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+Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Cathedrals of Northern Spain
+
+Author: Charles Rudy
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [EBook #31965]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This ebook was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material at
+Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_THE_ CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN
+
+[Illustration: Bookcover]
+
+[Illustration: inside cover]
+
+_The Cathedral Series_
+
+_The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+$2.50_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Southern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of England BY MARY J. TABER_
+
+The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+Net, $2.00
+
+_The Cathedrals and Churches
+of the Rhine BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+Spain BY CHARLES RUDY_
+
+_L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+New England Building, Boston, Mass._
+
+[Illustration: LEON CATHEDRAL
+
+(_See page 154_)]
+
+
+
+
+The Cathedrals of
+Northern Spain
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURE; TOGETHER
+WITH MUCH OF INTEREST CONCERNING
+THE BISHOPS, RULERS,
+AND OTHER PERSONAGES IDENTIFIED
+WITH THEM
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES RUDY
+
+Illustrated
+
+BOSTON L. C. PAGE &
+COMPANY MDCCCCVI
+
+_Copyright, 1905_
+BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+(INCORPORATED)
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+Published October, 1905
+
+_COLONIAL PRESS
+Electrotyped and Printed by C. H. Simonds & Co.
+Boston, U. S. A._
+
+
+_TO ALL TRUE
+LOVERS OF SPAIN,
+OTHERWISE CALLED
+HISPANÓFILOS_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is _à la mode_ to write prefaces. Some of us write good ones, others
+bad, and most of us write neither good nor bad ones.
+
+The chapter entitled "General Remarks" is the real introduction to the
+book, so in these lines I shall pen a few words of self-introduction to
+such readers as belong to the class to whom I have dedicated this
+volume.
+
+My love for Spain is unbounded. As great as is my love for the people,
+so great also is my depreciation for those who have wronged her, being
+her sons. Who are they? They know that best themselves.
+
+Spain's architecture is both agreeable and disagreeable, but it is all
+of it peculiarly Spanish. A foreigner, dropping as by accident across
+the Pyrenees from France, can do nothing better than criticize all
+architectural monuments he meets with in a five days' journey across
+Spain with a Cook's ticket in his pocketbook. It is natural he should do
+so. Everything is so totally different from the pure (_sic_) styles he
+has learned to admire in France!
+
+But we who have lived years in Spain grow to like and admire just such
+complex compositions as the cathedrals of Toledo, of Santiago, and La
+Seo in Saragosse; we lose our narrow-mindedness, and fail to see why a
+pure Gothic or an Italian Renaissance should be better than an Iberian
+cathedral. As long as harmony exists between the different parts, all is
+well. The moment this harmony does not exist, our sense of the
+artistically beautiful is shocked--and the building is a bad one.
+
+Personality is consequently ever uppermost in all art criticism or
+admiration. But it should not be influenced by the words pure, flawless,
+etc. Were such to be the case, there would be but one good cathedral in
+Spain, namely, that of Leon, a French temple built by foreigners on
+Spanish soil. Yet nothing is less Spanish than the cathedral of Leon.
+
+Under the circumstances, it is necessary, upon visiting Spain, to
+discard foreignisms and turn a Spaniard, if but for a few days.
+Otherwise the tourist will not understand the country's art monuments,
+and will be inclined to leave the peninsula as he entered it, not a
+whit the wiser for having come.
+
+To help the traveller to understand the whys and wherefores of Spanish
+architecture, I have written the "Introductory Studies." I hope they
+will enable him to become a Spaniard, or, at least, to join the
+enthusiastic army of _Hispanófilos_.
+
+C. RUDY.
+
+MADRID, _July, 1905_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                               PAGE
+
+PART I. INTRODUCTORY STUDIES
+
+I. General Remarks                      11
+
+II. Historical Arabesques               18
+
+III. Architectural Arabesques           35
+
+IV. Conclusion                          66
+
+PART II. GALICIA
+
+I. Santiago de Campostela               75
+
+II. Corunna                             89
+
+III. Mondoñedo                          95
+
+IV. Lugo                               102
+
+V. Orense                              110
+
+VI. Tuy                                120
+
+VII. Bayona and Vigo                   131
+
+PART III. THE NORTH
+
+I. Oviedo                              137
+
+II. Covadonga                          145
+
+III. Leon                              150
+
+IV. Astorga                            167
+
+V. Burgos                              174
+
+VI. Santander                          188
+
+VII. Vitoria                           192
+
+VIII. Upper Rioja                      196
+
+IX. Soria                              209
+
+PART IV. WESTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Palencia                            219
+
+II. Zamora                             230
+
+III. Toro                              244
+
+IV. Salamanca                          251
+
+V. Ciudad Rodrigo                      269
+
+VI. Coria                              278
+
+VII. Plasencia                         284
+
+PART V. EASTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Valladolid                          293
+
+II. Avila                              302
+
+III. Segovia                           312
+
+IV. Madrid-Alcalá                      321
+
+V. Sigüenza                            335
+
+VI. Cuenca                             342
+
+VII. Toledo                            349
+
+Appendix                               369
+
+Index                                  387
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                PAGE
+
+Leon Cathedral (_See page 154_)        _Frontispiece_
+
+Cloister Stalls in a Monastic Church at Leon      48
+
+Typical Retablo (Palencia)                        50
+
+Mudejar Architecture (Sahagun)                    64
+
+Santiago and Its Cathedral                        82
+
+Church of Santiago, Corunna                       92
+
+General View of Mondoñedo                         96
+
+Mondoñedo Cathedral                               98
+
+Northern Portal of Orense Cathedral              116
+
+Tuy Cathedral                                    128
+
+Oviedo Cathedral                                 140
+
+Cloister of Oviedo Cathedral                     144
+
+Apse of San Isidoro, Leon                        164
+
+Burgos Cathedral                                 180
+
+Crypt of Santander Cathedral                     190
+
+Cloister of Nájera Cathedral                     202
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, Logroño                  204
+
+Western Front of Calahorra Cathedral             207
+
+Cloister of Soria Cathedral                      212
+
+Palencia Cathedral                               226
+
+Zamora Cathedral                                 238
+
+Toro Cathedral                                   248
+
+Old Salamanca Cathedral                          260
+
+New Salamanca Cathedral                          266
+
+Cuidad Rodrigo Cathedral                         272
+
+Façade of Plasencia Cathedral                    288
+
+Western Front of Valladolid Cathedral            300
+
+Tower of Avila Cathedral                         310
+
+Segovia Cathedral                                316
+
+San Isidro, Madrid                               326
+
+Alcalá de Henares Cathedral                      332
+
+Toledo Cathedral                                 360
+
+
+
+
+_PART I_
+
+_Introductory Studies_
+
+
+
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern Spain_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL REMARKS
+
+
+History and architecture go hand in hand; the former is not complete if
+it does not mention the latter, and the latter is incomprehensible if
+the former is entirely ignored.
+
+The following chapters are therefore historical and architectural; they
+are based on evolutionary principles and seek to demonstrate the motives
+of certain artistic phenomena.
+
+Many of the ideas superficially mentioned in the following essays will
+be severely discussed, for they are original; others are based on two
+excellent modern historical works, namely, "The History of the Spanish
+People," by Major Martin Hume, and "Historia de España," by Señor Rafael
+Altamira. These two works can be regarded as the _dernier mot_
+concerning the evolution of Spanish history.
+
+Unluckily, however, the author has been unable to consult any work on
+architecture which might have given him a concise idea of the story of
+its gradual evolution and development, and of the different art-waves
+which flowed across the peninsula during the stormy period of the middle
+ages, which, properly speaking, begins with the Arab invasion of the
+eighth century and ends with the fall of Granada, in the fifteenth.
+
+Several works on Spanish architecture have been written (the reader will
+find them mentioned elsewhere), but none treats the matter from an
+evolutionary standpoint. On the contrary, most of them are limited to
+the study of a period, of a style or of a locality; hence they cannot
+claim to be a _dernier mot_. Such a work has still to be written.
+
+Be it understood, nevertheless, that the author does not pretend--_Dios
+me libre!_--to have supplied the lack in the following pages. In a
+couple of thousand words it would be utterly impossible to do so. No; a
+complete, evolutionary study of Spanish architecture would imply years
+of labour, of travel, and of study. For so much on the peninsula is
+hybrid and exotic, and yet again, so much is peculiar to Spain alone.
+Thus it is often most difficult to determine which art phenomena are
+natural--that is, which are the logical results of a well-defined art
+movement--and which are artificial or the casual product of elements
+utterly foreign to Spanish soil.
+
+Willingly the author leaves to other and wiser heads the solving of the
+above riddle. He hopes, nevertheless, that they (those who care to
+undertake the mentioned task) will find some remarks or some
+observations in the following chapters to help them discover the real
+truth concerning the Spaniard's love, or his insensibility for
+architectural monuments, as well as his share in the erection of
+cathedrals, palaces, and castles.
+
+Spanish architecture--better still, architecture in Spain--is peculiarly
+strange and foreign to us Northerners. We admire many edifices in
+Iberia, but are unable to say wherefore; we are overawed at the
+magnificence displayed in the interior of cathedral churches and at a
+loss to explain the reason.
+
+As regards the former, it can be attributed to the Oriental spirit still
+throbbing in the country; not in vain did the Moor inhabit Iberia for
+nearly eight hundred years!
+
+The powerful influence of the Church on the inhabitants, an influence
+that has lasted from the middle ages to the present day, explains the
+other phenomenon. Even to-day, in Spain, the Pope is supreme and the
+princes of the Church are the rulers.
+
+Does the country gain thereby? Not at all. Andalusia is in a miserable
+state of poverty, so are Extremadura, La Mancha, and Castile. Not a
+penny do the rich, or even royalty, give to better the country people's
+piteous lot; neither does the Church.
+
+It is nevertheless necessary to be just. In studying the evolutionary
+history of architecture in Spain, we must praise the tyranny of the
+Church which spent the millions of dollars of the poor in erecting such
+marvels as the cathedral of Toledo, etc., and we must ignore the
+sweating farmer, the terror-stricken Jew, the accused heretic, the
+disgraced courtier, the seafaring conquistador, who gave up their all to
+buy a few months' life, the respite of an hour.
+
+And the author has striven to be impartial in the following pages. Once
+in awhile his bitterness has escaped the pen, but be it plainly
+understood that not one of his remarks is aimed against Spain, a country
+and a people to be admired,--above all to be pitied, for they, the
+people, are slaves to an arrogant Church, to a self-amusing royalty, and
+to a grasping horde of second-rate politicians.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HISTORICAL ARABESQUES
+
+
+The history of Spain is, perhaps, more than that of any other nation,
+one long series of thrilling, contradictory, and frequently
+incomprehensible events.
+
+This is not only due to the country's past importance as a powerful
+factor in the evolution of our modern civilization, but to the
+unforeseen doings of fate. Fate enchained and enslaved its people,
+moulded its greatness and wrought its ruin. Of no other country can it
+so truthfully be said that it was the unwitting tool of some higher
+destiny. Most of the phenomena of its history took place in spite of the
+people's wishes or votes; neither did the different art questions,
+styles, periods, or movements emanate from the people. This must be
+borne in mind.
+
+The Romans were the first to come to Spain with a view to conquering the
+land, and to organizing the half-savage clans or tribes who roamed
+through the thickets and across the plains. But nowhere did the great
+rulers of the world encounter such fierce resistance. The clans were
+extremely warlike and, besides, intensely individual. They did not only
+oppose the foreigner's conquest of the land, but also his system of
+organization, which consisted in the submission of the individual to the
+state.
+
+The clans or tribes recognized no other law than their own sweet will;
+they acted independently of each other, and only on rare occasions did
+they fight in groups. They were local patriots who recognized no
+fatherland beyond their natal vale or village.
+
+This primary characteristic of the Spanish people is the clue to many of
+the subsequent events of the country's history. Against it the Romans
+fought, but fought in vain, for they were not able to overcome it.
+
+Christianity dawned in the East and was introduced into Spain, some say
+by St. James in the north, others by St. Peter or St. Paul in the south.
+
+The result was astonishing: what Roman swords, laws, and highroads had
+been unable to accomplish (as regards the organization of the savage
+tribes) Christianity brought about in a comparatively short lapse of
+time.
+
+The reason is twofold. In the first place, the new form of religion
+taught that all men were equal; consequently it was more to the taste of
+the individualistic Spaniard than the state doctrines of the Roman
+Empire.
+
+Secondly, it permitted him to worship his deity in as many forms
+(saints) as there were days in the year; consequently each village or
+town could boast of its own saint, prophet, or martyr, who, in the minds
+of the citizens, was greater than all other saints, and really the god
+of their fervent adoration.
+
+Hence Christianity was able to introduce into the Roman province of
+Hispania a social organization which was to exert a lasting influence on
+the country and to acquire an unheard-of degree of wealth and power.
+
+When the temporal domination of Rome in Spain had dwindled away to
+nothing, other foreigners, the Visigoths, usurped the fictitious rule.
+Their state was civil in name, military in organization, and
+ecclesiastical in reality.
+
+They formed no nation, however, though they preserved the broken
+fragments of the West Roman Empire. The same spirit of individualism
+characterized the tribes or people, and they swore allegiance to their
+local saint (God) and to the priest who was his representative on earth
+(Church)--but to no one else.
+
+Consequently it can be assumed that the Spanish nation had not as yet
+been born; the controlling power had passed from the hands of one
+foreigner to those of another: only one institution--the Church--could
+claim to possess a national character; around it, or upon its
+foundations, the nation was to be built up, stone by stone, and turret
+by turret.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The third foreigner appeared on the scene. He was doubtless the most
+important factor in the formation of the Spanish nation.
+
+It is probable that the Church called him over the Straits of Gibraltar
+as an aid against Rodrigo, the last Visigothic king, who lost his throne
+and his life because too deeply in love with his beautiful Tolesian
+mistress.
+
+Legends explain the Moor's landing differently. Sohail, as powerfully
+narrated by Mr. Cunninghame-Graham, is one of these legends, beautifully
+fatalistic and exceptionally interesting. According to it, the destiny
+of the Moors is ruled by a star named Sohail. Whither it goes they must
+follow it.
+
+In the eighth century it happened that Sohail, in her irregular course
+across the heavens, was to be seen, a brilliant star, from Gibraltar.
+Obeying the stellar call, Tarik landed in Spain and moved northwards at
+the head of his irresistible, fanatic hordes. The star continued its
+northerly movement, visible one fine night from the Arab tents pitched
+on the plains between Poitiers and Tours. The next night, however, it
+was no longer visible, and Charles Martel drove the invading Moors back
+to the south.
+
+Centuries went by and Sohail appeared ever lower down on the southern
+horizon. One night it was only visible from Granada, and then Spain saw
+it no more. That same day--'twas in the fifteenth century--Boabdil el
+Chico surrendered the keys of Granada, and the Arabs fled, obeying the
+retreating star's call.
+
+To-day they are waiting in the north of Africa for Sohail to move once
+again to the north: when she does so, they will rise again as a single
+man, and regain their passionately loved Alhambra, their beautiful
+kingdom of Andalusia.
+
+Tradition is fond of showing us a nucleus of fervent Christian patriots
+obliged by the invading Arab hordes to retire to the north-western
+corner of the Iberian peninsula. Here they made a stand, a last glorious
+stand, and, gradually increasing in strength, they were at last able to
+drive back the invader inch by inch until he fled across the straits to
+trouble Iberia no more.
+
+Nothing is, however, less true. The noblemen and monarchs of Galicia,
+Leon, and Oviedo--later of Castile, Navarra, and Aragon--were so many
+petty lords who, fighting continually among themselves, ruled over
+fragments of the defeated Visigothic kingdom. At times they called in
+the Arab enemy--to whom in the early centuries they paid a yearly
+tribute--to help them against the encroachments of their brother
+Christians. Consequently they lacked that spirit of patriotism and of
+national ambition which might have justified their claims to be called
+monarchs or rulers of Spain.
+
+The Church was no better. Its bishops were independent princes who ruled
+in their dioceses like sovereigns in their palaces; they recognized no
+supreme master, not even the Pope, whose advice was ignored, and whose
+orders were disobeyed.
+
+It was not until the twelfth or thirteenth century that the Christian
+incursions into Moorish territory took the form of patriotic crusades,
+in which fervent Christians burnt with the holy desire of weeding out of
+the peninsula the Saracen infidel.
+
+This holy crusade was due to the coming from France and Italy of the
+Cluny monks. Foreigners,--like the Romans, the Church, the Visigoths,
+and the Moors,--they created a situation which facilitated the union of
+the different monarchs, prelates, and noblemen, by showing them a common
+cause to fight for. Besides, anxious to establish the supreme power of
+the Pope in a land where his authority was a dead letter, they crossed
+the Pyrenees and broke the absolute power of the arrogant prelates.
+
+The result was obvious: the Church became uniform throughout the
+country, and its influence waxed to the detriment of that of the
+noblemen. Once again the kings learnt to rely upon the former, thus
+putting an end to the power of the latter. Once more the Church grew to
+be an ecclesiastical organization in which the role of the prelates
+became more important as time went on.
+
+In short, if the coming of the Moors retarded for nearly six hundred
+years the birth of the Spanish nation, this birth was directly brought
+about by the political ability of the Cluny monks; the Moors, on the
+other hand, exerted a direct and lasting influence on the shaping and
+moulding of the future nation.
+
+Christian Spain, at the time of the death of the pious warrior-king San
+Fernando, was roughly divided into an eastern and a western half, into
+the kingdom of Castile (and Leon) and that of Aragon. The fusion of
+these two halves by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel, two hundred
+years later, marks the date of the birth of Spain as a nation.
+
+It is true, nevertheless, that the people had little or no voice in the
+arrangement of matters. They were indifferent to what their crowned
+rulers were doing, and ignorant of the growing power, wealth, and
+learning of the prelates. All they asked for was individual liberty and
+permission to pray to the God of their choice. Neither had as yet the
+spirit of patriotism burned in their breasts, and they were utterly
+insensible to any and all politics which concerned the peninsula as a
+unity.
+
+But the Church-state had successfully evolutionized, and Catholic kings
+sat on the only available throne. The last Moor had been driven from the
+peninsula, the Jews had been expelled from the Catholic kingdom, and the
+Inquisition--now that the Church could no longer direct its energy
+against the infidel--strengthened the Pope's hold on the land and
+increased the importance and magnificence of the prelates themselves.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A word as to heresy (the Reformation) and the Inquisition. The latter
+was not directed against the former, for it would have been impossible
+for the people to accept the reformed faith in the fifteenth century.
+For the Spaniard the charm of the Christian religion was that it placed
+him on an equal footing with all men; hence, it flattered his love of
+personal liberty and his self-consciousness or pride. The charm of
+Catholicism was that it enabled him to adore a local deity in the shape
+of a martyred saint; thus, it flattered his vanity as a clansman, and
+his spirit of individualism.
+
+It was not so much the God of Christianity he worshipped as Our Lady of
+the Pillar, Our Lady of Sorrows, of the Camino, etc., and he obeyed less
+readily the archbishop than the custodian priest of his particular
+saint, of whom he declared "that he could humiliate all other saints."
+
+Consequently Protestantism, which tended to kill this local worship by
+upholding that of a collective deity, could never have taken a serious
+hold of the country, and it is doubtful if it ever will.
+
+On the other hand--as previously remarked--the Spanish Inquisition
+helped to centralize the Church's power and obliged the people to accept
+its decisions as final. The effect of Torquemada's policy is still to be
+felt in Spain--could it be otherwise?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Had successive events in this stage of Spain's history followed a normal
+course, and had the education of the people been fostered by the state
+instead of being cursed by the Church, it is more than probable that the
+map of Europe would have been different to-day from what it is. For the
+Spanish people would have learnt to think as patriots, as a nation; they
+would have developed their country's rich soil and thickly populated
+the vast _vegas_; they would have taken the offensive against foreign
+nations, and would have chased and battled the Moor beyond the Straits
+of Gibraltar.
+
+It was not to be, however. An abnormal event was to take place--and did
+take place--which repeated in fair Iberia the retrograde movement
+initiated by the Arab invasion 750 years earlier.
+
+A foreigner was again the cause of this new phenomenon, a harebrained
+Genoese navigator whom the world calls a genius because he was
+successful, but who was an evil genius for the new-born Spanish nation,
+one who was to load his adopted country with unparalleled fame and glory
+before causing her rapid and clashing downfall.
+
+Christopher Columbus came to Spain from the east; he sailed westwards
+from Spain and discovered--for Spain!--two vast continents.
+
+The importance of this event for Spain is apt to be overlooked by those
+who are blinded by the unexpected realization of Columbus's daring
+dreams. It was as though a volcanic eruption had taken place in a virgin
+soil, tossing earth and grass, layers and strata of stone, hither and
+thither in utter confusion, impeding the further growth of young
+plantlets and forbidding the building up of a solid national edifice.
+
+Instead of devoting their energies to the interior organization of the
+country, Spaniards turned their eyes to the New World. In exchange for
+the gold and precious stones which poured into the land, they gave that
+which left the country poor and weak indeed: their blood and their
+lives. The bravest and most intrepid leaders crossed the seas with their
+followers, and behind them sailed thousands upon thousands of hardy
+adventurers and soldiers.
+
+But the Spaniards could not colonize. They lacked those qualities of
+collectivity which characterized Rome and England. The individualistic
+spirit of the people caused them to go and to come as they chose without
+possessing any ambition of establishing in the newly acquired
+territories a home and a family; neither did the women folk
+emigrate--and hence the failure of Spain as a colonizing power.
+
+On the other hand, those who had sailed the seas to the Spanish main,
+and had hoarded up a significant treasure, invariably returned, not to
+Spain exactly, but to their native town or village. Upon arriving home,
+their first act was to bequeath a considerable sum to the Church, so as
+to ease their conscience and to assure themselves homage, respect, and
+unrestrained liberty.
+
+The effects produced by this phenomenon of individualism were manifold.
+They exist even to-day, so lasting were they.
+
+A new nobility was created--wealthy, powerful, and generally arrogant
+and unscrupulous, which replaced the feudal aristocracy of the middle
+ages.
+
+Secondly, oligarchy--or better still, _caciquismo_, an individualistic
+form of oligarchy--sprung up into existence, and rapidly became the bane
+of modern Spain; that is, ever since the Bourbon dynasty ruled the
+country's fate. As can easily be understood, this _caciquismo_ can only
+flourish there where individualism is the leading characteristic of the
+people.
+
+Thirdly, all hopes of the country's possessing a well-to-do middle
+class--stamina of a wealthy nation, and without which no people can
+attain a national standard of wealth--vanished completely away.
+
+Lastly the Church, which had become wealthy beyond the dreams of the
+Cluny monks, retained its iron grip on the country, and retarded the
+liberal education of the masses. To repay the fidelity of servile
+Catholics, it canonized legions of local prophets and martyrs, and
+organized hundreds of gay annual _fiestas_ to honour their memory. The
+ignorant people, flattered at the tribute of admiration paid to their
+deities, looked no further ahead into the growing chaos of misery and
+poverty, and were happy.
+
+The crash came--could it be otherwise? Beyond the seas an immense
+territory, hundreds of times larger than the natal _solar_, or mother
+country, stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific; at home, a
+stillborn nation lay in an arid meadow beside a solemn church, a
+frivolous, selfish throne, and a mute and gloomy brick-built convent.
+
+The Spanish Armada sailed to England never to return, and Philip II.
+built the Escorial, a melancholy pantheon for the kings of the Iberian
+peninsula.
+
+One by one the colonies dropped off, fragments of an illusory empire,
+and at last the mother country stood once more stark naked as in the
+days before Columbus left Palos harbour. But the mother's face was no
+longer young and fresh like an infant's: wrinkles of age and of
+suffering creased the brow and the chin, for not in vain was she, during
+centuries, the toy of unmerciful fate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, in gigantic strides, the history of Spain.
+
+The volcanic eruption in the fifteenth century has left, it is true,
+indelible traces in the country's soil. Nevertheless, on the very day
+when the treaty of Paris was signed and the last of the Spanish colonies
+_de ultramar_ were lost for ever, that day a Spanish nation was born
+again on the disturbed foundations of the old.
+
+There is no denying it: when Ferdinand and Isabel united their kingdoms
+a nation was born; it fell to pieces (though apparently not until a
+later date) when Columbus landed in America.
+
+Anarchy, misrule, and oppression, ignorance and poverty, now frivolity
+and now austerity at court, fill the succeeding centuries until the
+coronation of Alfonso XII. During all those years, but once did
+Spain--no longer a nation--shine forth in history with an even greater
+brilliancy than when she claimed to be mistress of the world. But, on
+this occasion, when she opposed, in brave but disbanded groups, the
+invasion of the French legions, she gave another proof of the
+individualistic instincts of the race, as opposed to all social and
+compact organization of the masses.
+
+The Carlist wars need but a passing remark. They were not national; they
+were caused by the ambitions of rulers and noblemen, and fought out by
+the inhabitants of Navarra and the Basque Provinces who upheld their
+_fueros_, by paid soldiery, and by _aldeanos_ whose houses and families
+were threatened.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New Spain was born a few years ago, but so far she has given no proof of
+vitality. As it is, she is cumbered by traditions and harassed by
+memories. She must fight a sharp battle with existing evil institutions
+handed down to her as a questionable legacy from the past.
+
+If she emerge victorious from the struggle, universal history will hear
+her name again, for the country is not _gastado_ or degenerate, as many
+would have us believe.
+
+If she fail to throw overboard the worthless and superfluous ballast, it
+is possible that the ship of state will founder--and then, who knows?
+
+In the meantime, let us not misjudge the Spaniard nor throw stones at
+his broken glass mansion. To help us in this, let us remember that
+unexpected vicissitudes, entirely foreign to his country, were the cause
+of his illusory grandeur in the sixteenth century. Besides, no more
+ardent a lover of individual (not social) freedom than the Spaniard
+breathes in this wide world of ours--excepting it be the Moor.
+
+Under the circumstances he is to be admired--even pitied.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ARABESQUES
+
+_Preliminaries_
+
+
+The different periods mentioned in the preceding chapter are
+characterized by a corresponding art-movement.
+
+The germs of these movements came invariably from abroad. In Spain they
+lingered, were localized and grew up, a species of hybrid plants in
+which the foreign element was still visible, though it had undergone a
+series of changes, due either to the addition of other elements, to the
+inventive genius of the artist-architect, or else peculiar to the
+locality in which the building was erected.
+
+Other conclusive remarks arrived at in the foregoing study help to
+explain the evolution of church architecture. Five were the conclusions:
+(1) The power and wealth of the Church, (2) the influence exerted by
+foreigners on the country's fate, (3) the individualistic spirit of the
+clanspeople, (4) the short duration of a Spanish nation, nipped in the
+bud before it could bloom, and (5) the formation of an oligarchy
+(_caciquismo_) which hindered the establishment of an educated
+_bourgeoisie_.
+
+The first of the above conclusive observations needs no further remarks,
+considering that we are studying church architecture. It suffices to
+indicate the great number of cathedrals, churches, hermitages,
+monasteries, convents, cloisters, and episcopal palaces to be convinced
+of the Church's influence on the country and on the purses of the
+inhabitants.
+
+The Spaniard, psychologically speaking, is no artist; it is doubtful if
+illiterate and uneducated people are, and the average inhabitant of
+Spain forms no exception to this rule. His artistic talents are
+exclusively limited to music, for which he has an excessively fine ear.
+But beauty in the plastic arts and architecture leave him cold and
+indifferent; he is influenced by mass, weight, and quantity rather than
+by elegance or lightness, and consequently it is the same to him whether
+a cathedral be Gothic or Romanesque, as long as it be dedicated to the
+deity of his choice.
+
+The difference between Italian and Iberian is therefore very marked.
+Even the landscapes in each country prove it beyond a doubt. In Italy
+they are composed of soft rolling lines; the colours are varied,--green,
+red, and blue; the soil is damp and fruitful. In Spain, on the contrary,
+everything is dry, arid, and savage; blue is the sky, red the brick
+houses, and grayish golden the soil; the inhabitants are as savage as
+the country, and the proverbial "_ma é piu bello_" of the Italian does
+not bother the former in the slightest.
+
+All of which goes to explain the Spaniard's insensibility to the plastic
+arts, as well as (for instance) the universal use of huge _retablos_ or
+altar-pieces, in which size and bright colours are all that is required
+and the greater the size, the more clashing the colours, the better.
+
+Neither is it surprising that the Spaniard created no architectural
+school of his own. All he possesses is borrowed from abroad. His love of
+Byzantine grotesqueness and of Moorish geometrical arabesques is
+inherited, the one from the Visigoths, and the other directly from the
+Moors. The remaining styles are northern and Italian, and were
+introduced into the country by such foreigners--monks and artists--as
+crowded to Spain in search of Spanish gold.
+
+These artists (it is true that some, and perhaps the best of them, were
+Spaniards) did not work for the people, for there was no _bourgeoisie_.
+They worked for the wealthy prelates, for the aristocracy, and for the
+_caciques_. These latter had sumptuous chapels decorated, dedicated an
+altar to such and such a deity, and erected a magnificent sepulchre or
+series of sepulchres for themselves and their families.
+
+This peculiar phenomenon explains the wealth of Spanish churches in
+lateral chapels. Not a cathedral but has about twenty of them; not a
+church but possesses its half a dozen. Moreover, some of the very finest
+examples of sepulchral art are not to be found in cathedrals, but in
+out-of-the-way village churches, where some _cacique_ or other laid his
+bones to rest and had his effigy carved on a gorgeous marble tomb.
+
+These chapels are built in all possible styles and in all degrees of
+splendour and magnificence, according to the generosity of the donor.
+Here they bulge out, deforming the regular plan of the church, or else
+they take up an important part of the interior of the building. There
+they are Renaissance jewels in a Gothic temple, or else ogival marvels
+in a Romanesque building. They are, as it were, small churches--or
+important annexes like that of the Condestable in Burgos, possessing a
+dome of its own--absolutely independent of the cathedral itself, rich in
+decorative details, luxurious in the use of polished stone and metal, of
+agate and golden accessories, of gilded friezes, low reliefs, and
+painted _retablos_. They constitute one of the most characteristic
+features of Spanish religious architecture and art in general, and it is
+above all due to them that Iberia's cathedrals are museums rather than
+solemn places of worship.
+
+But the Spanish people did not erect them; they were commanded by vain
+and death-fearing _caciques_, and erected by artists--generally
+foreigners, though often natives. The people did not care nor take any
+interest in the matter; so long as the village saint was not insulted,
+nor their individual liberty (_fuero_) infringed upon, the world, its
+artists and _caciques_, could do as it liked.
+
+This insensibility helped to hinder the formation of a national style.
+Besides, as the duration of the Spanish nation was so exceedingly short,
+there was no time at hand to develop a national art school. In certain
+localities, as in Galicia, a prevailing type or style was in common use,
+and was slowly evolving into something strictly local and excellent.
+These types, together with Moorish art, and above all _Mudejar_ work,
+might have evolved still further and produced a national style. But the
+nation fell to pieces like a dried-up barrel whose hoops are broken, and
+the nation's style was never formed.
+
+Besides, contemporary with the birth of the nation was the advent of the
+Renaissance movement. This was the _coup de grâce_, the final blow to
+any germs of a Spanish style, of a style composed of Christian and Islam
+principles and ideals:
+
+    "Es wär zu schön gewesen,
+     Es hätt' nicht sollen sein!"
+
+Under the circumstances, the art student in Spain, however enthusiastic
+or one-sided he may be, cannot claim to discover a national school. He
+must necessarily limit his studies to the analysis of the foreign art
+waves which inundated the land; he must observe how they became
+localized and were modified, how they were united both wisely and
+ridiculously, and he must point out the reasons or causes of these
+medleys and transformations. There his task ends.
+
+One peculiarity will strike him: the peninsula possesses no pure Gothic,
+Romanesque, or Renaissance building. The same might almost be stated as
+regards Moorish art. The capitals of the pillars in the mezquita of
+Cordoba are Latin-Romanesque, torn from a previous building by the
+invading Arab to adorn his own temple. The Alhambra, likewise, shows
+animal arabesques which are Byzantine and not Moorish. Nevertheless,
+Arab art is, on the whole, purer in style than Christian art.
+
+This transformation of foreign styles proves: (1) That though the
+Spanish artist lacked creative genius, he was no base imitator, but
+sought to combine; he sought to give the temple he had to construct that
+heavy, massive, strong, and sombre aspect so well in harmony with the
+religious and warlike spirit of the different clanspeople; and (2) that
+the same artist failed completely to understand the ideal of soaring
+ogival, of simple Renaissance, or of pure Romanesque (this latter he
+understood better than either of the others). For him, they--as well as
+Islam art--were but elements to be made use of. Apart from their
+constructive use, they were superfluous, and the artist-architect was
+blind to their ethical object or æsthetical value. With their aid he
+built architectural wonders, but hybrid marvels, complex, grand,
+luxurious, and magnificent.
+
+Be it plainly understood, nevertheless, that in the above paragraphs no
+contempt for Spanish cathedrals is either felt or implied. Facts are
+stated, but no personal opinion is emitted as to which is better, a pure
+Gothic or a complicated Spanish Gothic. In art there is really no
+better; besides, comparisons are odious and here they are utterly
+superfluous.
+
+_Cathedral Churches_
+
+Before accompanying the art student in his task of determining the
+different foreign styles, we will do well to examine certain general
+characteristics common to all Spanish cathedrals. We will then be able
+to understand with greater ease the causes of the changes introduced
+into pure styles.
+
+The exterior aspect of all cathedrals is severe and massive, even naked
+and solemn. Neither windows nor flying buttresses are used in such
+profusion as in French cathedrals, and the height of the aisles is
+greater. The object is doubtless to impart an idea of strength to the
+exterior walls by raising them in a compact mass. An even greater effect
+is obtained by square, heavy towers instead of elegant spires. (Compare,
+however, chapters on Leon, Oviedo, Burgos, etc.) The use of domes
+(_cimborios_, lanterns, and cupolas) is also frequent, most of them
+being decidedly Oriental in appearance. The apse is prominent and
+generally five-sided, warlike in its severe outline. Stone is invariably
+used as the principal constructive element,--granite, _berroqueña_ (a
+soft white stone turning deep gray with age and exposure), and _sillar_
+or _silleria_ (a red sandstone cut into similar slabs of the size and
+aspect of brick). Where red sandstone is used, the weaker parts of the
+buildings are very often constructed in brick, and it is these
+last-named cathedrals that are most Oriental in appearance, especially
+when the brick surface is carved into _Mudejar_ reliefs.
+
+Taken all in all, the whole building often resembles a castle or
+fortress rather than a temple, in harmony with the austere, arid
+landscape, and the fierce, passionate, and idolatrous character of the
+clanspeople or inhabitants of the different regions.
+
+The principal entrance is usually small in comparison to the height and
+great mass of the building. The pointed arch--or series of arches--which
+crowns the portal, is timid in its structure, or, in other words, is but
+slightly pointed or not at all.
+
+The interior aspect of the church is totally different. As bare and
+naked as was the outside, so luxurious and magnificent is the inside.
+Involuntarily mediæval Spanish palaces come to our mind: their gloomy
+appearance from the outside, and the gay _patio_ or courtyard behind the
+heavy, uninviting panels of the doors. The Moors even to this day employ
+this system of architecture; its origin, even in the case of Christian
+churches, is Oriental.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural considerations, which will be referred
+to in the chapters dedicated to the description of the various
+cathedrals, let us examine the general disposition of some of the most
+interesting parts of the Spanish church.
+
+The aisles are, as a rule, high and dark, buried in perpetual shadow.
+The lightest and airiest part of the building is beneath the _croisée_
+(intersection of nave and transept), which is often crowned by a
+handsome _cimborio_.
+
+The nave is the most important member of the church, and the most
+impressive view is obtained by the visitor standing beneath the
+_croisée_.
+
+To the east of him, the nave terminates in a semicircular chapel, the
+farther end of which boasts of an immense _retablo_; to the west, the
+choir, with its stalls and organs, interrupts likewise the continuity of
+the nave. Both choir and altar are rich in decorative details.
+
+Behind the high altar runs the ambulatory, joining the aisles and
+separating the former from the apse and its chapels. The rear wall of
+the high altar (in the ambulatory) is called the _trasaltar_, where a
+small altar is generally situated in a recess and dedicated to the
+patron saint, that is, if the cathedral itself be dedicated to the
+Virgin, as generally happens.
+
+Sometimes an oval window pierces the wall of the _trasaltar_ and lets
+the light from the apsidal windows enter the high altar; this
+arrangement is called a _transparente_.
+
+The choir, as wide as the nave and often as high, is rectangular; an
+altar-table generally stands in the western extremity, which is closed
+off by a wall. The rear of this wall (facing the western entrance to the
+temple) is called the _trascoro_, and contains the altar or a chapel;
+the lateral walls are also pierced by low rooms or niches which serve
+either as chapels or as altar-frames.
+
+The placing of the choir in the very centre of the church, its width and
+height, and its enclosure on the western end by a wall, render
+impossible a view of the whole building such as occurs in Northern
+cathedrals, and upon which the impression of architectural grandeur and
+majesty largely depends. It was as though Spanish architects were
+utterly foreign to the latter impression, or wilfully murdered it by
+substituting another more to their taste, namely, that of magnificence
+and sumptuousness. Nowhere--to the author's knowledge--is this
+impression more acutely felt than in a Spanish cathedral, viewed from
+beneath the _croisée_.
+
+Glittering brilliancy, dazzling gold, silver, or gilt, polished marble,
+agate, and jasper, and a luxuriance of vivid colours meet the visitor's
+eyes when standing there. The effect is theatrical, doubtless, but it
+impresses the humble true believer as Oriental splendour; and what, in
+other countries, might be considered as grotesque and unhealthy art,
+must in Spain be regarded as the very essence of the country's worship,
+the very _raison d'être_ of the cathedral. Neither can it be considered
+as unhealthy: with us in the North, our _religious awe_ is produced by
+the solemn majesty of rising shafts and long, high, and narrow aisles;
+this fails to impress the Iberian of to-day; and yet, the same sentiment
+of _religious awe_, of the terrible unknown, be it saint, Saviour,
+Virgin, or God, is imparted to him by this brilliant display of
+incalculable wealth.
+
+To produce this magnificence in choir and high altar, decorative and
+industrial art were given a free hand, and together wrought those
+wonders of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries which
+placed Spain in a prominent position in the history of art. Goldsmiths
+and silversmiths, masters of ironcraft, sculptors in stone and wood,
+painters and _estofadores_, together with a legion of other artists and
+artisans of all classes and nationalities, worked together in unison to
+create both choir and high altar.
+
+Therefore, from an artistic point of view, the Spanish cathedral is for
+the foreigner a museum, a collection of art objects, pertaining, most of
+them, to the country's industrial arts, for which Iberia was first among
+all nations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHOIR STALLS.--Space cannot allow us to classify this most important
+accessory of Spanish cathedrals. Carved in walnut or oak, now simple and
+severe, now rich and florid, this branch of graphic art in low relief
+constitutes one of Spain's most legitimate glories. It is strange that
+no illustrated work dedicated exclusively to choir stalls should have
+been published in any language. The tourist's attention must
+nevertheless be drawn to this part of religious buildings; it must
+not escape his observation when visiting cathedral and parish churches,
+and above all, monastical churches.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RETABLO.--The above remarks hold good here as well, when speaking about
+the huge and imposing altar-pieces so universally characteristic of
+Spain.
+
+The eastern wall of the holy chapel in a cathedral is entirely hidden
+from top to bottom by the _retablo_, a painted wooden structure
+resembling a huge honeycomb. It consists of niches flanked by gilded
+columns. According to the construction of these columns, now Gothic
+shafts, now Greek or composite, now simple and severe, the period to
+which the _retablo_ belongs is determined.
+
+Generally pyramidically superimposed, these niches, of the height,
+breadth, and depth of an average man, contain life-size statues of
+apostle or saint, painted and decorated by the _estofadores_ in
+brilliant colours (of course, as they are intended to be seen from a
+distance!), in which red and blue are predominant, and which produce a
+gorgeous effect _rehaussé_ by the gilt columns of the niches. (Compare
+with the Oriental taste of _Mudejar_ work in ceilings or
+_artesonados_.)
+
+The whole _retablo_, in the low reliefs which form the base, and in the
+statues or groups in the niches, represents graphically the life of the
+Saviour or the Virgin, of the patron saint or an apostle; some of them
+are of exquisite execution and of great variety and movement; in others,
+greater attention has been paid to the decoration of the columns or
+shafts by original floral garlands, etc. Foment, Juni, and Berruguete
+are among the most noted _retablo_ sculptors, but space will not permit
+of a more prolific classification or analysis.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS.--The vessels used on the altar-table, effigies of
+saints, processional crosses, etc., in beaten gold and silver, are well
+worth examination. So is also the cathedral treasure, in some cases of
+an immense value, both artistic and intrinsic. Cloths, woven in coloured
+silks, gold, and precious stones, are beautiful enough to make any art
+lover envious.
+
+The central niche of the _retablo_, immediately above the altar-table,
+is generally occupied by a massive beaten silver effigy, the artistic
+value of which is unluckily partially concealed beneath a heap of
+valuable cloths and jewels.
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)]
+
+But where the silversmith's art is purest and most lavishly pronounced
+is in the _sagrarios_. These are solid silver carved pyramids about two
+or three feet high: they represent miniature temples or thrones with
+shafts or columns supporting arches, windows, pinnacles, and cupolas. In
+the interior, an effigy of the saint, or the Virgin, etc., to whom the
+cathedral is dedicated, is to be seen seated on a throne.
+
+In all cases the workmanship of these miniature temples is exquisite,
+and has brought just fame to Spain's fifteenth and sixteenth century
+silversmiths.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IRONCRAFT.--Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the
+artisans who worked in iron. They brought their trade up to the height
+of a fine art of universal fame; their artistic window _rejas_, in the
+houses and palaces of the rich, are the wonder of all art lovers, and so
+also are the immense _rejas_ or grilles which close off the high altar
+and the choir from the transept, or the entrance to chapels from the
+aisles. Though this art has completely degenerated to-day, nevertheless,
+a just remark was made in the author's hearing by an Englishman, who
+said:
+
+"Even to-day, Spaniards are unable to make a bad _reja_."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reader's and tourist's attention has been called to the salient
+artistic points of a Spanish cathedral. They must be examined one by
+one, and they will be admired; the view of the ensemble will puzzle and
+amaze him, yet it will be wise for him not to criticize harshly the lack
+of _unity of style_. Frequently the choir stalls are ogival, the
+_retablo_ Renaissance, the _rejas_ plateresque, and the general
+decoration of columns, etc., of the most lavish grotesque.
+
+This in itself is no sin, neither artistic nor ethical, as long as the
+_religious awe_ comes home to the Spaniard, for whom these cathedrals
+are intended. Besides, it is an open question whether the monotony of a
+pure style be nobler than a luxurious moulding together of all styles.
+The whole question is, do the different parts harmonize, or do they
+produce a _criard_ impression.
+
+The answer in all cases is purely personal. Yet, even if unfavourable,
+the utility of the art demonstration must be borne in mind and
+considered as well. And as regards the Spaniard, the utility does exist
+beyond a doubt.
+
+
+_Architectural Styles_
+
+Let us now follow the art student in his task. He will determine the
+different styles, and, to make the matter clearer, he will employ a
+rhetorical figure:
+
+There is an island in the sea. Huge breakers roar on the beach and dash
+against the rocky cliffs. Second, third, and fourth breakers of varying
+strength and energy race with the first, and are in their turn pushed
+relentlessly on from behind until they ripple in dying surf on the
+golden sands and boil in white spray in hidden clifts and caves. With
+the years that roll along the island is shaped according to the will of
+the waves.
+
+Spain, figuratively speaking, is that island, or a peninsula off the
+southwestern coast of the Old World, barred from France by the
+impassable Pyrenees, and forming the link between Africa and Europe:
+the first stepping-stone for the former in its northern march, the last
+extremity or the rear-guard of the latter.
+
+The breakers represent the different art movements which, born in
+countries where _compact_ nations were fighting energetically for an
+existence and for an ideal, flooded with terrible force the civilized
+lands of the middle ages, and sought to outdo and conquer their rivals.
+
+These breakers were: from the east, early Christian (both Latin-Lombard
+and Byzantine); from the north, Gothic; from the south, Arab, or, to be
+more accurate, Moorish. The first two were advocates of one
+civilization, the Christian or Occidental; the latter was the
+propagandist of another, the Neo-Oriental or Mohammedan.
+
+The Renaissance was but a second or third breaker coming from the east,
+which breathed new life into antiquated constructive and decorative
+elements by adapting them to a new religion or faith.
+
+Later architectural forms were but the periodical revival or combination
+of one or another of the already existing elements.
+
+Spain, thanks to her unique position, was the point where all these
+contradictory waves met in a final endeavour to crush their opponents.
+In Spain, Byzantine pillars fought against Lombard shafts, and Gothic
+pinnacles rose haughtily beside the horseshoe arch and the _arc brisé_.
+In Spain Christianity grappled with the Islam faith and sent it bleeding
+back to the wilds of Africa; in Spain the polygon, circle, and square
+struggled for supremacy and lost their personality in the complex
+blending of the one with the other, and minarets, cupolas, and spires
+combined in bizarre fantasy and richness of decoration to serve the
+ambitions of mighty prelates, fanatic kings, and death-fearing noblemen.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, rhetorically speaking, the history of architecture of Spain.
+Cathedrals had a _cachet_ of their own, either national (in certain
+characteristics) or else local. But the elements of which they were
+composed were foreign. That is, excepting in the case of Spanish-Moorish
+art.
+
+Moorish art! In the second volume (Southern Spain), the author of these
+lines will dedicate several paragraphs to the art of the Moors in Spain.
+Suffice to assert in the present chapter the following statements.
+
+(1) Moorish art in Spain is peculiar to the Arabs who inhabited the
+peninsula during seven hundred years. Consequently this art, born on
+Iberian soil, cannot be regarded as foreign.
+
+(2) Much of what is called Moorish art owes its existence to the
+Christians, to the Muzarabs and Jews who inhabited cities which were
+dependent upon or belonged to the Moors. In the same way, much of the
+Oriental taste of the Spanish Christians was inherited from the Moors
+and received in Spain the generic name of _Mudejar_.
+
+(3) The art of the Moors, though largely used in Spain, especially in
+the south, rarely entered into cathedral structures, though often
+noticeable in churches, cloisters, and in decorative motives.
+
+(4) The Moors learnt more art motives in Spain than they introduced into
+the country.
+
+These and many other points of interest will have to be neglected in the
+present chapter. For the cathedrals of the north are (as regards the
+ideal which brought about their erection) radically opposed to Moorish
+art.
+
+Prehistoric Roman and Visigothic (?) art are equally unimportant in this
+study, as neither the one nor the other constructed any Christian temple
+standing to-day. That is to say, cathedral; for Visigothic or early
+Latin and Byzantine Romanesque churches do exist in Asturias, and a
+notable specimen in Venta de Baños. They are peculiarly strange
+edifices, and it is to be regretted that they are not cathedrals, for
+their study would be most interesting, not only as regards Iberian art,
+but above all as regards the history of art in the middle ages. So far,
+they have been completely neglected, and, unfortunately, are but little
+known abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ROMANESQUE.--The origin of Romanesque is greatly discussed. Some
+attribute it to Italy, others to France; others again are of the
+conviction that all Christian (religious) art previous to the birth of
+Gothic is Romanesque, etc., etc. The most plausible theory is that the
+style in question evolved out of the early Latin-Christian (basilique)
+style, at the same time borrowing many decorative details from the
+Byzantine-Christian style.
+
+In Spain, pre-Romanesque Christian architecture (or Visigothic) shows
+decided Byzantine influence, more so, probably, than in any other
+European country. This peculiarity influences also Romanesque, both
+early and late. It is not strange, either, considering that an important
+colony of _Bizantinos_ (Christians) settled in Eastern Andalusia during
+the Visigothic period.
+
+In the tenth century churches, and in the eleventh cathedrals, commenced
+to be erected in Northern Spain. Byzantine influence was very marked in
+the earlier monuments.
+
+Was Romanesque a foreign style? Was it introduced from Italy or France,
+or was it a natural outcome or evolutionary product of decadent early
+Christian architecture? In the latter case there is no saying where it
+evolved, possibly to the north or to the south of the Pyrenees, possibly
+to the east or to the west of the Alps. What is more, the Pyrenees in
+those days did not serve as a strict frontier line like to-day; on the
+contrary, both Navarra and Aragon extended beyond the mountainous wall,
+and the dukes of Southern France occasionally possessed immense
+territories and cities to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+Be that as it may, Romanesque, as a style, first dawned in Spain in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. Its birth coincided with that of the
+popular religious crusade against the Moor who had inhabited the
+peninsula during four centuries; it coincided also with the great
+church-erecting period of Northern Spanish history, when the Alfonsos of
+Castile created bishoprics (to aid them in their political ambitions) as
+easily as they broke inconvenient treaties and savagely murdered
+friends, relatives, and foes alike. Consequently, many were the
+Romanesque cathedrals erected, and though the greater part were
+destroyed later and replaced by Gothic structures, several fine
+specimens of the former style are still to be seen.
+
+Needless to say, Romanesque became localized; in other words, it
+acquired certain characteristics restricted to determined regions.
+Galician Romanesque and that of Western Castile, for instance, are
+almost totally different in aspect: the former is exceedingly poetical
+and possesses carved wall decorations both rich and excellent; the
+latter is intensely strong and warlike, and the decorations, if
+employed at all, are Byzantine, or at least Oriental in taste.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TRANSITION.--Many of the cathedrals of Galicia belong, according to
+several authors, to this period in which Romanesque strength evolved
+into primitive Gothic or ogival airiness. In another chapter a personal
+opinion has been emitted denying the accuracy of the above remark.
+
+There is no typical example of Transition in Spain. Ogival changes
+introduced at a later date into Romanesque churches, a very common
+occurrence, cannot justify the classification of the buildings as
+Transition monuments.
+
+Nor is it surprising that such buildings should be lacking in Spain. For
+Gothic did not evolve from Romanesque in the peninsula, but was
+introduced from France. A short time after its first appearance it swept
+all before it, thanks to the Cluny monks, and was exclusively used in
+church-building. In a strict sense it stands, moreover, to reason that
+the former (Transition) can only exist there where a new style emerges
+from an old without being introduced from abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OGIVAL ART.--The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are,
+properly speaking, those of the great northern art wave which spread
+rapidly through the peninsula, bending all before its irresistible will.
+Romanesque churches were destroyed or modified (the introduction of an
+ambulatory in almost all Romanesque buildings), and new cathedrals
+sprung up, called into existence by the needs and requirements of a new
+people, a conquering, Christian people, driving the infidel out of the
+land, and raising the Holy Cross on the sacred monuments of the Islam
+religion.
+
+The changements introduced into the new style tended to give it a more
+severe and defiant exterior appearance than in northern churches,--a
+scarcity of windows and flying buttresses, timidly pointed arches, and
+solid towers. Besides, round-headed arches (vaultings and horizontal
+lines) were indiscriminately used to break the vertical tendency of pure
+ogival; so also were Byzantine cupolas and domes.
+
+The solemn, cold, and naked cathedral church of Alcalá de Henares is a
+fine example of the above. Few people would consider it to belong to the
+same class as the eloquent cathedral of Leon and the no less imposing
+see of Burgos. Nevertheless, it is, every inch of it, as pure Gothic as
+the last named, only, it is essentially Spanish, the other two being
+French; it bears the sombre _cachet_ of the age of Spanish Inquisition,
+of the fanatic intolerant age of the Catholic kings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LATER STYLES.--Toward the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
+sixteenth centuries, Italian Renaissance entered the country and drove
+Gothic architecture out of the minds of artists and patronizing
+prelates.
+
+But Italian Renaissance failed to impress the Spaniard, whose character
+was opposed to that of his Mediterranean cousin; so also was the general
+aspect of his country different from that of Italy. Consequently, it is
+not surprising that we should find very few pure Renaissance monuments
+on the peninsula. On the other hand, Spanish Renaissance--a florid form
+of the Italian--is frequently to be met with; in its severest form it is
+called _plateresco_.
+
+In the times of Philip II., Juan Herrero created his style (Escorial),
+of which symmetry, grandeur in size, and poverty in decoration were the
+leading characteristics. The reaction came, however, quickly, and
+Churriguera introduced the most astounding and theatrical grotesque
+imaginable.
+
+The later history of Spanish architecture is similar to that of the rest
+of Europe. As it is, the period which above all interests us here is
+that reaching from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, embracing
+Romanesque, ogival, and plateresque styles. Of the cathedrals treated of
+in this volume, all belong to either of the two first named
+architectural schools, excepting those of Valladolid, Madrid, and, to a
+certain extent, the new cathedral of Salamanca and that of Segovia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MUDEJAR ART.--Previous to the advent of Italian Renaissance in Spain, a
+new art had been created which was purely national, having been born on
+the peninsula as the complex product of Christian and Islam elements.
+This art, known by the generic name of _Mudejar_, received a mortal blow
+at the hands of the new Italian art movement. Consequently, the only
+school which might have been regarded as Spanish, degenerated sadly,
+sharing the fate of the new-born nation.
+
+Rather than a constructive style, the _Mudejar_ or Spanish style is
+decorative. With admirable variety and profusion it ornamented brick
+surfaces by covering them with reliefs, either geometrical (Moorish) or
+Gothic, either sunk into the wall or else the latter cut around the
+former.
+
+The aspect of these _Mudejar_ buildings is peculiar. In a ruddy plain
+beneath a dazzling blue sky, these red brick churches gleam thirstily
+from afar. Shadows play among the reliefs, lending them strength and
+vigour; the _alminar_ tower stands forth prominently against the sky and
+contrasts delightfully with the cupola raised on the apse or on the
+_croisée_.
+
+Among the finest examples of _Mudejar_ art, must be counted the
+brilliantly coloured ceilings, such as are to be seen in Alcalá, Toledo,
+and elsewhere. These _artesonados_, without being Moorish, are,
+nevertheless, of a pronounced Oriental taste. A geometrical pattern is
+carved on the wood of the ceiling and brilliantly painted. Prominent
+surfaces are preferably golden in hue, and such as are sunk beneath the
+level are red or blue. The effect is dazzling.
+
+[Illustration: MUDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)]
+
+Unluckily, but little attention has been paid out of Spain to
+_Mudejar_ art, and it is but little known. Even Spanish critics do not
+agree as to the national significance of this art, and it is a great
+pity, as unfortunately the country can point to no other art phenomena
+and claim them to be Spanish. How can it, when the nation had not as yet
+been born, and, once born, was to die almost simultaneously, like a moth
+that flies blindly and headlong into an intense flame?
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Spain geographically can be roughly divided into two parts, a northern
+and southern, separated by a mountain chain, composed of the Sierras de
+Guaderrama, Gredos, and Gata to the north of Madrid.
+
+Such a division does not, however, explain the historical development of
+the Christian kingdoms from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries, nor
+is it advisable to adopt it for an architectural study.
+
+During the great period of church-building, the nine kingdoms of Spain
+formed four distinct groups: Galicia, Asturias, Leon, and Castile;
+Navarra and Aragon; Barcelona and Valencia; Andalusia.
+
+The first group gradually evolved until Castile absorbed the remaining
+three kingdoms, and later Andalusia as well; the second and third groups
+succumbed to the royal house of Aragon.
+
+From an architectural point of view, there are three groups, or even
+four: Castile, Aragon, the Mediterranean coast-line, and Andalusia. In
+the last three the Oriental influence is far more pronounced than in the
+first named.
+
+Further, Spain is divided into nine archbishoprics: four corresponding
+to Castile (Santiago, Burgos, Valladolid, and Toledo); one to Aragon
+(Zaragoza); two to the Mediterranean coast (Tarragon and Valencia); and
+two to Andalusia (Sevilla and Granada).
+
+It was the author's object to preserve as far as possible in the
+following chapters and in the general subdivision of his work, not only
+the geographical, but the historical, architectural, and ecclesiastical
+divisions as well. Better still, he sacrificed the first when
+incompatible with the latter three.
+
+But--and here the difficulty arose--what title should be chosen for each
+of the two volumes which were to be dedicated to Spain? Because two
+volumes were necessary, considering the eighty odd cathedrals to be
+described.
