac verb,
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">segad</span></span>.<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Sacrificial worship was also maintained.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> The City of the
+Sanctuary was eminently holy; sexual intercourse within its
+limits is forbidden, <span class="tei tei-q">“defiling the City of the Sanctuary with their impurity”</span>
+(<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">beniddatham</span></span>).<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> To this city, probably, the sacrifices
+were brought to which there is frequent reference. <span class="tei tei-q">“No one shall
+send to the altar burnt offerings or oblation, frankincense or wood,
+by a man who is unclean with any of the forms of uncleanness;
+for it is written, the sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination, but
+the prayer of the righteous is an acceptable oblation”</span> (11 18 ff.).
+On the Sabbath nothing is to be brought upon the altar except
+the Sabbath burnt offerings—that is, we may suppose, the stated
+daily burnt offerings with the supplementary Sabbath victims
+(13 17 f.; see Num. 28 1-10). Votive sacrifices are also mentioned;
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+it is forbidden to vow to the altar anything that has been
+procured by compulsion; the priest shall refuse to receive such
+offerings (16 13 f.). There is nothing to indicate where this
+sanctuary was situated, further than the natural presumption
+that it was in the region of Damascus, where the sect had established
+itself. The priests have the precedence of all others in
+the community; in its registers their names are enrolled in the
+first rank. Their place in the courts and in the local religious
+community, and their duties in the examination of lepers, have
+already been mentioned. Those who officiated at the sanctuary
+had doubtless their legal toll from private sacrifices of every kind.
+Lost property for which no owner appears falls to the priests; a
+man who has appropriated such property shall confess to the
+priest, and all that he pays in restitution belongs to the priest,
+besides the ram of the trespass offering (9 13 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A charitable fund is provided by monthly payment of certain
+dues by members of the community to the Supervisor. From
+this fund relief is given by the judges to the poor and needy, to
+the aged, to the wanderer (?), to such as have fallen into captivity
+to foreigners, and others (14 12 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The religious conceptions and beliefs of the sect present little
+that is peculiar. For God the name <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">El</span></span>
+is consistently used, without
+any epithets. <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Adonai</span></span>
+is mentioned only to forbid its use
+in oaths. The only other name which occurs is the Most High
+(once, in the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“the saints of the Most High,”</span> that is, the
+members of the sect). There is repeated reference to the holy
+spirit: God, through his Anointed, made men know his holy
+spirit (2 12); the opponents of the sect, by blasphemous speech
+against the statutes of God's covenant, defiled their holy spirit
+(5 11);<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a>
+its members are warned not to defile his holy spirit
+by failing to observe the distinctions of clean and unclean which
+God has ordained (7 3 f.).
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The <span class="tei tei-q">“Prince of Lights (<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Urim</span></span>),”</span>
+through whom Moses and
+Aaron arise, is perhaps, as the contrast to Belial suggests, one
+of the highest angels.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> The destroying angels execute God's
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+inescapable judgment on those who turned out of the way and
+despised the statute (2 6). The fall of the Watchers, which is
+a favorite subject in the apocalyptic literature, is referred to in
+2 18. The chief of the evil spirits is Belial: he is <span class="tei tei-q">“let loose”</span>
+during the whole of the present dispensation; he lays snares
+for men and entraps them, especially in the three sins of fornication,
+unrighteous gain, and the defilement of the sanctuary
+(4 15 ff.); his spirits rule over men and lead them to apostasy
+(12 2 f.); he also exterminates the faithless in the day of God's
+visitation (8 1 f.). Another name for the devil is Mastema
+(the commoner name in Jubilees), equivalent to Satan, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+adversary.”</span> The angel of Mastema ceases to follow a man
+who resolves to return to the law of Moses (16 4 f.). According
+to Jubilees 10 8 f., 11 5, Mastema had permission from
+God to employ some of his evil spirits to corrupt men and lead
+them astray.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Concerning the future life we read only that those who hold
+firmly to the law are <span class="tei tei-q">“for eternal life,”</span><a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> or, as it is elsewhere
+expressed, <span class="tei tei-q">“have the assurance that they shall live a thousand
+generations.”</span> To a punishment of the wicked after death<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> or
+to a resurrection of the dead there is no allusion whatever.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The moral teachings of the sect have been frequently touched
+upon above in speaking of their rules of life. Man is led into
+sin not only by the snares of Belial, but by his own sinful inclination
+and adulterous eyes (2 16; seemingly the
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">yeṣer hara'</span></span> of
+the rabbis). It was through these that the Watchers fell; by
+them the generation of the flood sinned, and the sons of Jacob,
+and their descendants in Egypt and in Canaan, and brought
+judgment upon themselves (2 14 ff.). We have seen that the
+sect insisted upon monogamy, and perhaps rejected divorce
+altogether. Particular emphasis is laid in several places on the
+commandments, <span class="tei tei-q">“thou shalt not take vengeance nor bear any
+grudge against the children of thy people,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“thou shalt reprove
+thy neighbor and not bear sin because of him”</span> (Lev. 19 17, 18).<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+Thus, at the beginning of the legal part of the book, the delivery
+of a fellow Israelite to the gentiles so that he is condemned
+by their law is said to fall under this prohibition, and further,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“any man of those who enter into the covenant who brings up
+against his neighbor a matter not in the nature of a reproof before
+witnesses, but which he brings up in anger, or tells it to his elders
+to bring the man into disrepute, he is one that takes vengeance
+and bears a grudge.”</span> It is forbidden also to exact of another an
+oath except in the presence of the judges; he who does so transgresses
+the law which forbids a man to take justice into his own
+hands. Every one who enters into the covenant pledges himself
+not only not to rob the poor and make widows his spoil, but
+to love his neighbor as himself, to seek the welfare of his fellow,
+and to sustain the poor and needy. As regards the relations of
+the members of the sect to gentiles, it is forbidden to shed the
+blood of a gentile or to take aught of their property, <span class="tei tei-q">“in order
+to give them no occasion to blaspheme”</span> (12 6 f.), that is, to prevent
+the profaning of God's name (15 3), a motive frequently
+urged in similar connection in the rabbinical writings. On the
+other hand, no man may sell to gentiles clean animals or birds,
+lest they offer them in sacrifice, nor grain, nor wine—naught of
+his possessions; nor shall he sell to them his slave or maid servant
+who have come with him into the covenant of Abraham
+(12 9 ff.), He may not pass the Sabbath in the neighborhood
+of gentiles. They are unclean, and garments they may have
+handled require purification.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No record of a schismatic body such as reveals itself in our
+texts is preserved in the early catalogues of Jewish heresies, nor
+have references to it been discovered in rabbinical sources. Like
+many sects, it exhibits the separatist inclination to outdo the orthodox
+in zeal for the letter and in strenuousness of practice, and
+it is not surprising that its interpretations of the law frequently
+agree with those of other strict-constructionists, such as Samaritans,
+Sadducees, Karaites; but these coincidences illustrate a
+common tendency rather than prove historical connection. The
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+relation to the Book of Jubilees is, however, such as to show that
+there was some affinity between our sect and the circles in which
+that work originated. Jubilees is cited as authority on the last
+times; its calendar probably contains the secrets of God's holy
+sabbaths and glorious festivals about which all Israel was in
+error; the rules for the observance of the Sabbath in our book
+accord in many particulars with the injunctions in Jubilees 50 6 ff.
+(see also 2 26 ff.); and various other resemblances might be
+pointed out, such as the preference for the unornamented word
+God (in Jubilees, God, or the Lord), in contrast with the many
+mouth-filling periphrases in Enoch; the holy spirit in men; the
+name Mastema for the adversary instead of Satan; Belial who
+ensnares men, and the spirits of Belial which rule over sinners,
+besides others to which Dr. Schechter directs attention in his
+notes. The relation to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
+is less clear. The saying attributed to Levi (4 15) is not found
+in the Testament, and the other resemblances Dr. Schechter has
+noted are vague or belong to the commonplaces. The place of
+honor given to Judah in the Testaments, as we have them, is
+strikingly at variance with the attitude of our sect toward that
+tribe and its princes. The Levite Messiah of the Testaments
+is not precisely the same as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Anointed from Aaron and
+Israel”</span> in our book. In Jubilees also there are salient features,
+such as the more developed angelology and the form of the Messianic
+expectation, which hardly permit us to suppose that the
+book was a product of our sect, however highly it may have been
+esteemed by it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The sect gives especial honor to the sons of Zadok, the ancient
+priesthood of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezek. 44 15, 2 Chron.
+31 10, Sirach 51 12 Heb.); they are the chosen ones of Israel,
+men designated by name, who arose in the latter times (4 3);
+it was Zadok who brought to light the Book of the Law which
+no one had seen since the death of Eleazar and Joshua (5 5).
+The context of the latter passage would suggest that Zadok the
+contemporary of David is meant, who after the deposition of
+Abiathar became Solomon's chief priest.<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a>
+The precedence given
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+to the sons of Zadok may possibly have a side reference to the
+illegitimate high priests of Seleucid creation, such as Menelaus,
+though, if this were the intention, we should expect it to be
+emphasized.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The passages quoted are the only places in the book in which
+the name Zadok or the sons of Zadok appear, and they are certainly
+a very slender reason for describing the body which produced
+the book as a <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokite”</span> sect, whatever meaning may
+be attached to the term. On the contrary, one of the outstanding
+things in the constitution of the sect is the predominance of
+the lay element. The Supervisor is a layman; laymen form the
+majority in every court; the Messiah is the <span class="tei tei-q">“Anointed from
+Aaron <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">and Israel</span></em>.”</span> Whether the external testimony upon which
+Dr. Schechter relies for justification of the name is more adequate
+will be considered below.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Zadok and the sons of Zadok suggest the Sadducees,<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> whose
+name, according to the most probable explanation, designates
+them as descendants (or followers and partisans) of Zadok. Here
+again it is a question whether Zadok of David's time is meant,
+so that the Sadducees were the Zadokite aristocracy of the priesthood,
+as most modern scholars think, or whether the name of
+the Sadducee sect is derived from a heresiarch of much later
+times, as the Jewish legend represents which makes Zadok, from
+whom the sect descends, a recalcitrant disciple of Antigonus of
+Socho, about the middle of the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>,
+contemporary, if we rightly interpret our texts, with the origin of the sect
+we are studying.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+With the Sadducees, as we know them from the New Testament,
+Josephus, and rabbinical sources, our sect cannot well be
+identified. There is, however, a sect sometimes associated with
+the Sadducees, namely, the Dositheans, in whose teachings and
+customs Dr. Schechter finds such resemblances as lead him to
+surmise that the Dositheans were an offshoot of our sect. The
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+accounts of the Dositheans in writers of different ages and religious
+connections, from Origen and Epiphanius down to the
+Samaritan Chronicler Abul-Fath and the Moslem heresiographer
+Shahrastani, are notoriously confused and contradictory,<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> so that
+many scholars have felt constrained to conclude that there was
+more than one sect of the name. The Fathers generally agree in
+describing the Dositheans as a Samaritan heresy, though Epiphanius
+and Philaster have it that the author of the heresy was
+by extraction a Jew. They frequently bring him into connection
+with Simon Magus, in the time of the Apostles. According
+to Origen, he gave himself out for the Messiah foretold by Moses;
+his followers had books of his, and legends pretending that he
+had not died, but was still alive somewhere. Other Fathers give
+no date for the rise of the heresy, but by coupling it with the
+Sadducees seem to imply that it was older than Christianity;
+thus (Pseudo)Tertullian (probably after Hippolytus)<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> says that
+Dositheus the Samaritan was the first to reject the prophets as
+not inspired; the Sadducees, springing from this root of error,
+ventured to deny the resurrection also. From this Philaster
+probably drew the inference that Zadok, the founder of the
+Sadducees, was a disciple of Dositheus. The Samaritan and
+Moslem authors agree with the Fathers in treating the Dositheans
+as a Samaritan sect. Abul-Fath, a Samaritan writer of the fourteenth
+century, puts the beginnings of the sect in the first century
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, at the time when the yoke of the Jews had been broken by
+the kings of the gentiles, and the Samaritans were able to return
+and restore their sanctuary, which had been destroyed by Simon
+and John Hyrcanus.<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> The Moslem writer Shahrastani, in his
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+learned work on Religious Sects and Philosophical Schools (first
+half of the twelfth century), gives substantially the same date:
+the founder of the Dositheans, who professed to be the prophet
+foretold by Moses, the star spoken of in the law, appeared about
+a century before Christ.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In this state of the evidence it is obvious that no argument can
+be based on the coincidence in time between the origin of the
+Dositheans and that of our sect. When the Fathers bring the
+names of Dositheus and Zadok into conjunction, it means no
+more than that they attributed certain errors to both Dositheans
+and Sadducees; just as the Talmudic legend which makes Zadok
+and Boëthus apostate disciples of Antigonus of Socho is but a
+mythological way of saying that Sadducees and Boëthusians
+were addicted to the same heresies concerning retribution, or as
+the coupling of Dositheus and Simon Magus means that both
+passed for Samaritan arch-heretics.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The first point of agreement between the Dositheans and our
+sect which Dr. Schechter notes is in the calendar. Abul-Fath
+says that the Dositheans did away with the computation of the
+almanac (tables of lunar conjunctions), making all their months
+exactly thirty days long, and (thus) annulled the correct festivals and the ordinance
+of the fasts and the affliction (Day of Atonement).<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>
+The circle of thirty disciples, who, with a woman called
+Helena (Moon), formed the train of Dositheus, according to
+the Clementine Recognitions (ii, 8) symbolized the days of the
+month. If our sect employed the calendar of the Book of Jubilees,
+as seems highly probable, they also had thirty-day months;
+but it would not follow that the system was original with them,
+nor that the Dositheans must have adopted it from them. There
+were, in fact, from very remote times, two years in use within
+the area of the ancient civilizations, a lunar-solar year, consisting
+of twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days each,
+with a thirteenth month added every two or three years to maintain
+approximate agreement with the solar year and make the
+months fall in the same seasons, and a solar year of three hundred
+and sixty-five days, divided into twelve months of thirty
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+days each without regard to the lunations, and five extra days
+(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">epagomenae</span></span>). The former was the system of the
+Babylonians and the Greeks, as well as the Jews; the latter was in use in Egypt
+from immemorial times until the Roman reforms. From the
+Egyptians it was borrowed by the Abyssinians; it was employed
+also for some centuries before and after the Christian era in the
+calendars of Gaza and Ashkelon. The Persians had the same
+system; the Yashts contain a liturgy for the thirty regents of
+the days of the month, the five extra days being assigned to the
+divine Gathas. Probably under Persian influences, this calendar
+was established in Armenia, Cappadocia, and other parts of Asia
+Minor.<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Jews and Samaritans not only lived in many of the lands of
+their dispersion among peoples who used the thirty-day month,
+but encountered this calendar in commercial centres on the very
+borders of Palestine with which they had close relations. The
+advantages of a system in which the festivals came on fixed dates,
+instead of shifting within wide limits, as they must in the lunar-solar
+year with its irregular intercalation, are obvious,<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> and an
+attempt to reform the Jewish calendar accordingly may have
+been made more than once and in more than one region. The
+peculiarity of the system of the Book of Jubilees is not the uniform
+length of the months, but the admission of only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four</span></em> extra days,
+thus making an even fifty-two weeks (364 days), which was of
+more concern to the author than the increased error of a whole
+day in the solar year.<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> We do not know whether the Dositheans
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of Abul-Fath and the Sadducees of Kirkisani (of whom later)
+agreed in this point with Jubilees, or counted <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">five</span></em> extra days like
+the rest of the world. The former may be thought probable,
+but it cannot be assumed as certain. The year of 365 days is
+also found in the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, c. 6.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>
+on the Dositheans as saying,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“some of them abstain from a second marriage, but others never
+marry”</span>; and, although <span class="tei tei-q">“the text is not quite certain on this
+point,”</span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a>
+is inclined to perceive in the statement <span class="tei tei-q">“at least an echo
+of the law of our sect prohibiting a second marriage as long as
+the first wife is alive.”</span> The passage in Epiphanius is more than
+obscure, and the text is for that reason suspected. The passage
+runs: Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται, ἀλλὰ καί τινες αὐτῶν ἐγκρατεύονται ἀπὸ
+γάμων μετὰ τοῦ βιῶσαι, ἄλλοι δὲ καὶ παρθενεύουσιν. Whatever
+this may mean, it certainly is not, <span class="tei tei-q">“some of them abstain
+from marriage after the death of their first wives,”</span> nor does anything
+in the context justify the large changes in the text which
+would be required to force this sense upon it. Casaubon's conjecture
+υἱῶσαι has nothing to commend it. The simplest solution
+of the difficulty would be to write συμβιῶσαι,<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“some of them
+refrain from marital relations after having lived together, others
+preserve their virginity.”</span> Whether this emendation is right or
+not, it is clear that Epiphanius describes his Dositheans as a kind
+of Encratite ascetics, while the prohibition of polygamy—whether
+contemporaneous or consecutive—by our sect has a totally different
+ground; of asceticism there is, indeed, no symptom in its
+ordinances.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Schechter thinks that the statement of Epiphanius quoted
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+above that the Dositheans <span class="tei tei-q">“abstain from eating living creatures”</span>
+<span class="tei tei-q">“may have some connection with the law in our text on p. 12, l.
+11, which may perhaps be understood to imply that the sect forbade
+honey, regarding it as <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">'eber min haḥai</span></span>
+(a limb cut off from
+a living animal), which would agree with the testimony of Abul-Fath
+that they forbade the eating of eggs, except those which
+were found in a slaughtered fowl.”</span> Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται does not
+mean <span class="tei tei-q">“abstain from eating living creatures,”</span> but <span class="tei tei-q">“abstain from
+animal food,”</span><a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a>
+while our sect certainly did not include vegetarianism
+among its eccentricities, any more than the depreciation
+of marriage.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Several authors describe the Dositheans as extravagant sabbatarians.
+Origen reports that their rule was, that in whatever
+place and in whatever posture the Sabbath found a man, there
+and thus he was to remain till its end. Abul-Fath gives a longer
+account of their Sabbath laws, which are much stricter than those
+of our texts. It was forbidden, for example, to feed domestic
+animals or give them drink on the Sabbath, they were to be provided
+on Friday with enough provender and water to last them
+through the Sabbath. Extreme sabbatarianism is, however, a
+sectarian propensity which does not have to be borrowed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius further as saying that the Dositheans
+<span class="tei tei-q">“have no intercourse with all people because they detest
+all mankind,”</span> in which he thinks <span class="tei tei-q">“we may readily recognize here
+the law of our Sect requiring the washing of the clothes when they
+were brought by a Gentile (because of the contamination), and the
+prohibition of staying over the Sabbath in the vicinity of Gentiles”</span>
+(Introduction, pp. xxiii f.). What Epiphanius says is that
+the Dositheans agree with the rest of the Samaritans in the observance
+of circumcision and the Sabbath, and in avoiding contact
+with any one because they feel that all men (that is, all gentiles)
+are unclean. He had already described the customs of all the
+Samaritans: They wash themselves and their clothes in water
+when they come in contact with a foreigner; for they regard it as
+a defilement to come in contact with any one or even to touch
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+a man of another religion.<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> It is, therefore, not a Dosithean
+peculiarity, but the general Samaritan usage which Epiphanius
+describes, and it is useless to search for remoter affinities.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The marked hostility to the patriarch Judah with which
+Eulogius, the Patriarch of Alexandria (died 607 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span>), charges
+Dositheus<a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> is natural enough in a Samaritan heresiarch; in the
+same sentence Eulogius accuses him of scorning the prophets of
+God, which, again, is not peculiar to the Dositheans, but is the
+general Samaritan position. It has been remarked above (p.
+353) that our sect gives especial honor to the books of the prophets
+<span class="tei tei-q">“whose words Israel has despised”</span>; and, however unfriendly the
+attitude of these seceders to the degenerate Judah of their time,
+there is no indication of animosity to the patriarch, as there is
+none in the Jubilees.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+From a much later time Dr. Schechter has gleaned some notices
+of a sect of <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokites”</span> in whose tenets also he recognizes resemblances
+to those of our sect. Kirkisani, a Karaite author of the
+tenth century,<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadok was the first who exposed the
+Rabbanites and contradicted them publicly. He revealed a part
+of the truth, and composed books [a book] in which he frequently
+denounced the Rabbanites and criticised them. But he adduced
+no proof for anything he said, merely saying it by way of statement,
+except in one thing, namely, in his prohibition against
+marrying the daughter of the brother and the daughter of the sister.
+For he adduced as proof their being analogous to the paternal
+and maternal aunt.”</span><a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+This is a matter about which our sectaries are especially fierce
+in their denunciations of the laxity of the orthodox. The argument
+they employ is the same which Kirkisani attributes to
+Zadok. It is, however, the obvious argument, if the principle of
+analogy be admitted in the interpretation of the law; it is common
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the Karaite books, and is ascribed to the Samaritans
+also.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a>
+Kirkisani also says that the Zadokites absolutely forbade divorce,
+which the Scripture permitted, agreeing in this with the Christians
+and with the Isawites, whose founders, Jesus and Obadiah of
+Ispahan,<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> had likewise forbidden it. We are not told expressly
+that our sect prohibited divorce, but their prohibition of remarriage
+during the life of the divorced wife would have the same
+effect. Finally, Kirkisani says that the Zadokites fixed all the
+months at thirty days each,<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> and that they did not count the
+Sabbath among the seven days of the celebration of the Passover
+and the Tabernacles, making the feast consist of seven days exclusive
+of the Sabbath. Substantially the same statements are
+made about the Zadokites by another Karaite author, Hadassi,
+who flourished in the middle of the twelfth century, and perhaps
+derived his information from Kirkisani.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+What the <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokite”</span> writings really were to which these
+authors refer is not known. It is certain, however, that both
+the Karaites and their opponents took them to be Sadducean
+works. In the passage about Zadok, part of which Dr. Schechter
+quotes (see above), Kirkisani says: <span class="tei tei-q">“After the appearance of the
+Rabbanites (the first of whom was Simeon the Just), the Sadducees
+appeared; their leaders were Zadok and Boëthus.... Zadok
+was the first who exposed the Rabbanites,”</span> etc.<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> Zadok's disclosure
+of a part of truth was followed by the full discovery of
+the truth about the laws by Anan, the founder of the Karaites.
+Not only do the opponents of the Karaites stigmatize Anan and
+his followers as the remnants of the disciples of Zadok and
+Boëthus, but the older Karaites expressly claim this origin. Thus
+Joseph al-Baṣir (first half of the eleventh century) says that, in
+the times of the second temple, the Rabbanites, who were then
+called Pharisees, had the upper hand, while the Karaites, then
+known as Sadducees, were less influential.<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> The Karaite author
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+of an anonymous commentary on Exodus preserved in manuscript
+in St. Petersburg<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> polemizes against a disciple of Saadia,
+the great <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Malleus Karaeorum</span></span>, about the proper way of determining
+the beginning of the months (and consequently the dates of
+the feasts), which the Rabbanites fixed by calculation of the
+conjunctions, while the Karaites depended on observation of
+the visible new moon. The ancients, he says, required evidence
+of the appearance of the new moon.<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a>
+Saadia, who mistakenly
+assumed that the beginning of the month had been determined
+astronomically from remote antiquity—the calendar was, in fact,
+of Sinaitic origin<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a>—asserted
+that the taking of testimony about
+the appearance of the moon was an innovation occasioned by
+the contention of Zadok and Boëthus that the law required the
+beginning of the month to be determined by actual observation;
+witnesses were heard only to prove that observation confirmed
+the calculation. To this the author replies: <span class="tei tei-q">“The book of the
+Zadokites (Sadducees) is well known, and there is no such thing
+in it as that man (Saadia) avers. In the book of Zadok are various
+things in which he dissents from the Rabbanites of the second
+temple with regard to sacrifices and other matters, but there
+is not a syllable of what the Fayyumite (Saadia) says.”</span><a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> Saadia
+himself appears not to have questioned the authenticity of the
+writings that went under the name of Zadok, with which he seems
+to have been acquainted, directly or indirectly, for in a passage
+quoted by Yefet ben 'Ali he says that Zadok had proved from
+the one hundred and fifty days in the story of the flood just the
+opposite of what the Karaites try to prove from them.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Zadokite books thus meant, for all those from whom our information
+comes, Sadducean books; and so, in the sense that, whatever
+their age and origin, they contained substantially Sadducean
+teachings, most modern scholars, also, have understood
+the name.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The possibility that Sadducean writings from the beginning
+of the Christian era had survived to the Middle Ages cannot well
+be denied, especially in view of the preservation of the book of
+the unknown sect that forms the subject of our present study
+in copies as late as the tenth or eleventh century; and even if
+the book which the Karaites took for Sadducean was erroneously
+attributed to that sect, there is no sufficient ground for identifying
+it with the texts in our hands or for ascribing it to our sect. A
+thirty-day month, and the prohibition of divorce and of marriage
+with a niece, are much too slender a foundation to support
+so large an inference, and it is hardly legitimate to argue that if
+we had the entire book, of which only a part—or, according to
+Dr. Schechter, excerpts—is preserved, we might find other and
+more significant agreements.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Schechter has also remarked certain coincidences between
+the tenets of our sect and those of the Falashas, or Abyssinian
+Jews, whom, with Beer, he is disposed to connect in some way
+with the Dositheans. Their Sabbath laws resemble those in
+the Jubilees and in the texts before us; they also prohibit marriage
+with a niece; they have a tradition that the Pentateuch was
+brought to Abyssinia by Azariah, the son of Zadok (1 Kings
+4 2); certain features of their calendar may possibly be related to
+that of the Zadokites as described by Kirkisani. Here, again,
+the correspondences are not numerous or distinctive enough
+to establish an historical connection.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Putting together these scattered indicia, Dr. Schechter arrives
+at a theory of the history and relations of the sect which must
+be given in his own words:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+We may, then, formulate our hypothesis that our text is constituted
+of fragments forming extracts from a Zadok book, known to us chiefly
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+from the writings of Kirkisani. The Sect which it represented, did
+not however pass for any length of time under the name of Zadokites,
+but was soon in some way amalgamated with and perhaps also absorbed
+by the Dosithean Sect, and made more proselytes among the Samaritans
+than among the Jews, with which former sect it had many points of
+similarity. In the course of time, however, the Dosithean Sect also
+disappeared, and we have only some traces left of them in the lingering
+sect of the Falashas, with whom they probably came into close contact
+at an early period of their (the Falashas') existence, and to whom they
+handed down a good many of their practices. The only real difficulty
+in the way of this hypothesis is, that according to our Text the Sect had
+its original seat in Damascus, north of Palestine, and it is difficult to
+see how they reached the Dositheans, and subsequently the Falashas,
+who had their main seats in the south of Palestine, or Egypt. But
+this could be explained by assuming special missionary efforts on the
+part of the Zadokites by sending their emissaries to Egypt, a country
+which was especially favourable to such an enterprise because of the
+existence of the Onias Temple there. The severance of the Egyptian
+Jews from the Palestinian influence (though they did not entirely give
+up their loyalty to the Jerusalem Sanctuary), prepared the ground for
+the doctrines of such a Sect as the Zadokites in which all allegiance to
+Judah and Jerusalem was rejected, and in which the descendants of the
+House of Zadok (of whom indeed Onias himself was one) represented
+both the Priest and the Messiah.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The evidence adduced in support of this ingenious hypothesis
+has already been examined in detail, and the results need only
+be summarized here: There is nothing in the book before us to
+warrant classing the men who made the new covenant in the
+land of Damascus as a Zadokite sect;<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> neither the external
+nor the internal evidence suffices to identify the work quoted by
+Kirkisani as Zadokite (by which he and all the rest understood
+Sadducean) with the book before us; the connection of the sect
+with the Dositheans rests in great part on misunderstanding of
+the testimonies about the Dositheans—misunderstandings, it
+is fair to say, which are not all original with Dr. Schechter,—in
+part upon points of resemblance which are not distinctive enough
+to prove anything. Of the peculiar organization of our sect,
+which would be conclusive, there is no trace anywhere.
+</p>
+
+<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+A much more sensational hypothesis was broached by Mr. G.
+Margoliouth in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Athenaeum</span></span> for November 26, 1910, under
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+the title, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Sadducean Christians of Damascus.”</span> He takes
+<span class="tei tei-q">“the root”</span> which God caused to spring from Israel and Aaron
+(1 7) for the same person who is subsequently called the Anointed
+one (Messiah), and distinguishes this figure from the Teacher of
+Righteousness, also called the Anointed one, who appeared
+twenty years later. <span class="tei tei-q">“Both these Messiahs were dead when the
+document was composed, but they were both expected to reappear
+in the latter days.”</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The first of them, the Messiah descended from Aaron and
+Israel, in consequence of whose work <span class="tei tei-q">“they meditated over their
+sin, and knew that they were guilty men,”</span> is John the Baptist.
+John's father was a priest, and though his mother also is said to
+have been of priestly descent, <span class="tei tei-q">“this need not stand in the way
+of believing that there was a strain of non-priestly Israelite
+blood in the family.”</span> The Sadducees would naturally prefer
+a priestly Messiah to a Davidic one, and, when John won the
+recognition of the people as a prophet sent by God, it would not
+be strange if a priestly party acclaimed him as in some sense a
+Messiah, or anointed leader of the nation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The other Messiah, the Teacher of Righteousness, must then
+be Jesus. That he appeared twenty years after John, so far
+from being an argument against this identification, would relieve
+the difficulty of trying to crowd John's whole history into little
+more than a year. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is surely not necessary to defend the
+Lucan tradition on this point at all hazards, and it seems quite
+likely that the newly discovered document has at last given us
+the right perspective of events.”</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+If these identifications are correct, the <span class="tei tei-q">“man of scoffing,”</span> or
+Belial,<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> who is sent to pervert the nation and turn it from the
+law, can be no other than the Apostle Paul, and it is noted for
+confirmation that <span class="tei tei-q">“the period here assigned to his activity and
+that of his immediate following is about forty years, a space of
+time not far removed from the result of recent critical computation.”</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The New Covenant so often referred to in the texts is clearly
+to be connected with the identical conception and expression
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the New Testament, nor does it seem to be accidental that
+the Teacher of Righteousness is several times spoken of as the
+<span class="tei tei-q">“only”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“unique”</span> one.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mr. Margoliouth presents his complete hypothesis as follows:—
+</p>
+
+<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">
+The natural and apparently inevitable conclusion of the whole matter,
+therefore, is that we have here to deal with a primitive Judaeo-Christian
+body of people which consisted of priests and Levites belonging to the
+Boëthusian section of the Sadducean party,</span><a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> fortified—as the document
+shows—by a considerable Israelitish lay element, besides a real
+or contemplated admixture of proselytes. They acknowledged, as we
+have seen, John the Baptist, as a Messiah of the family of Aaron, and
+they also believed in Jesus as a kind of second (or, perhaps, as pre-eminent)
+Messiah whose special function it was to be a </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Teacher of
+Righteousness.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> Paul they abhorred; and they strove with all their
+might to combine the full observance of the Mosaic Law, as they understood
+it, with the principles of the </span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">new covenant,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> again as they understood
+it. On the destruction of the Temple by Titus, finding that it
+would not serve any good purpose to linger in Judaea, they determined
+to migrate to Damascus,</span><a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 90%"> intending to establish their
+central organization in that city, and to found communities of the sect in different parts
+of the neighboring country. It was at this juncture that the manifesto,
+</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">
+bearing as it does unmistakable marks of personal touch, was composed
+by a leader of the movement.
+</span></div>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+No scholar who has made an independent study of the texts
+published by Dr. Schechter can have failed to consider the question
+whether these schismatics, with their <span class="tei tei-q">“unique teacher,”</span><a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a>
+their <span class="tei tei-q">“new covenant,”</span> their <span class="tei tei-q">“Supervisor,”</span> whose name and
+functions might be compared with those of a bishop ἐπίσκοπος,
+their loyalty to their dead leader, God's Anointed one (Messiah),
+who made them know his holy spirit, and their expectation of
+an Anointed one in the last times, their hostility to the Pharisees,
+can have been a Jewish Christian sect.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The more closely the documents are examined, however, the
+less tenable this conjecture appears. One feature of the sectarian
+eschatology which, if established, would afford the most
+striking coincidence with early Christian belief, namely, that the
+Messiah who died in the early days of the sect is to <span class="tei tei-q">“reappear”</span>
+(Margoliouth), or <span class="tei tei-q">“rise again”</span> (Schechter), has no support whatever
+in the text.<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a>
+The <span class="tei tei-q">“new covenant”</span> in the land of Damascus
+is plainly the obligation by which the members of the sect bind
+themselves to the organization, with its peculiar interpretations
+of the law and its distinctive observances. Neither in the terms
+of the covenant nor in the law itself is there anything that suggests
+Christian origin or influence. That <span class="tei tei-q">“a man should love
+his neighbor as himself”</span> is not peculiarly or even preëminently
+a Christian precept. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
+reiterate it; by the most orthodox rabbis it was recognized as
+the most comprehensive commandment in the law.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The things which the sect esteems of vital importance lie wholly
+in the sphere of the law; polemic zeal for a code which is at every
+point more rigorous than that of the Pharisees is the salient characteristic
+of both parts of the book. The moral precepts are
+the commonplaces of Judaism narrowed to a sectarian horizon.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a>
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+The judgment of God is similarly circumscribed. It is not a
+judgment of the world or of the Jewish people, but of those who
+reject and controvert the legal interpretation of the sect, and of
+those who have fallen away from it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The code of law which is the constituent principle of the sect
+and the reason for its existence was given it by its founder, the
+Teacher of Righteousness. This unique teacher was not a prophetic
+reformer, but <span class="tei tei-q">“the interpreter of the law who came to
+Damascus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the legislator.”</span> The statutes he decreed are final;
+the sect <span class="tei tei-q">“shall receive no others until the teacher of righteousness
+shall arise in the last times.”</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Mr. Margoliouth thinks that the <span class="tei tei-q">“teacher of righteousness”</span>
+to whom the sect attributed its institutions and laws was Jesus.
+The statement of this conjecture is its refutation. The rôle of
+a legislator is the last which the character and teaching of Jesus
+in the Gospels would suggest even to a sect in search of a
+founder. That he, whose disregard for the Pharisaic rules of
+Sabbath observance repeatedly got him into trouble, should,
+within a generation after his death, have been metamorphosed
+into the author of the sabbatical code in our texts, which out-pharisees
+the Pharisees at every point, surpasses ordinary powers
+of imagination. The Christian Jews of the first century in Palestine,
+so far as we know anything about them, conformed in the
+matter of observance to the authority of the scribes and Pharisees,
+and alleged the express command of Jesus for this practice
+(Matt. 23 2). Early Christian heresies sometimes exhibit ascetic
+features reminding us of the Essenes; but none of ultra-legalistic
+tendency is known.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+As our sect is very zealous for things which have no connection
+with Christianity, so on the other hand the texts disclose no trace
+of specific Christian beliefs or conceptions. For the Christian
+Jews of the first century, the belief that Jesus, who had been
+crucified under Pontius Pilate, was the Messiah of prophecy,
+that he had risen from the dead and ascended to heaven, whence
+he was presently to come in might and majesty, according to
+the vision of Daniel, to usher in the new era, was the pith and
+substance of their faith, the <span class="tei tei-q">“heresy”</span> by which they were separated
+from their countrymen, the focus of their polemic and
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+apologetic in controversies with those who rejected their Messiah.
+It is impossible to imagine a writing as long as this, and imbued
+as strongly as this with a controversial spirit, proceeding from
+any Christian sect, in which there should not be so much as an
+allusion to any of these things; or that a sect which put John
+the Baptist in so high a place should not make something of
+baptism in the admission of members.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Apart from these general considerations, Mr. Margoliouth's
+identifications rest upon a palpable misinterpretation. On page 1
+we read: <span class="tei tei-q">“But because God remembered the covenant with the
+forefathers, he left Israel a remnant, and did not suffer them to
+be exterminated. And at the end of wrath ... he visited them
+and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a root of his planting
+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to inherit his land and to prosper on the good things of his earth</span></em>.”</span>
+The italicized clauses prove beyond question that the <span class="tei tei-q">“root”</span>
+is not an individual, but is a collective designation for the first
+generation of the sect.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> The parallel passage on p. 5 says explicitly:
+<span class="tei tei-q">“God remembered the covenant with the forefathers,
+and he raised up from Aaron men of insight and from Israel
+wise men, and he heard them, and they dug the well.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The well
+is the law, and they who dug it are the exiles of Israel who migrated
+to Judah and sojourned in the land of Damascus.”</span> In the face
+of this perfectly plain meaning of the passage Mr. Margoliouth
+takes <span class="tei tei-q">“the root”</span> for the person designated in other places as <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+Anointed from Aaron and Israel,”</span> who led the people <span class="tei tei-q">“to recognize
+their wickedness and know that they were guilty men.”</span><a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a>
+In this first Messiah he recognizes John the Baptist, and, consequently,
+in the Teacher of Righteousness who came after him,
+Jesus. The point of correspondence is the relation between the
+forerunner and his successor. The text, however, as I have just
+showed, says nothing of a precursor of the teacher of righteousness;
+on the contrary, it was this teacher who first brought light
+to the generation which in the consciousness of its sin was
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+groping like the blind, and guided them in the way of God's
+heart.<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That by the <span class="tei tei-q">“man of scoffing”</span> the Apostle Paul is meant is
+for Mr. Margoliouth a corollary of the preceding identifications,
+and falls with them. The enemies of Paul were doubtless capable
+of calling him all sorts of hard names, but there is nothing in the
+epithets <span class="tei tei-q">“scorner”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“liar,”</span> or in the doings attributed to
+this figure, which fits Paul better than any other false teacher
+and sower of discord, while the reference to the fate of the men
+of war who followed the <span class="tei tei-q">“man of lies”</span> seems quite inapplicable
+to Paul.<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+That we should be unable to identify the Covenanters of
+Damascus with any sect previously known is not surprising.
+The three or four centuries in the middle of which the Christian
+era falls were prolific in sects and heresies of many complexions,
+as were the centuries following the rise of Islam.
+Through Philo, Josephus, the church Fathers, and the Talmud,
+we are acquainted with some of them; but it is probable that
+there were many others of which no reports have reached us.
+If we cannot, out of the collection at our disposal, put a label
+on our Covenanters, we may console ourselves with the reflection
+that here we know one Jewish sect from its own monuments, and
+that the texts in our hands, mutilated as they are, suffice to give
+us a much clearer notion of its peculiarities than we get of most
+of the other sects from the descriptions which have come down
+to us.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Its affinities with various antipharisaic or antirabbinical parties,
+such as the Samaritans, the Sadducees, and, in later times, the
+Karaites, is obvious. It shared with all these a zeal for the letter
+and the literal interpretation, and a disposition to extend the
+law by analogy of principle, as a result of which their rules were
+in general much stricter than those of the Rabbis, who possessed
+<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
+in the theory of tradition and in their methods of exegesis the
+means of adapting the law to changed conditions, and who were
+also more disposed to give the precedence to the great principles
+of humanity in the law over its particular prescriptions when
+the two seemed to conflict. The organization of the sect, on the
+other hand, has no parallel within our knowledge. In view of
+the use of the name <span class="tei tei-q">“camps”</span> for the local communities, and
+the references to the <span class="tei tei-q">“mustering”</span> of the members, the <span class="tei tei-q">“trumpets
+of the congregation,”</span> and the like, it may be surmised that the
+organization of Israel in the wilderness suggested the plan, and
+that the Supervisors were meant to correspond to the chiefs of
+the tribes (for instance, Num. 1 10), each having authority over
+a separate camp.
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+The sect seems to have perpetuated itself for a considerable
+time, otherwise this book would hardly have been preserved.
+It may perhaps be conjectured that it survived long enough to
+be gathered, along with numerous younger sects, into the capacious
+bosom of Karaism, of which it was in various points a precursor.
+Such an hypothesis would explain how it came about
+that copies of the book were made in the tenth century and later,
+we should then suppose by Karaite scribes.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+Dr. Schechter has laid all students of Judaism under new obligations
+by the discovery and publication of these texts. They
+will join with their congratulations the hope that he may find yet
+other treasures among the accumulations of the Genizah.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
+  <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+    <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a>
+    <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>
+    <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1>
+    <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Documents of Jewish Sectaries. Volume I. Fragments of
+a Zadokite Work. Edited, with Translation, Introduction, and Notes, by S. Schechter.
+Cambridge University Press. 1910.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It
+may be added that the quotations are singularly inexact.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In my translation
+I have sometimes thought it possible to adhere to the
+text where Dr. Schechter has preferred a conjectural emendation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">That is, probably,
+against the legitimate high priest of the time (perhaps
+Onias).—The rendering <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">by</span></em> his Anointed”</span>
+is grammatically admissible, but
+would be unintelligible in this context.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It
+would be possible to render <span class="tei tei-q">“the penitents of Israel.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
+four or five words which follow are unintelligible.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The references are to page and line of
+the Hebrew text.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Others
+sought refuge in Egypt; the temple of Onias at Leontopolis had its
+origin in the same circumstances.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">So they understood the
+words translated in the English version <span class="tei tei-q">“the cruel
+venom of asps.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See 2
+Macc. 4 16: <span class="tei tei-q">“By reason of which (sc. their predilection for Greek
+ways) a dire calamity befel them, and those for whose customs they displayed
+such zeal and whom they wanted to imitate in everything became their enemies
+and avengers.”</span> Assumption of Moses, 5 1: <span class="tei tei-q">“When the times of retribution
+shall draw near, and vengeance arises through kings who share their guilt and
+punish them,”</span> etc., describes the same situation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf.
+<span class="tei tei-q">“the whole race of the elect root,”</span> Enoch 93 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. iii. p. 189.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A
+comparison with the Apocalypse of the Ten Weeks in Enoch (93 +
+91 12-17) is in point here. The sixth <span class="tei tei-q">“week”</span> (period of 490 years) ends with
+the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar; in the seventh a rebellious
+generation arises, all whose works are apostasy (the hellenizers of the Seleucid
+time); at its end the <span class="tei tei-q">“chosen righteous men of the eternal plantation of
+righteousness”</span> are chosen to receive the sevenfold instruction about God's whole
+creation (apparently the cosmological revelations of Enoch); the historical retrospect
+closes before the robbery and desecration of the temple by Antiochus
+Epiphanes (170, 168 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>), of which the seer knows nothing.
+The chronological error here amounts to sixty or seventy years.
+</p>
+<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">
+In the Introduction, p. xii, by a typographical error which is repeated on
+p. xxii, Dr. Schechter says that the 390 years of the text would bring us <span class="tei tei-q">“to
+within a generation of Simon the Just, who flourished about 290
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>,”</span> and twenty
+years more would bring us into the midst of the hellenistic persecutions preceding
+the Maccabaean revolt (about 170 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>). Margoliouth, whose
+hypothesis 490 does not suit any better than 390, takes courage from Schechter's doubts
+to disregard the numbers altogether. Gressmann (Internationale Wochenschrift,
+March 4, 1911) is led by metrical considerations to treat all the chronological
+notices as interpolations, and gives them no further consideration. But even
+if the figures were introduced by a later hand, they may still represent the tradition
+of the sect.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps
+we should emend <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">ma'mādō</span></span>,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“station,”</span> i.e. sect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+below, p. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref">350</a>, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref">354</a> f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Isa. 30 20 f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Septuagint renders
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">yāḥīd</span></span> most frequently by ἀγαπητός, less often
+by μονογενής.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The same prophecy which
+was applied by Akiba to Bar Cocheba and by
+the Dositheans to their founder (see below, p. <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The sect rejects the
+temple in Jerusalem and its worship. Cf. 20 21 f., in
+the last crisis, <span class="tei tei-q">“they will lean upon God ... and will declare the sanctuary
+unclean and will return to God.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps better, keep aloof, by vow and ban, from
+unrighteous, unclean gain.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+below, p. <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name comes from
+Isa. 28 14, where the scorners are the rulers in Jerusalem,
+who boast of their covenant with death and their compact with hell, who
+have made lies their refuge and hidden themselves in falsehood. See also Isa.
+29 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It might
+be surmised that the false prophet had headed an insurrection—perhaps
+a Messianic rising—which ended in disaster.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+above, p. <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref">333</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Or, as Schechter elsewhere
+expresses it, <span class="tei tei-q">“disappeared.”</span> Among the synonyms
+for death, Aaron ben Eliahu names <span class="tei tei-q">“gather in”</span> (Isa. 58 8).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Introduction,
+p. xiii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">P.
+xiii. <span class="tei tei-q">“We gather from another passage that the Only Teacher found
+his death in Damascus, but is expected to rise again (p. 19, l. 35; p. 20, l. 1; cf.
+also p. 6, l. 11).”</span> The verb <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">'āmad</span></span>
+means, as frequently in the later books of the
+Old Testament, <span class="tei tei-q">“appear upon the scene.”</span> In this sense it occurs repeatedly in
+the book before us, and there is nothing in the context here to suggest a different
+interpretation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf.
+Acts 1 11.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Isa. 59 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The quotation
+is to be thus restored; see Exod. 20 6 and Deut. 7 9. The
+next two or three lines are very obscure: <span class="tei tei-q">“From the house of Peleg, who went
+out (or, will go out) from the city of the sanctuary, and they will rely on God
+(cf. Isa. 10 20) when the transgression of Israel is at an end, and will declare the
+sanctuary unclean, and will return to God. The prince (?) of the people with
+few words (??).”</span> The house of Peleg may be an etymological allegory for the
+seceders; the city of the sanctuary is probably Jerusalem (cf. 6 11 ff., above,
+p. 338); but neither the connection with the preceding nor the meaning of the
+sequel is clear.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Text,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“and confessed,”</span> which leaves the sentence without a predicate.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See also
+7 20: <span class="tei tei-q">“The sceptre”</span> (Num. 24 17) <span class="tei tei-q">“is the prince of all the congregation;
+and when he arises he will destroy all the children of Seth.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is not improbable
+that the author thought also of the other meaning
+of the word <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">tāphēl</span></span>,
+here rendered <span class="tei tei-q">“stucco,”</span> viz. something insipid, stupid; cf.
+Lam. 2 14, in a passage which, like Ezek. 13 10, refers to the false prophets. I
+see nothing to indicate that <span class="tei tei-q">“the wall”</span> is the fence or hedge which the Pharisaean
+rabbis drew around the law to protect it from infraction, as Dr. Schechter
+thinks.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The text
+explains, <span class="tei tei-q">“this is the prater of whom it says, they prate unceasingly”</span>
+(4 19 f.; cf. Mic. 2 11). Dr. Schechter regards this explanation as <span class="tei tei-q">“a
+disturbing parenthesis.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href="#noteref_35">35.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
+Jannes and Jambres of 2 Tim. 3 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href="#noteref_36">36.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Such
+marriages, especially with a sister's daughter, are not only permitted,
+but especially commended in the Talmud (Yebamoth 62b-63a; see Maimonides,
+Issure Biah 2 14), and are still common in countries where the Jews are free to
+follow the rabbinical law. On the Karaite prohibition of marriage with a niece,
+see below, p. <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref">366</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href="#noteref_37">37.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the pollution of
+the sanctuary, cf. Assumption of Moses 5 3; Testament
+of Levi 14 5 ff.; Psalms of Solomon 2 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href="#noteref_38">38.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the
+portals of the sun, see Enoch 72, etc.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href="#noteref_39">39.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps an error of the text for 2000;
+see below, § 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href="#noteref_40">40.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Jubilees 50 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href="#noteref_41">41.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This holds on week-days as well as on the Sabbath.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href="#noteref_42">42.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps we should
+read, <span class="tei tei-q">“make an <span class="tei tei-q">‘<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">erūb</span></span>’</span> ”</span>
+(a legal fiction by which dwellings
+or limits were treated as one). The Sadducees and Samaritans rejected this
+evasion of the law.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href="#noteref_43">43.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See 12 12 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href="#noteref_44">44.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Similarly
+the Essenes, at their reception into the order, bound themselves
+by the <span class="tei tei-q">“tremendous oaths”</span> which Josephus describes, B. J. ii, 8 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href="#noteref_45">45.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
+oath by the Tetragrammaton included <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a fortiori</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href="#noteref_46">46.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Essenes
+excluded oaths altogether, except in the initiation of members.
+See also Slavonic Enoch 49 1; Philo, De spec. legibus ii, 1, and elsewhere
+(Charles, Secrets of Enoch, p. 65). Our sect recognizes judicial oaths (9 8 ff.)
+and imprecations (9 12), as well as vows under oath (16 6 ff.).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href="#noteref_47">47.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the relation of the
+Jubilees to the sect, see further below, p.
+<a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href="#noteref_48">48.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf.
+Jubilees 2 9, God appointed the sun ... for sabbaths, and months,
+and feasts; and Jubilees 6 37, the observation of the moon disturbs the calendar.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href="#noteref_49">49.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It seems
+necessary to supply these words.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href="#noteref_50">50.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The book of
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">hagu</span></span>.”</span> The rendering
+<span class="tei tei-q">“Institutes”</span> is not offered as a translation
+of the name, but as indicating the probable character of the work. See
+below, p. <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref">353</a> f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href="#noteref_51">51.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Schechter
+renders <span class="tei tei-q">“Censor,”</span> and remarks, <span class="tei tei-q">“Such an office, entirely
+unknown to Judaism, could only have been borrowed from the Romans.”</span> But
+the functions of the Inspector or Supervisor bear no resemblance to those of the
+Roman censors; and for the identity of the title the translator is solely accountable,
+not the constitution of the sect. Mr. Margoliouth talks loosely about
+dependence on Roman administrative models; it would be interesting to learn
+in what particulars. With the very large authority vested in the Supervisor may
+be compared that of the managers, or administrators (ἐπιμεληταί), among the
+Essenes, <span class="tei tei-q">“without whose directions they do nothing”</span>; though the functions of
+the managers in the Essene coenobite establishments were of course quite different
+from those of the Supervisors of our sect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href="#noteref_52">52.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the
+partly illegible lines that follow, his dealing with the congregation
+is compared with that of a shepherd with his flock.—Dr. W. H. Ward suggests
+that the title <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">mebaḳḳer</span></span>
+may be connected with Ezek. 34 11 f., where the verb
+is used of a shepherd's looking out for his flock.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href="#noteref_53">53.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As in Mishna
+<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span> the High Priest has to be instructed by experts in the
+ritual of the Day of Atonement, and made to swear not to depart from his
+instructions.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href="#noteref_54">54.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Probably the lands belonging to
+the sect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href="#noteref_55">55.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">That a
+court must consist of ten judges, the Karaites deduce from Ruth
+4 2. So Anan quoted by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xlv, p. 67,
+and p. 69, n. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href="#noteref_56">56.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This seems to be the
+meaning of the somewhat obscure passage.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href="#noteref_57">57.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It
+is not clear whether imprisonment or surveillance is meant.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href="#noteref_58">58.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On
+the spirit of Belial (ruling over Israel) see Jubilees 1 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href="#noteref_59">59.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Rebellion is as the
+sin of witchcraft,”</span> 1 Sam. 15 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href="#noteref_60">60.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In contrast to the
+Samaritans.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href="#noteref_61">61.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 8 18 ff.,
+after saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“Such will be the judgment of every one who
+despises the commandments of God, and he forsook them and they turned away
+in the stubbornness of their heart,”</span> A adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the word which Jeremiah
+spoke to Baruch the son of Neriah and Elisha to his servant Gehazi,”</span> referring
+probably to otherwise unknown apocryphal books. Johanneh and his brother,
+whom Belial raised up against Moses, are familiar figures of Jewish legend.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href="#noteref_62">62.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The simplest explanation
+of the form would be to take it as an abstract
+noun of the type <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">fa`l</span></span>,
+like <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">sáḥu</span></span>; <span class="tei tei-q">“swimming”</span> or
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">fi`l, fu`l,</span></span> like
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">séku</span></span> (n. pr.),
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">tóhu</span></span>,
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">bóhu</span></span>, etc., from
+the verb <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">hagah</span></span> (root
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">hagw</span></span>),
+<span class="tei tei-q">“reflect, give thought to something,”</span> also <span class="tei tei-q">“read”</span> (aloud), so
+that the noun might literally mean <span class="tei tei-q">“study,”</span> equivalent to
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">midrash</span></span>, or perhaps
+<span class="tei tei-q">“reading.”</span>—If the opinion which connects the sect with the
+Dositheans were tenable (see below, p. <a href="#Pg360" class="tei tei-ref">360</a>
+ff.), another explanation of the name
+might be suggested by a passage in Abul-Fath's account of the origin of the Dositheans.
+He narrates that a son of the Samaritan high priest, named Zar'ah, a
+man preëminent for learning in his time, having been expelled from the community
+for immorality, betook himself to Dositheus, who made him the chief of his
+sect. This man <span class="tei tei-q">“wrote a book in which he vituperated all the Samaritan religious
+heads and set forth heresies.”</span> The words are,
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">haja fīhī kul al' a'immetin wa'abda'a
+fīhī</span></span>. Inasmuch as the Arabic <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">hajwun</span></span>
+formally corresponds to the Hebrew
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">hagu</span></span>, the Book of
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Hagu</span></span> in our texts might be identified with this
+controversial writing of Zar'ah, the disciple of Dositheus. The Hebrew verb
+<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">hagah</span></span> is thought
+by Kohut (Aruch Completum, III, 177) to occur in Echa Rabbathi on Lam.
+1 4 and 3 33 in the sense <span class="tei tei-q">“contemn, deride,”</span> equivalent to the Arabic
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">haja</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“lampoon,
+vituperate.”</span> It might then be conjectured that Abul-Fath had heard of
+a Dosithean book of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">hagu</span></span> (in Hebrew) and,
+taking the word in its Arabic meaning,
+evolved his description of the character of the work from this etymology.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href="#noteref_63">63.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some
+Karaite authorities, also, transferring to the synagogue the holiness
+of the temple, forbade a man in a state of uncleanness to enter the inner room
+of the synagogue (Nissi; see Winter und Wünsche, Die jüdische Litteratur, vol.
+ii, p. 74).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href="#noteref_64">64.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The coincidence
+of the name with the Arabic <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">masjid</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“place of bowing
+down,”</span> mosque, is hardly a sufficient reason for suspecting Moslem influence, as
+Dr. Schechter does, who thinks it possible that the word was introduced by a
+later (Falasha?) scribe as a substitute for the original term.—Elia Bashiatzi
+(Adereth Eliahu, p. 58), a Karaite writer of the 15th century, gives
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth hishtaḥawīya,</span></span>
+together with <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth hakeneseth</span></span> and
+<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth hamidrash</span></span>, as the three names
+of the place of worship. Moslem influence can here hardly be questioned; in
+a later chapter Elia describes the postures of prayer quite after the Moslem pattern,
+alleging Biblical authority for all of them.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href="#noteref_65">65.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The opinion
+that after Josiah's reform, or after the restoration of the temple
+by Zerubbabel and Joshua, Jerusalem was the only place where Jewish sacrifices
+were offered is refuted by an accumulating volume of evidence from various
+regions. See D. S. Margoliouth, Expositor, 1911, pp. 40 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href="#noteref_66">66.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. the
+accusation against the orthodox Jews (5 6): <span class="tei tei-q">“They defile the Sanctuary
+in that they do not separate according to the law,”</span> etc.—It is possible that
+the prohibition quoted above applied, not to the inhabitants of the city, but to
+persons who visited it for the purpose of worship, as is the rule for pilgrims to
+Mecca.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href="#noteref_67">67.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The holy spirit in
+them. Dr. Schechter adduces parallels in Jewish writings.
+Cf. Jubilees 1 21, 23, <span class="tei tei-q">“Create in them a clean heart and a holy spirit.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href="#noteref_68">68.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Schechter conjectures
+that the author wrote <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Sar ha-Panim</span></span>, the Prince
+of the Presence, but the passages from Jubilees which he quotes in support of this
+opinion are hardly convincing.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href="#noteref_69">69.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+Slavonic Enoch 42 5; cf. 9.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href="#noteref_70">70.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">So
+far as may be argued from silence, this is an important difference
+from Jubilees.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href="#noteref_71">71.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+7 2; cf. Slavonic Enoch 50 4: <span class="tei tei-q">“When you might have vengeance, do
+not repay either your neighbor or your enemy. For God will repay as your
+avenger in the day of the great judgment. Let it not be for you to take vengeance.”</span>
+(ed. Charles, p. 67); cf. Ecclus. 28 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href="#noteref_72">72.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">That Zadok was
+the name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“interpreter of the law,”</span> the founder
+of the sect, is a much less probable opinion; the name stands in no connection
+with the origin of the sect or its legislation, but with the bringing to light again
+of the Pentateuch. The author cannot have supposed that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">written</span></em> law
+remained unknown till the second century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>;
+the reforms of Josiah, based on
+another recovery of the book by Hilkiah, would preclude such a notion.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href="#noteref_73">73.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
+coincidence of names does not count for very much. Abul-Fath names
+two Samaritan <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokite”</span> subsects among the later Dositheans alone.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href="#noteref_74">74.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, 1884, pp. 155 ff.;
+Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907, pp. 252 ff.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href="#noteref_75">75.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See
+also Epiphanius; the Sadducees were an offshoot from Dositheus.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href="#noteref_76">76.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Not in the time
+of Alexander the Great, as Dr. Schechter has from Montgomery.
+Abul-Fath, indeed (and Adler's Chronicle after him), introduces this
+whole story before Alexander, and makes Simon a protégé of Darius; but the
+testimony that Dositheus appeared after the time of Hyrcanus, which, as a matter
+of Samaritan history, may be conceived to rest on tradition, is not to be set aside
+because, in fitting his Samaritan traditions into the framework of universal history,
+Abul-Fath is in error by two or three centuries about the date of Hyrcanus. This
+used to be understood; see, e.g., De Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe, vol. ii (1806),
+p. 209.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href="#noteref_77">77.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Epiphanius avers,
+on the contrary, that the Dositheans kept their festivals
+at the same time with the Jews.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href="#noteref_78">78.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 437 ff., 517; Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 170 f., 287. On the calendar of Gaza, Schürer, Geschichte
+des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. ii, pp. 88 f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href="#noteref_79">79.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We
+have experience of the inconvenience of this system in the wandering
+of Easter and the Christian festivals dependent on it; a reform by which Easter
+should come on a fixed date in the solar year has repeatedly been proposed, and
+a movement is now on foot in Europe to bring this about by agreement of governments
+and churches.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href="#noteref_80">80.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The year of
+364-days is found also in Enoch 72-82, and (by the side of the
+true solar year of 365-¼ and the lunar year of 354 days) in the Slavonic Enoch.
+The intercalary days are introduced one at the beginning of each quarter of the
+year (Enoch 75 1); this is also the method in Jubilees; see 6 23. In effect this
+is equivalent to a year in which eight months have thirty days and four—those
+in which the equinoxes and solstices fall—have thirty-one (Enoch 72 13, 19).
+It is not impossible that this system is implied in the chronology of the flood in
+Genesis; see B. W. Bacon, Hebraica, vol. viii (1891-1892), pp. 79-88, 124-139;
+Charles, Jubilees, p. 56.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href="#noteref_81">81.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is
+not the place to discuss the value of Epiphanius's testimony. His
+description of the Scribes and Pharisees at least admonishes to caution.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href="#noteref_82">82.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The text is certain enough, in the sense that all the
+manuscripts hitherto collated have the same reading.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href="#noteref_83">83.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nicetas,
+in reproducing Epiphanius's account of the Dositheans, has τεκνῶσαι,
+<span class="tei tei-q">“after having begotten children,”</span> which also agrees very well with the
+context.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href="#noteref_84">84.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The familiar
+title of Porphyry's book on vegetarianism, Περὶ ἀποχῆς
+ἐμψύχων, will occur to every one. Epiphanius himself explains the word in
+Haer. 18, 1, <span class="tei tei-q">“they (Nasaraei) thought it unlawful to eat meat.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href="#noteref_85">85.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Haer. 9, 3; cf.
+30, 2: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Ebionites, like the Samaritans, avoid touching
+an outsider.”</span> A still more extreme fastidiousness on this point is attributed by
+Josephus to the Essenes; cf. B. J. ii, 8, 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href="#noteref_86">86.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Photius, Bibliotheca Codicum, cod. 280 (ed.
+Bekker, p. 285).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href="#noteref_87">87.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Kitab al-Anwār was
+published in 937, not 637, as by a misprint on
+p. xviii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href="#noteref_88">88.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schechter's
+translation, Introduction, p. xviii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href="#noteref_89">89.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schechter, p. xxxvii, n. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href="#noteref_90">90.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Founder of a
+Jewish sect which arose in Persia about the end of the seventh
+century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href="#noteref_91">91.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this point see above, p.
+<a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref">362</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href="#noteref_92">92.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted
+in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xliv
+(1902). p. 162, n. 2.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href="#noteref_93">93.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted
+by Poznanski, l. c., p. 170.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href="#noteref_94">94.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Harkavy attributed
+it conjecturally to Sahl ben Masliah; Poznanski,
+whom Dr. Schechter follows, thinks it more likely that the author was Hasan
+ben Mashiah.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href="#noteref_95">95.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As the
+Karaites do. See e.g. Mishna, Rosh ha-Shana, 1 7 ff., 2 1 f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href="#noteref_96">96.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Poznanski,
+Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x (1898), pp. 159, 248, 273.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href="#noteref_97">97.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted
+in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xliv,
+p. 176.—The point is that the <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokite”</span> writings known to the author said
+nothing about fixing the beginning of the month by observation. Saadia doubtless
+based his assertion, not on anything he found in <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadokite”</span> books, but on
+Rosh ha-Shanah 22 a-b.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href="#noteref_98">98.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Poznanski,
+l. c., p. 177; cf. also Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, pp. 246 ff.—Saadia
+probably means that <span class="tei tei-q">“Zadok”</span> argued from the fact that the 150 days
+of Gen. 7 24, 8 3, make an even five months (7 11, 8 4), that each month had thirty
+days (cf. Jubilees 5 27), while for the Karaites thirty days was only the extreme
+length of a lunar month. See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, p.
+241.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href="#noteref_99">99.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p.
+<a href="#Pg359" class="tei tei-ref">359</a> f.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In <span class="tei tei-q">“Belial is let
+loose,”</span> Mr. Margoliouth finds a witless pun on Paul's
+apostolic claims.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Margoliouth
+is led to the opinion that they were Boëthusians by the
+obscure passage in 2 13, which he interprets, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the explanation of his name
+(sc. the Messiah's) are also their names,”</span>—the name of the sect points
+mysteriously to the name of the Messiah. <span class="tei tei-q">“Now the Boëthusians derived their name
+from a priest named Boëthus, and the meaning of βοηθὸς is the same as that of
+the Hebrew name represented by Jesus. The inference would be that the
+section of the Zadokite or Sadducees who adopted an attitude of belief toward
+John the Baptist and Jesus were none other than the Boëthusians (perhaps identical
+with the great company of believing priests of Acts 6 7), who not unnaturally
+liked to dwell on the identity of meaning between their names and that of
+the Teacher.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Boëthos</span></span>, it may be remarked, is probably a
+Greek equivalent for the name Ezra, not for Jeshua.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Margoliouth
+thinks that <span class="tei tei-q">“the end of the destruction of the land,”</span>
+after which the migration to Damascus took place, <span class="tei tei-q">“can hardly be anything else
+than the completion of the Roman conquest in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 70.”</span>
+<span class="tei tei-q">“At the end of the
+devastation of the land”</span> means, however, not when the destruction was complete,
+but when the period of desolation was over. The phrase itself, therefore, is no
+more appropriate to Titus than to Nebuchadnezzar—or to Hadrian. Mr. Margoliouth
+does not say how he interprets the rest of the passage. Are the men
+who, at the end of the devastation of the land, <span class="tei tei-q">“removed the boundary and led
+Israel astray,”</span> the great rabbis of the generations after the destruction of Jerusalem,
+and does the sequel, <span class="tei tei-q">“and the land was laid waste because they spoke
+rebelliously against the commandments of God by Moses and against his holy
+Anointed one,”</span> refer to the war under Hadrian?</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As
+has been noted above, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">yāhīd</span></span>
+is sometimes rendered in the Greek Old
+Testament by μονογενής.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref">341</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The
+commandment to love one's neighbor as himself, for example. In the
+context of the covenant formula, in contrast to Jewish orthodoxy no less than to
+Christianity, the neighbor is not the fellow man, nor even the fellow Jew, but
+the fellow member of the schismatic church.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p.
+<a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">That
+the repentance of the people was brought about by the work of <span class="tei tei-q">“the
+root”</span> is not suggested in any way in the text; on the contrary, the only natural
+construction and interpretation of the passage would make the penitent generation
+the same with that which is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the root.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See above, p. <a href="#Pg334" class="tei tei-ref">334</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gressmann is sure
+that this <span class="tei tei-q">“man of lies”</span> must be Bar Coziba (Bar Cocheba),
+the Messianic leader of the rebellion under Hadrian. He might have
+added that the contrast to the true star out of Jacob, the founder of the sect,
+would be peculiarly pertinent. The punning etymology, <span class="tei tei-q">“Say not <span class="tei tei-q">‘Star,’</span> but
+<span class="tei tei-q">‘liar’</span> ”</span> (Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 2 2), is ascribed to the Patriarch Judah.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perhaps
+the manuscripts may have been in the possession of some Rabbanite
+controversialist in Egypt, and thus found their way, like various Karaite
+writings, into the Genizah of the Synagogue.</dd></dl>
+  </div>
+  <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
+    <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
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+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Covenanters of Damascus;</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">George Foot Moore</p>
+      <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">Harvard University</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Harvard Theological Review</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">Vol. 4, No. 3</p>
+      <p rend="text-align: center">July, 1911</p>
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+      <head>Contents</head>
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+<body>
+
+
+<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/>
+
+<div rend='page-break-before: always'>
+<index index='toc'/>
+<index index='pdf'/>
+<head>The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect</head>
+
+<p>
+Among the Hebrew manuscripts recovered in 1896 from the
+Genizah of an old synagogue at Fostat, near Cairo, and now in
+the Cambridge University Library, England, were found eight
+leaves of a Hebrew manuscript which proved to be fragments of
+a book containing the teaching of a peculiar Jewish sect; a single
+leaf of a second manuscript, in part parallel to the first, in part
+supplementing it, was also discovered. These texts Professor
+Schechter has now published, with a translation and commentary,
+in the first volume of his <hi rend='italic'>Documents of Jewish
+Sectaries</hi>.<note place='foot'>Documents of Jewish Sectaries. Volume I. Fragments of
+a Zadokite Work. Edited, with Translation, Introduction, and Notes, by S. Schechter.
+Cambridge University Press. 1910.</note>
+The longer and older of the manuscripts (A) is, in the opinion
+of the editor, probably of the tenth century; the other (B), of
+the eleventh or twelfth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What remains of the book may be divided into two parts.
+Pages 1-8 of A, and the single leaf of B, contain exhortations and
+warnings addressed to members of the sect, for which a ground
+and motive are often sought in the history of the Jewish people
+or of the sect itself, together with severe strictures upon such as
+have lapsed from the sound teaching, and polemics against the
+doctrine and practice of other bodies of Jews. The second part,
+pages 9-16, sets forth the constitution and government of the
+community, and its distinctive interpretation and application of
+the law,&mdash;what may be called sectarian <foreign rend='italic'>halakah</foreign>.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Neither part is complete; the manuscript is mutilated and
+defective at the end, there is apparently a gap between the first
+and second parts, and it may be questioned whether the original
+beginning of the work is preserved. The lack of methodical
+arrangement in the contents leads Dr. Schechter to surmise that
+<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/>
+what we have in our hands is only a compilation of extracts from
+a larger work, put together with little regard for completeness or
+order. An orderly disposition, according to our notions of order,
+is not, however, so constant a characteristic of Jewish literature
+as to make this inference very convincing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Manuscript A was evidently written by a negligent scribe,
+perhaps after a poor or badly preserved copy; B, which represents
+a somewhat different recension of the work, exhibits, so far as it
+goes, a superior text. When it is added that both manuscripts
+are in many places defaced or torn, it may be imagined that the
+decipherment and interpretation present serious difficulties, and
+that, after all the pains which Dr. Schechter has spent upon the
+task, many uncertainties remain. Facsimiles of a page of each
+manuscript are given; but in view of the condition of the text a
+photographic reproduction of the whole is indispensable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The legal part of the book, so far as the text is fairly well preserved,
+is not exceptionally difficult; the rules are in general
+clearly defined, and if in the peculiar institutions of the sect there
+are many things we do not fully understand, this is due more to
+the brevity with which its organization is described and to the
+mutilation of the text than to lack of clearness in the description
+itself. The attempt to make out something of the history and
+relations of the sect from the first part of the book is, on the other
+hand, beset by many difficulties. What history is found there
+is not told for the sake of history, but used to point admonitions
+or emphasize warnings; and, after the manner of the apocalyptic
+literature, historical persons and events are referred to in roundabout
+phrases which envelop them in an affected mystery. Even
+when such references are to chapters of the national history with
+which we are moderately well acquainted, as in the Assumption of
+Moses, c. 5, ff., for example, they may be to us baffling enigmas;
+much more when they have to do, as is in large part the case in
+our texts, with the wholly unknown internal or external history of
+a sect. The obscurity is increased by the fact that the allusions
+are often a tissue of fragmentary quotations or reminiscences out
+of the Old Testament, chosen and combined, it seems, by purely
+verbal association, or taken in an occult allegorical sense.<note place='foot'>It
+may be added that the quotations are singularly inexact.</note> The
+<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/>
+allegories of which an interpretation is given, as when Amos 5 26 f.