+
+"Cathedrals of Northern Spain" as opposed to "Cathedrals of Southern
+Spain"--was one of the titles. "Gothic cathedrals of Spain"--as opposed
+to "Moorish Cathedrals of Spain"--was another; the latter had to be
+discarded, as only one Moorish mezquita converted into a Christian
+temple exists to-day, namely, that of Cordoba.
+
+There remained, therefore, the first title.
+
+The first volume, discarding Navarra and Aragon (in the north), is
+dedicated to Castile, as well as its four archbishoprics.
+
+The narrow belt of land, running from east to west, from Cuenca to
+Coria, to the south of the Sierra de Guaderrama, and constituting the
+archbishopric of Toledo, has been added to the region lying to the north
+and to the northwest of Madrid.
+
+Moreover, to aid the reader, the present volume has been divided into
+parts, namely: Galicia, the North, and Castile; the latter has been
+subdivided into western and eastern, making in all four divisions.
+
+(1) _Galicia._ Santiago de Campostela is, from an ecclesiastical point
+of view, all Galicia. Thanks to this spirit, the entire region shows a
+decided uniformity in the style of its churches, for that of Santiago
+(Romanesque) served as a pattern or model to be adopted in the remaining
+sees. The character of the people is no less uniform, and the Celtic
+inheritance of poetry has drifted into the monuments of the Christian
+religion.
+
+The episcopal see of Oviedo falls under the jurisdiction of Santiago;
+the Gothic cathedral shows no Romanesque motives excepting the Camara
+Sagrada, and has therefore been included in--
+
+(2) _The North._ With the exception of Oviedo, all the bishoprics in
+this group fall under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Burgos. The
+two finest Gothic temples in Northern Spain pertain to this group:
+Burgos and Leon.
+
+There is, however, but little uniformity in this northern region, for
+Santander and Vitoria have but little in common with the remaining sees.
+
+(3) _Western Castile._ A certain degree of uniformity is seen to exist
+among the sees of Western Castile, namely, the warlike appearance of the
+Byzantine Romanesque edifices. Besides, the use of sandstone and brick
+is here universal, and the immense plain of Old Castile to the north of
+the Sierra de Gata, and of Northern Extremadura to the south of the same
+range, have a peculiar ruddy aspect, dry and Oriental (African?), that
+is perfectly delightful.
+
+The sees to the north of the mentioned mountain chain belong to
+Valladolid; those of the south to Toledo.
+
+(4) _Eastern Castile_ extends from Valladolid in the north
+(archbishopric) to Toledo in the south (archbishopric), from Avila in
+the west to Sigüenza in the east, and to Cuenca in the extreme southeast
+of New Castile.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the middle ages the Christian kings of Asturias (Galicia?) grew more
+and more powerful, and their territory stretched out to the south and to
+the east.
+
+On the Miño River, Tuy and Orense were frontier towns, to populate
+which, bishoprics were erected. To the south of Oviedo, and almost on a
+line with the two Galician towns, Astorga, Leon and Burgos were strongly
+fortified, and formed an imaginary line to the north of which ruled
+Christian monarchs, and to the south Arab emirs.
+
+Burgos at the same time served as fortress-town against the rival kings
+of Navarra to the north and east; the latter, on the other hand,
+fortified the Rioja against Castile until at last it fell into the
+hands of the latter. Then Burgos, no longer a frontier town, grew to be
+capital of the new-formed kingdom of Castile.
+
+Slowly, but surely, the Arabs moved southwards, followed by the
+implacable line of Christian fortresses. At one time Valladolid,
+Palencia, Toro, and Zamora formed this line. When Toledo was conquered
+it was substituted by Coria, Plasencia, Sigüenza, and, slightly to the
+north, by Madrid, Avila, Segovia, and Salamanca. At the same time
+Sigüenza, Segovia, Soria, and Logroño formed another strategic line of
+fortifications against Aragon, whilst in the west Plasencia, Coria, Toro
+and Zamora, Tuy, Orense, and Astorga kept the Portuguese from Castilian
+soil. In the extreme southwest Cuenca, impregnable and highly
+strategical, looked eastwards and southwards against the Moor, and
+northwards against the Aragonese.
+
+In all these links of the immense strategical chain which protected
+Castile from her enemies, the monarchs were cunning enough to erect sees
+and appoint warrior-bishops. They even donated the new fortress-cities
+with special privileges or _fueros_, in virtue of which settlers came
+from all parts of the country to inhabit and constitute the new
+municipality.
+
+Such--in gigantic strides--is the story of most of Castile's world-famed
+cities. In each chapter, dates, anecdotes, and more details are given,
+with a view to enable the reader to become acquainted not only with the
+ecclesiastical history of cities like Burgos and Valladolid, but also
+with the causes which produced the growing importance of each see, as
+well as its decadence within the last few centuries.
+
+
+
+
+_PART II_
+
+_Galicia_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SANTIAGO DE CAMPOSTELA
+
+
+When the Christian religion was still young, St. James the Apostle--he
+whom Christ called his brother--landed in Galicia and roamed across the
+northern half of the Iberian peninsula dressed in a pilgrim's modest
+garb and leaning upon a pilgrim's humble staff. After years of wandering
+from place to place, he returned to Galicia and was beheaded by the
+Romans, his enemies.
+
+This legend--or truth--has been poetically interwoven with other legends
+of Celtic origin, until the whole story forms what Brunetière would call
+a _cycle chevaleresque_ with St. James--or Santiago--as the central
+hero.
+
+According to one of these legends, it would appear that the apostle was
+persecuted by his great enemy Lupa, a woman of singular beauty whom the
+ascetic pilgrim had mortally offended. Thanks to certain accessory
+details, it is possible to assume that Lupa is the symbol of the "God
+without a name" of Celtic mythology, and it is she who finally venges
+herself by decapitating the pilgrim saint.
+
+The disciples of St. James laid his corpse in a cart, together with the
+executioner's axe and the pilgrim's staff. Two wild bulls were then
+harnessed to the vehicle, and away went cart and saint. As night fell
+and the moon rose over the vales of Galicia, the weary animals stopped
+on the summit of a wooded hill in an unknown vale, surrounded by other
+hillocks likewise covered with foliage and verdure.
+
+The disciples buried the saint, together with axe and staff, and there
+they left him with the secret of his burial-ground.
+
+This must have happened in the first or second century of the Christian
+era. Six hundred years later, and one hundred years after the Moors had
+landed in Andalusia, one Theodosio, Bishop of Iria (Galicia), took a
+walk one day in his wide domains accompanied by a monk. Together they
+lost their way and roamed about till night-fall, when they found
+themselves far from home.
+
+Stars twinkled in the heavens as they do to this day. Being tired, the
+bishop and his companion dreamt as they walked along--at least it
+appears so from what followed--and the stars were so many miraculous
+lights which led the wanderers on and on. At last the stars remained
+motionless above a wooded hill standing isolated in a beautiful vale.
+The prelate stopped also, and it occurred to him to dig, for he
+attributed his dreams to a supernatural miracle. Digging, a coffin was
+revealed to him, and therein the saintly remains of St. James or
+Santiago.
+
+Giving thanks to Him who guides all steps, Theodosio returned to Iria,
+and, by his orders, a primitive basilica was erected some years later on
+the very spot where the saint had been buried, and in such a manner as
+to place the high altar just above the coffin. A crypt was then dug out
+and lined with mosaic, and the coffin, either repaired or renewed, was
+laid therein,--some say it was visible to the hordes of pilgrims in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries.
+
+The shrine was then called Santiago de Campostela.--Santiago, which
+means St. James, and Campostela, field of stars, in memory of the
+miraculous lights the Bishop of Iria and his companion had perceived
+whilst sweetly dreaming.
+
+The news of the discovery spread abroad with wonderful rapidity.
+Monasteries, churches, and inns soon surrounded the basilica, and within
+a few years a village and then a city (the bishop's see was created
+previous to 842 A. D.) filled the vale, which barely fifty years earlier
+had been an undiscovered and savage region.
+
+Throughout the middle ages, from the eleventh to the fifteenth
+centuries, Santiago de Campostela was the scene of pilgrimages--not to
+say crusades--to the tomb of St. James. From France, Italy, Germany, and
+England hundreds and thousands of men, women, and children wandered to
+the Galician valley, then one of the foci of ecclesiastical significance
+and industrial activity. The city, despite its local character, wore an
+international garb, much to the benefit of Galician, even Spanish, arts
+and literature. It is a pity that so little research has been made
+concerning these pilgrimages and the influences they brought to bear on
+the history of the country. A book treating of this subject would be a
+highly interesting account of one of the most important movements of the
+middle ages.
+
+The Moors under Almanzor pillaged the city of Santiago in 999; then they
+retreated southwards, as was their wont. The Norman vikings also visited
+the sacred vale, attracted thither by the reports of its wealth; but
+they also retreated, like the waves of the sea when the tide goes out.
+
+After the last Arab invasion, an extemporaneous edifice was erected in
+place of the shrine which had been demolished. It did not stand long,
+however, for the Christian kings of Spain, whose dominions were limited
+to Asturias, Leon, and Galicia, ordered the construction of a building
+worthy of St. James, who was looked upon as the god of battles, much
+like St. George in England.
+
+So in 1078 the new cathedral, the present building, was commenced, and,
+as the story runs, it was built around the then existing basilica, which
+was left standing until after the vault of the new edifice had been
+closed.
+
+The history of Spain at this moment helped to increase the religious
+importance of Santiago. The kingdom of Asturias (Oviedo) had stretched
+out beyond its limits and died; the Christian nuclei were Galicia, Leon,
+and Navarra. In these three the power of the noblemen, and consequently
+of the bishops and archbishops, was greater than it had ever been
+before. Each was lord or sovereign in his own domains, and fought
+against his enemies with or without the aid of the infidel Arab armies,
+which he had no compunction in inviting to help him against his
+Christian brothers. Now and again a king managed to subdue these
+aristocratic lords and ecclesiastical prelates, but only for a short
+time. Besides, nowhere was the independent spirit of the noblemen more
+accentuated than in Galicia; nowhere were the prelates so rebellious as
+in Santiago, the Sacred City, and none attained a greater height of
+personal power and wealth than Diego Galmirez, the first archbishop of
+Santiago, and one of the most striking and interesting personalities of
+Spanish history in the twelfth century, to whom Santiago owes much of
+her glory, and Spain not little of her future history.
+
+The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were thus the period of Santiago's
+greatest fame and renown. Little by little the central power of the
+monarchs went southwards to Castile and Andalusia, and little by little
+Santiago declined and dwindled in importance, until to-day it is one
+city more of those that have been and are no longer.
+
+For the city's history is that of its cathedral, of its shrine. With the
+birth of Protestantism and the death of feudal power, both city and
+cathedral lost their previous importance: they had sprung into life
+together, and the existence of the one was intricately interwoven with
+that of the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The stranger who visits Santiago to-day does not approach it fervently
+by the Mount of Joys as did the footsore pilgrims in the middle ages. On
+the contrary, he steps out of the train and hurries to the cathedral
+church, which sadly seems to repeat the thoughts of the city itself, or
+the words of Señor Muguira:
+
+"To-day, what am I? An echo of the joys and pains of hundreds of
+generations; a distant rumour both confused and undefinable, a last
+sunbeam fading at evening and dying on the glassy surface of sleeping
+waters. Never will man learn my secrets, never will he be able to open
+my granite lips and oblige them to reveal the mysterious past."
+
+As is generally known, the cathedral is a Romanesque building of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries mutilated by posterior additions and
+recent ameliorations (_sic_). It was begun in 1078, and, though finished
+about 150 years later, no ogival elements drifted into the construction
+until long after its completion. As will be seen later on, it served as
+the model for most of Galicia's cathedrals. On the other hand, it is
+generally believed to be an imitation--as regards the general
+disposition--of St. Saturnin in Toulouse: a combatable theory, however,
+as the churches were contemporaneous.
+
+Seen from the outside, the Cathedral of Santiago lacks harmony; few
+remains of the primitive structure are to be discovered among the many
+later-date additions and reforms. The base of the towers and some fine
+blinded windows, with naïve low reliefs in the semicircular tympanum,
+will have to be excepted.
+
+The Holy Door--a peculiarly placed apsidal portal on the eastern
+front--is built up of decorative elements saved from the northern and
+western façades when they were torn down.
+
+[Illustration: SANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The best portal is the Puerta de la Plateria, opening into the southern
+arm of the transept. It is, unluckily, depressed and thrown into the
+background by the cloister walls on the left, and by the Trinity Tower
+on the right. Nevertheless, both handsome and sober, it can be counted
+among the finest examples of its kind--pure Romanesque--in Spain, and is
+rendered even more attractive by the peculiar Galician poetry which
+inspired its sculptors.
+
+Immediately above the panels of the door, which are covered with
+twelfth-century metal reliefs, there is a stone plaque or low relief,
+representing the Passion scene; to the left of it is to be seen a
+kneeling woman holding a skull in her hand. Evidently it is a weeping,
+penitent Magdalene. The popular tongue has invented a legend--perhaps a
+true one--concerning this woman, who is believed to symbolize the
+adulteress. It appears that a certain hidalgo, discovering his wife's
+sins, killed her lover by cutting off his head; he then obliged her to
+kiss and adore the skull twice daily throughout her life,--a rather
+cruel punishment and a slow torture, quite in accordance with the
+mystic spirit of the Celts.
+
+The apse of the church, circular in the interior, is squared off on the
+outside by the addition of chapels. As regards the plateresque northern
+and western façades, they are out of place, though the former might have
+passed off elsewhere as a fairly good example of the severe
+sixteenth-century style.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform; the principal nave
+is high, and contains both choir and high altar; the two aisles are much
+lower and darker, and terminate behind the high altar in an ambulatory
+walk. The width of the transept is enormous, and is composed of a nave
+and two aisles similar in size to those of the body of the church. The
+_croisée_ is surmounted by a dome, which, though not Romanesque, is
+certainly an advantageous addition.
+
+Excepting the high altar with its _retablo_, the choir with its none too
+beautiful stalls, and the various chapels of little interest and less
+taste, the general view of the interior is impressively beautiful. The
+height of the central nave, rendered more elegant by the addition of a
+handsome Romanesque triforium of round-headed arches, contrasts
+harmoniously with the sombre aisles, whereas the bareness of the
+walls--for all mural paintings were washed away by a bigoted prelate
+somewhere in the fifteenth century--helps to show off to better
+advantage the rich sculptural decorations, leaf and floral designs on
+capitals and friezes.
+
+The real wonder of the cathedral is the far-famed Portico de la Gloria,
+the vestibule or narthex behind the western entrance of the church, and
+as renowned as its sculptural value is meritorious.
+
+So much has already been written concerning this work of art that really
+little need be mentioned here. Street, who persuaded the British
+Government to send a body of artists to take a plaster copy of this
+strange work, could not help declaring that: "I pronounce this effort of
+Master Mathews at Santiago to be one of the greatest glories of
+Christian art."
+
+And so it is. Executed in the true Romanesque period, each column and
+square inch of surface covered with exquisite decorative designs,
+elaborated with care and not hastily, as was the habit of later-day
+artists, the three-vaulted rectangular vestibule between the body of the
+church and the western extremity where the light streams in through the
+rose window, is an immense allegory of the Christian religion, of human
+life, and above all of the mystic, melancholy poetry of Celtic Galicia.
+Buried in half-lights, this song of stone with the statue of the Trinity
+and St. James, with the angels blowing their trumpets from the walls,
+and the virtues and vices of this world symbolized by groups and by
+persons, is of a sincere poetry that leaves a lasting impression upon
+the spectator. Life, Faith, and Death, Judgment and Purgatory, Hell and
+Paradise or Glory, are the motives carved out in stone in this unique
+narthex, so masterful in the execution, and so vivid in the tale it
+tells, that we can compare its author to Dante, and call the Portico de
+la Gloria the "Divina Commedia" of architecture.
+
+At one end there is the figure of a kneeling man, the head almost
+touching the ground in the body's fervent prostration in front of the
+group representing Glory, Trinity, and St. James. Is it a
+twelfth-century pilgrim whom the artist in a moment of realistic
+enthusiasm has portrayed here, in the act of praying to his Creator and
+invoking his mercy? Or is it the portrait of the artist, who, even after
+death, wished to live in the midst of the wonders of his creation? It is
+not positively known, though it is generally supposed to be Maestro
+Mateo himself, kneeling in front of his Glory, admiring it as do all
+visitors, and watching over it as would a mother over her son.
+
+If the chapels which surround the building have been omitted on account
+of their artistic worthlessness, not the same fate awaits the cloister.
+
+Of a much later date than the cathedral itself, having been constructed
+in the sixteenth century, it is a late Gothic monument betraying
+Renaissance additions and mixtures; consequently it is entirely out of
+place and time here, and does not harmonize with the cathedral. Examined
+as a detached edifice, it impresses favourably as regards the height and
+length of the galleries, which show it to be one of the largest
+cloisters in Spain.
+
+The cathedral's crypt is one of its most peculiar features, and
+certainly well worth examining better than has been heretofore done. It
+is reached by a small door behind the high altar (evidently used when
+the saint's coffin was placed on grand occasions on the altar-table) or
+by a subterranean gallery leading down from the Portico de la Gloria, a
+gallery as rich in sculptural decorations as the vestibule itself.
+
+The popular belief in Galicia is that in this crypt the cathedral
+reflects itself, towers and all, as it would in the limpid surface of a
+lake. Hardly; and yet the crypt is a nude copy of the ground floor
+above, with the corresponding naves and aisles and apsidal chapels. The
+height of the crypt is surprising, the architectural construction is
+pure Romanesque,--more so than that of the building itself,--and just
+beneath the high altar the shrine of St. James is situated where it was
+found in the ninth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+CORUNNA
+
+
+Corunna, seated on her beautiful bay, the waters of which are ever
+warmed by the Gulf Stream, gazes out westwards across the turbulent
+waves of the ocean as she has done for nearly two thousand years.
+
+Brigandtia was her first known name, a centre of the Celtic druid
+religion. The inhabitants of the town, it is to-day believed,
+communicated by sea with their brethren in Ireland long before the
+coming of the Phœnicians and Greeks who established a trading post
+and a tin factory, and built the Tower of Hercules.
+
+The Roman conquest saved Brigandtium from being great before her time.
+For the Latin people were miserable sailors, and gazed with awe into the
+waves of the Atlantic. For them Brigandtia was the last spot in the
+world, a dangerous spot, to be shunned. So they left her seated on her
+beautiful bay beside the Torre de Hercules, and made Lugo their capital.
+
+In the shuffling of bishops and sees in the fifth and sixth centuries,
+Corunna was forgotten. Unimportant, known only for its castle and its
+tower, it passed a useless existence, patiently waiting for a change in
+its favour.
+
+This change came in the fifteenth century as a result of the discovery
+of America. Since then, and with varying success, the city has grown in
+importance, until to-day it is the most wealthy and active of Galicia's
+towns, and one of the largest seaports on Spain's Atlantic coast.
+
+Its history since the sixteenth century is well known, especially to
+Englishmen, who, whenever their country had a rupture with Spain, were
+quick in entering Corunna's bay. From here part of the Invincible Armada
+sailed one day to fight the Saxons and to be destroyed by a tempest; ten
+years later England returned the challenge with better luck, and her
+fleets entered the historical bay and burned the town. During the war
+with Napoleon, General Moore fought the French in the vicinity and lost
+his life, whereas a few years earlier an English fleet defeated, just
+outside the bay, a united French and Spanish squadron.
+
+To-day, the old city on the hill looks down upon the new one below; the
+former is poetic and artistic, the latter is straight-lined, industrial,
+and modern. Nevertheless, the aspect of the city denies its age, for it
+is more modern than many cities that are younger. What is more,
+tradition does not weigh heavily on its brow, and depress its
+inhabitants, as is the case in Lugo and Tuy and Santiago. The movement
+on the wharves, the continual coming and going of vessels of all sizes,
+commerce, industry, and other delights of modern civilization do not
+give the citizens leisure to ponder over the city's two thousand years,
+nor to preoccupy themselves about art problems. Moreover, the tourist
+who has come to Spain to visit Toledo and Sevilla hurries off inland,
+gladly leaving Corunna's streets to sailors and to merchants.
+
+There are, nevertheless, two churches well worth a visit; one is the
+Colegiata (supposed to have been a bishopric for a short time in the
+thirteenth century) or suffragan church, and the other the Church of
+Santiago. The latter has a fine Romanesque portal of the twelfth
+century, reminding one in certain decorative details of the Portico de
+la Gloria in Santiago. The interior of the building consists of one nave
+or aisle spanned by a daring vault, executed in the early ogival style;
+doubtless it was originally Romanesque, as is evidently shown by the
+capitals of the pillars, and was most likely rebuilt after the terrible
+fire which broke out early in the sixteenth century.
+
+Santa Maria del Campo is the name of the suffragan church dedicated to
+the Virgin. The church itself was erected to a suffragan of Santiago in
+1441. The date of its erection is doubtful, some authors placing it in
+the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century. Street, whom we can
+take as an intelligent guide in these matters, calls it a
+twelfth-century church, contemporaneous with and perhaps even built by
+the same architect who built that of Santiago de Campostela. Moreover,
+the mentioned critic affirms this in spite of a doubtful inscription
+placed in the vault above the choir, which accuses the building of
+having been completed in 1307.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA]
+
+The primitive plan of the church was doubtless Romanesque, of one nave
+and two aisles. As in Mondoñedo and Lugo, the former is surmounted by
+an ogival vault, and the aisles, lower in height, are somewhat depressed
+by the use of Romanesque _plein-cintré_ vaultings. The form of the
+building is that of a Roman cross with rather short arms; the apse
+consists of but one chapel, the lady-chapel. As regards the light, it is
+horrible, for the window in the west is insignificant and, what is more,
+has recently been blinded, though only Heaven knows why. The towers
+emerging from the western front are unmeaning, and not similar, which
+detracts from the harmony of the whole. As regards the different
+façades, the western has been spoilt quite recently; the northern and
+southern are, however, Romanesque, though not pure, as ogival arches are
+used in the decoration of the tympanum.
+
+In other words, the Church of Santiago at Corunna is more important,
+from an archæological point of view, than the Colegiata. The fishing
+folk do not think so, however; they care but little for such secondary
+details, and their veneration is entirely centred in the suffragan
+church--"one of the three Virgins," as they call her to whom it is
+dedicated. To them this particular Mary is the _estrella del mar_ (sea
+star), and she is the principal object of their devotion. It is
+strange--be it said in parenthesis--how frequently in Galicia mention is
+made of stars: they form a most important feature of the country's
+superstitions. Blood will out--and Celtic mythology peeps through the
+Christian surface in spite of centuries of true belief.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+MONDOÑEDO
+
+
+A Village grown to be a city, and yet a village. A city without history
+or tradition, and a cathedral that has been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and above all by the hands of luckless artists called upon to rebuild
+deteriorated parts.
+
+To the north of Lugo, at a respectable distance from the railway which
+runs from the latter to Corunna, and reached either by means of a stage
+or on horseback, Mondoñedo passes a sleeping existence in a picturesque
+vale surrounded by the greenest of hills. Rarely bothered by the tourist
+who prefers the train to the stage, it procures for the art lover many
+moments of delight--that is, if he will but take the trouble to visit
+the cathedral, the two towers of which loom up in the vale, and though
+rather too stumpy to be able to lend elegance to the ensemble, add a
+poetic charm to the valley and to the village itself.
+
+How on earth did it ever occur to any one to raise the church at
+Mondoñedo to a bishopric? Surely the sees in Galicia were badly
+shuffled; and yet, where can a quieter spot be found in this wide world
+of ours for the contemplation of a cathedral--and a Romanesque one, to
+boot!
+
+It is to the Norman vikings that is due the establishment of a see in
+this lonely valley. Until the sixth century it had been situated in
+Mindunietum of the Romans, when it was removed to Ribadeo, remaining
+there until late in the twelfth century. Both these towns were seaports,
+and both suffered from the cruel incursions and piratical expeditions of
+the vikings, and so after the total pillage of the church in Ribadeo,
+the see was removed inland out of harm's way, to a village known by the
+name of Villamayor or Mondoñedo. There it has remained till the present
+day, ignored by the tourist who "has no time," and who follows the
+beaten track established by Messrs. Cook and Company, in London.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF MONDOÑEDO]
+
+As will have been seen, Mondoñedo is a city without history, and without
+a past; doubtless it will for ever remain a village without a future.
+Its doings, its _raison d'être_, are summed up in the cathedral that
+stands in its centre, just as in Santiago, though from different
+motives.
+
+It is, perhaps, the most picturesque spot in Galicia, a gently sloping
+landscape buried in a violet haze, reminding one of Swiss valleys in the
+quiet Jura. Besides, the streets are silent and often deserted, the
+village inn or _fonda_ is neither excellent nor very bad, and as for the
+villagers, they are happy, simple, and hospitable dawdlers along the
+paths of this life.
+
+According to a popular belief, the life of one man, a bishop named Don
+Martin (1219-48), is wrapped up in Mondoñedo's cathedral, so much so, in
+fact, that both their lives are one and the same. He began building his
+see; he saw it finished and consecrated it--_construxit, consumavit et
+consacravit_; then he died, but the church and his name lived on.
+
+Modern art critics disagree with the above belief; the older or
+primitive part of the church dates from the twelfth and not from the
+thirteenth century. Originally, as can easily be seen upon examining the
+older part of the building, it was a pure Romanesque basilica, the nave
+and the two aisles running up to the transept, where they were cut off,
+and immediately to the east of the latter came the apse with three
+chapels, the lady-chapel being slightly larger than the lateral ones.
+
+In the primitive construction of the building--and excepting all
+later-date additions, of which there are more than enough--early Gothic
+and Romanesque elements are so closely intermingled that one is perforce
+obliged to consider the monument as belonging to the period of
+Transition, as being, perhaps, a unique example of this period to be met
+with in Galicia or even in Spain. Of course, as in the case of the other
+Galician cathedrals, the original character of the interior, which if it
+had remained unaltered would be both majestic and imposing, has been
+greatly deformed by the addition of posterior reforms. The form of the
+apse has been completely changed by the introduction of an ambulatory or
+circular apsidal aisle dating at least from the fifteenth century, as
+shown by the presence of the late Gothic and Renaissance elements.
+
+[Illustration: MONDOÑEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The general plan is rectangular, 120 feet long by seventy-one wide, and
+seen from the outside is solid rather than elegant, a fortress rather
+than a temple. The height of the nave, crowned by a Gothic vaulting, is
+about forty-five feet; a triforium (ogival) runs around the top. The
+lateral aisles are slightly more than half as high and covered by a
+Romanesque vaulting reposing on capitals and shafts of the finest
+twelfth century execution.
+
+The original basilica form of the church has, unluckily, been altered by
+the additional length given to the arms of the transept, and, as
+mentioned already, by the ambulatory walk characteristic of Spanish
+cathedrals; the workmanship of the latter, though lamentably out of tune
+in this old cathedral, is, taken by itself, better than many similar
+additions in other churches.
+
+The western façade, which is the only one worthy of contemplation, is as
+good an example of Romanesque, spoilt by the addition at a recent date
+of grotesque and bizarre figures and monsters, as can be seen anywhere.
+
+The buttresses are more developed than in either Lugo or Santiago, and
+though these bodies, from a decorative point of view, were evidently
+intended to give a certain seal of elegance to the ensemble, the
+stunted towers and the few windows in the body of the church only help
+to heighten its fortress-like aspect.
+
+In a previous paragraph it has been stated that this cathedral is
+perhaps a unique example of the period of Transition (Romanesque and
+early Gothic). It is an opinion shared by many art critics, but
+personally the author of these lines is inclined to consider it as an
+example of the Galician conservative spirit, and of the fight that was
+made in cathedral chapters _against_ the introduction of early Gothic.
+For the temple at Santiago was Romanesque; therefore, according to the
+narrow reasoning peculiar to Galicia, that style was the _best_ and
+consequently _good enough_ for any other church. As a result, we have in
+this region of Spain a series of cathedrals which are practically
+Romanesque, but into the structure of which ogival elements have
+filtered. Further, as there is no existing example of a finished Gothic
+church in Galicia, it is rather difficult to speak of a period of
+Transition, by which is meant the period of passing from one style to
+another. In Galicia, there was no passing: the conservative spirit of
+the country, the poetry of the Celtic inhabitants, and above all of
+their artists, found greater pleasure in Romanesque than in Gothic, and
+consequently the cathedrals are Romanesque, with slight Gothic
+additions, when these could combine or submit in arrangement to the
+heavier Romanesque principles of architecture.
+
+Later, in other centuries, the spirit of architecture had completely
+died out in Spain, and the additions made in these days are so many
+lamentable signs of decadence. Not so the ogival introduction in
+Romanesque churches, which in many cases improved the Romanesque
+appearance.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+LUGO
+
+
+What Santiago was as regards ecclesiastical politics, Lugo, one of the
+three cities on the Miño River, was as regards civil power. It was the
+nominal capital of Galicia, and at one time, in the reign of Alfonso the
+Chaste, it was intended to make it the capital of the nascent Spanish
+kingdom, but for some reason or other Oviedo was chosen instead as being
+more suitable. Since then the city of Lugo has completely fallen into
+ruins and insignificance.
+
+It first appears in history when the Romans conquered it from the Celts.
+It was their capital and their Holy City; in its centre was Lupa's
+Bower, where the Romans built a magnificent temple to Diana. Some
+mosaics of this edifice have been discovered recently, and the peculiar
+designs prove beyond a doubt that the mythological attributions of the
+Celts were made use of and intermingled with those of the Latin
+race--not at all a strange occurrence, as Lupa and Diana seem to have
+enjoyed many common qualities.
+
+Under the Roman rule, the city walls, remains of which are still
+standing in many places, were erected, and Locus Augusti became the
+capital of the northern provinces.
+
+All through the middle ages, when really Oviedo had usurped its civil,
+and Santiago its religious significance, Lugo was still considered as
+being the capital of Galicia, a stronghold against Arab incursions, and
+a hotbed of unruly noblemen who lost no opportunity in striking a blow
+for liberty against the encroaching power of the neighbouring kingdom of
+Asturias, and later on of Leon. When at last the central power of the
+Christian kings was firmly established in Leon and Castile, in Lugo the
+famous message of adhesion to the dynasty of the Alfonsos was voted, and
+the kingdom of Galicia, like that of Asturias, faded away, the shadow of
+a name without even the right to have its coat of arms placed on the
+national escutcheon.
+
+The ecclesiastical history of the city of Lugo is neither interesting
+nor does it differ from that of other Galician towns. Erected to a see
+in the fifth century, its cathedral was a primitive basilica destroyed
+by the Moors in one of their powerful northern raids in the eighth
+century. The legendary bishop Odoario lost no time in building a second
+basilica, which met the same fate about two hundred years later, in the
+tenth century. Alfonso the Chaste, one of the few kings of Asturias to
+take a lively interest in Galician politics, ordered either the
+reconstruction of the old basilica or the erection of a new temple.
+
+Those were stormy times for the city: between the rise and stand of
+ambitious noblemen, who, pretending to fight for Galicia's freedom,
+fought for their own interests, and the continual encroachments of the
+proud prelates on the rights and privileges of the people, barely a year
+passed without Lugo being the scene of street fights or sieges. As in
+Santiago, one prince of the Church lost his life, murdered by the
+faithful (_sic_) flocks, and many, upon coming to take possession of
+their see, found the city gates locked in their faces, and were obliged
+to conquer the cathedral before entering their palace.
+
+The new basilica suffered in consequence, and had to be entirely rebuilt
+in the twelfth century. The new edifice is the one standing to-day, but
+how changed from the primitive building! Thanks to graceless additions
+in all possible styles and combinations of styles, the Romanesque origin
+is hardly recognizable. Consequently, the cathedral church of Lugo,
+which otherwise might have been an architectural jewel, does not inspire
+the visitor with any of those sentiments that ought to be the very
+essence of time-worn religious edifices of all kinds.
+
+The general disposition of the church is Roman cruciform; the arms of
+the cross are exceedingly short, however, in comparison to their height;
+the _croisée_ is surmounted by a semicircular vaulting (Spanish
+Romanesque).
+
+The nave shows decided affinity to early Gothic, as shown by the ogival
+arches and vaulting. The presence of the ogival arches (as well as those
+of the handsome triforium, perhaps the most elegant in Galicia) shows
+this church to be the first in Galicia to have submitted to the
+infiltration of Gothic elements. This peculiarity is explained by the
+fact that, in 1129, the erection of the cathedral was entrusted to one
+Maestro Raimundo, who stipulated that, in the case of his death before
+the completion of the church, his son should be commissioned to carry on
+the work. He died, and his son, a generation younger and imbued with the
+newer architectural theories, even went so far as to alter his father's
+plans; he built the nave higher than was customary in Romanesque
+churches, and gave elegance to the whole structure by employing the
+pointed arch even in the triforium, otherwise a copy of that of
+Santiago.
+
+The most curious and impressive part of the building is that constructed
+by Maestro Raimundo, father, namely the aisles, especially that part of
+them to the right and left of the choir; they are, with the _croisée_,
+the best interior remains of the primitive Romanesque plans: short, even
+stumpy, rather dark it is true, for the light that comes in by the
+narrow windows is but poor at its best, they are, nevertheless, rich in
+decorative designs. The wealth of sculptural ornaments of pure
+Romanesque in these aisles is perhaps the cathedral's best claim to the
+tourist's admiration, and puts it in a prominent place among the
+Romanesque cathedrals of Spain.
+
+Not the same favourable opinion can be emitted when it is a question of
+the exterior. The towers are comparatively new; the apse--with the
+peculiar and salient addition of an octagonal body revealing Renaissance
+influence--is picturesque, it is true, but at the same time it has
+spoilt the architectural value of the cathedral as a Romanesque edifice.
+
+The northern façade, preceded by an ogival porch so common in Galicia,
+contains a portal of greater beauty than the Puerta de la Plateria in
+Santiago, and stands forth in greater prominence than the other named
+example of twelfth-century art, by not being lost among or depressed by
+flanking bodies of greater height and mass. As regards the sculptural
+ornamentation of the door itself, it is felt and not only portrayed: the
+Christ standing between the immense valves of the _vesica piscis_ which
+crowns the portal is an example of twelfth-century sculpture. The
+iron-studded panels of the doors have already been praised by Street,
+who placed their execution likewise in the twelfth century.
+
+Excepting this portal--a marvel in its class with its rounded tympanum
+richly ornamented--the portion of the building doubtless more strongly
+imbued than any other with the general spirit of the edifice is that
+part of the apse independent of the octagonal addition previously
+mentioned, and which is dedicated to "_La Virgen de los Ojos
+Grandes_"--the Virgin of the Large Eyes. (She must have been
+Andalusian!) Of the true apse, the lower part has ogival arched windows
+of singular elegance; the upper body, also semicircular in form, but
+slightly smaller, has round-headed windows. Both the ogival windows of
+the first and the Romanesque windows of the second harmonize
+wonderfully, thanks to the lesser height and width of the upper row. The
+buttresses, simple, and yet alive with a gently curving line, are well
+worth noticing. It is strange, nevertheless, that they should not reach
+the ground, but only support the upper body, and unite it with the
+lower, forming thus a sort of crown for the latter's benefit.
+
+Personally--and the author must be excused if he emit his opinion--he
+considers the old apse of the cathedral in Lugo to be one of the finest
+pieces of architecture to be met with in Galicia. It belongs to what has
+been called the period of Transition (compare previous remarks in
+another chapter concerning this style), and yet it has a character of
+its own not to be found elsewhere, and the harmony of ogival and
+Romanesque has been so artfully revealed that it cannot fail to appeal
+to the tourist who contemplates it carefully.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+ORENSE
+
+
+Coming by rail from Lugo or Monforte toward Tuy and Vigo, the train
+suddenly escapes from the savage cañon where the picturesque Miño rushes
+and boils beside the road, and emerges into a broad and fertile valley
+where figs, grapes, and olives grow in profusion. This valley is broad,
+its soil is of golden hue, and the sky above it is as brilliantly blue
+as a sapphire. In its centre Orense, heavy Orense, which claims as its
+founder a Greek hero fresh from the pages of the Iliad, basks in the sun
+beside the beautiful Miño; the while its cathedral looms up above the
+roofs of the surrounding houses.
+
+The history of the town is as agitated as any in Galicia and shows the
+same general happenings. The Romans appreciated it for its sulphur baths
+and called it Auria (golden) from the colour of the soil, of the water,
+and perhaps also on account of certain grains of gold discovered in the
+sands of the Miño.
+
+The Suevos, who dominated Galicia and proved so beneficial to Tuy, did
+not ignore the importance of Orense: one of the first bishoprics, if not
+_the_ first historical one in Galicia, was that of Orense, dating from
+before the fourth century, at least such is the opinion of to-day.
+
+More than any other Galician city, excepting Tuy, it suffered from the
+Arab invasions. Entirely destroyed, razed to the ground upon two
+occasions, it was ever being rebuilt by the returning inhabitants who
+had fled. Previous to these Arab incursions the cathedral had been
+dedicated to St. Martin de Tours (France), and yearly pilgrimages took
+place to the Galician shrine, where some relics belonging to the saint
+were revered. But with the infidels these relics, or whatever they were,
+were dispersed, and the next century (the eleventh) saw the new
+cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mother (?). Besides, the inhabitants
+seemed to have forgotten the patronage of St. Martin, he who protects
+the vine-grower's _métier_--and this in spite of the fact that the
+valley of Orense is and was famous above all Galician regions for the
+cultivation of vines. Even Froissart, the French historian, could not
+speak of the town without mentioning its wine. He passed a season in the
+valley, accompanying, I believe, the Duke of Lancaster and his English
+soldiers. The wine was so good and strong, wrote the historian, that the
+soldiers clamoured for it; after they had drunk a little they toppled
+over like ninepins.
+
+The Arabs defeated and thrown out of the peninsula, the vikings' last
+business trip to Galicia over, and the Portuguese arms driven to the
+valley of Braga beyond the Miño, Orense settled down to a peaceful life,
+the monotony of which was broken now and again--as it usually was in
+this part of the country--by squabbles between noblemen, prelates, and
+the _bons bourgeois_. If no prince of the Church was killed here, as
+happened in Lugo, one at least died mysteriously in the hands of his
+enemies. Not that it seemed to have mattered much, for said bishop
+appears to have been a peculiar sort of spiritual shepherd, full of
+vice, and devoid of virtue, some of whose doings have been
+caricatured--according to the popular belief--in the cornices and
+friezes of the convent of San Francisco.
+
+Otherwise, peace reigned in the land, and Orense passed a quiet
+existence, a circumstance that did not in the slightest add to its
+importance, either as an art, commercial, or industrial centre. To-day,
+full of strangers in summer, who visit the sulphurous baths as did the
+Romans, and empty in winter, it exists without living, as does so many a
+Spanish town.
+
+Nevertheless, with Vigo and Corunna, it is one of the cities with a
+future still before it. At least, its situation is bound to call
+attention as soon as ever the country is opened up to progress and
+commerce.
+
+The cathedral of Orense, like those of Tuy, Santiago, and Lugo, was
+erected in a _castro_. These _castros_ were circular dips in the ground,
+surrounded by a low wall, which served the druids as their place of
+worship. The erection of Christian churches in these sacred spots proves
+beyond a doubt that the new religion became amalgamated with the old,
+and even laid its foundations on the latter's most hallowed _castros_.
+
+Perhaps the question presents itself as to why a cathedral was erected
+in Orense previous to any other city. From a legend it would appear
+that the king of the Suevos, Carrarick, had a son who was dying; thanks
+to the advice of a Christian monk, a disciple of St. Martin, and, one is
+inclined to think, fresh from Tours, the king dipped his son in the
+baths of Orense, invoking at the same time the help of St. Martin. Upon
+pulling his offspring out of the water, he discovered that he had been
+miraculously cured. The grateful monarch immediately became a stout
+Christian, and erected a basilica--destroyed and rebuilt many a time
+during the dark ages of feudalism and Arab invasion--in honour of his
+son's saviour. What is more wonderful still is that, soon afterward, the
+relics of the French saint were cherished in Orense without its being
+positively known whence they came!
+
+The present cathedral, the date of the erection of which is a point of
+discussion to-day, is generally believed to have been built on the spot
+occupied by the primitive basilica. It is dedicated to Santa Maria la
+Madre according to the official (doubtful?) statement, and to St. Martin
+of Tours, Apostle of Gaul, according to the popular version.
+
+The general appearance of the cathedral proclaims it to have been begun,
+or at least planned, in the twelfth century, and not, as Baedeker
+states, in 1220. As a twelfth-century church we are not obliged to
+consider it for more reasons than one, and especially because, as we
+have seen, the twelfth century was the great period of Galician
+church-building. It was in this century that the northwest shone forth
+in the history of Spain as it had not done before, nor has done since.
+
+The church is another Romanesque specimen, but less pure in its style
+than any of the others mentioned so far: the ogival arch is prevalent,
+but rather as a decorative than as an essentially constructive element.
+As it is, it was commenced at least fifty years after the cathedral of
+Lugo, and though both are twelfth-century churches, the one is an early
+and the other presumably a late one; the employment of the ogival arch
+to a greater degree in Orense than in Lugo is thus easily explained.
+
+In short, the cathedral of Orense is another example of the peculiar
+Romanesque of Galicia, which, withstanding the invasion of Gothic,
+created a school of its own, pretty in details, bold in harmony, though
+it be a hybrid school after all.
+
+The influence of the cathedral of Santiago is self-evident in the
+cathedral of Orense. How could it be otherwise, when the bishop Don
+Diego, who sat on the chair, was a great friend and a continual visitor
+of that other Don Diego in Santiago who erected the primate cathedral of
+Galicia?
+
+This influence is above all to be seen in the Portico del Paraiso, an
+interior narthex leading from the western front to the body of the
+church. It is a handsome area of Romanesque sculpture covered by an
+ogival vaulting, and would be an important monument if its rival and
+prototype in Santiago were not greater, both as regards its perfection
+of design, and the grand idea which inspired it.
+
+Of the three doors which lead into the cathedral, the western is crowned
+by three rounded arches reposing on simple columns. The tympanum as a
+decorative element is lacking, as is also the low relief, which is
+usually superimposed above the upper arches. The latter are, however,
+carved in the most elaborate manner. As regards the other two portals,
+the northern and southern, their composition, as far as generalities are
+concerned, is the same as the western, excepting that they are
+surrounded by a depressed semicircular arch in relief, the whole of a
+primitive design.
+
+[Illustration: NORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL]
+
+The towers of the cathedral are not old. The general impression of the
+building from the outside--unluckily it cannot be contemplated from any
+distance, as the surrounding houses impede it--is agreeable. To be
+especially observed are some fine fourteenth-century (?) windows which
+show ogival pattern, but either of timid execution or else of a bold
+endeavour on the artist's part to subdue solemn Gothic to the Romanesque
+traditions of the country.
+
+The interior has been restored and changed many a time. In its original
+plan it consisted of two aisles and a nave with a one-aisled transept,
+and, just as in Lugo, an apse formed by three semicircles, of which the
+central was the largest, and contained the high altar. To-day, though
+the general appearance or disposition of the church (Roman cruciform
+with exceedingly short lateral arms) is the same, an ambulatory walk
+surrounds the high altar, which has been moved nearer the transept in
+the principal nave. The vaulting is ogival, reposing on solid and
+severe shafts; the aisles are slightly lower than the central nave, and
+the _croisée_ is surmounted, as in Santiago, by a handsome cupola
+similar in construction to that of Valencia, though more reduced in
+size, and of a less elegant pattern.
+
+The lack of triforium is to be noted, and its want is felt.
+
+The northern aisle has no chapels let into its exterior wall, but a long
+row of sepulchres and sepulchral reliefs to replace them. Some of them
+are severe and beautiful. The choir has finely carved stalls, and the
+Gothic _retablo_ is the only one of its kind in Galicia, and one of the
+best in Spain.
+
+Many more details could be given concerning the worthy cathedral of
+Orense, second only in richness of certain elements to that of Santiago.
+The additions, both in Romanesque and ogival styles, are better than in
+most other cathedrals in Galicia, though, as far as Renaissance is
+concerned, Galicia showed but little love for Italia's art. This was due
+to the regional Celtic taste of the inhabitants, or else to the marked
+signs of art decadence in this part of Spain, when the Renaissance was
+introduced into the country.
+
+As regards the cloister,--small and rather compact in its
+composition,--it is held by many to be a jewel of the fifteenth century
+in the ogival style, handsome in its general outlines, and beautiful in
+its wealth of sculptural decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+TUY
+
+
+The last Spanish city on the Miño, the Rhine of Galicia, as beautiful as
+its German rival, and as rich in architectural remains, both military
+and ecclesiastical, is Tuy, the Castellum Tude of the Romans, lying
+half-way on the main road from Braga (Portugal) to Lugo and Astorga in
+Spain.
+
+The approach to the city by rail from Orense is simply superb. The
+valley of the Miño is broad and luxuriant, with ruins of castles to the
+right and to the left, ahead and behind; in the distance, time-old Tuy,
+the city of a hundred misfortunes, is seated on an isolated hill, the
+summit of which is crowned by a fortress-cathedral of the twelfth
+century.
+
+Tuy sits on her hill, and gazes across the river at Valença do Minho,
+the rival fortress opposite, and the first town in Portugal. A handsome
+bridge unites the enemies--friends to-day. Nevertheless, the cannons'
+mouths of the glaring strongholds are for ever pointed toward each
+other, as though wishing to recall those days of the middle ages when
+Tuy was the goal of Portuguese ambitions and the last Spanish town in
+Galicia.
+
+Before the Romans conquered Iberia, Tuy, which is evidently a Celtic
+name, was a most important town. This is easily explained by its
+position, a sort of inland Gibraltar, backed by the Sierra to the rear,
+and crowning the river which brought ships from the ocean to its
+wharves. The city's future was brilliant.
+
+Matters changed soon, however. The Romans drew away much of its power to
+cities further inland, as was their wont. The castle remained standing,
+as did the walls, which reached on the northern shores of the river down
+to Guardia, situated in the delta about thirty miles away. Remains of
+the cyclopean walls which crown the mountain chain on the Spanish side
+of the Miño are still to be seen to-day, yet they give but a feeble idea
+of the city's former strength.
+
+After the Romans had been defeated by the invasion of savage tribes from
+the north, Tuy became the capital of the Suevos, a tribe opposed to the
+Visigoths, who settled in the rest of Spain, and for centuries waged a
+cruel war against the kings whose subjects had settled principally in
+Galicia and in the north of Portugal.
+
+The power of the Suevos, who were seated firmly in Tuy, was at last
+completely broken, and the capital, its inhabitants fighting
+energetically to the end, was at length conquered. It was the last
+stronghold to fall into the hands of the conquerors. A century later
+Witiza, the sovereign of the Visigoths, made Tuy his capital for some
+length of time, and the district round about is full of the traditions
+of the doings of this monarch. Most of these legends denigrate his
+character, and make him appear cruel, wilful, and false. One of them,
+concerning Duke Favila and Doña Luz, is perhaps the most popular.
+According to it, Witiza fell in love with the former's wife, Doña Luz,
+and, to remove the husband, he heartlessly had his eyes put out, on the
+charge of being ambitious, and of having conspired against the throne.
+The fate that awaited Doña Luz, who defended her honour, was no better,
+according to this legend.
+
+After the return of Witiza to Toledo, the city slowly lost its
+importance, and since then she has never recovered her ancient fame.
+
+Like the remaining seaports of Galicia,--or such cities as were situated
+near the ocean,--Tuy was sacked and pillaged by Arabs and vikings alike.
+The times were extremely warlike, and Galicia, from her position, and on
+account of the independent spirit of the noblemen, was called upon to
+suffer more than any other region, and Tuy, near the ocean, and a
+frontier town to boot, underwent greater hardships than any other
+Galician city. Of an admirable natural position, it would have been able
+to resist the attacks of Gudroed and Olaf, of the Portuguese noblemen
+and of Arab armies, had it been but decently fortified. The lack of such
+fortifications, however, and the neglect and indifference with which it
+was, as a rule, regarded by the kings of Asturias, easily account for
+its having fallen into the hands of enemies, of having been razed more
+than once to the ground, of having been the seat of ambitious and
+conspiring noblemen who were only bent on thrashing their neighbours,
+Christians and infidels alike.
+
+In the sixth century Tuy had already been raised to the dignity of a
+city, but until after the eleventh century the prelates of the church,
+tyrants when the times were propitious, but cowardly when danger was at
+hand, were continually removing their see to the neighbouring villages
+and mountains to the rear. They left their church with surprising
+alacrity and ease to the mercy of warriors and enemies, to such an
+extent, in fact, that neither are documents at hand to tell us what
+happened exactly in the darker ages of mediæval history, nor are the
+existing monuments in themselves sufficient to convince us of the
+vicissitudes which befell the city, its see, and the latter's flocks.
+
+Since the last Arab and Norseman raid, matters seemed to have gone
+better with fair Tuy, for, excepting the continual strife between
+Portuguese and Galician noblemen, who were for ever gaining and losing
+the city on the Miño, neither infidels nor pirates visited its wharves.
+It was then that the foundations of the present cathedral were laid, but
+not without disputes between the prelates (one of whom was taken
+prisoner, and had to give a handsome ransom to be released) and the
+noblemen who called themselves seigneurs of the city. Between the
+claims and struggles of these two factions, those who suffered most were
+the citizens themselves, who had nothing to gain and everything to lose.
+Between the bishops who pretended to possess the whole city, and the
+noblemen who endeavoured to leave the prelates without a groat, the
+ignored inhabitants of the poorer quarters of the town passed a
+miserable life.
+
+Since the middle ages, or better still, since the time when the Miño
+became definitely the frontier line between Spain and Portugal, the city
+of Tuy has been heard of but little. Few art students visit it to-day,
+and yet it is one of the most picturesquely situated cities in Galicia,
+or even in Spain. Its cathedral, as well as the Pre-Roman, Roman,
+Gothic, and middle age remains,--most of them covered over with heaps of
+dust and earth,--are well worth a visit, being highly interesting both
+to artists and to archæological students.
+
+In short, Tuy on her hill beside the Miño, glaring across an iron bridge
+at Portugal, is a city rich in traditions and legends of faded hopes and
+past glories. Unluckily for her, cities of less historical fame are
+better known and more admired.
+
+As has already been mentioned, the cathedral crowns the hill, upon the
+slopes of which the city descends to the river; moreover, the edifice
+occupies the summit only,--a _castro_, as explained in a previous
+chapter. Therefore, for proofs are lacking both ways, it is probable
+that the present building was erected on the same spot where the many
+basilicas which we know existed and were destroyed in one or another of
+the many sieges, stood in bygone days.
+
+The present cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, like that in Orense,
+was most likely begun in the first half of the twelfth century;
+successive earthquakes suffered by the city, especially that felt in
+Lisbon in 1755, obliged the edifice to be repaired more than once, which
+accounts for many of the base additions which spoil the ensemble.
+
+From the general disposition of the building, which is similar in many
+details to the cathedral at Lugo, it has been thought probable that
+Maestro Raimundo (father?) was the builder of the church; definite
+proofs are, however, lacking.
+
+The ground-plan is rectangular, with a square apse; the interior is
+Roman cruciform, consisting of a nave and two aisles; the transept, like
+that of Santiago, is also composed of a nave and two aisles; the four
+arms of the cross are all of them very short, and almost all are of the
+same length. Were it not for the height of the nave, crowned by a
+Romanesque triforium of blinded arches, the interior would be decidedly
+ugly. However, the height attained gives a noble aspect to the whole,
+and what is more, renders the ensemble curious rather than beautiful.
+
+The large and ungainly choir spoils the general view of the nave,
+whereas the continuation of the aisles, broad and light to the very
+apse, where, facing each aisle, there is a handsome rose window which
+throws a flood of coloured light into the building, cannot be too highly
+praised.
+
+The walls are devoid of all decoration, and if it were not for the
+chapels, some of which in default of pure workmanship are richly
+ornamented, this see of Tuy would have to pass as a very poor one
+indeed.
+
+The roof of the building has been added lately, doubtless after one of
+the many earthquakes. It is of a simple execution, neither good nor bad,
+composed of a series of slightly rounded arches with pronounced ribs.
+
+It is outside, however, that the tourist will pass the greater part of
+his time. Unluckily, the houses which closely surround the building
+forbid a general view from being obtained of any but the western front,
+yet this is perhaps a blessing, for none of the other sides are worthy
+of special notice.
+
+As mentioned, the appearance of the church is that of a fortress rather
+than of a temple, or better still, is that of a feudal castle. The
+crenelated square tower on the western front is heavy, and no higher
+than the peaked and simple crowning of the handsome Romanesque window
+above the narthex; the general impression is that of resistance rather
+than of faith, and the lack of all decoration has caused the temple to
+be called sombre.
+
+The handsome narthex, the summit of which is crenelated like the tower,
+is the simplest and noblest to be found in Galicia, and is really
+beautiful in its original severity. Though dating from a time when
+florid ogival had taken possession of Spain, the artist who erected it
+(it is posterior to the rest of the building--early fifteenth
+century) had the good taste to complete it simply, without
+decoration, so as to render it homogeneous with the rest of the
+building. It is also possible that there were no funds at hand for him
+to erect it otherwise!
+
+[Illustration: TUY CATHEDRAL]
+
+The doors stand immediately behind this narthex. The portal is carved or
+decorated in an elaborate late Romanesque style, one of the most richly
+ornamented porticos belonging to this school in Spain, and a handsome
+page in the history of Galician art in the twelfth century. The low
+reliefs above the door and in the tympanum of the richly carved arcade,
+are _felt_ and are admirably executed.
+
+The northern entrance to the building is another fine example of
+twelfth-century Spanish, or Galician Romanesque. Though simpler in
+execution than the western front, it nevertheless is by some critics
+considered purer in style (earlier?) than the first mentioned.
+
+The tower which stands to the left of the northern entrance is one of
+the few in the Romanesque style to be seen in northern Spain; it is
+severe in its structure and pierced by a series of round-headed windows.
+
+The cloister dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+another of Galicia's monuments well worth a visit, which proves the
+local mixture of Romanesque and ogival, and is, perhaps, the last
+example on record, as toward the fifteenth century Renaissance elements
+had completely captured all art monuments.
+
+Such is the cathedral of Tuy, a unique example of Galician Romanesque in
+certain details, an edifice that really ought to be better known than it
+is.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+BAYONA AND VIGO
+
+
+The prettiest bay in Galicia is that of Vigo, which reaches inland to
+Redondela--a village seated, as it were, on a Swiss lake, with two
+immense viaducts passing over its head where the train speeds to Tuy and
+Santiago. There is no lovelier spot in all Spain.
+
+The city of Vigo, with its suffragan church on the hillside, is a modern
+town dedicated to commerce; its wharves are important, and the water in
+the bay is deep enough to permit the largest vessels afloat to enter and
+anchor. The art student will not linger here, however, but will go by
+boat to Bayona outside the bay and to the south near the Portuguese
+frontier.
+
+Here, until quite recently, stood for an unknown length of time the
+suffragan church which has now been removed to Vigo. But Bayona, once
+upon a time the most important seaport in Galicia, is a ruin to-day, a
+delightful ruin, and one of the prettiest in its ensemble, thanks to the
+beautiful and weird surroundings.
+
+Its history extends from the times of the Phœnicians, Greeks, and
+Romans,--even earlier, as remains of lake-dwellers have been found. This
+statement is not an exaggeration, though it may appear to be one, for
+the bay is as quiet as a lake.
+
+After the defeat of the Armada, Bayona was left a prey to Drake and his
+worthy companions. They dealt the city a death-blow from which it has
+never recovered, and Vigo, the new, the commercial, has usurped its
+importance, as it did its church, which once upon a time, as is
+generally believed, was a bishopric.
+
+The present ruinous edifice of Bayona is peculiarly Galician and shows
+the same characteristics as the remaining cathedrals we have spoken
+about so far. It was ordained in 1482 by the Bishop of Tuy. The windows
+of the nave (clerestory) are decidedly pointed or ogival; those of the
+aisles are pure Romanesque. The peculiar feature is the use of animal
+designs in the decorative elements of the capitals,--a unique example
+in Galicia, where only floral or leaf motives were used in the best
+period of Romanesque. The design to be noticed here on one of the
+capitals is a bird devouring a toad, and it is so crudely and rustically
+carved that one is almost inclined to believe that a native of the
+country conceived and executed it.
+
+
+
+
+_PART III_
+
+_The North_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+OVIEDO
+
+
+"Oviedo was born of a religious inspiration; its first building was a
+temple (monastery?), and monks were its first inhabitants."