+is applied to the emigration to Damascus and the institutions
+and laws of the sect, and Ezekiel 44 15 to the classes of the
+community, do not encourage us to think that we should be able
+to divine the meaning by our unaided intelligence. It is a fortunate
+circumstance that the writer comes back more than once to
+the salient events in the sect's history, for these repetitions of the
+same thing in different forms afford considerable help to the interpreter,
+so that the main facts may be made out with at least
+a considerable degree of probability.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The principal seat of the sect was in the region of Damascus,
+where its adherents formed numerous communities. It was
+composed of Israelites who had migrated thither from Judaea;
+thither also had come <q>the interpreter of the law,</q> the founder
+of the sect; there it had been organized by a covenant repeatedly
+referred to as <q>the new covenant in the land of Damascus.</q>
+Many who entered into this new covenant at the beginning did
+not long remain true to it; the writer inveighs vehemently
+against those who fell away, accusing them not only of grave
+error, but of gross violations of the law; but this crisis had been
+passed, and when the book was written the community was
+apparently flourishing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The most coherent account of the origin of the sect is found
+on pages 5-6:<note place='foot'>In my translation
+I have sometimes thought it possible to adhere to the
+text where Dr. Schechter has preferred a conjectural emendation.</note>
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+At the end of the devastation of the land arose men who removed
+the boundary and led Israel astray; and the land was laid waste because
+they spoke rebelliously against the commandments of God by Moses and
+also against his holy Anointed,<note place='foot'>That is, probably,
+against the legitimate high priest of the time (perhaps
+Onias).&mdash;The rendering <q><emph>by</emph> his Anointed</q>
+is grammatically admissible, but
+would be unintelligible in this context.</note> and prophesied falsehood to turn Israel
+back from following God. But God remembered the covenant with the
+forefathers, and he raised up from Aaron discerning men and from Israel
+wise men, and he heard them, and they dug the well. <q>The well, princes
+dug it, nobles of the people delved it, with the legislator</q> (Numbers 21 18).
+The well is the law, and they who dug it are the captivity of Israel<note place='foot'>It
+would be possible to render <q>the penitents of Israel.</q></note>
+who went forth from the land of Judah and sojourned in the land of
+<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/>
+Damascus, all of whom God called princes because they sought him.<note place='foot'>The
+four or five words which follow are unintelligible.</note>...
+The legislator is the interpreter of the law, as Isaiah said, <q>Bringing forth
+a tool for his work</q> (Isa. 54 16), and the nobles of the people are those
+who came to delve the well with the statutes which the legislator decreed
+that men should walk in them in the complete end of wickedness; and
+besides these they shall not obtain any (statutes) until the teacher of
+righteousness shall arise in the last times.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The migration is referred to in several other places: <q>The
+captivity of Israel, who migrated from the land of Judah</q>
+(4 2 f.);<note place='foot'>The references are to page and line of
+the Hebrew text.</note> <q>those who held firm made their escape to the northern
+land,</q> by which the region of Damascus is meant (7 13 f.; cf.
+7 15, 18 f.). The time of the migration is plainly indicated in
+the passage quoted above (5 20 ff.). The men who, after the
+end of the devastation of the land, <q>removed the boundary,</q>
+and led Israel astray, speaking rebelliously against the commandments
+of God by Moses and against his holy Anointed, prophesying
+falsely to turn Israel away from following God, in consequence
+of which the land was laid waste, are most naturally
+taken for the hellenizing leaders of the Seleucid time. In this
+period, it seems that a number of Jews, including priests and
+levites, withdrew to the region of Damascus,<note place='foot'>Others
+sought refuge in Egypt; the temple of Onias at Leontopolis had its
+origin in the same circumstances.</note> and there they
+subsequently bound themselves by covenant to live strictly in
+accordance with the law as defined by their legislator.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With this the other allusions agree. Thus in A, p. 8 (= B, p.
+19), at the end of a violent invective against the sinners, of whom
+it is said, <q>The princes of Judah are like those who remove the
+boundary,</q> we read that <q>they separated not from the people
+[and their sins, B], but presumptuously broke through all restraints,
+walking in the way of the wicked (heathen), of whom
+God said, <q>The venom of dragons is their wine, and the head
+of asps is cruel</q><note place='foot'>So they understood the
+words translated in the English version <q>the cruel
+venom of asps.</q></note> (Deut. 32 33). The dragons are the kings of the
+nations, and their wine means their ways, and the head of asps
+is the head of the Greek kings who came to inflict vengeance upon
+them.</q> This again is most naturally understood of Antiochus
+<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/>
+Epiphanes; the calamities he brought on the Jews were a direct
+consequence of the course of the hellenizing party.<note place='foot'>See 2
+Macc. 4 16: <q>By reason of which (sc. their predilection for Greek
+ways) a dire calamity befel them, and those for whose customs they displayed
+such zeal and whom they wanted to imitate in everything became their enemies
+and avengers.</q> Assumption of Moses, 5 1: <q>When the times of retribution
+shall draw near, and vengeance arises through kings who share their guilt and
+punish them,</q> etc., describes the same situation.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A definite date for these occurrences is given in 1 5 ff.: <q>When
+God's wrath was over, three hundred and ninety years after he
+gave them into the power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon,
+he visited them, and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a
+root of his planting to inherit his land and to thrive on the good
+things of his earth. And they recognized their wickedness and
+knew that they were guilty men, and they were like blind men and
+like men groping their way for twenty years. And God took note
+of their deeds, that with perfect heart they sought him, and he
+raised up for them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the
+way of his heart.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <q>root</q> which God, mindful of his covenant, caused to
+spring up from Aaron and Israel is the men with whom the religious
+revival, or reformation, began, the forefathers of the sect
+(see 6 2 f., and below, p. <ref target='Pg375'>375</ref>);<note place='foot'>Cf.
+<q>the whole race of the elect root,</q> Enoch 93 8.</note>
+the <q>teacher of righteousness</q> is
+the <q>interpreter of the law who came to Damascus</q> (6 7 f., 7 18
+f.). The dates refer therefore to the origin of the sect. Three
+hundred and ninety years from the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar
+(597 or 586 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>) would bring us, by our chronology,
+to 207 or 196 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> The Jewish chronology of the Persian period
+is, however, always too long by from forty to seventy years,<note place='foot'>See
+Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. iii. p. 189.</note>
+and assuming, as it is fair to do, that our author made the same
+error, the three hundred ninety years would run out in the middle
+of the third century. Dr. Schechter suspects, with much probability,
+that the original reading was <q><emph>four</emph> hundred and ninety
+years,</q> the common apocalyptic cycle (Dan. 9 2, 24; Enoch
+89-90; 93, etc.). Making the same allowance for error, we
+should be brought again to a time not far removed from the punishment
+<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/>
+inflicted on the people by Antiochus Epiphanes (see
+above, p. <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref> f.).<note place='foot'><p>A
+comparison with the Apocalypse of the Ten Weeks in Enoch (93 +
+91 12-17) is in point here. The sixth <q>week</q> (period of 490 years) ends with
+the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar; in the seventh a rebellious
+generation arises, all whose works are apostasy (the hellenizers of the Seleucid
+time); at its end the <q>chosen righteous men of the eternal plantation of
+righteousness</q> are chosen to receive the sevenfold instruction about God's whole
+creation (apparently the cosmological revelations of Enoch); the historical retrospect
+closes before the robbery and desecration of the temple by Antiochus
+Epiphanes (170, 168 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>), of which the seer knows nothing.
+The chronological error here amounts to sixty or seventy years.
+</p>
+<p>
+In the Introduction, p. xii, by a typographical error which is repeated on
+p. xxii, Dr. Schechter says that the 390 years of the text would bring us <q>to
+within a generation of Simon the Just, who flourished about 290
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>,</q> and twenty
+years more would bring us into the midst of the hellenistic persecutions preceding
+the Maccabaean revolt (about 170 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>). Margoliouth, whose
+hypothesis 490 does not suit any better than 390, takes courage from Schechter's doubts
+to disregard the numbers altogether. Gressmann (Internationale Wochenschrift,
+March 4, 1911) is led by metrical considerations to treat all the chronological
+notices as interpolations, and gives them no further consideration. But even
+if the figures were introduced by a later hand, they may still represent the tradition
+of the sect.</p></note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is nothing in the texts which demands a later date for the
+origin of the sect. The last event in the national history to which
+reference is made is the vengeance inflicted on the heathenizing
+rulers of the people by <q>the head of the Greek kings.</q> To the
+misfortunes of the people in the following centuries, such as the
+taking of Jerusalem by Pompey or its destruction by Titus, there
+is no allusion. It may perhaps be inferred not only that the
+schism antedated these calamities, but that the book was written
+before them. In the author's frame of mind toward the religious
+leaders of Palestinian Jewry, he would have been likely to
+record such conspicuous judgments upon them. A comparison
+with the Assumption of Moses is instructive on this point. There
+the sweeping denunciation of the priesthood and the scribes,
+<q>their teachers in those times,</q> and of the godless Asmonaean
+priest-kings, is followed by the well-deserved judgment inflicted
+on them by Herod, and after him comes Varus, burning part of
+the temple, crucifying, and carrying off into slavery. The second
+of the Psalms of Solomon may also be compared.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The schismatic character of the sect would also be explained
+<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/>
+if it arose in an age when the character of the political and religious
+heads of the Jewish people was such as to move God-fearing
+and law-abiding men to repudiate them with all their ways and
+works. For it is not merely with a sect, differing from the mass
+of their fellows in certain opinions and practices, that we have to
+do, but with a schism. The Covenanters of Damascus are radical
+come-outers, seceders not only from the land of Judaea, but
+from established Judaism, on which they look much as the Puritan
+Separatists in the seventeenth century looked on the English
+Church; they might have taken to themselves the prophetic word
+so often in the mouth of the Puritan, <q>Depart ye, depart ye,
+go ye out from thence, touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the
+midst of her; be ye clean, ye that bear the vessels of the Lord</q>
+(Isa. 52 11), as they do apply to the religious teachers of the Jewish
+church the most violent invectives of the same prophet (50 11,
+59 4 ff.; see below, p. <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref> f.). They will not even call
+themselves Jews, they are Israelites who went forth from the land of Judaea;
+their Messiah is to spring from Aaron and Israel, not from Judah;
+when the final judgment comes in its appointed time, it will no
+longer be permitted to make compact with the house of Judah,
+but every man must stand in his own stronghold;<note place='foot'>Perhaps
+we should emend <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>ma'mādō</foreign>,
+<q>station,</q> i.e. sect.</note> when the glory
+of God shines out on Israel, all the wicked of Judah shall be cut
+off, in the day of its trial by fire. They reject the temple in Jerusalem,
+and will not offer on its altar. If we consider that the Essenes,
+notwithstanding their wider divergence from the common
+type of Judaism, seem to have regarded themselves as within the
+pale of the church, and to have been so regarded by others&mdash;enjoying,
+indeed, with the people the reputation of peculiar sanctity&mdash;the
+schismatic character of our sect appears in a still stronger
+light.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The language of the book is not inconsistent with the age to
+which the contents would seem to assign it. The vocabulary
+is in the main Biblical, but there are a number of words which
+otherwise occur only in the writings of the Mishnic age or later.
+Some of these belong to the technical terminology of the law
+schools, some of them appear to be peculiar to the sect. A few
+of the Biblical words also are used in later senses and applications.
+<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/>
+It is proper to bear in mind, however, that the Hebrew originals
+of the works with which it would be most natural to compare our
+text, such as Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the
+Twelve Patriarchs, the Gospel, are not preserved; in fact, between
+the last books of the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature
+of the second Christian century there is a hiatus in the history
+of the Hebrew language, so that words which appear for the
+first time in the Mishna and kindred works may have been, and
+in many cases probably were, in use much earlier. It is unnecessary
+therefore to suppose that such words were introduced into
+our texts by later scribes, though the possibility of such changes
+must of course be admitted. The particular instances in which
+Dr. Schechter thinks that late and foreign influences are most
+clearly to be recognized&mdash;the title of the <q>censor</q> and the
+peculiar name for a house of worship&mdash;are discussed elsewhere.<note place='foot'>See
+below, p. <ref target='Pg350'>350</ref>, <ref target='Pg354'>354</ref> f.</note>
+More remarkable than the vocabulary of the book is its syntax.
+The consecutive constructions of the perfect and the imperfect
+are regularly employed, not only in imitation of Biblical models
+in narrative and prophetic passages, but in the legal part of the
+book; and in spite of some irregularities, which may in part at
+least be laid to the charge of scribes, the use of these tenses is
+generally correct. In this respect the Hebrew of the book differs
+entirely from that of the Mishna and the contemporary and later
+Midrashim, in which the characteristic features of classical tense-syntax
+have entirely disappeared, under the influence, it is generally
+supposed, of the Aramaic vernacular. In comparison with
+these writings the vocabulary also is notably free from foreign
+admixture. There are no words borrowed from Greek and Latin,
+and only one or two instances where an Aramaic term seems to
+have been adopted. The orthography also, in its more sparing
+use of the semivowels to indicate the vowels <hi rend='italic'>u</hi>
+and <hi rend='italic'>i</hi>, resembles
+that of the Bible.
+</p>
+
+<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/>
+
+<p>
+The founder of the sect is called the <q>teacher of righteousness</q>
+(1 11),<note place='foot'>Cf. Isa. 30 20 f.</note> <q>the only,
+or beloved, teacher</q> (20 14);<note place='foot'>The Septuagint renders
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>yāḥīd</foreign> most frequently by ἀγαπητός, less often
+by μονογενής.</note> <q>the only
+<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/>
+one</q> (20 32); he is <q>the legislator,</q> that is, <q>the interpreter
+of the law</q> (6 7); and this interpreter of the law, who came to
+Damascus, is the star who, according to Balaam's prophecy,
+was to issue from Jacob (7 18 f.).<note place='foot'>The same prophecy which
+was applied by Akiba to Bar Cocheba and by
+the Dositheans to their founder (see below, p. <ref target='Pg362'>362</ref>).</note>
+He showed them how to walk
+in the way of God's heart (1 11); as interpreter of the law he
+ordained them statutes to walk in till the end of wickedness&mdash;statutes
+which shall not be superseded by any others <q>until
+there arise the teacher of righteousness in the last days</q> (6 11 f.).
+To him, therefore, are attributed the distinctive principles and
+observances of the sect as they are set forth in this book. <q>His
+anointed,</q> through whom God made known to men his holy
+spirit, and who is true (2 12 f.), is in all probability the same
+person with the teacher, the star, just as the anointed from Aaron
+and Israel who is to arise in the future (20 1) is the same as the
+teacher of righteousness to whose voice they will then listen
+(20 32; see below, p. <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Those of the emigrants who accepted the guidance of the
+teacher of righteousness, the interpreter of the law, entered into
+the <q>new covenant in the land of Damascus</q> (6 19, 8 21, 19 33 f.,
+20 12). The idea of the <q>new covenant</q> was doubtless suggested
+by Jer. 31 31 ff. (cf. 32 36 ff.; Ezek. 37 26, etc.), where the establishment
+of the new covenant, in the stead of the old covenant
+which their fathers broke, marks the restoration of God's favor,
+the beginning of a new and better time. The same use of the
+passage in Jeremiah is made at length by the author of the Epistle
+to the Hebrews (8 6 ff.), The substance of the covenant may
+be gathered from 6 11-7 5:
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+All who were brought into the covenant are not to enter into the sanctuary
+to light its altar, but became closers of the door, as God said, <q>Who
+among you will close its door?</q> and <q>Thou shalt not light my altar in
+vain</q> (Mal. 1 10);<note place='foot'>The sect rejects the
+temple in Jerusalem and its worship. Cf. 20 21 f., in
+the last crisis, <q>they will lean upon God ... and will declare the sanctuary
+unclean and will return to God.</q></note> but
+shall observe to do according to the interpretation
+of the law for the end of wickedness, and to separate from the children
+of perdition, and to keep aloof from unrighteous gain, which is unclean
+by vow and ban,<note place='foot'>Perhaps better, keep aloof, by vow and ban, from
+unrighteous, unclean gain.</note> and from the property of the sanctuary, and from
+<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/>
+robbing the poor of the people and making widows their spoil and murdering
+orphans; and to separate between the unclean and the clean,
+and to show the difference between the holy and the common; and to
+observe the Sabbath day as it is defined, and the season feasts, and the
+fast-day, in accordance with the commandments of those who entered
+into the new covenant in the land of Damascus; to set apart the sacred
+dues as they are defined; and that a man should love his neighbor as himself,
+and sustain the poor and needy and the proselyte, and to seek each
+the welfare of the other; and that no man transgress the prohibited degrees,
+but guard against fornication according to the rule; and that a
+man should reprove his brother according to the commandment, and
+not bear a grudge from day to day; and to separate from all forms of
+uncleanness according to their several prescriptions; and that a man
+should not defile his holy spirit, even as God separated for them (sc.
+unclean from clean). All who walk in these precepts in perfection of
+holiness, according to all the foundations of the covenant of God,<note place='foot'>See
+below, p. <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref>.</note>
+have the assurance that they shall live a thousand generations.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Early in the history of the sect a serious defection occurred.
+Men who entered among the first into the covenant incurred
+guilt, like their forefathers, by following their sinful inclinations;
+they forsook the covenant of God and preferred their own will,
+and went about after the stubbornness of their heart, every man
+doing as he pleased (3 10 ff.); the men who entered into the new
+covenant in the land of Damascus went back and proved false,
+and turned aside from the well of living waters (19 33 f.). Their
+names were struck out of the registers of the sect, as were those
+of such as fell away in later times.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We can readily imagine that many found the rule of the sect
+too strict and the discipline by which it was enforced too severe.
+Our texts, however, speak not of such occasional and individual
+lapses, but of the repudiation of the covenant by numbers at one
+time. It seems that another leader had arisen, of very different
+temper from the founder, who drew away many after him. In
+the eyes of those who remained steadfast in the faith, the new
+teacher was naturally a false prophet, a kind of antichrist. He
+is called the liar (<q>the man of lies,</q> 20 15), the scoffer (1 14); his
+adherents are scoffers,<note place='foot'>The name comes from
+Isa. 28 14, where the scorners are the rulers in Jerusalem,
+who boast of their covenant with death and their compact with hell, who
+have made lies their refuge and hidden themselves in falsehood. See also Isa.
+29 20.</note> who uttered error about the righteous
+<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/>
+statutes, and spurned the covenant and plighted faith which
+they established in the land of Damascus, that is to say, the new
+covenant. They and their families shall have no portion in the
+house of the law (20 10 ff.). For their unfaithfulness they were
+delivered to the sword (3 10 ff.), until of all the men of war who
+went with the liar none was left (20 14 ff.).<note place='foot'>It might
+be surmised that the false prophet had headed an insurrection&mdash;perhaps
+a Messianic rising&mdash;which ended in disaster.</note> This came to pass
+about forty years after the death of the unique teacher (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>). If
+the emigration to Damascus occurred under Antiochus Epiphanes,<note place='foot'>See
+above, p. <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref>.</note>
+the end of the episode of the false prophet would fall about
+the beginning of the first century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, and we should have at
+least an upper limit for the writing of the book. The passion
+which every mention of this defection arouses suggests that it
+was fresh in memory, and would incline us to date the writing
+not very long after the time indicated. It should be observed,
+however, that the sentence which counts forty years from the
+death of the unrivalled teacher to the end of the liar's army
+sits loose in the context, and may be a gloss, in which case the
+book might be some decades older.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the remnant who remained faithful through the great
+defection <q>God confirmed his covenant with Israel forever, revealing
+to them the secret of things in which all Israel was in error,
+his holy Sabbaths and his glorious festivals and his righteous testimonies
+and his true ways and the pleasure of his will, things
+which if a man do he shall live by them. He opened a way before
+them, and they dug a well for copious waters.</q> <q>In the abundance
+of his wonderful grace he atoned for their guilt and forgave
+their transgression, and built for them a sure house in Israel,
+the like of which did not arise in times past nor until now</q> (3 12-20).
+The prediction of the sure house (1 Sam. 2 35) seems to be
+fulfilled in the stability of the sect itself, or perhaps, with closer
+adherence to the prophecy, in that of its faithful priesthood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So much may be gathered from the book about the origin and
+history of the sect. We turn now to its expectation. As a
+teacher of righteousness, an anointed one (priest), was the founder
+of the sect, so in the last times a teacher of righteousness, an
+<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/>
+anointed one, shall appear (6 10 f.). Those who proved faithless
+to the covenant are cut off from the community, <q>from the time
+when the unique teacher was taken away until the anointed one
+from Aaron and Israel shall arise</q> (19 35-20 1), that is, during
+the whole of the present dispensation. Dr. Schechter regards
+the anointed one who is to appear in the future as the founder
+of the sect <hi rend='italic'>redivivus:</hi> the present dispensation <q>seems to be the
+period intervening between the <emph>first</emph> appearance of the Teacher
+of Righteousness (p. 1, l. 11) (the founder of the Sect), who was
+gathered in or died,<note place='foot'>Or, as Schechter elsewhere
+expresses it, <q>disappeared.</q> Among the synonyms
+for death, Aaron ben Eliahu names <q>gather in</q> (Isa. 58 8).</note>
+and the second appearance of the Teacher of
+Righteousness who is to rise in <q>the end of the days</q> (p. 6, l. 11).
+Moreover, the Only Teacher, or Teacher of Righteousness, is
+identical with the Messiah, or the Anointed one from Aaron and
+Israel, whose advent is expected by the Sect.</q><note place='foot'>Introduction,
+p. xiii.</note> The texts,
+however, say nothing of the disappearance, or a second appearance,
+or reappearance, or return of the founder; nor do the words
+<q>until the teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last days,</q>
+<q>until the anointed shall arise from Aaron and Israel,</q> mean that
+he shall rise from the dead, as Dr. Schechter interprets them.<note place='foot'>P.
+xiii. <q>We gather from another passage that the Only Teacher found
+his death in Damascus, but is expected to rise again (p. 19, l. 35; p. 20, l. 1; cf.
+also p. 6, l. 11).</q> The verb <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>'āmad</foreign>
+means, as frequently in the later books of the
+Old Testament, <q>appear upon the scene.</q> In this sense it occurs repeatedly in
+the book before us, and there is nothing in the context here to suggest a different
+interpretation.</note>
+The Messiah whose advent the sect expects at the end of the present
+period of history is, as in the older parts of the Testaments of
+the Twelve Patriarchs, a priest; and the function of the priest-messiah
+is not, as in the Epistle to the Hebrews, to mediate between
+man and God, but to instruct men in righteousness, to guide
+them in the way of God's heart. That the founder of the sect
+also was both priest and teacher is by no means sufficient to establish
+the identity of the two figures. It was the office of the priest
+to teach Israel the law, <q>all the statutes which the Lord hath
+spoken unto them through Moses</q> (Lev. 10 11; cf. Deut. 33 10);
+<q>the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek
+<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/>
+the law at his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of Hosts</q>
+(Mal. 2 7). Ezra is the type of a priest who had not only prepared
+his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do it, but to
+teach in Israel statutes and judgments (Ezra 7 10); he was,
+according to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the restorer of
+Judaism. It was a departure from the ideal of the law itself
+that, when the priesthood showed itself unworthy of its calling,
+the teaching function was assumed by lay scribes, and even in
+later times there were many priestly teachers among the Scribes
+and among the Doctors. That our sect looks back to one such as
+its founder, and forward to another as the great teacher of the
+Messianic age, is in no way surprising. If the author had meant
+what Dr. Schechter thinks, it is fair to assume that he would have
+said it unmistakably; for the identity of the expected Messiah
+with the dead founder, if it was part of the belief of the sect,
+would of necessity be a singular and significant part of it.<note place='foot'>Cf.
+Acts 1 11.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The coming judgment of God is represented rather as a judgment
+on the faithless members of the sect, including those who
+have seceded from it or been expelled, than in its more general
+aspects. The long eschatological passage in B (20 15 to the end)
+is illegible in spots near the beginning, but the general tenor is
+clear:
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+<p>
+In that consummation the anger of God will be inflamed against
+Israel, as he said, <q>There is no king and no prince, and no judge and
+none that reproves in righteousness</q> (cf. Hos. 3 4). Those who turn
+from the transgression [of Jacob]<note place='foot'>See Isa. 59 20.</note>
+and keep the covenant of God will
+then confer with one another; their footsteps will be firm in the way of
+God (and the prophecy will be fulfilled which says), <q>And God hearkened
+to their words and heard, and a book of remembrance was written
+before him for those that fear God and think on his name</q> (Mal. 3 16),
+until deliverance and righteousness emerge for those that fear God,
+<q>and ye shall return and see the difference between righteous and wicked,
+and between a servant of God and one who serves him not</q> (Mal. 3 18).
+And he shows favor to those that love him and keep his commandments,
+for a thousand generations....<note place='foot'>The quotation
+is to be thus restored; see Exod. 20 6 and Deut. 7 9. The
+next two or three lines are very obscure: <q>From the house of Peleg, who went
+out (or, will go out) from the city of the sanctuary, and they will rely on God
+(cf. Isa. 10 20) when the transgression of Israel is at an end, and will declare the
+sanctuary unclean, and will return to God. The prince (?) of the people with
+few words (??).</q> The house of Peleg may be an etymological allegory for the
+seceders; the city of the sanctuary is probably Jerusalem (cf. 6 11 ff., above,
+p. 338); but neither the connection with the preceding nor the meaning of the
+sequel is clear.</note>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/>
+
+<p>
+Each man according to his spirit, shall they be judged by his holy
+counsel, and all who have broken through the bounds of the law, of
+those who entered into the covenant, when the glory of God shines out
+on Israel, shall be cut off from the midst of the camp, and with them
+all the evil-doers of Judah, in the days when it is tried in the fire. But
+all who held firmly by these precepts, going out and coming in in conformity with
+the law, and listened to the voice of the teacher, will confess<note place='foot'>Text,
+<q>and confessed,</q> which leaves the sentence without a predicate.</note>
+before God.... <q>We have done evil, we, and our fathers also,
+when they went contrary to the statutes of the covenant, and faithful are
+thy judgments upon us.</q> And they will not act presumptuously against
+his holy statutes and his righteous judgment and his faithful testimonies.
+They will be instructed in the ancient judgments by which
+the followers of the unique one were judged, and will hearken to the
+words of the teacher of righteousness. And they will not controvert
+the righteous statutes when they hear them; they will rejoice and be
+glad, and their heart will be strong, and they will show themselves
+mighty against all the people of the world.<note place='foot'>See also
+7 20: <q>The sceptre</q> (Num. 24 17) <q>is the prince of all the congregation;
+and when he arises he will destroy all the children of Seth.</q></note>
+And God will atone for
+them, and they will see his salvation with joy, because they trusted
+in his holy name.
+</p>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+Here the fragment ends. The destruction of those who fall
+away from the sect is threatened in other places; it will suffice
+to quote the most important (19 5 ff.):
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+Upon all those who reject the commandments and the statutes, the
+deserts of the wicked shall be requited when God visits the earth, when
+the word comes to pass which was written by Zechariah the prophet,
+<q>Sword, awake against my shepherd and against the man that is my
+fellow, saith God; smite the shepherd, and let the sheep be scattered,
+and I will turn my hand against the little ones</q> (Zech. 13 7). But
+those who observe it (sc. the obligations of the covenant) are <q>the poor
+of the flock</q> (Zech. 11 7). These shall escape at the end of the visitation,
+but the former (sc. those who reject the commandments) shall be
+given over to the sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel comes,
+as it was at the end of the first visitation, of which God said by Ezekiel
+that a mark should be made on the foreheads of them that sigh and cry,
+<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/>
+and the rest were delivered to the sword that executes the judgment
+of the covenant. And so shall the judgment be of all who enter into
+his covenant and do not hold firmly by these statutes, they shall be
+visited even with extermination by the hand of Belial. This is the day
+in which God will visit, as he spoke, <q>The princes of Judah are become
+like men who remove the boundary; on them will I pour out my fury
+like water</q> (Hos. 5 10). For they entered into the covenant of repentance,
+but did not turn aside from the way of faithless men, and wallowed
+in ways of fornication and in unrighteous gain, and avenging themselves
+and bearing a grudge against one another.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+It is possible, of course, that the judgment of the heathen world,
+which looms so large in most of the apocalypses, may have had
+a place in parts of the book now lost, but if it had been a very
+important feature in the expectation of the sect we should hardly
+fail to find at least allusions to it in the pages in our hands. The
+author is almost exclusively interested in the sect itself, in the
+division which had rent it, and in polemics against laxer interpretations
+of the law. This limitation of the horizon is characteristically
+sectarian, and may suggest, moreover, as has been
+said above, that the writer is not far removed in time from the
+split in the new organization.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The polemic is especially pointed against certain opponents
+who are described as <q>those who build a wall and plaster it with
+stucco</q> (4 19; 8 12).<note place='foot'>It is not improbable
+that the author thought also of the other meaning
+of the word <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>tāphēl</foreign>,
+here rendered <q>stucco,</q> viz. something insipid, stupid; cf.
+Lam. 2 14, in a passage which, like Ezek. 13 10, refers to the false prophets. I
+see nothing to indicate that <q>the wall</q> is the fence or hedge which the Pharisaean
+rabbis drew around the law to protect it from infraction, as Dr. Schechter
+thinks.</note> They follow a commandment (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>ṣau</foreign>);
+probably connoting, as in Hosea 5 11, from which the phrase is
+taken, an arbitrary rule of their own, a commandment of men.<note place='foot'>The text
+explains, <q>this is the prater of whom it says, they prate unceasingly</q>
+(4 19 f.; cf. Mic. 2 11). Dr. Schechter regards this explanation as <q>a
+disturbing parenthesis.</q></note>
+God hates them, his anger is kindled against them (8 18). These
+<q>builders</q> are false teachers; Biblical denunciations of the false
+prophets are applied to them. (See especially 8 12 f.) Points
+in which their teaching is particularly assailed are that they allow
+polygamy and the remarriage of divorced persons during the life of
+the other party, and hold it lawful for a man to marry his niece;
+<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/>
+that they defile the sanctuary by the laxity of some of their rules
+and practice about sexual uncleanness; they presume blasphemously
+to impugn the <q>statutes of the covenant of God</q> (the
+legislation of the sect), declaring that they are not right, and
+saying abominable things about them (4 20-5 14). The positions
+so hotly denounced, especially in the matter of marriage
+and divorce, are those of the Palestinian rabbis as we know them
+in the Mishna and kindred works, and in so far as the Pharisees
+had a dominating influence in the schools of the law they may
+be regarded as in a peculiar sense the object of this invective,
+which is, however, sweeping enough to include all rabbinical
+Judaism. Such verses as Isaiah 50 11 and 59 4 ff. are hurled
+at them; they are compared to Johanneh and his brother, whom
+Belial raised up against Moses (5 17 ff.).<note place='foot'>The
+Jannes and Jambres of 2 Tim. 3 8.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sect prohibited polygamy, which they stigmatized as fornication,
+arguing from the creation&mdash;<q>a male and a female created
+he them</q> (cf. Matt. 19 4), and from the story of the flood&mdash;<q>by
+pairs they went into the ark,</q> and from the law which forbade
+the prince to multiply wives unto himself (Deut. 17 17), that is,
+as they understood it, to take more than one wife. To forestall
+an objection, it is added: <q>But David had not read in the sealed
+book of the law which was in the ark, for it was not opened in
+Israel from the time of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the
+elders who worshipped the Astartes, but was hidden and not
+brought to light until Zadok arose</q> (5 2-5; see below, p.
+<ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Marriage with another woman while a man had a divorced wife
+living was apparently put in the same category with having two
+wives at the same time (4 20 f.; cf. Matt. 5 31 f.). Marriage
+with a niece (brother's or sister's daughter) they treated as incest,
+reasoning that marriage between a woman and her uncle stood
+on all fours with marriage between a man and his aunt, which was
+expressly forbidden as within the prohibited degrees of kinship.<note place='foot'>Such
+marriages, especially with a sister's daughter, are not only permitted,
+but especially commended in the Talmud (Yebamoth 62b-63a; see Maimonides,
+Issure Biah 2 14), and are still common in countries where the Jews are free to
+follow the rabbinical law. On the Karaite prohibition of marriage with a niece,
+see below, p. <ref target='Pg366'>366</ref>.</note>
+The three snares of Belial by which he ensnared Israel
+<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/>
+are fornication (that is, plural or incestuous unions), wealth (that
+is, unrighteous gain), and the pollution of the sanctuary (4 15 f.;
+cf. 5 6 f.).<note place='foot'>On the pollution of
+the sanctuary, cf. Assumption of Moses 5 3; Testament
+of Levi 14 5 ff.; Psalms of Solomon 2 3.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same rigorous tendency which appears in the attitude of
+the sect in regard to marriage pervades the whole legal part of
+the work before us. The rules for the observance of the Sabbath
+(10 14-11 21) will make this clear.
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+<p>
+Concerning the Sabbath, to keep it as it is prescribed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+1. On the sixth day no man shall do any work from the time when
+the disk of the sun is distant from the western portal<note place='foot'>On the
+portals of the sun, see Enoch 72, etc.</note> by its diameter (?);
+for this is what he said: Observe the Sabbath day to hallow it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+2. On the Sabbath a man shall not engage in any foolish conversation;
+and he shall not exact repayment from his neighbor; nor shall he
+give judgment in matters of property; he shall not talk about matters
+of work and labor to be done on the next day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+3. A man shall not walk in the country to do the work of his business
+on the Sabbath. He shall not walk outside of his town above one
+thousand<note place='foot'>Perhaps an error of the text for 2000;
+see below, § 8.</note> cubits.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+4. No man shall eat on the Sabbath anything except what was previously
+prepared or what is spoiling in the field. He shall not eat or
+drink anything but what was in the camp. If he be on the way and
+descend to bathe, he may drink as he stands, but must not draw water
+in any vessel.<note place='foot'>Cf. Jubilees 50 8.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+5. He must not send a foreigner to do his business on the Sabbath day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+6. A man must not put on soiled garments or such as are brought by
+a gentile, without washing them in water or rubbing them with
+frankincense.<note place='foot'>This holds on week-days as well as on the Sabbath.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+7. A man shall not exchange pledges<note place='foot'>Perhaps we should
+read, <q>make an <q><foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>erūb</foreign></q></q>
+(a legal fiction by which dwellings
+or limits were treated as one). The Sadducees and Samaritans rejected this
+evasion of the law.</note> of his own accord on the
+Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+8. A man shall not follow his cattle, to pasture them outside his town,
+except within 2000 cubits. He shall not lift his arm to strike them with
+his fist; if the animal is breachy, let him not take her out of the
+house.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+9. A man shall not take anything out of a house into the street, nor
+<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/>
+bring anything from the street into the house; and if he be in the entry,
+he shall not pass anything out of it or bring anything into it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+10. He shall not open on the Sabbath a vessel the cover of which has
+been luted on.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+11. A man shall not carry on his person spices, going out or coming
+in on the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+12. Within a house he shall not lift stone nor earth on the Sabbath
+day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+13. The nurse shall not carry an infant in arms, going out or coming
+in with it on the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+14. A man shall not deal harshly with his slave or his maid or his
+hired servant on the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+15. A man shall not deliver cattle of their young on the Sabbath
+day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+16. If a beast fall into a cistern or trap, a man shall not lift it out on
+the Sabbath.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+17. A man shall not pass the Sabbath in a place near the gentiles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+18. A man shall not profane the Sabbath for the sake of gain.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+19. If a human being fall into a tank of water or into a place of ... no
+man shall fetch him up by means of a ladder or a rope or any
+implement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+20. No man shall bring upon the altar on the Sabbath anything except
+the Sabbath burnt-offerings, for so it is written, <q>aside from your
+Sabbaths.</q>
+</p>
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The dietary laws afford other examples of the strict rules of
+the sect.<note place='foot'>See 12 12 ff.</note> Fish
+may be eaten only if, while still alive, they have
+been split open and drained of their blood; grasshoppers and
+locusts must be put alive into the water or the fire (in which they
+are to be cooked); honey in the comb is apparently prohibited.
+So, again, in a house in which a death has occurred, fixtures,
+such as nails and pegs in the walls, are unclean; and wood, stone,
+and dust are capable of contracting and communicating various
+kinds of uncleanness (12 15-18). The sect sees in these stricter
+distinctions between clean and unclean the superiority of its
+ordinances over those of other Jews, whom they regard as sinfully
+lax. The Pharisees are to them gross latitudinarians!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Oaths are to be taken only by the covenant and the curses of
+the covenant, that is, the vows by which the members of the sect
+bind themselves, on their admission to it, to live in conformity
+with its rule and submit to the authority of those set over them,
+<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/>
+and the curses invoked on such as violate these obligations.<note place='foot'>Similarly
+the Essenes, at their reception into the order, bound themselves
+by the <q>tremendous oaths</q> which Josephus describes, B. J. ii, 8 7.</note>
+Oaths by God, whether under the name
+<hi rend='italic'>Aleph Lamed</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>El</hi> or
+<hi rend='italic'>Elohim</hi>) or
+<hi rend='italic'>Aleph Daleth (Adonai)</hi> are prohibited;<note place='foot'>The
+oath by the Tetragrammaton included <hi rend='italic'>a fortiori</hi>.</note>
+nor is it permissible
+to mention in the oath the law of Moses; the formula
+of the oath is strictly sectarian (15 1 ff.).<note place='foot'>The Essenes
+excluded oaths altogether, except in the initiation of members.
+See also Slavonic Enoch 49 1; Philo, De spec. legibus ii, 1, and elsewhere
+(Charles, Secrets of Enoch, p. 65). Our sect recognizes judicial oaths (9 8 ff.)
+and imprecations (9 12), as well as vows under oath (16 6 ff.).</note>
+But, though the name
+of God is not used, <q>if a man swear and transgress the oath, he
+profanes the name</q> (15 3). Obligations voluntarily assumed
+under oath (vows) are to be fulfilled to the letter; neither redemption
+nor annulment seems to be allowed, unless to carry
+out the vow would be a transgression of the covenant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another point in which the sect is at variance with the great
+body of the Jews is the calendar. They represent the faithful
+remnant to whom God revealed the mysteries about which all
+Israel went astray, his holy sabbaths and his glorious festivals,
+and his righteous testimonies, and his true ways (3 12 ff.). The
+point of this appears when it is compared with Jubilees 1 14:
+<q>They will forget my law and all my commandments and all
+my judgments, and will go astray as to new moons and sabbaths
+and festivals and jubilees and ordinances</q> (cf. 6 34 ff.,
+23 19). The texts before us do not explain what the peculiarities
+of the sectarian calendar were, but inasmuch as the Book of
+Jubilees, under the title <q>The Book of the Division of the Times
+by their Jubilees and their Sabbatical Years,</q> is cited as an
+authority for the exact determination of <q>their ends</q> (the coming
+crisis of history), it may be inferred with much probability
+that our sect had a calendar constructed on principles similar
+to that of the Jubilees,<note place='foot'>On the relation of the
+Jubilees to the sect, see further below, p.
+<ref target='Pg359'>359</ref>.</note> in which the seasons and festivals were
+not determined by lunar observations or astronomical tables, as
+among the Jews generally, but had a fixed place in a solar year.
+Such upsetting of the calendar is branded as heresy in Midrash
+Tehillim on Ps. 28 5: <q>They do not regard the work of the Lord,
+<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/>
+nor the operation of his hands.... <q>The operation of his hands</q>
+means the new moons; as it is said, <q>God made the two great lights,</q> and it
+is written, <q>He made the moon for festival seasons.</q><note place='foot'>Cf.
+Jubilees 2 9, God appointed the sun ... for sabbaths, and months,
+and feasts; and Jubilees 6 37, the observation of the moon disturbs the calendar.</note>
+These are the heretics who do not calculate (by the moon) the
+festival seasons and the equinoxes. <q>He will tear them down
+and not build them up.</q> He will tear them down, in this world,
+and not build them up, in the world to come.</q> Perhaps the
+Boëthusians, who hired false witnesses to deceive the authorities
+about the appearance of the new moon, were not merely animated
+by a desire to harass the rabbis, but were partisans of
+some such calendar reform.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The organization of the sect furnished it an effective means of
+enforcing its rules by discipline. This organization is so peculiar
+that it must be described in some detail. Like the normal Jewish
+community, it consists of three classes, priests, levites, and
+Israelites, to whom as a fourth class may be added proselytes.
+In this order they are mustered and inscribed in the rolls of the
+camp. In some sense all the members of the sect are priests.
+Ezekiel 44 15 is quoted and explained: <q><q>The priests and the
+levites and the sons of Zadok who kept the charge of his sanctuary</q>
+[<hi rend='italic'>sic</hi>]. The priests are the exiles of Israel who migrated from
+the land of Judah and [the levites are]<note place='foot'>It seems
+necessary to supply these words.</note> those who attached
+themselves to them; and the sons of Zadok are the chosen ones
+of Israel, men designated by name, who arose in the last days.</q>
+Allegory apart, it appears that the priests were of the Zadokite
+line, but this legitimacy is assumed, not emphasized. Priests
+and levites formed part of every court of ten judges (see below, p.
+<ref target='Pg351'>351</ref>); and in every company of ten Israelites (the quorum of a
+religious assembly), a priest, well versed in the Book of
+Institutes,<note place='foot'><q>The book of
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>hagu</foreign>.</q> The rendering
+<q>Institutes</q> is not offered as a translation
+of the name, but as indicating the probable character of the work. See
+below, p. <ref target='Pg353'>353</ref> f.</note>
+must be present, to whose words all must conform. If
+the priest does not possess the requisite qualifications, and a
+competent levite is at hand, it shall be ordained that all who
+enter the camp shall go out and come in at his orders. In a
+<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/>
+case of leprosy the priest shall come and stand in the midst of
+the camp and the Supervisor shall instruct him in the interpretation
+of the law; even if the priest be an ignoramus, it is he who
+must shut up the leper, for the decision belongs to them (13 1 ff.).
+To a priest is assigned also the duty of taking the census of the
+commonalty; he who fills this office must be between thirty and
+sixty years old, versed in the Book of [Institutes and] in all the
+prescriptions of the law, to pronounce them according to their
+prescriptions (14 3 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A much more important place in the organization is filled by
+an officer whose title (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>mebaḳḳer</foreign>)
+signifies <q>examiner,</q> <q>inspector,</q>
+and may perhaps best be rendered <q>Supervisor.</q><note place='foot'>Dr. Schechter
+renders <q>Censor,</q> and remarks, <q>Such an office, entirely
+unknown to Judaism, could only have been borrowed from the Romans.</q> But
+the functions of the Inspector or Supervisor bear no resemblance to those of the
+Roman censors; and for the identity of the title the translator is solely accountable,
+not the constitution of the sect. Mr. Margoliouth talks loosely about
+dependence on Roman administrative models; it would be interesting to learn
+in what particulars. With the very large authority vested in the Supervisor may
+be compared that of the managers, or administrators (ἐπιμεληταί), among the
+Essenes, <q>without whose directions they do nothing</q>; though the functions of
+the managers in the Essene coenobite establishments were of course quite different
+from those of the Supervisors of our sect.</note> Every <q>camp,</q>
+or settlement, of the sect had a Supervisor, and over these stood
+a <q>Supervisor of all the camps,</q> who must be a man in the prime
+of life, between thirty and fifty years of age. To the Supervisor
+of the individual camp it belonged to instruct the community
+<q>in the works of God, and make them familiar with his wonderful
+deeds of might, and recount before them the things that
+happened long ago...; and he shall have compassion on them
+as a father toward his children (13 7 ff.).</q><note place='foot'>In the
+partly illegible lines that follow, his dealing with the congregation
+is compared with that of a shepherd with his flock.&mdash;Dr. W. H. Ward suggests
+that the title <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>mebaḳḳer</foreign>
+may be connected with Ezek. 34 11 f., where the verb
+is used of a shepherd's looking out for his flock.</note> We have seen that
+he has even to instruct the priest in the rules for the diagnosis
+of leprosy.<note place='foot'>As in Mishna
+<hi rend='italic'>Yoma</hi> the High Priest has to be instructed by experts in the
+ritual of the Day of Atonement, and made to swear not to depart from his
+instructions.</note> The admission of new members to the sect is also
+in his hands; no one is permitted to introduce a man into the
+<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/>
+congregation without his consent. He examines the candidates
+in regard to their character and intelligence, their physical strength
+and courage, and their possessions, and enrolls each in his proper
+place in the lot<note place='foot'>Probably the lands belonging to
+the sect.</note> of the camp (13 11 ff.). From the following
+badly defaced lines so much at least can be made out, that the
+Supervisor had extensive powers of control over the dealings of
+members of the sect with outsiders in the way of trade. He evidently
+had also a leading part in the administration of justice
+and the enforcement of the discipline of the sect, but the state
+of the text here denies us insight into the particulars.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Courts were constituted of ten members,<note place='foot'>That a
+court must consist of ten judges, the Karaites deduce from Ruth
+4 2. So Anan quoted by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xlv, p. 67,
+and p. 69, n. 1.</note> chosen <hi rend='italic'>ad hoc</hi> from
+the congregation, four of the tribe of Levi and Aaron and six
+Israelites, all well versed in the Book of Institutes and in the
+Foundations of the Covenant, between twenty-five and sixty
+years of age. No man of more than sixty shall be a judge, <q>for
+on account of the unfaithfulness of mankind his days were shortened,
+and through the wrath of God on the inhabitants of the
+earth he bade to remove their understanding before they completed
+their days (10 4 ff.).</q> The rules relating to the competence of
+witnesses are strict. No one may testify against the accused
+in a capital case who is not a god-fearing man old enough to be
+included in the census (that is, at least twenty years of age, Exod.
+30 14); nor shall a man's testimony be credited against his neighbor
+who is himself a wilful transgressor of any of the commandments,
+until he has come to repentance (9 23-10 3). A peculiar
+provision is made for the case that a single witness (on whose
+testimony therefore conviction could not be had) sees a capital
+offence committed. He is to make known the facts to the Supervisor,
+who records the testimony in writing. If subsequently
+the offence is committed again in the presence of another witness,
+the same process is repeated; on a second repetition, the testimony
+of the three single witnesses combined suffices for conviction
+(9 16 ff.).<note place='foot'>This seems to be the
+meaning of the somewhat obscure passage.</note>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/>
+
+<p>
+Besides the penalties of the Mosaic law, the sect has a formidable
+means of discipline in expulsion, or as it is called <q>separation
+from the Purity,</q> which may in some cases be inflicted even
+on the testimony of one witness (9 21 ff.). Josephus vividly
+depicts the desperate straits into which those came who, for
+grave offences, were expelled from the Essene order; being unable
+to eat food not prepared by members of the order, they were
+exposed to starvation. This particular consequence would not
+follow separation from our sect; but the lot of the excommunicated
+man was evidently hard enough. <q>When his deeds come
+to light he is to be expelled from the congregation, as though
+his lot had never fallen in the midst of the disciples of God; according
+to his misdeeds men shall bear him in remembrance ... until
+the day when he returns to take his place in the station
+of the men of perfect holiness. No man shall have any dealings
+with him in matters of property or work, for all the saints of the
+Most High have cursed him</q> (20 3 ff.); such have no part in
+the <q>house of the law</q>; their names are erased from the rolls
+of the congregation (20 10 f.). They are not only cut off from
+the communion of saints in this world, but are doomed to extermination
+by the hand of Belial (8 1 f., 19 14 f.). One who leads
+men astray and profanes the Sabbath and the festivals shall not
+be put to death, but shall be committed to the custody of men;<note place='foot'>It
+is not clear whether imprisonment or surveillance is meant.</note>
+if he is cured of his error, they shall keep him for seven years,
+and afterwards he may come into the assembly (12 3 ff.). A
+member of the sect who seduces others to apostasy is more severely
+dealt with: <q>A man over whom the spirits of Belial have rule,<note place='foot'>On
+the spirit of Belial (ruling over Israel) see Jubilees 1 20.</note>
+and who advocates defection (Deut. 13 6), shall be judged according
+to the law of the necromancer and the wizard</q> (12 2 f.; cf.
+Deut. 18 9).<note place='foot'><q>Rebellion is as the
+sin of witchcraft,</q> 1 Sam. 15 23.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sect possessed the Jewish Scriptures. The books of the
+law are <q>the hut of the King</q> (i.e. the congregation)&mdash;the fallen
+hut which God had promised to raise up; <q>the pillar of your
+images</q> are the books of the prophets, whose words Israel despised.
+The founder of the sect, the star out of Jacob, is the
+<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/>
+interpreter of the law who came to Damascus (7 14 ff.). The
+authority of the Pentateuch is appealed to in support of the position
+of the sect in the matter of marriage and divorce; their
+peculiar statutes and ordinances are the true interpretation and
+application of the law of God. The prophets are frequently
+cited, and allusions to passages in the prophets or reminiscences
+of their phraseology are much more numerous. There are similar
+reminiscences of the Psalms and of the Proverbs, and perhaps of
+other books among the Hagiographa. As regards the Old Testament
+scriptures, therefore, the sect stood on common ground
+with Palestinian orthodoxy.<note place='foot'>In contrast to the
+Samaritans.</note> The formula of citation is peculiar;
+a quotation is usually introduced by the words <q>as he said,</q>
+rarely <q>as God said</q>; or with the name of the sacred author,
+<q>as Moses said.</q> Besides the Biblical books, we have a quotation
+from Levi&mdash;probably the Testament of that Patriarch&mdash;introduced
+by the same phrase as quotations from the Bible;
+and the reader is referred to the Book of Jubilees by name for an
+exact computation of the last times. There is nothing to indicate
+that the authority attributed to these writings was inferior to
+that of the Hagiographa. The canon of the <q>Scriptures</q> was
+not defined, even in the rabbinical schools, until the second century
+of our era, and in the sects many books enjoyed high esteem
+which the orthodox repudiated.<note place='foot'>In 8 18 ff.,
+after saying, <q>Such will be the judgment of every one who
+despises the commandments of God, and he forsook them and they turned away
+in the stubbornness of their heart,</q> A adds: <q>This is the word which Jeremiah
+spoke to Baruch the son of Neriah and Elisha to his servant Gehazi,</q> referring
+probably to otherwise unknown apocryphal books. Johanneh and his brother,
+whom Belial raised up against Moses, are familiar figures of Jewish legend.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To a different class belong, apparently, the Book of Institutes,
+and the Foundations of the Covenant, in which the judges must
+be well versed. To every religious gathering of ten men or more
+belongs a priest well versed in the Book of Institutes. The title
+Foundations of the Covenant suggests a writing (or a fixed tradition)
+dealing with the obligations and duties of members of the
+sect. The name here rendered Book of Institutes, on the other
+hand, is obscure,<note place='foot'>The simplest explanation
+of the form would be to take it as an abstract
+noun of the type <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>fa`l</foreign>,
+like <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>sáḥu</foreign>; <q>swimming</q> or
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>fi`l, fu`l,</foreign> like
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>séku</foreign> (n. pr.),
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>tóhu</foreign>,
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>bóhu</foreign>, etc., from
+the verb <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>hagah</foreign> (root
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>hagw</foreign>),
+<q>reflect, give thought to something,</q> also <q>read</q> (aloud), so
+that the noun might literally mean <q>study,</q> equivalent to
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>midrash</foreign>, or perhaps
+<q>reading.</q>&mdash;If the opinion which connects the sect with the
+Dositheans were tenable (see below, p. <ref target='Pg360'>360</ref>
+ff.), another explanation of the name
+might be suggested by a passage in Abul-Fath's account of the origin of the Dositheans.
+He narrates that a son of the Samaritan high priest, named Zar'ah, a
+man preëminent for learning in his time, having been expelled from the community
+for immorality, betook himself to Dositheus, who made him the chief of his
+sect. This man <q>wrote a book in which he vituperated all the Samaritan religious
+heads and set forth heresies.</q> The words are,
+<foreign rend='italic'>haja fīhī kul al' a'immetin wa'abda'a
+fīhī</foreign>. Inasmuch as the Arabic <foreign rend='italic'>hajwun</foreign>
+formally corresponds to the Hebrew
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>hagu</foreign>, the Book of
+<foreign rend='italic'>Hagu</foreign> in our texts might be identified with this
+controversial writing of Zar'ah, the disciple of Dositheus. The Hebrew verb
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>hagah</foreign> is thought
+by Kohut (Aruch Completum, III, 177) to occur in Echa Rabbathi on Lam.
+1 4 and 3 33 in the sense <q>contemn, deride,</q> equivalent to the Arabic
+<foreign rend='italic'>haja</foreign>, <q>lampoon,
+vituperate.</q> It might then be conjectured that Abul-Fath had heard of
+a Dosithean book of <hi rend='italic'>hagu</hi> (in Hebrew) and,
+taking the word in its Arabic meaning,
+evolved his description of the character of the work from this etymology.</note>
+but the fact that a knowledge of it is demanded
+<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/>
+of the priest and of the judges makes it likely that it contained
+the <q>statutes and ordinances</q> of the sect, its peculiar definitions
+and interpretations of the law, often referred to as
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>perush</foreign>;
+in technical phrase, a collection of sectarian
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>halakoth</foreign>, such as is
+preserved in the second part of the texts before us, which seems
+to be derived from such a legal manual. The objection to committing
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>halakah</foreign>
+to writing which was long maintained in the
+rabbinical schools was not shared by the sects, and would be
+least likely to exist where the ordinances were not in theory a
+traditional law handed down from remote antiquity, but were
+attributed to an individual interpreter, the founder of the
+sect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sect had houses of worship, which a man in a state of
+uncleanness is forbidden to enter (11 22),<note place='foot'>Some
+Karaite authorities, also, transferring to the synagogue the holiness
+of the temple, forbade a man in a state of uncleanness to enter the inner room
+of the synagogue (Nissi; see Winter und Wünsche, Die jüdische Litteratur, vol.
+ii, p. 74).</note> but nothing more is
+said about them, except that when the trumpets of the congregation
+are blown, the blowing shall follow or precede the service,
+and not interrupt it. It is a natural surmise that they answered
+to the synagogues both as places of worship and of religious
+instruction, such, for example, as the Supervisor is required to
+give. The name, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Beth hishtahawōth</foreign>,
+literally, <q>house of bowing
+<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/>
+down</q> (in worship), is peculiar, and may have been chosen to
+distinguish these sectarian conventicles from the synagogues
+of regular Judaism, as the English nonconformists of various
+stripes would not call their meeting-houses churches. It is possible
+that the prayers of the sect may have been accompanied
+by genuflections and prostrations such as, though unknown in
+the synagogue, have formed in all ages and religions a common
+feature of Oriental worship; but it is also possible that <q>bowing
+down</q> simply stands by metonymy for worship, as is often the
+case with the corresponding Syriac verb,
+<foreign rend='italic'>segad</foreign>.<note place='foot'>The coincidence
+of the name with the Arabic <foreign rend='italic'>masjid</foreign>, <q>place of bowing
+down,</q> mosque, is hardly a sufficient reason for suspecting Moslem influence, as
+Dr. Schechter does, who thinks it possible that the word was introduced by a
+later (Falasha?) scribe as a substitute for the original term.&mdash;Elia Bashiatzi
+(Adereth Eliahu, p. 58), a Karaite writer of the 15th century, gives
+<foreign rend='italic'>Beth hishtaḥawīya,</foreign>
+together with <foreign rend='italic'>Beth hakeneseth</foreign> and
+<foreign rend='italic'>Beth hamidrash</foreign>, as the three names
+of the place of worship. Moslem influence can here hardly be questioned; in
+a later chapter Elia describes the postures of prayer quite after the Moslem pattern,
+alleging Biblical authority for all of them.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sacrificial worship was also maintained.<note place='foot'>The opinion
+that after Josiah's reform, or after the restoration of the temple
+by Zerubbabel and Joshua, Jerusalem was the only place where Jewish sacrifices
+were offered is refuted by an accumulating volume of evidence from various
+regions. See D. S. Margoliouth, Expositor, 1911, pp. 40 ff.</note> The City of the
+Sanctuary was eminently holy; sexual intercourse within its
+limits is forbidden, <q>defiling the City of the Sanctuary with their impurity</q>
+(<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>beniddatham</foreign>).<note place='foot'>Cf. the
+accusation against the orthodox Jews (5 6): <q>They defile the Sanctuary
+in that they do not separate according to the law,</q> etc.&mdash;It is possible that
+the prohibition quoted above applied, not to the inhabitants of the city, but to
+persons who visited it for the purpose of worship, as is the rule for pilgrims to
+Mecca.</note> To this city, probably, the sacrifices
+were brought to which there is frequent reference. <q>No one shall
+send to the altar burnt offerings or oblation, frankincense or wood,
+by a man who is unclean with any of the forms of uncleanness;
+for it is written, the sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination, but
+the prayer of the righteous is an acceptable oblation</q> (11 18 ff.).
+On the Sabbath nothing is to be brought upon the altar except
+the Sabbath burnt offerings&mdash;that is, we may suppose, the stated
+daily burnt offerings with the supplementary Sabbath victims
+(13 17 f.; see Num. 28 1-10). Votive sacrifices are also mentioned;
+<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/>
+it is forbidden to vow to the altar anything that has been
+procured by compulsion; the priest shall refuse to receive such
+offerings (16 13 f.). There is nothing to indicate where this
+sanctuary was situated, further than the natural presumption
+that it was in the region of Damascus, where the sect had established
+itself. The priests have the precedence of all others in
+the community; in its registers their names are enrolled in the
+first rank. Their place in the courts and in the local religious
+community, and their duties in the examination of lepers, have
+already been mentioned. Those who officiated at the sanctuary
+had doubtless their legal toll from private sacrifices of every kind.
+Lost property for which no owner appears falls to the priests; a
+man who has appropriated such property shall confess to the
+priest, and all that he pays in restitution belongs to the priest,
+besides the ram of the trespass offering (9 13 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A charitable fund is provided by monthly payment of certain
+dues by members of the community to the Supervisor. From
+this fund relief is given by the judges to the poor and needy, to
+the aged, to the wanderer (?), to such as have fallen into captivity
+to foreigners, and others (14 12 ff.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The religious conceptions and beliefs of the sect present little
+that is peculiar. For God the name <foreign rend='italic'>El</foreign>
+is consistently used, without
+any epithets. <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Adonai</foreign>
+is mentioned only to forbid its use
+in oaths. The only other name which occurs is the Most High
+(once, in the phrase <q>the saints of the Most High,</q> that is, the
+members of the sect). There is repeated reference to the holy
+spirit: God, through his Anointed, made men know his holy
+spirit (2 12); the opponents of the sect, by blasphemous speech
+against the statutes of God's covenant, defiled their holy spirit
+(5 11);<note place='foot'>The holy spirit in
+them. Dr. Schechter adduces parallels in Jewish writings.
+Cf. Jubilees 1 21, 23, <q>Create in them a clean heart and a holy spirit.</q></note>
+its members are warned not to defile his holy spirit
+by failing to observe the distinctions of clean and unclean which
+God has ordained (7 3 f.).
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <q>Prince of Lights (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Urim</foreign>),</q>
+through whom Moses and
+Aaron arise, is perhaps, as the contrast to Belial suggests, one
+of the highest angels.<note place='foot'>Dr. Schechter conjectures
+that the author wrote <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>Sar ha-Panim</foreign>, the Prince
+of the Presence, but the passages from Jubilees which he quotes in support of this
+opinion are hardly convincing.</note> The destroying angels execute God's
+<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/>
+inescapable judgment on those who turned out of the way and
+despised the statute (2 6). The fall of the Watchers, which is
+a favorite subject in the apocalyptic literature, is referred to in
+2 18. The chief of the evil spirits is Belial: he is <q>let loose</q>
+during the whole of the present dispensation; he lays snares
+for men and entraps them, especially in the three sins of fornication,
+unrighteous gain, and the defilement of the sanctuary
+(4 15 ff.); his spirits rule over men and lead them to apostasy
+(12 2 f.); he also exterminates the faithless in the day of God's
+visitation (8 1 f.). Another name for the devil is Mastema
+(the commoner name in Jubilees), equivalent to Satan, <q>the
+adversary.</q> The angel of Mastema ceases to follow a man
+who resolves to return to the law of Moses (16 4 f.). According
+to Jubilees 10 8 f., 11 5, Mastema had permission from
+God to employ some of his evil spirits to corrupt men and lead
+them astray.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Concerning the future life we read only that those who hold
+firmly to the law are <q>for eternal life,</q><note place='foot'>See
+Slavonic Enoch 42 5; cf. 9.</note> or, as it is elsewhere
+expressed, <q>have the assurance that they shall live a thousand
+generations.</q> To a punishment of the wicked after death<note place='foot'>So
+far as may be argued from silence, this is an important difference
+from Jubilees.</note> or
+to a resurrection of the dead there is no allusion whatever.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The moral teachings of the sect have been frequently touched
+upon above in speaking of their rules of life. Man is led into
+sin not only by the snares of Belial, but by his own sinful inclination
+and adulterous eyes (2 16; seemingly the
+<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>yeṣer hara'</foreign> of
+the rabbis). It was through these that the Watchers fell; by
+them the generation of the flood sinned, and the sons of Jacob,
+and their descendants in Egypt and in Canaan, and brought
+judgment upon themselves (2 14 ff.). We have seen that the
+sect insisted upon monogamy, and perhaps rejected divorce
+altogether. Particular emphasis is laid in several places on the
+commandments, <q>thou shalt not take vengeance nor bear any
+grudge against the children of thy people,</q> <q>thou shalt reprove
+thy neighbor and not bear sin because of him</q> (Lev. 19 17, 18).<note place='foot'>See
+7 2; cf. Slavonic Enoch 50 4: <q>When you might have vengeance, do
+not repay either your neighbor or your enemy. For God will repay as your
+avenger in the day of the great judgment. Let it not be for you to take vengeance.</q>
+(ed. Charles, p. 67); cf. Ecclus. 28 1.</note>
+<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/>
+Thus, at the beginning of the legal part of the book, the delivery
+of a fellow Israelite to the gentiles so that he is condemned
+by their law is said to fall under this prohibition, and further,
+<q>any man of those who enter into the covenant who brings up
+against his neighbor a matter not in the nature of a reproof before
+witnesses, but which he brings up in anger, or tells it to his elders
+to bring the man into disrepute, he is one that takes vengeance
+and bears a grudge.</q> It is forbidden also to exact of another an
+oath except in the presence of the judges; he who does so transgresses
+the law which forbids a man to take justice into his own
+hands. Every one who enters into the covenant pledges himself
+not only not to rob the poor and make widows his spoil, but
+to love his neighbor as himself, to seek the welfare of his fellow,
+and to sustain the poor and needy. As regards the relations of
+the members of the sect to gentiles, it is forbidden to shed the
+blood of a gentile or to take aught of their property, <q>in order
+to give them no occasion to blaspheme</q> (12 6 f.), that is, to prevent
+the profaning of God's name (15 3), a motive frequently
+urged in similar connection in the rabbinical writings. On the
+other hand, no man may sell to gentiles clean animals or birds,
+lest they offer them in sacrifice, nor grain, nor wine&mdash;naught of
+his possessions; nor shall he sell to them his slave or maid servant
+who have come with him into the covenant of Abraham
+(12 9 ff.), He may not pass the Sabbath in the neighborhood
+of gentiles. They are unclean, and garments they may have
+handled require purification.
+</p>
+
+<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/>
+
+<p>
+No record of a schismatic body such as reveals itself in our
+texts is preserved in the early catalogues of Jewish heresies, nor
+have references to it been discovered in rabbinical sources. Like
+many sects, it exhibits the separatist inclination to outdo the orthodox
+in zeal for the letter and in strenuousness of practice, and
+it is not surprising that its interpretations of the law frequently
+agree with those of other strict-constructionists, such as Samaritans,
+Sadducees, Karaites; but these coincidences illustrate a
+common tendency rather than prove historical connection. The
+<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/>
+relation to the Book of Jubilees is, however, such as to show that
+there was some affinity between our sect and the circles in which
+that work originated. Jubilees is cited as authority on the last
+times; its calendar probably contains the secrets of God's holy
+sabbaths and glorious festivals about which all Israel was in
+error; the rules for the observance of the Sabbath in our book
+accord in many particulars with the injunctions in Jubilees 50 6 ff.
+(see also 2 26 ff.); and various other resemblances might be
+pointed out, such as the preference for the unornamented word
+God (in Jubilees, God, or the Lord), in contrast with the many
+mouth-filling periphrases in Enoch; the holy spirit in men; the
+name Mastema for the adversary instead of Satan; Belial who
+ensnares men, and the spirits of Belial which rule over sinners,
+besides others to which Dr. Schechter directs attention in his
+notes. The relation to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
+is less clear. The saying attributed to Levi (4 15) is not found
+in the Testament, and the other resemblances Dr. Schechter has
+noted are vague or belong to the commonplaces. The place of
+honor given to Judah in the Testaments, as we have them, is
+strikingly at variance with the attitude of our sect toward that
+tribe and its princes. The Levite Messiah of the Testaments
+is not precisely the same as the <q>Anointed from Aaron and
+Israel</q> in our book. In Jubilees also there are salient features,
+such as the more developed angelology and the form of the Messianic
+expectation, which hardly permit us to suppose that the
+book was a product of our sect, however highly it may have been
+esteemed by it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sect gives especial honor to the sons of Zadok, the ancient
+priesthood of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezek. 44 15, 2 Chron.
+31 10, Sirach 51 12 Heb.); they are the chosen ones of Israel,
+men designated by name, who arose in the latter times (4 3);
+it was Zadok who brought to light the Book of the Law which
+no one had seen since the death of Eleazar and Joshua (5 5).
+The context of the latter passage would suggest that Zadok the
+contemporary of David is meant, who after the deposition of
+Abiathar became Solomon's chief priest.<note place='foot'>That Zadok was
+the name of the <q>interpreter of the law,</q> the founder
+of the sect, is a much less probable opinion; the name stands in no connection
+with the origin of the sect or its legislation, but with the bringing to light again
+of the Pentateuch. The author cannot have supposed that the <emph>written</emph> law
+remained unknown till the second century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>;
+the reforms of Josiah, based on
+another recovery of the book by Hilkiah, would preclude such a notion.</note>
+The precedence given
+<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/>
+to the sons of Zadok may possibly have a side reference to the
+illegitimate high priests of Seleucid creation, such as Menelaus,
+though, if this were the intention, we should expect it to be
+emphasized.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The passages quoted are the only places in the book in which
+the name Zadok or the sons of Zadok appear, and they are certainly
+a very slender reason for describing the body which produced
+the book as a <q>Zadokite</q> sect, whatever meaning may
+be attached to the term. On the contrary, one of the outstanding
+things in the constitution of the sect is the predominance of
+the lay element. The Supervisor is a layman; laymen form the
+majority in every court; the Messiah is the <q>Anointed from
+Aaron <emph>and Israel</emph>.</q> Whether the external testimony upon which
+Dr. Schechter relies for justification of the name is more adequate
+will be considered below.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Zadok and the sons of Zadok suggest the Sadducees,<note place='foot'>The
+coincidence of names does not count for very much. Abul-Fath names
+two Samaritan <q>Zadokite</q> subsects among the later Dositheans alone.</note> whose
+name, according to the most probable explanation, designates
+them as descendants (or followers and partisans) of Zadok. Here
+again it is a question whether Zadok of David's time is meant,
+so that the Sadducees were the Zadokite aristocracy of the priesthood,
+as most modern scholars think, or whether the name of
+the Sadducee sect is derived from a heresiarch of much later
+times, as the Jewish legend represents which makes Zadok, from
+whom the sect descends, a recalcitrant disciple of Antigonus of
+Socho, about the middle of the second century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>,
+contemporary, if we rightly interpret our texts, with the origin of the sect
+we are studying.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the Sadducees, as we know them from the New Testament,
+Josephus, and rabbinical sources, our sect cannot well be
+identified. There is, however, a sect sometimes associated with
+the Sadducees, namely, the Dositheans, in whose teachings and
+customs Dr. Schechter finds such resemblances as lead him to
+surmise that the Dositheans were an offshoot of our sect. The
+<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/>
+accounts of the Dositheans in writers of different ages and religious
+connections, from Origen and Epiphanius down to the
+Samaritan Chronicler Abul-Fath and the Moslem heresiographer
+Shahrastani, are notoriously confused and contradictory,<note place='foot'>See
+Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, 1884, pp. 155 ff.;
+Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907, pp. 252 ff.</note> so that
+many scholars have felt constrained to conclude that there was
+more than one sect of the name. The Fathers generally agree in
+describing the Dositheans as a Samaritan heresy, though Epiphanius
+and Philaster have it that the author of the heresy was
+by extraction a Jew. They frequently bring him into connection
+with Simon Magus, in the time of the Apostles. According
+to Origen, he gave himself out for the Messiah foretold by Moses;
+his followers had books of his, and legends pretending that he
+had not died, but was still alive somewhere. Other Fathers give
+no date for the rise of the heresy, but by coupling it with the
+Sadducees seem to imply that it was older than Christianity;
+thus (Pseudo)Tertullian (probably after Hippolytus)<note place='foot'>See
+also Epiphanius; the Sadducees were an offshoot from Dositheus.</note> says that
+Dositheus the Samaritan was the first to reject the prophets as
+not inspired; the Sadducees, springing from this root of error,
+ventured to deny the resurrection also. From this Philaster
+probably drew the inference that Zadok, the founder of the
+Sadducees, was a disciple of Dositheus. The Samaritan and
+Moslem authors agree with the Fathers in treating the Dositheans
+as a Samaritan sect. Abul-Fath, a Samaritan writer of the fourteenth
+century, puts the beginnings of the sect in the first century
+<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, at the time when the yoke of the Jews had been broken by
+the kings of the gentiles, and the Samaritans were able to return
+and restore their sanctuary, which had been destroyed by Simon
+and John Hyrcanus.<note place='foot'>Not in the time
+of Alexander the Great, as Dr. Schechter has from Montgomery.