+
+In the valley adjoining Cangas, in the eighth century, the most
+important village in Asturias, a religious sect erected a monastery.
+Froila or Froela, one of the early noblemen (now called a king, though
+he was no king in those days) who fought against the Moors, erected in
+the same century a church in the vicinity of Cangas (in Oviedo?),
+dedicating it to the Saviour; he also built a palace near the same spot.
+His son, Alfonso the Chaste, born in this palace, was brought up in a
+convent near Lugo in Galicia. Upon becoming king he hesitated whether to
+establish his court in Lugo, or in the new village which had been his
+birthplace, namely Oviedo. At length, remembering perhaps his father's
+love for the country near Cangas, he established it in the latter place
+in the ninth century, and formed the kingdom of Asturias as opposed to
+that of Galicia; the capital of the new kingdom was Oviedo.
+
+"The king gave the city to the Saviour and to the venerable church built
+by his father, and which, like a sun surrounded by its planets, he
+placed within a circle of other temples.
+
+"He convocated an ecclesiastical council with a view to establish a
+primate see in Oviedo; he maintained an assembly of prelates who lent
+lustre to the church, and he gave each a particular residence; the
+spiritual splendour of Oviedo eclipsed even the brilliancy of the
+throne."
+
+This was in 812, and the first bishop consecrated was one Adulfo.
+
+The subsequent reign of Alfonso was signalized by the discovery in
+Galicia of the corpse of St. James the Apostle. The sovereign, it
+appears, showed great interest in the discovery, established a church on
+the sacred spot, and generously donated the nascent town. Not without
+reason did posterity celebrate his many Christian virtues by calling
+him the Chaste, _el Casto_.
+
+Two hundred years only did Oviedo play an important part in the history
+of Spain as capital of the Christian Kingdom. In 1020 its civil
+dignities were removed by Alfonso V. to Leon in the south. From then on
+the city remained important only as the alleged cradle of the new
+dynasty, and its church--that of the Salvador--was used as the pantheon
+of the kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the basilica was in a ruinous state, and almost
+completely destroyed. The fate of the Romanesque edifice which was then
+built was as short as the city's glory had been ephemeral, for in 1380
+it was destroyed by flames, and in its place the first stone of the
+present building was laid by one Bishop Gutierre. One hundred and
+seventy years later the then reigning prelate placed his coat of arms on
+the spire, and the Gothic monument which is to-day admired by all who
+visit it was completed.
+
+The history of the city--an ecclesiastical and civil metropolis--is
+devoid of interest since the tenth century. It was as though the streets
+were too crowded with the legends of the fictitious kingdom of Asturias,
+to be enabled to shake off the depression which little by little spread
+over the whole town.
+
+Apart from its cathedral, Oviedo and the surrounding country possesses
+many of the earliest religious monuments in Spain, dating from the
+eighth century. These, on account of their primary Romanesque and
+basilica style, form a chapter apart in the history of ecclesiastical
+architecture, and ought to be thoroughly studied. This is not the place,
+however, to speak about them, in spite of their extreme age and the
+great interest they awaken.
+
+Nothing could be more graceful than the famous tower of the cathedral of
+Oviedo, which is a superb Gothic _flèche_ of well-proportioned elements,
+and literally covered over and encrusted with tiny pinnacles. Slender
+and tapering, it rises to a height of about 280 feet. It is composed of
+five distinct bodies, of which the penultimate betrays certain
+Renaissance influences in the triangular cornices of the windows, etc.;
+this passes, however, entirely unperceived from a certain distance. The
+angles formed by the sides of the tower are flanked by a pair of slender
+shafts in high relief, which tend to give it an even more majestic
+impression than would be the case without them.
+
+[Illustration: OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral itself is a late ogival building belonging to the
+fifteenth century; though it cannot compare in fairy-like beauty with
+that of Leon, nor in majesty with that of Burgos, it is nevertheless one
+of the richest Gothic structures in Spain, especially as regards the
+decoration of the interior.
+
+The western front is entirely taken up by the triple portal, surmounted
+by arches that prove a certain reluctance on the builder's part to make
+them pointed; the northern extremity of the front is devoid of a tower,
+though the base be standing. It was originally intended to erect a
+second _flèche_ similar to the one described, but for some reason or
+other--without a doubt purely financial--it was never built.
+
+Of the three portals, that which corresponds to the central nave is the
+larger; it is flanked by the only two statuettes in the whole front,
+namely, by those of Alfonso the Chaste and Froela, and is surmounted by
+a bold low relief. The arches of the three doors are richly carved with
+ogival arabesques, and the panels, though more modern, have been wrought
+by the hand of a master.
+
+Taken all in all, this western front can be counted among the most
+sombre and naked in Spain, so naked, in fact, that it appears rather as
+though money had been lacking to give it a richer aspect than that the
+artist's genius should have been so completely devoid of decorative
+taste or imagination.
+
+The interior of the Roman cruciform building, though by no means one of
+the largest, is, as regards its architectural disposition, one of the
+most imposing Gothic interiors in Spain. High, long, and narrow, the
+central nave is rendered lighter and more elegant by the bold triforium
+and the lancet windows of the upper clerestory wall. The wider aisles,
+on the other hand, are dark in comparison to the nave, and tend to give
+the latter greater importance.
+
+This was doubtless the intention of the primitive master who terminated
+the aisles at the transept by constructing chapels to the right and to
+the left of the high altar and on a line with it. The sixteenth-century
+builders thought differently, however, and so the aisles were prolonged
+into an apsidal ambulatory behind the high altar. This part of the
+building is far less pure in style than the primitive structure, and the
+chapels which open to the right and to the left are of a more recent
+date, and consequently even more out of harmony than the plateresque
+ambulatory. The three rose windows in the semicircular apse are richly
+decorated with ogival nervures, and correspond, one to the nave and one
+to each of the aisles; they belong to the primitive structure, having
+illuminated the afore-mentioned chapels.
+
+Standing beneath the _croisée_, under a simple ogival vaulting, the ribs
+of which are supported by richly carved capitals and elegant shafts, the
+tourist is almost as favourably impressed by the view of the high altar
+to the east and of the choir to the west, as is the case in Toledo. For
+in Oviedo begins that series of Gothic churches in which the æsthetic
+impression is not restricted to architectural or sculptural details
+alone, but is also produced by the blinding display of metal, wood, and
+other decorative accessories.
+
+The _retablo_--a fine Gothic specimen--stands boldly forth against the
+light coming from the apse in the rear, while on the opposite side of
+the transept handsome, deep brown choir stalls peep out from behind a
+magnificent iron _reja_. So beautiful is the view of the choir's
+ensemble that the spectator almost forgives it for breaking in upon the
+grandeur of the nave.
+
+The chapels buried in the walls of the north aisle have most of them
+been built in too extravagant a manner; the south aisle, on the other
+hand, is devoid of such characteristic rooms, but contains some highly
+interesting tomb slabs.
+
+The cloister to the south of the church is a rich and florid example of
+late ogival; it is, above all, conspicuous for the marvellous variety of
+its decorative motives, both as regards the sculptural scenes of the
+capitals (which portray scenes in the lives of saints and Asturian
+kings, and are almost grotesque, though by no means carved without fire
+and spirit) and the fretwork of the arches which look out upon the
+garth.
+
+The Camara Santa, or treasure-room, is an annex to the north of the
+cathedral, and dates from the ninth or tenth century; it is small, and
+was formerly used as a chapel in the old Romanesque building torn down
+in 1380. Beside it, in the eleventh century, was constructed another and
+larger room in the same style, with the characteristic Romanesque
+vaulting, the rounded windows, and the decorative motives of the massive
+pillars and capitals.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+COVADONGA
+
+
+To the battle of Covadonga modern Spain owes her existence, that is, if
+we are to believe the legends which have been handed down to us, and
+which rightfully or wrongfully belong to history. Under the
+circumstances, it is not surprising that the gratitude of later monarchs
+should have erected a church on the site of the famous battle, and
+should have raised it to a collegiate church.
+
+Covadonga lies in the vicinity of Oviedo, in a ravine lost in the heart
+of the Picos de Europa; it is at once the Morgarten and Sempach of
+Spanish history, and though no art monuments, excepting the above named
+monastic church and two Byzantine-Romanesque tombs, are to be seen,
+there is hardly a visitor who, having come as far north as Oviedo, does
+not pay a visit to the cradle of Spanish history.
+
+Nor is the time lost. For the tourist who leaves the capital of
+Asturias with the intention of going, as would a pilgrim, to Covadonga
+(by stage and not by rail!) will be delightfully surprised by the weird
+and savage wildness of the country through which he is driven.
+
+Following the bed of a river, he enters a ravine; up and up climbs the
+road bordered by steep declivities until at last it reaches a wall--a
+_cul-de-sac_ the French would call it--rising perpendicularly ahead of
+him. Half-way up, and on a platform, stands a solitary church; near by a
+small cave, with an authentic (?) image of the Virgin of Battles and two
+old sepulchres, is at first hidden from sight behind a protruding mass
+of rock.
+
+The guide or cicerone then explains to the tourist the origin of Spanish
+history in the middle ages, buried in the legends, of which the
+following is a short extract.
+
+Pelayo, the son of Doña Luz and Duke Favila, who, as we have seen, was
+killed by Witiza in Tuy, fled from Toledo to the north of Spain, living
+among the savage inhabitants of Asturias.
+
+A few years later, when Rodrigo, who was king at the time, and by some
+strange coincidence Pelayo's cousin as well, lost the battle of
+Guadalete and his life to boot, the Arabs conquered the whole peninsula
+and placed in Gijon, a seaport town of Asturias, a garrison under the
+command of one Munuza. The latter fell desperately in love with Pelayo's
+sister Hermesinda, whom he had met in the village of Cangas. Wishing to
+get the brother out of the way, he sent him on an errand to Cordoba,
+expecting him to be assassinated on the road. But Pelayo escaped and
+returned in time to save his sister; mad with wrath and swearing eternal
+revenge, he retreated to the mountainous vales of Asturias, bearing
+Hermesinda away with him. He was joined by many refugee Christians
+dissatisfied with the Arab yoke, and aided by them, made many a bold
+incursion into the plains below, and grew so daring that at length
+Munuza mustered an army two hundred thousand (!) strong and set out to
+punish the rebel.
+
+Up a narrow pass between two high ridges went the pagan army, paying
+little heed to the growing asperity and savageness of the path it was
+treading.
+
+Suddenly ahead of the two hundred thousand a high sheet of rock rose
+perpendicularly skywards; on a platform Pelayo and his three hundred
+warriors, who somehow or other had managed to emerge from a miraculous
+cave where they had found an effigy of the Virgin of Battles, made a
+last stand for their lives and liberties.
+
+Immediately a shower of stones, beams, trunks, and what not was hurled
+down into the midst of the heathen army by the three hundred warriors.
+Confusion arose, and, like frightened deer, the Arabs turned and fled
+down the path to the vale, pushing each other, in their fear, into the
+precipice below.
+
+Then the Virgin of Battles arose, and wishing to make the defeat still
+more glorious, she caused the whole mountain to slide; an avalanche of
+stones and earth dragged the remnants of Munuza's army into the ravine
+beneath. So great was the slaughter and the loss of lives caused by this
+defeat, that "for centuries afterward bones and weapons were to be seen
+in the bed of the river when autumn's heat left the sands bare."
+
+This Pelayo was the first king of Asturias, the first king of Spain,
+from whom all later-date monarchs descended, though neither in a direct
+nor a legitimate line, be it remarked in parenthesis. The tourist will
+be told that it is Pelayo's tomb, and that of his sister, that are still
+to be seen in the cave at Covadonga. Perhaps, though no documents or
+other signs exist to bear out the statement. At any rate, the sepulchres
+are old, which is their chief merit. The monastical church which stands
+hard by cannot claim this latter quality; neither is it important as an
+art monument.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+LEON
+
+
+The civil power enjoyed by Oviedo previous to the eleventh century moved
+southwards in the wake of Asturias's conquering army. For about a
+century it stopped on its way to Toledo in a fortress-town situated in a
+wind-swept plain, at the juncture of two important rivers.
+
+Leon was the name of this fortress, one of the strategical points, not
+only of the early Romans, but of the Arabs who conquered the country,
+and later of the nascent Christian kingdom of Asturias. In the tenth
+century, or, better still, toward the beginning of the eleventh, and
+after the final retreat of the Moors and their terrible general
+Almanzor, Leon became the recognized capital of Asturias.
+
+When the Christian wave first spread over the Iberian peninsula in the
+time of the Romans, the fortress Legio Septima, established by
+Trajanus's soldiers, had already grown in importance, and was considered
+one of the promising North Spanish towns.
+
+The inhabitants were among the most fearless adherents of the new faith,
+and it is said that the first persecution of the martyrs took place in
+Leon; consequently, it is not to be wondered at that, as soon as
+Christianity was established in Iberia, a see should be erected on the
+blood-soaked soil of the Roman fortress. (First known bishop, Basilides,
+252 A. D.)
+
+Marcelo seems to have been the most stoically brave of the many Leonese
+martyrs. A soldier or subaltern in the Roman legion, he was daring
+enough to throw his sword at the feet of his commander, who stood in
+front of the regiment, saying:
+
+"I obey the eternal King and scorn your silent gods of stone and wood.
+If to obey Cæsar is to revere him as an idol, I refuse to obey him."
+
+Stoic, with a grain of sad grandeur about them, were his last words when
+Agricolanus condemned him to death.
+
+"May God bless you, Agricolano."
+
+And his head was severed from his body.
+
+The next religious war to be waged in and around Leon took place
+between Christians and the invading Visigoths, who professed a doctrine
+called Arrianism. Persecutions were, of course, ripe again, and the
+story is told of how the prior of San Vicente, after having been
+beheaded, appeared in a dream to his cloister brethren trembling behind
+their monastic walls, and advised them to flee, as otherwise they would
+all be killed,--an advice the timid monks thought was an explicit order
+to be immediately obeyed.
+
+The conversion of Recaredo to Christianity--for political reasons
+only!--stopped all further persecution; during the following centuries
+Leon's inhabitants strove to keep away the Arab hordes who swept
+northwards; now the Christians were overcome and Allah was worshipped in
+the basilica; now the Asturian kings captured the town from Moorish
+hands, and the holy cross crowned the altar. Finally the dreaded infidel
+Almanzor burnt the city to the ground, and retreated to Cordoba. Ordoño
+I., following in his wake, rebuilt the walls and the basilica, and from
+thenceforward Leon was never again to see an Arab army within its gates.
+
+Prosperity then smiled on the city soon to become the capital of the
+kingdom of Asturias. The cathedral church was built on the spot where
+Ordoño had erected a palace; the first stone was laid in 1199.
+
+The traditions, legends, and historical events which took place in the
+kingdom's capital until late in the thirteenth century belong to Spanish
+history, or what is known as such. Ordoño II. was mysteriously put to
+death, by the Counts of Castile, some say; Alfonso IV.--a monk rather
+than a king--renounced his right to the throne, and retired to a convent
+to pray for his soul. After awhile he tired of mumbling prayers and,
+coming out from his retreat, endeavoured to wrest the sceptre from the
+hands of his brother Ramiro. But alas, had he never left the cloister
+cell! He was taken prisoner by his humane brother, had his eyes burnt
+out for the pains he had taken, and died a few years later.
+
+Not long after, Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain in the church
+of San Isidoro, an event which marks the climax of Leon's fame and
+wealth. Gradually the kings moved southwards in pursuit of the
+retreating Moors, and with them went their court and their patronage,
+until finally the political centre of Castile and Leon was established
+in Burgos, and the fate that had befallen Oviedo and Lugo visited also
+the one-time powerful fortress of the Roman Legio Septima.
+
+To-day? A dormant city on a baking plain and an immense cathedral
+pointing back to centuries of desperate wars between Christians and
+Moors; a collegiate church, far older still, which served as cathedral
+when Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain.
+
+_Pulchra Leonina_ is the epithet applied to the beautiful cathedral of
+Leon, dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lady and to Nuestra Señora de la
+Blanca.
+
+The first stone was laid in 1199, presumably on the spot where Ordoño I.
+had erected his palace; the construction of the edifice did not really
+take place, however, until toward 1250, so that it can be considered as
+belonging to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.
+
+"Two hundred years only did the temple enjoy a quiet life. In the
+sixteenth century, restorations and additions were begun; in 1631 the
+simple vault of the _croisée_ fell in and was replaced by an absurd
+dome; in 1694 Manuel Conde destroyed and rebuilt the southern front
+according to the style then in vogue, and in 1743 a great number of the
+arches of the aisles fell in. Different parts of the building were
+continually tumbling down, having become too weak to support the heavier
+materials used in the construction of additions and renovations."
+
+The cathedral was closed to the public by the government in 1850 and
+handed over to a body of architects, who were to restore it in
+accordance with the thirteenth-century design; in 1901 the interior of
+the building had been definitely finished, and was opened once more to
+the religious cult.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform, with a semicircular
+apse composed of five chapels and an ambulatory behind the high altar.
+
+As peculiarities, the following may be mentioned: the two towers of the
+western front do not head the aisles, but flank them; the transept is
+exceptionally wide (in Spanish cathedrals the distance between the high
+altar and the choir must be regarded as the transept, properly speaking)
+and is composed of a broad nave and two aisles to the east and one to
+the west; the width also of the church at the transept is greater by
+two aisles than that of the body itself,--a modification which produces
+a double Roman cross and lends exceptional beauty to the ensemble, as it
+permits of an unobstructed view from the western porch to the very apse.
+
+Attention must also be drawn to the row of two chapels and a vestibule
+which separate the church from the cloister (one of the most celebrated
+in Spain as a Gothic structure, though mixed with Renaissance motives
+and spoilt by fresco paintings). Thanks to this arrangement, the
+cathedral possesses a northern portal similar to the southern one. As
+regards the exterior of the building, it is a pity that the two towers
+which flank the aisles are heavy in comparison to the general
+construction of the church; had light and slender towers like those of
+Burgos or that of Oviedo been placed here, how grand would have been the
+effect! Besides, they are not similar, but date from different periods,
+which is another circumstance to be regretted.
+
+The second bodies of the western and southern façades also clash on
+account of the Renaissance elements, with their simple horizontal lines
+opposed to the vertical tendency of pure Gothic. But then, they also
+were erected at a later date.
+
+Excepting these remarks, however, nothing is more airily beautiful and
+elegant than the superb expression of the _razonadas locuras_ (logical
+nonsense) of the ogival style in all its phases, both early and late, or
+even decadent. For examples of each period are to be found here,
+corresponding to the century in which they were erected.
+
+The ensemble is an astonishing profusion of high and narrow windows, of
+which there are three rows: the clerestory, the triforium, and the
+aisles. Each window is divided into two by a column so fragile that it
+resembles a spider's thread. These windows peep forth from a forest of
+flying buttresses, and nowhere does the mixture of pinnacles and painted
+panes attain a more perfect eloquence than in the eastern extremity of
+the polygonal apse.
+
+The western and southern façades--the northern being replaced by the
+cloister--are alike in their general design, and are composed of three
+portals surmounted by a decidedly pointed arch which, in the case of the
+central portals, adorns a richly sculptured tympanum. The artistic
+merit of the statuary in the niches of both central portals is devoid of
+exceptional praise, that of the southern façade being perhaps of a
+better taste. As regards the stone pillar which divides the central door
+into two wings, that on the south represents Our Lady of the Blanca, and
+that on the west San Froilan, one of the early martyr bishops of Leon.
+
+Excepting the Renaissance impurities already referred to, each portal is
+surmounted by a row of five lancet windows, which give birth, as it
+were, to one immense window of delicate design.
+
+Penetrating into the interior of the building, preferably by the lateral
+doors of the western front, the tourist is overcome by a feeling of awe
+and amazement at the bold construction of aisles and nave, as slender as
+is the frost pattern on a spotless pane. The full value of the windows,
+which are gorgeous from the outside, is only obtained from the interior
+of the temple; those of the clerestory reach from the sharp ogival
+vaulting to the height of the triforium, which in its turn is backed by
+another row of painted windows; in the aisles, another series of panes
+rose in the sixteenth century from the very ground (!), though in
+recent times the bases have unluckily been blinded to about the height
+of a man.
+
+The pillars and columns are of the simplest and most sober construction,
+so simple that they do not draw the spectator's attention, but leave him
+to be impressed by the great height of nave and aisles as compared with
+their insignificant width, and above all by the profuse perforation of
+the walls by hundreds upon hundreds of windows.
+
+Unluckily, the original pattern of the painted glass does not exist but
+in an insignificant quantity: the northern window, the windows of the
+high altar, and those of the Chapel of St. James are about the only ones
+dating from the fifteenth century that are left standing to-day; they
+are easily recognizable by the rich, mellow tints unattained in modern
+stained glass.
+
+As accessories, foremost to be mentioned are the choir stalls, which are
+of an elegant and severe workmanship totally different from the florid
+carving of those in Toledo. The high altar, on the other hand, is devoid
+of interest excepting for the fine ogival sepulchre of King Ordoño II;
+the remaining chapels, some of which contain art objects of value, need
+not claim the tourist's special attention.
+
+By way of conclusion: the cathedral of Leon, restored to-day after years
+of ruin and neglect, stands forth as one of the master examples of
+Gothic workmanship, unrivalled in fairy-like beauty and, from an
+architectural point of view, the very best example of French ogival to
+be met with in Spain.
+
+Moreover, those who wrought it, felt the real principles of all Gothic
+architecture. Many are the cathedrals in Spain pertaining to this great
+school, but not one of them can compare with that of Leon in the way the
+essential principle was _felt_ and _expressed_. They are all beautiful
+in their complex and hybrid style, but none of them can claim to be
+Gothic in the way they are built. For wealth, power, and luxury in
+details is generally the lesson Spanish cathedrals teach, but they do
+not give their lancets and shafts, their vertical lines and pointed
+arches, the chance to impress the visitor or true believer with those
+sentiments so peculiar to the great ogival style.
+
+The cathedral of Leon is, in Spain, the unique exception to this rule.
+Save only those constructive errors or dissonances previously referred
+to, and which tend to counteract the soaring characteristic, it could be
+considered as being pure in style. Nevertheless, it is not only the
+truest Gothic cathedral on the peninsula, but one of the finest in the
+world.
+
+At the same time, it is no less true that it is not so Spanish as either
+the Gothic of Burgos or of Toledo.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1063 the King of Leon, Fernando I., signed a treaty with the Arab
+governor of Sevilla, obliging the latter to hand over to the Catholic
+monarch, in exchange for some other privileges, the corpse of San
+Isidoro. It was conveyed to Leon, where a church was built to contain
+the remains of the saint; the same building was to serve as a royal
+pantheon.
+
+About a century later Alfonso VII. was battling against the pagans in
+Andalusia when, in the field of Baeza, the "warlike apparition of San
+Isidoro appeared in the heavens and encouraged the Christian soldiers."
+
+Thanks to this divine aid, the Moors were beaten, and Alfonso VII.,
+returning to Leon, enriched the saint's shrine, enlarged it, and raised
+it to a suffragan church, destined later to serve as the temporary see
+while the building of the real cathedral was going on.
+
+In 1135 Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of the West Roman Empire with
+extraordinary pomp and splendour in the Church of San Isidoro. The
+apogee of Leon's importance and power coincides with this memorable
+event.
+
+The emperor's sister, Sancha, a pious infanta, bequeathed her vast
+fortune as well as her palace to San Isidoro, her favourite saint; the
+church in Leon became, consequently, one of the richest in Spain, a
+privilege it was, however, unable to retain for any length of time.
+
+In 1029, shortly after the erection of the primitive building, its front
+was sullied, according to the tradition, by the blood of one Count
+Garcia of Castile. The following is the story:
+
+The King of Asturias at the time was Bermudo II., married to Urraca, the
+daughter of Count Sancho of Castile. Political motives had produced this
+union, for the Condes de Castile had grown to be the most important and
+powerful feudal lords of the kingdom.
+
+To assure the count's assistance and friendship, the king went even
+further: he promised his sister Sancha to the count's son Garcia, who
+lost no time in visiting Leon so as to become acquainted with his future
+spouse.
+
+Three sons of the defeated Count of Vela, a Basque nobleman whom the
+Counts of Castile had put to death, were in the city at the time.
+Pretending to be very friendly with the young _fiancé_, they conspired
+against his life, and, knowing that he paid matinal visits to San
+Isidoro, they hid in the portal one day, and slew the youth as he
+entered.
+
+The promised bride arrived in haste and fell weeping on the body of the
+murdered man; she wept bitterly and prayed to be allowed to be buried
+with her sweetheart. Her prayer was, of course, not granted: so she
+swore she would never marry. She was not long in breaking this oath,
+however, for a few months later she wedded a prince of the house of
+Navarra.
+
+The present state of the building of San Isidoro is ruinous, thanks to a
+stroke of lightning in 1811, and to the harsh treatment bestowed upon
+the building by Napoleon's soldiers during the War for Independence
+(1808).
+
+Seen from the outside, the edifice is as uninteresting as possible; the
+lower part is constructed in the early Latin Romanesque style; the
+upper, of a posterior construction, shows a decided tendency to early
+Gothic.
+
+The apse was originally three-lobed, composed of three identical chapels
+corresponding to the nave and aisles; in the sixteenth century the
+central lobe was prolonged and squared off; the same century saw the
+erection of the statue of San Isidoro in the southern front, which
+spoiled the otherwise excellently simple Romanesque portal.
+
+In the interior of the ruin--for such it is to-day--the only peculiarity
+to be noted is the use of the horseshoe arches in the arcades which
+separate the aisles from the nave, as well as the Arab dentated arches
+of the transept. It is the first case on record where, in a Christian
+temple of the importance of San Isidoro, Arab or pagan architectural
+elements were made use of in the decoration; that is to say, after the
+invasion, for previous examples were known, having most likely
+penetrated into the country by means of Byzantine workmen in the fifth
+and sixth centuries. (In San Juan de Baños.)
+
+[Illustration: APSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON]
+
+Instead of being lined with chapels the aisles are covered with mural
+paintings. These frescoes are of great archæological value on account of
+their great age and the evident Byzantine influence which characterizes
+them; artistically they are unimportant.
+
+The chief attraction of the building is the pantheon, a low, square
+chapel of six arches, supported in the centre by two gigantic pillars
+which are crowned by huge cylindrical capitals. Nothing more depressing
+or gloomy can be seen in the peninsula excepting the pantheon in the
+Escorial; it is doubtful which of the two is more melancholy. The pure
+Oriental origin (almost Indian!) of this pantheon is unmistakable and
+highly interesting.
+
+The fresco paintings which cover the ceiling and the massive ribs of the
+vaulting are equally morbid, representing hell-scenes from the
+Apocalypse, the massacre of the babes, etc.
+
+Only one or two of the Romanesque marble tombs which lined the walls
+are remaining to-day; the others were used by the French soldiers as
+drinking-troughs for their cavalry horses!
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+ASTORGA
+
+
+The Asturica Augusta of the Romans was the capital of the northern
+provinces of Asturias and the central point of four military roads which
+led to Braga, Aquitania, Saragosse, and Tarragon.
+
+During the Visigothic domination, and especially under the reign of
+Witiza, Astorga as well as Leon, Toledo, and Tuy were the only four
+cities allowed to retain their walls.
+
+According to some accounts, Astorga was the seat of the earliest
+bishopric in the peninsula, having been consecrated in the first century
+by Santiago or his immediate followers; historically, however, the first
+known bishop was Dominiciano, who lived about 347 A. D.
+
+In the fourth and fifth centuries several heresies or false doctrines
+were ripe in Spain. Of one of these, _Libelatism_, Astorga was the
+centre; the other, _Priscilianism_, originally Galician, found many
+adherents in the fortress-town, more so than elsewhere, excepting only
+Tuy, Orense, and Palencia.
+
+_Libelatism._--Its great defender was Basilides, Bishop of Astorga.
+Strictly speaking, this faith was no heresy, but a sham or fraud which
+spread out beyond the Pyrenees to France. It consisted in denying the
+new faith; those who proclaimed it, or, in other words, the Christians,
+who were severely persecuted in those days, pretended to worship the
+Latin gods so as to save their skins. With this object in view, and to
+be able to prove their sincerity, they were obliged to obtain a
+certificate, _libelum_ (libel?), from the Roman governor, stating their
+belief in Jupiter, Venus, etc. Doubtless they had to pay a tax for this
+certificate, and thus the Roman state showed its practical wisdom: it
+was paid by cowards for being tyrannical. But then, not all Christians
+are born martyrs.
+
+_Priscilianism._--Of quite a different character was the other heresy
+previously mentioned. It was a doctrine opposed to the Christian
+religion, proud of many adherents, and at one time threatening danger to
+the Holy Roman Catholic Church. Considering that it is but little known
+to-day (for after a lingering life of about three or four centuries in
+Galicia it was quite ignored by philosophers and Christians alike), it
+may be of some use to transcribe the salient points of this doctrine, in
+case some one be inclined to baptize him or herself as prophet of the
+new religion. It was preached by one Prisciliano in the fourth century,
+and was a mixture of Celtic mythology and Christian faith.
+
+"Prisciliano did not believe in the mystery of the Holy Trinity; he
+believed that the world had been created by the devil (perhaps he was
+not wrong!) and that the devil held it beneath his sway; further, that
+the soul is part of the Divine Essence and the body dependent upon the
+stars; that this life is a punishment, as only sinful souls descend on
+earth to be incarnated in organic bodies. He denied the resurrection of
+the flesh and the authenticity of the Old Testament. He defended the
+transmigration of souls, the invocation of the dead, and other ideas,
+doubtless taken from native Galician mythology. To conclude, he
+celebrated the Holy Communion with grape and milk instead of with wine,
+and admitted that all true believers (his true believers, I suppose,
+for we are all of us true believers of some sort) could celebrate
+religious ceremonies without being ordained curates."
+
+Sinfosio, Bishop of Astorga in 400, was converted to the new religion.
+But, upon intimation that he might be deprived of his see, he hurriedly
+turned Christian again, putting thus a full stop to the spread of
+heresy, by his brave and unselfish act.
+
+Toribio in 447 was, however, the bishop who wrought the greatest harm to
+Priscilianism. He seems to have been the divine instrument called upon
+to prove by marvellous happenings the true religion: he converted the
+King of the Suevos in Orense by miraculously curing his son; when
+surrounded by flames he emerged unharmed; when he left his diocese, and
+until his return, the crops were all lost; upon his return the
+church-bells rang without human help, etc., etc. All of which doings
+proved the authenticity of the true religion beyond a doubt, and that
+Toribio was a saint; the Pope canonized him.
+
+During the Arab invasion, Astorga, being a frontier town, suffered more
+than most cities farther north; it was continually being taken and
+lost, built up and torn down by the Christians and Moors.
+
+Terrible Almanzor conquered it in his raid in the tenth century, and
+utterly destroyed it. It was rebuilt by Veremundo or Bermudo III., but
+never regained its lost importance, which reverted to Leon.
+
+When the Christian armies had conquered the peninsula as far south as
+Toledo, Astorga was no longer a frontier town, and rapidly fell asleep,
+and has slept ever since. It remained a see, however, but only one of
+secondary importance.
+
+It would be difficult to state how many cathedral churches the city
+possessed previous to the eleventh century. In 1069 the first on record
+was built; in 1120 another; a third in the thirteenth century, and
+finally the fourth and present building in 1471.
+
+It was the evident intention of the architect to imitate the _Pulchra
+Leonina_, but other tastes and other styles had swept across the
+peninsula and the result of the unknown master's plans resembles rather
+a heavy, awkward caricature than anything else, and a bastard mixture of
+Gothic, plateresque, and grotesque styles.
+
+The northern front is by far the best of the two, boasting of a rather
+good relief in the tympanum of the ogival arch; some of the painted
+windows are also of good workmanship, though the greater part are modern
+glass, and unluckily unstained.
+
+Its peculiarities can be signalized; the windows of the southern aisle
+are situated above the lateral chapels, while those of the northern are
+lower and situated in the chapels. The height and width of the aisles
+are also remarkable--a circumstance that does not lend either beauty or
+effect to the building. There is no ambulatory behind the high altar,
+which stands in the lady-chapel; the apse is rounded. This peculiarity
+reminds one dimly of what the primitive plan of the Oviedo cathedral
+must have resembled.
+
+By far the most meritorious piece of work in the cathedral is the
+sixteenth-century _retablo_ of the high altar, which alone is worth a
+visit to Astorga. It is one of Becerra's masterpieces in the late
+plateresque style, as well as being one of the master's last known works
+(1569).
+
+It is composed of five vertical and three horizontal bodies; the niches
+in the lower are flanked by Doric, those of the second by Corinthian,
+and those of the upper by composite columns and capitals. The polychrome
+statues which fill the niches are life-size and among the best in Spain;
+together they are intended to give a graphic description of the life of
+the Virgin and of her Son.
+
+In some of the decorative details, however, this _retablo_ shows evident
+signs of plateresque decadence, and the birth of the florid grotesque
+style, which is but the natural reaction against the severity of early
+sixteenth-century art.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+BURGOS
+
+
+Burgos is the old capital of Castile.
+
+Castile--or properly Castilla--owed its name to the great number of
+castles which stood on solitary hills in the midst of the plains lying
+to the north of the Sierra de Guaderrama; one of these castles was
+called Burgos.
+
+Unlike Leon and Astorga, Burgos was not known to the Romans, but was
+founded by feudal noblemen in the middle ages, most likely by the Count
+of Castilla prior to 884 A. D., when its name first appears in history.
+
+Situated almost in the same line and to the west of Astorga and Leon, it
+entered the chain of fortresses which formed the frontier between the
+Christian kingdoms and the Moorish dominion. At the same time it looked
+westwards toward the kingdom of Navarra, and managed to keep the
+ambitious sovereigns of Pamplona from Castilian soil.
+
+During the first centuries which followed upon the foundation of the
+village of Burgos at the foot of a prominent castle, both belonged to
+the feudal lords of Castile, the celebrated counts of the same name.
+This family of intrepid noblemen grew to be the most important in
+Northern Spain; vassals of the kings of Asturias, they broke out in
+frequent rebellion, and their doings alone fill nine of every ten pages
+of mediæval history.
+
+Orduño III.--he who lost the battle of Valdejunquera against the Moors
+because the noblemen he had ordered to assist refrained from doing
+so--enticed the Count of Castile, together with other conspirators, to
+his palace, and had them foully murdered. So, at least, saith history.
+
+The successor to the title was no fool. On the contrary, he was one of
+the greatest characters in Spanish history, hero of a hundred legends
+and traditions. Fernan Gonzalez was his name, and he freed Castile from
+owing vassalage to Asturias, for he threw off the yoke which bound him
+to Leon, and lived as an independent sovereign in his castle of Burgos.
+This is the date of Castile's first appearance in history as one of the
+nuclei of Christian resistance (in the tenth century).
+
+Nevertheless, against the military genius of Almanzor (the victorious),
+Fernan Gonzalez could do no more than the kings of Leon. The fate that
+befell Santiago, Leon, and Astorga awaited Burgos, which was utterly
+destroyed with the exception of the impregnable castle. After the Arab's
+death, hailed by the Christians with shouts of joy, and from the pulpits
+with the grim remark: _"Almanzor mortuus est et sepultus et in
+inferno_," the strength of Castile grew year by year, until one Conde
+Garcia de Castilla married one of his daughters to the King of Navarra
+and the other to Bermudo III. of Leon. His son, as has already been seen
+in a previous chapter, was killed in Leon when he went to marry
+Bermudo's sister Sancha. But his grandson, the recognized heir to the
+throne of Navarra, Fernando by name, inherited his grandfather's title
+and estates, even his murdered uncle's promised bride, the sister of
+Bermudo. At the latter's death some years later, without an heir, he
+inherited--or conquered--Leon and Asturias, and for the first time in
+history, all the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula were united
+beneath one sceptre.
+
+Castile was now the most powerful state in the peninsula, and its
+capital, Burgos, the most important city north of Toledo.
+
+Two hundred years later the centralization of power in Burgos was an
+accomplished fact, as well as the death in all but name of the ancient
+kingdom of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. Castile was Spain, and Burgos
+its splendid capital (1230, in the reign of San Fernando).
+
+The above events are closely connected with the ecclesiastical history,
+which depends entirely upon the civil importance of the city.
+
+A few years after Fernando I. had inaugurated the title of King of
+Castile, he raised the parish church of Burgos to a bishopric (1075) by
+removing to his new capital the see that from time immemorial had
+existed in Oca. He also laid the first stone of the cathedral church in
+the same spot where Fernan Gonzalez had erected a summer palace,
+previous to the Arab raid under Almanzor. Ten years later the same king
+had the bishopric raised to an archiepiscopal see.
+
+San Fernando, being unable to do more than had already been done by his
+forefather Fernando I., had the ruined church pulled down, and in its
+place he erected the cathedral still standing to-day. This was in 1221.
+
+So rapidly was the main edifice constructed, that as early as 1230 the
+first holy mass was celebrated in the altar-chapel. The erection of the
+remaining parts took longer, however, for the building was not completed
+until about three hundred years later.
+
+Burgos did not remain the sole capital of Northern Spain for any great
+length of time. Before the close of the thirteenth century, Valladolid
+had destroyed the former's monopoly, and from then on, and during the
+next three hundred years, these two and Toledo were obliged to take
+turns in the honour of being considered capital, an honour that depended
+entirely upon the caprices of the rulers of the land, until it was
+definitely conferred upon Madrid in the seventeenth century.
+
+As regards legends and traditions of feudal romance and tragedy, hardly
+a city excepting Toledo and Salamanca can compete with Burgos.
+Historical events, produced by throne usurpers and defenders, by
+continual strife, by the obstinacy of the noblemen and the perfidy of
+the monarchs,--all interwoven with beautiful dames and cruel
+warriors--are sufficiently numerous to enable every house in and around
+Burgos to possess some secret or other, generally gruesome and
+licentious, which means chivalrous. The reign of Peter the Cruel and of
+his predecessor Alfonso, the father of four or five bastards, and the
+lover of Doña Leonor; the heroic deeds of Fernan Gonzalez and of the Cid
+Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar); the splendour of the court of Isabel
+I., and the peculiar constitution of the land with its Cortes, its
+convents, and monasteries,--all tend to make Burgos the centre of a
+chivalrous literature still recited by the people and firmly believed in
+by them. Unluckily their recital cannot find a place here, and we pass
+on to examine the grand cathedral, object of the present chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The train, coming from the north, approaches the city of Burgos. A low
+horizon line and undulating plains stretch as far as the eye can reach;
+in the distance ahead are two church spires and a castle looming up
+against a blue sky.
+
+The train reaches the station; a mass of houses and, overtopping the
+roofs of all buildings, the same spires as seen before, lost as it were
+in a forest of pinnacles, emerging from two octagonal lanterns or
+cimborios. In the background, on a sandy hill, are the ruins of the
+castle which once upon a time was the stronghold of the Counts of
+Castile.
+
+Burgos! Passing beneath a four-hundred-year-old gateway--Arco de Santa
+Maria--raised by trembling bourgeois to appease a monarch's wrath, the
+visitor arrives after many a turn in a square situated in front of the
+cathedral.
+
+A poor architectural element is this western front of the cathedral as
+regards the first body or the portals. Devoid of all ornamentation, and
+consequently naked, three doors or portals, surmounted by a peculiar
+egg-shaped ogival arch, open into the nave and aisles. Originally they
+were richly decorated by means of sculptural reliefs and statuary, but
+in the plateresque period of the sixteenth century they were demolished.
+The two lateral doors leading into the aisles are situated beneath the
+275 feet high towers of excellent workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: BURGOS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The central door is surmounted by a plateresque-Renaissance pediment
+imbedded in an ogival arch (of all things!); the side doors are crowned
+by a simple window.
+
+Vastly superior in all respects to the lower body are the upper stories,
+of which the first is begun by a pinnacled balustrade running from tower
+to tower; in the centre, between the two towers, there is an immense
+rosace of a magnificent design and embellished by means of an ogival
+arch in delicate relief; the windows of the tower, as well as in the
+superior bodies, are pure ogival.
+
+The next story can be considered as the basement of the towers, properly
+speaking. The central part begins with a prominent balustrade of statues
+thrown against a background formed by twin ogival windows of exceptional
+size. The third story is composed, as regards the towers, of the last of
+the square bodies upon which the flèche reposes; these square bases are
+united by a light frieze or perforated balustrade which crowns the
+central part of the façade and is decorated with ogival designs.
+
+Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the _flèches_.
+Though short in comparison to the bold structure at Oviedo, they are,
+nevertheless, of surprising dignity and elegance, and richly ornamented,
+being covered over with an innumerable amount of tiny pinnacles
+encrusted, as it were, on the stone network of a perforated pyramid.
+
+The northern façade is richer in sculptural details than the western,
+though the portal possesses but one row of statues. The rosace is
+substituted by a three-lobed window, the central pane of which is larger
+than the lateral two.
+
+As this northern façade is almost fifteen feet higher than the
+ground-plan of the temple,--on account of the street being much
+higher,--a flight of steps leads down into the transept. As a
+Renaissance work, this golden staircase is one of Spain's marvels, but
+it looks rather out of place in an essentially Gothic cathedral.
+
+To avoid the danger of falling down these stairs and with a view to
+their preservation, the transept was pierced by another door in the
+sixteenth century, on a level with the floor of the building, and
+leading into a street lower than the previous one; it is situated on the
+east of the prolonged transept, or better still, of the prolonged
+northern transept arm.
+
+On the south side a cloister door corresponds to this last-named portal.
+Though the latter is plateresque, cold and severe, the former is the
+richest of all the portals as regards sculptural details; the carving of
+the panels is also of the finest workmanship. Beside it, the southern
+front of the cathedral coincides perfectly with the northern; like the
+Puerta de la Plateria in Santiago, it is rendered somewhat insignificant
+by the cloister to the right and by the archbishop's palace to the left,
+between which it is reached by a paved series of terraces, for on this
+side the street is lower than the floor of the cathedral. The impression
+produced by this alley is grand and imposing, unique in Spain.
+
+Neither is the situation of the temple exactly east and west, a rare
+circumstance in such a highly Catholic country like Spain. It is Roman
+cruciform in shape; the central nave contains both choir and high altar;
+the aisles are prolonged behind the latter in an ambulatory.
+
+The lateral walls of the church, enlarged here and there to make room
+for chapels of different dimensions, give an irregular outline to the
+building which has been partly remedied by the free use of buttresses,
+flying buttresses, and pinnacles.
+
+The first impression produced on the visitor standing in either of the
+aisles is that of size rather than beauty; a close examination, however,
+of the wealth of statues and tombs, and of the sculptural excellence of
+stone decoration, will draw from the tourist many an exclamation of
+wonder and delight. Further, the distribution of light is such as to
+render the interior of the temple gay rather than sombre; it is a pity,
+nevertheless, that the stained glasses of the sixteenth century see were
+all destroyed by a powder explosion in 1813, when the French soldiers
+demolished the castle.
+
+The unusual height of the choir mars the ensemble of the interior; the
+stalls are lavishly carved, but do not inspire the same feeling of
+wonderful beauty as do those of Leon and Toledo, for instance; the
+_reja_ or grille which separates the choir from the transept is one of
+the finest pieces of work in the cathedral, and, though massive, it is
+simple and elegant.
+
+The _retablo_ of the high altar, richly gilt, is of the Renaissance
+period; the statues and groups which fill the niches are marvellously
+drawn and full of life. In the ambulatory, imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_, there are six plaques in low relief; as sculptural work in
+stone they are unrivalled in the cathedral, and were carved, beyond a
+doubt, by the hand of a master. The _croisée_ and the Chapel of the
+Condestable are the two chief attractions of the cathedral church.
+
+The last named chapel is an octagonal addition to the apse. Its walls
+from the exterior are seen to be richly sculptured and surmounted by a
+lantern, or windowed dome, surrounded by high pinnacles and spires
+placed on the angles of the polygon base. The _croisée_ is similar in
+structure, but, due to its greater height, appears even more slender and
+aerial. The towers with their _flèches_, together with these original
+octagonal lanterns with their pinnacles, lend an undescribable grace,
+elegance, and majesty to what would otherwise have been a rather
+unwieldy edifice.
+
+The Chapel of the Condestable is separated from the ambulatory (in the
+interior of the temple) by a good grille of the sixteenth century, and
+by a profusely sculptured door. The windows above the altar are the only
+ones that retain painted panes of the sixteenth century. Among the other
+objects contained in this chapel--which is really a connoisseur's
+collection of art objects of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--can
+be mentioned the two marvellously carved tombs of the Condestable and of
+his wife.
+
+The _croisée_, on the other hand, has been called the "cathedral's
+cathedral." Gazing skyward from the centre of the transept into the high
+_cimborio_, and admiring the harmony of its details, the wealth of
+decorative elements, and the no less original structure of the dome,
+whose vault is formed by an immense star, one can understand the epithet
+applied to this majestic piece of work, a marvel of its kind.
+
+Strange to say, the primitive cupola which crowned the _croisée_ fell
+down in the sixteenth century, the date also of Burgos's growing
+insignificance in political questions. Consequently, it was believed by
+many that the same fate produced both accidents, and that the downfall
+of the one necessarily involved the decadence of the other.
+
+To conclude: The Gothic cathedral of Burgos is, with that of Leon and
+perhaps that of Sevilla, the one which expresses in a greater measure
+than any other on the peninsula the true ideal of ogival architecture.
+Less airy, light, and graceful than that of Leon, it is, nevertheless,
+more Spanish, or in other words, more majestic, heavier, and more
+imposing as regards size and weight. From a sculptural point of
+view--stone sculpture--it is the first of all Spanish Gothic cathedrals,
+and ranks among the most elaborate and perfect in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+SANTANDER
+
+
+The foundation of Santander is attributed to the Romans who baptized it
+Harbour of Victory. Its decadence after the Roman dominion seems to have
+been complete, and its name does not appear in the annals of Spanish
+history until in 1187, when Alfonso, eighth of that name and King of
+Castile, induced the repopulation of the deserted hamlet by giving it a
+special _fuero_ or privilege. At that time a monastery surrounded by a
+few miserable huts seems to have been all that was left of the Roman
+seaport; this monastery was dedicated to the martyr saints Emeterio and
+Celedonio, for it was, and still is, believed that they perished here,
+and not in Calahorra, as will be seen later on.
+
+The name of the nascent city in the times of Alfonso VIII. was Sancti
+Emetrii, from that of the monastery or of the old town, but within a
+few years the new town eclipsed the former in importance and, being
+dedicated to St. Andrew, gave its name to the present city
+(San-t-Andres, Santander).
+
+As a maritime town, Santander became connected with all the naval events
+undertaken by young Castile, and later by Philip II., against England.
+Kings, princes, princess-consorts, and ambassadors from foreign lands
+came by sea to Santander, and went from thence to Burgos and Valladolid;
+from Santander and the immediate seaports the fleet sailed which was to
+travel up the Guadalquivir and conquer Sevilla; in 1574 the Invincible
+Armada left the Bay of Biscay never to return, and from thence on until
+now, Santander has ever remained the most important Spanish seaport on
+the Cantabric Sea.
+
+Its ecclesiastical history is uninteresting--or, rather, the city
+possesses no ecclesiastical past; perhaps that is one of the causes of
+its flourishing state to-day. In the thirteenth century the monastical
+Church of San Emeterio was raised to a collegiate and in 1775 to a
+bishopric.
+
+The same unimportance, from an art point of view, attaches itself to the
+cathedral church. No one visits the city for the sake of the heavy,
+clumsy, and exceedingly irregularly built temple which stands on the
+highest part of the town. On the contrary, the great attraction is the
+fine beach of the Sardinero which lies to the west of the industrial
+town, and is, in summer, the Brighton of Spain. The coast-line, deeply
+dentated and backed by the Cantabric Mountains, is far more delightful
+and attractive than the Gothic cathedral structure of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+Consequently, little need be said about it. In the interior, the height
+of the nave and aisles, rendered more pronounced by the pointed ogival
+arches, gives the building a somewhat aerial appearance that is belied
+by the view from without.
+
+[Illustration: CRYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL]
+
+The square tower on the western end is undermined by a gallery or tunnel
+through which the Calle de Puente passes. To the right of the same, and
+reached by a flight of steps, stands the entrance to the crypt, which is
+used to-day as a most unhealthy parish church. This crypt of the late
+twelfth century or early thirteenth shows a decided Romanesque tendency
+in its general appearance: it is low, massive, strong, and crowned by
+a semicircular vaulting reposing on gigantic pillars whose capitals are
+roughly sculptured. The windows which let in the little light that
+enters are ogival, proving the Transition period to which the crypt
+belongs; it was originally intended as the pantheon for the abbots of
+the monastery. But unlike the Galician Romanesque, it lacks an
+individual _cachet_; if it resembles anything it is the pantheon of the
+kings in San Isidoro in Leon, though in point of view of beauty, the two
+cannot be compared.
+
+The form of the crypt is that of a perfect Romanesque basilica, a nave
+and two aisles terminating a three-lobed apse.
+
+In the cathedral, properly speaking, there is a baptismal font of
+marble, bearing an Arabic inscription by way of upper frieze; it is
+square, and of Moorish workmanship, and doubtless was brought from
+Cordoba after the reconquest. Its primitive use had been practical, for
+in Andalusia it stood at the entrance to some mezquita, and in its
+limpid waters the disciples of Mahomet performed their hygienic and
+religious ablutions.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+VITORIA
+
+
+If the foreigner enter Spain by Irun, the first cathedral town on his
+way south is Vitoria.
+
+Gazteiz seems to have been its Basque name prior to 1181, when it was
+enlarged by Don Sancho of Navarra and was given a _fuero_ or privilege,
+together with its new name, chosen to commemorate a victory obtained by
+the king over his rival, Alfonso of Castile.
+
+Fortune did not smile for any length of time on Don Sancho, for
+seventeen years later Alfonso VIII. incorporated the city in his kingdom
+of Castile, and it was lost for ever to Navarra.
+
+As regards the celebrated _fueros_ given by the last named monarch to
+the inhabitants of the city, a curious custom was in vogue in the city
+until a few years ago, when the Basque Provinces finally lost the
+privileges they had fought for during centuries.
+
+When Alfonso VIII. granted these privileges, he told the citizens they
+were to conserve them "as long as the waters of the Zadorria flowed into
+the Ebro."
+
+The Zadorria is the river upon which Vitoria is situated; about two
+miles up the river there is a historical village, Arriago, and a no less
+historical bridge. Hither, then, every year on St. John's Day, the
+inhabitants of Vitoria came in procession, headed by the municipal
+authorities, the bishop and clergy, the clerk of the town hall, and the
+sheriff. The latter on his steed waded into the waters of the Zadorria,
+and threw a letter into the stream; it flowed with the current toward
+the Ebro River. An act was then drawn up by the clerk, signed by the
+mayor and the sheriff, testifying that the "waters of the Zadorria
+flowed into the Ebro."
+
+To-day the waters still flow into the Ebro, but the procession does not
+take place, and the city's _fueros_ are no more.
+
+In the reign of Isabel the Catholic, the Church of St. Mary was raised
+to a Colegiata, and it is only quite recently, according to the latest
+treaty between Spain and Rome, that an episcopal see has been
+established in the city of Vitoria.
+
+Documents that have been discovered state that in 1281--a hundred years
+after the city had been newly baptized--the principal temple was a
+church and castle combined; in the fourteenth century this was
+completely torn down to make room for the new building, a modest ogival
+church of little or no merit.
+
+The tower is of a later date than the body of the cathedral, as is
+easily seen by the triangular pediments which crown the square windows:
+it is composed of three bodies, as is generally the case in Spain, the
+first of which is square in its cross-section, possessing four turrets
+which crown the angles; the second body is octagonal and the third is in
+the form of a pyramid terminating in a spire.
+
+The portal is cut into the base of the tower. It is the handsomest front
+of the building, though in a rather dilapidated state; the sculptural
+decorations of the three arches, as well as the aerial reliefs of the
+tympanum, are true to the period in which they were conceived.
+
+The sacristy encloses a primitive wooden effigy of the Virgin; it is of
+greater historic than artistic value. There is also a famous picture
+attributed now to Van Dyck, now to Murillo; it represents Christ in the
+arms of his mother, and Mary Magdalene weeping on her knees beside the
+principal group. The picture is known by the name of Piety or La Piedad.
+
+The high altar, instead of being placed to the east of the transept, as
+is generally the case, is set beneath the _croisée_, in the circular
+area formed by the intersection of nave and transept. The view of the
+interior is therefore completely obstructed, no matter where the
+spectator stands.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+UPPER RIOJA
+
+
+To the south of Navarra and about a hundred miles to the west of Burgos,
+the Ebro River flows through a fertile vale called the Rioja, famous for
+its claret. It is little frequented by strangers or tourists, and yet it
+is well worth a visit. The train runs down the Ebro valley from Miranda
+to Saragosse. A hilly country to the north and south, well wooded and
+gently sloping like the Jura; nearer, and along the banks of the stream,
+_huertas_ or orchards, gardens, and vineyards offer a pleasant contrast
+to the distant landscape, and produce a favourable impression,
+especially when a village or town with its square, massive church-tower
+peeps forth from out of the foliage of fruit-trees and elms.
+
+Such is Upper Rioja--one of the prettiest spots in Spain, the Touraine,
+one might almost say, of Iberia, a circular region of about twenty-five
+miles in radius, containing four cities, Logroño, Santo Domingo de la
+Calzada, Nájera, and Calahorra.
+
+The Roman military road from Tarragon to Astorga passed through the
+Rioja, and Calahorra, a Celtiberian stronghold slightly to the south,
+was conquered by the invaders after as sturdy a resistance as that of
+Numantia itself. It was not totally destroyed by the conquering Romans
+as happened in the last named town; on the contrary, it grew to be the
+most important fortress between Leon and Saragosse.
+
+When the Christian religion dawned in the West, two youths, inseparable
+brothers, and soldiers in the seventh legion stationed in Leon, embraced
+the true religion and migrated to Calahorra. They were beheaded after
+being submitted to a series of the most frightful tortures, and their
+tunics, leaving the bodies from which life had escaped, soared skywards
+with the saintly souls, to the great astonishment of the Roman
+spectators. The names of these two martyr saints were Emeterio and
+Celedonio, who, as we have seen, are worshipped in Santander; besides,
+they are also the patron saints of Calahorra.
+
+The first Bishop of Calahorra took possession of his see toward the
+middle of the fifth century; his name was Silvano. Unluckily, he was the
+only one whose name is known to-day, and yet it has been proven that
+when the Moors invaded the country two or three hundred years later, the
+see was removed to Oviedo, later to Alava (near Vitoria, where no
+remains of a cathedral church are to be seen to-day), and in the tenth
+century to Nájera. One hundred years later, when the King of Navarra,
+Don Garcia, conquered the Arab fortress at Calahorra, the wandering see
+was once more firmly chained down to the original spot of its creation
+(1030; the first bishop _de modernis_ being Don Sancho).
+
+Near by, and in a vale leading to the south from the Ebro, the Moors
+built a fortress and called it Nájera. Conquered by the early kings of
+Navarra, it was raised to the dignity of one of the cathedral towns of
+the country; from 950 (first bishop, Theodomio) to 1030 ten bishops held
+their court here, that is, until the see was removed to Calahorra. Since
+then, and especially after the conquest of Rioja by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile, the city's significance died out completely, and to-day it is
+but a shadow of what it previously had been, or better still, it is an
+ignored village among ruins.
+
+Still further west, and likewise situated in a vale to the south of the
+Ebro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada ranks as the third city. Originally
+its parish was but a suffragan church of Calahorra, but in 1227 it was
+raised to an episcopal see. Quite recently, in the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, when church funds were no longer what they had been,
+only one bishop was appointed to both sees, with an alternative
+residence in either of the two, that is to say, one prelate resided in
+Calahorra, his successor in Santo Domingo, and so forth and so on. Since
+1850, however, both villages--for they are cities in name only--have
+lost all right to a bishop, the see having been definitely removed to
+Logroño, or it will be removed there as soon as the present bishop dies.
+But he has a long life, the present bishop!
+
+The origin of Santo Domingo is purely religious. In the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries a pious individual lived in the neighbourhood whose
+life-work and ambition it was to facilitate the travelling pilgrims to
+Santiago in Galicia. He served as guide, kept a road open in winter and
+summer, and even built bridges across the streams, one of which is still
+existing to-day, and leads into the town which bears his name.
+
+He had even gone so far as to establish a rustic sort of an inn where
+the pilgrims could pass the night and eat (without paying?). He also
+constructed a church beside his inn. Upon dying, he was canonized Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada (Domingo was his name, and _calzada_ is old
+Spanish for highroad). The Alfonsos of Castile were grateful to the
+humble saint for having saved them the expense and trouble of looking
+after their roads, and ordained that a handsome church should be erected
+on the spot where previously the humble inn and chapel had stood. Houses
+grew up around it rapidly and the dignity of the new temple was raised
+in consequence.
+
+Of the four cities of Upper Rioja, the only one worthy of the name of
+city is Logroño, with its historical bridge across the Ebro, a bridge
+that was held, according to the tradition, by the hero, Ruy Diaz Gaona,
+and three valiant companions against a whole army of invading Navarrese.
+
+The name Lucronio or Logroño is first mentioned in a document toward
+the middle of the eleventh century. The date of its foundation is
+absolutely unknown, and all that can be said is that, once it had fallen
+into the hands of the monarchs of Castile (1076), it grew rapidly in
+importance, out-shining the other three Rioja cities. It is seated on
+the southern banks of the Ebro in the most fertile part of the whole
+region, and enjoys a delightful climate. Since 1850 it has been raised
+to the dignity of an episcopal see.
+
+As regards the architectural remains of the four cities in the Upper
+Rioja valley, they are similar to those of Navarra, properly speaking,
+though not so pure in their general lines. In other words, they belong
+to the decadent period of Gothic art. Moreover, they have one and all
+been spoiled by ingenious, though dreadful mixtures of plateresque,
+Renaissance, and grotesque decorative details, and consequently the real
+remains of the old twelfth and thirteenth century Gothic and Romanesque
+constructions are difficult to trace.
+
+_Nájera._--Absolutely nothing remains of the old Romanesque church built
+by the king Don Garcia. A new edifice of decadent Gothic, mixed with
+Renaissance details, and dating from the fifteenth century, stands
+to-day; it contains a magnificent series of choir stalls of excellent
+workmanship, and similar to those of Burgos. The cloister, in spite of
+the Arab-looking geometrical tracery of the ogival arches, is both light
+and elegant.
+
+This cathedral was at one time used as the pantheon of the kings of
+Navarra. About ten elaborate marble tombs still lie at the foot of the
+building.
+
+_Santo Domingo de la Calzada._--The primitive ground-plan of the
+cathedral has been preserved, a nave and two aisles showing Romanesque
+strength in the lower and ogival lightness in the upper tiers. But
+otherwise nothing reminds one of a twelfth or thirteenth century church.
+
+The cloister, of the sixteenth century, is a handsome
+plateresque-Renaissance edifice, rather small, severe, and cold. The
+great merit of this church lies in the sepulchral tombs in the different
+chapels, all of which were executed toward the end of the fifteenth and
+during the first years of the seventeenth centuries, and any one wishing
+to form for himself an idea of this particular branch of Spanish
+monumental art must not fail to examine such sepulchres as those of
+Carranza, Fernando Alfonso, etc.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF NÁJERA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The effigy of the patron saint (Santo Domingo) is of painted wood
+clothed in rich silver robes, which form a striking antithesis to the
+saint's humble and modest life. The chapel where the latter lies is
+closed by a gilded iron _reja_ of plateresque workmanship. The saint's
+body lies in a simple marble sepulchre, said to have been carved by
+Santo Domingo himself, who was both an architect and a sculptor. The
+truth of this version is, however, doubtful.
+
+Of the square tower and the principal entrance no remarks need be made,
+for both are insignificant. The _retablo_ of the high altar has been
+attributed to Foment, who constructed those of Saragosse and Huesca. The
+attribution is, however, most doubtful, as shown by the completely
+different styles employed by the artist of each. Not that the _retablo_
+in the Church of Santo Domingo is inferior to Foment's masterworks in
+Aragon, but the decorative motives of the flanking columns and low
+reliefs would prove--in case they had been executed by the Aragonese
+Foment--a departure from the latter's classic style.
+
+In one of the niches of the cloister, in a simple urn, lies the heart of
+Don Enrique, second King of Castile of that name, the half-brother (one
+of the bastards mentioned in a previous chapter and from whom all later
+Spanish monarchs are descended) of Peter the Cruel. The latter was
+murdered by his fond relative, who usurped the throne.
+
+_Logroño._--In 1435 Santa Maria la Redonda was raised to a suffragan
+church of Santo Domingo de la Calzada; about this date the old building
+must have been almost entirely torn down, as the ogival arches of the
+nave are of the fifteenth century; so also are the lower windows which,
+on the west, flank the southern door.
+
+Excepting these few remains, nothing can bring to the tourist's mind the
+fifteenth-century edifice, and not a single stone can recall the
+twelfth-century church. For the remaining parts of the building are of
+the sixteenth, seventeenth, and successive centuries, and to-day the
+interior is being enlarged so as to make room for the see which is to be
+removed here from Santo Domingo and Calahorra.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGROÑO]
+
+The interior is Roman cruciform with a high and airy central nave, in
+which stands the choir, and on each hand a rather dark aisle of much
+smaller dimensions.
+
+The _trascoro_ is the only peculiarity possessed by this church. It is
+large and circular, closed by an immense vaulting which turns it into a
+chapel separated from the rest of the church (compare with the Church of
+the Pillar of Saragosse).
+
+True to the grotesque style to which it belongs, the whole surface of
+walls and vault is covered with paintings, the former apparently in oil,
+the latter frescoes. Vixés painted them in the theatrical style of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+From the outside, the regular features of the church please the eye in
+spite of the evident signs of artistic decadence. The two towers, high
+and slender, are among the best produced by the period of decadence in
+Spain which followed upon Herrero's severe style, if only the uppermost
+body lacked the circular linterna which makes the spire top-heavy.
+
+Between the two towers, which, when seen from a distance, gain in beauty
+and lend to the city a noble and picturesque aspect, the façade,
+properly speaking, reaches to their second body. It is a hollow, crowned
+by half a dome in the shape of a shell which in its turn is surmounted
+by a plateresque cornice in the shape of a long and narrow scroll.
+
+The hollow is a peculiar and daring medley of architectural elegance and
+sculptural bizarrerie and vice versa. From Madrazo it drew the
+exclamation that, since he had seen it, he was convinced that not all
+monuments belonging to the grotesque style were devoid of beauty.
+
+The date of the erection of the western front is doubtless the same as
+that of the _trascoro_; both are contemporaneous--the author is inclined
+to believe--with the erection of the Pillar in Saragosse; at least, they
+resemble each other in certain unmistakable details.
+
+_Calahorra._--The fourth of the cathedral churches of Upper Rioja is
+that of Calahorra. After the repopulation of the town by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile in the eleventh century, the bodies of the two martyr saints
+Emeterio and Celedonio were pulled up out of a well (to be seen to-day
+in the cloister) where they had been hidden by the Christians, when
+the Moors conquered the fortress, and a church was built near the same
+spot. Of this eleventh-century church nothing remains to-day.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the twelfth century, a new building was begun, but the process of
+construction continued slowly, and it was not until two hundred years
+later that the apse was finally finished. The body of the church, from
+the western front (this latter hideously modern and uninteresting) to
+the transept, is the oldest part,--simple Gothic of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+The numerous chapels which form a ring around the church have all been
+decorated in the grotesque style of the eighteenth century, and with
+their lively colours, their polychrome statues, and overdone
+ornamentation, they offer but little interest to the visitor. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is one of the largest to be seen anywhere;
+but the Renaissance elegance of the lower body is completely drowned by
+the grotesque decoration of the upper half, which was constructed at a
+later date.
+
+The choir stalls are fine specimens of that style in which the artist
+preferred an intricate composition to simple beauty. Biblical scenes,
+surrounded and separated by allegorical personages and symbolical lines
+in great profusion, show the carver's talent rather than his artistic
+genius.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+SORIA
+
+
+The Duero River, upon leaving its source at the foot of the Pico de
+Urbión (near Vinuesa), flows eastward for about fifty miles, then
+southward for another fifty miles, when it turns abruptly westward on
+its lengthy journey across the Iberian peninsula.
+
+The circular region, limited on three sides by the river's course, is
+the historical field of Soria--part of the province of the same name,
+Numantia, Rome's great enemy and almost the cause of her ruin, lay
+somewhere in this part of the country, though where is not exactly
+known, as the great Scipio took care to destroy it so thoroughly that
+not even a stone remains to-day to indicate where the heroic fortress
+stood.
+
+In the present day, two cities and two cathedrals are seated on the
+banks of the Duero within this circle; the one is Soria, the other Osma.
+The latter was a Roman town, an early episcopal see, and later an Arab
+fortress; the former was founded by one of the Alfonsos toward the end
+of the eleventh century, as a frontier fortress against Aragon to the
+east, the Moors to the south, and Navarra to the north.
+
+The town grew apace, thanks to the remarkable _fueros_ granted to the
+citizens, who lived as in a republic of their own making--an almost
+unique case of self-government to be recorded in the middle ages.
+
+The principal parish church was raised to a suffragan of Osma in the
+twelfth century. Since then, there has been a continual spirit of
+rivalry between the two cities, for the former, more important as a town
+and as the capital of a province, could not bend its head to the
+ecclesiastical authority of a village like Osma. Throughout the middle
+ages the jealousy between the two was food for incessant strife. Pope
+Clement IV., at Alfonso VIII.'s instigation, raised the Collegiate at
+Soria to an episcopal see independent of Osma, but the hard-headed
+chapter of the last named city refused to acknowledge the Pope's order,
+and no bishop was elected or appointed.
+
+This bitter hatred between the two rivals was the origin of many an
+amusing incident. Upon one occasion the Bishop of Osma, visiting his
+suffragan church in Soria, had the house in which he was stopping for
+the night burnt about his ears. He moved off to another house, and on
+the second night this was also mysteriously set on fire. His lordship
+did not await the third night, afraid of what might happen, but bolted
+back to his episcopal palace at Osma.
+
+In 1520 the chapter of the Collegiate in Soria sent a petition to the
+country's sovereign asking him to order the erection of a new church in
+place of the old twelfth-century building, and in another part of the
+town. The request was not granted, however, so what did the wily chapter
+do? It ordered an architect to construct a chapel in the very centre of
+the church, and when it was completed, admired the work with great
+enthusiasm, excepting only the pillar in front of it which obstructed
+the uninterrupted view. This pillar was the real support of the church,
+and though the chapter was told as much (as though it did not know it!)
+the architect was ordered to pull it down. After hesitating to do so,
+the latter acceded: the pillar was pulled down, and with it the whole
+church tumbled down as well! But the chapter's game was discovered, and
+it was obliged to rebuild the cathedral on the same spot and with the
+same materials.
+
+Consequently, the church at Soria is a sixteenth-century building of
+little or no merit, excepting the western front, which is the only part
+of the old building that did not fall down, and is a fine specimen of
+Castilian Romanesque, as well as the cloister, one of the handsomest,
+besides being one of the few twelfth-century cloisters in Spain, with a
+double row of slender columns supporting the round-headed arches. This
+modification of the conventional type lends an aspect of peculiar
+lightness to the otherwise heavy Romanesque.
+
+As regards the settlement of the strife between Soria and Osma, the see
+is to-day a double one, like that of Madrid and Alcalá. Upon the death
+of the present bishop, however, it will be transported definitely to
+Soria, and consequently the inhabitants of the last named city will at
+last be able to give thanks for the great mercies Allah or the True God
+has bestowed upon them.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+_Osma._--From an historical and architectural point of view, Osma,
+the rival city on the Duero River, is much more important than Soria.
+
+According to the tradition, St. James preached the Holy Gospel, and
+after him St. Peter (or St. Paul?), who left his disciple St. Astorgio
+behind as bishop (91 A. D.). Twenty-two bishops succeeded him, the
+twenty-third on the list being John I., really the first of whose
+existence we have any positive proof, for he signed the third council in
+Toledo in the sixth century. In the eighth century, the Saracens drove
+the shepherd of the Christian flock northward to Asturias, and it was
+not until 1100 that the first bishop _de modernis_ was appointed by
+Archbishop Bernardo of Toledo. The latter's choice fell on Peter, a
+virtuous French monastic monk, who was canonized by the Pope after his
+death, and figures in the calendar as St. Peter of Osma.
+
+When the first bishop took possession of his see, he started to build
+his cathedral. Instead of choosing Osma itself as the seat, however, he
+selected the site of a convent on the opposite banks of the Duero (to
+the north), where the Virgin had appeared to a shepherd. Houses soon
+grew up around the temple and, to distinguish it from Osma, the new
+city was called Burgo de Osma, a name it still retains.
+
+In 1232, not a hundred years after the erection of the cathedral, it was
+totally destroyed, excepting one or two chapels still to be seen in the
+cloister, by Juan Dominguez, who was bishop at the time, and who wished
+to possess a see more important in appearance than that left to him by
+his predecessor, St. Peter.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is small, but highly interesting. The
+original plan was that of a Romanesque basilica with a three-lobed apse,
+but in 1781 the ambulatory walk behind the altar joined the two lateral
+aisles.
+
+Two of the best pieces of sculptural work in the cathedral are the
+_retablo_ of the high altar, and the relief imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_--both of them carved in wood by Juan de Juni, one of the best
+Castilian sculptors of the sixteenth century. The plastic beauty of the
+figures and their lifelike postures harmonize well with the simple
+Renaissance columns ornamented here and there with finely wrought
+flowers and garlands.
+
+The chapel where St. Peter of Osma's body lies is an original rather
+than a beautiful annex of the church. For, given the small dimensions of
+the cathedral, it was difficult to find sufficient room for the chapels,
+sacristy, vestuary, etc. In the case of the above chapel, therefore, it
+was necessary to build it above the vestuary; it is reached by a flight
+of stairs, beneath which two three-lobed arches lead to the sombre room
+below. The result is highly original.
+
+The same remarks as regard lack of space can be made when speaking about
+the principal entrance. Previously the portal had been situated in the
+western front; the erection of the tower on one side, and of a chapel on
+the other, had rendered this entrance insignificant and half blinded by
+the prominent tower. So a new one had to be erected, considered by many
+art critics to be a beautiful addition to the cathedral properly
+speaking, but which strikes the author as excessively ugly, especially
+the upper half, with its balcony, and a hollow arch above it, in the
+shadows of which the rose window loses both its artistic and its useful
+object. So, being round, it is placed within a semicircular sort of
+_avant-porche_ or recess, the strong _contours_ of which deform the
+immense circle of the window.
+
+To conclude: in the cathedral of Osma, bad architecture is only too
+evident. The tower is perhaps the most elegant part, and yet the second
+body, which was to give it a gradually sloping elegance, was omitted,
+and the third placed directly upon the first. This is no improvement.
+
+Perhaps the real reason for these architectural mishaps is not so much
+the fault of the architects and artists as that of the chapter, and of
+the flock which could not help satisfactorily toward the erection of a
+worthy cathedral. Luckily, however, there are other cathedrals in Spain,
+where, in spite of reduced funds, a decent and homogeneous building was
+erected.
+
+The cloister, bare on the inner side, is nevertheless a modest Gothic
+structure with acceptable lobulated ogival windows.
+
+
+
+
+_PART IV_
+
+_Western Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+PALENCIA
+
+
+The history of Palencia can be divided into two distinct parts,
+separated from each other by a lapse of about five hundred years, during
+which the city was entirely blotted out from the map of Spain.
+
+The first period reaches from before the Roman Conquest to the
+Visigothic domination.
+
+Originally inhabited by the Vacceos, a Celtiberian tribe, it was one of
+the last fortresses to succumb to Roman arms, having joined Numantia in
+the terrible war waged by Spaniards and which has become both legendary
+and universal.
+
+Under Roman rule the broad belt of land, of which Palencia, a military
+town on the road from Astorga to Tarragon, was the capital, flourished
+as it had never done before. Consequently it is but natural that one of
+the first sees should have been established there as soon as
+Christianity invaded the peninsula. No records are, however, at hand as
+regards the names of the first bishops and of the martyr saints, as
+thick here as elsewhere and as numerous in Spain as in Rome itself. At
+any rate, contemporary documents mention a Bishop Toribio, not the first
+to occupy the see nor the same prelate who worked miracles in Orense and
+Astorga. The Palencian Toribio fought also against the Priscilian
+heresy, and was one of the impediments which stopped its spread further
+southward. Of this man it is said that, disgusted with the heresy
+practised at large in his Pallantia, he mounted on a hill, and,
+stretching his arms heavenwards, caused the waters of the river to leave
+their bed and inundate the city, a most efficacious means of bringing
+loitering sheep to the fold.
+
+Nowhere did the Visigoths wreak greater vengeance or harm on the
+Iberians who had hindered their entry into the peninsula than in
+Palencia. It was entirely wrecked and ruined, not one stone remaining to
+tell the tale of the city that had been. Slowly it emerged from the
+wreck, a village rather than a town; once in awhile its bishops are
+mentioned, living rather in Toledo than in their humble see.
+
+The Arab invasion devastated a second time the growing town; perhaps it
+was Alfonso I. himself who completely wrecked it, for the Moorish
+frontier was to the north of the city, and it was the sovereign's
+tactics to raze to the ground all cities he could not keep, when he made
+a risky incursion into hostile country.
+
+So Palencia was forgotten until the eleventh century, when Sancho el
+Mayor, King of Navarra, who had conquered this part of Castile,
+reëstablished the long-ignored see. He was hunting among the weeds that
+covered the ruins of what had once been a Roman fortress, when a boar
+sprang out of cover in front of him and escaped. Being light of foot,
+the king followed the animal until it disappeared in a cave, or what
+appeared to be such, though it really was a subterranean chapel
+dedicated to the martyrs, or to the patron saint of old Pallantia,
+namely, San Antolin.
+
+The hunted beast cowered down in front of the altar; the king lifted his
+arm to spear it, when lo, his arm was detained in mid-air by an
+invisible hand! Immediately the monarch prostrated himself before the
+miraculous effigy of the saint; he acknowledged his sacrilegious sin,
+and prayed for forgiveness; the boar escaped, the monarch's arm fell to
+his side, and a few days later the see was reëstablished, a church was
+erected above the subterranean chapel, and Bernardo was appointed the
+first bishop (1035). After Sancho's death, his son Ferdinand, who, as we
+have seen, managed to unite for the first time all Northern Spain
+beneath his sceptre, made it a point of honour to favour the see his
+father had erected a few months before his death, an example followed by
+all later monarchs until the times of Isabel the Catholic.
+
+A surprising number of houses were soon built around the cathedral, and
+the city's future was most promising. Its bishops were among the
+noble-blooded of the land, and enjoyed such exceptional privileges as
+gave them power and wealth rarely equalled in the history of the middle
+ages. But then, the city had been built for the church and not the
+church for the city, and it is not to be marvelled at that the prelates
+bore the title of "_hecho un rey y un papa_"--king and pope. The greater
+part of these princes, it is true, lived at court rather than in their
+episcopal see, which is, perhaps, one of the reasons why Palencia failed
+to emulate with Burgos and Valladolid, though at one time it was the
+residence of some of the kings of Castile.
+
+Moreover, being only second in importance to the two last named cities,
+Palencia was continually the seat of dissident noblemen and thwarted
+heirs to the throne; because these latter, being unable to conquer the
+capital, or Valladolid, invariably sought to establish themselves in
+Palencia, sometimes successfully, at others being obliged to retreat
+from the city walls. The story of the town is consequently one of the
+most adventurous and varied to be read in Spanish history, and it is due
+to the side it took in the rebellion against Charles-Quint, in the time
+of the Comuneros, that it was finally obliged to cede its place
+definitely to Valladolid, and lost its importance as one of the three
+cities of Castilla la Vieja.
+
+It remains to be mentioned that Palencia was the seat of the first
+Spanish university (Christian, not Moorish), previous to either that of
+Salamanca or Alcalá. In 1208 this educational institution was founded by
+Alfonso VIII.; professors were procured from Italy and France, and a
+building was erected beside the cathedral and under its protecting wing.
+It did not survive the monarch's death, however, for the reign of the
+latter's son left but little spare time for science and letters, and in
+1248 it was closed, though twenty years later Pope Urbano IV. futilely
+endeavoured to reëstablish it. According to a popular tradition, it owed
+its definite death to the inhabitants of the town, who, bent upon
+venging an outrage committed by one of the students upon a daughter of
+the city, fell upon them one night at a given signal and killed them to
+the last man.
+
+In the fourteenth century, the cathedral, which had suffered enormously
+from sieges and from the hands of enemies, was entirely pulled down and
+a new one built on the same spot (June, 1321). The subterranean chapel,
+which had been the cause of the city's resurrection, was still the
+central attraction and relic of the cathedral, and, according to another
+legend, no less marvellous than that of Toribio, its genuineness has
+been placed definitely (?) without the pale of skeptic doubts. It
+appears that one Pedro, Bishop of Osma (St. Peter of Osma?), was praying
+before the effigy of San Antolin when the lights went out. The pious
+yet doubting prelate prayed to God to give him a proof of the relic's
+authenticity by lighting the candles. To his surprise (?) and glee, the
+candles lit by themselves!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Let us approach the city by rail. The train leaves Venta de Baños, a
+junction station with a village about two miles away possessing a
+seventh-century Visigothic church which offers the great peculiarity of
+horseshoe arches in its structure, dating from before the Arab invasion.
+
+Immediately upon emerging from the station, the train enters an immense
+rolling plain of a ruddy, sandy appearance, with here and there an
+isolated sand-hill crowned by the forgotten ruins of a mediæval castle.
+
+The capital of this region is Palencia.
+
+The erection of the cathedral church of the town was begun in 1321; it
+was dedicated to the Mother and Child, and to San Antolin, whose chapel,
+devoid of all artistic merit, is still to be seen beneath the choir.
+
+This edifice was finished toward 1550. The same division as has been
+observed in the history of the city can be applied to the temple: at
+first it was intended to construct a modest Gothic church of red
+sandstone; the apse with its five chapels and traditional ambulatory was
+erected, as well as the transept and the high altar terminating the
+central nave. Then, after about a hundred years had passed away, the
+original plan was altered by lengthening the body of the building.
+Consequently the chapel of the high altar was too small in comparison
+with the enlarged proportions, and it was transformed into a parish
+chapel. Opposite it, and to the west of the old transept, another high
+altar was constructed in the central nave, and a second transept
+separated it from the choir which followed.
+
+In other words, and looking at this curious monument as it stands
+to-day, the central nave is surmounted by an ogival vaulting of a series
+of ten vaults. The first transept cuts the nave beneath the sixth, and
+the second beneath the ninth vault. (Vault No. 1 is at the western end
+of the church.) Both transepts protrude literally beyond the general
+width of the building. The choir stands beneath the fourth and fifth
+vaults, and the high altar between the two transepts, occupying the
+seventh and eighth space. Beneath the tenth stands the parish chapel or
+ex-high altar, behind which runs the ambulatory, on the off-side of
+which are situated the five apsidal chapels. Consequently the second
+transept separates the old from the new high altar.
+
+[Illustration: PALENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In spite of the low aisles and nave, and the absence of sculptural
+motives so pronounced in Burgos, the effect produced on the spectator by
+the double cross and the unusual length as compared with the width is
+agreeable. The evident lack of unity in the Gothic structure is
+recompensed by the original and pleasing plan.
+
+The final judgment that can be emitted concerning this cathedral church,
+when seen from the outside, is that it shows the typical Spanish-Gothic
+characteristic, namely, heaviness as contrasted to pure ogival
+lightness. There is poverty in the decorative details, and solemnity in
+the interior; the appearance from the outside is of a fortress rather
+than a temple, with slightly pointed Gothic windows, and a heavy and
+solid, rather than an elegant and light, general structure. Only the
+cathedral church of Palencia outgrew the original model and took the
+strange and exotic form it possesses to-day, without losing its
+fortress-like aspect.
+
+Though really built in stone (see the columns and pillars in the
+interior), brick has been largely used in the exterior; hence also the
+impossibility of erecting a pure Gothic building, and this is a remark
+that can be applied to most churches in Spain. The buttresses are heavy,
+the square tower (unfinished) is Romanesque or _Mudejar_ in form rather
+than Gothic, though the windows be ogival. There is no western façade or
+portal; the tower is situated on the southern side between the true
+transepts.
+
+Of the four doorways, two to the north and two to the south, which give
+access to the transepts, the largest and richest in sculptural
+decoration is the Bishop's Door (south). Observe the geometrical designs
+in the panels of the otherwise ogival and slightly pointed doorway. The
+other portal on the south is far simpler, and the arch which surmounts
+it is of a purer Gothic style; not so the geometrically decorated panels
+and the almost Arabian frieze which runs above the arches. This frieze
+is Moorish or Mudejar-Byzantine, and though really it does not belong in
+an ogival building, it harmonizes strangely with it.
+
+In the interior of the cathedral the nakedness of the columns is
+partially recompensed by the richness in sculptural design of some
+sepulchres, as well as by several sixteenth-century grilles. The huge
+_retablo_ of the high altar shows Gothic luxuriousness in its details,
+and at the same time (in the capitals of the flanking columns) nascent
+plateresque severity.
+
+Perhaps the most interesting corner of the interior is the _trascoro_,
+or the exterior side of the wall which closes the choir on the west.
+Here the patronizing genius of Bishop Fonseca, a scion of the celebrated
+Castilian family, excelled itself. The wall itself is richly sculptured,
+and possesses two fine lateral reliefs. In the centre there is a Flemish
+canvas of the sixteenth century, of excellent colour, and an elegantly
+carved pulpit.
+
+In the chapter-room are to be seen some well-preserved Flemish
+tapestries, and in an apsidal chapel is one of Zurbaran's mystic
+subjects: a praying nun. (This portrait, I believe, has been sold or
+donated by the chapter, for, if I am not mistaken, it is to be seen
+to-day in the art collection of the Spanish royal family.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZAMORA
+
+
+Whatever may have been the origin of Zamora, erroneously confounded with
+that of Numantia, it is not until the ninth century that the city, or
+frontier fortress, appears in history as an Arab stronghold, taken from
+the Moors and fortified anew by Alfonso I. or by his son Froila, and
+necessarily lost and regained by Christians and Moors a hundred times
+over in such terrible battles as the celebrated and much sung _día de
+Zamora_ in 901. In 939 another famous siege of the town was undertaken
+by infidel hordes, but the strength of the citadel and the numerous
+moats, six it appears they were in number, separated by high walls
+surrounding the town, were invincible, and the Arab warriors had to
+retreat. Nevertheless, between 900 and 980 the fortress was lost five
+times by the Christians. The last Moor to take it was Almanzor, who
+razed it to the ground and then repopulated it with Arabs from
+Andalusia.
+
+Previously, in 905, the parish church had been raised to an episcopal
+see; the first to occupy it being one Atilano, canonized later by Pope
+Urbano II.
+
+Ten years after this bishop had taken possession of his spiritual
+throne, he was troubled by certain religious scruples, and, putting on a
+pilgrim's robe, he distributed his revenues among the parish poor and
+left the city. Crossing the bridge,--still standing to-day and leading
+from the town to Portugal,--he threw his pastoral ring into the river,
+swearing he would only reoccupy the lost see when the ring should have
+been given back into his hands; should this happen, it would prove that
+the Almighty had pardoned his sins.
+
+For two years he roamed about visiting shrines and succouring the poor;
+at last one day he dreamed that his Master ordered him to repair
+immediately to his see, where he was sorely needed. Returning to Zamora,
+he passed the night in a neighbouring hermitage, and while supping--it
+must have been Friday!--in the belly of the fish he was eating he
+discovered his pastoral ring.
+
+The following day the church-bells were rung by an invisible hand, and
+the pilgrim, entering the city, was hailed as a saint by the
+inhabitants; the same invisible hands took off his pilgrim's clothes and
+dressed him in rich episcopal garments. He took possession of his see,
+dying in the seventh year of his second reign.
+
+Almanzor _el terrible_, on the last powerful raid the Moors were to
+make, buried the Christian see beneath the ruins of the cathedral, and
+erected a mezquita to glorify Allah; fifteen years later the city fell
+into the hands of the Christians again, and saw no more an Arab army
+beneath its walls.
+
+It was not, however, until 125 years later that the ruined episcopal see
+was reëstablished _de modernis_, the first bishop being Bernardo (1124).
+
+But previous to the above date, an event took place in and around Zamora
+that has given national fame to the city, and has made it the centre of
+a Spanish Iliad hardly less poetic or dramatic than the Homerian legend,
+and therefore well worth narrating as perhaps unique in the peninsula,
+not to say in the history of the middle ages.
+
+When Fernando I. of Castile died in 1065, he left his vast territories
+to his five children, bequeathing Castile to his eldest son Sancho,
+Galicia to Garcia, Leon to Alfonso, Toro to Elvira, and Zamora to
+Urraca, who was the eldest daughter, and, with Sancho, the bravest and
+most intrepid of the five children.
+
+According to the romance of Zamora, she, Doña Urraca, worried her
+father's last moments by trying to wheedle more than Zamora out of him;
+but the king was firm, adding only the following curse:
+
+     _"'Quien os la tomara, hija,_
+      _¡La mi maldición le caiga!'--_
+      _Todos dicen amén, amén,_
+      _Sino Don Sancho que calla."_
+
+Which in other words means: "Let my curse fall on whomsoever endeavours
+to take Zamora from you.... Those who were present agreed by saying
+amen; only the eldest son, Don Sancho, remained silent."
+
+The latter, being ambitious, dethroned his brothers and sent them flying
+across the frontier to Andalusia, then Moorish territory. Toro also
+submitted to him, but not so Zamora, held by the dauntless Urraca and
+the governor of the citadel, Arias Gonzalo. So it was besieged by the
+royal troops and asked to surrender, the message being taken by the
+great Cid from Don Sancho to his sister. She, of course, refused to give
+up the town. Wherefore is not known, but the fact is that the Cid, the
+ablest warrior in the hostile army, after having carried the embassy to
+the Infanta, left the king's army; the many romances which treat of this
+siege accuse him of having fallen in love with Doña Urraca's lovely
+eyes,--a love that was perhaps reciprocated,--who knows?
+
+In short, the city was besieged during nine months. Hunger, starvation,
+and illness glared at the besieged. On the point of surrendering, they
+were beseeched by the Infanta to hold out nine days longer; in the
+meantime one Vellido Dolfo, famous in song, emerged by the city's
+postern gate and went to King Sancho's camp, saying that he was tired of
+serving Doña Urraca, with whom he had had a dispute, and that he would
+show the king how to enter the city by a secret path.
+
+According to the romances, it would appear that the king was warned by
+the inhabitants themselves against the traitorous intentions of Vellido.
+"Take care, King Sancho," they shouted from the walls, "and remember
+that we warn you; a traitor has left the city gates who has already
+committed treason four times, and is about to commit the fifth."
+
+The king did not hearken, as is generally the case, and went out walking
+with the knight who was to show him the secret gate; he never returned,
+being killed by a spear-thrust under almost similar circumstances to
+Siegfried's.
+
+The father's curse had thus been fulfilled.
+
+The traitor returned to the city, and, strange to say, was not punished,
+or only insufficiently so; consequently, it is to-day believed that the
+sister of the murdered monarch had a hand in the crime. Upon Vellido's
+return to the besieged town, the governor wished to imprison him--which
+in those days meant more than confinement--but the Infanta objected; it
+is even stated that the traitor spoke with his heartless mistress,
+saying: "It was time the promise should be fulfilled."
+
+In the meanwhile, from the besieging army a solitary knight, Diego
+Ordoñez, rode up to the city walls, and accusing the inhabitants of
+felony and treason, both men and women, young and old, living and dead,
+born and to be born, he challenged them to a duel. It had to be
+accepted, and, according to the laws of chivalry, the challenger had to
+meet in single combat five champions, one after another, for he had
+insulted, not a single man, but a community.
+
+The gray-haired governor of the fortress reserved for himself and his
+four sons the duty of accepting the challenge; the Infanta beseeched him
+in vain to desist from his enterprise, but he was firm: his mistress's
+honour was at stake. At last, persuaded by royal tears, according to the
+romance, he agreed to let his sons precede him, and, only in case it
+should be necessary, would he take the last turn.
+
+The eldest son left the city gates, blessed by the weeping father; his
+helmet and head were cleft in twain by Diego Ordoñez's terrible sword,
+and the latter's ironical shout was heard addressing the governor:
+
+"Don Arias, send me hither another of your charming sons, because this
+one cannot bear you the message."
+
+A second and third son went forth, meeting the same fate: but the
+latter's wounded horse, in throwing its rider, ran blindly into Ordoñez
+and knocked him out of the ring; the duel was therefore judged to be a
+draw.
+
+Several days afterward Alfonso, the dead king's younger brother, hurried
+up from Toledo, and after swearing in Burgos that he had had nothing to
+do with the felonious murder, was anointed King of Castile, Leon, and
+Galicia. His brave sister Urraca lived with him at court, giving him
+useful advice, until she retired to a convent, and at her death left her
+palace and her fortune to the Collegiate Church at Leon.
+
+The remaining history of Zamora is one interminable list of revolts,
+sieges, massacres, and duels. As frontier fortress against Portugal in
+the west, its importance as the last garrison town on the Duero was
+exceptional, and consequently, though it never became important as a
+metropolis, as a stronghold it was one of Castile's most strategical
+points.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The best view of the city is obtained from the southern shore of the
+Duero; on a low hill opposite the spectator, the city walls run east and
+west; behind them, to the left, the castle towers loom up, square and
+Byzantine in appearance; immediately to the right the cathedral nave
+forms a horizontal line to where the _cimborio_ practically terminates
+the church. Thus from afar it seems as though the castle tower were part
+of the religious edifice, and the general appearance of the whole city
+surrounded by massive walls cannot be more warlike. The colour also of
+the ruddy sandstone and brick, brilliant beneath a bright blue sky, is
+characteristic of this part of Castile, and certainly constitutes one of
+its charms. What is more, the landscape is rendered more exotic or
+African by the Oriental appearance of the whole town, its castle, and
+its cathedral.
+
+The latter was begun and ended in the twelfth century; the first stone
+was laid in 1151, and the vaults were closed twenty-three years later,
+in 1174; consequently it is one of the unique twelfth-century churches
+in Spain completed before the year 1200. It is true that the original
+edifice has been deformed by posterior additions and changes dating from
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
+
+Excepting these abominable additions, the primitive building is
+Romanesque; not Romanesque as are the cathedrals we have seen in
+Galicia, but Byzantine, or military Romanesque, showing decided
+Oriental influences. Would to Heaven the cathedral of Zamora were to-day
+as it stood in the twelfth century!
+
+[Illustration: ZAMORA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The form of the church is that of a basilica. Like the cathedral of
+Palencia, it lacks a western front; the apse is semicircular,
+strengthened by heavy leaning buttresses; the upper, towerless rim of
+this same body is decorated with an ogival festoon set off by means of
+the primitive pinnacles of the top of the buttresses. The northern
+(Renaissance or plateresque) front is, though beautiful and severe in
+itself, a calamity when compared with the Romanesque edifice, as is also
+the new and horrid clock-tower.
+
+The view of the southern end of the transept, as seen from the left, is
+the most imposing to be obtained of the building. Two flights of steps
+lead up to the Romanesque portal, flanked by three simple pillars, which
+support three rounded arches deeply dentated(!). Blind windows, similar
+in structure to the portal, occupy the second body of the façade, and
+are surmounted in their turn by a simple row of inverted crenelated
+teeth, showing in their rounded edges the timid use of the horseshoe
+arc. The superior body is formed by two concentric and slightly ogival
+arches embedded in the wall.
+
+The greatest attraction, and that which above all gives a warlike aspect
+to the whole building, is the _cimborio_, or lantern of the _croisée_.
+Flanked by four circular turrets, which are pierced by round-topped
+windows and surmounted by Oriental domes that add a stunted, solid
+appearance to the whole, the principal cupola rises to the same height
+as the previously mentioned turrets. The whole is a marvel of simple
+architectural resource within the narrow limits of the round-arched
+style. What is more, though this cupola and that of Santiago belong to
+the same period, what a world of difference between the two! Seen as
+indicated above, the _factura_ of the whole is intensely Oriental
+(excepting the addition of the triangular cornices emerging from beneath
+the cupola), and, it may be said in parenthesis, exceptionally fine.
+Besides, the high walls of the aisles, as compared with the stunted
+growth of the _cimborio_, and with the compact and slightly angular form
+of the entire building, lend an unrivalled aspect of solidity, strength,
+and resistance to the twelfth-century cathedral church, so
+intrinsically different from that of Santiago.
+
+The interior is no less peculiar, and particularly so beneath the
+lantern of the _croisée_. The latter is composed of more than a dozen
+windows, slightly ogival in shape, though from the outside the pillars
+of the flanking turrets support round-headed arches; these windows are
+separated from each other by simple columns or shafts. Again, what a
+difference between this solid and simple _cimborio_ and the marvellous
+lantern of the cathedral at Burgos! Two ages, two generations, even two
+ideals, are represented in both; the earlier, the stronger, in Zamora;
+the later, the more aerial and elaborate, in Burgos.
+
+Another Romanesque characteristic is the approximate height of nave and
+aisles. This circumstance examined from within or from without is one of
+the causes of the solid appearance of the church; the windows of the
+aisles--unimportant, it is true, from an artistic point of view--are
+slightly ogival; those of the nave are far more primitive and
+round-headed.
+
+The transept, originally of the same length as the width of the church,
+was prolonged in the fifteenth century. (On the south side also?... It
+is extremely doubtful, as the southern façade previously described is
+hardly a fifteenth-century construction; on the other hand, that on the
+north side is easily classified as posterior to the general construction
+of the building.)
+
+Further, the western end, lacking a façade, is terminated by an apse,
+that is, each aisle and the central nave run into a chapel. The effect
+of this _double apse_ is highly peculiar, especially as seen from
+within, with chapels to the east and chapels to the west.
+
+The _retablo_ is of indifferent workmanship; the choir stalls, on the
+other hand, are among the most exquisitely wrought--simple, sober, and
+natural--to be seen in Spain, especially those of the lower row.
+
+The chapels are as usual in Spanish cathedrals, as different in style as
+they are in size; none of those in Zamora can be considered as artistic
+jewels. The best is doubtless that which terminates the southern aisles
+on the western end of the church, where the principal façade ought to
+have been placed. It is Gothic, rich in its decoration, but showing here
+and there the decadence of the northern style.
+
+The cloister--well, anywhere else it might have been praised for its
+plateresque simplicity and severity, but here!--it is out of date and
+place.
+
+To conclude, the general characteristics of the cathedral of Zamora are
+such as justify the opinion that the edifice, especially as its
+Byzantine-Oriental and severe primitive structure is concerned, is one
+of the great churches that can still be admired in Spain, in spite of
+the reduced size and of the additions which have been introduced.
+
+     NOTE.--To the traveller interested in church architecture, the
+     author wishes to draw attention to the parish church of La Magdalen
+     in Zamora. The northern portal of the same is one of the most
+     perfect--if not the most perfect--specimen of Byzantine-Romanesque
+     decoration to be met with in Spain. It is perhaps unique in the
+     world. At the same time, the severe Oriental appearance of the
+     church, both from the outside and as seen from within, cannot fail
+     to draw the attention of the most casual observer.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+TORO
+
+
+To the west of Valladolid, on the river Duero, Toro, the second of the
+two great fortress cities, uplifts its Alcázar to the blue sky; like
+Zamora, it owed its fame to its strategic position: first, as one of the
+Christian outposts to the north of the Duero against the Arab
+possessions to the south, and, secondly, as a link between Valladolid
+and Zamora, the latter being the bulwark of Christian opposition against
+the ever encroaching Portuguese.
+
+Twin cities the fortresses have been called, and no better expression is
+at hand to denote at once the similarity of their history, their
+necessary origin, and their necessary decadence.
+
+Nevertheless, Toro appears in history somewhat later than Zamora, having
+been erected either on virgin soil, or upon the ruins of a destroyed
+Arab fortress as late as in the tenth century, by Garcia, son of
+Alfonso III. At any rate, it was not until a century later, in 1065,
+that the city attained any importance, when Fernando I. bequeathed it to
+his daughter Elvira, who, seeing her elder brother's impetuous
+ambitions, handed over the town and the citadel to him.
+
+Throughout the middle ages the name of Toro is foremost among the
+important fortresses of Castile, and many an event--generally tragic and
+bloody--took place behind its walls. Here Alfonso XI. murdered his uncle
+in cold blood, and Don Pedro el Cruel, after besieging the town and the
+citadel held in opposition to him by his mother, allowed her a free exit
+with the gentlemen defenders of the place, but broke his word when they
+were on the bridge, and murdered all excepting his widowed mother!
+
+In the days of Isabel the Catholic, Toro was taken by the kings of
+Portugal, who upheld the claims of Enrique IV's illegitimate daughter,
+Juana la Beltranaja. In the vicinity of the town, the great battle of
+Pelea Gonzalo was fought, which gave the western part of Castile to the
+rightful sovereigns. This battle is famous for the many prelates and
+curates who, armed,--and wearing trousers and not frocks!--fought like
+Christians (!) in the ranks.
+
+In Toro, Cortes was assembled in 1505 to open Queen Isabel's testament,
+and to promulgate those laws which have gone down in Spanish history as
+the Leyes de Toro; this was the last spark of Toro's fame, for since
+then its fate has been identical with that of Zamora, forty miles away.
+
+Strictly speaking, it is doubtful if Toro ever was a city; at one time
+it seems to have possessed an ephemeral bishop,--at least such is the
+popular belief,--who must have reigned in his see but a short time, as
+at an early date the city was submitted to the ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction of Astorga. Later, when the see was reëstablished in
+Zamora, the latter's twin sister, Toro, was definitely included in the
+new episcopal diocese.
+
+Be that as it may, the Catholic kings raised the church at Toro to a
+collegiate in the sixteenth century (1500?) because they were anxious to
+gain the good-will of the inhabitants after the Portuguese invasion.
+
+Built either toward the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, Santa Maria la Mayor, popularly called _la
+catedral_, closely resembles the cathedral church at Zamora. The style
+is the same (Byzantine-Romanesque), and the impression of strength and
+solidity produced by the warlike aspect of the building is even more
+pronounced than in the case of the sister church.
+
+The general plan is that of a basilica, rectangular in shape, with a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe being by far the largest in size, and
+a transept which protrudes slightly beyond the width of the church. This
+transept is situated immediately in front of the apse; the _croisée_ is
+surmounted by the handsome _cimborio_, larger than that at Zamora,
+pierced by twice as many round-topped windows, but lacking a cupola, as
+do also the flanking towers, which are flat-topped. Above and between
+these latter, the cone-shaped roof of the _cimborio_, properly speaking,
+is sloping and triangular in its cross-section.
+
+This body, less Oriental in appearance than the one in Zamora, impresses
+one with a feeling of greater awe, thanks to the great diameter as
+compared with the foreshortened height. Crowning as it does the apse
+(from the proximity of the transept to the head of the church), the
+_croisée_, and the two wings of the transept, the cupola in question
+produces a weird and incomprehensible effect on the spectator viewing it
+from the southeast. The more modern tower, which backs the _cimborio_,
+lends, it is true, a certain elegance to the edifice that the early
+builders were not willing to impart. The ensemble is, nevertheless,
+peculiarly Byzantine, and, with the mother-church in Zamora, which it
+resembles without copying, it stands almost unique in the history of
+art.
+
+The lateral doors, not situated in the transept, are located near the
+foot of the church. The southern portal is the larger, but the most
+simple; the arch which crowns it shows a decided ogival tendency, a
+circumstance which need not necessarily be attributed to Gothic
+influence, as in many churches prior to the introduction of the ogival
+arch the pointed top was known, and in isolated cases it was made use
+of, though purely by accident, and not as a constructive element.
+
+The northern door is smaller, but a hundred times richer in sculptural
+design. It shows Byzantine influence in the decoration, and as a
+Byzantine-Romanesque portal can figure among the best in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: TORO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It has been supposed that the western front of the building possessed at
+one time a narthex, like the cathedral Tuy, for instance. Nothing
+remains of it, however, as the portal which used to be here was done
+away with, and in its place a modern chapel with a fine Gothic _retablo_
+was consecrated.
+
+Seen from the interior, the almost similar height of the nave and
+aisles, leaves, as in Zamora, a somewhat stern and depressing impression
+on the visitor; the light which enters is also feeble, excepting beneath
+the _linterna_, where "the difficulty of placing a circular body on a
+square without the aid of supports (_pechinas_) has been so naturally
+and perfectly overcome that we are obliged to doubt of its ever having
+existed."
+
+Gothic elements, more so than in Zamora, mix with the Romanesque
+traditions in the decoration of the nave and aisles; nevertheless, the
+elements of construction are purely Romanesque, excepting the central
+apsidal chapel which contains the high altar. Restored by the Fonseca
+family in the sixteenth century, it is ogival in conception and
+execution, and contains some fine tombs of the above named aristocratic
+family. But the chapel passes unnoticed in this peculiarly exotic
+building, where solidity and not grace was the object sought and
+obtained.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+
+The very position of Salamanca, immediately to the north of the chain of
+mountains which served for many a century as a rough frontier wall
+between Christians and Moors, was bound to ensure the city's importance
+and fame. Its history is consequently unique, grander and more exciting
+than that of any other city; the universal name it acquired in the
+fourteenth century, thanks to its university, can only be compared with
+that of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.
+
+Consequently its fall from past renown to present insignificance was
+tremendous, and to-day, a heap of ruins, boasting of traditions like
+Toledo and Burgos, of two cathedrals and twenty-four parish churches, of
+twice as many convents and palaces, of a one-time glorious university
+and half a hundred colleges,--Salamanca sleeps away a useless existence
+from which it will never awaken.
+
+Its history has still to be penned. What an exciting and stirring
+account of middle age life in Spain it would be!
+
+The Romans knew Salamantia, and the first notice handed down to us of
+the city reads like a fairy story, as though predicting future events.
+
+According to Plutarch, the town was besieged by Hannibal, and had to
+surrender. The inhabitants were allowed to leave, unarmed, and taking
+away with them only their clothes; the men were searched as they passed
+out, but not so the women.
+
+Together men and women left the town. A mile away they halted, and the
+women drew forth from beneath their robes concealed weapons. Together
+the men and the women returned to their town and stealthily fell upon
+their foes, slaughtering them in considerable numbers. Hannibal was so
+"enchanted" (!) with the bravery displayed by the women, that he drew
+away his army from the town, leaving the patriotic inhabitants to settle
+again their beloved Salamanca.
+
+The Western Goths, upon their arrival in Spain, found Salamanca in a
+flourishing state, and respected its episcopal see, the origin of which
+is ignored. The first bishop we have any record of is Eleuterio, who
+signed the third Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+The Arabs treated the city more harshly; it was in turn taken and
+destroyed by infidels and Christians; the former sacking frontier towns,
+the latter destroying all fortresses they could not hold.
+
+In the eighth century no bishop seems to have existed in Salamanca; in
+the tenth, date of a partial reëstablishment of the see, seven prelates
+are mentioned; these did not, however, risk their skins by taking
+possession of their chair, but lived quietly in the north, either in
+Santiago--farther north they could not go!--or else in Leon and Burgos.
+The eleventh century is again devoid of any ecclesiastical news
+connected with the see of Salamanca; what is more, the very name of the
+city is forgotten until Alfonso VI. crossed the Guaderrama and fixed his
+court in Toledo. This bold step, taken in a hostile country far from the
+centre of the kingdom and from his base of operations, obliged the
+monarch to erect with all speed a series of fortresses to the north; as
+a result, Salamanca, Segovia, and Avila, beyond the Guaderrama
+Mountains, and Madrid to the south, were quickly populated by
+Christians.
+
+This occurred in 1102; the first bishop _de modernis_ was Jeronimo, a
+French warrior-monk, who had accompanied his bosom friend el Cid to
+Valencia, had fought beside him, and had been appointed bishop of the
+conquered see. Not for any length of time, however, for as soon as el
+Cid died, the Moors drove the Christians out of the new kingdom, and the
+bishop came to Leon with the Cristo de las Batallas,--a miraculous cross
+of old Byzantine workmanship, supposed to have aided the Cid in many a
+battle,--as the only _souvenir_ of his stay in the Valencian see.
+
+The next four or five bishops fought among themselves. At one time the
+city had no fewer than two, a usurper, and another who was not much
+better; the Pope deprived one of his dignity, the king another, the
+influential Archbishop of Santiago chose a third, who was also
+deposed--the good old times!--until at last one Berengario was
+appointed, and the ignominious conflict was peacefully settled.
+
+The inhabitants of the city at the beginning were a strong, warlike
+medley of Jews (these were doubtless the least warlike!), Arabs,
+Aragonese, Castilian, French, and Leonese. Bands of these without a
+commander invaded Moorish territory, sacking and pillaging where they
+could. On one occasion they were pursued by an Arab army, whose general
+asked to speak with the captain of the Salamantinos. The answer was,
+"Each of us is his own captain!" words that can be considered typical of
+the anarchy which reigned in Spain until the advent of Isabel and
+Ferdinand in the fifteenth century.
+
+If the bishops fought among themselves, and if the low class people
+lived in a state of utter anarchy, the same spirit spread to--or
+emanated from--the nobility, of whom Salamanca had more than its share,
+especially as soon as the university was founded. The annals of no other
+city are so replete with family traditions and feuds, which were not
+only restricted to the original disputers, to their families and
+acquaintances, but became generalized among the inhabitants themselves,
+who took part in the feud. Thus it often happened that the city was
+divided into two camps, separated by an imaginary line, and woe betide
+the daring or careless individual who crossed it!
+
+One of the most dramatic of these feuds--a savage species of
+vendetta--was the following:
+
+Doña Maria Perez, a Plasencian dame of noble birth, had married one of
+the most powerful noblemen in Salamanca, Monroy by name, and upon the
+latter's death remained a widowed mother of two sons. One of them asked
+and obtained in marriage the hand of a noble lady who had refused a
+similar proposition made by one Enriquez, son of a Sevillan aristocrat.
+The youth's jealousy and anger was therefore bitterly aroused, and he
+and his brother waited for a suitable opportunity in which to avenge
+themselves. It soon came: they were playing Spanish ball, _pelota_, one
+day with the accepted suitor, when a dispute arose as to who was the
+better player; the two brothers fell upon their victim and foully
+murdered him. But afraid lest his brother should venge the latter's
+death, they lay in wait for him behind a street corner, and as he came
+along they rapidly killed him as they had his brother. Then they fled
+across the frontier to Portugal.
+
+The two corpses had in the meantime been carried on a bier by the crowds
+and laid down in front of Doña Maria's house; the latter stepped out on
+the balcony, with dishevelled hair; an angry murmur went from one end of
+the crowd to the other, and a universal clamour arose: vengeance was on
+every one's lips. But Doña Maria commanded silence.
+
+"Be calm," she said, "and take these bodies to the cathedral. Vengeance?
+Fear not, I shall venge myself."
+
+An hour later she left the town with an escort, apparently with a view
+to retire to her estates near Plasencia. Once well away from the city,
+she divulged her plan to the escort and asked if they were willing to
+follow her. Receiving an affirmative reply, she tore off her woman's
+clothes and appeared dressed in full armour; placing a helmet on her
+head, she took the lead of her troops again, and set out for the
+Portuguese frontier.
+
+The strange company arrived on the third day at a Portuguese frontier
+town, where they were told that two foreigners had arrived the night
+before. By the description of the two Spaniards, Doña Maria felt sure
+they were her sons' murderers, and consequently she and her escort
+approached the house where the fugitives were passing the night. Placing
+the escort beneath the window, she stealthily entered the house and
+stole to the brothers' room; then she slew them whilst they were
+sleeping, and, rushing to the window, threw it open, and, spearing the
+heads of her enemies on her lance, she showed them to her retinue, with
+the words:
+
+"I'm venged! Back to Salamanca."
+
+Silently, at the head of her troops, and bearing the two heads on her
+lance, Doña Maria returned to Salamanca. Entering the cathedral, she
+threw them on the newly raised slabs which covered her sons' remains.
+
+Ever after she was known as Doña Maria _la brava_, and is as celebrated
+to-day as she was in the fifteenth century, during the abominable reign
+of Henry IV. And so great was the feud which divided the city into two
+camps, that it lasted many years, and many were the victims of the
+gigantic vendetta.
+
+The city's greatest fame lay in its university, founded toward 1215, by
+Alfonso IX. of Leon, who was jealous of his cousin Alfonso VIII. of
+Castile, the founder of the luckless university of Palencia.
+
+The fate of the last named university has been duly mentioned elsewhere;
+that of Salamanca was far different. In 1255 the Pope called it one of
+the four lamps of the world; strangers--students from all corners of
+Europe--flocked to the city to study. Perhaps its greatest merit was the
+study of Arabic and Arabian letters, and it has been said that the study
+of the Orient penetrated into Europe through Salamanca alone.
+
+What a glorious life must have been the university city's during the
+apogee of her fame! Students from all European lands, dressed in the
+picturesque costume worn by those who attended the university, wended
+their way through the streets, singing and playing the guitar or the
+mandolin; they mingled with dusky noblemen, richly dressed in satins and
+silks, and wearing the rapier hanging by their sides; they flirted with
+the beautiful daughters of Spain, and gravely saluted the bishop when he
+was carried along in his chair, or rode a quiet palfrey. At one time the
+court was established in the university city, lending a still more
+brilliant lustre to the every-day life of the inhabitants, and to the
+sombre streets lined with palaces, churches, colleges, convents, and
+monasteries.
+
+Gone! To-day the city lies beneath an immense weight of ruins of all
+kinds, that chain her down to the past which was her glory, and impede
+her from looking ahead into her future with ambitions and hopes.
+
+The cathedrals Salamanca can boast of to-day are two, an old one and a
+comparatively new one; the latter was built beside the former, a
+praiseworthy and exceptional proceeding, for, instead of pulling down
+the old to make room for the new, as happens throughout the world, the
+cathedral chapter convocated an assembly of architects, and was
+intelligent enough--another wonder!--to accept the verdict that the old
+building, a Romanesque-Byzantine edifice of exceptional value, should
+not be demolished. The new temple was therefore erected beside the
+former, and, obeying the art impulses of the centuries which witnessed
+its construction, is an ogival church spoilt--or bettered--by
+Renaissance, plateresque, and grotesque decorative elements.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Old Cathedral._--The exact date of the erection of the old see is
+not known; toward 1152 it was already in construction, and 150 years
+later, in 1299, it was not concluded. Consequently, and more than in the
+case of Zamora and Toro, the upper part of the building shows decided
+ogival tendencies; yet in spite of these evident signs of transition,
+the ensemble, the spirit of the building, is, beyond a doubt,
+Romanesque-Byzantine, and not Gothic.
+
+[Illustration: OLD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The plan of the church is the same as those of Zamora, Toro, and Coria:
+a nave and two aisles cut short at the transept, which is slightly
+prolonged beyond the width of the body of the church; there is no
+ambulatory walk, but to the east of the transept are three chapels in a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe larger than the others and containing
+the high altar; the choir was placed (originally) in the centre of the
+nave, and a _cimborio_ crowns the _croisée_, this latter being a
+peculiarity of the three cathedral churches of Zamora, Toro, and
+Salamanca.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new building as an annex of the old one
+required (as in Plasencia, though from different reasons) the demolition
+of certain parts of the latter; as, for instance, the two towers of the
+western front, the northern portal as well as the northern half of the
+apse, and the corresponding part of the transept. Parts of these have
+either been surrounded or replaced by the new building.
+
+The narthex and the western end are still preserved. They are of the
+same width as the nave, for, beneath the towers, of which one seems to
+have been far higher than the other, each of the aisles terminates in a
+chapel. Byzantine in appearance, the two western doors are,
+nevertheless, crowned by an ogival arch, and flanked by statuettes of
+the same style. The façade, repaired and spoilt, is of Renaissance
+severity.
+
+The interior of the building is more impressive than that of either
+Zamora or Toro; this is due to the absence of the choir,--removed to the
+new cathedral,--which permits an uninterrupted view of the whole church,
+which does not occur in any other temple throughout Spain. Romanesque
+strength and gloominess is clearly discernible, whereas the height of
+the central nave (sixty feet) is rendered stumpy in appearance by the
+almost equal height of the aisles. The strength and solidity of the
+pillars and columns, supporting capitals and friezes of a peculiar and
+decided Byzantine taste (animals, dragons, etc.), show more keenly than
+in Galicia the Oriental influence which helped so thoroughly to shape
+Central Spanish Romanesque.