+Abul-Fath, indeed (and Adler's Chronicle after him), introduces this
+whole story before Alexander, and makes Simon a protégé of Darius; but the
+testimony that Dositheus appeared after the time of Hyrcanus, which, as a matter
+of Samaritan history, may be conceived to rest on tradition, is not to be set aside
+because, in fitting his Samaritan traditions into the framework of universal history,
+Abul-Fath is in error by two or three centuries about the date of Hyrcanus. This
+used to be understood; see, e.g., De Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe, vol. ii (1806),
+p. 209.</note> The Moslem writer Shahrastani, in his
+<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/>
+learned work on Religious Sects and Philosophical Schools (first
+half of the twelfth century), gives substantially the same date:
+the founder of the Dositheans, who professed to be the prophet
+foretold by Moses, the star spoken of in the law, appeared about
+a century before Christ.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this state of the evidence it is obvious that no argument can
+be based on the coincidence in time between the origin of the
+Dositheans and that of our sect. When the Fathers bring the
+names of Dositheus and Zadok into conjunction, it means no
+more than that they attributed certain errors to both Dositheans
+and Sadducees; just as the Talmudic legend which makes Zadok
+and Boëthus apostate disciples of Antigonus of Socho is but a
+mythological way of saying that Sadducees and Boëthusians
+were addicted to the same heresies concerning retribution, or as
+the coupling of Dositheus and Simon Magus means that both
+passed for Samaritan arch-heretics.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first point of agreement between the Dositheans and our
+sect which Dr. Schechter notes is in the calendar. Abul-Fath
+says that the Dositheans did away with the computation of the
+almanac (tables of lunar conjunctions), making all their months
+exactly thirty days long, and (thus) annulled the correct festivals and the ordinance
+of the fasts and the affliction (Day of Atonement).<note place='foot'>Epiphanius avers,
+on the contrary, that the Dositheans kept their festivals
+at the same time with the Jews.</note>
+The circle of thirty disciples, who, with a woman called
+Helena (Moon), formed the train of Dositheus, according to
+the Clementine Recognitions (ii, 8) symbolized the days of the
+month. If our sect employed the calendar of the Book of Jubilees,
+as seems highly probable, they also had thirty-day months;
+but it would not follow that the system was original with them,
+nor that the Dositheans must have adopted it from them. There
+were, in fact, from very remote times, two years in use within
+the area of the ancient civilizations, a lunar-solar year, consisting
+of twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days each,
+with a thirteenth month added every two or three years to maintain
+approximate agreement with the solar year and make the
+months fall in the same seasons, and a solar year of three hundred
+and sixty-five days, divided into twelve months of thirty
+<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/>
+days each without regard to the lunations, and five extra days
+(<foreign rend='italic'>epagomenae</foreign>). The former was the system of the
+Babylonians and the Greeks, as well as the Jews; the latter was in use in Egypt
+from immemorial times until the Roman reforms. From the
+Egyptians it was borrowed by the Abyssinians; it was employed
+also for some centuries before and after the Christian era in the
+calendars of Gaza and Ashkelon. The Persians had the same
+system; the Yashts contain a liturgy for the thirty regents of
+the days of the month, the five extra days being assigned to the
+divine Gathas. Probably under Persian influences, this calendar
+was established in Armenia, Cappadocia, and other parts of Asia
+Minor.<note place='foot'>See Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 437 ff., 517; Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 170 f., 287. On the calendar of Gaza, Schürer, Geschichte
+des jüdischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. ii, pp. 88 f.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Jews and Samaritans not only lived in many of the lands of
+their dispersion among peoples who used the thirty-day month,
+but encountered this calendar in commercial centres on the very
+borders of Palestine with which they had close relations. The
+advantages of a system in which the festivals came on fixed dates,
+instead of shifting within wide limits, as they must in the lunar-solar
+year with its irregular intercalation, are obvious,<note place='foot'>We
+have experience of the inconvenience of this system in the wandering
+of Easter and the Christian festivals dependent on it; a reform by which Easter
+should come on a fixed date in the solar year has repeatedly been proposed, and
+a movement is now on foot in Europe to bring this about by agreement of governments
+and churches.</note> and an
+attempt to reform the Jewish calendar accordingly may have
+been made more than once and in more than one region. The
+peculiarity of the system of the Book of Jubilees is not the uniform
+length of the months, but the admission of only <emph>four</emph> extra days,
+thus making an even fifty-two weeks (364 days), which was of
+more concern to the author than the increased error of a whole
+day in the solar year.<note place='foot'>The year of
+364-days is found also in Enoch 72-82, and (by the side of the
+true solar year of 365-¼ and the lunar year of 354 days) in the Slavonic Enoch.
+The intercalary days are introduced one at the beginning of each quarter of the
+year (Enoch 75 1); this is also the method in Jubilees; see 6 23. In effect this
+is equivalent to a year in which eight months have thirty days and four&mdash;those
+in which the equinoxes and solstices fall&mdash;have thirty-one (Enoch 72 13, 19).
+It is not impossible that this system is implied in the chronology of the flood in
+Genesis; see B. W. Bacon, Hebraica, vol. viii (1891-1892), pp. 79-88, 124-139;
+Charles, Jubilees, p. 56.</note> We do not know whether the Dositheans
+<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/>
+of Abul-Fath and the Sadducees of Kirkisani (of whom later)
+agreed in this point with Jubilees, or counted <emph>five</emph> extra days like
+the rest of the world. The former may be thought probable,
+but it cannot be assumed as certain. The year of 365 days is
+also found in the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, c. 6.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius<note place='foot'>This is
+not the place to discuss the value of Epiphanius's testimony. His
+description of the Scribes and Pharisees at least admonishes to caution.</note>
+on the Dositheans as saying,
+<q>some of them abstain from a second marriage, but others never
+marry</q>; and, although <q>the text is not quite certain on this
+point,</q><note place='foot'>The text is certain enough, in the sense that all the
+manuscripts hitherto collated have the same reading.</note>
+is inclined to perceive in the statement <q>at least an echo
+of the law of our sect prohibiting a second marriage as long as
+the first wife is alive.</q> The passage in Epiphanius is more than
+obscure, and the text is for that reason suspected. The passage
+runs: Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται, ἀλλὰ καί τινες αὐτῶν ἐγκρατεύονται ἀπὸ
+γάμων μετὰ τοῦ βιῶσαι, ἄλλοι δὲ καὶ παρθενεύουσιν. Whatever
+this may mean, it certainly is not, <q>some of them abstain
+from marriage after the death of their first wives,</q> nor does anything
+in the context justify the large changes in the text which
+would be required to force this sense upon it. Casaubon's conjecture
+υἱῶσαι has nothing to commend it. The simplest solution
+of the difficulty would be to write συμβιῶσαι,<note place='foot'>Nicetas,
+in reproducing Epiphanius's account of the Dositheans, has τεκνῶσαι,
+<q>after having begotten children,</q> which also agrees very well with the
+context.</note> <q>some of them
+refrain from marital relations after having lived together, others
+preserve their virginity.</q> Whether this emendation is right or
+not, it is clear that Epiphanius describes his Dositheans as a kind
+of Encratite ascetics, while the prohibition of polygamy&mdash;whether
+contemporaneous or consecutive&mdash;by our sect has a totally different
+ground; of asceticism there is, indeed, no symptom in its
+ordinances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Schechter thinks that the statement of Epiphanius quoted
+<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/>
+above that the Dositheans <q>abstain from eating living creatures</q>
+<q>may have some connection with the law in our text on p. 12, l.
+11, which may perhaps be understood to imply that the sect forbade
+honey, regarding it as <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>'eber min haḥai</foreign>
+(a limb cut off from
+a living animal), which would agree with the testimony of Abul-Fath
+that they forbade the eating of eggs, except those which
+were found in a slaughtered fowl.</q> Ἐμψύχων ἀπέχονται does not
+mean <q>abstain from eating living creatures,</q> but <q>abstain from
+animal food,</q><note place='foot'>The familiar
+title of Porphyry's book on vegetarianism, Περὶ ἀποχῆς
+ἐμψύχων, will occur to every one. Epiphanius himself explains the word in
+Haer. 18, 1, <q>they (Nasaraei) thought it unlawful to eat meat.</q></note>
+while our sect certainly did not include vegetarianism
+among its eccentricities, any more than the depreciation
+of marriage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several authors describe the Dositheans as extravagant sabbatarians.
+Origen reports that their rule was, that in whatever
+place and in whatever posture the Sabbath found a man, there
+and thus he was to remain till its end. Abul-Fath gives a longer
+account of their Sabbath laws, which are much stricter than those
+of our texts. It was forbidden, for example, to feed domestic
+animals or give them drink on the Sabbath, they were to be provided
+on Friday with enough provender and water to last them
+through the Sabbath. Extreme sabbatarianism is, however, a
+sectarian propensity which does not have to be borrowed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius further as saying that the Dositheans
+<q>have no intercourse with all people because they detest
+all mankind,</q> in which he thinks <q>we may readily recognize here
+the law of our Sect requiring the washing of the clothes when they
+were brought by a Gentile (because of the contamination), and the
+prohibition of staying over the Sabbath in the vicinity of Gentiles</q>
+(Introduction, pp. xxiii f.). What Epiphanius says is that
+the Dositheans agree with the rest of the Samaritans in the observance
+of circumcision and the Sabbath, and in avoiding contact
+with any one because they feel that all men (that is, all gentiles)
+are unclean. He had already described the customs of all the
+Samaritans: They wash themselves and their clothes in water
+when they come in contact with a foreigner; for they regard it as
+a defilement to come in contact with any one or even to touch
+<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/>
+a man of another religion.<note place='foot'>Haer. 9, 3; cf.
+30, 2: <q>The Ebionites, like the Samaritans, avoid touching
+an outsider.</q> A still more extreme fastidiousness on this point is attributed by
+Josephus to the Essenes; cf. B. J. ii, 8, 10.</note> It is, therefore, not a Dosithean
+peculiarity, but the general Samaritan usage which Epiphanius
+describes, and it is useless to search for remoter affinities.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The marked hostility to the patriarch Judah with which
+Eulogius, the Patriarch of Alexandria (died 607 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>), charges
+Dositheus<note place='foot'>Photius, Bibliotheca Codicum, cod. 280 (ed.
+Bekker, p. 285).</note> is natural enough in a Samaritan heresiarch; in the
+same sentence Eulogius accuses him of scorning the prophets of
+God, which, again, is not peculiar to the Dositheans, but is the
+general Samaritan position. It has been remarked above (p.
+353) that our sect gives especial honor to the books of the prophets
+<q>whose words Israel has despised</q>; and, however unfriendly the
+attitude of these seceders to the degenerate Judah of their time,
+there is no indication of animosity to the patriarch, as there is
+none in the Jubilees.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From a much later time Dr. Schechter has gleaned some notices
+of a sect of <q>Zadokites</q> in whose tenets also he recognizes resemblances
+to those of our sect. Kirkisani, a Karaite author of the
+tenth century,<note place='foot'>The Kitab al-Anwār was
+published in 937, not 637, as by a misprint on
+p. xviii.</note> says: <q>Zadok was the first who exposed the
+Rabbanites and contradicted them publicly. He revealed a part
+of the truth, and composed books [a book] in which he frequently
+denounced the Rabbanites and criticised them. But he adduced
+no proof for anything he said, merely saying it by way of statement,
+except in one thing, namely, in his prohibition against
+marrying the daughter of the brother and the daughter of the sister.
+For he adduced as proof their being analogous to the paternal
+and maternal aunt.</q><note place='foot'>Schechter's
+translation, Introduction, p. xviii.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This is a matter about which our sectaries are especially fierce
+in their denunciations of the laxity of the orthodox. The argument
+they employ is the same which Kirkisani attributes to
+Zadok. It is, however, the obvious argument, if the principle of
+analogy be admitted in the interpretation of the law; it is common
+<pb n='367'/><anchor id='Pg367'/>
+in the Karaite books, and is ascribed to the Samaritans
+also.<note place='foot'>Schechter, p. xxxvii, n. 21.</note>
+Kirkisani also says that the Zadokites absolutely forbade divorce,
+which the Scripture permitted, agreeing in this with the Christians
+and with the Isawites, whose founders, Jesus and Obadiah of
+Ispahan,<note place='foot'>Founder of a
+Jewish sect which arose in Persia about the end of the seventh
+century.</note> had likewise forbidden it. We are not told expressly
+that our sect prohibited divorce, but their prohibition of remarriage
+during the life of the divorced wife would have the same
+effect. Finally, Kirkisani says that the Zadokites fixed all the
+months at thirty days each,<note place='foot'>On this point see above, p.
+<ref target='Pg362'>362</ref>.</note> and that they did not count the
+Sabbath among the seven days of the celebration of the Passover
+and the Tabernacles, making the feast consist of seven days exclusive
+of the Sabbath. Substantially the same statements are
+made about the Zadokites by another Karaite author, Hadassi,
+who flourished in the middle of the twelfth century, and perhaps
+derived his information from Kirkisani.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What the <q>Zadokite</q> writings really were to which these
+authors refer is not known. It is certain, however, that both
+the Karaites and their opponents took them to be Sadducean
+works. In the passage about Zadok, part of which Dr. Schechter
+quotes (see above), Kirkisani says: <q>After the appearance of the
+Rabbanites (the first of whom was Simeon the Just), the Sadducees
+appeared; their leaders were Zadok and Boëthus.... Zadok
+was the first who exposed the Rabbanites,</q> etc.<note place='foot'>Quoted
+in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xliv
+(1902). p. 162, n. 2.</note> Zadok's disclosure
+of a part of truth was followed by the full discovery of
+the truth about the laws by Anan, the founder of the Karaites.
+Not only do the opponents of the Karaites stigmatize Anan and
+his followers as the remnants of the disciples of Zadok and
+Boëthus, but the older Karaites expressly claim this origin. Thus
+Joseph al-Baṣir (first half of the eleventh century) says that, in
+the times of the second temple, the Rabbanites, who were then
+called Pharisees, had the upper hand, while the Karaites, then
+known as Sadducees, were less influential.<note place='foot'>Quoted
+by Poznanski, l. c., p. 170.</note> The Karaite author
+<pb n='368'/><anchor id='Pg368'/>
+of an anonymous commentary on Exodus preserved in manuscript
+in St. Petersburg<note place='foot'>Harkavy attributed
+it conjecturally to Sahl ben Masliah; Poznanski,
+whom Dr. Schechter follows, thinks it more likely that the author was Hasan
+ben Mashiah.</note> polemizes against a disciple of Saadia,
+the great <hi rend='italic'>Malleus Karaeorum</hi>, about the proper way of determining
+the beginning of the months (and consequently the dates of
+the feasts), which the Rabbanites fixed by calculation of the
+conjunctions, while the Karaites depended on observation of
+the visible new moon. The ancients, he says, required evidence
+of the appearance of the new moon.<note place='foot'>As the
+Karaites do. See e.g. Mishna, Rosh ha-Shana, 1 7 ff., 2 1 f.</note>
+Saadia, who mistakenly
+assumed that the beginning of the month had been determined
+astronomically from remote antiquity&mdash;the calendar was, in fact,
+of Sinaitic origin<note place='foot'>See Poznanski,
+Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x (1898), pp. 159, 248, 273.</note>&mdash;asserted
+that the taking of testimony about
+the appearance of the moon was an innovation occasioned by
+the contention of Zadok and Boëthus that the law required the
+beginning of the month to be determined by actual observation;
+witnesses were heard only to prove that observation confirmed
+the calculation. To this the author replies: <q>The book of the
+Zadokites (Sadducees) is well known, and there is no such thing
+in it as that man (Saadia) avers. In the book of Zadok are various
+things in which he dissents from the Rabbanites of the second
+temple with regard to sacrifices and other matters, but there
+is not a syllable of what the Fayyumite (Saadia) says.</q><note place='foot'>Quoted
+in the original by Poznanski, Revue des études juives, vol. xliv,
+p. 176.&mdash;The point is that the <q>Zadokite</q> writings known to the author said
+nothing about fixing the beginning of the month by observation. Saadia doubtless
+based his assertion, not on anything he found in <q>Zadokite</q> books, but on
+Rosh ha-Shanah 22 a-b.</note> Saadia
+himself appears not to have questioned the authenticity of the
+writings that went under the name of Zadok, with which he seems
+to have been acquainted, directly or indirectly, for in a passage
+quoted by Yefet ben 'Ali he says that Zadok had proved from
+the one hundred and fifty days in the story of the flood just the
+opposite of what the Karaites try to prove from them.<note place='foot'>Poznanski,
+l. c., p. 177; cf. also Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, pp. 246 ff.&mdash;Saadia
+probably means that <q>Zadok</q> argued from the fact that the 150 days
+of Gen. 7 24, 8 3, make an even five months (7 11, 8 4), that each month had thirty
+days (cf. Jubilees 5 27), while for the Karaites thirty days was only the extreme
+length of a lunar month. See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, p.
+241.</note>
+</p>
+
+<pb n='369'/><anchor id='Pg369'/>
+
+<p>
+Zadokite books thus meant, for all those from whom our information
+comes, Sadducean books; and so, in the sense that, whatever
+their age and origin, they contained substantially Sadducean
+teachings, most modern scholars, also, have understood
+the name.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The possibility that Sadducean writings from the beginning
+of the Christian era had survived to the Middle Ages cannot well
+be denied, especially in view of the preservation of the book of
+the unknown sect that forms the subject of our present study
+in copies as late as the tenth or eleventh century; and even if
+the book which the Karaites took for Sadducean was erroneously
+attributed to that sect, there is no sufficient ground for identifying
+it with the texts in our hands or for ascribing it to our sect. A
+thirty-day month, and the prohibition of divorce and of marriage
+with a niece, are much too slender a foundation to support
+so large an inference, and it is hardly legitimate to argue that if
+we had the entire book, of which only a part&mdash;or, according to
+Dr. Schechter, excerpts&mdash;is preserved, we might find other and
+more significant agreements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Schechter has also remarked certain coincidences between
+the tenets of our sect and those of the Falashas, or Abyssinian
+Jews, whom, with Beer, he is disposed to connect in some way
+with the Dositheans. Their Sabbath laws resemble those in
+the Jubilees and in the texts before us; they also prohibit marriage
+with a niece; they have a tradition that the Pentateuch was
+brought to Abyssinia by Azariah, the son of Zadok (1 Kings
+4 2); certain features of their calendar may possibly be related to
+that of the Zadokites as described by Kirkisani. Here, again,
+the correspondences are not numerous or distinctive enough
+to establish an historical connection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Putting together these scattered indicia, Dr. Schechter arrives
+at a theory of the history and relations of the sect which must
+be given in his own words:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+We may, then, formulate our hypothesis that our text is constituted
+of fragments forming extracts from a Zadok book, known to us chiefly
+<pb n='370'/><anchor id='Pg370'/>
+from the writings of Kirkisani. The Sect which it represented, did
+not however pass for any length of time under the name of Zadokites,
+but was soon in some way amalgamated with and perhaps also absorbed
+by the Dosithean Sect, and made more proselytes among the Samaritans
+than among the Jews, with which former sect it had many points of
+similarity. In the course of time, however, the Dosithean Sect also
+disappeared, and we have only some traces left of them in the lingering
+sect of the Falashas, with whom they probably came into close contact
+at an early period of their (the Falashas') existence, and to whom they
+handed down a good many of their practices. The only real difficulty
+in the way of this hypothesis is, that according to our Text the Sect had
+its original seat in Damascus, north of Palestine, and it is difficult to
+see how they reached the Dositheans, and subsequently the Falashas,
+who had their main seats in the south of Palestine, or Egypt. But
+this could be explained by assuming special missionary efforts on the
+part of the Zadokites by sending their emissaries to Egypt, a country
+which was especially favourable to such an enterprise because of the
+existence of the Onias Temple there. The severance of the Egyptian
+Jews from the Palestinian influence (though they did not entirely give
+up their loyalty to the Jerusalem Sanctuary), prepared the ground for
+the doctrines of such a Sect as the Zadokites in which all allegiance to
+Judah and Jerusalem was rejected, and in which the descendants of the
+House of Zadok (of whom indeed Onias himself was one) represented
+both the Priest and the Messiah.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+The evidence adduced in support of this ingenious hypothesis
+has already been examined in detail, and the results need only
+be summarized here: There is nothing in the book before us to
+warrant classing the men who made the new covenant in the
+land of Damascus as a Zadokite sect;<note place='foot'>See above, p.
+<ref target='Pg359'>359</ref> f.</note> neither the external
+nor the internal evidence suffices to identify the work quoted by
+Kirkisani as Zadokite (by which he and all the rest understood
+Sadducean) with the book before us; the connection of the sect
+with the Dositheans rests in great part on misunderstanding of
+the testimonies about the Dositheans&mdash;misunderstandings, it
+is fair to say, which are not all original with Dr. Schechter,&mdash;in
+part upon points of resemblance which are not distinctive enough
+to prove anything. Of the peculiar organization of our sect,
+which would be conclusive, there is no trace anywhere.
+</p>
+
+<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/>
+
+<p>
+A much more sensational hypothesis was broached by Mr. G.
+Margoliouth in the <hi rend='italic'>Athenaeum</hi> for November 26, 1910, under
+<pb n='371'/><anchor id='Pg371'/>
+the title, <q>The Sadducean Christians of Damascus.</q> He takes
+<q>the root</q> which God caused to spring from Israel and Aaron
+(1 7) for the same person who is subsequently called the Anointed
+one (Messiah), and distinguishes this figure from the Teacher of
+Righteousness, also called the Anointed one, who appeared
+twenty years later. <q>Both these Messiahs were dead when the
+document was composed, but they were both expected to reappear
+in the latter days.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The first of them, the Messiah descended from Aaron and
+Israel, in consequence of whose work <q>they meditated over their
+sin, and knew that they were guilty men,</q> is John the Baptist.
+John's father was a priest, and though his mother also is said to
+have been of priestly descent, <q>this need not stand in the way
+of believing that there was a strain of non-priestly Israelite
+blood in the family.</q> The Sadducees would naturally prefer
+a priestly Messiah to a Davidic one, and, when John won the
+recognition of the people as a prophet sent by God, it would not
+be strange if a priestly party acclaimed him as in some sense a
+Messiah, or anointed leader of the nation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The other Messiah, the Teacher of Righteousness, must then
+be Jesus. That he appeared twenty years after John, so far
+from being an argument against this identification, would relieve
+the difficulty of trying to crowd John's whole history into little
+more than a year. <q>It is surely not necessary to defend the
+Lucan tradition on this point at all hazards, and it seems quite
+likely that the newly discovered document has at last given us
+the right perspective of events.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If these identifications are correct, the <q>man of scoffing,</q> or
+Belial,<note place='foot'>In <q>Belial is let
+loose,</q> Mr. Margoliouth finds a witless pun on Paul's
+apostolic claims.</note> who is sent to pervert the nation and turn it from the
+law, can be no other than the Apostle Paul, and it is noted for
+confirmation that <q>the period here assigned to his activity and
+that of his immediate following is about forty years, a space of
+time not far removed from the result of recent critical computation.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The New Covenant so often referred to in the texts is clearly
+to be connected with the identical conception and expression
+<pb n='372'/><anchor id='Pg372'/>
+in the New Testament, nor does it seem to be accidental that
+the Teacher of Righteousness is several times spoken of as the
+<q>only</q> or <q>unique</q> one.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Margoliouth presents his complete hypothesis as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<quote rend='display'>
+The natural and apparently inevitable conclusion of the whole matter,
+therefore, is that we have here to deal with a primitive Judaeo-Christian
+body of people which consisted of priests and Levites belonging to the
+Boëthusian section of the Sadducean party,<note place='foot'>Mr. Margoliouth
+is led to the opinion that they were Boëthusians by the
+obscure passage in 2 13, which he interprets, <q>in the explanation of his name
+(sc. the Messiah's) are also their names,</q>&mdash;the name of the sect points
+mysteriously to the name of the Messiah. <q>Now the Boëthusians derived their name
+from a priest named Boëthus, and the meaning of βοηθὸς is the same as that of
+the Hebrew name represented by Jesus. The inference would be that the
+section of the Zadokite or Sadducees who adopted an attitude of belief toward
+John the Baptist and Jesus were none other than the Boëthusians (perhaps identical
+with the great company of believing priests of Acts 6 7), who not unnaturally
+liked to dwell on the identity of meaning between their names and that of
+the Teacher.</q>&mdash;<hi rend='italic'>Boëthos</hi>, it may be remarked, is probably a
+Greek equivalent for the name Ezra, not for Jeshua.</note> fortified&mdash;as the document
+shows&mdash;by a considerable Israelitish lay element, besides a real
+or contemplated admixture of proselytes. They acknowledged, as we
+have seen, John the Baptist, as a Messiah of the family of Aaron, and
+they also believed in Jesus as a kind of second (or, perhaps, as pre-eminent)
+Messiah whose special function it was to be a <q>Teacher of
+Righteousness.</q> Paul they abhorred; and they strove with all their
+might to combine the full observance of the Mosaic Law, as they understood
+it, with the principles of the <q>new covenant,</q> again as they understood
+it. On the destruction of the Temple by Titus, finding that it
+would not serve any good purpose to linger in Judaea, they determined
+to migrate to Damascus,<note place='foot'>Mr. Margoliouth
+thinks that <q>the end of the destruction of the land,</q>
+after which the migration to Damascus took place, <q>can hardly be anything else
+than the completion of the Roman conquest in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 70.</q>
+<q>At the end of the
+devastation of the land</q> means, however, not when the destruction was complete,
+but when the period of desolation was over. The phrase itself, therefore, is no
+more appropriate to Titus than to Nebuchadnezzar&mdash;or to Hadrian. Mr. Margoliouth
+does not say how he interprets the rest of the passage. Are the men
+who, at the end of the devastation of the land, <q>removed the boundary and led
+Israel astray,</q> the great rabbis of the generations after the destruction of Jerusalem,
+and does the sequel, <q>and the land was laid waste because they spoke
+rebelliously against the commandments of God by Moses and against his holy
+Anointed one,</q> refer to the war under Hadrian?</note> intending to establish their
+central organization in that city, and to found communities of the sect in different parts
+of the neighboring country. It was at this juncture that the manifesto,
+<pb n='373'/><anchor id='Pg373'/>
+bearing as it does unmistakable marks of personal touch, was composed
+by a leader of the movement.
+</quote>
+
+<p>
+No scholar who has made an independent study of the texts
+published by Dr. Schechter can have failed to consider the question
+whether these schismatics, with their <q>unique teacher,</q><note place='foot'>As
+has been noted above, <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>yāhīd</foreign>
+is sometimes rendered in the Greek Old
+Testament by μονογενής.</note>
+their <q>new covenant,</q> their <q>Supervisor,</q> whose name and
+functions might be compared with those of a bishop ἐπίσκοπος,
+their loyalty to their dead leader, God's Anointed one (Messiah),
+who made them know his holy spirit, and their expectation of
+an Anointed one in the last times, their hostility to the Pharisees,
+can have been a Jewish Christian sect.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The more closely the documents are examined, however, the
+less tenable this conjecture appears. One feature of the sectarian
+eschatology which, if established, would afford the most
+striking coincidence with early Christian belief, namely, that the
+Messiah who died in the early days of the sect is to <q>reappear</q>
+(Margoliouth), or <q>rise again</q> (Schechter), has no support whatever
+in the text.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref>.</note>
+The <q>new covenant</q> in the land of Damascus
+is plainly the obligation by which the members of the sect bind
+themselves to the organization, with its peculiar interpretations
+of the law and its distinctive observances. Neither in the terms
+of the covenant nor in the law itself is there anything that suggests
+Christian origin or influence. That <q>a man should love
+his neighbor as himself</q> is not peculiarly or even preëminently
+a Christian precept. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
+reiterate it; by the most orthodox rabbis it was recognized as
+the most comprehensive commandment in the law.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The things which the sect esteems of vital importance lie wholly
+in the sphere of the law; polemic zeal for a code which is at every
+point more rigorous than that of the Pharisees is the salient characteristic
+of both parts of the book. The moral precepts are
+the commonplaces of Judaism narrowed to a sectarian horizon.<note place='foot'>The
+commandment to love one's neighbor as himself, for example. In the
+context of the covenant formula, in contrast to Jewish orthodoxy no less than to
+Christianity, the neighbor is not the fellow man, nor even the fellow Jew, but
+the fellow member of the schismatic church.</note>
+<pb n='374'/><anchor id='Pg374'/>
+The judgment of God is similarly circumscribed. It is not a
+judgment of the world or of the Jewish people, but of those who
+reject and controvert the legal interpretation of the sect, and of
+those who have fallen away from it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The code of law which is the constituent principle of the sect
+and the reason for its existence was given it by its founder, the
+Teacher of Righteousness. This unique teacher was not a prophetic
+reformer, but <q>the interpreter of the law who came to
+Damascus,</q> <q>the legislator.</q> The statutes he decreed are final;
+the sect <q>shall receive no others until the teacher of righteousness
+shall arise in the last times.</q>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Margoliouth thinks that the <q>teacher of righteousness</q>
+to whom the sect attributed its institutions and laws was Jesus.
+The statement of this conjecture is its refutation. The rôle of
+a legislator is the last which the character and teaching of Jesus
+in the Gospels would suggest even to a sect in search of a
+founder. That he, whose disregard for the Pharisaic rules of
+Sabbath observance repeatedly got him into trouble, should,
+within a generation after his death, have been metamorphosed
+into the author of the sabbatical code in our texts, which out-pharisees
+the Pharisees at every point, surpasses ordinary powers
+of imagination. The Christian Jews of the first century in Palestine,
+so far as we know anything about them, conformed in the
+matter of observance to the authority of the scribes and Pharisees,
+and alleged the express command of Jesus for this practice
+(Matt. 23 2). Early Christian heresies sometimes exhibit ascetic
+features reminding us of the Essenes; but none of ultra-legalistic
+tendency is known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As our sect is very zealous for things which have no connection
+with Christianity, so on the other hand the texts disclose no trace
+of specific Christian beliefs or conceptions. For the Christian
+Jews of the first century, the belief that Jesus, who had been
+crucified under Pontius Pilate, was the Messiah of prophecy,
+that he had risen from the dead and ascended to heaven, whence
+he was presently to come in might and majesty, according to
+the vision of Daniel, to usher in the new era, was the pith and
+substance of their faith, the <q>heresy</q> by which they were separated
+from their countrymen, the focus of their polemic and
+<pb n='375'/><anchor id='Pg375'/>
+apologetic in controversies with those who rejected their Messiah.
+It is impossible to imagine a writing as long as this, and imbued
+as strongly as this with a controversial spirit, proceeding from
+any Christian sect, in which there should not be so much as an
+allusion to any of these things; or that a sect which put John
+the Baptist in so high a place should not make something of
+baptism in the admission of members.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Apart from these general considerations, Mr. Margoliouth's
+identifications rest upon a palpable misinterpretation. On page 1
+we read: <q>But because God remembered the covenant with the
+forefathers, he left Israel a remnant, and did not suffer them to
+be exterminated. And at the end of wrath ... he visited them
+and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a root of his planting
+<emph>to inherit his land and to prosper on the good things of his earth</emph>.</q>
+The italicized clauses prove beyond question that the <q>root</q>
+is not an individual, but is a collective designation for the first
+generation of the sect.<note place='foot'>See above, p.
+<ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</note> The parallel passage on p. 5 says explicitly:
+<q>God remembered the covenant with the forefathers,
+and he raised up from Aaron men of insight and from Israel
+wise men, and he heard them, and they dug the well.</q> <q>The well
+is the law, and they who dug it are the exiles of Israel who migrated
+to Judah and sojourned in the land of Damascus.</q> In the face
+of this perfectly plain meaning of the passage Mr. Margoliouth
+takes <q>the root</q> for the person designated in other places as <q>the
+Anointed from Aaron and Israel,</q> who led the people <q>to recognize
+their wickedness and know that they were guilty men.</q><note place='foot'>That
+the repentance of the people was brought about by the work of <q>the
+root</q> is not suggested in any way in the text; on the contrary, the only natural
+construction and interpretation of the passage would make the penitent generation
+the same with that which is called <q>the root.</q></note>
+In this first Messiah he recognizes John the Baptist, and, consequently,
+in the Teacher of Righteousness who came after him,
+Jesus. The point of correspondence is the relation between the
+forerunner and his successor. The text, however, as I have just
+showed, says nothing of a precursor of the teacher of righteousness;
+on the contrary, it was this teacher who first brought light
+to the generation which in the consciousness of its sin was
+<pb n='376'/><anchor id='Pg376'/>
+groping like the blind, and guided them in the way of God's
+heart.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref>.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That by the <q>man of scoffing</q> the Apostle Paul is meant is
+for Mr. Margoliouth a corollary of the preceding identifications,
+and falls with them. The enemies of Paul were doubtless capable
+of calling him all sorts of hard names, but there is nothing in the
+epithets <q>scorner</q> and <q>liar,</q> or in the doings attributed to
+this figure, which fits Paul better than any other false teacher
+and sower of discord, while the reference to the fate of the men
+of war who followed the <q>man of lies</q> seems quite inapplicable
+to Paul.<note place='foot'>Gressmann is sure
+that this <q>man of lies</q> must be Bar Coziba (Bar Cocheba),
+the Messianic leader of the rebellion under Hadrian. He might have
+added that the contrast to the true star out of Jacob, the founder of the sect,
+would be peculiarly pertinent. The punning etymology, <q>Say not <q>Star,</q> but
+<q>liar</q></q> (Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 2 2), is ascribed to the Patriarch Judah.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That we should be unable to identify the Covenanters of
+Damascus with any sect previously known is not surprising.
+The three or four centuries in the middle of which the Christian
+era falls were prolific in sects and heresies of many complexions,
+as were the centuries following the rise of Islam.
+Through Philo, Josephus, the church Fathers, and the Talmud,
+we are acquainted with some of them; but it is probable that
+there were many others of which no reports have reached us.
+If we cannot, out of the collection at our disposal, put a label
+on our Covenanters, we may console ourselves with the reflection
+that here we know one Jewish sect from its own monuments, and
+that the texts in our hands, mutilated as they are, suffice to give
+us a much clearer notion of its peculiarities than we get of most
+of the other sects from the descriptions which have come down
+to us.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Its affinities with various antipharisaic or antirabbinical parties,
+such as the Samaritans, the Sadducees, and, in later times, the
+Karaites, is obvious. It shared with all these a zeal for the letter
+and the literal interpretation, and a disposition to extend the
+law by analogy of principle, as a result of which their rules were
+in general much stricter than those of the Rabbis, who possessed
+<pb n='377'/><anchor id='Pg377'/>
+in the theory of tradition and in their methods of exegesis the
+means of adapting the law to changed conditions, and who were
+also more disposed to give the precedence to the great principles
+of humanity in the law over its particular prescriptions when
+the two seemed to conflict. The organization of the sect, on the
+other hand, has no parallel within our knowledge. In view of
+the use of the name <q>camps</q> for the local communities, and
+the references to the <q>mustering</q> of the members, the <q>trumpets
+of the congregation,</q> and the like, it may be surmised that the
+organization of Israel in the wilderness suggested the plan, and
+that the Supervisors were meant to correspond to the chiefs of
+the tribes (for instance, Num. 1 10), each having authority over
+a separate camp.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sect seems to have perpetuated itself for a considerable
+time, otherwise this book would hardly have been preserved.
+It may perhaps be conjectured that it survived long enough to
+be gathered, along with numerous younger sects, into the capacious
+bosom of Karaism, of which it was in various points a precursor.
+Such an hypothesis would explain how it came about
+that copies of the book were made in the tenth century and later,
+we should then suppose by Karaite scribes.<note place='foot'>Perhaps
+the manuscripts may have been in the possession of some Rabbanite
+controversialist in Egypt, and thus found their way, like various Karaite
+writings, into the Genizah of the Synagogue.</note>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Schechter has laid all students of Judaism under new obligations
+by the discovery and publication of these texts. They
+will join with their congratulations the hope that he may find yet
+other treasures among the accumulations of the Genizah.