+
+Of the chapels, but one deserves special mention, both as seen from
+without and from within, namely, the high altar, or central apsidal
+chapel. Seen from without, it is of perfect Romanesque construction,
+excepting the upper row of rose windows, which are ogival in their
+traceries; inside, it contains a mural painting of an exceedingly
+primitive design, and a _retablo_ in low reliefs enchased in ogival
+arches; it is of Italian workmanship.
+
+Of the remaining chapels, that of San Bartolomé contains an alabaster
+sepulchre of the Bishop Diego de Anaya--one of the many prelates of
+those times who was the possessor of illegitimate sons; the bodies of
+most of the latter lie within this chapel, which can be regarded not
+only as a family pantheon, but as a symbol of ecclesiastical greatness
+and human weakness.
+
+The windows which light up the nave are round-headed, and yet they are
+delicately decorated, as is rarely to be seen in the Romanesque type.
+The aisles, on the contrary, are not lit up by any windows.
+
+Like the churches of Zamora and Toro, the whole cathedral resembles a
+fortress rather than a place of worship. The simplicity of the general
+structure, the rounded turrets buried in the walls, serving as leaning
+buttresses, the narrow slits in the walls instead of windows, lend an
+indisputable aspect of strength. The beautiful, the really beautiful
+lantern, situated above the _croisée_, with its turrets, its niches, its
+thirty odd windows, and its elegant cupola, is an architectural body
+that wins the admiration of all who behold it, either from within the
+church or from without, and which, strictly Byzantine in conception
+(though rendered peculiarly Spanish by the addition of certain elements
+which pertain rather to Gothic military art than to church
+architecture), is unique--to the author's knowledge--in all Europe. Less
+pure in style, and less Oriental in appearance than that of Zamora, it
+was nevertheless, created more perfect by the artistic conception of the
+architect, and consequently more finished or developed than those of
+Toro and Zamora. Without hesitation, it can claim to be one of
+Salamanca's chief attractions.
+
+The thickness of the walls (ten feet!), the admirable simpleness of the
+vaulting, and the general aspect from the exterior, have won for the
+church the name of _fortis Salamantini_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The New Cathedral._--It was begun in 1513, the old temple having been
+judged too small, and above all too narrow for a city of the importance
+of Salamanca.
+
+Over two hundred years did the building of the present edifice last; at
+times all work was stopped for years, no funds being at hand to pay
+either artists or masons.
+
+The primitive plan of the church, as proposed by the congress of
+architects, was Gothic of the second period, with an octagonal apse; the
+lower part of the church, from the foot to the transept, was the first
+to be constructed.
+
+The upper part of the apse was not begun until the year 1588, and the
+artist, imbued with the beauty of Herrero's Escorial, squared the apse
+with the evident intention of constructing turrets on the exterior
+angles, which would have rendered the building symmetrical: two towers
+on the western front, a cupola on the _croisée_, and two smaller turrets
+on the eastern end.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is a perfect rectangle cut in its
+length by a nave (containing the choir and the high altar), and by two
+aisles, lower than the nave and continued in an ambulatory walk behind
+the high altar.
+
+The same symmetry is visible in the lateral chapels: eight square
+_huecos_ on the exterior walls of the aisles, five to the west, and
+three to the east of the transept, and three in the extreme eastern wall
+of the apse.
+
+Magnificence rather than beauty is the characteristic note of the new
+cathedral. The primitive part--pure ogival with but little
+mixture--contrasts with the eastern end, which is covered over with the
+most glaring grotesque decoration; most of the chapels are spoiled by
+the same shocking profusion of super-ornamentation; the otherwise
+majestic cupola, the high altar, and the choir--all suffer from the same
+defect.
+
+The double triforium--one higher than the other--in the clerestory
+produces a most favourable impression; this is heightened by the wealth
+of light, which, entering by two rows of windows and by the _cimborio_,
+falls upon the rich decoration of friezes and capitals. The general view
+of the whole building is also freer than in most Spanish cathedrals,
+and this harmony existing in the proportions of the different parts
+strikes the visitor more favourably, perhaps, than in the severer
+cathedral at Burgos.
+
+[Illustration: NEW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The exterior of the building reflects more truthfully than the interior
+the different art waves which spread over Spain during the centuries of
+the temple's erection. In the western front, the rich Gothic portal of
+the third period, the richest perhaps in sculptural variety of any on
+the peninsula, contrasts with the high mongrel tower, a true example of
+the composite towers so frequently met with in certain Spanish regions.
+The second body of the same façade (western) is highly interesting, not
+on account of its ornamentation, which is simple, but because of the
+solid, frank structure, and the curious fortress-like turrets embedded
+in the angles.
+
+The flank of the building, seen from the north--for on the south side
+stand the ruins of the old cathedral--is none too homogeneous, thanks to
+the different styles in which the three piers of windows--of chapels,
+aisles, and clerestory--have been constructed. The ensemble is
+picturesque, nevertheless: the three rows of windows, surmounted by the
+huge cupola and half-lost among the buttresses, certainly contribute
+toward the general elegance of the granite structure.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+
+In the times of the Romans, the country to the west of Salamanca seems
+to have been thickly populated. Calabria, situated between the Agueda
+and Coa Rivers, was an episcopal see; in its vicinity Augustábriga and
+Miróbriga were two other important towns.
+
+Of these three Roman fortresses, and perhaps native towns, before the
+invasion, not as much as a stone or a legend remains to relate the tale
+of their existence and death.
+
+Toward 1150, Fernando II. of Castile, obeying the military requirements
+of the Reconquest, and at the same time wishing to erect a
+fortress-town, which, together with Zamora to the north, Salamanca to
+the west, and Coria to the south, could resist the invasion of Spain by
+Portuguese armies, founded Ciudad Rodrigo, and twenty years later raised
+the church to an episcopal see, a practical means of attracting
+God-fearing settlers. Consequently, the twelfth-century town, inheriting
+the ecclesiastical dignity of Calabria, if the latter ever possessed it,
+besides being situated in the same region as the three Roman cities
+previously mentioned, can claim to have been born a city.
+
+One of the early bishops (the first was a certain Domingo) was the
+famous Pedro Diaz, about whom a legend has been handed down to us. This
+legend has also been graphically illustrated by an artist of the
+sixteenth century; his painting is to be seen to the right of the
+northern transept door in the cathedral.
+
+Pedro Diaz seems to have been a worldly priest, "fond of the sins of the
+flesh and of good eating," who fell ill in the third year of his reign.
+His secretary, a pious servant of the Lord, dreamt he saw his master's
+soul devoured by demons, and persuaded him to confess his sins. It was
+too late, for a few days later he died; his death was, however, kept a
+secret by his menials, who wished to have plenty of time to make a
+generous division of his fortune. When all had been settled to their
+liking, the funeral procession moved through the streets of the city,
+and, to the surprise of all, the dead bishop, resurrected by St.
+Francis of Assisi, at the time in Ciudad Rodrigo, opened the coffin and
+stood upon the hearse. He accused his servants of their greed, and at
+the same time made certain revelations concerning the life hereafter.
+His experiences must have been rather pessimistic, to judge by the
+bishop's later deeds, for, having been granted a respite of twenty days
+upon this earth, he "fasted and made penitence," doubtless eager to
+escape a second time the tortures of the other world.
+
+Other traditions concerning the lives and doings of the noblemen who
+disputed the feudal right or _señorio_ over the town, are as numerous as
+in Plasencia, with which city Ciudad Rodrigo has certain historical
+affinities. The story of the Virgen Coronada, who, though poor, did not
+hesitate in killing a powerful and wealthy libertine nobleman whom she
+was serving; the no less stirring account of Doña Maria Adan's vow that
+she would give her fair daughter's hand to whomsoever venged her wrongs
+on the five sons of her husband's murderer, are among the most tragic
+and thrilling. There are many other traditions beside, which constitute
+the past's legacy to the solitary city near the Portuguese frontier.
+
+It was in the nineteenth century that Ciudad Rodrigo earned fame as a
+brave city. The Spanish war for independence had broken out against the
+French, who overran the country, and passed from Bayonne in the Gascogne
+to Lisbon in Portugal. Ciudad Rodrigo lay on the shortest route for the
+French army, and had to suffer two sieges, one in 1810 and the second in
+1812. In the latter, Wellington was the commander of the English forces
+who had come to help the Spanish chase the French out of the peninsula;
+the siege of the town and the battle which ensued were long and
+terrible, but at last the allied English and Spanish won, with the loss
+of two English generals. The Iron Duke was rewarded by Spanish Cortes,
+with the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, together with the honours of
+grandee of Spain, which are still retained by Wellington's descendants.
+
+[Illustration: CUIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral church of Ciudad Rodrigo is a twelfth-century building, in
+which the Romanesque style, similar to those of Zamora and Toro, fights
+with the nascent ogival style. Notwithstanding these remarks,
+however, the building does not pertain to the Transition period, but
+rather to the second or last period of Spanish Romanesque. This is
+easily seen by the basilica form of the church, the three-lobed apse,
+the lack of an ambulatory walk, and the apparently similar height of
+nave and aisles.
+
+The square tower, surmounted by a cupola, at the foot of the church, as
+well as the entire western front, dates from the eighteenth century; it
+is cold, anti-artistic, utterly unable to appeal to the poetic instincts
+of the spectator.
+
+Behind the western front, and leading directly into the body of the
+church, is a delightful Romanesque narthex which doubtlessly served as
+the western façade prior to the eighteenth-century additions. It is
+separated from the principal nave by a door divided into two by a solid
+pediment, upon which is encrusted a statue of the Virgin with Child in
+her arms. The semicircular arches which surmount the door are finely
+executed, and the columns which support them are decorated with handsome
+twelfth-century statuettes. There is a great similarity between this
+portal and the principal one (del Obispo) in Toro: it almost seems as
+though the same hand had chiselled both, or at least traced the plan of
+their decoration.
+
+Of the two doors which lead, one on the south and the other on the
+north, into the transept, the former is perhaps the more perfect
+specimen of the primitive style. Both are richly decorated; unluckily,
+in both portals, the rounded arches have been crowned in more recent
+times by an ogival arch, which certainly mars the pureness of the style,
+though not the harmony of the ensemble.
+
+To the left of these doors, a niche has been carved into the wall to
+contain a full-length statue of the Virgin; this is an unusual
+arrangement in Spanish churches.
+
+The exterior of the apse retains its primitive _cachet_; the central
+chapel, where the high altar is placed, was, however, rebuilt in the
+sixteenth century by Tavera, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Toledo, who had
+at one time occupied the see of Ciudad Rodrigo. It is a peculiar mixture
+of Gothic and Romanesque, of pointed windows and heavy buttresses; the
+flat roof is decorated by means of a low stone railing or balustrade
+composed of elegantly carved pinnacles.
+
+To conclude: excepting the western front and the central lobe of the
+apse, the tower and the ogival arch surmounting the northern and
+southern portals, the cathedral of Ciudad Rodrigo is one of the most
+perfectly preserved Romanesque buildings to the south of Zamora and
+Toro. It is less grim and warlike than the two last-named edifices, and
+yet it is also a fair example of severe and gloomy (though not less
+artistic!) Castilian Romanesque. Its _croisée_ is not surmounted by the
+heavy cupola as in Salamanca and elsewhere, and it is perhaps just this
+suppression or omission which gives the whole building a far less
+Oriental appearance than the others mentioned heretofore.
+
+In the inside, the choir occupies its usual place. Its stalls, it is
+believed, were carved by Alemán, the same who probably wrought those
+superb seats at Plasencia. It is doubtful if the same master carved
+both, however, but were it so, the stalls at Ciudad Rodrigo would have
+to be classified as older, executed before those we shall examine in a
+future chapter.
+
+The nave and two aisles, pierced by ogival windows in the clerestory and
+round-headed windows in the aisles, constitute the church; the
+_croisée_ is covered by means of a simple ogival vaulting; the arches
+separating the nave from the aisles are Romanesque, as is the vaulting
+of the former. It was originally the intention of the chapter to
+beautify the solemn appearance of the interior by means of a triforium
+or running gallery. Unluckily, perhaps because of lack of funds, the
+triforium was never begun excepting that here and there are seen
+remnants of the primitive tracing.
+
+With the lady-chapel profusely and lavishly ornamented, and quite out of
+place in this solemn building, there are five chapels, one at the foot
+of each aisle and two in the apse, to the right and left of the
+lady-chapel. They all lack art interest, however, as does the actual
+_retablo_, which replaces the one destroyed by the French; remnants of
+the latter are to be seen patched up on the cloister walls.
+
+This cloister to the north of the church is a historical monument, for
+each of the four sides of the square edifice is an architectural page
+differing from its companions. Studying first the western, then the
+southern, and lastly the two remaining sides, the student can obtain an
+idea of how Romanesque principles struggled with Gothic before dying
+completely out, and how the latter, having reached its apogee,
+deteriorated into the most lamentable superdecoration before fading away
+into the naked, straight-lined features of the Renaissance so little
+compatible with Christian ideals.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CORIA
+
+
+To the west of Toledo and to the south of the Sierra de Gata, which,
+with the mountains of Gredo and the Guaderrama, formed in the middle
+ages a natural frontier between Christians and Moors, lies, in a
+picturesque and fertile vale about twenty miles distant from the nearest
+railway station, the little known cathedral town of Coria. It is
+situated on the northern shores of the Alagón, a river flowing about ten
+miles farther west into the Tago, near where the latter leaves Spanish
+territory and enters that of Portugal.
+
+Caurium, or Curia Vetona, was its name when the Romans held Extremadura,
+and it was in this town, or in its vicinity, that Viriato, the Spanish
+hero, destroyed four Roman armies sent to conquer his wild hordes. He
+never lost a single battle or skirmish, and might possibly have dealt a
+death-blow to Roman plans of domination in the peninsula, had not the
+traitor's knife ended his noble career.
+
+Their enemy dead, the Romans entered the city of Coria, which they
+immediately surrounded by a circular wall half a mile in length, and
+twenty-six feet thick (!). This Roman wall, considered by many to be the
+most perfectly preserved in Europe, is severely simple in structure, and
+flanked by square towers; it constitutes the city's one great
+attraction.
+
+The episcopal see was erected in 338. The names of the first bishops
+have long been forgotten, the first mentioned being one Laquinto, who
+signed the third Toledo Council in 589.
+
+Two centuries later the Moors raised Al-Kárica to one of their capitals;
+in 854 Zeth, an ambitious Saracen warrior, freed it from the yoke of
+Cordoba, and reigned in the city as an independent sovereign.
+
+Like Zamora and Toro, Coria was continually being lost and won by
+Christians and Moors, with this difference, that whereas the first two
+can be looked upon as the last Christian outposts to the north of the
+Duero, Coria was the last Arab stronghold to the north of the Tago.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century, the strong fortress on
+the Alagón was definitely torn from the hands of its independent
+sovereign by Alfonso VIII., after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. A
+bishop was immediately reinstated in the see, and after five centuries
+of Mussulman domination, Coria saw the standard of Castile waving from
+its citadel.
+
+As happened with so many other provincial towns in Spain, the
+centralization of power to the north of Toledo shoved Coria into the
+background; to-day it is a cathedral village forgotten or completely
+ignored by the rest of Spain. Really, it might perhaps have been better
+for the Arabs to have preserved it, for under their rule it flourished.
+
+It is picturesque, this village on the banks of the Alagón: a heap or
+bundle of red bricks surrounded by grim stone walls, over-topped by a
+cathedral tower and citadel,--the whole picture emerging from a prairie
+and thrown against a background formed by the mountains to the north and
+the bright blue sky in the distance.
+
+Arab influence is only too evident in the buildings and houses, in the
+Alcázar, and in the streets; unluckily, these remembrances of a happy
+past depress the dreamy visitor obliged to recognize the infinite
+sadness which accompanied the expulsion of the Moors by intolerant
+tyrants from the land they had inhabited, formed, and moulded to their
+taste. Nowhere is this so evident as in Coria, a forgotten bit of
+mediæval Moor-land. The poet's exclamation is full of bitterness and
+resignation when he exclaims:
+
+"Is it possible that this heap of ruins should have been in other times
+the splendid court of Zeth and Mondhir!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As an architectural building, the cathedral of Coria is a parish church,
+which, removed to any other town, would be devoid of any and all beauty.
+In other words, the impressions it produces are entirely dependent upon
+its local surroundings; eliminate these, and the temple is worthless
+from an artistic or poetical point of view.
+
+It was begun in 1120, most likely by Arab workmen; it was finished
+toward the beginning of the sixteenth century. Honestly speaking, it is
+a puzzle what the artisans did in all those long years; doubtless they
+slept at their task, or else decades passed away without work of any
+kind being done, or again, perhaps only one mason was employed at a
+time.
+
+The interior is that of a simple Gothic church of one aisle, 150 feet
+long by fifty-two wide and eighty-four high; the high altar is situated
+in the rounded apse; in the centre of the church the choir stalls of the
+fifteenth century obstruct the view of the walls, decorated only by
+means of pilasters which pretend to support the Gothic vaulting.
+
+To the right, in the altar chapel, is a fine marble sepulchre of the
+sixteenth century, in which the chasuble of the kneeling bishop
+portrayed is among the best pieces of imitative sculpture to be seen in
+Spain.
+
+To the right of the high altar, and buried in the cathedral wall, a door
+leads out into the _paseo_,--a walk on the broad walls of the city, with
+a delightful view southwards across the river to the prairie in the
+distance. Where can a prettier and more natural cloister be found?
+
+The western façade is never used, and is surrounded by the old
+cemetery,--a rather peculiar place for a cemetery in a cathedral church;
+the northern façade is anti-artistic, but the tower to the right has
+one great virtue, that of comparative height. Though evidently intended
+to be Gothic, the Arab taste, so pronounced throughout this region, got
+the better of the architect, and he erected a square steeple crowned by
+a cupola.
+
+Yet, and in spite of criticism which can hardly find an element worthy
+of praise in the whole cathedral building, the tourist should not
+hesitate in visiting the city. Besides, the whole region of Northern
+Extremadura, in which Coria and Plasencia lie, is historically most
+interesting: Yuste, where Charles-Quint spent the last years of his
+life, is not far off; neither is the Convent of Guadalupe, famous for
+its pictures by the great Zurbaran.
+
+As for Coria itself, it is a forgotten corner of Moor-land.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+
+The foundation of Plasencia by King Alfonso VIII. in 1178, and the
+erection of a new episcopal see twelve years later, can be regarded as
+the _coup de grâce_ given to the importance of Coria, the twin sister
+forty miles away. Nevertheless, the Royal City, as Plasencia was called,
+which ended by burying its older rival in the most shocking oblivion,
+was not able to acquire a name in history. Founded by a king, and handed
+over to a bishop and to favourite courtiers, who ruled it indifferently
+well, not to say badly, it grew up to be an aristocratic town without a
+_bourgeoisie_. Its history in the middle ages is consequently one long
+series of family feuds, duels, and tragedies, the record of bloody
+happenings, and acts of heroic brutality and bravery.
+
+In 1233 a Moorish army conquered it, shortly after the battle of Alarcos
+was lost to Alfonso VIII., at that time blindly in love with his
+beautiful Jewish mistress, Rachel of Toledo. But the infidels did not
+remain master of the situation, far less of the city, for any length of
+time, as within the next year or so it fell again into the hands of its
+founder, who strengthened the walls still standing to-day, and completed
+the citadel.
+
+The population of the city, like that of Toledo, was mixed. Christians,
+Jews, and Moors lived together, each in their quarter, and together they
+used the fertile _vegas_, which surround the town. The Jews and Moors
+were, in the fifteenth century, about ten thousand in number; in 1492
+the former were expelled by the Catholic kings, and in 1609 Philip III.
+signed a decree expelling the Moors. Since then Plasencia has lost its
+municipal wealth and importance, and the see, from being one of the
+richest in Spain, rapidly sank until to-day it drags along a weary life,
+impoverished and unimportant.
+
+The Jewish cemetery is still to be seen in the outskirts of the town;
+Arab remains, both architectural and irrigatory, are everywhere present,
+and the quarter inhabited by them, the most picturesque in Plasencia,
+is a Moorish village.
+
+The city itself, crowning a hill beside the rushing Ierte, is a small
+Toledo; its streets are narrow and winding; its church towers are
+numerous, and the red brick houses warmly reflect the brilliancy of the
+southern atmosphere. The same death, however, the same inactivity and
+lack of movement, which characterize Toledo and other cities, hover in
+the alleys and in the public squares, in the fertile _vegas_ and silent
+_patios_ of Plasencia.
+
+The history of the feuds between the great Castilian families who lived
+here is tragically interesting: Hernan Perez killed by Diego Alvarez,
+the son of one of the former's victims; the family of Monroye pitched
+against the Zuñigas and other noblemen,--these and many other traditions
+are among the most stirring of the events that happened in Spain in the
+middle ages.
+
+Even the bishops called upon to occupy the see seem to have been slaves
+to the warlike spirit that hovered, as it were, in the very atmosphere
+of the town. The first prelate, Don Domingo, won the battle of Navas de
+Tolosa for his protector, Alfonso VIII. When the Christian army was
+wavering, he rushed to the front (with his naked sword, the cross having
+been left at home), at the head of his soldiers, and drove the already
+triumphant Moors back until they broke their ranks and fled. The same
+bishop carried the Christian sword to the very heart of the Moorish
+dominions, to Granada, and conquered neighbouring Loja. The next
+prelate, Don Adán, was one of the leaders of the army that conquered
+Cordoba in 1236, and, entering the celebrated _mezquita_, sanctified its
+use as a Christian church.
+
+The history of the cathedral church is no less interesting. The
+primitive see was temporarily placed in a church on a hill near the
+fortress; this building was pulled down in the fifteenth century, and
+replaced by a Jesuit college.
+
+Toward the beginning of the fourteenth century a cathedral church was
+inaugurated. Its life was short, however, for in 1498 it was partially
+pulled down to make way for a newer and larger edifice, which is to-day
+the unfinished Renaissance cathedral visited by the tourist.
+
+Parts of the old cathedral are, however, still standing. Between the
+tower of the new temple and the episcopal palace, but unluckily
+weighted down by modern superstructures, stands the old façade, almost
+intact. The grossness of the structural work, the timid use of the
+ogival arch, the primitive rose window, and the general heaviness of the
+structure, show it to belong to the decadent period of the Romanesque
+style, when the artists were attempting something new and forgetting the
+lessons of the past.
+
+The new cathedral is a complicated Gothic-Renaissance building of a nave
+and two aisles, with an ambulatory behind the high altar. Not a square
+inch but what has been hollowed out into a niche or covered over with
+sculptural designs; the Gothic plan is anything but pure Gothic, and the
+Renaissance style has been so overwrought that it is anything but
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+The façade of the building is imposing, if not artistic; it is composed
+of four bodies, each supported laterally by pillars and columns of
+different shapes and orders, and possessing a _hueco_ or hollow in the
+centre, the lowest being the door, the highest a stained glass window,
+and the two central ones blind windows, which spoil the whole. The
+floral and Byzantine (Arab?) decoration of pillars and friezes is of
+a great wealth of varied designs; statuettes are missing in the niches,
+proving the unfinished state of the church.
+
+[Illustration: FAÇADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+Three arches and four pillars, sumptuously decorated, uphold each of the
+clerestory walls, which are pierced at the top by a handsome triforium
+running completely around the church. The _retablo_ of the high altar is
+richly decorated, perhaps too richly; the _reja_, which closes off the
+sacred area, is of fine seventeenth-century workmanship.
+
+The choir stalls are of a surprising richness, carved scenes covering
+the backs and seats. They are famous throughout the country, and the
+genius, above all the imagination, of the artist who executed them (his
+name is unluckily not known, though it is believed to be Alemán) must
+have been notable. Pious when carving the upper and visible seats, he
+seems to have been exceedingly ironical and profane when sculpturing the
+inside of the same, where the reverse or the caustic observation
+produced in the carver's mind has been artfully drawn, though sometimes
+with an undignified grain of indecency and obscenity not quite in
+harmony with our Puritanic spirit of to-day.
+
+
+
+
+_PART V_
+
+_Eastern Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+
+The origin of Valladolid is lost in the shadows of the distant past. As
+it was the capital of a vast kingdom, it was thought necessary, as in
+the case of Madrid, to place its foundation prior to the Roman invasion;
+the attempt failed, however, and though Roman ruins have been found in
+the vicinity, nothing is positively known about the city's history prior
+to the eleventh century.
+
+When Sancho II. fought against his sister locked up in Zamora, he
+offered her Vallisoletum in exchange for the powerful fortress she had
+inherited from her father. In vain, and the town seated on the Pisuerga
+is not mentioned again in historical documents until 1074, when Alfonso
+VI. handed it over, with several other villages, to Pedro Ansurez, who
+made it his capital, raised the church (Santa Maria la Mayor) to a
+suffragan of Palencia, and laid the first foundations of its future
+greatness. In 1208 the family of Ansurez died out, and the _villa_
+reverted to the crown; from then until the reign of Philip IV.
+Valladolid was doubtless one of the most important cities in Castile,
+and the capital of all the Spains, from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabel to that of Philip III.
+
+Consequently, the history of Valladolid from the thirteenth to the
+sixteenth century is that of Spain.
+
+In Valladolid, Peter the Cruel, after three days' marriage, forsook his
+bride, Doña Blanca de Bourbon, and returned to the arms of his mistress
+Maria; several years later he committed most of his terrible crimes
+within the limits of the town. Here Maria de Molina upheld her son's
+right to the throne during his minority, and in Valladolid also, after
+her son's death, the same widow fought for her grandson against the
+intrigues of uncles and cousins.
+
+Isabel and Alfonso fought in Valladolid against the proclamation of
+their niece, Juana, the illegitimate daughter of Henry IV., as heiress
+to the throne; the citizens upheld the Catholic princess's claims, and
+it is not surprising that when the princess became queen--the greatest
+Spain ever had--she made Valladolid her capital, in gratitude to the
+loyalty of its inhabitants.
+
+In Valladolid, Columbus obtained the royal permission to sail westwards
+in 1492, and, upon his last return from America, he died in the selfsame
+city in 1506; here also Berruguete, the sculptor, created many of his
+_chefs-d'œuvres_ and the immortal Cervantes appeared before the law
+courts and wrote the second part of his "Quixote."
+
+Unlucky Juana _la Loca_ (Jane the Mad) and her husband Felipe _el
+Hermoso_ (Philip the Handsome) reigned here after the death of Isabel
+the Catholic, and fifty years later, when Philip II. returned from
+England to ascend the Spanish throne, he settled in Valladolid, until
+his religious fanaticism or craze obliged him to move to a city nearer
+the Escorial. Then he fixed upon Madrid as his court. Being a religious
+man, nevertheless, and conscious of a certain love for Valladolid, his
+natal town, he had the suffragan church erected to a cathedral in 1595,
+appointing Don Bartolomé de la Plaza to be its first bishop. At the same
+time, he ordered Juan de Herrero, the severe architect of the Escorial,
+to draw the plans and commence the building of the new edifice.
+
+The growing importance of Madrid, and the final establishment in the
+last named city of all the honours which belonged to Valladolid, threw
+the city seated on the Pisuerga into the shade, and its star of fortune
+slowly waned. But not to such a degree as that of Salamanca or Burgos,
+for to-day, of all the old cities of Castile, the only one which has a
+life of its own, and a commercial and industrial personality, is
+Valladolid, the one-time capital of all the Spains, and now the seat of
+an archbishopric. It began by usurping the dignity of Burgos; then it
+rose to greater heights of fame than its rival, thanks to the discovery
+of America, and finally it lost its _prestige_ when Madrid was crowned
+the _unica villa_.
+
+The general appearance of the city is peculiarly Spanish, especially as
+regards the prolific use of brick in the construction of churches and
+edifices in general. It is presumable that the Arabs were possessors of
+the town before the Christian conquest, though no documental proofs are
+at hand. The etymology of the city's name, Medinat-el-Walid, is purely
+Arabic, Walid being the name of a Moorish general.
+
+If the cathedral church was erected as late as the sixteenth century, it
+must not be supposed that the town lacked parish churches. On the
+contrary, there is barely a city in Spain with more religious edifices
+of all kinds, and the greater part of them of far more architectural
+merit than the cathedral itself. The astonishing number of convents is
+remarkable; many of them date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and are, consequently, Romanesque with a good deal of Byzantine taste
+about them, or else they belong to the period of Transition. Taken all
+in all, they are really the only architectural attractions to be
+discovered in the city to-day. The traditions which explain the
+foundation of some of these are among the most characteristic in
+Valladolid, and a thread of Oriental romance is more predominant among
+them than elsewhere. A good example of one of these explains the
+foundation of the large convent of the Mercedes.
+
+Doña Leonor was the wife of one Acuña, a fearless (?) knight. The King
+of Portugal unluckily fell in love with Doña Leonor, and, wishing to
+marry her, had her previous marriage annulled and placed her on his
+throne. Acuña fled from Portugal and came to Valladolid, where, with
+unparalleled sarcasm, he wore a badge on his hat proclaiming his
+dishonour.
+
+Both Acuña and the King of Portugal died, and Doña Leonor, whose morals
+were none too edifying, fell in love with a certain Zuñiguez; the
+daughter of these two was handed over to the care of a knight, Fernan by
+name, and Doña Leonor ordered him to found a convent, upon her death,
+and lock up her daughter within its walls; the mother was doubtless only
+too anxious to have her daughter escape the ills of this life. Unluckily
+she counted without the person principally concerned, namely, the
+daughter, for the latter fell secretly in love with her keeper's nephew.
+She thought he was her cousin, however, for it appears she was passed
+off as Fernan's daughter. Upon her mother's death she learnt her real
+origin, and wedded her lover. In gratitude for her non-relationship with
+her husband, she founded the convent her mother had ordered, but she
+herself remained without its walls!
+
+The least that can be said about the cathedral of Valladolid, the
+better. Doubtless there are many people who consider the building a
+marvel of beauty. As a specimen of Juan de Herrero's severe and majestic
+style, it is second to no other building excepting only that great
+masterwork, the Escorial, and perhaps parts of the Pillar at Saragosse.
+But as an art monument, where beauty and not Greco-Roman effects are
+sought, it is a failure.
+
+The original plan of the building was a rectangle, 411 feet long by 204
+wide, divided in its length by a nave and two aisles, and in its width
+by a broad transept situated exactly half-way between the apse and the
+foot of the church. The form was thus that of a Greek cross; each angle
+of the building was to be surmounted by a tower, and the _croisée_ by an
+immense cupola or dome. (Compare with the new cathedral in Salamanca.)
+The lateral walls of the aisles were to contain symmetrical chapels, as
+was also the apse.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that symmetry and the Greco-Roman
+straight horizontal line were to replace the ogival arch and the
+generally vertical, soaring effect of Gothic buildings.
+
+The architect died before his monument was completed, and Churriguera,
+the most anti-artistic artist that ever breathed,--according to the
+author's personal opinion,--was called upon to finish the edifice: his
+trade-mark covers almost the entire western front, where the second body
+shows the defects into which Herrero's severe style degenerated soon
+after his death.
+
+Of the four towers and the cupola which were to render the capitol of
+Valladolid "second in grandeur to none excepting St. Peter's at Rome,"
+only one tower was erected: it fell down in 1841, and is being reërected
+at the present time.
+
+In the interior the same disparity is everywhere visible, as well as in
+the unfinished state of the temple. Greek columns are prevalent, and,
+contrasting with their simplicity, the high altar, as grotesque a body
+as ever was placed in a holy cathedral, attracts the eye of the vulgar
+with something of the same feeling as a blood-and-thunder melodrama.
+Needless to say, the art connoisseur flees therefrom.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL]
+
+To the rear of the building the remains of the Romanesque Church of
+Santa Maria la Mayor are still to be seen; what a difference between
+the rigid, anti-artistic conception of Herrero, ridiculized by
+Churriguera, and left but half-completed by successive generations of
+moneyless believers, and the simple but elegant features of the old
+collegiate church, with its tower still standing, a Byzantine _recuerdo_
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+AVILA
+
+
+To the west of Madrid, in the very heart of the Sierra de Gredos, lies
+Avila, another of the interesting cities of Castile, whose time-old
+mansions and palaces, built of a gray granite, lend a solemn and almost
+repulsively melancholic air to the city.
+
+Perhaps more than any other town, Avila is characteristic of the middle
+ages, of the continual strife between the noblemen, the Church, and the
+common people. The houses of the aristocrats are castles rather than
+palaces, with no artistic decoration to hide their bare nakedness; the
+cathedral is really a fortress, and not only apparently so, as in
+Salamanca and Toro, for its very apse is embedded in the city walls, of
+which it forms a part, a battlemented, turreted, and warlike projection,
+sure of having to bear the brunt of an attack in case of a siege.
+
+Like the general aspect of the city is also the character of the
+inhabitant, and it is but drawing it mildly to state that Avila's sons
+were ever foremost in battle and strife. Kings in their minority were
+brought hither by prudent mothers who relied more upon the city's walls
+than upon the promises of noblemen in Valladolid and Burgos; this trust
+was never misplaced. In the conquest of Extremadura and of Andalusia,
+also, the Avilese troops, headed by daring warrior-prelates, played a
+most important part, and, as a frontier fortress, together with Segovia,
+against Aragon to the east, it managed to keep away from Castilian
+territory the ambitions of the monarchs of the rival kingdom.
+
+Avela of the Romans was a garrison town, the walls of which were partly
+thrown down by the Western Goths upon their arrival in the peninsula.
+Previously, San Segundo, one of the disciples of the Apostles who had
+visited Bética (Andalusia), preached the True Word in Avila, and was
+created its first bishop--in the first century. During the terrible
+persecution of the Christians under the reign of Trajanus, one San
+Vicente and his two sisters, Sabina and Cristeta, escaped from Portugal
+and came to Avila, hoping to be hospitably received. All in vain; their
+heads were smashed between stones, and their bodies left to rot in the
+streets. An immense serpent emerged from the city walls and kept guard
+over the three saintly corpses. The first to approach was a Jew, drawn
+hither by curiosity; he was immediately enveloped by the reptile's body.
+On the point of being strangled, he pronounced the word, "Jesus"--and
+the serpent released him. So grateful was the Jew at being delivered
+from death that he turned Christian and erected a church in honour of
+San Vicente, Sabina, and Cristeta, and had them buried within its walls.
+
+This church subsisted throughout the dark ages of the Moorish invasion
+until at last Fernando I. removed the saintly remains to Leon in the
+eleventh century. The church was then destroyed, and, it is believed,
+the present cathedral was built on the same spot.
+
+The Moors, calling the city Abila, used it as one of the fortresses
+defending Toledo on the north against the continual Christian raids;
+with varying success they held it until the end of the eleventh century,
+when it finally fell into the hands of the Christians, and was
+repopulated a short time before Salamanca toward the end of the same
+century.
+
+During the centuries of Moorish dominion the see had fallen into the
+completest oblivion, no mention being made of any bishops of Avila; the
+ecclesiastical dignity was reëstablished immediately after the final
+conquest of the region to the north of the Sierra of Guaderrama, and
+though documents are lacking as to who was the first prelate _de
+modernis_, it is generally believed to have been one Jeronimo, toward
+the end of the eleventh century.
+
+The city grew rapidly in strength; settlers came from the north--from
+Castile and Leon--and from the east, from Aragon; they travelled to
+their new home in bullock-carts containing household furniture,
+agricultural and war implements, wives, and children.
+
+In the subsequent history of Spain Avila played an important part, and
+many a stirring event took place within its walls. It was besieged by
+the Aragonese Alfonso el Batallador, whose army advanced to the attack
+behind its prisoners, sons of Avila. Brothers, fathers, and relatives
+were thus obliged to fire upon their own kin if they wished to save
+their city. The same king, it is said, killed his hostages by having
+their heads cut off and boiled in oil, as though severed heads were
+capable of feeling the delightful sensation of seething oil!
+
+Of all the traditions as numerous here as elsewhere, the prettiest and
+most improbable is doubtless that of Nalvillos, a typical chevalier of
+romance, who fell desperately in love with a beautiful Moorish princess
+and wedded her. She pined, however, for a lover whom in her youth she
+had promised to wed, and though her husband erected palaces and bought
+slaves for her, she escaped with her sweetheart. Nalvillos followed the
+couple to where they lay retired in a castle, and it was surrounded by
+him and his trusty followers. The hero himself, disguised as a seller of
+curative herbs, entered the apartment where his wife was waiting for her
+lover's return, and made himself known. The former's return, however,
+cut matters short, and Nalvillos was obliged to hide himself. The
+Moorish girl was true to her love, and told her sweetheart where the
+Christian was hiding; brought out of his retreat, he was on the point of
+being killed when he asked permission to blow a last blast on his
+bugle--a wish that was readily conceded by the magnanimous lover. The
+result? The princess and her sweetheart were burnt to death by the
+flames ignited by Nalvillos's soldiers. The Christian warrior was, of
+course, able to escape.
+
+In 1455 the effigy of Henry IV. was dethroned in Avila by the prelates
+of Toledo and other cities, and by an assembly of noblemen who felt that
+feudalism was dying out, and were anxious to strike a last blow at the
+weak king whom they considered was their enemy.
+
+The effigy was placed on a throne; the Archbishop of Toledo harangued
+the multitude which, silent and scowling, was kept away from the throne
+by a goodly number of obedient mercenary soldiers. Then the prelate tore
+off the mock crown, another of the conspirators the sceptre, another the
+royal garments, and so on, each accompanying his act by an ignominious
+curse. At last the effigy was torn from the throne and trampled under
+the feet of the soldiers. Alfonso, a boy of eleven, stepped on the dais
+and was proclaimed king. His hand was kissed by the humble (!) prelates
+and noblemen, who swore allegiance, an oath they had not the slightest
+intention of keeping, and did not keep, either.
+
+Philip III.'s decree expelling Moors from Spain, was, as in the case of
+Plasencia, the _coup de grace_ given to the city's importance; half the
+population was obliged to leave, and Avila never recovered her lost
+importance and influence. To-day, with only about ten thousand
+inhabitants, thrown in the background by Madrid, it manages to keep
+alive and nothing more.
+
+The date when the erection of the cathedral church of Avila was begun is
+utterly unknown. According to a pious legend, it was founded by the
+third bishop, Don Pedro, who, being anxious to erect a temple worthy of
+his dignity, undertook a long pilgrimage to foreign countries in search
+of arms, and returned to his see in 1091. Sixteen years later, according
+to the same tradition, the present cathedral was essentially completed,
+a bold statement that cannot be accepted because in manifest
+contradiction with the build of the church.
+
+According to Señor Quadrado, the oldest part of the building, the apse,
+was probably erected toward the end of the twelfth century. It is a
+massive, almost windowless, semicircular body, its bare walls
+unsupported by buttresses, and every inch of it like the corner-tower of
+a castle wall, crenelated and flat-topped.
+
+The same author opines that the transept, a handsome, broad, and airy
+ogival nave, dates from the fourteenth century, whereas the western
+front of the church is of a much more recent date.
+
+Be that as it may, the fact is that the cathedral of Avila, seen from
+the east, west, or north, is a fortress building, a huge, unwieldy and
+anti-artistic composition of Romanesque, Gothic, and other elements. The
+western front, with its heavy tower to the north, and the lack of such
+to the south, appears more gloomy than ever on account of the obscure
+colour of the stone; the façade above the portal is of one of the most
+peculiar of artistic conceptions ever imagined; above the first body or
+the pointed arch which crowns the portal comes the second body, divided
+from the former by a straight line, which supports eight columns
+flanking seven niches; on the top of this unlucky part comes an ogival
+window. The whole façade is narrow--one door--and high. The effect is
+disastrous: an unnecessary contortion or misplacement of vertical,
+horizontal, slanting, and circular lines.
+
+The tower is flanked at the angles by two rims of stone, the edges of
+which are cut into _bolas_ (balls). If this shows certain _Mudejar_
+taste, so, also, do the geometrical designs carved in relief against a
+background, as seen in the arabesques above the upper windows.
+
+The northern portal, excepting the upper arch, which is but slightly
+curved and almost horizontal, and weighs down the ogival arches, is far
+better as regards the artist's conception of beauty; the stone carving
+is also of a better class.
+
+Returning to the interior of the building, preferably by the transept,
+the handsomest part of the church, the spectator perceives a double
+ambulatory behind the high altar; the latter, as well as the choir, is
+low, and a fine view is obtained of the ensemble. The central nave,
+almost twice as high and little broader than the aisles, is crowned by a
+double triforium of Gothic elegance.
+
+Seen from the transept, it would appear as though there were four aisles
+on the west side instead of two, a peculiar deception produced by the
+lateral opening of the last chapels, exactly similar in construction
+to the arch which crowns the intersection of the aisles and transept.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the northern and southern extremity of the transept two handsome
+rosaces, above a row of lancet windows, let in the outside light through
+stained panes.
+
+The impression produced by the interior of the cathedral is greatly
+superior to that received from without. In the latter case curiosity is
+about the only sentiment felt by the spectator, whereas within the
+temple does not lack a simple beauty and mystery.
+
+As regards sculptural details, the best are doubtless the low reliefs to
+be seen to the rear of the choir, as well as several sepulchres, of
+which the best--and one of the best Renaissance monuments of its kind in
+Spain--is that of the Bishop Alfonso Tostado in the ambulatory. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is also a magnificent piece of work of the
+second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the
+sixteenth.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+
+Avila's twin sister, Segovia, retains its old Celtiberian name; it
+retains, also, the undeniable proofs of Roman domination in its
+far-famed aqueduct and in its amphitheatre.
+
+According to the popular tradition, San Hierateo, the disciple of St.
+Paul, was the first bishop in the first century, but probably the see
+was not erected until about 527, when it is first mentioned in a
+Tolesian document; the name of the first bishop (historical) is Peter,
+who was present at the third Council in Toledo (589).
+
+The local saint is one San Fruto, who, upon the approach of the Saracen
+hosts, gathered together a handful of fugitives and retired to the
+mountains; his brother Valentine and his sister Engracia (of Aragonese
+fame?) died martyrs to their belief. San Fruto, on the other hand, lived
+the life of a hermit in the mountains and wrought many miracles, such
+as splitting open a rock with his jack-knife, etc. The most miraculous
+of his deeds was the proof he gave to the Moors of the genuineness of
+the Catholic religion: on a tray of oats he placed the host and offered
+it to a mule, which, instead of munching oats and host, fell on its
+knees, and perhaps even crossed itself!
+
+Disputed by Arabs and Christians, like all Castilian towns, Segovia
+lagged along until it fell definitely into the hands of the latter. A
+Christian colony seems, nevertheless, to have lived in the town during
+the Arab dominion, because the documents of the time speak of a Bishop
+Ilderedo in 940.
+
+The exact year of the repopulation of Segovia is not known, but
+doubtless it was a decade or so prior to either that of Salamanca or
+Avila.
+
+Neither was the warlike spirit of the inhabitants inferior to that of
+their brethren in the last named cities. It was due to their bravery
+that Madrid fell into the hands of the Christians toward 1110, for,
+arriving late at the besieging camp, the king, who was present, told
+them that if they wished to pass the night comfortably, there was but
+one place, namely, the city itself. Without a moment's hesitation the
+daring warriors dashed at the walls of Madrid, and, scaling them, took a
+tower, where they passed the night at their ease, and to their monarch's
+great astonishment.
+
+In 1115, the first bishop _de modernis_, Don Pedro, was consecrated, and
+the cathedral was begun at about the same time. Several of the
+successive prelates were battling warriors rather than spiritual
+shepherds, and fought with energy and success against the infidel in
+Andalusia. One, Don Gutierre Girón, even found his death in the terrible
+defeat of the Christian arms at Alarcon.
+
+The event which brought the greatest fame to Segovia was the erection of
+its celebrated Alcázar, or castle, the finest specimen of military
+architecture in Spain. Every city had its citadel, it is true, but none
+were so strong and invulnerable as that of Segovia, and in the stormy
+days of Castilian history the monarchs found a safe retreat from the
+attacks of unscrupulous noblemen behind its walls.
+
+Until 1530 the old cathedral stood at the back of the Alcázar, but in a
+revolution of the Comuneros against Charles-Quint, the infuriated mob,
+anxious to seize the castle, tore down the temple and used its stones,
+beams, stalls, and railings as a means to scale the high walls of the
+fortress. Their efforts were in vain, for an army came to the relief of
+the castle from Valladolid; a general pardon was, nevertheless, granted
+to the population by the monarch, who was too far off to care much what
+his Spanish subjects did. After the storm was over, the hot-headed
+citizens found themselves with a bishop and a chapter, but without a
+church or means wherewith to erect a new one.
+
+The struggles between city and fortress were numerous, and were the
+cause, in a great measure, of the town's decadence. Upon one occasion,
+Isabel the Catholic infringed upon the citizens' rights by making a gift
+of some of the feudal villages to a court favourite. The day after the
+news of this infringement reached the city, by a common accord the
+citizens "dressed in black, did not amuse themselves, nor put on clean
+linen; neither did they sweep the house steps, nor light the lamps at
+night; neither did they buy nor sell, and what is more, they boxed their
+children's ears so that they should for ever remember the day." So great
+were the public signs of grief that it has been said that "never did a
+republic wear deeper mourning for the loss of its liberties."
+
+The end of the matter was that the queen in her famous testament revoked
+her gift and returned the villages to the city.
+
+The old cathedral was torn down in November, 1520, and it was not until
+June, 1525, that the bishop, who had made a patriotic appeal to all
+Spaniards in behalf of the church funds, laid the first stone of the new
+edifice. Thirty years later the building was consecrated.
+
+Nowhere else can a church be found which is a more thorough expression
+of a city's fervour and enthusiasm. It was as though the sacrilegious
+act of the enraged mob reacted on the penitent minds of the calmed
+citizens, for rich and poor alike gave their alms to the cathedral
+chapter. Jewels were sold, donations came from abroad, feudal lords gave
+whole villages to the church, and the poor men, the workmen, and the
+peasants gave their pennies. Daily processions arrived at Santa Clara,
+then used as cathedral church, from all parts of the diocese. To-day
+they were composed of tradesmen, of _Zünfte_, who gave their offerings
+of a few pounds; to-morrow a village would bring in a cartload of
+stone, of mortar, of wood, etc. On holidays and Sundays the repentant
+citizens, instead of amusing themselves at the dance or bull-fight,
+carted materials for their new cathedral's erection, and all this they
+did of their own free will.
+
+[Illustration: SEGOVIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The act of consecrating the finished building constituted a grand
+holiday. The long aqueduct was illuminated from top to bottom, as was
+also the cathedral tower, and every house in the city. During a week the
+holiday-making lasted with open-air amusements for the poor and banquets
+for the rich.
+
+The date of the construction of the new building was contemporaneous
+with that of Salamanca, and the architect was, to a certain extent, the
+same. It is not strange, therefore, that both should resemble each other
+in their general disposition. What is more, the construction in both
+churches was begun at the foot (west), and not in the east, as is
+generally the case. The oldest part of the building is consequently the
+western front, classic in its outline, but showing among its ogival
+details both the symmetry and triangular pediment of Renaissance art.
+The tower, higher than that of Sevilla, and broader than that of Toledo,
+is simple in its structure; it is Byzantine, and does not lack a
+certain _cachet_ of elegance; the first body is surmounted by a dome,
+upon which rises the second,--smaller, and also crowned by a cupola. The
+tower was twice struck by lightning and partly ruined in 1620; it was
+rebuilt in 1825, and a lightning conductor replaced the cross of the
+spire.
+
+Though consecrated, as has been said, in 1558, the new temple was by no
+means finished: the transept and the eastern end were still to be built.
+The latter was finished prior to 1580, and in 1615 the Renaissance dome
+which surmounts the _croisée_ was erected by an artist-architect, who
+evidently was incapable of giving it a true Gothic appearance.
+
+The apse, with its three harmonizing _étages_ corresponding to the
+chapels, aisles, and nave, and flanked by leaning buttresses ornamented
+with delicate pinnacles, is Gothic in its details; the ensemble is,
+nevertheless, Renaissance, thanks to a perfect symmetry painfully
+pronounced by naked horizontal lines--so contradictory to the spirit of
+true ogival. Less regularity and a greater profusion of buttresses, and
+above all of flying buttresses, would have been more agreeable, but the
+times had changed and new tastes had entered the country.
+
+Neither does the broad transept, its façade,--either southern or
+northern,--and the cupola join, as it were, the eastern and the western
+half of the building; on the contrary, it distinctly separates them, not
+to the building's advantage.
+
+The interior is gay rather than solemn: the general disposition of the
+parts is as customary in a Gothic church of the Transition
+(Renaissance). The nave and transept are of the same width; the lateral
+chapels, running along the exterior walls of the aisles, are
+symmetrical, as in Salamanca; the ambulatory separates the high altar
+from the apse and its seven chapels.
+
+The pavement of the church is of black and white marble slabs, like that
+of Toledo, for instance; as for the stained windows, they are numerous,
+and those in the older part of the building of good (Flemish?)
+workmanship and of a rich colour, which heightens the happy expression
+of the whole building.
+
+The cloister is the oldest part of the building, having pertained to the
+previous cathedral. After the latter's destruction, and the successful
+erection of the new temple, the cloister was transported stone by stone
+from its old emplacement to where it now stands. It is a handsome and
+richly decorated Gothic building, containing many tombs, among them
+those of the architects of the cathedral and of Maria del Salto. This
+Mary was a certain Jewess, who, condemned to death, and thrown over the
+Peña Grajera, invoked the aid of the Virgin, and was saved.
+
+Another tomb is that of Prince Don Pedro, son of Enrique II., who fell
+out of a window of the Alcázar. His nurse, according to the tradition,
+threw herself out of the window after her charge, and together they were
+picked up, one locked in the arms of the other.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+MADRID-ALCALÁ
+
+
+Though Madrid was proclaimed the capital of Spain in the sixteenth
+century, it was not until 1850 that its collegiate church of San Isidro
+was raised to an episcopal see.
+
+The appointment met with a storm of disapproval in the neighbouring town
+of Alcalá de Henares, the citizens claiming the erection of the
+ecclesiastical throne in their own collegiate, instead of in Madrid.
+Their reasons were purely historical, as will be seen later on, whereas
+the capital lacked both history and ecclesiastical significance.
+
+To pacify the inhabitants of Alcalá, and at the same time to raise
+Madrid to the rank of a city, the following arrangement was made: the
+newly created see was to be called Madrid-Alcalá; the bishop was to
+possess two cathedral churches, and both towns were to be cities.
+
+Such is the state of affairs at present. The recent governmental
+closure of the old cathedral in Alcalá has deprived the partisans of the
+double see of one of their chief arguments, namely, the possession of a
+worthy temple, unique in the world as regards its organization.
+Consequently, it is generally stated that the title of Madrid-Alcalá
+will die out with the present bishop, and that the next will simply be
+the Bishop of Madrid.
+
+
+_Madrid_
+
+The city of Madrid is new and uninteresting; it is an overgrown village,
+with no buildings worthy of the capital of a kingdom. From an
+architectural point of view, the royal palace, majestic and imposing,
+though decidedly poor in style, is about the only edifice that can be
+admired.
+
+In history, Madrid plays a most unimportant part until the times of
+Philip II., the black-browed monarch who, intent upon erecting his
+mausoleum in the Escorial, proclaimed Madrid to be the only capital.
+That was in 1560; previously Magerit had been an Arab fortress to the
+north of Toledo, and the first in the region now called Castilla la
+Nueva (New Castile), to distinguish it from Old Castile, which lies to
+the north of the mountain chain.
+
+Most likely Magerit had been founded by the Moors, though, as soon as it
+had become the capital of Spain, its inhabitants, who were only too
+eager to lend their town a history it did not possess, invented a series
+of traditions and legends more ridiculous than veracious.
+
+On the slopes of the last hill, descending to the Manzanares, and beside
+the present royal palace, the Christian conquerors of the Arab fortress
+in the twelfth century discovered an effigy of the Virgin, in an
+_almudena_ or storehouse. This was the starting-point for the traditions
+of the twelfth-century monks who discovered (?) that this effigy had
+been placed where it was found by St. James, according to some, and by
+the Virgin herself, according to others; what is more, they even
+established a series of bishops in Magerit previous to the Arab
+invasion.
+
+No foundations are of course at hand for such fabulous inventions, and
+if the effigy really were found in the _almudena_, it must have been
+placed there by the Moors themselves, who most likely had taken it as
+their booty when sacking a church or convent to the north.
+
+The patron saint of Madrid is one Isidro, not to be confounded with San
+Isidoro of Leon. The former was a farmer or labourer, who, with his
+wife, lived a quiet and unpretentious life in the vicinity of Madrid, on
+the opposite banks of the Manzanares, where a chapel was erected to his
+memory sometime in the seventeenth century. Of the many miracles this
+saint is supposed to have wrought, not one differs from the usual deeds
+attributed to holy individuals. Being a farmer, his voice called forth
+water from the parched land, and angels helped his oxen to plough the
+fields.
+
+Save the effigy of the Virgin de la Almudena, and the life of San
+Isidro, Madrid has no ecclesiastical history,--the Virgin de la Atocha
+has been forgotten, but she is only a duplicate of her sister virgin.
+Convents and monasteries are of course as numerous as elsewhere in
+Spain; brick parish churches of a decided Spanish-Oriental appearance
+rear their cupolas skyward in almost every street, the largest among
+them being San Francisco el Grande, which, with San Antonio de la
+Florida (containing several handsome paintings by Goya), is the only
+temple worth visiting.
+
+As regards a cathedral building, there is, in the lower part of the
+city, a large stone church dedicated to San Isidro; it serves the stead
+of a cathedral church until a new building, begun about 1885, will have
+been completed.
+
+This new building, the cathedral properly speaking, is to be a tenth
+wonder; it is to be constructed in granite, and its foundations stand
+beside the royal palace in the very spot where the Virgin de la Almudena
+was found, and where, until 1869, a church enclosed the sacred effigy;
+the new building is to be dedicated to the same deity.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new cathedral proceeds but slowly; so far
+only the basement stones have been laid and the crypt finished. The
+funds for its erection are entirely dependent upon alms, but, as the
+religious fervour which incited the inhabitants of Segovia in the
+sixteenth century is almost dead to-day, it is an open question whether
+the cathedral of Madrid will ever be finished.
+
+The temporary cathedral of San Isidro was erected in the seventeenth
+century; its two clumsy towers are unfinished, its western front,
+between the towers, is severe; four columns support the balcony, behind
+which the cupola, which crowns the _croisée_, peeps forth.
+
+Inside there is nothing worthy of interest to be admired except some
+pictures, one of them painted by the Divino Morales. The nave is light,
+but the chapels are so dark that almost nothing can be seen in their
+interior.
+
+This church, until the expulsion of the Jesuits, was the temple of their
+order, dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul; adjoining it a Jesuit school
+was erected, which has been incorporated in the government colleges.
+
+
+_Alcalá de Henares_
+
+About twenty miles to the east of Madrid lies the one-time glorious
+university city of Alcalá, famous above all things for having been the
+cradle of Cervantes, and the hearth, if not the home, of Cardinal
+Cisneros.
+
+Its history and its decadence are of the saddest; the latter serves in
+many respects as an adequate symbol of Spain's own tremendous downfall.
+
+[Illustration: SAN ISIDRO, MADRID]
+
+The Romans founded Alcalá; it was their Complutum, of which some few
+remains have been discovered in the vicinity of the modern city. Yet,
+notwithstanding this lack of substantial evidence, the inhabitants of
+the region still proudly call themselves Complutenses.
+
+When the West Goths were rulers of the peninsula, the Roman monuments
+must have been completely destroyed, for all traces of the strategic
+stronghold were effaced from the map of Spain. The invading Arabs,
+possessing to a certain degree both Roman military instinct and
+foresight, built a fortress on the spot where the State Archives
+Building stands to-day. This castle was used by them as one of Toledo's
+northern defences against the warlike Christian kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the fortress fell into the hands of the
+Christians; in the succeeding centuries it was strongly rebuilt by the
+cardinal-archbishops of Toledo, who used it both as their palace and as
+their stronghold.
+
+Outside the bastioned and turreted walls of the castle, the new-born
+city grew up under its protecting shadows. Known by the Arabic name of
+its fortress (Al-Kalá), it was successively baptized Alcalá de San
+Justo, Alcalá de Fenares, and since the sixteenth century, Alcalá de
+Henares (_heno_, old Spanish _feno_, meaning hay). Protected by such
+powerful arms as those of the princes of the Church, it grew up to be a
+second Toledo, a city of church spires and convent walls, but of which
+only a reduced number stand to-day to point back to the religious
+fervour of the middle ages.
+
+The world-spread fame acquired by Alcalá in the fifteenth century was
+due to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros, who built the university, at
+one time one of the most celebrated in Europe, and to-day a mere
+skeleton of architectural beauty.
+
+The same prelate raised San Justo to a suffragan church; its chapter was
+composed only of learned professors of the university, as were also its
+canons; Leon X. gave it the enviable title of La Magistral, the Learned,
+which points it out as unique in the Christian world. The Polyglot
+Bible, published in the sixteenth century, and famous in all Europe, was
+worked out by these scholars under Cisneros's direction, and the
+favoured city outshone the newly built Madrid twenty miles away, and
+rivalled Salamanca in learning, and Toledo in worldly and religious
+splendour.
+
+Madrid grew greater and greater as years went by, and consequently
+Alcalá de Henares dwindled away to the shadow of a name. The university,
+the just pride of the Complutenses, was removed to the capital; the
+cathedral, for lack of proper care, became an untimely ruin; the
+episcopal palace was confiscated by the state, which, besides repairing
+it, filled its seventy odd halls with rows upon rows of dusty documents
+and governmental papers.
+
+To-day the city drags along a weary, inactive existence: soldiers from
+the barracks and long-robed priests from the church fill the streets,
+and are as numerous as the civil inhabitants, if not more so; convents
+and cloisters of nuns, either grass-grown ruins or else sombre grated
+and barred edifices, are to be met with at every step.
+
+Strangers visit the place hurriedly in the morning and return to Madrid
+in the afternoon; they buy a tin box of sugar almonds (the city's
+specialty), carelessly examine the university and the archiepiscopal
+palace, gaze unmoved at some Cervantes relics, and at the façade of the
+cathedral. Besides, they are told that in such and such a house the
+immortal author of Don Quixote was born, which is a base, though
+comprehensible, invention, because no such house exists to-day.
+
+That is all; perchance in crossing the city's only square, the traveller
+notices that it can boast of no fewer than three names, doubtless with a
+view to hide its glaring nakedness. These three names are Plaza de
+Cervantes, Plaza Mayor, and Plaza de la Constitución, of which the
+latter is spread out boldly across the town hall and seems to invoke the
+remembrance of the ephemeral efforts of the republic in 1869.
+
+In the third century after the birth of Christ, two infants, Justo and
+Pastor, preached the True Word to the unbelieving Roman rulers of
+Complutum. The result was not in the least surprising: the two infants
+lost their baby heads for the trouble they had taken in trying to
+trouble warriors.
+
+But the Vatican remembered them, and canonized Pastor and Justo.
+Hundreds of churches, sown by the blood of martyrs, grew up in all
+corners of the peninsula to commemorate pagan cruelty, and to induce all
+men to follow the examples set by the two babes.
+
+No one knew, however, where the mortal remains of Justo and Pastor were
+lying. In the fourth century their resting-place was miraculously
+revealed to one Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, who had them removed to
+his cathedral. They did not stay long in the primate city, for the
+invasion of the Moors obliged all True Believers to hide Church relics.
+Thus, Justo and Pastor wandered forth again from village to village,
+running away from the infidels until they reposed temporarily in the
+cathedral of Huesca in the north of Aragon.
+
+In Alcalá their memory was kept alive in the parish church dedicated to
+them. But as the city grew, it was deemed preferable to build a solid
+temple worthy of the saintly pair, and Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo,
+had the old church pulled down and began the erection of a larger
+edifice. This took place in the middle of the fifteenth century, when
+Ximenez de Cisneros, who ruled the fate of Spain and its church, gave it
+the ecclesiastical constitution previously mentioned.
+
+Fifty years later the weary bodies of the two infants were brought back
+in triumph to their native town amid the rejoicings and admiration of
+the people, and were placed in the cathedral of San Justo, then a
+collegiate church of Toledo.
+
+A few years ago the cathedral church of San Justo was denounced by the
+state architect and closed. To-day it is a dreary ruin, with tufts of
+grass growing among the battlements. The chapter, depriving the hoary
+building of its high altar, its precious relics and paintings, its
+stalls and other accessories, installed the cathedral in the Jesuit
+temple, an insignificant building in the other extremity of the town.
+Recently the abandoned ruin has been declared a national monument, which
+means that the state is obliged to undertake its restoration.
+
+La Magistral is a brick building of imposing simplicity and severity in
+its general outlines. Its decorative elements are ogival, but of true
+Spanish nakedness and lack of elegance. Though Renaissance principles
+have not entered into the composition, as might have been supposed,
+considering the date of the erection, nevertheless, the lack of flying
+buttresses, the scarcity of windows, the undecorated angles of the
+western front, the barren walls, and flat-topped, though slightly
+sloping, roofs prove that the "simple and severe style" is latent in the
+minds of artists.
+
+[Illustration: ALCALÁ DE HENARES CATHEDRAL]
+
+The apse is well developed, and the _croisée_ surmounted by a cupola;
+the tower which flanks the western front is massive; it is decorated
+with blind arches and ogival arabesques.
+
+The ground plan of the building is Latin Cruciform; the aisles are but
+slightly lower than the nave and join in the apse behind the high altar
+in an ambulatory walk. The crypt, reached by two Renaissance doors in
+the _trasaltar_, is spacious, and contains the bodies of San Justo and
+San Pastor.
+
+The general impression produced on the mind of the tourist is sadness.
+The severity of the structure is heightened by the absence of any
+distracting decorative elements, excepting the fine _Mudejar_ ceiling to
+the left upon entering.
+
+In the reigning shadows of this deserted temple, two magnificent tombs
+stand in solitude and silence. They are those of Carillo and Cardinal
+Cisneros, the latter one of the greatest sons of Spain and one of her
+most contradictory geniuses. His sepulchre is a gorgeous marble monument
+of Renaissance style, surrounded by a massive bronze grille of excellent
+workmanship, a marvel of Spanish metal art of the sixteenth century.
+The other sepulchre is simple in its ogival decorations, and the
+prostrate effigy of Carillo is among the best to be admired by the
+tourist in Iberia.
+
+Carillo's life was that of a restless, ambitious, and worldly man. When
+he died, he was buried in the Convent of San Juan de Dios, where his
+illegitimate son had been buried before him, "for," said the
+archbishop-father, "if in life my robes separated me from my son, in
+death we shall be united."
+
+But he reckoned without his host, or rather his successor, the man whose
+remains now lie beside his own in the shadows of the great ruin. "For,"
+said Cisneros, "the Church must separate man from his sin even in
+death." So he ordered the son to be left in the convent, and the father
+to be brought to the temple he had begun to erect.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SIGÜENZA
+
+
+The origin of the fortress admirably situated to the north of
+Guadalajara was doubtless Moorish, though in the vicinity is Villavieja,
+where the Romans had established a town on the transverse road from
+Cadiz to Tarragon, and called by them Seguncia, or Segoncia.
+
+When the Christian religion first appeared in Spain, it is believed that
+Sigüenza, or Segoncia, possessed an episcopal see; nothing is positively
+known, however, of the early bishops, until Protogenes signed the third
+Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+It is believed that in the reign of Alfonso VI., he who conquered Toledo
+and the region to the south of Valladolid and as far east as Aragon,
+Sigüenza was repopulated, though no mention is made of the place in the
+earlier chronicles of the time. All that is known is that a bishop was
+immediately appointed by Alfonso VII. to the vacancy which had lasted
+for over two hundred years, during which Sigüenza had been one of the
+provincial capitals of the Kingdom of Toledo. The first known bishop was
+Don Bernardo.
+
+The history of the town was never of the most brilliant. In the times of
+Alfonso VII. and his immediate successors it gained certain importance
+as a frontier stronghold, as a check to the growing ambitions of the
+royal house of Aragon. But after the union of Castile and Aragon, its
+importance gradually dwindled; to-day, if it were not for the bishopric,
+it would be one historic village more on the map of Spain.
+
+In the reign of Peter the Cruel, its castle--considered with that of
+Segovia to be the strongest in Castile--was used for some time as the
+prison palace for that most unhappy princess, Doña Blanca, who, married
+to his Catholic Majesty, had been deposed on the third day of the
+wedding by the heartless and passionate lover of the Padilla. She was at
+first shut up in Toledo, but the king did not consider the Alcázar
+strong enough. So she was sent off to Sigüenza, where it is popularly
+believed, though documents deny it, that she died, or was put to death.
+
+The city belonged to the bishop; it was his feudal property, and passed
+down to his successors in the see. Of the doings of these
+prelate-warriors, the first, Don Bernardo, was doubtless the most
+striking personality, lord of a thousand armed vassals and of three
+hundred horse, who fought with the emperor in almost all the great
+battles in Andalusia. It is even believed he died wielding the naked
+sword, and that his remains were brought back to the town of which he
+had been the first and undisputed lord.
+
+The strong castle which crowns the city did not possess, as was
+generally the case, an _alcalde_, or governor; it was the episcopal
+palace or residence, a circumstance which proves beyond a doubt the
+double significance of the bishop: a spiritual leader and military
+personage, more influential and wealthy than any prelate in Spain,
+excepting the Archbishops of Toledo and Santiago.
+
+During the French invasion in the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+Sigüenza had already lost its political significance. The invaders
+occupied the castle, and, as was their custom, threw documents and
+archives into the fire, to make room for themselves, and to spend the
+winter comfortably.
+
+Consequently, the notices we have of the cathedral church are but
+scarce. The fourth bishop was Jocelyn, an Englishman who had come over
+with Eleanor, Henry II.'s daughter, and married to the King of Castile.
+He (the bishop) was not a whit less warlike than his predecessors had
+been; he helped the king to win the town of Cuenca, and when he died on
+the battle-field, only his right arm was carried back to the see, to the
+chapel of St. Thomas of Canterbury, which the dead prelate had founded
+in the new cathedral, and it was buried beneath a stone which bears the
+following inscription:
+
+    "_Hic est inclusa Jocelini præsulis ulna._"
+
+From the above we can conclude that the cathedral must have been begun
+previous to the Englishman's coming to Spain, that is, in the beginning
+of the twelfth century. Doubtless the vaulting was not closed until at
+least one hundred years later; nevertheless, it is one of the unique and
+at the same time one of the handsomest Spanish monuments of the
+Transition period.
+
+The city of Sigüenza, situated on the slopes of a hill crowned by the
+castle, is a village rather than a town; there are, however, fewer spots
+in Spain that are more picturesque in their old age, and there is a
+certain uniformity in the architecture that reminds one of German towns;
+this is not at all characteristic of Spain, where so many styles mix and
+mingle until hardly distinguishable from each other.
+
+The Transition style--between the strong Romanesque and the airy
+ogival--is the city's _cachet_, printed with particular care on the
+handsome cathedral which stands on the slope of the hill to the north of
+the castle.
+
+Two massive square towers, crenelated at the top and pierced by a few
+round-headed windows, flank the western front. The three portals are
+massive Romanesque without floral or sculptural decoration of any kind;
+the central door is larger and surmounted by a large though primitive
+rosace. The height of the aisles and nave is indicated by three ogival
+arches cut in relief on the façade; here already the mixture of both
+styles, of the round-arched Romanesque and the pointed Gothic, is
+clearly visible--as it is also in the windows of the aisles, which are
+Romanesque, and of the nave, which are ogival--in the buttresses, which
+are leaning on the lower body, and flying in the upper story, uniting
+the exterior of the clerestory with that of the aisles. (Compare with
+apse of the cathedral of Lugo.)
+
+The portal of the southern arm of the transept is an ugly addition, more
+modern and completely out of harmony with the rest. The rosace above the
+door is one of the handsomest of the Transition period in Spain, and the
+stained glass is both rich and mellow.
+
+The interior shows the same harmonious mixture of the stronger and more
+solemn old style, and the graceful lightness of the newer. But the
+hesitancy in the mind of the architect is also evident, especially in
+the vaulting, which is timidly arched.
+
+The original plan of the church was, doubtless, purely Romanesque: Roman
+cruciform with a three-lobed apse, the central one much longer so as to
+contain the high altar.
+
+In the sixteenth century, however, an ambulatory was constructed behind
+the high altar, joining the two aisles, and the high altar was removed
+to the east of the transept.
+
+What a pity that the huge choir, placed in the centre of the church,
+should so completely obstruct the view of the ensemble of the nave and
+aisles, separated by massive Byzantine arches between the solid pillars,
+which, in their turn, support the nascent ogival vaulting of the high
+nave! Were it, as well as the grotesque _trascoro_--of the unhappiest
+artistic taste--anywhere but in the centre of the church, what a
+splendid view would be obtained of the long, narrow, and high aisles and
+nave in which the old and the new were moulded together in perfect
+harmony, instead of fighting each other and clashing together, as
+happened in so many Spanish cathedral churches!
+
+One of the most richly decorated parts of the church is the sacristy, a
+small room entirely covered with medallions and sculptural designs of
+the greatest variety of subjects. Though of Arabian taste (_Mudejar_),
+no Moorish elements have entered into the composition, and consequently
+it is one of the very finest, if not the very best specimen, of
+Christian Arab decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CUENCA
+
+
+To the east of Toledo, and to the north of the plains of La Mancha,
+Cuenca sits on its steep hill surrounded by mountains; a high stone
+bridge, spanning a green valley and the rushing river, joined the city
+to a mountain plateau; to-day the mediæval bridge has been replaced by
+an iron one, which contrasts harshly with the somnolent aspect of the
+landscape.
+
+Never was a city founded in a more picturesque spot. It almost resembles
+Göschenen in Switzerland, with the difference that whereas in the last
+named village a white-washed church rears its spire skyward, in Cuenca a
+large cathedral, rich in decorative accessories, and yet sombre and
+severe in its wealth, occupies the most prominent place in the town.
+
+Of the origin of the city nothing is known. In the tenth and the
+eleventh centuries Conca was an impregnable Arab fortress. In 1176 the
+united armies of Castile and Aragon, commanded by two sovereigns,
+Alfonso VIII. of Castile and Alfonso II. of Aragon, laid siege to the
+fortress, and after nine months' patience, the Alcázar surrendered.
+According to the popular tradition, it was won by treachery: one Martin
+Alhaxa, a captive and a shepherd by trade, introduced the Christians
+disguised with sheepskins into the city through a postern gate.
+
+As the conquest of Cuenca had cost the King of Castile such trouble (his
+Aragonese partner had not waited to see the end of the siege), and as he
+was fully conscious of its importance as a strategical outpost against
+Aragon to the north and against the Moors to the south and east, he laid
+special stress on the city's being strongly fortified; he also gave
+special privileges to such Christians as would repopulate, or rather
+populate, the nascent town. A few years later Pone Lucio III. raised the
+church to an episcopal see, appointing Juan Yañez, a Tolesian Muzarab,
+to be its first bishop (1183).
+
+Unlike Sigüenza, a feudal possession of the bishop, Cuenca belonged
+exclusively to the monarch of Castile; the castle was consequently held
+in the sovereign's name by a governor,--at one time there were even four
+who governed simultaneously. Between these governors and the inhabitants
+of the city, fights were numerous, especially during the first half of
+the fifteenth century, the darkest and most ignoble period of Castilian
+history.
+
+The story is told of one Doña Inez de Barrientos, granddaughter of a
+bishop on her mother's side, and of a governor on that of her father. It
+appears that her husband had been murdered by some of the wealthiest
+citizens of the town. Feigning joy at her spouse's death, the widow
+invited the murderers to her house to a banquet, when, "_después de
+opípara cena_ (after an excellent dinner), they passed from the lethargy
+of drunkenness to the sleep of eternity, assassinated by hidden
+servants." The following morning their bodies hung from the windows of
+the palace, and provoked not anger but silent dread and shivers among
+the terror-stricken inhabitants.
+
+With the Inquisition, the siege by the English in 1706, the invasion of
+the French in 1808, Cuenca rapidly lost all importance and even
+political significance. To-day it is one of the many picturesque ruins
+that offer but little interest to the art traveller, for even its old
+age is degenerated, and the monuments of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
+fifteenth centuries have one and all been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and by the less grasping hand of _restauradores_--or
+architect-repairers.
+
+The Byzantine character, the Arab taste of the primitive inhabitants,
+has also been lost. Who would think, upon examining the cathedral, that
+it had served once upon a time as the principal Arab mosque? Entirely
+rebuilt, as were most of the primitive Arab houses, it has lost all
+traces of the early founders, more so than in other cities where the
+Arabs remained but a few years.
+
+The patron saint of Cuenca is San Julian, one of the cathedral's first
+bishops, who led a saintly life, giving all he had and taking nothing
+that was not his, and who retired from his see to live the humble life
+of a basket-maker, seated with willow branches beneath the arches of the
+high bridge, and preaching saintly words to teamsters and mule-drivers
+as they approached the city, until his death in 1207.
+
+In the same century the Arab mosque was torn down and the new cathedral
+begun. It is a primitive ogival (Spanish) temple of the thirteenth
+century, with smatterings of Romanesque-Byzantine. Unlike the cathedral
+of Sigüenza, it is neither elegant, harmonious, nor of great
+architectural value; its wealth lies chiefly in the chapels, in the
+doors which lead to the cloister, in the sacristy, and in the elegant
+high altar.
+
+The cloister door is perhaps one of the finest details of the cathedral
+church: decorated in the plateresque style general in Spain in the
+sixteenth century, it offers one of the finest examples of said style to
+be found anywhere, and though utterly different in ornamentation to the
+sacristy of Sigüenza, it nevertheless resembles it in the general
+composition.
+
+The nave, exceedingly high, is decorated by a blind triforium of ogival
+arches; the aisles are sombre and lower than the nave. On the other
+hand, the transept, broad and simple, is similar to the nave and as long
+as the width of the church, including the lateral chapels. The _croisée_
+is surmounted by a _cimborio_, insignificant in comparison to those of
+Salamanca, Zamora, and Toro.
+
+The northern and southern extremities of the transept differ from each
+other as regard style. The southern has an ogival portal surmounted by a
+rosace; the northern, one that is plateresque, the rounded arch,
+delicately decorated, reposing on Corinthian columns.
+
+The eastern end of the church has been greatly modified--as is clearly
+seen by the mixture of fifteenth-century styles, and not to the
+advantage of the ensemble. Byzantine pillars, and even horseshoe arches,
+mingle with Gothic elements.
+
+Of the chapels, the greater number are richly decorated, not only with
+sepulchres and sepulchral works, but with paintings, some of them by
+well-known masters.
+
+Taken all in all, the cathedral of Cuenca does not inspire any of the
+sentiments peculiar to religious temples. Not the worst cathedral in
+Spain, by any means, neither as regards size nor majesty, it
+nevertheless lacks conviction, as though the artist who traced the
+primitive plan miscalculated its final appearance. The additions, due to
+necessity or to the ruinous state of some of the parts, were luckless,
+as are generally all those undertaken at a posterior date.
+
+The decorative wealth of the chapels, which is really astonishing in so
+small a town, the luxurious display of grotesque elements, the presence
+of a fairly good _transparente_, as well as the rich leaf-decoration of
+Byzantine pillars and plateresque arches, give a peculiar _cachet_ to
+this church which is not to be found elsewhere.
+
+The same can be said of the city and of the inhabitant. In the words of
+an authority, "Cuenca is national, it is Spanish, it is a typical rural
+town." Yet, it is so typical, that no other city resembles it.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+TOLEDO
+
+
+A forest of spires and _alminar_ towers rising from a roof-covered hill
+to pierce the distant azure sky; a ruined cemetery surrounded on three
+sides by the rushing Tago as it cuts out a foaming path through
+foothills, and stretching away on the fourth toward the snow-capped
+Sierra de Gredo in the distance, beyond the fruitful prairies and the
+intervening plains of New Castile.
+
+Such is Toledo, the famous, the wonderful, the legend-spun primate city
+of all the Spains, the former wealthy capital of the Spanish Empire!
+
+Madrid usurped all her civic honours under the reign of Philip II., he
+who lost the Armada and built the Escorial. Since then Toledo, like
+Alcalá de Henares, Segovia, and Burgos, has dragged along a forlorn
+existence, frozen in winter and scorched in summer, and visited at all
+times of the year by gaping tourists of all nationalities.
+
+Even the approach to the city from the mile distant station is
+peculiarly characteristic. Seated in an old and shaky omnibus, pulled by
+four thrashed mules, and followed along the dusty road by racing
+beggars, who whine their would-be French, "_Un p'it sou, mouchieur_,"
+with surprising alacrity and a melancholy smile in their big black eyes,
+the visitor is driven sharply around a bluff, when suddenly Toledo, the
+mysterious, comes into sight, crowning the opposite hill.
+
+At a canter the mules cross the bridge of Alcántara and pass beneath the
+gateway of the same name, a ponderous structure still guarding the
+time-rusty city as it did centuries ago when Toledo was the Gothic
+metropolis. Up the winding road, beneath the solemn and fire-devastated
+walls of the Alcázar, the visitor is hurriedly driven along; he
+disappears from the burning sunlight into a gloomy labyrinth of
+ill-paved streets to emerge a few minutes later in the principal square.
+
+A shoal of yelling, gesticulating interpreters literally grab at the
+tourist, and in ten seconds exhaust their vocabulary of foreign words.
+At last one walks triumphantly off beside the newcomer, while the
+others, with a depreciative shrug of the shoulders and extinguishing
+their volcanic outburst of energy, loiter around the square smoking
+cigarettes.
+
+It does not take the visitor long to notice that he is in a great
+archæological museum. The streets are crooked and narrow, so narrow that
+the tiny patch of sky above seems more brilliant than ever and farther
+away, while on each side are gloomy houses with but few windows, and
+monstrous, nail-studded doors. At every turn a church rears its head,
+and the cheerless spirit of a palace glares with a sadly vacant stare
+from behind wrought-iron _rejas_ and a complicated stone-carved blazon.
+Rarely is the door opened; when it is, the passer catches a glimpse of a
+sun-bathed courtyard, gorgeously alive with light and many flowers. The
+effect produced by the sudden contrast between the joyless street and
+the sunny garden, whose existence was never dreamt of, is delightful and
+never to be forgotten; from Théophile Gautier, who had been in Northern
+Africa, land of Mohammedan harems, it wrung the piquant exclamation:
+"The Moors have been here!"
+
+Every stick, stone, mound, house, lantern, and what not has its legend.
+In this humble _posada_, Cervantes, whose ancestral castle is on yonder
+bluff overlooking the Tago, wrote his "_Ilustre Fregona_." The family
+history of yonder fortress-palace inspired Zorilla's romantic pen, and a
+thousand and one other objects recall the past,--the past that is
+Toledo's present and doubtless will have to be her future.
+
+Gone are the days when Tolaitola was a peerless jewel, for which Moors
+and Christians fought, until at last the Believers of the True Faith
+drove back the Arabs who fled southward from whence they had emerged.
+Long closed are also the famous smithies, where swords--Tolesian blades
+they were then called--were hammered so supple that they could bend like
+a watchspring, so strong they could cleave an anvil, and so sharp they
+could cut an eiderdown pillow in twain without displacing a feather.
+
+Distant, moreover, are the nights of _capa y espada_ and of miracles
+wrought by the Virgin; dwindled away to a meagre shadow is the princely
+magnificence of the primate prelates of all the Spains, of those
+spiritual princes who neither asked the Pope's advice nor received
+orders from St. Peter at Rome. Besides, of the two hundred thousand
+souls proud to be called sons of Toledo in the days of Charles-Quint,
+but seventeen thousand inhabitants remain to-day to guard the nation's
+great city-museum, unsullied as yet by progress and modern civilization,
+by immense advertisements and those other necessities of daily life in
+other climes.
+
+The city's history explains the mixture of architectural styles and the
+bizarre modifications introduced in Gothic, Byzantine, or Arab
+structures.
+
+Legends accuse Toledo of having been mysteriously founded long before
+the birth of Rome on her seven hills. To us, however, it first appears
+in history as a Roman stronghold, capital of one of Hispania's
+provinces.
+
+St. James, as has been seen, roamed across this peninsula; he came to
+Toledo. So delighted was he with the site and the people--saith the
+tradition--that he ordained that the city on the Tago should contain the
+primate church of all the Spains.
+
+The vanquished Romans withdrew, leaving to posterity but feeble ruins to
+the north of the city; the West Goths built the threatening city walls
+which still are standing, and, having turned Christians, their King
+Recaredo was baptized in the river's waters, and Toledo became the
+flourishing capital of the Visigothic kingdom (512 A.D.).
+
+The Moors, in their northward march, conquered both the Church and the
+state. Legends hover around the sudden apparition of Berber hordes in
+Andalusia, and accuse Rodrigo, the last King of the Goths, of having
+outraged Florinda, a beautiful girl whom he saw, from his palace window,
+bathing herself in a marble bath near the Tago,--the bath is still shown
+to this day,--and with whom he fell in love. The father, Count Julian,
+Governor of Ceuta, called in the Moors to aid him in his righteous work
+of vengeance, and, as often happens in similar cases, the allies lost no
+time in becoming the masters and the conquerors.
+
+Nearly four hundred years did the Arabs remain in their beloved
+Tolaitola; the traces of their occupancy are everywhere visible: in the
+streets and in the _patios_, in fanciful arabesques, and above all in
+Santa Maria la Blanca.
+
+The Spaniards returned and brought Christianity back with them. They
+erected an immense cathedral and turned mosques into chapels without
+altering the Oriental form.
+
+Jews, Arabs, and Christians lived peacefully together during the four
+following centuries. Together they created the _Mudejar_ style tower of
+San Tomas and the Puerta de Sol. Pure Gothic was transformed, rendered
+even more insubstantial and lighter, thanks to Oriental decorative
+motives. In San Juan de los Reyes, the _Mudejar_ style left a unique
+specimen of what it might have developed into had it not been murdered
+by the Renaissance fresh from Italy, where Aragonese troops had
+conquered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
+
+With the first Philips--and even earlier--foreign workmen came over to
+Toledo in shoals from Germany, France, Flanders, and Italy. They also
+had their way, more so than in any other Spanish city, and their tastes
+helped to weld together that incongruous mass of architectural styles
+which is Toledo's alone of all cities. Granada may have its Alhambra,
+and Cordoba its mosque; Leon its cathedral and Segovia its Alcázar, but
+none of them is so luxuriously rich in complex grandeur and in the
+excellent--and yet frequently grotesque--confusion of all those art
+waves which flooded Spain. In this respect Toledo is unique in Spain,
+unique in the world. Can we wonder at her being called a museum?
+
+The Alcázar, which overlooks the rushing Tago, is a symbol of Toledo's
+past. It was successively burnt and rebuilt; its four façades, here
+stern and forbidding, there grotesque and worthless, differ from each
+other as much as the centuries in which they were built. The eastern
+façade dates from the eleventh, the western from the fifteenth, and the
+other two from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
+
+But other arts than those purely architectural are richly represented in
+Toledo. For Spain's capital in the days following upon the fall of
+Granada was a centre of industrial arts, where both foreign and national
+workmen, heathen, Jews, and Christians mixed, wrought such wonders as
+have forced their way into museums the world over; besides, Tolesian
+sculptors are among Spain's most famous.
+
+As regards painting, one artist's life is wrapped up in that of the
+wonderful city on the Tago; many of his masterworks are to be seen in
+Toledo's churches and in the provincial museum. I refer to Domenico
+Theotocopuli, he who was considered a madman because he was a genius,
+and who has been called _el Greco_ when really he ought to have been
+called _el Toledano_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+If Toledo is the nation's architectural museum, the city's cathedral,
+the huge imposing Gothic structure, is, beyond a doubt, an incomparable
+art museum. Centuries of sculptors carved marble and _berroqueña_;
+armies of artisans wrought marvels in cloths, metals, precious stones,
+glass, and wood, and a host of painters, both foreign and national, from
+Goya and Ribera to the Greco and Rubens, painted religious compositions
+for the sacristy and chapels.
+
+Consequently, and besides the architectural beauty of the primate church
+of Spain, what interests perhaps more keenly than the study of the
+cathedral's skeleton, is the study of the ensemble, of that wealth of
+decorative designs and of priceless art objects for which the temple is
+above all renowned.
+
+Previous to the coming of the Moors in the eighth century, a humble
+cathedral stood where the magnificent church now lifts its
+three-hundred-foot tower in the summer sky. It had been built in the
+sixth century and dedicated to the Virgin, who had appeared in the
+selfsame spot to San Ildefonso, when the latter, ardent and vehement,
+had defended her Immaculate Honour before a body of skeptics.
+
+The Moors tore down or modified the cathedral, and erected their
+principal mosque in its stead. When, three hundred years later, they
+surrendered their Tolaitola to Alfonso VI. (1085), they stipulated for
+the retention of their _mezquita_, a clause the king, who had but little
+time to lose squabbling, was only too glad to allow.
+
+The following year, however, King Alfonso went off on a campaign,
+leaving his wife Doña Constanza and the Archbishop Don Bernardo to look
+after the city in his absence. No sooner was his back turned, when, one
+fine morning, Don Bernardo arrived with a motley crowd of goodly
+Christians in front of the mosque. He knocked in the principal door,
+and, entering, threw out into the street the sacred objects of the Islam
+cult. Then the Christians proceeded to set up an altar, a crucifix, and
+an image of the Virgin; the archbishop hallowed his work, and in an hour
+was the smiling possessor of his see. Strange to say, Don Bernardo was
+no Spaniard, but a worthy Frenchman.
+
+The news of this outrage upon his honour brought Alfonso rushing back to
+Toledo, vowing to revenge himself upon those who had seemingly made him
+break his royal word; on the way he was met by a committee of the Arab
+inhabitants, who, clever enough to understand that the sovereign would
+reinstate the mosque, but would ever after look upon them as the cause
+of his rupture with his wife and his friend the prelate, asked the king
+to pardon the evil-doers, stating that they renounced voluntarily their
+mosque, knowing as they did that the other conditions of the surrender
+would be sacredly adhered to by his Majesty.
+
+Thanks to this noble (cunning) attitude on the part of the outraged
+Moors, the latter were able to live at peace within the walls of Toledo
+well into the seventeenth century.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century Fernando el Santo was
+King of Castile, and his capital was the city on the Tago. The growing
+nation was strong and full of ambition, while the coming of the Cluny
+monks and Flemish and German artisans had brought Northern Gothic
+across the frontiers. So it occurred to the sovereign and his people to
+erect a primate cathedral of Christian Spain worthy of its name. In 1227
+the first stone was laid by the pious warrior-king. The cathedral's
+outline was traced: a Roman cruciform Gothic structure of five aisles
+and a bold transept; two flanking towers,--of which only the northern
+has been constructed, the other having been substituted by a cupola of
+decided Byzantine or Oriental taste,--and a noble western façade of
+three immense doors surmounted by a circular rosace thirty feet wide.
+
+The size of the building was in itself a guarantee that it would be one
+of the largest in the world, being four hundred feet long by two hundred
+broad, and one hundred feet high at the intersection of transept and
+nave.
+
+[Illustration: TOLEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It took 250 years for the cathedral to be built, and even then it was
+not really completed until toward the middle of the eighteenth century.
+In the meantime the nation had risen to its climax of power and wealth,
+and showered riches and jewels upon its great cathedral. Columbus
+returned from America, and the first gold he brought was handed over to
+the archbishop; foreign artisans--especially Flemish and
+German--arrived by hundreds, and were employed by Talavera, Cisneros,
+and Mendoza, in the decoration of the church. Unluckily, additions were
+made: the pointed arches of the façade were surmounted by a rectangular
+body which had nothing in common with the principle set down when the
+cathedral was to have been purely ogival.
+
+The interior of the church was also enlarged, especially the high altar,
+the base of which was doubled in size. The _retablo_ of painted wood was
+erected toward the end of the fifteenth century, as well as many of the
+chapels, which are built into the walls of the building, and are as
+different in style as the saints to whom they are dedicated.
+
+As time went on, and the rich continued sending their jewels and relics
+to the cathedral, the Treasury Room, with its pictures by Rubens, Dürer,
+Titian, etc., and with its _sagrario_,--a carved image of Our Lady,
+crowning an admirably chiselled cone of silver and jewels, and covered
+over with the richest cloths woven in gold, silver, silk, and precious
+stones,--was gradually filled with hoarded wealth. Even to-day, when
+Spain has apparently reached the very low ebb of her glory, the
+cathedral of Toledo remains almost intact as the only living
+representative of the grandeur of the Church and of the arts it fostered
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Almost up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the building was
+continually being enlarged, modified, and repaired. Six hundred years
+since the first stone had been laid! What vicissitudes had not the
+country seen--and how many art waves had swept over the peninsula!
+
+Gothic is traceable throughout the building: here it is flamboyant,
+there rayonnant. Here the gold and red of _Mudejar_ ceilings are
+exquisitely represented, as in the chapter-room; there Moorish influence
+in _azulejos_ (multicoloured glazed tiles) and in decorative designs is
+to be seen, such as in the horseshoe arches of the triforium in the
+chapel of the high altar. Renaissance details are not lacking, nor the
+severe plateresque taste (in the grilles of the choir and high altar),
+and neither did the grotesque style avoid Spain's great cathedral, for
+there is the double ambulatory behind the high altar, that is to say,
+the _transparente_, a circular chapel of the most gorgeous
+ultra-decoration to be found anywhere in Spain.
+
+Signs of decadence are unluckily to be observed in the cathedral to-day.
+The same care is no longer taken to repair fallen bits of carved stone;
+pigeon-lamps that burn little oil replace the huge bronze lamps of other
+days, and no new additions are being made. The cathedral's apogee has
+been reached; from now on it will either remain intact for centuries, or
+else it will gradually crumble away.
+
+Seen from the exterior, the cathedral does not impress to such an extent
+as it might. Houses are built up around it, and the small square to the
+south and west is too insignificant to permit a good view of the
+ensemble.
+
+Nevertheless, the spectator who is standing near the western façade,
+either craning his neck skyward or else examining the seventy odd
+statues which compose the huge portal of the principal entrance, is
+overawed at the immensity of the edifice in front of him, as well as
+amazed at the amount of work necessary for the decorating of the portal.
+
+The Puerta de los Leones, or the southern entrance giving access to the
+transept, is perhaps of a more careful workmanship as regards the
+sculptural decoration. The door itself, studded on the outside with
+nails and covered over with a sheet of bronze of the most exquisite
+workmanship in relief, is a _chef-d'œuvre_ of metal-stamping of the
+sixteenth century, whilst the wood-carving on the interior is among the
+finest in the cathedral.
+
+The effect produced on the spectator within the building is totally
+different. The height and length of the aisles, which are buried in
+shadows,--for the light which enters illuminates rather the chapels
+which are built into the walls between the flying
+buttresses,--astonishes; the _factura_ is severe and beautiful in its
+grand simplicity.
+
+Not so the chapels, which are decorated in all manner of styles, and
+ornamented in all degrees of lavishness. The largest is the Muzarab
+chapel beneath the dome which substitutes the missing tower; except the
+dome, this chapel, where the old Gothic Rite (as opposed to the
+Gregorian Rite) is sung every day in the year, is constructed in pure
+Gothic; it contains a beautiful Italian mosaic of the Virgin as well as
+frescoes illustrating Cardinal Cisneros's African wars, when the
+battling prelate thought it was his duty to bear the crucifix and
+Spanish rights into Morocco as his royal masters had carried them into
+Granada.
+
+The remaining chapels, some of them of impressive though generally
+complex structure, will have to be omitted here. So also the sacristy
+with its wonderful picture by the Greco, and the chapter-room with the
+portraits of all the archbishops, the elegant carved door, and the
+well-preserved _Mudejar_ ceiling, etc. And we pass on to the central
+nave, and stand beneath the _croisée_. To the east the high altar, to
+the west the choir, claim the greater part of our attention. For it is
+here that the people centred their gifts.
+
+The objects used on the altar-table are of gold, silver, jasper, and
+agate; the _monstrance_ in the central niche of the altar-piece is also
+of silver, and the garments worn by the effigy are woven in gold, silk,
+and precious stones. The two immense grilles which close off the high
+altar and the eastern end of the choir are of iron, tin, and copper,
+gilded and silvered, having been covered over with black paint in the
+nineteenth century so as to escape the greedy eyes--and hands!--of the
+French soldiery. The workmanship of these two _rejas_ is of the most
+sober Spanish classic or plateresque period, and though the black has
+not as yet been taken off, the silver and gold peep forth here and
+there, and show what a brilliancy must have radiated from these
+elegantly decorated bars and cross-bars in the eighteenth century.
+
+The three tiers of choir stalls, carved in walnut, are among the very
+finest in Spain, both as regards the accomplished craftsmanship and the
+astonishing variety in the composition. The two organs, opposite each
+other and attaining the very height of the nave, are the best in the
+peninsula, whilst the designs of the marble pavement, red and white in
+the high altar, and black and white in the choir, only add to the
+luxurious effect produced by statues, pulpits, and other accessories,
+either brilliantly coloured, or else wrought in polished metal or stone.
+
+The altar-piece itself, slightly concave in shape, is the largest, if
+not the best, of its kind. It is composed of pyramidically superimposed
+niches flanked by gilded columns and occupied by statues of painted and
+gilded wood. The effect from a distance is dazzling,--the reds, blues,
+and gold mingle together and produce a multicoloured mass reaching to
+the height of the nave; on closer examination, the workmanship is seen
+to be both coarse and naïve,--primitive as compared to the more finished
+_retablos_ of Burgos, Astorga, etc.
+
+To conclude: The visitor who, standing between the choir and the high
+altar of the cathedral, looks at both, stands, as it were, in the
+presence of an immense riddle. He cannot classify: there is no purity of
+one style, but a medley of hundreds of styles, pure in themselves, it is
+true, but not in the ensemble. Besides, the personality of each has been
+lost or drowned, either by ultra-decoration or by juxtaposition. A
+collective value is thus obtained which cannot be pulled to pieces, for
+then it would lose all its significance as an art unity--a complex art
+unity, in this case peculiar to Spain.
+
+Neither is repose, meditation, or frank admiration to be gleaned from
+such a gigantic _potpourri_ of art wonders, but rather a feeling--as far
+as we Northerners are concerned--of amazement, of stupor, and of an
+utter impossibility to understand such a luxurious display of idolatry
+rather than of faith, of scenic effect rather than of discreet prayer.
+
+But then, it may just be this idolatry and love of scenic effect which
+produces in the Spaniard what we have called _religious awe_. We feel it
+in a long-aisled Gothic temple; the Spaniard feels it when standing
+beneath the _croisée_ of his cathedral churches.
+
+The whole matter is a question of race.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+_Appendices_
+
+
+I
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain_
+
+
+II
+
+_Dimensions and Chronology_
+
+ASTORGA
+
+See dedicated to Saviour and San Toribio.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see, 1st century (oldest in peninsula).
+
+First historical bishop, Dominiciano, 347 A. D.
+
+During Arab invasion see was being continually destroyed and rebuilt.
+
+1069, first cathedral (on record) was erected.
+
+1120, second cathedral was erected.
+
+XIIIth century, third cathedral was erected.
+
+1471, fourth (present) cathedral was begun; terminated XVIth century.
+
+XVth and XVIth century ogival; imitation of that of Leon.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Northern front, plateresque retablo.
+
+
+AVILA
+
+Dedicated to San Salvador.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Segundo, in Ist century.
+
+See destroyed during Arab invasion.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Jeronimo in XIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of foundation and erection unknown.
+
+Legendary foundation, 1091; finished in 1105 (?).
+
+Late XIIth century Spanish Gothic fortress church.
+
+Apse XIIth century; transept XIVth century.
+
+Western front XVth century; tower late XIVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Width of transept and of nave, 30 feet.
+
+Width of aisles, 25 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Exterior of apse, nave and transept with rose
+windows, tomb of Bishop Tostada.
+
+
+BURGOS
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Mary and Son.
+
+Bishopric erected, 1075; archbishopric, 1085.
+
+First bishop, Don Simón; first archbishop, Gomez II.
+
+* * *
+
+Present cathedral begun, 1221.
+
+First holy mass celebrated in altar-chapel, 1230.
+
+Building terminated 300 years later (1521).
+
+XIIIth-XIVth century Spanish ogival.
+
+* * *
+
+Length (excluding Chapel of Condestable), 273 feet.
+
+Length of transept, 195 feet; width, 32 feet.
+
+Height of lantern crowning croisée, 162 feet.
+
+Height of western front, 47 feet.
+
+Height of towers, 273 feet; width at base, 19 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 31 feet; of aisles, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, interior decoration, lantern on
+croisée, the Chapel of the Condestable, choir, high altar, etc. (With
+that of Toledo, the richest cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+CALAHORRA
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio and San Celedonio, martyrs.
+
+Bishopric erected Vth century; first bishop, Silvano.
+
+Daring Arab invasion see removed to Oviedo (750).
+
+Removed to Alava in IXth century; in Xth century, to Nájera.
+
+In 1030, moved again to Calahorra; first bishop, Don Sancho.
+
+Since XIXth century, one bishop appointed to double see Calahorra-Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+This double see to be removed to Logroño.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in XIIth century; terminated in XIVth century.
+
+XIIIth century Gothic (body of church only).
+
+Western front of a much later date.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Choir-stalls.
+
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin and Child.
+
+Origin of bishopric in Calabria under Romans (legendary?).
+
+Foundation of city in 1150; erection of see, 1170.
+
+First bishop, Domingo, 1170.
+
+See nominally suppressed in 1870; in reality the suppression has not
+taken place as yet.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1160.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Tower and western front date from XVIIIth century.
+
+Lady-chapel from XVIth century.
+
+Building suffered considerably from French in 1808.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Romanesque narthex, cloister, choir-stalls,
+Romanesque doors leading into transept.
+
+
+CORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+Date of erection, 338.
+
+First known bishop, Laquinto, in 589.
+
+During Moorish domination the bishopric entirely destroyed.
+
+See reëstablished toward beginning XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun in 1120.
+
+Terminated in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Is an unimportant village church rather than a cathedral.
+
+One aisle, 150 feet long, 52 feet wide, 84 feet high.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Paseo, or cloister walk; in lady-chapel, sepulchre of
+XVIth century.
+
+
+CUENCA
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Erected in 1183.
+
+First bishop, Juan Yañez.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIIth century ogival church greatly deteriorated, in a ruinous state.
+
+Tower which stood on western end fell down recently.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 312 feet; width, 140 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cloister door, chapels.
+
+
+LEON
+
+See dedicated to San Froilan and Santa Maria de la Blanca.
+
+Date of erection not known.
+
+First known bishop, Basilides, 252 A.D.
+
+During Arab invasion, see existed on and off.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid in 1199.
+
+The building did not begin until 1250; terminated end of XIVth century.
+
+XIIth century French ogival.
+
+Vaulting above croisée fell down in 1631.
+
+Southern front rebuilt in 1694.
+
+Whole cathedral partly ruined in 1743.
+
+Closed to public by government in 1850.
+
+Reopened in 1901.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 300 feet; width, 130 feet; height of nave, 100 feet.
+
+Height of northern tower, 211 feet; of southern, 221 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 97 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, windows, choir-stalls, cloister.
+
+
+LOGROÑO
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Santa Maria raised to collegiate church in 1435.
+
+Old building torn down in same year, excepting some few remains.
+
+Present church begun in 1435; not terminated yet.
+
+Enlargements being introduced at the present date.
+
+Belongs to Spanish-Grotesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, trascoro, towers.
+
+
+LUGO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected in Vth century; first bishop, Agrestio, in 433.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral began in 1129; completed in 1177.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Building greatly reformed in XVIth to XVIIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), western portal, exterior of
+apse.
+
+
+MADRID-ALCALÁ
+
+See erected in 1850.
+
+MADRID
+
+Temporary cathedral dedicated to San Isidro.
+
+Seventeenth century building of no art merit.
+
+New cathedral dedicated to the Virgen de la Almudena.
+
+In course of construction; begun in 1885.
+
+ALCALÁ
+
+Dedicated to Santos Justo and Pastor; called la Magistral.
+
+In a ruinous state; closed, and see temporarily removed to Jesuit
+temple.
+
+Constructed in XVth century, and raised to suffragan in same century.
+
+Severe and naked (gloomy) Spanish-Gothic.
+
+Interior of building cannot be visited.
+
+
+MONDOÑEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Bishopric removed here from Ribadeo, late XIIth century.
+
+First (or second) bishop, Don Martin, about 1219.
+
+* * *
+
+Foundation of cathedral dates probably from XIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century Galician Romanesque structure.
+
+Greatly spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Ambulatory dates from XVth or XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in form; 120 feet long by 71 wide.
+
+Height of nave, 45 feet; of aisles, 28 feet.
+
+
+ORENSE
+
+See dedicated to St. Martin of Tours and St. Mary Mother.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to IVth century (?).
+
+* * *
+
+Erection of present building begun late XIIth century.
+
+Probably terminated late XIIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century, Galician Romanesque with pronounced ogival mixture.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Portico del Paraiso, western portal, decoration of
+the interior.
+
+
+OSMA
+
+See dedicated to San Pedro de Osma.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see in 91 A. D.
+
+First bishop, San Astorgio.
+
+First historical bishop, Juan I, in 589.
+
+Destruction of see during Arab invasion.
+
+See restored, 1100; first bishop, San Pedro de Osma.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIth century cathedral destroyed in XIIIth century, excepting a few
+chapels.
+
+Erection of new cathedral begun in 1232; terminated, beginning XIVth
+century.
+
+XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic (not pure).
+
+Ambulatory introduced in XVIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Retablo, reliefs of trasaltar.
+
+
+OVIEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected, 812; first bishop, Adulfo.
+
+* * *
+
+Until XIIth century cathedral was a basilica; destroyed.
+
+Romanesque edifice erected in XIIth century; destroyed 1380.
+
+Present edifice begun 1380; completed 1550.
+
+XVth century ogival (French?).
+
+Decoration of the interior terminated XVIIth century.
+
+Tower and spire, XVIth century.
+
+Camara Santa dates from XIIth century; a remnant of the early Romanesque
+edifice.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 218 feet; width, 72 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 65 feet; of aisles, 33 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 267 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Flèche, decoration of the interior, rosaces in apse,
+Gothic retablo, cloister, Camara Santa.
+
+
+PALENCIA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child and San Antolin, martyr.
+
+Date of erection unknown; IId or IIId century.
+
+One of the earliest bishops, San Toribio.
+
+During the Arab invasion city and see completely destroyed.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo, in 1035.
+
+* * *
+
+XVth century florid Gothic building.
+
+Erection begun in 1321.
+
+Eastern end finished prior to 1400.
+
+Century later western end begun on larger scale.
+
+Temple completed in 1550.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 405 feet.
+
+Width (at transept), 160 feet.
+
+Height (of nave), 95 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior and exterior), Bishop's Door,
+choir-stalls, trascoro.
+
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+Dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Erection of see 12 years after foundation city (1190).
+
+First bishop, Domingo; second, Adam; both were warrior prelates.
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral (few remains left) commenced in beginning XIVth century.
+
+Partially destroyed to make room for--
+
+New cathedral, commenced in 1498.
+
+XVIth century Renaissance-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ultra-decorated and ornamented in later centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Choir-stalls, western entrance, decorative motives,
+sepulchres.
+
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+Bishopric existed in Vth century. First known bishop, Eleuterio (589).
+
+VIIIth century, devoid of notices concerning see.
+
+Xth century, 7 bishops mentioned--living in Leon or Oviedo.
+
+XIth century, no news, even name of city forgotten.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Jeronimo of Valencia (1102).
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral still standing; city possesses therefore two cathedrals.
+
+OLD CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to St. Mary (Santa Maria de la Sede).
+
+In 1152 already in construction; not finished in 1299.
+
+XIIth or XIIIth century, Castilian Romanesque with ogival mixture.
+
+Nave, 33 feet wide, 190 feet long, 60 feet high.
+
+Aisles, 20 feet wide, 180 feet long, 40 feet high.
+
+Thickness of walls, 10 feet.
+
+Part of cathedral demolished to make room for new in 1513.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cimborio, central apsidal chapel, and retablo.
+
+
+NEW CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to the Mother and Saviour.
+
+Begun in 1513; not completed until XVIIIth century.
+
+Originally Late Gothic building. Plateresque, Herrera and grotesque
+additions.
+
+Compare churches of Valladolid and Segovia.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; 378 feet long, 181 feet wide.
+
+Height of nave, 130 feet; that of aisles, 88 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 50 feet; of aisles, 37 feet.
+
+Length (and width) of chapels, 28 feet; height, 54 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 320 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western façade, decorative wealth, ensemble.
+
+
+SANTANDER
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio, martyr, and to the Virgin.
+
+Monastical church of San Emeterio raised to collegiate in XIIIth
+century.
+
+Bishopric erected in 1775.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church built in XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Crypt, fount.
+
+
+SANTIAGO
+
+See dedicated to St. James, patron saint of Spain.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to 842; first bishop, Sisnando.
+
+Archbishopric erected XIIth century; first archbishop, Diego Galmirez.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun, 1078; terminated, 1211.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque building.
+
+Exterior suffered grotesque and plateresque repairs, XVIIth century.
+
+Cloister dates from 1530.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 305 feet; width (at transept), 204 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 78 feet; of aisles, 23 feet; of cupola, 107 feet; of
+tower (de la Trinidad), 260 feet; of western towers, 227 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 114 feet; width, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), Portico de la Gloria, crypt,
+cloister, southern portal.
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO DE LA CALZADA
+
+See dedicated to Santo Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+Bishopric dates from 1227.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1150.
+
+Terminated, 1250.
+
+XIIth-XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic structure.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: The retablo, XVth and XVIth sepulchres.
+
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+See dedicated to San Fruto and the Virgin.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Hierateo, in Ist century.
+
+See known to have existed in 527.
+
+First historical bishop, Peter (589).
+
+During Arab invasion only one bishop mentioned, Ilderedo, 940.
+
+First bishop after the Reconquest, Don Pedro, in 1115.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid, 1525.
+
+Cathedral consecrated, 1558; finished in 1580.
+
+Cupola erected in 1615.
+
+Gothic-Renaissance building.
+
+Tower struck by lightning and partly ruined, 1620.
+
+Rebuilt (tower) in 1825.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 341 feet; width, 156 feet.
+
+Height of dome, 218 feet.
+
+Width of nave and transept, 44 feet; aisles, 33 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Old cloister, apse, tower.
+
+
+SIGÜENZA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child.
+
+First known bishop, Protogenes, in VIth century.
+
+During Arab invasion no mention is made of see.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo (1195).
+
+Fourth bishop an Englishman, Jocelyn.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of erection of the cathedral unknown.
+
+Probably XIIth or XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ambulatory added in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 313 feet; width, 112 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 68 feet; of aisles, 63 feet.
+
+Circumference of central pillar, 50 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, sacristy, rose window in southern
+transept arm.
+
+
+SORIA
+
+See to be moved here from Osma.
+
+Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+Raised to suffragan of Osma in XIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+XVIth century, Gothic-plateresque building.
+
+XIIth century, western front; Castilian Romanesque.
+
+XIIth century, Romanesque cloister.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, cloister.
+
+
+TOLEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mother and her Apparition to San Ildefonso.
+
+Bishopric erected prior to 513 A. D.
+
+One of first bishops is San Ildefonso.
+
+During Arab domination see remains vacant.
+
+First archbishop, Don Bernardo (1085).
+
+Primate cathedral of all the Spains since XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present building laid in 1227.
+
+Church completed in 1493.
+
+Additions, repairs, etc., dating from XVIth-XVIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 404 feet; width, 204 feet; height of tower, 298 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 98 feet.
+
+Height of principal door, 20 feet; width, 7 feet.
+
+Diameter of rose window in western front, 30 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, decorative and industrial accessories,
+chapter-room, sacristy, paintings, bell-tower, etc. (The richest
+cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+TORO
+
+Collegiate Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+* * *
+
+Existence of bishopric cannot be proven, though believed to have been
+erected during first decade of Reconquest in Xth century.
+
+Is definitely made a suffragan of Zamora in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral--or collegiate--erected end of XIIth or beginning of XIIIth
+century.
+
+Castilian Romanesque building.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Military aspect of building, height of walls, massive
+cimborio.
+
+
+TUY
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
+
+Bishopric erected in VIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral erected in first half XIIth century.
+
+Suffered greatly from earthquakes, especially in 1755.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque in spoilt conditions.
+
+Western porch or narthex dates from XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, northern portal, cloister.
+
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+Santa Maria la Antigua raised to suffragan of Palencia, 1074.
+
+Church built in XIIth century, Castilian Romanesque.
+
+Ruins still to be seen to rear of--
+
+Santa Maria la Mayor. Seat of archbishopric since 1850.
+
+Bishopric established, 1595; first bishop, Don Bartolomé.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in 1585 by Juan de Herrera.
+
+Continued XVIIth century by Churriguera.
+
+Escorial style spoilt by grotesque decoration.
+
+Tower falls down in 1841; new one being erected.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; length, 411 feet; width, 204 feet.
+
+Transept half-way between apse and western front.
+
+Croisée surmounted by cupola.
+
+Only one of four towers was constructed.
+
+
+VITORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+St. Mary erected to collegiate, XVth century.
+
+Bishopric erected in XIXth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church erected in XIVth century.
+
+XIVth century Late Gothic structure of no art interest.
+
+Tower of XVIth and XVIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: In sacristy a canvas called Piety.
+
+
+ZAMORA
+
+See dedicated to San Atilano and the Holy Mother.
+
+Bishopric established 905; first bishop, San Atilano.
+
+Destroyed by Moors in 998; vacancy not filled until 1124.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Bernardo.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral commenced 1151; vaulting terminated 1174.
+
+XIIth century Castilian Romanesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The cimborio, southern entrance.
+
+
+III
+
+_A List of the Provinces of Spain and of the Middle Age States or
+Kingdoms from which they have evolved._
+
+   _Principal Kingdoms_ _Conquered States_ _Present-day Provinces_
+
+    Castile              Galicia            La Coruña*
+                                            Lugo*
+                                            Orense*
+                                            Pontevedra*
+                         Asturias*          Oviedo*
+                         Leon               Leon*
+                                            Palencia*
+                                            Zamora*
+                         Basque Provinces   Guipuzcua*
+                                            Vizcaya*
+                                            Alava*
+                         Rioja              Logroño*
+                         Old Castile        Santander*
+                                            Burgos*
+                                            Soria*
+                                            Valladolid*
+                                            Avila*
+                                            Segovia*
+                                            Salamanca*
+                         New Castile        Madrid*
+                                            Guadalajara*
+                                            Toledo*
+                                            Cuenca*
+                                            Ciudad Real*
+                         Extremadura        Caceres*
+                                            Badajoz
+                         Andalusia          Sevilla
+                                            Huelva
+                                            Cadiz
+                                            Cordoba
+                                            Jaen
+                         Granada            Granada
+                                            Malaga
+                                            Almeria
+                         Murcia             Murcia
+                                            Albacete
+    Aragon               Aragon             Zaragoza
+                                            Huesca
+                                            Teruel
+                         Cataluña           Barcelona
+                                            Gerona
+                                            Lerida
+                                            Tarragona
+                         Valencia           Valencia
+                                            Alicante
+                                            Castellón
+                         Navarra            Navarra (Pamplona)
+
+     NOTES
+
+     The star (*) indicates the provinces treated of in this volume; the
+     remainder will be treated of in Volume II.
+
+     Two provinces have not been mentioned: that of the Balearic Isles
+     (belonged to the old kingdom of Aragon), and that of the Canary
+     Isles (belonged to the old kingdom of Castile).
+
+     Dates have not been indicated. For so complicated was the evolution
+     of the different states (regions) throughout the Middle Ages, that
+     a series of tables would be necessary, as well as a series of
+     geographical maps.
+
+     The above list, however, shows Spain (minus Portugal) at the death
+     of Fernando (the husband of Isabel) in 1516, as well as the
+     component parts of Castile and Aragon. The division of Spain into
+     provinces dates from 1833.
+
+     A bishopric does not necessarily coincide with a province. Thus,
+     the Province of Lugo has two sees (Lugo and Mondoñedo); on the
+     other hand, three Basque Provinces have but one see (Vitoria).
+
+     Excepting in the case of Navarra, whose capital is Pamplona, the
+     different provinces of Spain bear the name of the capital. Thus the
+     capital of the Province of Madrid is Madrid, and Jaen is the
+     capital of the province of the same name.