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</body>
+<back rend="page-break-before: right">
+  <div id="footnotes">
+    <index index="toc" />
+    <index index="pdf" />
+    <head>Footnotes</head>
+    <divGen type="footnotes"/>
+  </div>
+  <div rend="page-break-before: right">
+    <divGen type="pgfooter" />
+  </div>
+</back>
+</text>
+</TEI.2>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto
+Unknown Jewish Sect by George Foot Moore
+
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under
+the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or
+online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+
+Title: The Covenanters of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+Author: George Foot Moore
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [Ebook #31960]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: US-ASCII
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
+
+
+
+
+
+                       The Covenanters of Damascus;
+
+                      A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+
+                            George Foot Moore
+
+                            Harvard University
+
+                        Harvard Theological Review
+
+                              Vol. 4, No. 3
+
+                                July, 1911
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+The Covenanters Of Damascus; A Hitherto Unknown Jewish Sect
+Footnotes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT
+
+
+Among the Hebrew manuscripts recovered in 1896 from the Genizah of an old
+synagogue at Fostat, near Cairo, and now in the Cambridge University
+Library, England, were found eight leaves of a Hebrew manuscript which
+proved to be fragments of a book containing the teaching of a peculiar
+Jewish sect; a single leaf of a second manuscript, in part parallel to the
+first, in part supplementing it, was also discovered. These texts
+Professor Schechter has now published, with a translation and commentary,
+in the first volume of his _Documents of Jewish Sectaries_.(1) The longer
+and older of the manuscripts (A) is, in the opinion of the editor,
+probably of the tenth century; the other (B), of the eleventh or twelfth.
+
+What remains of the book may be divided into two parts. Pages 1-8 of A,
+and the single leaf of B, contain exhortations and warnings addressed to
+members of the sect, for which a ground and motive are often sought in the
+history of the Jewish people or of the sect itself, together with severe
+strictures upon such as have lapsed from the sound teaching, and polemics
+against the doctrine and practice of other bodies of Jews. The second
+part, pages 9-16, sets forth the constitution and government of the
+community, and its distinctive interpretation and application of the
+law,--what may be called sectarian _halakah_.
+
+Neither part is complete; the manuscript is mutilated and defective at the
+end, there is apparently a gap between the first and second parts, and it
+may be questioned whether the original beginning of the work is preserved.
+The lack of methodical arrangement in the contents leads Dr. Schechter to
+surmise that what we have in our hands is only a compilation of extracts
+from a larger work, put together with little regard for completeness or
+order. An orderly disposition, according to our notions of order, is not,
+however, so constant a characteristic of Jewish literature as to make this
+inference very convincing.
+
+Manuscript A was evidently written by a negligent scribe, perhaps after a
+poor or badly preserved copy; B, which represents a somewhat different
+recension of the work, exhibits, so far as it goes, a superior text. When
+it is added that both manuscripts are in many places defaced or torn, it
+may be imagined that the decipherment and interpretation present serious
+difficulties, and that, after all the pains which Dr. Schechter has spent
+upon the task, many uncertainties remain. Facsimiles of a page of each
+manuscript are given; but in view of the condition of the text a
+photographic reproduction of the whole is indispensable.
+
+The legal part of the book, so far as the text is fairly well preserved,
+is not exceptionally difficult; the rules are in general clearly defined,
+and if in the peculiar institutions of the sect there are many things we
+do not fully understand, this is due more to the brevity with which its
+organization is described and to the mutilation of the text than to lack
+of clearness in the description itself. The attempt to make out something
+of the history and relations of the sect from the first part of the book
+is, on the other hand, beset by many difficulties. What history is found
+there is not told for the sake of history, but used to point admonitions
+or emphasize warnings; and, after the manner of the apocalyptic
+literature, historical persons and events are referred to in roundabout
+phrases which envelop them in an affected mystery. Even when such
+references are to chapters of the national history with which we are
+moderately well acquainted, as in the Assumption of Moses, c. 5, ff., for
+example, they may be to us baffling enigmas; much more when they have to
+do, as is in large part the case in our texts, with the wholly unknown
+internal or external history of a sect. The obscurity is increased by the
+fact that the allusions are often a tissue of fragmentary quotations or
+reminiscences out of the Old Testament, chosen and combined, it seems, by
+purely verbal association, or taken in an occult allegorical sense.(2) The
+allegories of which an interpretation is given, as when Amos 5 26 f. is
+applied to the emigration to Damascus and the institutions and laws of the
+sect, and Ezekiel 44 15 to the classes of the community, do not encourage
+us to think that we should be able to divine the meaning by our unaided
+intelligence. It is a fortunate circumstance that the writer comes back
+more than once to the salient events in the sect's history, for these
+repetitions of the same thing in different forms afford considerable help
+to the interpreter, so that the main facts may be made out with at least a
+considerable degree of probability.
+
+The principal seat of the sect was in the region of Damascus, where its
+adherents formed numerous communities. It was composed of Israelites who
+had migrated thither from Judaea; thither also had come "the interpreter
+of the law," the founder of the sect; there it had been organized by a
+covenant repeatedly referred to as "the new covenant in the land of
+Damascus." Many who entered into this new covenant at the beginning did
+not long remain true to it; the writer inveighs vehemently against those
+who fell away, accusing them not only of grave error, but of gross
+violations of the law; but this crisis had been passed, and when the book
+was written the community was apparently flourishing.
+
+The most coherent account of the origin of the sect is found on pages
+5-6:(3)
+
+
+    At the end of the devastation of the land arose men who removed
+    the boundary and led Israel astray; and the land was laid waste
+    because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments of God by
+    Moses and also against his holy Anointed,(4) and prophesied
+    falsehood to turn Israel back from following God. But God
+    remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he raised up
+    from Aaron discerning men and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+    them, and they dug the well. "The well, princes dug it, nobles of
+    the people delved it, with the legislator" (Numbers 21 18). The
+    well is the law, and they who dug it are the captivity of
+    Israel(5) who went forth from the land of Judah and sojourned in
+    the land of Damascus, all of whom God called princes because they
+    sought him.(6)... The legislator is the interpreter of the law, as
+    Isaiah said, "Bringing forth a tool for his work" (Isa. 54 16),
+    and the nobles of the people are those who came to delve the well
+    with the statutes which the legislator decreed that men should
+    walk in them in the complete end of wickedness; and besides these
+    they shall not obtain any (statutes) until the teacher of
+    righteousness shall arise in the last times.
+
+
+The migration is referred to in several other places: "The captivity of
+Israel, who migrated from the land of Judah" (4 2 f.);(7) "those who held
+firm made their escape to the northern land," by which the region of
+Damascus is meant (7 13 f.; cf. 7 15, 18 f.). The time of the migration is
+plainly indicated in the passage quoted above (5 20 ff.). The men who,
+after the end of the devastation of the land, "removed the boundary," and
+led Israel astray, speaking rebelliously against the commandments of God
+by Moses and against his holy Anointed, prophesying falsely to turn Israel
+away from following God, in consequence of which the land was laid waste,
+are most naturally taken for the hellenizing leaders of the Seleucid time.
+In this period, it seems that a number of Jews, including priests and
+levites, withdrew to the region of Damascus,(8) and there they
+subsequently bound themselves by covenant to live strictly in accordance
+with the law as defined by their legislator.
+
+With this the other allusions agree. Thus in A, p. 8 (= B, p. 19), at the
+end of a violent invective against the sinners, of whom it is said, "The
+princes of Judah are like those who remove the boundary," we read that
+"they separated not from the people [and their sins, B], but
+presumptuously broke through all restraints, walking in the way of the
+wicked (heathen), of whom God said, 'The venom of dragons is their wine,
+and the head of asps is cruel'(9) (Deut. 32 33). The dragons are the kings
+of the nations, and their wine means their ways, and the head of asps is
+the head of the Greek kings who came to inflict vengeance upon them." This
+again is most naturally understood of Antiochus Epiphanes; the calamities
+he brought on the Jews were a direct consequence of the course of the
+hellenizing party.(10)
+
+A definite date for these occurrences is given in 1 5 ff.: "When God's
+wrath was over, three hundred and ninety years after he gave them into the
+power of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, he visited them, and caused to
+spring up from Israel and Aaron a root of his planting to inherit his land
+and to thrive on the good things of his earth. And they recognized their
+wickedness and knew that they were guilty men, and they were like blind
+men and like men groping their way for twenty years. And God took note of
+their deeds, that with perfect heart they sought him, and he raised up for
+them a teacher of righteousness to guide them in the way of his heart."
+
+The "root" which God, mindful of his covenant, caused to spring up from
+Aaron and Israel is the men with whom the religious revival, or
+reformation, began, the forefathers of the sect (see 6 2 f., and below, p.
+375);(11) the "teacher of righteousness" is the "interpreter of the law
+who came to Damascus" (6 7 f., 7 18 f.). The dates refer therefore to the
+origin of the sect. Three hundred and ninety years from the taking of
+Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (597 or 586 B.C.) would bring us, by our
+chronology, to 207 or 196 B.C. The Jewish chronology of the Persian period
+is, however, always too long by from forty to seventy years,(12) and
+assuming, as it is fair to do, that our author made the same error, the
+three hundred ninety years would run out in the middle of the third
+century. Dr. Schechter suspects, with much probability, that the original
+reading was "_four_ hundred and ninety years," the common apocalyptic
+cycle (Dan. 9 2, 24; Enoch 89-90; 93, etc.). Making the same allowance for
+error, we should be brought again to a time not far removed from the
+punishment inflicted on the people by Antiochus Epiphanes (see above, p.
+333 f.).(13)
+
+There is nothing in the texts which demands a later date for the origin of
+the sect. The last event in the national history to which reference is
+made is the vengeance inflicted on the heathenizing rulers of the people
+by "the head of the Greek kings." To the misfortunes of the people in the
+following centuries, such as the taking of Jerusalem by Pompey or its
+destruction by Titus, there is no allusion. It may perhaps be inferred not
+only that the schism antedated these calamities, but that the book was
+written before them. In the author's frame of mind toward the religious
+leaders of Palestinian Jewry, he would have been likely to record such
+conspicuous judgments upon them. A comparison with the Assumption of Moses
+is instructive on this point. There the sweeping denunciation of the
+priesthood and the scribes, "their teachers in those times," and of the
+godless Asmonaean priest-kings, is followed by the well-deserved judgment
+inflicted on them by Herod, and after him comes Varus, burning part of the
+temple, crucifying, and carrying off into slavery. The second of the
+Psalms of Solomon may also be compared.
+
+The schismatic character of the sect would also be explained if it arose
+in an age when the character of the political and religious heads of the
+Jewish people was such as to move God-fearing and law-abiding men to
+repudiate them with all their ways and works. For it is not merely with a
+sect, differing from the mass of their fellows in certain opinions and
+practices, that we have to do, but with a schism. The Covenanters of
+Damascus are radical come-outers, seceders not only from the land of
+Judaea, but from established Judaism, on which they look much as the
+Puritan Separatists in the seventeenth century looked on the English
+Church; they might have taken to themselves the prophetic word so often in
+the mouth of the Puritan, "Depart ye, depart ye, go ye out from thence,
+touch no unclean thing; go ye out of the midst of her; be ye clean, ye
+that bear the vessels of the Lord" (Isa. 52 11), as they do apply to the
+religious teachers of the Jewish church the most violent invectives of the
+same prophet (50 11, 59 4 ff.; see below, p. 344 f.). They will not even
+call themselves Jews, they are Israelites who went forth from the land of
+Judaea; their Messiah is to spring from Aaron and Israel, not from Judah;
+when the final judgment comes in its appointed time, it will no longer be
+permitted to make compact with the house of Judah, but every man must
+stand in his own stronghold;(14) when the glory of God shines out on
+Israel, all the wicked of Judah shall be cut off, in the day of its trial
+by fire. They reject the temple in Jerusalem, and will not offer on its
+altar. If we consider that the Essenes, notwithstanding their wider
+divergence from the common type of Judaism, seem to have regarded
+themselves as within the pale of the church, and to have been so regarded
+by others--enjoying, indeed, with the people the reputation of peculiar
+sanctity--the schismatic character of our sect appears in a still stronger
+light.
+
+The language of the book is not inconsistent with the age to which the
+contents would seem to assign it. The vocabulary is in the main Biblical,
+but there are a number of words which otherwise occur only in the writings
+of the Mishnic age or later. Some of these belong to the technical
+terminology of the law schools, some of them appear to be peculiar to the
+sect. A few of the Biblical words also are used in later senses and
+applications. It is proper to bear in mind, however, that the Hebrew
+originals of the works with which it would be most natural to compare our
+text, such as Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve
+Patriarchs, the Gospel, are not preserved; in fact, between the last books
+of the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature of the second Christian
+century there is a hiatus in the history of the Hebrew language, so that
+words which appear for the first time in the Mishna and kindred works may
+have been, and in many cases probably were, in use much earlier. It is
+unnecessary therefore to suppose that such words were introduced into our
+texts by later scribes, though the possibility of such changes must of
+course be admitted. The particular instances in which Dr. Schechter thinks
+that late and foreign influences are most clearly to be recognized--the
+title of the "censor" and the peculiar name for a house of worship--are
+discussed elsewhere.(15) More remarkable than the vocabulary of the book
+is its syntax. The consecutive constructions of the perfect and the
+imperfect are regularly employed, not only in imitation of Biblical models
+in narrative and prophetic passages, but in the legal part of the book;
+and in spite of some irregularities, which may in part at least be laid to
+the charge of scribes, the use of these tenses is generally correct. In
+this respect the Hebrew of the book differs entirely from that of the
+Mishna and the contemporary and later Midrashim, in which the
+characteristic features of classical tense-syntax have entirely
+disappeared, under the influence, it is generally supposed, of the Aramaic
+vernacular. In comparison with these writings the vocabulary also is
+notably free from foreign admixture. There are no words borrowed from
+Greek and Latin, and only one or two instances where an Aramaic term seems
+to have been adopted. The orthography also, in its more sparing use of the
+semivowels to indicate the vowels _u_ and _i_, resembles that of the
+Bible.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+The founder of the sect is called the "teacher of righteousness" (1
+11),(16) "the only, or beloved, teacher" (20 14);(17) "the only one" (20
+32); he is "the legislator," that is, "the interpreter of the law" (6 7);
+and this interpreter of the law, who came to Damascus, is the star who,
+according to Balaam's prophecy, was to issue from Jacob (7 18 f.).(18) He
+showed them how to walk in the way of God's heart (1 11); as interpreter
+of the law he ordained them statutes to walk in till the end of
+wickedness--statutes which shall not be superseded by any others "until
+there arise the teacher of righteousness in the last days" (6 11 f.). To
+him, therefore, are attributed the distinctive principles and observances
+of the sect as they are set forth in this book. "His anointed," through
+whom God made known to men his holy spirit, and who is true (2 12 f.), is
+in all probability the same person with the teacher, the star, just as the
+anointed from Aaron and Israel who is to arise in the future (20 1) is the
+same as the teacher of righteousness to whose voice they will then listen
+(20 32; see below, p. 343).
+
+Those of the emigrants who accepted the guidance of the teacher of
+righteousness, the interpreter of the law, entered into the "new covenant
+in the land of Damascus" (6 19, 8 21, 19 33 f., 20 12). The idea of the
+"new covenant" was doubtless suggested by Jer. 31 31 ff. (cf. 32 36 ff.;
+Ezek. 37 26, etc.), where the establishment of the new covenant, in the
+stead of the old covenant which their fathers broke, marks the restoration
+of God's favor, the beginning of a new and better time. The same use of
+the passage in Jeremiah is made at length by the author of the Epistle to
+the Hebrews (8 6 ff.), The substance of the covenant may be gathered from
+6 11-7 5:
+
+
+    All who were brought into the covenant are not to enter into the
+    sanctuary to light its altar, but became closers of the door, as
+    God said, "Who among you will close its door?" and "Thou shalt not
+    light my altar in vain" (Mal. 1 10);(19) but shall observe to do
+    according to the interpretation of the law for the end of
+    wickedness, and to separate from the children of perdition, and to
+    keep aloof from unrighteous gain, which is unclean by vow and
+    ban,(20) and from the property of the sanctuary, and from robbing
+    the poor of the people and making widows their spoil and murdering
+    orphans; and to separate between the unclean and the clean, and to
+    show the difference between the holy and the common; and to
+    observe the Sabbath day as it is defined, and the season feasts,
+    and the fast-day, in accordance with the commandments of those who
+    entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus; to set
+    apart the sacred dues as they are defined; and that a man should
+    love his neighbor as himself, and sustain the poor and needy and
+    the proselyte, and to seek each the welfare of the other; and that
+    no man transgress the prohibited degrees, but guard against
+    fornication according to the rule; and that a man should reprove
+    his brother according to the commandment, and not bear a grudge
+    from day to day; and to separate from all forms of uncleanness
+    according to their several prescriptions; and that a man should
+    not defile his holy spirit, even as God separated for them (sc.
+    unclean from clean). All who walk in these precepts in perfection
+    of holiness, according to all the foundations of the covenant of
+    God,(21) have the assurance that they shall live a thousand
+    generations.
+
+
+Early in the history of the sect a serious defection occurred. Men who
+entered among the first into the covenant incurred guilt, like their
+forefathers, by following their sinful inclinations; they forsook the
+covenant of God and preferred their own will, and went about after the
+stubbornness of their heart, every man doing as he pleased (3 10 ff.); the
+men who entered into the new covenant in the land of Damascus went back
+and proved false, and turned aside from the well of living waters (19 33
+f.). Their names were struck out of the registers of the sect, as were
+those of such as fell away in later times.
+
+We can readily imagine that many found the rule of the sect too strict and
+the discipline by which it was enforced too severe. Our texts, however,
+speak not of such occasional and individual lapses, but of the repudiation
+of the covenant by numbers at one time. It seems that another leader had
+arisen, of very different temper from the founder, who drew away many
+after him. In the eyes of those who remained steadfast in the faith, the
+new teacher was naturally a false prophet, a kind of antichrist. He is
+called the liar ("the man of lies," 20 15), the scoffer (1 14); his
+adherents are scoffers,(22) who uttered error about the righteous
+statutes, and spurned the covenant and plighted faith which they
+established in the land of Damascus, that is to say, the new covenant.
+They and their families shall have no portion in the house of the law (20
+10 ff.). For their unfaithfulness they were delivered to the sword (3 10
+ff.), until of all the men of war who went with the liar none was left (20
+14 ff.).(23) This came to pass about forty years after the death of the
+unique teacher (_l.c._). If the emigration to Damascus occurred under
+Antiochus Epiphanes,(24) the end of the episode of the false prophet would
+fall about the beginning of the first century B.C., and we should have at
+least an upper limit for the writing of the book. The passion which every
+mention of this defection arouses suggests that it was fresh in memory,
+and would incline us to date the writing not very long after the time
+indicated. It should be observed, however, that the sentence which counts
+forty years from the death of the unrivalled teacher to the end of the
+liar's army sits loose in the context, and may be a gloss, in which case
+the book might be some decades older.
+
+With the remnant who remained faithful through the great defection "God
+confirmed his covenant with Israel forever, revealing to them the secret
+of things in which all Israel was in error, his holy Sabbaths and his
+glorious festivals and his righteous testimonies and his true ways and the
+pleasure of his will, things which if a man do he shall live by them. He
+opened a way before them, and they dug a well for copious waters." "In the
+abundance of his wonderful grace he atoned for their guilt and forgave
+their transgression, and built for them a sure house in Israel, the like
+of which did not arise in times past nor until now" (3 12-20). The
+prediction of the sure house (1 Sam. 2 35) seems to be fulfilled in the
+stability of the sect itself, or perhaps, with closer adherence to the
+prophecy, in that of its faithful priesthood.
+
+So much may be gathered from the book about the origin and history of the
+sect. We turn now to its expectation. As a teacher of righteousness, an
+anointed one (priest), was the founder of the sect, so in the last times a
+teacher of righteousness, an anointed one, shall appear (6 10 f.). Those
+who proved faithless to the covenant are cut off from the community, "from
+the time when the unique teacher was taken away until the anointed one
+from Aaron and Israel shall arise" (19 35-20 1), that is, during the whole
+of the present dispensation. Dr. Schechter regards the anointed one who is
+to appear in the future as the founder of the sect _redivivus:_ the
+present dispensation "seems to be the period intervening between the
+_first_ appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness (p. 1, l. 11) (the
+founder of the Sect), who was gathered in or died,(25) and the second
+appearance of the Teacher of Righteousness who is to rise in 'the end of
+the days' (p. 6, l. 11). Moreover, the Only Teacher, or Teacher of
+Righteousness, is identical with the Messiah, or the Anointed one from
+Aaron and Israel, whose advent is expected by the Sect."(26) The texts,
+however, say nothing of the disappearance, or a second appearance, or
+reappearance, or return of the founder; nor do the words "until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last days," "until the
+anointed shall arise from Aaron and Israel," mean that he shall rise from
+the dead, as Dr. Schechter interprets them.(27) The Messiah whose advent
+the sect expects at the end of the present period of history is, as in the
+older parts of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, a priest; and the
+function of the priest-messiah is not, as in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
+to mediate between man and God, but to instruct men in righteousness, to
+guide them in the way of God's heart. That the founder of the sect also
+was both priest and teacher is by no means sufficient to establish the
+identity of the two figures. It was the office of the priest to teach
+Israel the law, "all the statutes which the Lord hath spoken unto them
+through Moses" (Lev. 10 11; cf. Deut. 33 10); "the priest's lips should
+keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth, for he is the
+messenger of the Lord of Hosts" (Mal. 2 7). Ezra is the type of a priest
+who had not only prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do
+it, but to teach in Israel statutes and judgments (Ezra 7 10); he was,
+according to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, the restorer of Judaism. It
+was a departure from the ideal of the law itself that, when the priesthood
+showed itself unworthy of its calling, the teaching function was assumed
+by lay scribes, and even in later times there were many priestly teachers
+among the Scribes and among the Doctors. That our sect looks back to one
+such as its founder, and forward to another as the great teacher of the
+Messianic age, is in no way surprising. If the author had meant what Dr.
+Schechter thinks, it is fair to assume that he would have said it
+unmistakably; for the identity of the expected Messiah with the dead
+founder, if it was part of the belief of the sect, would of necessity be a
+singular and significant part of it.(28)
+
+The coming judgment of God is represented rather as a judgment on the
+faithless members of the sect, including those who have seceded from it or
+been expelled, than in its more general aspects. The long eschatological
+passage in B (20 15 to the end) is illegible in spots near the beginning,
+but the general tenor is clear:
+
+
+    In that consummation the anger of God will be inflamed against
+    Israel, as he said, "There is no king and no prince, and no judge
+    and none that reproves in righteousness" (cf. Hos. 3 4). Those who
+    turn from the transgression [of Jacob](29) and keep the covenant
+    of God will then confer with one another; their footsteps will be
+    firm in the way of God (and the prophecy will be fulfilled which
+    says), "And God hearkened to their words and heard, and a book of
+    remembrance was written before him for those that fear God and
+    think on his name" (Mal. 3 16), until deliverance and
+    righteousness emerge for those that fear God, "and ye shall return
+    and see the difference between righteous and wicked, and between a
+    servant of God and one who serves him not" (Mal. 3 18). And he
+    shows favor to those that love him and keep his commandments, for
+    a thousand generations....(30)
+
+    Each man according to his spirit, shall they be judged by his holy
+    counsel, and all who have broken through the bounds of the law, of
+    those who entered into the covenant, when the glory of God shines
+    out on Israel, shall be cut off from the midst of the camp, and
+    with them all the evil-doers of Judah, in the days when it is
+    tried in the fire. But all who held firmly by these precepts,
+    going out and coming in in conformity with the law, and listened
+    to the voice of the teacher, will confess(31) before God.... "We
+    have done evil, we, and our fathers also, when they went contrary
+    to the statutes of the covenant, and faithful are thy judgments
+    upon us." And they will not act presumptuously against his holy
+    statutes and his righteous judgment and his faithful testimonies.
+    They will be instructed in the ancient judgments by which the
+    followers of the unique one were judged, and will hearken to the
+    words of the teacher of righteousness. And they will not
+    controvert the righteous statutes when they hear them; they will
+    rejoice and be glad, and their heart will be strong, and they will
+    show themselves mighty against all the people of the world.(32)
+    And God will atone for them, and they will see his salvation with
+    joy, because they trusted in his holy name.
+
+
+Here the fragment ends. The destruction of those who fall away from the
+sect is threatened in other places; it will suffice to quote the most
+important (19 5 ff.):
+
+
+    Upon all those who reject the commandments and the statutes, the
+    deserts of the wicked shall be requited when God visits the earth,
+    when the word comes to pass which was written by Zechariah the
+    prophet, "Sword, awake against my shepherd and against the man
+    that is my fellow, saith God; smite the shepherd, and let the
+    sheep be scattered, and I will turn my hand against the little
+    ones" (Zech. 13 7). But those who observe it (sc. the obligations
+    of the covenant) are "the poor of the flock" (Zech. 11 7). These
+    shall escape at the end of the visitation, but the former (sc.
+    those who reject the commandments) shall be given over to the
+    sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel comes, as it was at
+    the end of the first visitation, of which God said by Ezekiel that
+    a mark should be made on the foreheads of them that sigh and cry,
+    and the rest were delivered to the sword that executes the
+    judgment of the covenant. And so shall the judgment be of all who
+    enter into his covenant and do not hold firmly by these statutes,
+    they shall be visited even with extermination by the hand of
+    Belial. This is the day in which God will visit, as he spoke, "The
+    princes of Judah are become like men who remove the boundary; on
+    them will I pour out my fury like water" (Hos. 5 10). For they
+    entered into the covenant of repentance, but did not turn aside
+    from the way of faithless men, and wallowed in ways of fornication
+    and in unrighteous gain, and avenging themselves and bearing a
+    grudge against one another.
+
+
+It is possible, of course, that the judgment of the heathen world, which
+looms so large in most of the apocalypses, may have had a place in parts
+of the book now lost, but if it had been a very important feature in the
+expectation of the sect we should hardly fail to find at least allusions
+to it in the pages in our hands. The author is almost exclusively
+interested in the sect itself, in the division which had rent it, and in
+polemics against laxer interpretations of the law. This limitation of the
+horizon is characteristically sectarian, and may suggest, moreover, as has
+been said above, that the writer is not far removed in time from the split
+in the new organization.
+
+The polemic is especially pointed against certain opponents who are
+described as "those who build a wall and plaster it with stucco" (4 19; 8
+12).(33) They follow a commandment (_sau_); probably connoting, as in
+Hosea 5 11, from which the phrase is taken, an arbitrary rule of their
+own, a commandment of men.(34) God hates them, his anger is kindled
+against them (8 18). These "builders" are false teachers; Biblical
+denunciations of the false prophets are applied to them. (See especially 8
+12 f.) Points in which their teaching is particularly assailed are that
+they allow polygamy and the remarriage of divorced persons during the life
+of the other party, and hold it lawful for a man to marry his niece; that
+they defile the sanctuary by the laxity of some of their rules and
+practice about sexual uncleanness; they presume blasphemously to impugn
+the "statutes of the covenant of God" (the legislation of the sect),
+declaring that they are not right, and saying abominable things about them
+(4 20-5 14). The positions so hotly denounced, especially in the matter of
+marriage and divorce, are those of the Palestinian rabbis as we know them
+in the Mishna and kindred works, and in so far as the Pharisees had a
+dominating influence in the schools of the law they may be regarded as in
+a peculiar sense the object of this invective, which is, however, sweeping
+enough to include all rabbinical Judaism. Such verses as Isaiah 50 11 and
+59 4 ff. are hurled at them; they are compared to Johanneh and his
+brother, whom Belial raised up against Moses (5 17 ff.).(35)
+
+The sect prohibited polygamy, which they stigmatized as fornication,
+arguing from the creation--"a male and a female created he them" (cf. Matt.
+19 4), and from the story of the flood--"by pairs they went into the ark,"
+and from the law which forbade the prince to multiply wives unto himself
+(Deut. 17 17), that is, as they understood it, to take more than one wife.
+To forestall an objection, it is added: "But David had not read in the
+sealed book of the law which was in the ark, for it was not opened in
+Israel from the time of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the elders who
+worshipped the Astartes, but was hidden and not brought to light until
+Zadok arose" (5 2-5; see below, p. 359).
+
+Marriage with another woman while a man had a divorced wife living was
+apparently put in the same category with having two wives at the same time
+(4 20 f.; cf. Matt. 5 31 f.). Marriage with a niece (brother's or sister's
+daughter) they treated as incest, reasoning that marriage between a woman
+and her uncle stood on all fours with marriage between a man and his aunt,
+which was expressly forbidden as within the prohibited degrees of
+kinship.(36) The three snares of Belial by which he ensnared Israel are
+fornication (that is, plural or incestuous unions), wealth (that is,
+unrighteous gain), and the pollution of the sanctuary (4 15 f.; cf. 5 6
+f.).(37)
+
+The same rigorous tendency which appears in the attitude of the sect in
+regard to marriage pervades the whole legal part of the work before us.
+The rules for the observance of the Sabbath (10 14-11 21) will make this
+clear.
+
+
+    Concerning the Sabbath, to keep it as it is prescribed.
+
+    1. On the sixth day no man shall do any work from the time when
+    the disk of the sun is distant from the western portal(38) by its
+    diameter (?); for this is what he said: Observe the Sabbath day to
+    hallow it.
+
+    2. On the Sabbath a man shall not engage in any foolish
+    conversation; and he shall not exact repayment from his neighbor;
+    nor shall he give judgment in matters of property; he shall not
+    talk about matters of work and labor to be done on the next day.
+
+    3. A man shall not walk in the country to do the work of his
+    business on the Sabbath. He shall not walk outside of his town
+    above one thousand(39) cubits.
+
+    4. No man shall eat on the Sabbath anything except what was
+    previously prepared or what is spoiling in the field. He shall not
+    eat or drink anything but what was in the camp. If he be on the
+    way and descend to bathe, he may drink as he stands, but must not
+    draw water in any vessel.(40)
+
+    5. He must not send a foreigner to do his business on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    6. A man must not put on soiled garments or such as are brought by
+    a gentile, without washing them in water or rubbing them with
+    frankincense.(41)
+
+    7. A man shall not exchange pledges(42) of his own accord on the
+    Sabbath.
+
+    8. A man shall not follow his cattle, to pasture them outside his
+    town, except within 2000 cubits. He shall not lift his arm to
+    strike them with his fist; if the animal is breachy, let him not
+    take her out of the house.
+
+    9. A man shall not take anything out of a house into the street,
+    nor bring anything from the street into the house; and if he be in
+    the entry, he shall not pass anything out of it or bring anything
+    into it.
+
+    10. He shall not open on the Sabbath a vessel the cover of which
+    has been luted on.
+
+    11. A man shall not carry on his person spices, going out or
+    coming in on the Sabbath.
+
+    12. Within a house he shall not lift stone nor earth on the
+    Sabbath day.
+
+    13. The nurse shall not carry an infant in arms, going out or
+    coming in with it on the Sabbath.
+
+    14. A man shall not deal harshly with his slave or his maid or his
+    hired servant on the Sabbath.
+
+    15. A man shall not deliver cattle of their young on the Sabbath
+    day.
+
+    16. If a beast fall into a cistern or trap, a man shall not lift
+    it out on the Sabbath.
+
+    17. A man shall not pass the Sabbath in a place near the gentiles.
+
+    18. A man shall not profane the Sabbath for the sake of gain.
+
+    19. If a human being fall into a tank of water or into a place of
+    ... no man shall fetch him up by means of a ladder or a rope or
+    any implement.
+
+    20. No man shall bring upon the altar on the Sabbath anything
+    except the Sabbath burnt-offerings, for so it is written, "aside
+    from your Sabbaths."
+
+
+The dietary laws afford other examples of the strict rules of the
+sect.(43) Fish may be eaten only if, while still alive, they have been
+split open and drained of their blood; grasshoppers and locusts must be
+put alive into the water or the fire (in which they are to be cooked);
+honey in the comb is apparently prohibited. So, again, in a house in which
+a death has occurred, fixtures, such as nails and pegs in the walls, are
+unclean; and wood, stone, and dust are capable of contracting and
+communicating various kinds of uncleanness (12 15-18). The sect sees in
+these stricter distinctions between clean and unclean the superiority of
+its ordinances over those of other Jews, whom they regard as sinfully lax.
+The Pharisees are to them gross latitudinarians!
+
+Oaths are to be taken only by the covenant and the curses of the covenant,
+that is, the vows by which the members of the sect bind themselves, on
+their admission to it, to live in conformity with its rule and submit to
+the authority of those set over them, and the curses invoked on such as
+violate these obligations.(44) Oaths by God, whether under the name _Aleph
+Lamed_ (_El_ or _Elohim_) or _Aleph Daleth (Adonai)_ are prohibited;(45)
+nor is it permissible to mention in the oath the law of Moses; the formula
+of the oath is strictly sectarian (15 1 ff.).(46) But, though the name of
+God is not used, "if a man swear and transgress the oath, he profanes the
+name" (15 3). Obligations voluntarily assumed under oath (vows) are to be
+fulfilled to the letter; neither redemption nor annulment seems to be
+allowed, unless to carry out the vow would be a transgression of the
+covenant.
+
+Another point in which the sect is at variance with the great body of the
+Jews is the calendar. They represent the faithful remnant to whom God
+revealed the mysteries about which all Israel went astray, his holy
+sabbaths and his glorious festivals, and his righteous testimonies, and
+his true ways (3 12 ff.). The point of this appears when it is compared
+with Jubilees 1 14: "They will forget my law and all my commandments and
+all my judgments, and will go astray as to new moons and sabbaths and
+festivals and jubilees and ordinances" (cf. 6 34 ff., 23 19). The texts
+before us do not explain what the peculiarities of the sectarian calendar
+were, but inasmuch as the Book of Jubilees, under the title "The Book of
+the Division of the Times by their Jubilees and their Sabbatical Years,"
+is cited as an authority for the exact determination of "their ends" (the
+coming crisis of history), it may be inferred with much probability that
+our sect had a calendar constructed on principles similar to that of the
+Jubilees,(47) in which the seasons and festivals were not determined by
+lunar observations or astronomical tables, as among the Jews generally,
+but had a fixed place in a solar year. Such upsetting of the calendar is
+branded as heresy in Midrash Tehillim on Ps. 28 5: "They do not regard the
+work of the Lord, nor the operation of his hands.... 'The operation of his
+hands' means the new moons; as it is said, 'God made the two great
+lights,' and it is written, 'He made the moon for festival seasons.'(48)
+These are the heretics who do not calculate (by the moon) the festival
+seasons and the equinoxes. 'He will tear them down and not build them up.'
+He will tear them down, in this world, and not build them up, in the world
+to come." Perhaps the Boethusians, who hired false witnesses to deceive
+the authorities about the appearance of the new moon, were not merely
+animated by a desire to harass the rabbis, but were partisans of some such
+calendar reform.
+
+The organization of the sect furnished it an effective means of enforcing
+its rules by discipline. This organization is so peculiar that it must be
+described in some detail. Like the normal Jewish community, it consists of
+three classes, priests, levites, and Israelites, to whom as a fourth class
+may be added proselytes. In this order they are mustered and inscribed in
+the rolls of the camp. In some sense all the members of the sect are
+priests. Ezekiel 44 15 is quoted and explained: " 'The priests and the
+levites and the sons of Zadok who kept the charge of his sanctuary'
+[_sic_]. The priests are the exiles of Israel who migrated from the land
+of Judah and [the levites are](49) those who attached themselves to them;
+and the sons of Zadok are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by
+name, who arose in the last days." Allegory apart, it appears that the
+priests were of the Zadokite line, but this legitimacy is assumed, not
+emphasized. Priests and levites formed part of every court of ten judges
+(see below, p. 351); and in every company of ten Israelites (the quorum of
+a religious assembly), a priest, well versed in the Book of
+Institutes,(50) must be present, to whose words all must conform. If the
+priest does not possess the requisite qualifications, and a competent
+levite is at hand, it shall be ordained that all who enter the camp shall
+go out and come in at his orders. In a case of leprosy the priest shall
+come and stand in the midst of the camp and the Supervisor shall instruct
+him in the interpretation of the law; even if the priest be an ignoramus,
+it is he who must shut up the leper, for the decision belongs to them (13
+1 ff.). To a priest is assigned also the duty of taking the census of the
+commonalty; he who fills this office must be between thirty and sixty
+years old, versed in the Book of [Institutes and] in all the prescriptions
+of the law, to pronounce them according to their prescriptions (14 3 ff.).
+
+A much more important place in the organization is filled by an officer
+whose title (_mebakker_) signifies "examiner," "inspector," and may
+perhaps best be rendered "Supervisor."(51) Every "camp," or settlement, of
+the sect had a Supervisor, and over these stood a "Supervisor of all the
+camps," who must be a man in the prime of life, between thirty and fifty
+years of age. To the Supervisor of the individual camp it belonged to
+instruct the community "in the works of God, and make them familiar with
+his wonderful deeds of might, and recount before them the things that
+happened long ago...; and he shall have compassion on them as a father
+toward his children (13 7 ff.)."(52) We have seen that he has even to
+instruct the priest in the rules for the diagnosis of leprosy.(53) The
+admission of new members to the sect is also in his hands; no one is
+permitted to introduce a man into the congregation without his consent. He
+examines the candidates in regard to their character and intelligence,
+their physical strength and courage, and their possessions, and enrolls
+each in his proper place in the lot(54) of the camp (13 11 ff.). From the
+following badly defaced lines so much at least can be made out, that the
+Supervisor had extensive powers of control over the dealings of members of
+the sect with outsiders in the way of trade. He evidently had also a
+leading part in the administration of justice and the enforcement of the
+discipline of the sect, but the state of the text here denies us insight
+into the particulars.
+
+Courts were constituted of ten members,(55) chosen _ad hoc_ from the
+congregation, four of the tribe of Levi and Aaron and six Israelites, all
+well versed in the Book of Institutes and in the Foundations of the
+Covenant, between twenty-five and sixty years of age. No man of more than
+sixty shall be a judge, "for on account of the unfaithfulness of mankind
+his days were shortened, and through the wrath of God on the inhabitants
+of the earth he bade to remove their understanding before they completed
+their days (10 4 ff.)." The rules relating to the competence of witnesses
+are strict. No one may testify against the accused in a capital case who
+is not a god-fearing man old enough to be included in the census (that is,
+at least twenty years of age, Exod. 30 14); nor shall a man's testimony be
+credited against his neighbor who is himself a wilful transgressor of any
+of the commandments, until he has come to repentance (9 23-10 3). A
+peculiar provision is made for the case that a single witness (on whose
+testimony therefore conviction could not be had) sees a capital offence
+committed. He is to make known the facts to the Supervisor, who records
+the testimony in writing. If subsequently the offence is committed again
+in the presence of another witness, the same process is repeated; on a
+second repetition, the testimony of the three single witnesses combined
+suffices for conviction (9 16 ff.).(56)
+
+Besides the penalties of the Mosaic law, the sect has a formidable means
+of discipline in expulsion, or as it is called "separation from the
+Purity," which may in some cases be inflicted even on the testimony of one
+witness (9 21 ff.). Josephus vividly depicts the desperate straits into
+which those came who, for grave offences, were expelled from the Essene
+order; being unable to eat food not prepared by members of the order, they
+were exposed to starvation. This particular consequence would not follow
+separation from our sect; but the lot of the excommunicated man was
+evidently hard enough. "When his deeds come to light he is to be expelled
+from the congregation, as though his lot had never fallen in the midst of
+the disciples of God; according to his misdeeds men shall bear him in
+remembrance ... until the day when he returns to take his place in the
+station of the men of perfect holiness. No man shall have any dealings
+with him in matters of property or work, for all the saints of the Most
+High have cursed him" (20 3 ff.); such have no part in the "house of the
+law"; their names are erased from the rolls of the congregation (20 10
+f.). They are not only cut off from the communion of saints in this world,
+but are doomed to extermination by the hand of Belial (8 1 f., 19 14 f.).
+One who leads men astray and profanes the Sabbath and the festivals shall
+not be put to death, but shall be committed to the custody of men;(57) if
+he is cured of his error, they shall keep him for seven years, and
+afterwards he may come into the assembly (12 3 ff.). A member of the sect
+who seduces others to apostasy is more severely dealt with: "A man over
+whom the spirits of Belial have rule,(58) and who advocates defection
+(Deut. 13 6), shall be judged according to the law of the necromancer and
+the wizard" (12 2 f.; cf. Deut. 18 9).(59)
+
+The sect possessed the Jewish Scriptures. The books of the law are "the
+hut of the King" (i.e. the congregation)--the fallen hut which God had
+promised to raise up; "the pillar of your images" are the books of the
+prophets, whose words Israel despised. The founder of the sect, the star
+out of Jacob, is the interpreter of the law who came to Damascus (7 14
+ff.). The authority of the Pentateuch is appealed to in support of the
+position of the sect in the matter of marriage and divorce; their peculiar
+statutes and ordinances are the true interpretation and application of the
+law of God. The prophets are frequently cited, and allusions to passages
+in the prophets or reminiscences of their phraseology are much more
+numerous. There are similar reminiscences of the Psalms and of the
+Proverbs, and perhaps of other books among the Hagiographa. As regards the
+Old Testament scriptures, therefore, the sect stood on common ground with
+Palestinian orthodoxy.(60) The formula of citation is peculiar; a
+quotation is usually introduced by the words "as he said," rarely "as God
+said"; or with the name of the sacred author, "as Moses said." Besides the
+Biblical books, we have a quotation from Levi--probably the Testament of
+that Patriarch--introduced by the same phrase as quotations from the Bible;
+and the reader is referred to the Book of Jubilees by name for an exact
+computation of the last times. There is nothing to indicate that the
+authority attributed to these writings was inferior to that of the
+Hagiographa. The canon of the "Scriptures" was not defined, even in the
+rabbinical schools, until the second century of our era, and in the sects
+many books enjoyed high esteem which the orthodox repudiated.(61)
+
+To a different class belong, apparently, the Book of Institutes, and the
+Foundations of the Covenant, in which the judges must be well versed. To
+every religious gathering of ten men or more belongs a priest well versed
+in the Book of Institutes. The title Foundations of the Covenant suggests
+a writing (or a fixed tradition) dealing with the obligations and duties
+of members of the sect. The name here rendered Book of Institutes, on the
+other hand, is obscure,(62) but the fact that a knowledge of it is
+demanded of the priest and of the judges makes it likely that it contained
+the "statutes and ordinances" of the sect, its peculiar definitions and
+interpretations of the law, often referred to as _perush_; in technical
+phrase, a collection of sectarian _halakoth_, such as is preserved in the
+second part of the texts before us, which seems to be derived from such a
+legal manual. The objection to committing _halakah_ to writing which was
+long maintained in the rabbinical schools was not shared by the sects, and
+would be least likely to exist where the ordinances were not in theory a
+traditional law handed down from remote antiquity, but were attributed to
+an individual interpreter, the founder of the sect.
+
+The sect had houses of worship, which a man in a state of uncleanness is
+forbidden to enter (11 22),(63) but nothing more is said about them,
+except that when the trumpets of the congregation are blown, the blowing
+shall follow or precede the service, and not interrupt it. It is a natural
+surmise that they answered to the synagogues both as places of worship and
+of religious instruction, such, for example, as the Supervisor is required
+to give. The name, _Beth hishtahawoth_, literally, "house of bowing down"
+(in worship), is peculiar, and may have been chosen to distinguish these
+sectarian conventicles from the synagogues of regular Judaism, as the
+English nonconformists of various stripes would not call their
+meeting-houses churches. It is possible that the prayers of the sect may
+have been accompanied by genuflections and prostrations such as, though
+unknown in the synagogue, have formed in all ages and religions a common
+feature of Oriental worship; but it is also possible that "bowing down"
+simply stands by metonymy for worship, as is often the case with the
+corresponding Syriac verb, _segad_.(64)
+
+Sacrificial worship was also maintained.(65) The City of the Sanctuary was
+eminently holy; sexual intercourse within its limits is forbidden,
+"defiling the City of the Sanctuary with their impurity"
+(_beniddatham_).(66) To this city, probably, the sacrifices were brought
+to which there is frequent reference. "No one shall send to the altar
+burnt offerings or oblation, frankincense or wood, by a man who is unclean
+with any of the forms of uncleanness; for it is written, the sacrifice of
+the wicked is an abomination, but the prayer of the righteous is an
+acceptable oblation" (11 18 ff.). On the Sabbath nothing is to be brought
+upon the altar except the Sabbath burnt offerings--that is, we may suppose,
+the stated daily burnt offerings with the supplementary Sabbath victims
+(13 17 f.; see Num. 28 1-10). Votive sacrifices are also mentioned; it is
+forbidden to vow to the altar anything that has been procured by
+compulsion; the priest shall refuse to receive such offerings (16 13 f.).
+There is nothing to indicate where this sanctuary was situated, further
+than the natural presumption that it was in the region of Damascus, where
+the sect had established itself. The priests have the precedence of all
+others in the community; in its registers their names are enrolled in the
+first rank. Their place in the courts and in the local religious
+community, and their duties in the examination of lepers, have already
+been mentioned. Those who officiated at the sanctuary had doubtless their
+legal toll from private sacrifices of every kind. Lost property for which
+no owner appears falls to the priests; a man who has appropriated such
+property shall confess to the priest, and all that he pays in restitution
+belongs to the priest, besides the ram of the trespass offering (9 13
+ff.).
+
+A charitable fund is provided by monthly payment of certain dues by
+members of the community to the Supervisor. From this fund relief is given
+by the judges to the poor and needy, to the aged, to the wanderer (?), to
+such as have fallen into captivity to foreigners, and others (14 12 ff.).
+
+The religious conceptions and beliefs of the sect present little that is
+peculiar. For God the name _El_ is consistently used, without any
+epithets. _Adonai_ is mentioned only to forbid its use in oaths. The only
+other name which occurs is the Most High (once, in the phrase "the saints
+of the Most High," that is, the members of the sect). There is repeated
+reference to the holy spirit: God, through his Anointed, made men know his
+holy spirit (2 12); the opponents of the sect, by blasphemous speech
+against the statutes of God's covenant, defiled their holy spirit (5
+11);(67) its members are warned not to defile his holy spirit by failing
+to observe the distinctions of clean and unclean which God has ordained (7
+3 f.).
+
+The "Prince of Lights (_Urim_)," through whom Moses and Aaron arise, is
+perhaps, as the contrast to Belial suggests, one of the highest
+angels.(68) The destroying angels execute God's inescapable judgment on
+those who turned out of the way and despised the statute (2 6). The fall
+of the Watchers, which is a favorite subject in the apocalyptic
+literature, is referred to in 2 18. The chief of the evil spirits is
+Belial: he is "let loose" during the whole of the present dispensation; he
+lays snares for men and entraps them, especially in the three sins of
+fornication, unrighteous gain, and the defilement of the sanctuary (4 15
+ff.); his spirits rule over men and lead them to apostasy (12 2 f.); he
+also exterminates the faithless in the day of God's visitation (8 1 f.).
+Another name for the devil is Mastema (the commoner name in Jubilees),
+equivalent to Satan, "the adversary." The angel of Mastema ceases to
+follow a man who resolves to return to the law of Moses (16 4 f.).
+According to Jubilees 10 8 f., 11 5, Mastema had permission from God to
+employ some of his evil spirits to corrupt men and lead them astray.
+
+Concerning the future life we read only that those who hold firmly to the
+law are "for eternal life,"(69) or, as it is elsewhere expressed, "have
+the assurance that they shall live a thousand generations." To a
+punishment of the wicked after death(70) or to a resurrection of the dead
+there is no allusion whatever.
+
+The moral teachings of the sect have been frequently touched upon above in
+speaking of their rules of life. Man is led into sin not only by the
+snares of Belial, but by his own sinful inclination and adulterous eyes (2
+16; seemingly the _yeser hara'_ of the rabbis). It was through these that
+the Watchers fell; by them the generation of the flood sinned, and the
+sons of Jacob, and their descendants in Egypt and in Canaan, and brought
+judgment upon themselves (2 14 ff.). We have seen that the sect insisted
+upon monogamy, and perhaps rejected divorce altogether. Particular
+emphasis is laid in several places on the commandments, "thou shalt not
+take vengeance nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people,"
+"thou shalt reprove thy neighbor and not bear sin because of him" (Lev. 19
+17, 18).(71) Thus, at the beginning of the legal part of the book, the
+delivery of a fellow Israelite to the gentiles so that he is condemned by
+their law is said to fall under this prohibition, and further, "any man of
+those who enter into the covenant who brings up against his neighbor a
+matter not in the nature of a reproof before witnesses, but which he
+brings up in anger, or tells it to his elders to bring the man into
+disrepute, he is one that takes vengeance and bears a grudge." It is
+forbidden also to exact of another an oath except in the presence of the
+judges; he who does so transgresses the law which forbids a man to take
+justice into his own hands. Every one who enters into the covenant pledges
+himself not only not to rob the poor and make widows his spoil, but to
+love his neighbor as himself, to seek the welfare of his fellow, and to
+sustain the poor and needy. As regards the relations of the members of the
+sect to gentiles, it is forbidden to shed the blood of a gentile or to
+take aught of their property, "in order to give them no occasion to
+blaspheme" (12 6 f.), that is, to prevent the profaning of God's name (15
+3), a motive frequently urged in similar connection in the rabbinical
+writings. On the other hand, no man may sell to gentiles clean animals or
+birds, lest they offer them in sacrifice, nor grain, nor wine--naught of
+his possessions; nor shall he sell to them his slave or maid servant who
+have come with him into the covenant of Abraham (12 9 ff.), He may not
+pass the Sabbath in the neighborhood of gentiles. They are unclean, and
+garments they may have handled require purification.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+No record of a schismatic body such as reveals itself in our texts is
+preserved in the early catalogues of Jewish heresies, nor have references
+to it been discovered in rabbinical sources. Like many sects, it exhibits
+the separatist inclination to outdo the orthodox in zeal for the letter
+and in strenuousness of practice, and it is not surprising that its
+interpretations of the law frequently agree with those of other
+strict-constructionists, such as Samaritans, Sadducees, Karaites; but
+these coincidences illustrate a common tendency rather than prove
+historical connection. The relation to the Book of Jubilees is, however,
+such as to show that there was some affinity between our sect and the
+circles in which that work originated. Jubilees is cited as authority on
+the last times; its calendar probably contains the secrets of God's holy
+sabbaths and glorious festivals about which all Israel was in error; the
+rules for the observance of the Sabbath in our book accord in many
+particulars with the injunctions in Jubilees 50 6 ff. (see also 2 26 ff.);
+and various other resemblances might be pointed out, such as the
+preference for the unornamented word God (in Jubilees, God, or the Lord),
+in contrast with the many mouth-filling periphrases in Enoch; the holy
+spirit in men; the name Mastema for the adversary instead of Satan; Belial
+who ensnares men, and the spirits of Belial which rule over sinners,
+besides others to which Dr. Schechter directs attention in his notes. The
+relation to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is less clear. The
+saying attributed to Levi (4 15) is not found in the Testament, and the
+other resemblances Dr. Schechter has noted are vague or belong to the
+commonplaces. The place of honor given to Judah in the Testaments, as we
+have them, is strikingly at variance with the attitude of our sect toward
+that tribe and its princes. The Levite Messiah of the Testaments is not
+precisely the same as the "Anointed from Aaron and Israel" in our book. In
+Jubilees also there are salient features, such as the more developed
+angelology and the form of the Messianic expectation, which hardly permit
+us to suppose that the book was a product of our sect, however highly it
+may have been esteemed by it.
+
+The sect gives especial honor to the sons of Zadok, the ancient priesthood
+of the temple in Jerusalem (Ezek. 44 15, 2 Chron. 31 10, Sirach 51 12
+Heb.); they are the chosen ones of Israel, men designated by name, who
+arose in the latter times (4 3); it was Zadok who brought to light the
+Book of the Law which no one had seen since the death of Eleazar and
+Joshua (5 5). The context of the latter passage would suggest that Zadok
+the contemporary of David is meant, who after the deposition of Abiathar
+became Solomon's chief priest.(72) The precedence given to the sons of
+Zadok may possibly have a side reference to the illegitimate high priests
+of Seleucid creation, such as Menelaus, though, if this were the
+intention, we should expect it to be emphasized.
+
+The passages quoted are the only places in the book in which the name
+Zadok or the sons of Zadok appear, and they are certainly a very slender
+reason for describing the body which produced the book as a "Zadokite"
+sect, whatever meaning may be attached to the term. On the contrary, one
+of the outstanding things in the constitution of the sect is the
+predominance of the lay element. The Supervisor is a layman; laymen form
+the majority in every court; the Messiah is the "Anointed from Aaron _and
+Israel_." Whether the external testimony upon which Dr. Schechter relies
+for justification of the name is more adequate will be considered below.
+
+Zadok and the sons of Zadok suggest the Sadducees,(73) whose name,
+according to the most probable explanation, designates them as descendants
+(or followers and partisans) of Zadok. Here again it is a question whether
+Zadok of David's time is meant, so that the Sadducees were the Zadokite
+aristocracy of the priesthood, as most modern scholars think, or whether
+the name of the Sadducee sect is derived from a heresiarch of much later
+times, as the Jewish legend represents which makes Zadok, from whom the
+sect descends, a recalcitrant disciple of Antigonus of Socho, about the
+middle of the second century B.C., contemporary, if we rightly interpret
+our texts, with the origin of the sect we are studying.
+
+With the Sadducees, as we know them from the New Testament, Josephus, and
+rabbinical sources, our sect cannot well be identified. There is, however,
+a sect sometimes associated with the Sadducees, namely, the Dositheans, in
+whose teachings and customs Dr. Schechter finds such resemblances as lead
+him to surmise that the Dositheans were an offshoot of our sect. The
+accounts of the Dositheans in writers of different ages and religious
+connections, from Origen and Epiphanius down to the Samaritan Chronicler
+Abul-Fath and the Moslem heresiographer Shahrastani, are notoriously
+confused and contradictory,(74) so that many scholars have felt
+constrained to conclude that there was more than one sect of the name. The
+Fathers generally agree in describing the Dositheans as a Samaritan
+heresy, though Epiphanius and Philaster have it that the author of the
+heresy was by extraction a Jew. They frequently bring him into connection
+with Simon Magus, in the time of the Apostles. According to Origen, he
+gave himself out for the Messiah foretold by Moses; his followers had
+books of his, and legends pretending that he had not died, but was still
+alive somewhere. Other Fathers give no date for the rise of the heresy,
+but by coupling it with the Sadducees seem to imply that it was older than
+Christianity; thus (Pseudo)Tertullian (probably after Hippolytus)(75) says
+that Dositheus the Samaritan was the first to reject the prophets as not
+inspired; the Sadducees, springing from this root of error, ventured to
+deny the resurrection also. From this Philaster probably drew the
+inference that Zadok, the founder of the Sadducees, was a disciple of
+Dositheus. The Samaritan and Moslem authors agree with the Fathers in
+treating the Dositheans as a Samaritan sect. Abul-Fath, a Samaritan writer
+of the fourteenth century, puts the beginnings of the sect in the first
+century B.C., at the time when the yoke of the Jews had been broken by the
+kings of the gentiles, and the Samaritans were able to return and restore
+their sanctuary, which had been destroyed by Simon and John Hyrcanus.(76)
+The Moslem writer Shahrastani, in his learned work on Religious Sects and
+Philosophical Schools (first half of the twelfth century), gives
+substantially the same date: the founder of the Dositheans, who professed
+to be the prophet foretold by Moses, the star spoken of in the law,
+appeared about a century before Christ.
+
+In this state of the evidence it is obvious that no argument can be based
+on the coincidence in time between the origin of the Dositheans and that
+of our sect. When the Fathers bring the names of Dositheus and Zadok into
+conjunction, it means no more than that they attributed certain errors to
+both Dositheans and Sadducees; just as the Talmudic legend which makes
+Zadok and Boethus apostate disciples of Antigonus of Socho is but a
+mythological way of saying that Sadducees and Boethusians were addicted to
+the same heresies concerning retribution, or as the coupling of Dositheus
+and Simon Magus means that both passed for Samaritan arch-heretics.
+
+The first point of agreement between the Dositheans and our sect which Dr.
+Schechter notes is in the calendar. Abul-Fath says that the Dositheans did
+away with the computation of the almanac (tables of lunar conjunctions),
+making all their months exactly thirty days long, and (thus) annulled the
+correct festivals and the ordinance of the fasts and the affliction (Day
+of Atonement).(77) The circle of thirty disciples, who, with a woman
+called Helena (Moon), formed the train of Dositheus, according to the
+Clementine Recognitions (ii, 8) symbolized the days of the month. If our
+sect employed the calendar of the Book of Jubilees, as seems highly
+probable, they also had thirty-day months; but it would not follow that
+the system was original with them, nor that the Dositheans must have
+adopted it from them. There were, in fact, from very remote times, two
+years in use within the area of the ancient civilizations, a lunar-solar
+year, consisting of twelve lunar months of twenty-nine or thirty days
+each, with a thirteenth month added every two or three years to maintain
+approximate agreement with the solar year and make the months fall in the
+same seasons, and a solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days,
+divided into twelve months of thirty days each without regard to the
+lunations, and five extra days (_epagomenae_). The former was the system
+of the Babylonians and the Greeks, as well as the Jews; the latter was in
+use in Egypt from immemorial times until the Roman reforms. From the
+Egyptians it was borrowed by the Abyssinians; it was employed also for
+some centuries before and after the Christian era in the calendars of Gaza
+and Ashkelon. The Persians had the same system; the Yashts contain a
+liturgy for the thirty regents of the days of the month, the five extra
+days being assigned to the divine Gathas. Probably under Persian
+influences, this calendar was established in Armenia, Cappadocia, and
+other parts of Asia Minor.(78)
+
+Jews and Samaritans not only lived in many of the lands of their
+dispersion among peoples who used the thirty-day month, but encountered
+this calendar in commercial centres on the very borders of Palestine with
+which they had close relations. The advantages of a system in which the
+festivals came on fixed dates, instead of shifting within wide limits, as
+they must in the lunar-solar year with its irregular intercalation, are
+obvious,(79) and an attempt to reform the Jewish calendar accordingly may
+have been made more than once and in more than one region. The peculiarity
+of the system of the Book of Jubilees is not the uniform length of the
+months, but the admission of only _four_ extra days, thus making an even
+fifty-two weeks (364 days), which was of more concern to the author than
+the increased error of a whole day in the solar year.(80) We do not know
+whether the Dositheans of Abul-Fath and the Sadducees of Kirkisani (of
+whom later) agreed in this point with Jubilees, or counted _five_ extra
+days like the rest of the world. The former may be thought probable, but
+it cannot be assumed as certain. The year of 365 days is also found in the
+Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, c. 6.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius(81) on the Dositheans as saying, "some of
+them abstain from a second marriage, but others never marry"; and,
+although "the text is not quite certain on this point,"(82) is inclined to
+perceive in the statement "at least an echo of the law of our sect
+prohibiting a second marriage as long as the first wife is alive." The
+passage in Epiphanius is more than obscure, and the text is for that
+reason suspected. The passage runs: {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.
+Whatever this may mean, it certainly is not, "some of them abstain from
+marriage after the death of their first wives," nor does anything in the
+context justify the large changes in the text which would be required to
+force this sense upon it. Casaubon's conjecture {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} has nothing to
+commend it. The simplest solution of the difficulty would be to write
+{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~},(83) "some of them refrain from marital relations after having
+lived together, others preserve their virginity." Whether this emendation
+is right or not, it is clear that Epiphanius describes his Dositheans as a
+kind of Encratite ascetics, while the prohibition of polygamy--whether
+contemporaneous or consecutive--by our sect has a totally different ground;
+of asceticism there is, indeed, no symptom in its ordinances.
+
+Dr. Schechter thinks that the statement of Epiphanius quoted above that
+the Dositheans "abstain from eating living creatures" "may have some
+connection with the law in our text on p. 12, l. 11, which may perhaps be
+understood to imply that the sect forbade honey, regarding it as _'eber
+min hahai_ (a limb cut off from a living animal), which would agree with
+the testimony of Abul-Fath that they forbade the eating of eggs, except
+those which were found in a slaughtered fowl." {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} does not
+mean "abstain from eating living creatures," but "abstain from animal
+food,"(84) while our sect certainly did not include vegetarianism among
+its eccentricities, any more than the depreciation of marriage.
+
+Several authors describe the Dositheans as extravagant sabbatarians.
+Origen reports that their rule was, that in whatever place and in whatever
+posture the Sabbath found a man, there and thus he was to remain till its
+end. Abul-Fath gives a longer account of their Sabbath laws, which are
+much stricter than those of our texts. It was forbidden, for example, to
+feed domestic animals or give them drink on the Sabbath, they were to be
+provided on Friday with enough provender and water to last them through
+the Sabbath. Extreme sabbatarianism is, however, a sectarian propensity
+which does not have to be borrowed.
+
+Dr. Schechter quotes Epiphanius further as saying that the Dositheans
+"have no intercourse with all people because they detest all mankind," in
+which he thinks "we may readily recognize here the law of our Sect
+requiring the washing of the clothes when they were brought by a Gentile
+(because of the contamination), and the prohibition of staying over the
+Sabbath in the vicinity of Gentiles" (Introduction, pp. xxiii f.). What
+Epiphanius says is that the Dositheans agree with the rest of the
+Samaritans in the observance of circumcision and the Sabbath, and in
+avoiding contact with any one because they feel that all men (that is, all
+gentiles) are unclean. He had already described the customs of all the
+Samaritans: They wash themselves and their clothes in water when they come
+in contact with a foreigner; for they regard it as a defilement to come in
+contact with any one or even to touch a man of another religion.(85) It
+is, therefore, not a Dosithean peculiarity, but the general Samaritan
+usage which Epiphanius describes, and it is useless to search for remoter
+affinities.
+
+The marked hostility to the patriarch Judah with which Eulogius, the
+Patriarch of Alexandria (died 607 A.D.), charges Dositheus(86) is natural
+enough in a Samaritan heresiarch; in the same sentence Eulogius accuses
+him of scorning the prophets of God, which, again, is not peculiar to the
+Dositheans, but is the general Samaritan position. It has been remarked
+above (p. 353) that our sect gives especial honor to the books of the
+prophets "whose words Israel has despised"; and, however unfriendly the
+attitude of these seceders to the degenerate Judah of their time, there is
+no indication of animosity to the patriarch, as there is none in the
+Jubilees.
+
+From a much later time Dr. Schechter has gleaned some notices of a sect of
+"Zadokites" in whose tenets also he recognizes resemblances to those of
+our sect. Kirkisani, a Karaite author of the tenth century,(87) says:
+"Zadok was the first who exposed the Rabbanites and contradicted them
+publicly. He revealed a part of the truth, and composed books [a book] in
+which he frequently denounced the Rabbanites and criticised them. But he
+adduced no proof for anything he said, merely saying it by way of
+statement, except in one thing, namely, in his prohibition against
+marrying the daughter of the brother and the daughter of the sister. For
+he adduced as proof their being analogous to the paternal and maternal
+aunt."(88)
+
+This is a matter about which our sectaries are especially fierce in their
+denunciations of the laxity of the orthodox. The argument they employ is
+the same which Kirkisani attributes to Zadok. It is, however, the obvious
+argument, if the principle of analogy be admitted in the interpretation of
+the law; it is common in the Karaite books, and is ascribed to the
+Samaritans also.(89) Kirkisani also says that the Zadokites absolutely
+forbade divorce, which the Scripture permitted, agreeing in this with the
+Christians and with the Isawites, whose founders, Jesus and Obadiah of
+Ispahan,(90) had likewise forbidden it. We are not told expressly that our
+sect prohibited divorce, but their prohibition of remarriage during the
+life of the divorced wife would have the same effect. Finally, Kirkisani
+says that the Zadokites fixed all the months at thirty days each,(91) and
+that they did not count the Sabbath among the seven days of the
+celebration of the Passover and the Tabernacles, making the feast consist
+of seven days exclusive of the Sabbath. Substantially the same statements
+are made about the Zadokites by another Karaite author, Hadassi, who
+flourished in the middle of the twelfth century, and perhaps derived his
+information from Kirkisani.
+
+What the "Zadokite" writings really were to which these authors refer is
+not known. It is certain, however, that both the Karaites and their
+opponents took them to be Sadducean works. In the passage about Zadok,
+part of which Dr. Schechter quotes (see above), Kirkisani says: "After the
+appearance of the Rabbanites (the first of whom was Simeon the Just), the
+Sadducees appeared; their leaders were Zadok and Boethus.... Zadok was the
+first who exposed the Rabbanites," etc.(92) Zadok's disclosure of a part
+of truth was followed by the full discovery of the truth about the laws by
+Anan, the founder of the Karaites. Not only do the opponents of the
+Karaites stigmatize Anan and his followers as the remnants of the
+disciples of Zadok and Boethus, but the older Karaites expressly claim
+this origin. Thus Joseph al-Basir (first half of the eleventh century)
+says that, in the times of the second temple, the Rabbanites, who were
+then called Pharisees, had the upper hand, while the Karaites, then known
+as Sadducees, were less influential.(93) The Karaite author of an
+anonymous commentary on Exodus preserved in manuscript in St.
+Petersburg(94) polemizes against a disciple of Saadia, the great _Malleus
+Karaeorum_, about the proper way of determining the beginning of the
+months (and consequently the dates of the feasts), which the Rabbanites
+fixed by calculation of the conjunctions, while the Karaites depended on
+observation of the visible new moon. The ancients, he says, required
+evidence of the appearance of the new moon.(95) Saadia, who mistakenly
+assumed that the beginning of the month had been determined astronomically
+from remote antiquity--the calendar was, in fact, of Sinaitic
+origin(96)--asserted that the taking of testimony about the appearance of
+the moon was an innovation occasioned by the contention of Zadok and
+Boethus that the law required the beginning of the month to be determined
+by actual observation; witnesses were heard only to prove that observation
+confirmed the calculation. To this the author replies: "The book of the
+Zadokites (Sadducees) is well known, and there is no such thing in it as
+that man (Saadia) avers. In the book of Zadok are various things in which
+he dissents from the Rabbanites of the second temple with regard to
+sacrifices and other matters, but there is not a syllable of what the
+Fayyumite (Saadia) says."(97) Saadia himself appears not to have
+questioned the authenticity of the writings that went under the name of
+Zadok, with which he seems to have been acquainted, directly or
+indirectly, for in a passage quoted by Yefet ben 'Ali he says that Zadok
+had proved from the one hundred and fifty days in the story of the flood
+just the opposite of what the Karaites try to prove from them.(98)
+
+Zadokite books thus meant, for all those from whom our information comes,
+Sadducean books; and so, in the sense that, whatever their age and origin,
+they contained substantially Sadducean teachings, most modern scholars,
+also, have understood the name.
+
+The possibility that Sadducean writings from the beginning of the
+Christian era had survived to the Middle Ages cannot well be denied,
+especially in view of the preservation of the book of the unknown sect
+that forms the subject of our present study in copies as late as the tenth
+or eleventh century; and even if the book which the Karaites took for
+Sadducean was erroneously attributed to that sect, there is no sufficient
+ground for identifying it with the texts in our hands or for ascribing it
+to our sect. A thirty-day month, and the prohibition of divorce and of
+marriage with a niece, are much too slender a foundation to support so
+large an inference, and it is hardly legitimate to argue that if we had
+the entire book, of which only a part--or, according to Dr. Schechter,
+excerpts--is preserved, we might find other and more significant
+agreements.
+
+Dr. Schechter has also remarked certain coincidences between the tenets of
+our sect and those of the Falashas, or Abyssinian Jews, whom, with Beer,
+he is disposed to connect in some way with the Dositheans. Their Sabbath
+laws resemble those in the Jubilees and in the texts before us; they also
+prohibit marriage with a niece; they have a tradition that the Pentateuch
+was brought to Abyssinia by Azariah, the son of Zadok (1 Kings 4 2);
+certain features of their calendar may possibly be related to that of the
+Zadokites as described by Kirkisani. Here, again, the correspondences are
+not numerous or distinctive enough to establish an historical connection.
+
+Putting together these scattered indicia, Dr. Schechter arrives at a
+theory of the history and relations of the sect which must be given in his
+own words:--
+
+
+    We may, then, formulate our hypothesis that our text is
+    constituted of fragments forming extracts from a Zadok book, known
+    to us chiefly from the writings of Kirkisani. The Sect which it
+    represented, did not however pass for any length of time under the
+    name of Zadokites, but was soon in some way amalgamated with and
+    perhaps also absorbed by the Dosithean Sect, and made more
+    proselytes among the Samaritans than among the Jews, with which
+    former sect it had many points of similarity. In the course of
+    time, however, the Dosithean Sect also disappeared, and we have
+    only some traces left of them in the lingering sect of the
+    Falashas, with whom they probably came into close contact at an
+    early period of their (the Falashas') existence, and to whom they
+    handed down a good many of their practices. The only real
+    difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is, that according to our
+    Text the Sect had its original seat in Damascus, north of
+    Palestine, and it is difficult to see how they reached the
+    Dositheans, and subsequently the Falashas, who had their main
+    seats in the south of Palestine, or Egypt. But this could be
+    explained by assuming special missionary efforts on the part of
+    the Zadokites by sending their emissaries to Egypt, a country
+    which was especially favourable to such an enterprise because of
+    the existence of the Onias Temple there. The severance of the
+    Egyptian Jews from the Palestinian influence (though they did not
+    entirely give up their loyalty to the Jerusalem Sanctuary),
+    prepared the ground for the doctrines of such a Sect as the
+    Zadokites in which all allegiance to Judah and Jerusalem was
+    rejected, and in which the descendants of the House of Zadok (of
+    whom indeed Onias himself was one) represented both the Priest and
+    the Messiah.