+
+
+
+
+_Bibliography_
+
+
+España, sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza é Historia:
+
+  Burgos, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Santander, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Navarra y Logroño, Vol. III., by P. de Madrazo.
+
+  Soria, by N. Rabal.
+
+  Galicia, by M. Murguia.
+
+  Alava, etc., by A. Pirala.
+
+  Extremadura, by N. Diaz y Perez.
+
+Recuerdos y Bellezas de España:
+
+  Castilla La Nueva, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Asturias y Leon, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Valladolid, etc., by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Salamanca, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+Espagne et Portugal, by Baedeker.
+
+Historia del Pueblo Español (Spanish translation), by Major M. Hume.
+
+Historia de España, by R. Altamira.
+
+Toledo en la Mano, by S. Parro.
+
+Estudios Historico-Artisticos relativos á Valladolid, by Marti y Monsó.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acuña, Don, 297, 298.
+
+Adán, Maria, 271;
+  Don, Bishop of Plasencia, 287, 376.
+
+Adulfo, Bishop of Oviedo, 138, 375.
+
+African Wars, 364.
+
+Agrestio, Bishop of Lugo, 373.
+
+Agricolanus, 151.
+
+Agueda River, 269.
+
+Alagón River, 278, 280.
+
+Alarcos, Battle of, 284, 314.
+
+Alava, 198, 371.
+
+Alcalá (_See_ Alcalá de Henares).
+
+Alcalá de Fenares (_See_ Alcalá de Henares).
+
+Alcalá de Henares, 61, 64, 212, 223, 321, 322, 326-334, 349;
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches); University of, 328.
+
+Alcalá de San Justo (_See_ Alcalá de Henares).
+
+Alcántara, Bridge of, 350.
+
+Alcázar (Cuenca), 343,   (Segovia) 314, 320, 355, (Toledo) 336, 350, 356.
+
+Alemán, 275, 289.
+
+Alfonso, 307.
+
+Alfonso I., 221, 230.
+
+Alfonso II., 343.
+
+Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Alfonso IV., 153.
+
+Alfonso V., 139, 294.
+
+Alfonso VI., 198, 206, 233, 237, 253, 293, 335, 358, 359.
+
+Alfonso VII., 153, 154, 161, 162, 336.
+
+Alfonso VIII., 188, 192, 193, 210, 223, 258, 280, 284, 286, 338, 343.
+
+Alfonso IX., 258.
+
+Alfonso XI., 179, 245.
+
+Alfonso the Chaste, 102, 104, 137, 138, 139, 141.
+
+Alfonsos, Dynasty of, 103, 200.
+
+Alfonso el Batallador, 305.
+
+Al-Kalá (_See_ Alcalá de Henares).
+
+Alhambra, The, 22, 41, 355.
+
+Alhaxa, Martin, 343.
+
+Al-Kárica (_See_ Coria).
+
+Almanzor, 79, 150, 152, 171, 176, 177, 230, 232.
+
+Alps, The, 58.
+
+Altamira, Rafael, 14.
+
+Alvarez, Diego, 286.
+
+America, 29, 32, 90, 295, 296, 360.
+
+Anaya, Diego de, Tomb of, 263.
+
+Andalusia, 16, 22, 66, 67, 76, 81, 161, 191, 303, 314, 337, 354.
+
+Ansurez, Pedro, 293;
+  Family of, 294.
+
+Aquitania, 167.
+
+Arabs and Arab Invasions, 23, 38, 71, 79, 80, 111, 112, 114, 123, 124,
+147, 148, 152, 170, 177, 221, 225, 253, 254, 280, 296, 313, 323, 327,
+354, 370, 371, 372, 375, 378, 379.
+
+Aragon, 23, 25, 58, 66, 67, 68, 71, 203, 210, 303, 305, 331, 335, 336,
+342, 343.
+
+Arco de Santa Marta (Burgos), 180.
+
+Armada, The, 31, 90, 132, 189, 349.
+
+Arriago, 193.
+
+Arrianism, 153.
+
+Astorga, 70, 71, 120, 167-173, 174, 176, 197, 219, 220, 246, 369;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Asturias, 57, 66, 70, 79, 103, 104, 123, 138, 139, 146, 147, 148, 150,
+153, 162, 167, 175, 176, 177, 213.
+
+Asturica Augusta (_See_ Astorga).
+
+Augustábriga, 269.
+
+Auria (_See_ Orense).
+
+Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, 331.
+
+Avila, 70, 71, 253, 302-311, 312, 313, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishop);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+Baeza, 161.
+
+Baedeker, 115.
+
+Barcelona, 66.
+
+Barrientos, Inez de, 344.
+
+Bartolomé, Bishop of Valladolid, 381.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Astorga, 168.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Leon, 151, 372.
+
+Basque Provinces, 33, 192.
+
+Bay of Biscay, 189.
+
+Bayona, 131, 132;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Bayonne in Gascogne, 272.
+
+Becerra, 172.
+
+Berengario, 254.
+
+Bermudo II., 162.
+
+Bermudo III., 171, 176.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Palencia, 222, 375.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Sigüenza, 336, 337, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Archbishop of Toledo, 213, 358, 359, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Zamora, 232.
+
+Berruguete, 50, 295.
+
+Bética (_See_ Andalusia).
+
+Bishops and Archbishops (Basilides), 168;
+  Astorga (Dominiciano), 167, 369;
+  Avila (Jeronimo), 370, (Pedro) 308, (San Segundo) 370, (Tostada) 370;
+  Burgos (Don Simón), 370, (Gomez II.) 370;
+  Calahorra (Don Sancho), 198, 371, (Silvano) 371;
+  Cuidad Rodrigo (Domingo), 270, 371, (Pedro Diaz) 270;
+  Coria (Laquinto), 279, 372;
+  Cuenca (Juan Yañez), 343, 372;
+  Iria (Theodosio), 76, 77, 78;
+  Leon (Basilides), 151, 272;
+  Lugo (Agrestio), 373, (Odoario) 104;
+  Mondoñedo (Martin), 97, 374;
+  Osma, 211, (Juan I.) 214, 375, (Pedro) 224, 375, (San Astorgio) 375;
+  Orense (Diego), 116;
+  Oviedo (Adulfo), 138, (Gutierre) 139;
+  Palencia (Bernardo), 222, 375, (San Toribio) 375;
+  Plasencia (Adán), 287, 376, (Domingo) 286, 376;
+  Salamanca (Eleuterio), 253, 376, (Jeronimo) 254, 305, 376;
+  Santiago, 254, 337, (Diego Galmirez) 80, 116, 377, (Sisnando), 377;
+  Segovia (Don Pedro), 312, 314, 378, (Ilderedo) 313, 378, (San Hierateo),
+    312, 378;
+  Sigüenza (Austurio), 331, (Bernardo) 336, 337, 379, (Jocelyn) 338, 379,
+    (Protogenes) 335, 379;
+  Toledo, 307, 331, 337, (Bernardo) 213, 358, 359, 379, (Carillo) 331, 334,
+    (Ildefonso) 358, 379, (Tavera) 274; Tuy, 132;
+  Valladolid (Bartolomé), 381, (Bernardo) 232;
+  Zamora (San Atilano), 231, 381.
+
+"Bishop's Door" (Palencia Cathedral), 228, 376.
+
+Blanca de Bourbon, 294, 336.
+
+Boabdil el Chico, 22.
+
+Bologna, 251.
+
+Bourbon, Blanca de, 294, 336.
+
+Bourbon Dynasty, 30.
+
+Braga, 112, 120, 167.
+
+Brigandtia (_See_ Corunna).
+
+Brunetière, 75.
+
+Burgos, 39, 43, 67, 69, 70, 71, 154, 174-180, 186, 189, 196, 223, 237, 251,
+   253, 296, 303, 349, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Burgo de Osma, 214.
+
+
+Cadiz 335.
+
+Calabria, 269, 270, 371.
+
+Calahorra, 188, 197, 198, 199, 204, 206, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Calle de Puente, 190.
+
+Camara Sagrada, 69.
+
+Camara Santa (Oviedo), 144, 375.
+
+Cangas, 137, 138, 147.
+
+Cantabric Mountains, 190.
+
+Cantabric Sea, 189.
+
+Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo, 331, 334;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Carlist Wars, 33.
+
+Carranza, 203.
+
+Carrarick, King of the Suevos, 114.
+
+Castellum Tude (_See_ Tuy).
+
+Castile, 16, 23, 25, 59, 66-77, 81, 103, 154, 174-177, 189, 192, 198,
+200, 201, 206, 221, 233, 245, 280, 294, 296, 302, 305, 336, 343.
+
+Castile, Counts of, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Cathedrals, Astorga, 167-173, 367, 369;
+  Avila, 302-311, 370;
+  Burgos, 62, 141, 156, 161, 174-187, 202, 227-241, 267, 367-370;
+  Calahorra, 206-208, 373, 378;
+  Canterbury (St. Thomas), 338;
+  Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Coria, 261, 278, 283, 372;
+  Huesca, 203, 331;
+  Leon, 62, 141, 150-166, 171, 372;
+  Lugo, 99, 102-109, 113, 115, 117, 340, 373;
+  Madrid, San Isidro and Virgen de la Almudena, 321, 326, 373;
+  Mondoñedo, 95-101, 374;
+  Nájera, 201-202;
+  Orense, Santa Maria la Madre, 110-119, 126, 374;
+  Osma, 212-216, 374, 375;
+  Nuestra Señora de la Blanca (_See_ Leon);
+  Oviedo, 137-144, 156, 172, 182, 375;
+  Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Leon);
+  Palencia, 219-229, 239, 375;
+  Plasencia, 275, 284-289, 376;
+  Rome (St. Peter's), 300;
+  Salamanca, Old and New Cathedrals, 251-268, 275, 299, 317, 346, 376, 377;
+  Santiago, Santiago de Campostela, 75-88, 92, 99, 100, 106, 107, 113, 116,
+    118, 127, 240, 241, 377;
+  Santander, 188-191, 377;
+  Segovia, 312-320, 377, 378;
+  Sevilla, 187;
+  Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Sigüenza, 335-341, 346, 379;
+  Tours, St. Martin, 374;
+  Tuy, Santa Maria la Madre, 113, 120-130, 249, 380;
+  Valladolid, 293-301, 377, 380;
+  Vitoria, 192-195, 381;
+  Zamora, 230-243, 247, 248, 249, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 275, 346, 381;
+  Toledo, 16, 64, 143, 159, 161, 184, 317, 319, 332, 349-368, 371, 379;
+  Toulouse, St. Saturnin, 82;
+  Toro, Santa Maria la Mayor, 244-250, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 273,
+    275, 346, 380.
+
+Celedonio, 188, 197, 206.
+
+Celts, The, 84, 102.
+
+Cervantes, 295, 326, 352.
+
+Charles-Quinte, 223, 283, 314, 353.
+
+Choir Stalls, 48, 49.
+
+Churches: Alcalá de Henares, La Magistral, 328, 332, 374;
+  San Justo, 328, 332;
+  Burgos, Chapel of the Condestable, 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Bayona and Vigo, 131-133;
+  Corunna (Colegiata), 91, 93, Church of Santiago, 93, 94,
+    Santa Maria del Campo, 92;
+  Cordoba, The Mosque, 41, 68;
+  Cuenca, 342-348, 372;
+  Leon, San Isidoro, 153, 163, 191, Chapel of St. James, 159,
+    Santa Maria la Blanca, 372, Santa Maria la Redonda, San Froilan, 372;
+  Logroño, 204, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 204;
+  Madrid, San Antonio de la Florida, 324, San Francisco el Grande, 324,
+    San Isidro, 321, 325, 373;
+  Oviedo, Salvador, 139;
+  Palencia, San Antolin, 375;
+  Rioja, Santa Maria la Redonda, 204-206, San Juan de Baños, 165;
+  Santander, San Emeterio, 189, 377;
+  Saragosse, Church of the Pillar, 205, 206, 299,
+    Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Soria, 209-212, 379;
+  Segovia, Santa Clara, 316;
+  Toledo, San Juan de las Reyes, 355, Santa Maria la Blanca, 354,
+    San Tomas, 355, Puerta de Sol, 355;
+  Valladolid, Santa Maria la Mayor, 293, 300, 381,
+    Santa Maria la Antiqua, 380, Venta de Baños, 57;
+  Zamora, La Magdalen, 243.
+
+Churriguera, 63, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Cid, The Great, 234, 254.
+
+Cid Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar), 179.
+
+Cisneros, Cardinal, 326, 328, 331, 334, 361, 364;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Clement IV., 210.
+
+Cluny Monks, The, 24, 30, 60, 359.
+
+Coa River, 269.
+
+Columbus, Christopher, 28, 31, 32, 295, 360.
+
+Complutum (Alcalá), 327, 330.
+
+Complutenses, 327-329.
+
+Comuneros, The, 314.
+
+Conca (_See_ Cuenca).
+
+Conde, Manuel, 154.
+
+Condestable, Chapel of the (Burgos), 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Tomb of (Burgos), 186.
+
+Constanza, Doña, 358.
+
+Convent of Guadalupe, 283.
+
+Convent of the Mercedes (Valladolid), 297.
+
+Convent of San Juan de Dios, 334.
+
+Cordoba, 147, 152, 191, 279, 286;
+  Mosque of, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Coria, 68, 71, 269, 278-283, 284, 372;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Roman Wall of, 279.
+
+Coronada, 271.
+
+Cortez, 246, 272.
+
+Corunna, 89, 90, 91, 113;
+
+Churches of, 89-94.
+
+Council of Toledo, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Counts of Castile, 153, 162, 163, 174, 175, 180.
+
+Covadonga, 145, 146, 149;
+  Battle of, 145.
+
+Cristeta, 303.
+
+"Cristo de las Batallas" (Salamanca), 254.
+
+Cuenca, 68, 70, 71, 342-348, 372;
+  Alcázar, 343; Battle of, 338;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Cunninghame-Graham, Mr., 21.
+
+Curia Vetona, or Caurium (_See_ Coria).
+
+
+Del Obispo (Portal in Toro Cathedral), 273.
+
+Del Salto, Maria, Tomb of, 320.
+
+Diana, Temple to, 102, 103.
+
+Diaz, Pedro, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270.
+
+Dolfo, Vellido, 234, 235.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270, 371.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Plasencia, 286, 376.
+
+Dominguez, Juan, Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Dominiciano, Bishop of Astorga, 167, 369.
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, 132.
+
+Duero River, 209, 213, 237, 244, 279.
+
+Duke of Lancaster, 112.
+
+Dürer, 361.
+
+
+Eleanor (Daughter of Henry II.), 338.
+
+Early Christian Art, 54.
+
+Eastern Castile, 70.
+
+Ebro River, 193, 196, 198, 199, 200.
+
+Eleuterio, Bishop of Salamanca, 253, 376.
+
+Elvira, 233, 245.
+
+England, 29, 31, 78, 90, 189, 295.
+
+Engracia (of Aragon), 312.
+
+Enrique II., King of Castile, 204, 320.
+
+Enrique IV., 245.
+
+Enriquez, Don, 256.
+
+Escorial (Madrid), 31, 62, 165, 265, 295, 299, 322, 349.
+
+Extremadura, 16, 69, 278, 303.
+
+
+Favila, Duke, 122, 146.
+
+Felipe el Hermoso (Philip the Handsome), 295.
+
+Ferdinand, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Fernan, Knight, 298.
+
+Fernando I., 161, 176-178, 222, 232, 245, 304.
+
+Fernando II., 269.
+
+Fernando Alfonso, 203.
+
+Fernando el Santo, 359.
+
+Florinda, 354.
+
+Flanders, 355.
+
+Foment, 50, 203, 204.
+
+Fonseca, Bishop, 229;
+  Family, 249.
+
+France, 24, 53, 57, 58, 78, 168, 224, 355.
+
+Froila (or Froela), 137, 141, 230.
+
+Froissart, 112.
+
+
+Galicia, 23, 40, 60, 66, 68, 75, 76, 79, 80, 88, 90, 96, 97, 98, 100,
+102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122,
+123, 125, 128, 130, 131, 132, 137, 138, 169, 177, 199, 233, 238.
+
+Galician Romanesque Art, 59.
+
+Galmirez, Diego, Archbishop of Santiago, 80, 377.
+
+Garcia, Count of Castile, 162, 163, 176, 233.
+
+Garcia, Don, King of Navarra, 198, 201.
+
+Garcia, Son of Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Gasteiz (_See_ Vitoria).
+
+Gautier, Théophile, 351.
+
+Germany, 78, 355.
+
+Gibraltar, 22;
+  Straits of, 21, 28.
+
+Gijon, 147.
+
+Girón, Don Gutierre, 314.
+
+Gold and Silversmiths, 50-51.
+
+Gomez II., Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Gonzalez, Fernan, 175, 176, 177, 179.
+
+Gonzalo, Arias, 233.
+
+Göschenen in Switzerland, 342.
+
+Goya, 325, 357.
+
+Granada, 22, 67, 287, 355, 356, 365.
+
+Greco, 357, 365.
+
+Gredo Mountains, 278.
+
+Greeks, The, 89, 132.
+
+Guadalajara, 335.
+
+Guadalete, Battle of, 147.
+
+Guadalquivir, 189.
+
+Guaderrama Mountains, 253, 278.
+
+Guardia, 121.
+
+Gudroed, 123.
+
+Gutierre, Bishop of Oviedo, 139.
+
+
+Hannibal, 252.
+
+Harbour of Victory, 188.
+
+Henry IV., 258, 294, 307.
+
+Hermesinda, 147.
+
+Herrero, 62, 205, 265, 295, 299, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Huesca, Cathedral of, 203, 331.
+
+Hume, Martin, 14.
+
+
+Ierte River, 286.
+
+Ilderedo, Bishop of Segovia, 313, 378.
+
+Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 379.
+
+Inquisition, The, 26, 27, 344.
+
+Ireland, 89.
+
+Iria, 76, 77.
+
+Ironcraft, 51, 52.
+
+Irun, 192.
+
+Isabella, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Isabel the Catholic, 193, 222, 245, 246, 294, 295, 315.
+
+Italy, 24, 37, 57, 58, 62, 78, 224, 355.
+
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Avila, 370.
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Salamanca, 254, 305, 376.
+
+Jesuit School (Madrid), 326.
+
+Jocelyn, Bishop of Sigüenza, 338, 379.
+
+John I., 213.
+
+Juan I., Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Juana, 294.
+
+Juana la Beltranaja, 245.
+
+Juana la Loca, 295.
+
+Julian, Count, 354.
+
+Juni, Juan de, 50, 214.
+
+Jura, The, 97, 196.
+
+
+La Magistral, Church of (Alcalá de Henares), 328, 332, 374.
+
+La Mancha, 16, 342.
+
+Lancaster, Duke of, 112.
+
+Laquinto, Bishop of Coria, 279, 372.
+
+Las Navas de Tolosa, 280.
+
+Leon, 23, 25, 43, 66, 69, 70, 79, 80, 103, 139, 150-166, 167, 171, 174,
+175, 176, 177, 197, 233, 253, 254, 304, 305, 355, 372, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  King of, 161.
+
+Leon X., 328.
+
+Leonese, The, 254.
+
+Leonor, Doña, 179, 297, 298.
+
+"Leyes de Toro," 246.
+
+Libelatism, 167, 168.
+
+Lisbon, 126, 272.
+
+Locus Augusti (_See_ Lugo).
+
+Logroño, 71, 197, 199, 200, 204, 371, 373;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Loja, 287.
+
+Lucio III., 343.
+
+Lugo, 90, 91, 93, 95, 102-109, 110, 112, 120, 137, 154, 373;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Lupa, 75, 76, 102, 103.
+
+Luz, Doña, 122, 146.
+
+
+Madrazo, 206.
+
+Madrid, 66, 68, 71, 178, 212, 253, 293, 295, 296, 313, 314, 321-326,
+328, 329, 349, 373;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Maestro Mateo, 87.
+
+Maestro Raimundo, 106, 126.
+
+Magerit, 322, 323.
+
+Munuza, 147, 148.
+
+Manzanares River, 323, 324.
+
+Marcelo, 151.
+
+Martin, Bishop of Mondoñedo, 97, 374.
+
+Martel, Charles, 22.
+
+Medinat-el-Walid, 296.
+
+Mendoza, 361.
+
+Mindunietum, 96.
+
+Miño River, 70, 102, 110, 111, 112, 120, 121, 124, 125.
+
+Miranda, 196.
+
+Miróbriga, 269.
+
+Molina, Maria de, 294.
+
+Mondoñedo, 93, 95-101, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Monroy Family, 256, 286.
+
+Monforte, 110.
+
+Moore, General, 90.
+
+Moorish Art, 55, 56.
+
+Moors, The, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 55, 56, 59, 71, 76, 79, 104,
+137, 153, 154, 161, 171, 175, 198, 207, 210, 230, 232, 251, 254, 279,
+281, 285, 287, 304, 305, 308, 313, 323, 331, 343, 352, 354, 357, 358,
+359, 381.
+
+Morales, Divino, 326.
+
+Morgarten, 145.
+
+Morocco, 364.
+
+Mosque of Cordoba, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Mount of Joys, 81.
+
+Mudejar Art, 63-65.
+
+Muguira, 81.
+
+Murillo, 195.
+
+
+Nájera, 197, 198, 201, 202, 371;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Nalvillos, 306, 307.
+
+Napoleon, 90, 164.
+
+Navarra, 23, 33, 58, 66, 68, 70, 80, 174, 176, 192, 196, 198, 201, 202, 210.
+
+Navas de Tolosa, Battle of, 286.
+
+Neustra Señora de la Blanca (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+New World, The (_See_ America).
+
+Norman Vikings, 79, 96, 112, 123, 124.
+
+North, The, 69.
+
+Numantia, 197, 209, 219, 230.
+
+
+Odoario, Bishop of Lugo, 104.
+
+Ogival Art, 61.
+
+Olaf, 123.
+
+Old Castile, Plain of, 69.
+
+Ordoñez, Diego, 235, 236.
+
+Ordoño I., 152, 153, 154.
+
+Ordoño II., 153, 159.
+
+Orduño III., 175.
+
+Orense, 70, 71, 110-119, 120, 168, 170, 220, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Portico del Paraiso, 116, 374.
+
+Osma, 209, 210, 212-216, 374-379;
+  Bishops of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Oviedo, 23, 43, 69, 70, 80, 102, 103, 137-144, 145, 150, 154, 198, 371, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Oxford, 251.
+
+
+Padilla, Maria de, 294, 336.
+
+Palencia, 71, 168, 219-229, 258, 293, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  "Bishop's Door," 228, 376;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 223-224, 258.
+
+Pallantia, 220, 221.
+
+Palos Harbour, 32.
+
+Pamplona, 174.
+
+Paris, 251;
+  Treaty of, 32.
+
+Pedro, Prince Don, 320.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Avila, 308.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Osma, 224, 375.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Segovia, 378.
+
+Pelayo, 146, 147, 148, 149.
+
+Pelea Gonzalo, Battle of, 245.
+
+Peña Grajera, 320.
+
+Perez, Doña Maria, 256, 257, 258.
+
+Perez, Hernan, 286.
+
+Peter, Bishop of Segovia, 312, 314, 378.
+
+Peter the Cruel, 179, 204, 245, 294, 336.
+
+Philip II., 31, 62, 189, 295, 322, 349.
+
+Philip III., 285, 308.
+
+Philip IV., 294.
+
+Philip the Handsome, 295.
+
+Phœnicians, The, 89, 132.
+
+Picos de Europa, 145.
+
+Pico de Urbión, 209.
+
+"Piedad" (Pity), 195.
+
+Pillar at Saragosse, 299.
+
+Pisuerga, 293, 296.
+
+Plasencia, 71, 257, 261, 271, 283, 284-289, 308, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Plaza, Bartolomé de la (Bishop of Valladolid), 295.
+
+Plaza de Cervantes (Alcalá), 330.
+
+Plaza de la Constitución (Alcalá), 330.
+
+Plaza Mayor (Alcalá), 330.
+
+Plutarch, 252.
+
+Poitiers, 22.
+
+Polyglot Bible, The, 328.
+
+Portico de la Gloria (Santiago), 85-88, 92, 378.
+
+Portico del Paraiso (Orense), 116, 374.
+
+Portugal, 120, 122, 125, 231, 256, 278;
+  King of, 297, 298.
+
+Portuguese, The, 112, 123, 124, 244, 246.
+
+Priscilianism, 167, 168, 169, 170, 220.
+
+Prisciliano, 169.
+
+Protogenes, Bishop of Sigüenza, 335, 379.
+
+Puerta de la Plateria (Santiago), 83, 107, 183.
+
+Puerta de la Sol (Toledo), 355.
+
+Puerta de los Leones (Toledo), 363.
+
+Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+Pyrenees, 53, 58, 59, 168.
+
+
+Quadrado, Señor, 308.
+
+Quixote, Don, 330.
+
+
+Rachel of Toledo, 285.
+
+Ramiro, 153.
+
+Recaredo, 152, 354.
+
+Reconquest, The, 269, 370, 375, 379, 380.
+
+Redondela, 131.
+
+Reformation, The, 26.
+
+Renaissance, 54, 62;
+  Italian, 63.
+
+Retablo, 49-50.
+
+Rhine, The, 120.
+
+Ribadeo, 96, 374.
+
+Ribera, 357.
+
+Rioja, The Upper, 70, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 206.
+
+Rodrigo, 146.
+
+Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (Cid Campeador), 179.
+
+Rodrigo, King of Visigoths, 21, 354.
+
+Romanesque Art, 57-58, 59.
+
+Romans, The, 18, 19, 24, 75, 89, 96, 102, 112, 113, 120, 121, 132, 150,
+174, 188, 252, 293, 303, 326, 335, 353, 371.
+
+Rome, 29, 220, 353.
+
+Rubens, 357, 361.
+
+Ruy Diaz Gaona, 200.
+
+
+Sabina, 303.
+
+Salamanca, 71, 178, 223, 251, 268, 269, 296, 302, 305, 313, 376;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 258, 259.
+
+San Antolin, 221, 224, 225, 375.
+
+San Antonio de la Florida, 324.
+
+San Astorgio, Bishop of Osma, 375.
+
+San Atilano, Bishop of Zamora, 231, 381.
+
+San Bartolomé (Salamanca), Chapel of, 263.
+
+San Celedonio, 371.
+
+Sancha, 162, 163, 176.
+
+Sancho, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Sancho, Count of Castile, 162, 233, 234, 293.
+
+Sancho, Don, of Navarra, 192.
+
+Sancho el Mayor, King of Navarra, 221, 222.
+
+Sancti Emetrii, 188.
+
+San Emeterio, 188, 197, 206, 371, 377.
+
+San Emeterio, Church of (Santander), 189.
+
+San Fernando, 25, 177-178.
+
+San Francisco, Convent of, 113.
+
+San Francisco el Grande (Madrid), 324.
+
+San Froilan, 158, 372.
+
+San Fruto, 312, 378.
+
+San Hierateo, 312, 378.
+
+San Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 358, 379.
+
+San Isidro (of Madrid), 324.
+
+San Isidro, Church of (Madrid), 321, 325.
+
+San Isidoro, Church of (Leon), 153, 162, 163, 164, 191, 324.
+
+San Isidoro, 161, 162, 164.
+
+San Juan de Baños, 165.
+
+San Juan de Dios, Convent of, 334.
+
+San Juan de los Reyes (Toledo), 355.
+
+San Julian, 345.
+
+San Justo, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Justo, Church of (Alcalá de Henares), 328.
+
+San Pastor, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Salvador, 370.
+
+San Segundo, 303.
+
+Santa Clara (Segovia), 316.
+
+Santa Maria de la Blanca (Leon), 372.
+
+Santa Maria la Blanca (Toledo), 354.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Orense), 114.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Tuy), 120-130.
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, 204.
+
+Santander, 69, 188-191, 197, 277;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Santiago, 75-88, 91, 92, 97, 102, 103, 104, 116, 131, 167, 176, 199, 377;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+San Tomas (Toledo), 355.
+
+Santo Domingo, 203.
+
+Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 197, 199, 200, 202-204, 371. 378;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+San Toribio (Astorga), 369;
+  (Palencia), 375.
+
+San Vicente, 152, 303.
+
+Saracens, The, 213, 312.
+
+Saragosse, 67, 167, 196, 197, 203;
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Sardinero, 190.
+
+Scipio, 209.
+
+Segovia, 71, 253, 303, 312, 313, 325, 349, 378;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Seguncia (or Segoncia), _See_ Sigüenza.
+
+Sempach, 145.
+
+Sevilla, 67, 91, 161, 189, 317;
+  Cathedral of, 187.
+
+Sierra de Guaderrama, 66, 68, 174, 305.
+
+Sierra de Gredos, 66, 302, 349.
+
+Sierra de Gata, 66, 69, 278.
+
+Sigüenza, 70, 71, 335-341, 343, 379;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Silvano, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Simón, Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Sinfosio, 170.
+
+Sisnando, Bishop of Santiago, 377.
+
+Sohail, 21-22.
+
+Soria, 71, 209-212, 213, 379;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+State Archives Building (Alcalá), 327.
+
+Street, 87, 107.
+
+St. Astorgio, 213.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi, 271.
+
+St. James, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 88, 138, 213, 323, 353;
+  Chapel of (Leon), 159.
+
+St. Martin, 111, 114.
+
+St. Martin of Tours (Cathedral), 374.
+
+St. Paul, 312.
+
+St. Peter, 213, 352.
+
+St. Peter's at Rome, 300.
+
+St. Thomas of Canterbury, Chapel of, 338.
+
+St. Saturnin (Toulouse), 82.
+
+Suevos, 111, 122;
+  King of, 114, 170.
+
+
+Tago River, 278, 280, 349, 352, 353, 354, 356, 359.
+
+Talavera, 361.
+
+Tarik, 22.
+
+Tarragon, 67, 167, 197, 219, 335.
+
+Tavera, Bishop of Toledo, 274.
+
+Theodomio, 198.
+
+Theodosio, Bishop of Iria, 76, 77, 78.
+
+Theotocopuli, Domenico, 357.
+
+Titian, 361.
+
+Tolaitola (_See_ Toledo).
+
+Toledo, 67, 68, 70, 71, 91, 123, 146, 150, 167, 171, 178, 237, 251, 278,
+280, 285, 286, 304, 307, 322, 327, 328, 329, 335, 342, 349-368, 379;
+  Alcázar, 336, 350, 356;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Council of, 213, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Tomb, Bishop Tostado, 311, 370;
+  Carillo (Alcalá), 333, 334;
+  Cisneros (Alcalá), 333, 334;
+  Condestable, 186;
+  Diego de Anaya (Salamanca), 263;
+  Maria del Salto, 320;
+  Prince Don Pedro, 320.
+
+Toribio, 170, 220, 224.
+
+Toro, 71, 233, 244-250, 279, 302, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Torquemada, 27.
+
+Tostado, Bishop, Tomb of, 311, 370.
+
+Tours, 22, 114.
+
+Tower de la Trinidad (Santiago), 83, 378.
+
+Tower of Hercules, 89, 90.
+
+Trajanus, 151, 303.
+
+Transition Art, 60.
+
+Tuy, 70, 71, 91, 110, 111, 120-130, 131, 146, 167, 168, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+University of Alcalá de Henares, 328.
+
+University of Palencia, 223, 224, 258.
+
+University of Salamanca, 258, 259.
+
+Urbano II., 231.
+
+Urbano IV., 224.
+
+Urraca, Doña, 162, 233, 234, 235, 236.
+
+
+Vacceos, 219.
+
+Valdejunquera, Battle of, 175.
+
+Valencia, 66, 67, 254.
+
+Valencia Cupola, 118.
+
+Valença do Minho, 120.
+
+Valentine, 312.
+
+Valladolid, 67, 70, 71, 72, 178, 189, 223, 244, 293-301, 303, 314, 335, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Vallisoletum, 293.
+
+Van Dyck, 195.
+
+Vela, Count of, 163.
+
+Venta de Baños, 57, 225.
+
+Veremundo, 171.
+
+Vigo, 110, 113, 131-133;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Villamayor, 96.
+
+Villavieja, 335.
+
+Vinuesa, 209.
+
+Virgin de la Atocha, 324.
+
+Virgin de la Almudena, 324, 325, 374.
+
+Viriato, 278.
+
+Visigoths, The, 20, 24, 122, 152, 220, 327, 353.
+
+Vitoria, 69, 192-195, 381;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+War for Independence, 164.
+
+Wellington, Duke of, 272.
+
+Western Castile, 69; Art of, 59.
+
+Witiza, 122, 123, 146, 167.
+
+
+Yañez, Juan, Bishop of Cuenca, 343, 372.
+
+Yuste, 283.
+
+
+Zadorria River, 193.
+
+Zamora, 71, 230-243, 244, 246, 269, 279, 293, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Zaragoza (_See_ Saragosse).
+
+Zeth, 279.
+
+Zorilla, 352.
+
+Zurbaran, 229, 283.
+
+Zuñigas, 286.
+
+Zuñiguez, 298.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+Changes made:
+
+SIGUENZA => SIGÜENZA {2}
+
+Al-Karica => Al-Kárica {1}
+
+Alargón => Alagón
+
+Bartolome => Bartolomé
+
+Guadalquiver => Guadalquivir
+
+Isidore => Isidoro {2 page 163}
+
+Protogones => Protogenes {2}
+
+Theodosia => Theodosio {1 index}
+
+dia de Zamora => día de Zamora {1}
+
+despues de opípera cena => después de opípara cena {1}
+
+Neustra Señora => Nuestra Señora {1 index}
+
+Del Obisco => Del Obispo {1 index}
+
+Maria Del Sarto => Maria Del Salto {2}
+
+Manuza => Munuza {1 index}
+
+Constitutión => Constitución {1 index}
+
+Talaitola => Tolaitola {1 index}
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 31965-0.txt or 31965-0.zip *****
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diff --git a/31965-0.zip b/31965-0.zip
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+Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Cathedrals of Northern Spain
+
+Author: Charles Rudy
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [EBook #31965]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This ebook was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material at
+Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_THE_ CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN
+
+[Illustration: Bookcover]
+
+[Illustration: inside cover]
+
+_The Cathedral Series_
+
+_The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+$2.50_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Southern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of England BY MARY J. TABER_
+
+The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+Net, $2.00
+
+_The Cathedrals and Churches
+of the Rhine BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+Spain BY CHARLES RUDY_
+
+_L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+New England Building, Boston, Mass._
+
+[Illustration: LEON CATHEDRAL
+
+(_See page 154_)]
+
+
+
+
+The Cathedrals of
+Northern Spain
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURE; TOGETHER
+WITH MUCH OF INTEREST CONCERNING
+THE BISHOPS, RULERS,
+AND OTHER PERSONAGES IDENTIFIED
+WITH THEM
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES RUDY
+
+Illustrated
+
+BOSTON L. C. PAGE &
+COMPANY MDCCCCVI
+
+_Copyright, 1905_
+BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+(INCORPORATED)
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+Published October, 1905
+
+_COLONIAL PRESS
+Electrotyped and Printed by C. H. Simonds & Co.
+Boston, U. S. A._
+
+
+_TO ALL TRUE
+LOVERS OF SPAIN,
+OTHERWISE CALLED
+HISPAN�FILOS_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is _� la mode_ to write prefaces. Some of us write good ones, others
+bad, and most of us write neither good nor bad ones.
+
+The chapter entitled "General Remarks" is the real introduction to the
+book, so in these lines I shall pen a few words of self-introduction to
+such readers as belong to the class to whom I have dedicated this
+volume.
+
+My love for Spain is unbounded. As great as is my love for the people,
+so great also is my depreciation for those who have wronged her, being
+her sons. Who are they? They know that best themselves.
+
+Spain's architecture is both agreeable and disagreeable, but it is all
+of it peculiarly Spanish. A foreigner, dropping as by accident across
+the Pyrenees from France, can do nothing better than criticize all
+architectural monuments he meets with in a five days' journey across
+Spain with a Cook's ticket in his pocketbook. It is natural he should do
+so. Everything is so totally different from the pure (_sic_) styles he
+has learned to admire in France!
+
+But we who have lived years in Spain grow to like and admire just such
+complex compositions as the cathedrals of Toledo, of Santiago, and La
+Seo in Saragosse; we lose our narrow-mindedness, and fail to see why a
+pure Gothic or an Italian Renaissance should be better than an Iberian
+cathedral. As long as harmony exists between the different parts, all is
+well. The moment this harmony does not exist, our sense of the
+artistically beautiful is shocked--and the building is a bad one.
+
+Personality is consequently ever uppermost in all art criticism or
+admiration. But it should not be influenced by the words pure, flawless,
+etc. Were such to be the case, there would be but one good cathedral in
+Spain, namely, that of Leon, a French temple built by foreigners on
+Spanish soil. Yet nothing is less Spanish than the cathedral of Leon.
+
+Under the circumstances, it is necessary, upon visiting Spain, to
+discard foreignisms and turn a Spaniard, if but for a few days.
+Otherwise the tourist will not understand the country's art monuments,
+and will be inclined to leave the peninsula as he entered it, not a
+whit the wiser for having come.
+
+To help the traveller to understand the whys and wherefores of Spanish
+architecture, I have written the "Introductory Studies." I hope they
+will enable him to become a Spaniard, or, at least, to join the
+enthusiastic army of _Hispan�filos_.
+
+C. RUDY.
+
+MADRID, _July, 1905_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                               PAGE
+
+PART I. INTRODUCTORY STUDIES
+
+I. General Remarks                      11
+
+II. Historical Arabesques               18
+
+III. Architectural Arabesques           35
+
+IV. Conclusion                          66
+
+PART II. GALICIA
+
+I. Santiago de Campostela               75
+
+II. Corunna                             89
+
+III. Mondo�edo                          95
+
+IV. Lugo                               102
+
+V. Orense                              110
+
+VI. Tuy                                120
+
+VII. Bayona and Vigo                   131
+
+PART III. THE NORTH
+
+I. Oviedo                              137
+
+II. Covadonga                          145
+
+III. Leon                              150
+
+IV. Astorga                            167
+
+V. Burgos                              174
+
+VI. Santander                          188
+
+VII. Vitoria                           192
+
+VIII. Upper Rioja                      196
+
+IX. Soria                              209
+
+PART IV. WESTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Palencia                            219
+
+II. Zamora                             230
+
+III. Toro                              244
+
+IV. Salamanca                          251
+
+V. Ciudad Rodrigo                      269
+
+VI. Coria                              278
+
+VII. Plasencia                         284
+
+PART V. EASTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Valladolid                          293
+
+II. Avila                              302
+
+III. Segovia                           312
+
+IV. Madrid-Alcal�                      321
+
+V. Sig�enza                            335
+
+VI. Cuenca                             342
+
+VII. Toledo                            349
+
+Appendix                               369
+
+Index                                  387
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                PAGE
+
+Leon Cathedral (_See page 154_)        _Frontispiece_
+
+Cloister Stalls in a Monastic Church at Leon      48
+
+Typical Retablo (Palencia)                        50
+
+Mudejar Architecture (Sahagun)                    64
+
+Santiago and Its Cathedral                        82
+
+Church of Santiago, Corunna                       92
+
+General View of Mondo�edo                         96
+
+Mondo�edo Cathedral                               98
+
+Northern Portal of Orense Cathedral              116
+
+Tuy Cathedral                                    128
+
+Oviedo Cathedral                                 140
+
+Cloister of Oviedo Cathedral                     144
+
+Apse of San Isidoro, Leon                        164
+
+Burgos Cathedral                                 180
+
+Crypt of Santander Cathedral                     190
+
+Cloister of N�jera Cathedral                     202
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, Logro�o                  204
+
+Western Front of Calahorra Cathedral             207
+
+Cloister of Soria Cathedral                      212
+
+Palencia Cathedral                               226
+
+Zamora Cathedral                                 238
+
+Toro Cathedral                                   248
+
+Old Salamanca Cathedral                          260
+
+New Salamanca Cathedral                          266
+
+Cuidad Rodrigo Cathedral                         272
+
+Fa�ade of Plasencia Cathedral                    288
+
+Western Front of Valladolid Cathedral            300
+
+Tower of Avila Cathedral                         310
+
+Segovia Cathedral                                316
+
+San Isidro, Madrid                               326
+
+Alcal� de Henares Cathedral                      332
+
+Toledo Cathedral                                 360
+
+
+
+
+_PART I_
+
+_Introductory Studies_
+
+
+
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern Spain_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL REMARKS
+
+
+History and architecture go hand in hand; the former is not complete if
+it does not mention the latter, and the latter is incomprehensible if
+the former is entirely ignored.
+
+The following chapters are therefore historical and architectural; they
+are based on evolutionary principles and seek to demonstrate the motives
+of certain artistic phenomena.
+
+Many of the ideas superficially mentioned in the following essays will
+be severely discussed, for they are original; others are based on two
+excellent modern historical works, namely, "The History of the Spanish
+People," by Major Martin Hume, and "Historia de Espa�a," by Se�or Rafael
+Altamira. These two works can be regarded as the _dernier mot_
+concerning the evolution of Spanish history.
+
+Unluckily, however, the author has been unable to consult any work on
+architecture which might have given him a concise idea of the story of
+its gradual evolution and development, and of the different art-waves
+which flowed across the peninsula during the stormy period of the middle
+ages, which, properly speaking, begins with the Arab invasion of the
+eighth century and ends with the fall of Granada, in the fifteenth.
+
+Several works on Spanish architecture have been written (the reader will
+find them mentioned elsewhere), but none treats the matter from an
+evolutionary standpoint. On the contrary, most of them are limited to
+the study of a period, of a style or of a locality; hence they cannot
+claim to be a _dernier mot_. Such a work has still to be written.
+
+Be it understood, nevertheless, that the author does not pretend--_Dios
+me libre!_--to have supplied the lack in the following pages. In a
+couple of thousand words it would be utterly impossible to do so. No; a
+complete, evolutionary study of Spanish architecture would imply years
+of labour, of travel, and of study. For so much on the peninsula is
+hybrid and exotic, and yet again, so much is peculiar to Spain alone.
+Thus it is often most difficult to determine which art phenomena are
+natural--that is, which are the logical results of a well-defined art
+movement--and which are artificial or the casual product of elements
+utterly foreign to Spanish soil.
+
+Willingly the author leaves to other and wiser heads the solving of the
+above riddle. He hopes, nevertheless, that they (those who care to
+undertake the mentioned task) will find some remarks or some
+observations in the following chapters to help them discover the real
+truth concerning the Spaniard's love, or his insensibility for
+architectural monuments, as well as his share in the erection of
+cathedrals, palaces, and castles.
+
+Spanish architecture--better still, architecture in Spain--is peculiarly
+strange and foreign to us Northerners. We admire many edifices in
+Iberia, but are unable to say wherefore; we are overawed at the
+magnificence displayed in the interior of cathedral churches and at a
+loss to explain the reason.
+
+As regards the former, it can be attributed to the Oriental spirit still
+throbbing in the country; not in vain did the Moor inhabit Iberia for
+nearly eight hundred years!
+
+The powerful influence of the Church on the inhabitants, an influence
+that has lasted from the middle ages to the present day, explains the
+other phenomenon. Even to-day, in Spain, the Pope is supreme and the
+princes of the Church are the rulers.
+
+Does the country gain thereby? Not at all. Andalusia is in a miserable
+state of poverty, so are Extremadura, La Mancha, and Castile. Not a
+penny do the rich, or even royalty, give to better the country people's
+piteous lot; neither does the Church.
+
+It is nevertheless necessary to be just. In studying the evolutionary
+history of architecture in Spain, we must praise the tyranny of the
+Church which spent the millions of dollars of the poor in erecting such
+marvels as the cathedral of Toledo, etc., and we must ignore the
+sweating farmer, the terror-stricken Jew, the accused heretic, the
+disgraced courtier, the seafaring conquistador, who gave up their all to
+buy a few months' life, the respite of an hour.
+
+And the author has striven to be impartial in the following pages. Once
+in awhile his bitterness has escaped the pen, but be it plainly
+understood that not one of his remarks is aimed against Spain, a country
+and a people to be admired,--above all to be pitied, for they, the
+people, are slaves to an arrogant Church, to a self-amusing royalty, and
+to a grasping horde of second-rate politicians.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HISTORICAL ARABESQUES
+
+
+The history of Spain is, perhaps, more than that of any other nation,
+one long series of thrilling, contradictory, and frequently
+incomprehensible events.
+
+This is not only due to the country's past importance as a powerful
+factor in the evolution of our modern civilization, but to the
+unforeseen doings of fate. Fate enchained and enslaved its people,
+moulded its greatness and wrought its ruin. Of no other country can it
+so truthfully be said that it was the unwitting tool of some higher
+destiny. Most of the phenomena of its history took place in spite of the
+people's wishes or votes; neither did the different art questions,
+styles, periods, or movements emanate from the people. This must be
+borne in mind.
+
+The Romans were the first to come to Spain with a view to conquering the
+land, and to organizing the half-savage clans or tribes who roamed
+through the thickets and across the plains. But nowhere did the great
+rulers of the world encounter such fierce resistance. The clans were
+extremely warlike and, besides, intensely individual. They did not only
+oppose the foreigner's conquest of the land, but also his system of
+organization, which consisted in the submission of the individual to the
+state.
+
+The clans or tribes recognized no other law than their own sweet will;
+they acted independently of each other, and only on rare occasions did
+they fight in groups. They were local patriots who recognized no
+fatherland beyond their natal vale or village.
+
+This primary characteristic of the Spanish people is the clue to many of
+the subsequent events of the country's history. Against it the Romans
+fought, but fought in vain, for they were not able to overcome it.
+
+Christianity dawned in the East and was introduced into Spain, some say
+by St. James in the north, others by St. Peter or St. Paul in the south.
+
+The result was astonishing: what Roman swords, laws, and highroads had
+been unable to accomplish (as regards the organization of the savage
+tribes) Christianity brought about in a comparatively short lapse of
+time.
+
+The reason is twofold. In the first place, the new form of religion
+taught that all men were equal; consequently it was more to the taste of
+the individualistic Spaniard than the state doctrines of the Roman
+Empire.
+
+Secondly, it permitted him to worship his deity in as many forms
+(saints) as there were days in the year; consequently each village or
+town could boast of its own saint, prophet, or martyr, who, in the minds
+of the citizens, was greater than all other saints, and really the god
+of their fervent adoration.
+
+Hence Christianity was able to introduce into the Roman province of
+Hispania a social organization which was to exert a lasting influence on
+the country and to acquire an unheard-of degree of wealth and power.
+
+When the temporal domination of Rome in Spain had dwindled away to
+nothing, other foreigners, the Visigoths, usurped the fictitious rule.
+Their state was civil in name, military in organization, and
+ecclesiastical in reality.
+
+They formed no nation, however, though they preserved the broken
+fragments of the West Roman Empire. The same spirit of individualism
+characterized the tribes or people, and they swore allegiance to their
+local saint (God) and to the priest who was his representative on earth
+(Church)--but to no one else.
+
+Consequently it can be assumed that the Spanish nation had not as yet
+been born; the controlling power had passed from the hands of one
+foreigner to those of another: only one institution--the Church--could
+claim to possess a national character; around it, or upon its
+foundations, the nation was to be built up, stone by stone, and turret
+by turret.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The third foreigner appeared on the scene. He was doubtless the most
+important factor in the formation of the Spanish nation.
+
+It is probable that the Church called him over the Straits of Gibraltar
+as an aid against Rodrigo, the last Visigothic king, who lost his throne
+and his life because too deeply in love with his beautiful Tolesian
+mistress.
+
+Legends explain the Moor's landing differently. Sohail, as powerfully
+narrated by Mr. Cunninghame-Graham, is one of these legends, beautifully
+fatalistic and exceptionally interesting. According to it, the destiny
+of the Moors is ruled by a star named Sohail. Whither it goes they must
+follow it.
+
+In the eighth century it happened that Sohail, in her irregular course
+across the heavens, was to be seen, a brilliant star, from Gibraltar.
+Obeying the stellar call, Tarik landed in Spain and moved northwards at
+the head of his irresistible, fanatic hordes. The star continued its
+northerly movement, visible one fine night from the Arab tents pitched
+on the plains between Poitiers and Tours. The next night, however, it
+was no longer visible, and Charles Martel drove the invading Moors back
+to the south.
+
+Centuries went by and Sohail appeared ever lower down on the southern
+horizon. One night it was only visible from Granada, and then Spain saw
+it no more. That same day--'twas in the fifteenth century--Boabdil el
+Chico surrendered the keys of Granada, and the Arabs fled, obeying the
+retreating star's call.
+
+To-day they are waiting in the north of Africa for Sohail to move once
+again to the north: when she does so, they will rise again as a single
+man, and regain their passionately loved Alhambra, their beautiful
+kingdom of Andalusia.
+
+Tradition is fond of showing us a nucleus of fervent Christian patriots
+obliged by the invading Arab hordes to retire to the north-western
+corner of the Iberian peninsula. Here they made a stand, a last glorious
+stand, and, gradually increasing in strength, they were at last able to
+drive back the invader inch by inch until he fled across the straits to
+trouble Iberia no more.
+
+Nothing is, however, less true. The noblemen and monarchs of Galicia,
+Leon, and Oviedo--later of Castile, Navarra, and Aragon--were so many
+petty lords who, fighting continually among themselves, ruled over
+fragments of the defeated Visigothic kingdom. At times they called in
+the Arab enemy--to whom in the early centuries they paid a yearly
+tribute--to help them against the encroachments of their brother
+Christians. Consequently they lacked that spirit of patriotism and of
+national ambition which might have justified their claims to be called
+monarchs or rulers of Spain.
+
+The Church was no better. Its bishops were independent princes who ruled
+in their dioceses like sovereigns in their palaces; they recognized no
+supreme master, not even the Pope, whose advice was ignored, and whose
+orders were disobeyed.
+
+It was not until the twelfth or thirteenth century that the Christian
+incursions into Moorish territory took the form of patriotic crusades,
+in which fervent Christians burnt with the holy desire of weeding out of
+the peninsula the Saracen infidel.
+
+This holy crusade was due to the coming from France and Italy of the
+Cluny monks. Foreigners,--like the Romans, the Church, the Visigoths,
+and the Moors,--they created a situation which facilitated the union of
+the different monarchs, prelates, and noblemen, by showing them a common
+cause to fight for. Besides, anxious to establish the supreme power of
+the Pope in a land where his authority was a dead letter, they crossed
+the Pyrenees and broke the absolute power of the arrogant prelates.
+
+The result was obvious: the Church became uniform throughout the
+country, and its influence waxed to the detriment of that of the
+noblemen. Once again the kings learnt to rely upon the former, thus
+putting an end to the power of the latter. Once more the Church grew to
+be an ecclesiastical organization in which the role of the prelates
+became more important as time went on.
+
+In short, if the coming of the Moors retarded for nearly six hundred
+years the birth of the Spanish nation, this birth was directly brought
+about by the political ability of the Cluny monks; the Moors, on the
+other hand, exerted a direct and lasting influence on the shaping and
+moulding of the future nation.
+
+Christian Spain, at the time of the death of the pious warrior-king San
+Fernando, was roughly divided into an eastern and a western half, into
+the kingdom of Castile (and Leon) and that of Aragon. The fusion of
+these two halves by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel, two hundred
+years later, marks the date of the birth of Spain as a nation.
+
+It is true, nevertheless, that the people had little or no voice in the
+arrangement of matters. They were indifferent to what their crowned
+rulers were doing, and ignorant of the growing power, wealth, and
+learning of the prelates. All they asked for was individual liberty and
+permission to pray to the God of their choice. Neither had as yet the
+spirit of patriotism burned in their breasts, and they were utterly
+insensible to any and all politics which concerned the peninsula as a
+unity.
+
+But the Church-state had successfully evolutionized, and Catholic kings
+sat on the only available throne. The last Moor had been driven from the
+peninsula, the Jews had been expelled from the Catholic kingdom, and the
+Inquisition--now that the Church could no longer direct its energy
+against the infidel--strengthened the Pope's hold on the land and
+increased the importance and magnificence of the prelates themselves.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A word as to heresy (the Reformation) and the Inquisition. The latter
+was not directed against the former, for it would have been impossible
+for the people to accept the reformed faith in the fifteenth century.
+For the Spaniard the charm of the Christian religion was that it placed
+him on an equal footing with all men; hence, it flattered his love of
+personal liberty and his self-consciousness or pride. The charm of
+Catholicism was that it enabled him to adore a local deity in the shape
+of a martyred saint; thus, it flattered his vanity as a clansman, and
+his spirit of individualism.
+
+It was not so much the God of Christianity he worshipped as Our Lady of
+the Pillar, Our Lady of Sorrows, of the Camino, etc., and he obeyed less
+readily the archbishop than the custodian priest of his particular
+saint, of whom he declared "that he could humiliate all other saints."
+
+Consequently Protestantism, which tended to kill this local worship by
+upholding that of a collective deity, could never have taken a serious
+hold of the country, and it is doubtful if it ever will.
+
+On the other hand--as previously remarked--the Spanish Inquisition
+helped to centralize the Church's power and obliged the people to accept
+its decisions as final. The effect of Torquemada's policy is still to be
+felt in Spain--could it be otherwise?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Had successive events in this stage of Spain's history followed a normal
+course, and had the education of the people been fostered by the state
+instead of being cursed by the Church, it is more than probable that the
+map of Europe would have been different to-day from what it is. For the
+Spanish people would have learnt to think as patriots, as a nation; they
+would have developed their country's rich soil and thickly populated
+the vast _vegas_; they would have taken the offensive against foreign
+nations, and would have chased and battled the Moor beyond the Straits
+of Gibraltar.
+
+It was not to be, however. An abnormal event was to take place--and did
+take place--which repeated in fair Iberia the retrograde movement
+initiated by the Arab invasion 750 years earlier.
+
+A foreigner was again the cause of this new phenomenon, a harebrained
+Genoese navigator whom the world calls a genius because he was
+successful, but who was an evil genius for the new-born Spanish nation,
+one who was to load his adopted country with unparalleled fame and glory
+before causing her rapid and clashing downfall.
+
+Christopher Columbus came to Spain from the east; he sailed westwards
+from Spain and discovered--for Spain!--two vast continents.
+
+The importance of this event for Spain is apt to be overlooked by those
+who are blinded by the unexpected realization of Columbus's daring
+dreams. It was as though a volcanic eruption had taken place in a virgin
+soil, tossing earth and grass, layers and strata of stone, hither and
+thither in utter confusion, impeding the further growth of young
+plantlets and forbidding the building up of a solid national edifice.
+
+Instead of devoting their energies to the interior organization of the
+country, Spaniards turned their eyes to the New World. In exchange for
+the gold and precious stones which poured into the land, they gave that
+which left the country poor and weak indeed: their blood and their
+lives. The bravest and most intrepid leaders crossed the seas with their
+followers, and behind them sailed thousands upon thousands of hardy
+adventurers and soldiers.
+
+But the Spaniards could not colonize. They lacked those qualities of
+collectivity which characterized Rome and England. The individualistic
+spirit of the people caused them to go and to come as they chose without
+possessing any ambition of establishing in the newly acquired
+territories a home and a family; neither did the women folk
+emigrate--and hence the failure of Spain as a colonizing power.
+
+On the other hand, those who had sailed the seas to the Spanish main,
+and had hoarded up a significant treasure, invariably returned, not to
+Spain exactly, but to their native town or village. Upon arriving home,
+their first act was to bequeath a considerable sum to the Church, so as
+to ease their conscience and to assure themselves homage, respect, and
+unrestrained liberty.
+
+The effects produced by this phenomenon of individualism were manifold.
+They exist even to-day, so lasting were they.
+
+A new nobility was created--wealthy, powerful, and generally arrogant
+and unscrupulous, which replaced the feudal aristocracy of the middle
+ages.
+
+Secondly, oligarchy--or better still, _caciquismo_, an individualistic
+form of oligarchy--sprung up into existence, and rapidly became the bane
+of modern Spain; that is, ever since the Bourbon dynasty ruled the
+country's fate. As can easily be understood, this _caciquismo_ can only
+flourish there where individualism is the leading characteristic of the
+people.
+
+Thirdly, all hopes of the country's possessing a well-to-do middle
+class--stamina of a wealthy nation, and without which no people can
+attain a national standard of wealth--vanished completely away.