+
+
+The evidence adduced in support of this ingenious hypothesis has already
+been examined in detail, and the results need only be summarized here:
+There is nothing in the book before us to warrant classing the men who
+made the new covenant in the land of Damascus as a Zadokite sect;(99)
+neither the external nor the internal evidence suffices to identify the
+work quoted by Kirkisani as Zadokite (by which he and all the rest
+understood Sadducean) with the book before us; the connection of the sect
+with the Dositheans rests in great part on misunderstanding of the
+testimonies about the Dositheans--misunderstandings, it is fair to say,
+which are not all original with Dr. Schechter,--in part upon points of
+resemblance which are not distinctive enough to prove anything. Of the
+peculiar organization of our sect, which would be conclusive, there is no
+trace anywhere.
+
+                  -------------------------------------
+
+A much more sensational hypothesis was broached by Mr. G. Margoliouth in
+the _Athenaeum_ for November 26, 1910, under the title, "The Sadducean
+Christians of Damascus." He takes "the root" which God caused to spring
+from Israel and Aaron (1 7) for the same person who is subsequently called
+the Anointed one (Messiah), and distinguishes this figure from the Teacher
+of Righteousness, also called the Anointed one, who appeared twenty years
+later. "Both these Messiahs were dead when the document was composed, but
+they were both expected to reappear in the latter days."
+
+The first of them, the Messiah descended from Aaron and Israel, in
+consequence of whose work "they meditated over their sin, and knew that
+they were guilty men," is John the Baptist. John's father was a priest,
+and though his mother also is said to have been of priestly descent, "this
+need not stand in the way of believing that there was a strain of
+non-priestly Israelite blood in the family." The Sadducees would naturally
+prefer a priestly Messiah to a Davidic one, and, when John won the
+recognition of the people as a prophet sent by God, it would not be
+strange if a priestly party acclaimed him as in some sense a Messiah, or
+anointed leader of the nation.
+
+The other Messiah, the Teacher of Righteousness, must then be Jesus. That
+he appeared twenty years after John, so far from being an argument against
+this identification, would relieve the difficulty of trying to crowd
+John's whole history into little more than a year. "It is surely not
+necessary to defend the Lucan tradition on this point at all hazards, and
+it seems quite likely that the newly discovered document has at last given
+us the right perspective of events."
+
+If these identifications are correct, the "man of scoffing," or
+Belial,(100) who is sent to pervert the nation and turn it from the law,
+can be no other than the Apostle Paul, and it is noted for confirmation
+that "the period here assigned to his activity and that of his immediate
+following is about forty years, a space of time not far removed from the
+result of recent critical computation."
+
+The New Covenant so often referred to in the texts is clearly to be
+connected with the identical conception and expression in the New
+Testament, nor does it seem to be accidental that the Teacher of
+Righteousness is several times spoken of as the "only" or "unique" one.
+
+Mr. Margoliouth presents his complete hypothesis as follows:--
+
+
+    The natural and apparently inevitable conclusion of the whole
+    matter, therefore, is that we have here to deal with a primitive
+    Judaeo-Christian body of people which consisted of priests and
+    Levites belonging to the Boethusian section of the Sadducean
+    party,(101) fortified--as the document shows--by a considerable
+    Israelitish lay element, besides a real or contemplated admixture
+    of proselytes. They acknowledged, as we have seen, John the
+    Baptist, as a Messiah of the family of Aaron, and they also
+    believed in Jesus as a kind of second (or, perhaps, as
+    pre-eminent) Messiah whose special function it was to be a
+    "Teacher of Righteousness." Paul they abhorred; and they strove
+    with all their might to combine the full observance of the Mosaic
+    Law, as they understood it, with the principles of the "new
+    covenant," again as they understood it. On the destruction of the
+    Temple by Titus, finding that it would not serve any good purpose
+    to linger in Judaea, they determined to migrate to Damascus,(102)
+    intending to establish their central organization in that city,
+    and to found communities of the sect in different parts of the
+    neighboring country. It was at this juncture that the manifesto,
+    bearing as it does unmistakable marks of personal touch, was
+    composed by a leader of the movement.
+
+
+No scholar who has made an independent study of the texts published by Dr.
+Schechter can have failed to consider the question whether these
+schismatics, with their "unique teacher,"(103) their "new covenant," their
+"Supervisor," whose name and functions might be compared with those of a
+bishop {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, their loyalty to their dead leader, God's Anointed one
+(Messiah), who made them know his holy spirit, and their expectation of an
+Anointed one in the last times, their hostility to the Pharisees, can have
+been a Jewish Christian sect.
+
+The more closely the documents are examined, however, the less tenable
+this conjecture appears. One feature of the sectarian eschatology which,
+if established, would afford the most striking coincidence with early
+Christian belief, namely, that the Messiah who died in the early days of
+the sect is to "reappear" (Margoliouth), or "rise again" (Schechter), has
+no support whatever in the text.(104) The "new covenant" in the land of
+Damascus is plainly the obligation by which the members of the sect bind
+themselves to the organization, with its peculiar interpretations of the
+law and its distinctive observances. Neither in the terms of the covenant
+nor in the law itself is there anything that suggests Christian origin or
+influence. That "a man should love his neighbor as himself" is not
+peculiarly or even preeminently a Christian precept. The Testaments of the
+Twelve Patriarchs reiterate it; by the most orthodox rabbis it was
+recognized as the most comprehensive commandment in the law.
+
+The things which the sect esteems of vital importance lie wholly in the
+sphere of the law; polemic zeal for a code which is at every point more
+rigorous than that of the Pharisees is the salient characteristic of both
+parts of the book. The moral precepts are the commonplaces of Judaism
+narrowed to a sectarian horizon.(105) The judgment of God is similarly
+circumscribed. It is not a judgment of the world or of the Jewish people,
+but of those who reject and controvert the legal interpretation of the
+sect, and of those who have fallen away from it.
+
+The code of law which is the constituent principle of the sect and the
+reason for its existence was given it by its founder, the Teacher of
+Righteousness. This unique teacher was not a prophetic reformer, but "the
+interpreter of the law who came to Damascus," "the legislator." The
+statutes he decreed are final; the sect "shall receive no others until the
+teacher of righteousness shall arise in the last times."
+
+Mr. Margoliouth thinks that the "teacher of righteousness" to whom the
+sect attributed its institutions and laws was Jesus. The statement of this
+conjecture is its refutation. The role of a legislator is the last which
+the character and teaching of Jesus in the Gospels would suggest even to a
+sect in search of a founder. That he, whose disregard for the Pharisaic
+rules of Sabbath observance repeatedly got him into trouble, should,
+within a generation after his death, have been metamorphosed into the
+author of the sabbatical code in our texts, which out-pharisees the
+Pharisees at every point, surpasses ordinary powers of imagination. The
+Christian Jews of the first century in Palestine, so far as we know
+anything about them, conformed in the matter of observance to the
+authority of the scribes and Pharisees, and alleged the express command of
+Jesus for this practice (Matt. 23 2). Early Christian heresies sometimes
+exhibit ascetic features reminding us of the Essenes; but none of
+ultra-legalistic tendency is known.
+
+As our sect is very zealous for things which have no connection with
+Christianity, so on the other hand the texts disclose no trace of specific
+Christian beliefs or conceptions. For the Christian Jews of the first
+century, the belief that Jesus, who had been crucified under Pontius
+Pilate, was the Messiah of prophecy, that he had risen from the dead and
+ascended to heaven, whence he was presently to come in might and majesty,
+according to the vision of Daniel, to usher in the new era, was the pith
+and substance of their faith, the "heresy" by which they were separated
+from their countrymen, the focus of their polemic and apologetic in
+controversies with those who rejected their Messiah. It is impossible to
+imagine a writing as long as this, and imbued as strongly as this with a
+controversial spirit, proceeding from any Christian sect, in which there
+should not be so much as an allusion to any of these things; or that a
+sect which put John the Baptist in so high a place should not make
+something of baptism in the admission of members.
+
+Apart from these general considerations, Mr. Margoliouth's identifications
+rest upon a palpable misinterpretation. On page 1 we read: "But because
+God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, he left Israel a
+remnant, and did not suffer them to be exterminated. And at the end of
+wrath ... he visited them and caused to spring up from Israel and Aaron a
+root of his planting _to inherit his land and to prosper on the good
+things of his earth_." The italicized clauses prove beyond question that
+the "root" is not an individual, but is a collective designation for the
+first generation of the sect.(106) The parallel passage on p. 5 says
+explicitly: "God remembered the covenant with the forefathers, and he
+raised up from Aaron men of insight and from Israel wise men, and he heard
+them, and they dug the well." "The well is the law, and they who dug it
+are the exiles of Israel who migrated to Judah and sojourned in the land
+of Damascus." In the face of this perfectly plain meaning of the passage
+Mr. Margoliouth takes "the root" for the person designated in other places
+as "the Anointed from Aaron and Israel," who led the people "to recognize
+their wickedness and know that they were guilty men."(107) In this first
+Messiah he recognizes John the Baptist, and, consequently, in the Teacher
+of Righteousness who came after him, Jesus. The point of correspondence is
+the relation between the forerunner and his successor. The text, however,
+as I have just showed, says nothing of a precursor of the teacher of
+righteousness; on the contrary, it was this teacher who first brought
+light to the generation which in the consciousness of its sin was groping
+like the blind, and guided them in the way of God's heart.(108)
+
+That by the "man of scoffing" the Apostle Paul is meant is for Mr.
+Margoliouth a corollary of the preceding identifications, and falls with
+them. The enemies of Paul were doubtless capable of calling him all sorts
+of hard names, but there is nothing in the epithets "scorner" and "liar,"
+or in the doings attributed to this figure, which fits Paul better than
+any other false teacher and sower of discord, while the reference to the
+fate of the men of war who followed the "man of lies" seems quite
+inapplicable to Paul.(109)
+
+That we should be unable to identify the Covenanters of Damascus with any
+sect previously known is not surprising. The three or four centuries in
+the middle of which the Christian era falls were prolific in sects and
+heresies of many complexions, as were the centuries following the rise of
+Islam. Through Philo, Josephus, the church Fathers, and the Talmud, we are
+acquainted with some of them; but it is probable that there were many
+others of which no reports have reached us. If we cannot, out of the
+collection at our disposal, put a label on our Covenanters, we may console
+ourselves with the reflection that here we know one Jewish sect from its
+own monuments, and that the texts in our hands, mutilated as they are,
+suffice to give us a much clearer notion of its peculiarities than we get
+of most of the other sects from the descriptions which have come down to
+us.
+
+Its affinities with various antipharisaic or antirabbinical parties, such
+as the Samaritans, the Sadducees, and, in later times, the Karaites, is
+obvious. It shared with all these a zeal for the letter and the literal
+interpretation, and a disposition to extend the law by analogy of
+principle, as a result of which their rules were in general much stricter
+than those of the Rabbis, who possessed in the theory of tradition and in
+their methods of exegesis the means of adapting the law to changed
+conditions, and who were also more disposed to give the precedence to the
+great principles of humanity in the law over its particular prescriptions
+when the two seemed to conflict. The organization of the sect, on the
+other hand, has no parallel within our knowledge. In view of the use of
+the name "camps" for the local communities, and the references to the
+"mustering" of the members, the "trumpets of the congregation," and the
+like, it may be surmised that the organization of Israel in the wilderness
+suggested the plan, and that the Supervisors were meant to correspond to
+the chiefs of the tribes (for instance, Num. 1 10), each having authority
+over a separate camp.
+
+The sect seems to have perpetuated itself for a considerable time,
+otherwise this book would hardly have been preserved. It may perhaps be
+conjectured that it survived long enough to be gathered, along with
+numerous younger sects, into the capacious bosom of Karaism, of which it
+was in various points a precursor. Such an hypothesis would explain how it
+came about that copies of the book were made in the tenth century and
+later, we should then suppose by Karaite scribes.(110)
+
+Dr. Schechter has laid all students of Judaism under new obligations by
+the discovery and publication of these texts. They will join with their
+congratulations the hope that he may find yet other treasures among the
+accumulations of the Genizah.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+    1 Documents of Jewish Sectaries. Volume I. Fragments of a Zadokite
+      Work. Edited, with Translation, Introduction, and Notes, by S.
+      Schechter. Cambridge University Press. 1910.
+
+    2 It may be added that the quotations are singularly inexact.
+
+    3 In my translation I have sometimes thought it possible to adhere to
+      the text where Dr. Schechter has preferred a conjectural emendation.
+
+    4 That is, probably, against the legitimate high priest of the time
+      (perhaps Onias).--The rendering "_by_ his Anointed" is grammatically
+      admissible, but would be unintelligible in this context.
+
+    5 It would be possible to render "the penitents of Israel."
+
+    6 The four or five words which follow are unintelligible.
+
+    7 The references are to page and line of the Hebrew text.
+
+    8 Others sought refuge in Egypt; the temple of Onias at Leontopolis
+      had its origin in the same circumstances.
+
+    9 So they understood the words translated in the English version "the
+      cruel venom of asps."
+
+   10 See 2 Macc. 4 16: "By reason of which (sc. their predilection for
+      Greek ways) a dire calamity befel them, and those for whose customs
+      they displayed such zeal and whom they wanted to imitate in
+      everything became their enemies and avengers." Assumption of Moses,
+      5 1: "When the times of retribution shall draw near, and vengeance
+      arises through kings who share their guilt and punish them," etc.,
+      describes the same situation.
+
+   11 Cf. "the whole race of the elect root," Enoch 93 8.
+
+   12 See Schuerer, Geschichte des juedischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. iii. p.
+      189.
+
+   13 A comparison with the Apocalypse of the Ten Weeks in Enoch (93 + 91
+      12-17) is in point here. The sixth "week" (period of 490 years) ends
+      with the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar; in the seventh
+      a rebellious generation arises, all whose works are apostasy (the
+      hellenizers of the Seleucid time); at its end the "chosen righteous
+      men of the eternal plantation of righteousness" are chosen to
+      receive the sevenfold instruction about God's whole creation
+      (apparently the cosmological revelations of Enoch); the historical
+      retrospect closes before the robbery and desecration of the temple
+      by Antiochus Epiphanes (170, 168 B.C.), of which the seer knows
+      nothing. The chronological error here amounts to sixty or seventy
+      years.
+
+      In the Introduction, p. xii, by a typographical error which is
+      repeated on p. xxii, Dr. Schechter says that the 390 years of the
+      text would bring us "to within a generation of Simon the Just, who
+      flourished about 290 B.C.," and twenty years more would bring us
+      into the midst of the hellenistic persecutions preceding the
+      Maccabaean revolt (about 170 B.C.). Margoliouth, whose hypothesis
+      490 does not suit any better than 390, takes courage from
+      Schechter's doubts to disregard the numbers altogether. Gressmann
+      (Internationale Wochenschrift, March 4, 1911) is led by metrical
+      considerations to treat all the chronological notices as
+      interpolations, and gives them no further consideration. But even if
+      the figures were introduced by a later hand, they may still
+      represent the tradition of the sect.
+
+   14 Perhaps we should emend _ma'mado_, "station," i.e. sect.
+
+   15 See below, p. 350, 354 f.
+
+   16 Cf. Isa. 30 20 f.
+
+   17 The Septuagint renders _yahid_ most frequently by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, less
+      often by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+   18 The same prophecy which was applied by Akiba to Bar Cocheba and by
+      the Dositheans to their founder (see below, p. 362).
+
+   19 The sect rejects the temple in Jerusalem and its worship. Cf. 20 21
+      f., in the last crisis, "they will lean upon God ... and will
+      declare the sanctuary unclean and will return to God."
+
+   20 Perhaps better, keep aloof, by vow and ban, from unrighteous,
+      unclean gain.
+
+   21 See below, p. 353.
+
+   22 The name comes from Isa. 28 14, where the scorners are the rulers in
+      Jerusalem, who boast of their covenant with death and their compact
+      with hell, who have made lies their refuge and hidden themselves in
+      falsehood. See also Isa. 29 20.
+
+   23 It might be surmised that the false prophet had headed an
+      insurrection--perhaps a Messianic rising--which ended in disaster.
+
+   24 See above, p. 333.
+
+   25 Or, as Schechter elsewhere expresses it, "disappeared." Among the
+      synonyms for death, Aaron ben Eliahu names "gather in" (Isa. 58 8).
+
+   26 Introduction, p. xiii.
+
+   27 P. xiii. "We gather from another passage that the Only Teacher found
+      his death in Damascus, but is expected to rise again (p. 19, l. 35;
+      p. 20, l. 1; cf. also p. 6, l. 11)." The verb _'amad_ means, as
+      frequently in the later books of the Old Testament, "appear upon the
+      scene." In this sense it occurs repeatedly in the book before us,
+      and there is nothing in the context here to suggest a different
+      interpretation.
+
+   28 Cf. Acts 1 11.
+
+   29 See Isa. 59 20.
+
+   30 The quotation is to be thus restored; see Exod. 20 6 and Deut. 7 9.
+      The next two or three lines are very obscure: "From the house of
+      Peleg, who went out (or, will go out) from the city of the
+      sanctuary, and they will rely on God (cf. Isa. 10 20) when the
+      transgression of Israel is at an end, and will declare the sanctuary
+      unclean, and will return to God. The prince (?) of the people with
+      few words (??)." The house of Peleg may be an etymological allegory
+      for the seceders; the city of the sanctuary is probably Jerusalem
+      (cf. 6 11 ff., above, p. 338); but neither the connection with the
+      preceding nor the meaning of the sequel is clear.
+
+   31 Text, "and confessed," which leaves the sentence without a
+      predicate.
+
+   32 See also 7 20: "The sceptre" (Num. 24 17) "is the prince of all the
+      congregation; and when he arises he will destroy all the children of
+      Seth."
+
+   33 It is not improbable that the author thought also of the other
+      meaning of the word _taphel_, here rendered "stucco," viz. something
+      insipid, stupid; cf. Lam. 2 14, in a passage which, like Ezek. 13
+      10, refers to the false prophets. I see nothing to indicate that
+      "the wall" is the fence or hedge which the Pharisaean rabbis drew
+      around the law to protect it from infraction, as Dr. Schechter
+      thinks.
+
+   34 The text explains, "this is the prater of whom it says, they prate
+      unceasingly" (4 19 f.; cf. Mic. 2 11). Dr. Schechter regards this
+      explanation as "a disturbing parenthesis."
+
+   35 The Jannes and Jambres of 2 Tim. 3 8.
+
+   36 Such marriages, especially with a sister's daughter, are not only
+      permitted, but especially commended in the Talmud (Yebamoth 62b-63a;
+      see Maimonides, Issure Biah 2 14), and are still common in countries
+      where the Jews are free to follow the rabbinical law. On the Karaite
+      prohibition of marriage with a niece, see below, p. 366.
+
+   37 On the pollution of the sanctuary, cf. Assumption of Moses 5 3;
+      Testament of Levi 14 5 ff.; Psalms of Solomon 2 3.
+
+   38 On the portals of the sun, see Enoch 72, etc.
+
+   39 Perhaps an error of the text for 2000; see below, � 8.
+
+   40 Cf. Jubilees 50 8.
+
+   41 This holds on week-days as well as on the Sabbath.
+
+   42 Perhaps we should read, "make an '_erub_' " (a legal fiction by
+      which dwellings or limits were treated as one). The Sadducees and
+      Samaritans rejected this evasion of the law.
+
+   43 See 12 12 ff.
+
+   44 Similarly the Essenes, at their reception into the order, bound
+      themselves by the "tremendous oaths" which Josephus describes, B. J.
+      ii, 8 7.
+
+   45 The oath by the Tetragrammaton included _a fortiori_.
+
+   46 The Essenes excluded oaths altogether, except in the initiation of
+      members. See also Slavonic Enoch 49 1; Philo, De spec. legibus ii,
+      1, and elsewhere (Charles, Secrets of Enoch, p. 65). Our sect
+      recognizes judicial oaths (9 8 ff.) and imprecations (9 12), as well
+      as vows under oath (16 6 ff.).
+
+   47 On the relation of the Jubilees to the sect, see further below, p.
+      359.
+
+   48 Cf. Jubilees 2 9, God appointed the sun ... for sabbaths, and
+      months, and feasts; and Jubilees 6 37, the observation of the moon
+      disturbs the calendar.
+
+   49 It seems necessary to supply these words.
+
+   50 "The book of _hagu_." The rendering "Institutes" is not offered as a
+      translation of the name, but as indicating the probable character of
+      the work. See below, p. 353 f.
+
+   51 Dr. Schechter renders "Censor," and remarks, "Such an office,
+      entirely unknown to Judaism, could only have been borrowed from the
+      Romans." But the functions of the Inspector or Supervisor bear no
+      resemblance to those of the Roman censors; and for the identity of
+      the title the translator is solely accountable, not the constitution
+      of the sect. Mr. Margoliouth talks loosely about dependence on Roman
+      administrative models; it would be interesting to learn in what
+      particulars. With the very large authority vested in the Supervisor
+      may be compared that of the managers, or administrators
+      ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}), among the Essenes, "without whose directions they do
+      nothing"; though the functions of the managers in the Essene
+      coenobite establishments were of course quite different from those
+      of the Supervisors of our sect.
+
+   52 In the partly illegible lines that follow, his dealing with the
+      congregation is compared with that of a shepherd with his flock.--Dr.
+      W. H. Ward suggests that the title _mebakker_ may be connected with
+      Ezek. 34 11 f., where the verb is used of a shepherd's looking out
+      for his flock.
+
+   53 As in Mishna _Yoma_ the High Priest has to be instructed by experts
+      in the ritual of the Day of Atonement, and made to swear not to
+      depart from his instructions.
+
+   54 Probably the lands belonging to the sect.
+
+   55 That a court must consist of ten judges, the Karaites deduce from
+      Ruth 4 2. So Anan quoted by Poznanski, Revue des etudes juives, vol.
+      xlv, p. 67, and p. 69, n. 1.
+
+   56 This seems to be the meaning of the somewhat obscure passage.
+
+   57 It is not clear whether imprisonment or surveillance is meant.
+
+   58 On the spirit of Belial (ruling over Israel) see Jubilees 1 20.
+
+   59 "Rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft," 1 Sam. 15 23.
+
+   60 In contrast to the Samaritans.
+
+   61 In 8 18 ff., after saying, "Such will be the judgment of every one
+      who despises the commandments of God, and he forsook them and they
+      turned away in the stubbornness of their heart," A adds: "This is
+      the word which Jeremiah spoke to Baruch the son of Neriah and Elisha
+      to his servant Gehazi," referring probably to otherwise unknown
+      apocryphal books. Johanneh and his brother, whom Belial raised up
+      against Moses, are familiar figures of Jewish legend.
+
+   62 The simplest explanation of the form would be to take it as an
+      abstract noun of the type _fa'l_, like _sahu_; "swimming" or _fi'l,
+      fu'l,_ like _seku_ (n. pr.), _tohu_, _bohu_, etc., from the verb
+      _hagah_ (root _hagw_), "reflect, give thought to something," also
+      "read" (aloud), so that the noun might literally mean "study,"
+      equivalent to _midrash_, or perhaps "reading."--If the opinion which
+      connects the sect with the Dositheans were tenable (see below, p.
+      360 ff.), another explanation of the name might be suggested by a
+      passage in Abul-Fath's account of the origin of the Dositheans. He
+      narrates that a son of the Samaritan high priest, named Zar'ah, a
+      man preeminent for learning in his time, having been expelled from
+      the community for immorality, betook himself to Dositheus, who made
+      him the chief of his sect. This man "wrote a book in which he
+      vituperated all the Samaritan religious heads and set forth
+      heresies." The words are, _haja fihi kul al' a'immetin wa'abda'a
+      fihi_. Inasmuch as the Arabic _hajwun_ formally corresponds to the
+      Hebrew _hagu_, the Book of _Hagu_ in our texts might be identified
+      with this controversial writing of Zar'ah, the disciple of
+      Dositheus. The Hebrew verb _hagah_ is thought by Kohut (Aruch
+      Completum, III, 177) to occur in Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 1 4 and 3 33
+      in the sense "contemn, deride," equivalent to the Arabic _haja_,
+      "lampoon, vituperate." It might then be conjectured that Abul-Fath
+      had heard of a Dosithean book of _hagu_ (in Hebrew) and, taking the
+      word in its Arabic meaning, evolved his description of the character
+      of the work from this etymology.
+
+   63 Some Karaite authorities, also, transferring to the synagogue the
+      holiness of the temple, forbade a man in a state of uncleanness to
+      enter the inner room of the synagogue (Nissi; see Winter und
+      Wuensche, Die juedische Litteratur, vol. ii, p. 74).
+
+   64 The coincidence of the name with the Arabic _masjid_, "place of
+      bowing down," mosque, is hardly a sufficient reason for suspecting
+      Moslem influence, as Dr. Schechter does, who thinks it possible that
+      the word was introduced by a later (Falasha?) scribe as a substitute
+      for the original term.--Elia Bashiatzi (Adereth Eliahu, p. 58), a
+      Karaite writer of the 15th century, gives _Beth hishtahawiya,_
+      together with _Beth hakeneseth_ and _Beth hamidrash_, as the three
+      names of the place of worship. Moslem influence can here hardly be
+      questioned; in a later chapter Elia describes the postures of prayer
+      quite after the Moslem pattern, alleging Biblical authority for all
+      of them.
+
+   65 The opinion that after Josiah's reform, or after the restoration of
+      the temple by Zerubbabel and Joshua, Jerusalem was the only place
+      where Jewish sacrifices were offered is refuted by an accumulating
+      volume of evidence from various regions. See D. S. Margoliouth,
+      Expositor, 1911, pp. 40 ff.
+
+   66 Cf. the accusation against the orthodox Jews (5 6): "They defile the
+      Sanctuary in that they do not separate according to the law,"
+      etc.--It is possible that the prohibition quoted above applied, not
+      to the inhabitants of the city, but to persons who visited it for
+      the purpose of worship, as is the rule for pilgrims to Mecca.
+
+   67 The holy spirit in them. Dr. Schechter adduces parallels in Jewish
+      writings. Cf. Jubilees 1 21, 23, "Create in them a clean heart and a
+      holy spirit."
+
+   68 Dr. Schechter conjectures that the author wrote _Sar ha-Panim_, the
+      Prince of the Presence, but the passages from Jubilees which he
+      quotes in support of this opinion are hardly convincing.
+
+   69 See Slavonic Enoch 42 5; cf. 9.
+
+   70 So far as may be argued from silence, this is an important
+      difference from Jubilees.
+
+   71 See 7 2; cf. Slavonic Enoch 50 4: "When you might have vengeance, do
+      not repay either your neighbor or your enemy. For God will repay as
+      your avenger in the day of the great judgment. Let it not be for you
+      to take vengeance." (ed. Charles, p. 67); cf. Ecclus. 28 1.
+
+   72 That Zadok was the name of the "interpreter of the law," the founder
+      of the sect, is a much less probable opinion; the name stands in no
+      connection with the origin of the sect or its legislation, but with
+      the bringing to light again of the Pentateuch. The author cannot
+      have supposed that the _written_ law remained unknown till the
+      second century B.C.; the reforms of Josiah, based on another
+      recovery of the book by Hilkiah, would preclude such a notion.
+
+   73 The coincidence of names does not count for very much. Abul-Fath
+      names two Samaritan "Zadokite" subsects among the later Dositheans
+      alone.
+
+   74 See Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzergeschichte des Urchristenthums, 1884, pp.
+      155 ff.; Montgomery, The Samaritans, 1907, pp. 252 ff.
+
+   75 See also Epiphanius; the Sadducees were an offshoot from Dositheus.
+
+   76 Not in the time of Alexander the Great, as Dr. Schechter has from
+      Montgomery. Abul-Fath, indeed (and Adler's Chronicle after him),
+      introduces this whole story before Alexander, and makes Simon a
+      protege of Darius; but the testimony that Dositheus appeared after
+      the time of Hyrcanus, which, as a matter of Samaritan history, may
+      be conceived to rest on tradition, is not to be set aside because,
+      in fitting his Samaritan traditions into the framework of universal
+      history, Abul-Fath is in error by two or three centuries about the
+      date of Hyrcanus. This used to be understood; see, e.g., De Sacy,
+      Chrestomathie arabe, vol. ii (1806), p. 209.
+
+   77 Epiphanius avers, on the contrary, that the Dositheans kept their
+      festivals at the same time with the Jews.
+
+   78 See Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie,
+      vol. i, pp. 437 ff., 517; Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und
+      technischen Chronologie, vol. i, pp. 170 f., 287. On the calendar of
+      Gaza, Schuerer, Geschichte des juedischen Volkes (3 ed.), vol. ii, pp.
+      88 f.
+
+   79 We have experience of the inconvenience of this system in the
+      wandering of Easter and the Christian festivals dependent on it; a
+      reform by which Easter should come on a fixed date in the solar year
+      has repeatedly been proposed, and a movement is now on foot in
+      Europe to bring this about by agreement of governments and churches.
+
+   80 The year of 364-days is found also in Enoch 72-82, and (by the side
+      of the true solar year of 365-1/4 and the lunar year of 354 days) in
+      the Slavonic Enoch. The intercalary days are introduced one at the
+      beginning of each quarter of the year (Enoch 75 1); this is also the
+      method in Jubilees; see 6 23. In effect this is equivalent to a year
+      in which eight months have thirty days and four--those in which the
+      equinoxes and solstices fall--have thirty-one (Enoch 72 13, 19). It
+      is not impossible that this system is implied in the chronology of
+      the flood in Genesis; see B. W. Bacon, Hebraica, vol. viii
+      (1891-1892), pp. 79-88, 124-139; Charles, Jubilees, p. 56.
+
+   81 This is not the place to discuss the value of Epiphanius's
+      testimony. His description of the Scribes and Pharisees at least
+      admonishes to caution.
+
+   82 The text is certain enough, in the sense that all the manuscripts
+      hitherto collated have the same reading.
+
+   83 Nicetas, in reproducing Epiphanius's account of the Dositheans, has
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, "after having begotten children," which also agrees very
+      well with the context.
+
+   84 The familiar title of Porphyry's book on vegetarianism, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}
+      {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, will occur to every one. Epiphanius himself explains the
+      word in Haer. 18, 1, "they (Nasaraei) thought it unlawful to eat
+      meat."
+
+   85 Haer. 9, 3; cf. 30, 2: "The Ebionites, like the Samaritans, avoid
+      touching an outsider." A still more extreme fastidiousness on this
+      point is attributed by Josephus to the Essenes; cf. B. J. ii, 8, 10.
+
+   86 Photius, Bibliotheca Codicum, cod. 280 (ed. Bekker, p. 285).
+
+   87 The Kitab al-Anwar was published in 937, not 637, as by a misprint
+      on p. xviii.
+
+   88 Schechter's translation, Introduction, p. xviii.
+
+   89 Schechter, p. xxxvii, n. 21.
+
+   90 Founder of a Jewish sect which arose in Persia about the end of the
+      seventh century.
+
+   91 On this point see above, p. 362.
+
+   92 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des etudes juives, vol.
+      xliv (1902). p. 162, n. 2.
+
+   93 Quoted by Poznanski, l. c., p. 170.
+
+   94 Harkavy attributed it conjecturally to Sahl ben Masliah; Poznanski,
+      whom Dr. Schechter follows, thinks it more likely that the author
+      was Hasan ben Mashiah.
+
+   95 As the Karaites do. See e.g. Mishna, Rosh ha-Shana, 1 7 ff., 2 1 f.
+
+   96 See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x (1898), pp. 159, 248,
+      273.
+
+   97 Quoted in the original by Poznanski, Revue des etudes juives, vol.
+      xliv, p. 176.--The point is that the "Zadokite" writings known to the
+      author said nothing about fixing the beginning of the month by
+      observation. Saadia doubtless based his assertion, not on anything
+      he found in "Zadokite" books, but on Rosh ha-Shanah 22 a-b.
+
+   98 Poznanski, l. c., p. 177; cf. also Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x,
+      pp. 246 ff.--Saadia probably means that "Zadok" argued from the fact
+      that the 150 days of Gen. 7 24, 8 3, make an even five months (7 11,
+      8 4), that each month had thirty days (cf. Jubilees 5 27), while for
+      the Karaites thirty days was only the extreme length of a lunar
+      month. See Poznanski, Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. x, p. 241.
+
+   99 See above, p. 359 f.
+
+  100 In "Belial is let loose," Mr. Margoliouth finds a witless pun on
+      Paul's apostolic claims.
+
+  101 Mr. Margoliouth is led to the opinion that they were Boethusians by
+      the obscure passage in 2 13, which he interprets, "in the
+      explanation of his name (sc. the Messiah's) are also their
+      names,"--the name of the sect points mysteriously to the name of the
+      Messiah. "Now the Boethusians derived their name from a priest named
+      Boethus, and the meaning of {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} is the same as that of the Hebrew
+      name represented by Jesus. The inference would be that the section
+      of the Zadokite or Sadducees who adopted an attitude of belief
+      toward John the Baptist and Jesus were none other than the
+      Boethusians (perhaps identical with the great company of believing
+      priests of Acts 6 7), who not unnaturally liked to dwell on the
+      identity of meaning between their names and that of the
+      Teacher."--_Boethos_, it may be remarked, is probably a Greek
+      equivalent for the name Ezra, not for Jeshua.
+
+  102 Mr. Margoliouth thinks that "the end of the destruction of the
+      land," after which the migration to Damascus took place, "can hardly
+      be anything else than the completion of the Roman conquest in A.D.
+      70." "At the end of the devastation of the land" means, however, not
+      when the destruction was complete, but when the period of desolation
+      was over. The phrase itself, therefore, is no more appropriate to
+      Titus than to Nebuchadnezzar--or to Hadrian. Mr. Margoliouth does not
+      say how he interprets the rest of the passage. Are the men who, at
+      the end of the devastation of the land, "removed the boundary and
+      led Israel astray," the great rabbis of the generations after the
+      destruction of Jerusalem, and does the sequel, "and the land was
+      laid waste because they spoke rebelliously against the commandments
+      of God by Moses and against his holy Anointed one," refer to the war
+      under Hadrian?
+
+  103 As has been noted above, _yahid_ is sometimes rendered in the Greek
+      Old Testament by {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}.
+
+  104 See above, p. 341.
+
+  105 The commandment to love one's neighbor as himself, for example. In
+      the context of the covenant formula, in contrast to Jewish orthodoxy
+      no less than to Christianity, the neighbor is not the fellow man,
+      nor even the fellow Jew, but the fellow member of the schismatic
+      church.
+
+  106 See above, p. 334.
+
+  107 That the repentance of the people was brought about by the work of
+      "the root" is not suggested in any way in the text; on the contrary,
+      the only natural construction and interpretation of the passage
+      would make the penitent generation the same with that which is
+      called "the root."
+
+  108 See above, p. 334.
+
+  109 Gressmann is sure that this "man of lies" must be Bar Coziba (Bar
+      Cocheba), the Messianic leader of the rebellion under Hadrian. He
+      might have added that the contrast to the true star out of Jacob,
+      the founder of the sect, would be peculiarly pertinent. The punning
+      etymology, "Say not 'Star,' but 'liar' " (Echa Rabbathi on Lam. 2
+      2), is ascribed to the Patriarch Judah.
+
+  110 Perhaps the manuscripts may have been in the possession of some
+      Rabbanite controversialist in Egypt, and thus found their way, like
+      various Karaite writings, into the Genizah of the Synagogue.
+
+
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COVENANTERS OF DAMASCUS; A HITHERTO UNKNOWN JEWISH SECT***
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