+
+Lastly the Church, which had become wealthy beyond the dreams of the
+Cluny monks, retained its iron grip on the country, and retarded the
+liberal education of the masses. To repay the fidelity of servile
+Catholics, it canonized legions of local prophets and martyrs, and
+organized hundreds of gay annual _fiestas_ to honour their memory. The
+ignorant people, flattered at the tribute of admiration paid to their
+deities, looked no further ahead into the growing chaos of misery and
+poverty, and were happy.
+
+The crash came--could it be otherwise? Beyond the seas an immense
+territory, hundreds of times larger than the natal _solar_, or mother
+country, stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific; at home, a
+stillborn nation lay in an arid meadow beside a solemn church, a
+frivolous, selfish throne, and a mute and gloomy brick-built convent.
+
+The Spanish Armada sailed to England never to return, and Philip II.
+built the Escorial, a melancholy pantheon for the kings of the Iberian
+peninsula.
+
+One by one the colonies dropped off, fragments of an illusory empire,
+and at last the mother country stood once more stark naked as in the
+days before Columbus left Palos harbour. But the mother's face was no
+longer young and fresh like an infant's: wrinkles of age and of
+suffering creased the brow and the chin, for not in vain was she, during
+centuries, the toy of unmerciful fate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, in gigantic strides, the history of Spain.
+
+The volcanic eruption in the fifteenth century has left, it is true,
+indelible traces in the country's soil. Nevertheless, on the very day
+when the treaty of Paris was signed and the last of the Spanish colonies
+_de ultramar_ were lost for ever, that day a Spanish nation was born
+again on the disturbed foundations of the old.
+
+There is no denying it: when Ferdinand and Isabel united their kingdoms
+a nation was born; it fell to pieces (though apparently not until a
+later date) when Columbus landed in America.
+
+Anarchy, misrule, and oppression, ignorance and poverty, now frivolity
+and now austerity at court, fill the succeeding centuries until the
+coronation of Alfonso XII. During all those years, but once did
+Spain--no longer a nation--shine forth in history with an even greater
+brilliancy than when she claimed to be mistress of the world. But, on
+this occasion, when she opposed, in brave but disbanded groups, the
+invasion of the French legions, she gave another proof of the
+individualistic instincts of the race, as opposed to all social and
+compact organization of the masses.
+
+The Carlist wars need but a passing remark. They were not national; they
+were caused by the ambitions of rulers and noblemen, and fought out by
+the inhabitants of Navarra and the Basque Provinces who upheld their
+_fueros_, by paid soldiery, and by _aldeanos_ whose houses and families
+were threatened.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New Spain was born a few years ago, but so far she has given no proof of
+vitality. As it is, she is cumbered by traditions and harassed by
+memories. She must fight a sharp battle with existing evil institutions
+handed down to her as a questionable legacy from the past.
+
+If she emerge victorious from the struggle, universal history will hear
+her name again, for the country is not _gastado_ or degenerate, as many
+would have us believe.
+
+If she fail to throw overboard the worthless and superfluous ballast, it
+is possible that the ship of state will founder--and then, who knows?
+
+In the meantime, let us not misjudge the Spaniard nor throw stones at
+his broken glass mansion. To help us in this, let us remember that
+unexpected vicissitudes, entirely foreign to his country, were the cause
+of his illusory grandeur in the sixteenth century. Besides, no more
+ardent a lover of individual (not social) freedom than the Spaniard
+breathes in this wide world of ours--excepting it be the Moor.
+
+Under the circumstances he is to be admired--even pitied.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ARABESQUES
+
+_Preliminaries_
+
+
+The different periods mentioned in the preceding chapter are
+characterized by a corresponding art-movement.
+
+The germs of these movements came invariably from abroad. In Spain they
+lingered, were localized and grew up, a species of hybrid plants in
+which the foreign element was still visible, though it had undergone a
+series of changes, due either to the addition of other elements, to the
+inventive genius of the artist-architect, or else peculiar to the
+locality in which the building was erected.
+
+Other conclusive remarks arrived at in the foregoing study help to
+explain the evolution of church architecture. Five were the conclusions:
+(1) The power and wealth of the Church, (2) the influence exerted by
+foreigners on the country's fate, (3) the individualistic spirit of the
+clanspeople, (4) the short duration of a Spanish nation, nipped in the
+bud before it could bloom, and (5) the formation of an oligarchy
+(_caciquismo_) which hindered the establishment of an educated
+_bourgeoisie_.
+
+The first of the above conclusive observations needs no further remarks,
+considering that we are studying church architecture. It suffices to
+indicate the great number of cathedrals, churches, hermitages,
+monasteries, convents, cloisters, and episcopal palaces to be convinced
+of the Church's influence on the country and on the purses of the
+inhabitants.
+
+The Spaniard, psychologically speaking, is no artist; it is doubtful if
+illiterate and uneducated people are, and the average inhabitant of
+Spain forms no exception to this rule. His artistic talents are
+exclusively limited to music, for which he has an excessively fine ear.
+But beauty in the plastic arts and architecture leave him cold and
+indifferent; he is influenced by mass, weight, and quantity rather than
+by elegance or lightness, and consequently it is the same to him whether
+a cathedral be Gothic or Romanesque, as long as it be dedicated to the
+deity of his choice.
+
+The difference between Italian and Iberian is therefore very marked.
+Even the landscapes in each country prove it beyond a doubt. In Italy
+they are composed of soft rolling lines; the colours are varied,--green,
+red, and blue; the soil is damp and fruitful. In Spain, on the contrary,
+everything is dry, arid, and savage; blue is the sky, red the brick
+houses, and grayish golden the soil; the inhabitants are as savage as
+the country, and the proverbial "_ma � piu bello_" of the Italian does
+not bother the former in the slightest.
+
+All of which goes to explain the Spaniard's insensibility to the plastic
+arts, as well as (for instance) the universal use of huge _retablos_ or
+altar-pieces, in which size and bright colours are all that is required
+and the greater the size, the more clashing the colours, the better.
+
+Neither is it surprising that the Spaniard created no architectural
+school of his own. All he possesses is borrowed from abroad. His love of
+Byzantine grotesqueness and of Moorish geometrical arabesques is
+inherited, the one from the Visigoths, and the other directly from the
+Moors. The remaining styles are northern and Italian, and were
+introduced into the country by such foreigners--monks and artists--as
+crowded to Spain in search of Spanish gold.
+
+These artists (it is true that some, and perhaps the best of them, were
+Spaniards) did not work for the people, for there was no _bourgeoisie_.
+They worked for the wealthy prelates, for the aristocracy, and for the
+_caciques_. These latter had sumptuous chapels decorated, dedicated an
+altar to such and such a deity, and erected a magnificent sepulchre or
+series of sepulchres for themselves and their families.
+
+This peculiar phenomenon explains the wealth of Spanish churches in
+lateral chapels. Not a cathedral but has about twenty of them; not a
+church but possesses its half a dozen. Moreover, some of the very finest
+examples of sepulchral art are not to be found in cathedrals, but in
+out-of-the-way village churches, where some _cacique_ or other laid his
+bones to rest and had his effigy carved on a gorgeous marble tomb.
+
+These chapels are built in all possible styles and in all degrees of
+splendour and magnificence, according to the generosity of the donor.
+Here they bulge out, deforming the regular plan of the church, or else
+they take up an important part of the interior of the building. There
+they are Renaissance jewels in a Gothic temple, or else ogival marvels
+in a Romanesque building. They are, as it were, small churches--or
+important annexes like that of the Condestable in Burgos, possessing a
+dome of its own--absolutely independent of the cathedral itself, rich in
+decorative details, luxurious in the use of polished stone and metal, of
+agate and golden accessories, of gilded friezes, low reliefs, and
+painted _retablos_. They constitute one of the most characteristic
+features of Spanish religious architecture and art in general, and it is
+above all due to them that Iberia's cathedrals are museums rather than
+solemn places of worship.
+
+But the Spanish people did not erect them; they were commanded by vain
+and death-fearing _caciques_, and erected by artists--generally
+foreigners, though often natives. The people did not care nor take any
+interest in the matter; so long as the village saint was not insulted,
+nor their individual liberty (_fuero_) infringed upon, the world, its
+artists and _caciques_, could do as it liked.
+
+This insensibility helped to hinder the formation of a national style.
+Besides, as the duration of the Spanish nation was so exceedingly short,
+there was no time at hand to develop a national art school. In certain
+localities, as in Galicia, a prevailing type or style was in common use,
+and was slowly evolving into something strictly local and excellent.
+These types, together with Moorish art, and above all _Mudejar_ work,
+might have evolved still further and produced a national style. But the
+nation fell to pieces like a dried-up barrel whose hoops are broken, and
+the nation's style was never formed.
+
+Besides, contemporary with the birth of the nation was the advent of the
+Renaissance movement. This was the _coup de gr�ce_, the final blow to
+any germs of a Spanish style, of a style composed of Christian and Islam
+principles and ideals:
+
+    "Es w�r zu sch�n gewesen,
+     Es h�tt' nicht sollen sein!"
+
+Under the circumstances, the art student in Spain, however enthusiastic
+or one-sided he may be, cannot claim to discover a national school. He
+must necessarily limit his studies to the analysis of the foreign art
+waves which inundated the land; he must observe how they became
+localized and were modified, how they were united both wisely and
+ridiculously, and he must point out the reasons or causes of these
+medleys and transformations. There his task ends.
+
+One peculiarity will strike him: the peninsula possesses no pure Gothic,
+Romanesque, or Renaissance building. The same might almost be stated as
+regards Moorish art. The capitals of the pillars in the mezquita of
+Cordoba are Latin-Romanesque, torn from a previous building by the
+invading Arab to adorn his own temple. The Alhambra, likewise, shows
+animal arabesques which are Byzantine and not Moorish. Nevertheless,
+Arab art is, on the whole, purer in style than Christian art.
+
+This transformation of foreign styles proves: (1) That though the
+Spanish artist lacked creative genius, he was no base imitator, but
+sought to combine; he sought to give the temple he had to construct that
+heavy, massive, strong, and sombre aspect so well in harmony with the
+religious and warlike spirit of the different clanspeople; and (2) that
+the same artist failed completely to understand the ideal of soaring
+ogival, of simple Renaissance, or of pure Romanesque (this latter he
+understood better than either of the others). For him, they--as well as
+Islam art--were but elements to be made use of. Apart from their
+constructive use, they were superfluous, and the artist-architect was
+blind to their ethical object or �sthetical value. With their aid he
+built architectural wonders, but hybrid marvels, complex, grand,
+luxurious, and magnificent.
+
+Be it plainly understood, nevertheless, that in the above paragraphs no
+contempt for Spanish cathedrals is either felt or implied. Facts are
+stated, but no personal opinion is emitted as to which is better, a pure
+Gothic or a complicated Spanish Gothic. In art there is really no
+better; besides, comparisons are odious and here they are utterly
+superfluous.
+
+_Cathedral Churches_
+
+Before accompanying the art student in his task of determining the
+different foreign styles, we will do well to examine certain general
+characteristics common to all Spanish cathedrals. We will then be able
+to understand with greater ease the causes of the changes introduced
+into pure styles.
+
+The exterior aspect of all cathedrals is severe and massive, even naked
+and solemn. Neither windows nor flying buttresses are used in such
+profusion as in French cathedrals, and the height of the aisles is
+greater. The object is doubtless to impart an idea of strength to the
+exterior walls by raising them in a compact mass. An even greater effect
+is obtained by square, heavy towers instead of elegant spires. (Compare,
+however, chapters on Leon, Oviedo, Burgos, etc.) The use of domes
+(_cimborios_, lanterns, and cupolas) is also frequent, most of them
+being decidedly Oriental in appearance. The apse is prominent and
+generally five-sided, warlike in its severe outline. Stone is invariably
+used as the principal constructive element,--granite, _berroque�a_ (a
+soft white stone turning deep gray with age and exposure), and _sillar_
+or _silleria_ (a red sandstone cut into similar slabs of the size and
+aspect of brick). Where red sandstone is used, the weaker parts of the
+buildings are very often constructed in brick, and it is these
+last-named cathedrals that are most Oriental in appearance, especially
+when the brick surface is carved into _Mudejar_ reliefs.
+
+Taken all in all, the whole building often resembles a castle or
+fortress rather than a temple, in harmony with the austere, arid
+landscape, and the fierce, passionate, and idolatrous character of the
+clanspeople or inhabitants of the different regions.
+
+The principal entrance is usually small in comparison to the height and
+great mass of the building. The pointed arch--or series of arches--which
+crowns the portal, is timid in its structure, or, in other words, is but
+slightly pointed or not at all.
+
+The interior aspect of the church is totally different. As bare and
+naked as was the outside, so luxurious and magnificent is the inside.
+Involuntarily medi�val Spanish palaces come to our mind: their gloomy
+appearance from the outside, and the gay _patio_ or courtyard behind the
+heavy, uninviting panels of the doors. The Moors even to this day employ
+this system of architecture; its origin, even in the case of Christian
+churches, is Oriental.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural considerations, which will be referred
+to in the chapters dedicated to the description of the various
+cathedrals, let us examine the general disposition of some of the most
+interesting parts of the Spanish church.
+
+The aisles are, as a rule, high and dark, buried in perpetual shadow.
+The lightest and airiest part of the building is beneath the _crois�e_
+(intersection of nave and transept), which is often crowned by a
+handsome _cimborio_.
+
+The nave is the most important member of the church, and the most
+impressive view is obtained by the visitor standing beneath the
+_crois�e_.
+
+To the east of him, the nave terminates in a semicircular chapel, the
+farther end of which boasts of an immense _retablo_; to the west, the
+choir, with its stalls and organs, interrupts likewise the continuity of
+the nave. Both choir and altar are rich in decorative details.
+
+Behind the high altar runs the ambulatory, joining the aisles and
+separating the former from the apse and its chapels. The rear wall of
+the high altar (in the ambulatory) is called the _trasaltar_, where a
+small altar is generally situated in a recess and dedicated to the
+patron saint, that is, if the cathedral itself be dedicated to the
+Virgin, as generally happens.
+
+Sometimes an oval window pierces the wall of the _trasaltar_ and lets
+the light from the apsidal windows enter the high altar; this
+arrangement is called a _transparente_.
+
+The choir, as wide as the nave and often as high, is rectangular; an
+altar-table generally stands in the western extremity, which is closed
+off by a wall. The rear of this wall (facing the western entrance to the
+temple) is called the _trascoro_, and contains the altar or a chapel;
+the lateral walls are also pierced by low rooms or niches which serve
+either as chapels or as altar-frames.
+
+The placing of the choir in the very centre of the church, its width and
+height, and its enclosure on the western end by a wall, render
+impossible a view of the whole building such as occurs in Northern
+cathedrals, and upon which the impression of architectural grandeur and
+majesty largely depends. It was as though Spanish architects were
+utterly foreign to the latter impression, or wilfully murdered it by
+substituting another more to their taste, namely, that of magnificence
+and sumptuousness. Nowhere--to the author's knowledge--is this
+impression more acutely felt than in a Spanish cathedral, viewed from
+beneath the _crois�e_.
+
+Glittering brilliancy, dazzling gold, silver, or gilt, polished marble,
+agate, and jasper, and a luxuriance of vivid colours meet the visitor's
+eyes when standing there. The effect is theatrical, doubtless, but it
+impresses the humble true believer as Oriental splendour; and what, in
+other countries, might be considered as grotesque and unhealthy art,
+must in Spain be regarded as the very essence of the country's worship,
+the very _raison d'�tre_ of the cathedral. Neither can it be considered
+as unhealthy: with us in the North, our _religious awe_ is produced by
+the solemn majesty of rising shafts and long, high, and narrow aisles;
+this fails to impress the Iberian of to-day; and yet, the same sentiment
+of _religious awe_, of the terrible unknown, be it saint, Saviour,
+Virgin, or God, is imparted to him by this brilliant display of
+incalculable wealth.
+
+To produce this magnificence in choir and high altar, decorative and
+industrial art were given a free hand, and together wrought those
+wonders of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries which
+placed Spain in a prominent position in the history of art. Goldsmiths
+and silversmiths, masters of ironcraft, sculptors in stone and wood,
+painters and _estofadores_, together with a legion of other artists and
+artisans of all classes and nationalities, worked together in unison to
+create both choir and high altar.
+
+Therefore, from an artistic point of view, the Spanish cathedral is for
+the foreigner a museum, a collection of art objects, pertaining, most of
+them, to the country's industrial arts, for which Iberia was first among
+all nations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHOIR STALLS.--Space cannot allow us to classify this most important
+accessory of Spanish cathedrals. Carved in walnut or oak, now simple and
+severe, now rich and florid, this branch of graphic art in low relief
+constitutes one of Spain's most legitimate glories. It is strange that
+no illustrated work dedicated exclusively to choir stalls should have
+been published in any language. The tourist's attention must
+nevertheless be drawn to this part of religious buildings; it must
+not escape his observation when visiting cathedral and parish churches,
+and above all, monastical churches.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RETABLO.--The above remarks hold good here as well, when speaking about
+the huge and imposing altar-pieces so universally characteristic of
+Spain.
+
+The eastern wall of the holy chapel in a cathedral is entirely hidden
+from top to bottom by the _retablo_, a painted wooden structure
+resembling a huge honeycomb. It consists of niches flanked by gilded
+columns. According to the construction of these columns, now Gothic
+shafts, now Greek or composite, now simple and severe, the period to
+which the _retablo_ belongs is determined.
+
+Generally pyramidically superimposed, these niches, of the height,
+breadth, and depth of an average man, contain life-size statues of
+apostle or saint, painted and decorated by the _estofadores_ in
+brilliant colours (of course, as they are intended to be seen from a
+distance!), in which red and blue are predominant, and which produce a
+gorgeous effect _rehauss�_ by the gilt columns of the niches. (Compare
+with the Oriental taste of _Mudejar_ work in ceilings or
+_artesonados_.)
+
+The whole _retablo_, in the low reliefs which form the base, and in the
+statues or groups in the niches, represents graphically the life of the
+Saviour or the Virgin, of the patron saint or an apostle; some of them
+are of exquisite execution and of great variety and movement; in others,
+greater attention has been paid to the decoration of the columns or
+shafts by original floral garlands, etc. Foment, Juni, and Berruguete
+are among the most noted _retablo_ sculptors, but space will not permit
+of a more prolific classification or analysis.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS.--The vessels used on the altar-table, effigies of
+saints, processional crosses, etc., in beaten gold and silver, are well
+worth examination. So is also the cathedral treasure, in some cases of
+an immense value, both artistic and intrinsic. Cloths, woven in coloured
+silks, gold, and precious stones, are beautiful enough to make any art
+lover envious.
+
+The central niche of the _retablo_, immediately above the altar-table,
+is generally occupied by a massive beaten silver effigy, the artistic
+value of which is unluckily partially concealed beneath a heap of
+valuable cloths and jewels.
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)]
+
+But where the silversmith's art is purest and most lavishly pronounced
+is in the _sagrarios_. These are solid silver carved pyramids about two
+or three feet high: they represent miniature temples or thrones with
+shafts or columns supporting arches, windows, pinnacles, and cupolas. In
+the interior, an effigy of the saint, or the Virgin, etc., to whom the
+cathedral is dedicated, is to be seen seated on a throne.
+
+In all cases the workmanship of these miniature temples is exquisite,
+and has brought just fame to Spain's fifteenth and sixteenth century
+silversmiths.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IRONCRAFT.--Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the
+artisans who worked in iron. They brought their trade up to the height
+of a fine art of universal fame; their artistic window _rejas_, in the
+houses and palaces of the rich, are the wonder of all art lovers, and so
+also are the immense _rejas_ or grilles which close off the high altar
+and the choir from the transept, or the entrance to chapels from the
+aisles. Though this art has completely degenerated to-day, nevertheless,
+a just remark was made in the author's hearing by an Englishman, who
+said:
+
+"Even to-day, Spaniards are unable to make a bad _reja_."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reader's and tourist's attention has been called to the salient
+artistic points of a Spanish cathedral. They must be examined one by
+one, and they will be admired; the view of the ensemble will puzzle and
+amaze him, yet it will be wise for him not to criticize harshly the lack
+of _unity of style_. Frequently the choir stalls are ogival, the
+_retablo_ Renaissance, the _rejas_ plateresque, and the general
+decoration of columns, etc., of the most lavish grotesque.
+
+This in itself is no sin, neither artistic nor ethical, as long as the
+_religious awe_ comes home to the Spaniard, for whom these cathedrals
+are intended. Besides, it is an open question whether the monotony of a
+pure style be nobler than a luxurious moulding together of all styles.
+The whole question is, do the different parts harmonize, or do they
+produce a _criard_ impression.
+
+The answer in all cases is purely personal. Yet, even if unfavourable,
+the utility of the art demonstration must be borne in mind and
+considered as well. And as regards the Spaniard, the utility does exist
+beyond a doubt.
+
+
+_Architectural Styles_
+
+Let us now follow the art student in his task. He will determine the
+different styles, and, to make the matter clearer, he will employ a
+rhetorical figure:
+
+There is an island in the sea. Huge breakers roar on the beach and dash
+against the rocky cliffs. Second, third, and fourth breakers of varying
+strength and energy race with the first, and are in their turn pushed
+relentlessly on from behind until they ripple in dying surf on the
+golden sands and boil in white spray in hidden clifts and caves. With
+the years that roll along the island is shaped according to the will of
+the waves.
+
+Spain, figuratively speaking, is that island, or a peninsula off the
+southwestern coast of the Old World, barred from France by the
+impassable Pyrenees, and forming the link between Africa and Europe:
+the first stepping-stone for the former in its northern march, the last
+extremity or the rear-guard of the latter.
+
+The breakers represent the different art movements which, born in
+countries where _compact_ nations were fighting energetically for an
+existence and for an ideal, flooded with terrible force the civilized
+lands of the middle ages, and sought to outdo and conquer their rivals.
+
+These breakers were: from the east, early Christian (both Latin-Lombard
+and Byzantine); from the north, Gothic; from the south, Arab, or, to be
+more accurate, Moorish. The first two were advocates of one
+civilization, the Christian or Occidental; the latter was the
+propagandist of another, the Neo-Oriental or Mohammedan.
+
+The Renaissance was but a second or third breaker coming from the east,
+which breathed new life into antiquated constructive and decorative
+elements by adapting them to a new religion or faith.
+
+Later architectural forms were but the periodical revival or combination
+of one or another of the already existing elements.
+
+Spain, thanks to her unique position, was the point where all these
+contradictory waves met in a final endeavour to crush their opponents.
+In Spain, Byzantine pillars fought against Lombard shafts, and Gothic
+pinnacles rose haughtily beside the horseshoe arch and the _arc bris�_.
+In Spain Christianity grappled with the Islam faith and sent it bleeding
+back to the wilds of Africa; in Spain the polygon, circle, and square
+struggled for supremacy and lost their personality in the complex
+blending of the one with the other, and minarets, cupolas, and spires
+combined in bizarre fantasy and richness of decoration to serve the
+ambitions of mighty prelates, fanatic kings, and death-fearing noblemen.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, rhetorically speaking, the history of architecture of Spain.
+Cathedrals had a _cachet_ of their own, either national (in certain
+characteristics) or else local. But the elements of which they were
+composed were foreign. That is, excepting in the case of Spanish-Moorish
+art.
+
+Moorish art! In the second volume (Southern Spain), the author of these
+lines will dedicate several paragraphs to the art of the Moors in Spain.
+Suffice to assert in the present chapter the following statements.
+
+(1) Moorish art in Spain is peculiar to the Arabs who inhabited the
+peninsula during seven hundred years. Consequently this art, born on
+Iberian soil, cannot be regarded as foreign.
+
+(2) Much of what is called Moorish art owes its existence to the
+Christians, to the Muzarabs and Jews who inhabited cities which were
+dependent upon or belonged to the Moors. In the same way, much of the
+Oriental taste of the Spanish Christians was inherited from the Moors
+and received in Spain the generic name of _Mudejar_.
+
+(3) The art of the Moors, though largely used in Spain, especially in
+the south, rarely entered into cathedral structures, though often
+noticeable in churches, cloisters, and in decorative motives.
+
+(4) The Moors learnt more art motives in Spain than they introduced into
+the country.
+
+These and many other points of interest will have to be neglected in the
+present chapter. For the cathedrals of the north are (as regards the
+ideal which brought about their erection) radically opposed to Moorish
+art.
+
+Prehistoric Roman and Visigothic (?) art are equally unimportant in this
+study, as neither the one nor the other constructed any Christian temple
+standing to-day. That is to say, cathedral; for Visigothic or early
+Latin and Byzantine Romanesque churches do exist in Asturias, and a
+notable specimen in Venta de Ba�os. They are peculiarly strange
+edifices, and it is to be regretted that they are not cathedrals, for
+their study would be most interesting, not only as regards Iberian art,
+but above all as regards the history of art in the middle ages. So far,
+they have been completely neglected, and, unfortunately, are but little
+known abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ROMANESQUE.--The origin of Romanesque is greatly discussed. Some
+attribute it to Italy, others to France; others again are of the
+conviction that all Christian (religious) art previous to the birth of
+Gothic is Romanesque, etc., etc. The most plausible theory is that the
+style in question evolved out of the early Latin-Christian (basilique)
+style, at the same time borrowing many decorative details from the
+Byzantine-Christian style.
+
+In Spain, pre-Romanesque Christian architecture (or Visigothic) shows
+decided Byzantine influence, more so, probably, than in any other
+European country. This peculiarity influences also Romanesque, both
+early and late. It is not strange, either, considering that an important
+colony of _Bizantinos_ (Christians) settled in Eastern Andalusia during
+the Visigothic period.
+
+In the tenth century churches, and in the eleventh cathedrals, commenced
+to be erected in Northern Spain. Byzantine influence was very marked in
+the earlier monuments.
+
+Was Romanesque a foreign style? Was it introduced from Italy or France,
+or was it a natural outcome or evolutionary product of decadent early
+Christian architecture? In the latter case there is no saying where it
+evolved, possibly to the north or to the south of the Pyrenees, possibly
+to the east or to the west of the Alps. What is more, the Pyrenees in
+those days did not serve as a strict frontier line like to-day; on the
+contrary, both Navarra and Aragon extended beyond the mountainous wall,
+and the dukes of Southern France occasionally possessed immense
+territories and cities to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+Be that as it may, Romanesque, as a style, first dawned in Spain in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. Its birth coincided with that of the
+popular religious crusade against the Moor who had inhabited the
+peninsula during four centuries; it coincided also with the great
+church-erecting period of Northern Spanish history, when the Alfonsos of
+Castile created bishoprics (to aid them in their political ambitions) as
+easily as they broke inconvenient treaties and savagely murdered
+friends, relatives, and foes alike. Consequently, many were the
+Romanesque cathedrals erected, and though the greater part were
+destroyed later and replaced by Gothic structures, several fine
+specimens of the former style are still to be seen.
+
+Needless to say, Romanesque became localized; in other words, it
+acquired certain characteristics restricted to determined regions.
+Galician Romanesque and that of Western Castile, for instance, are
+almost totally different in aspect: the former is exceedingly poetical
+and possesses carved wall decorations both rich and excellent; the
+latter is intensely strong and warlike, and the decorations, if
+employed at all, are Byzantine, or at least Oriental in taste.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TRANSITION.--Many of the cathedrals of Galicia belong, according to
+several authors, to this period in which Romanesque strength evolved
+into primitive Gothic or ogival airiness. In another chapter a personal
+opinion has been emitted denying the accuracy of the above remark.
+
+There is no typical example of Transition in Spain. Ogival changes
+introduced at a later date into Romanesque churches, a very common
+occurrence, cannot justify the classification of the buildings as
+Transition monuments.
+
+Nor is it surprising that such buildings should be lacking in Spain. For
+Gothic did not evolve from Romanesque in the peninsula, but was
+introduced from France. A short time after its first appearance it swept
+all before it, thanks to the Cluny monks, and was exclusively used in
+church-building. In a strict sense it stands, moreover, to reason that
+the former (Transition) can only exist there where a new style emerges
+from an old without being introduced from abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OGIVAL ART.--The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are,
+properly speaking, those of the great northern art wave which spread
+rapidly through the peninsula, bending all before its irresistible will.
+Romanesque churches were destroyed or modified (the introduction of an
+ambulatory in almost all Romanesque buildings), and new cathedrals
+sprung up, called into existence by the needs and requirements of a new
+people, a conquering, Christian people, driving the infidel out of the
+land, and raising the Holy Cross on the sacred monuments of the Islam
+religion.
+
+The changements introduced into the new style tended to give it a more
+severe and defiant exterior appearance than in northern churches,--a
+scarcity of windows and flying buttresses, timidly pointed arches, and
+solid towers. Besides, round-headed arches (vaultings and horizontal
+lines) were indiscriminately used to break the vertical tendency of pure
+ogival; so also were Byzantine cupolas and domes.
+
+The solemn, cold, and naked cathedral church of Alcal� de Henares is a
+fine example of the above. Few people would consider it to belong to the
+same class as the eloquent cathedral of Leon and the no less imposing
+see of Burgos. Nevertheless, it is, every inch of it, as pure Gothic as
+the last named, only, it is essentially Spanish, the other two being
+French; it bears the sombre _cachet_ of the age of Spanish Inquisition,
+of the fanatic intolerant age of the Catholic kings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LATER STYLES.--Toward the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
+sixteenth centuries, Italian Renaissance entered the country and drove
+Gothic architecture out of the minds of artists and patronizing
+prelates.
+
+But Italian Renaissance failed to impress the Spaniard, whose character
+was opposed to that of his Mediterranean cousin; so also was the general
+aspect of his country different from that of Italy. Consequently, it is
+not surprising that we should find very few pure Renaissance monuments
+on the peninsula. On the other hand, Spanish Renaissance--a florid form
+of the Italian--is frequently to be met with; in its severest form it is
+called _plateresco_.
+
+In the times of Philip II., Juan Herrero created his style (Escorial),
+of which symmetry, grandeur in size, and poverty in decoration were the
+leading characteristics. The reaction came, however, quickly, and
+Churriguera introduced the most astounding and theatrical grotesque
+imaginable.
+
+The later history of Spanish architecture is similar to that of the rest
+of Europe. As it is, the period which above all interests us here is
+that reaching from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, embracing
+Romanesque, ogival, and plateresque styles. Of the cathedrals treated of
+in this volume, all belong to either of the two first named
+architectural schools, excepting those of Valladolid, Madrid, and, to a
+certain extent, the new cathedral of Salamanca and that of Segovia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MUDEJAR ART.--Previous to the advent of Italian Renaissance in Spain, a
+new art had been created which was purely national, having been born on
+the peninsula as the complex product of Christian and Islam elements.
+This art, known by the generic name of _Mudejar_, received a mortal blow
+at the hands of the new Italian art movement. Consequently, the only
+school which might have been regarded as Spanish, degenerated sadly,
+sharing the fate of the new-born nation.
+
+Rather than a constructive style, the _Mudejar_ or Spanish style is
+decorative. With admirable variety and profusion it ornamented brick
+surfaces by covering them with reliefs, either geometrical (Moorish) or
+Gothic, either sunk into the wall or else the latter cut around the
+former.
+
+The aspect of these _Mudejar_ buildings is peculiar. In a ruddy plain
+beneath a dazzling blue sky, these red brick churches gleam thirstily
+from afar. Shadows play among the reliefs, lending them strength and
+vigour; the _alminar_ tower stands forth prominently against the sky and
+contrasts delightfully with the cupola raised on the apse or on the
+_crois�e_.
+
+Among the finest examples of _Mudejar_ art, must be counted the
+brilliantly coloured ceilings, such as are to be seen in Alcal�, Toledo,
+and elsewhere. These _artesonados_, without being Moorish, are,
+nevertheless, of a pronounced Oriental taste. A geometrical pattern is
+carved on the wood of the ceiling and brilliantly painted. Prominent
+surfaces are preferably golden in hue, and such as are sunk beneath the
+level are red or blue. The effect is dazzling.
+
+[Illustration: MUDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)]
+
+Unluckily, but little attention has been paid out of Spain to
+_Mudejar_ art, and it is but little known. Even Spanish critics do not
+agree as to the national significance of this art, and it is a great
+pity, as unfortunately the country can point to no other art phenomena
+and claim them to be Spanish. How can it, when the nation had not as yet
+been born, and, once born, was to die almost simultaneously, like a moth
+that flies blindly and headlong into an intense flame?
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Spain geographically can be roughly divided into two parts, a northern
+and southern, separated by a mountain chain, composed of the Sierras de
+Guaderrama, Gredos, and Gata to the north of Madrid.
+
+Such a division does not, however, explain the historical development of
+the Christian kingdoms from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries, nor
+is it advisable to adopt it for an architectural study.
+
+During the great period of church-building, the nine kingdoms of Spain
+formed four distinct groups: Galicia, Asturias, Leon, and Castile;
+Navarra and Aragon; Barcelona and Valencia; Andalusia.
+
+The first group gradually evolved until Castile absorbed the remaining
+three kingdoms, and later Andalusia as well; the second and third groups
+succumbed to the royal house of Aragon.
+
+From an architectural point of view, there are three groups, or even
+four: Castile, Aragon, the Mediterranean coast-line, and Andalusia. In
+the last three the Oriental influence is far more pronounced than in the
+first named.
+
+Further, Spain is divided into nine archbishoprics: four corresponding
+to Castile (Santiago, Burgos, Valladolid, and Toledo); one to Aragon
+(Zaragoza); two to the Mediterranean coast (Tarragon and Valencia); and
+two to Andalusia (Sevilla and Granada).
+
+It was the author's object to preserve as far as possible in the
+following chapters and in the general subdivision of his work, not only
+the geographical, but the historical, architectural, and ecclesiastical
+divisions as well. Better still, he sacrificed the first when
+incompatible with the latter three.
+
+But--and here the difficulty arose--what title should be chosen for each
+of the two volumes which were to be dedicated to Spain? Because two
+volumes were necessary, considering the eighty odd cathedrals to be
+described.
+
+"Cathedrals of Northern Spain" as opposed to "Cathedrals of Southern
+Spain"--was one of the titles. "Gothic cathedrals of Spain"--as opposed
+to "Moorish Cathedrals of Spain"--was another; the latter had to be
+discarded, as only one Moorish mezquita converted into a Christian
+temple exists to-day, namely, that of Cordoba.
+
+There remained, therefore, the first title.
+
+The first volume, discarding Navarra and Aragon (in the north), is
+dedicated to Castile, as well as its four archbishoprics.
+
+The narrow belt of land, running from east to west, from Cuenca to
+Coria, to the south of the Sierra de Guaderrama, and constituting the
+archbishopric of Toledo, has been added to the region lying to the north
+and to the northwest of Madrid.
+
+Moreover, to aid the reader, the present volume has been divided into
+parts, namely: Galicia, the North, and Castile; the latter has been
+subdivided into western and eastern, making in all four divisions.
+
+(1) _Galicia._ Santiago de Campostela is, from an ecclesiastical point
+of view, all Galicia. Thanks to this spirit, the entire region shows a
+decided uniformity in the style of its churches, for that of Santiago
+(Romanesque) served as a pattern or model to be adopted in the remaining
+sees. The character of the people is no less uniform, and the Celtic
+inheritance of poetry has drifted into the monuments of the Christian
+religion.
+
+The episcopal see of Oviedo falls under the jurisdiction of Santiago;
+the Gothic cathedral shows no Romanesque motives excepting the Camara
+Sagrada, and has therefore been included in--
+
+(2) _The North._ With the exception of Oviedo, all the bishoprics in
+this group fall under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Burgos. The
+two finest Gothic temples in Northern Spain pertain to this group:
+Burgos and Leon.
+
+There is, however, but little uniformity in this northern region, for
+Santander and Vitoria have but little in common with the remaining sees.
+
+(3) _Western Castile._ A certain degree of uniformity is seen to exist
+among the sees of Western Castile, namely, the warlike appearance of the
+Byzantine Romanesque edifices. Besides, the use of sandstone and brick
+is here universal, and the immense plain of Old Castile to the north of
+the Sierra de Gata, and of Northern Extremadura to the south of the same
+range, have a peculiar ruddy aspect, dry and Oriental (African?), that
+is perfectly delightful.
+
+The sees to the north of the mentioned mountain chain belong to
+Valladolid; those of the south to Toledo.
+
+(4) _Eastern Castile_ extends from Valladolid in the north
+(archbishopric) to Toledo in the south (archbishopric), from Avila in
+the west to Sig�enza in the east, and to Cuenca in the extreme southeast
+of New Castile.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the middle ages the Christian kings of Asturias (Galicia?) grew more
+and more powerful, and their territory stretched out to the south and to
+the east.
+
+On the Mi�o River, Tuy and Orense were frontier towns, to populate
+which, bishoprics were erected. To the south of Oviedo, and almost on a
+line with the two Galician towns, Astorga, Leon and Burgos were strongly
+fortified, and formed an imaginary line to the north of which ruled
+Christian monarchs, and to the south Arab emirs.
+
+Burgos at the same time served as fortress-town against the rival kings
+of Navarra to the north and east; the latter, on the other hand,
+fortified the Rioja against Castile until at last it fell into the
+hands of the latter. Then Burgos, no longer a frontier town, grew to be
+capital of the new-formed kingdom of Castile.
+
+Slowly, but surely, the Arabs moved southwards, followed by the
+implacable line of Christian fortresses. At one time Valladolid,
+Palencia, Toro, and Zamora formed this line. When Toledo was conquered
+it was substituted by Coria, Plasencia, Sig�enza, and, slightly to the
+north, by Madrid, Avila, Segovia, and Salamanca. At the same time
+Sig�enza, Segovia, Soria, and Logro�o formed another strategic line of
+fortifications against Aragon, whilst in the west Plasencia, Coria, Toro
+and Zamora, Tuy, Orense, and Astorga kept the Portuguese from Castilian
+soil. In the extreme southwest Cuenca, impregnable and highly
+strategical, looked eastwards and southwards against the Moor, and
+northwards against the Aragonese.
+
+In all these links of the immense strategical chain which protected
+Castile from her enemies, the monarchs were cunning enough to erect sees
+and appoint warrior-bishops. They even donated the new fortress-cities
+with special privileges or _fueros_, in virtue of which settlers came
+from all parts of the country to inhabit and constitute the new
+municipality.
+
+Such--in gigantic strides--is the story of most of Castile's world-famed
+cities. In each chapter, dates, anecdotes, and more details are given,
+with a view to enable the reader to become acquainted not only with the
+ecclesiastical history of cities like Burgos and Valladolid, but also
+with the causes which produced the growing importance of each see, as
+well as its decadence within the last few centuries.
+
+
+
+
+_PART II_
+
+_Galicia_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SANTIAGO DE CAMPOSTELA
+
+
+When the Christian religion was still young, St. James the Apostle--he
+whom Christ called his brother--landed in Galicia and roamed across the
+northern half of the Iberian peninsula dressed in a pilgrim's modest
+garb and leaning upon a pilgrim's humble staff. After years of wandering
+from place to place, he returned to Galicia and was beheaded by the
+Romans, his enemies.
+
+This legend--or truth--has been poetically interwoven with other legends
+of Celtic origin, until the whole story forms what Bruneti�re would call
+a _cycle chevaleresque_ with St. James--or Santiago--as the central
+hero.
+
+According to one of these legends, it would appear that the apostle was
+persecuted by his great enemy Lupa, a woman of singular beauty whom the
+ascetic pilgrim had mortally offended. Thanks to certain accessory
+details, it is possible to assume that Lupa is the symbol of the "God
+without a name" of Celtic mythology, and it is she who finally venges
+herself by decapitating the pilgrim saint.
+
+The disciples of St. James laid his corpse in a cart, together with the
+executioner's axe and the pilgrim's staff. Two wild bulls were then
+harnessed to the vehicle, and away went cart and saint. As night fell
+and the moon rose over the vales of Galicia, the weary animals stopped
+on the summit of a wooded hill in an unknown vale, surrounded by other
+hillocks likewise covered with foliage and verdure.
+
+The disciples buried the saint, together with axe and staff, and there
+they left him with the secret of his burial-ground.
+
+This must have happened in the first or second century of the Christian
+era. Six hundred years later, and one hundred years after the Moors had
+landed in Andalusia, one Theodosio, Bishop of Iria (Galicia), took a
+walk one day in his wide domains accompanied by a monk. Together they
+lost their way and roamed about till night-fall, when they found
+themselves far from home.
+
+Stars twinkled in the heavens as they do to this day. Being tired, the
+bishop and his companion dreamt as they walked along--at least it
+appears so from what followed--and the stars were so many miraculous
+lights which led the wanderers on and on. At last the stars remained
+motionless above a wooded hill standing isolated in a beautiful vale.
+The prelate stopped also, and it occurred to him to dig, for he
+attributed his dreams to a supernatural miracle. Digging, a coffin was
+revealed to him, and therein the saintly remains of St. James or
+Santiago.
+
+Giving thanks to Him who guides all steps, Theodosio returned to Iria,
+and, by his orders, a primitive basilica was erected some years later on
+the very spot where the saint had been buried, and in such a manner as
+to place the high altar just above the coffin. A crypt was then dug out
+and lined with mosaic, and the coffin, either repaired or renewed, was
+laid therein,--some say it was visible to the hordes of pilgrims in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries.
+
+The shrine was then called Santiago de Campostela.--Santiago, which
+means St. James, and Campostela, field of stars, in memory of the
+miraculous lights the Bishop of Iria and his companion had perceived
+whilst sweetly dreaming.
+
+The news of the discovery spread abroad with wonderful rapidity.
+Monasteries, churches, and inns soon surrounded the basilica, and within
+a few years a village and then a city (the bishop's see was created
+previous to 842 A. D.) filled the vale, which barely fifty years earlier
+had been an undiscovered and savage region.
+
+Throughout the middle ages, from the eleventh to the fifteenth
+centuries, Santiago de Campostela was the scene of pilgrimages--not to
+say crusades--to the tomb of St. James. From France, Italy, Germany, and
+England hundreds and thousands of men, women, and children wandered to
+the Galician valley, then one of the foci of ecclesiastical significance
+and industrial activity. The city, despite its local character, wore an
+international garb, much to the benefit of Galician, even Spanish, arts
+and literature. It is a pity that so little research has been made
+concerning these pilgrimages and the influences they brought to bear on
+the history of the country. A book treating of this subject would be a
+highly interesting account of one of the most important movements of the
+middle ages.
+
+The Moors under Almanzor pillaged the city of Santiago in 999; then they
+retreated southwards, as was their wont. The Norman vikings also visited
+the sacred vale, attracted thither by the reports of its wealth; but
+they also retreated, like the waves of the sea when the tide goes out.
+
+After the last Arab invasion, an extemporaneous edifice was erected in
+place of the shrine which had been demolished. It did not stand long,
+however, for the Christian kings of Spain, whose dominions were limited
+to Asturias, Leon, and Galicia, ordered the construction of a building
+worthy of St. James, who was looked upon as the god of battles, much
+like St. George in England.
+
+So in 1078 the new cathedral, the present building, was commenced, and,
+as the story runs, it was built around the then existing basilica, which
+was left standing until after the vault of the new edifice had been
+closed.
+
+The history of Spain at this moment helped to increase the religious
+importance of Santiago. The kingdom of Asturias (Oviedo) had stretched
+out beyond its limits and died; the Christian nuclei were Galicia, Leon,
+and Navarra. In these three the power of the noblemen, and consequently
+of the bishops and archbishops, was greater than it had ever been
+before. Each was lord or sovereign in his own domains, and fought
+against his enemies with or without the aid of the infidel Arab armies,
+which he had no compunction in inviting to help him against his
+Christian brothers. Now and again a king managed to subdue these
+aristocratic lords and ecclesiastical prelates, but only for a short
+time. Besides, nowhere was the independent spirit of the noblemen more
+accentuated than in Galicia; nowhere were the prelates so rebellious as
+in Santiago, the Sacred City, and none attained a greater height of
+personal power and wealth than Diego Galmirez, the first archbishop of
+Santiago, and one of the most striking and interesting personalities of
+Spanish history in the twelfth century, to whom Santiago owes much of
+her glory, and Spain not little of her future history.
+
+The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were thus the period of Santiago's
+greatest fame and renown. Little by little the central power of the
+monarchs went southwards to Castile and Andalusia, and little by little
+Santiago declined and dwindled in importance, until to-day it is one
+city more of those that have been and are no longer.
+
+For the city's history is that of its cathedral, of its shrine. With the
+birth of Protestantism and the death of feudal power, both city and
+cathedral lost their previous importance: they had sprung into life
+together, and the existence of the one was intricately interwoven with
+that of the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The stranger who visits Santiago to-day does not approach it fervently
+by the Mount of Joys as did the footsore pilgrims in the middle ages. On
+the contrary, he steps out of the train and hurries to the cathedral
+church, which sadly seems to repeat the thoughts of the city itself, or
+the words of Se�or Muguira:
+
+"To-day, what am I? An echo of the joys and pains of hundreds of
+generations; a distant rumour both confused and undefinable, a last
+sunbeam fading at evening and dying on the glassy surface of sleeping
+waters. Never will man learn my secrets, never will he be able to open
+my granite lips and oblige them to reveal the mysterious past."
+
+As is generally known, the cathedral is a Romanesque building of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries mutilated by posterior additions and
+recent ameliorations (_sic_). It was begun in 1078, and, though finished
+about 150 years later, no ogival elements drifted into the construction
+until long after its completion. As will be seen later on, it served as
+the model for most of Galicia's cathedrals. On the other hand, it is
+generally believed to be an imitation--as regards the general
+disposition--of St. Saturnin in Toulouse: a combatable theory, however,
+as the churches were contemporaneous.
+
+Seen from the outside, the Cathedral of Santiago lacks harmony; few
+remains of the primitive structure are to be discovered among the many
+later-date additions and reforms. The base of the towers and some fine
+blinded windows, with na�ve low reliefs in the semicircular tympanum,
+will have to be excepted.
+
+The Holy Door--a peculiarly placed apsidal portal on the eastern
+front--is built up of decorative elements saved from the northern and
+western fa�ades when they were torn down.
+
+[Illustration: SANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The best portal is the Puerta de la Plateria, opening into the southern
+arm of the transept. It is, unluckily, depressed and thrown into the
+background by the cloister walls on the left, and by the Trinity Tower
+on the right. Nevertheless, both handsome and sober, it can be counted
+among the finest examples of its kind--pure Romanesque--in Spain, and is
+rendered even more attractive by the peculiar Galician poetry which
+inspired its sculptors.
+
+Immediately above the panels of the door, which are covered with
+twelfth-century metal reliefs, there is a stone plaque or low relief,
+representing the Passion scene; to the left of it is to be seen a
+kneeling woman holding a skull in her hand. Evidently it is a weeping,
+penitent Magdalene. The popular tongue has invented a legend--perhaps a
+true one--concerning this woman, who is believed to symbolize the
+adulteress. It appears that a certain hidalgo, discovering his wife's
+sins, killed her lover by cutting off his head; he then obliged her to
+kiss and adore the skull twice daily throughout her life,--a rather
+cruel punishment and a slow torture, quite in accordance with the
+mystic spirit of the Celts.
+
+The apse of the church, circular in the interior, is squared off on the
+outside by the addition of chapels. As regards the plateresque northern
+and western fa�ades, they are out of place, though the former might have
+passed off elsewhere as a fairly good example of the severe
+sixteenth-century style.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform; the principal nave
+is high, and contains both choir and high altar; the two aisles are much
+lower and darker, and terminate behind the high altar in an ambulatory
+walk. The width of the transept is enormous, and is composed of a nave
+and two aisles similar in size to those of the body of the church. The
+_crois�e_ is surmounted by a dome, which, though not Romanesque, is
+certainly an advantageous addition.
+
+Excepting the high altar with its _retablo_, the choir with its none too
+beautiful stalls, and the various chapels of little interest and less
+taste, the general view of the interior is impressively beautiful. The
+height of the central nave, rendered more elegant by the addition of a
+handsome Romanesque triforium of round-headed arches, contrasts
+harmoniously with the sombre aisles, whereas the bareness of the
+walls--for all mural paintings were washed away by a bigoted prelate
+somewhere in the fifteenth century--helps to show off to better
+advantage the rich sculptural decorations, leaf and floral designs on
+capitals and friezes.
+
+The real wonder of the cathedral is the far-famed Portico de la Gloria,
+the vestibule or narthex behind the western entrance of the church, and
+as renowned as its sculptural value is meritorious.
+
+So much has already been written concerning this work of art that really
+little need be mentioned here. Street, who persuaded the British
+Government to send a body of artists to take a plaster copy of this
+strange work, could not help declaring that: "I pronounce this effort of
+Master Mathews at Santiago to be one of the greatest glories of
+Christian art."
+
+And so it is. Executed in the true Romanesque period, each column and
+square inch of surface covered with exquisite decorative designs,
+elaborated with care and not hastily, as was the habit of later-day
+artists, the three-vaulted rectangular vestibule between the body of the
+church and the western extremity where the light streams in through the
+rose window, is an immense allegory of the Christian religion, of human
+life, and above all of the mystic, melancholy poetry of Celtic Galicia.
+Buried in half-lights, this song of stone with the statue of the Trinity
+and St. James, with the angels blowing their trumpets from the walls,
+and the virtues and vices of this world symbolized by groups and by
+persons, is of a sincere poetry that leaves a lasting impression upon
+the spectator. Life, Faith, and Death, Judgment and Purgatory, Hell and
+Paradise or Glory, are the motives carved out in stone in this unique
+narthex, so masterful in the execution, and so vivid in the tale it
+tells, that we can compare its author to Dante, and call the Portico de
+la Gloria the "Divina Commedia" of architecture.
+
+At one end there is the figure of a kneeling man, the head almost
+touching the ground in the body's fervent prostration in front of the
+group representing Glory, Trinity, and St. James. Is it a
+twelfth-century pilgrim whom the artist in a moment of realistic
+enthusiasm has portrayed here, in the act of praying to his Creator and
+invoking his mercy? Or is it the portrait of the artist, who, even after
+death, wished to live in the midst of the wonders of his creation? It is
+not positively known, though it is generally supposed to be Maestro
+Mateo himself, kneeling in front of his Glory, admiring it as do all
+visitors, and watching over it as would a mother over her son.
+
+If the chapels which surround the building have been omitted on account
+of their artistic worthlessness, not the same fate awaits the cloister.
+
+Of a much later date than the cathedral itself, having been constructed
+in the sixteenth century, it is a late Gothic monument betraying
+Renaissance additions and mixtures; consequently it is entirely out of
+place and time here, and does not harmonize with the cathedral. Examined
+as a detached edifice, it impresses favourably as regards the height and
+length of the galleries, which show it to be one of the largest
+cloisters in Spain.
+
+The cathedral's crypt is one of its most peculiar features, and
+certainly well worth examining better than has been heretofore done. It
+is reached by a small door behind the high altar (evidently used when
+the saint's coffin was placed on grand occasions on the altar-table) or
+by a subterranean gallery leading down from the Portico de la Gloria, a
+gallery as rich in sculptural decorations as the vestibule itself.
+
+The popular belief in Galicia is that in this crypt the cathedral
+reflects itself, towers and all, as it would in the limpid surface of a
+lake. Hardly; and yet the crypt is a nude copy of the ground floor
+above, with the corresponding naves and aisles and apsidal chapels. The
+height of the crypt is surprising, the architectural construction is
+pure Romanesque,--more so than that of the building itself,--and just
+beneath the high altar the shrine of St. James is situated where it was
+found in the ninth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+CORUNNA
+
+
+Corunna, seated on her beautiful bay, the waters of which are ever
+warmed by the Gulf Stream, gazes out westwards across the turbulent
+waves of the ocean as she has done for nearly two thousand years.
+
+Brigandtia was her first known name, a centre of the Celtic druid
+religion. The inhabitants of the town, it is to-day believed,
+communicated by sea with their brethren in Ireland long before the
+coming of the Phoenicians and Greeks who established a trading post
+and a tin factory, and built the Tower of Hercules.
+
+The Roman conquest saved Brigandtium from being great before her time.
+For the Latin people were miserable sailors, and gazed with awe into the
+waves of the Atlantic. For them Brigandtia was the last spot in the
+world, a dangerous spot, to be shunned. So they left her seated on her
+beautiful bay beside the Torre de Hercules, and made Lugo their capital.
+
+In the shuffling of bishops and sees in the fifth and sixth centuries,
+Corunna was forgotten. Unimportant, known only for its castle and its
+tower, it passed a useless existence, patiently waiting for a change in
+its favour.
+
+This change came in the fifteenth century as a result of the discovery
+of America. Since then, and with varying success, the city has grown in
+importance, until to-day it is the most wealthy and active of Galicia's
+towns, and one of the largest seaports on Spain's Atlantic coast.
+
+Its history since the sixteenth century is well known, especially to
+Englishmen, who, whenever their country had a rupture with Spain, were
+quick in entering Corunna's bay. From here part of the Invincible Armada
+sailed one day to fight the Saxons and to be destroyed by a tempest; ten
+years later England returned the challenge with better luck, and her
+fleets entered the historical bay and burned the town. During the war
+with Napoleon, General Moore fought the French in the vicinity and lost
+his life, whereas a few years earlier an English fleet defeated, just
+outside the bay, a united French and Spanish squadron.
+
+To-day, the old city on the hill looks down upon the new one below; the
+former is poetic and artistic, the latter is straight-lined, industrial,
+and modern. Nevertheless, the aspect of the city denies its age, for it
+is more modern than many cities that are younger. What is more,
+tradition does not weigh heavily on its brow, and depress its
+inhabitants, as is the case in Lugo and Tuy and Santiago. The movement
+on the wharves, the continual coming and going of vessels of all sizes,
+commerce, industry, and other delights of modern civilization do not
+give the citizens leisure to ponder over the city's two thousand years,
+nor to preoccupy themselves about art problems. Moreover, the tourist
+who has come to Spain to visit Toledo and Sevilla hurries off inland,
+gladly leaving Corunna's streets to sailors and to merchants.
+
+There are, nevertheless, two churches well worth a visit; one is the
+Colegiata (supposed to have been a bishopric for a short time in the
+thirteenth century) or suffragan church, and the other the Church of
+Santiago. The latter has a fine Romanesque portal of the twelfth
+century, reminding one in certain decorative details of the Portico de
+la Gloria in Santiago. The interior of the building consists of one nave
+or aisle spanned by a daring vault, executed in the early ogival style;
+doubtless it was originally Romanesque, as is evidently shown by the
+capitals of the pillars, and was most likely rebuilt after the terrible
+fire which broke out early in the sixteenth century.
+
+Santa Maria del Campo is the name of the suffragan church dedicated to
+the Virgin. The church itself was erected to a suffragan of Santiago in
+1441. The date of its erection is doubtful, some authors placing it in
+the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century. Street, whom we can
+take as an intelligent guide in these matters, calls it a
+twelfth-century church, contemporaneous with and perhaps even built by
+the same architect who built that of Santiago de Campostela. Moreover,
+the mentioned critic affirms this in spite of a doubtful inscription
+placed in the vault above the choir, which accuses the building of
+having been completed in 1307.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA]
+
+The primitive plan of the church was doubtless Romanesque, of one nave
+and two aisles. As in Mondo�edo and Lugo, the former is surmounted by
+an ogival vault, and the aisles, lower in height, are somewhat depressed
+by the use of Romanesque _plein-cintr�_ vaultings. The form of the
+building is that of a Roman cross with rather short arms; the apse
+consists of but one chapel, the lady-chapel. As regards the light, it is
+horrible, for the window in the west is insignificant and, what is more,
+has recently been blinded, though only Heaven knows why. The towers
+emerging from the western front are unmeaning, and not similar, which
+detracts from the harmony of the whole. As regards the different
+fa�ades, the western has been spoilt quite recently; the northern and
+southern are, however, Romanesque, though not pure, as ogival arches are
+used in the decoration of the tympanum.
+
+In other words, the Church of Santiago at Corunna is more important,
+from an arch�ological point of view, than the Colegiata. The fishing
+folk do not think so, however; they care but little for such secondary
+details, and their veneration is entirely centred in the suffragan
+church--"one of the three Virgins," as they call her to whom it is
+dedicated. To them this particular Mary is the _estrella del mar_ (sea
+star), and she is the principal object of their devotion. It is
+strange--be it said in parenthesis--how frequently in Galicia mention is
+made of stars: they form a most important feature of the country's
+superstitions. Blood will out--and Celtic mythology peeps through the
+Christian surface in spite of centuries of true belief.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+MONDO�EDO
+
+
+A Village grown to be a city, and yet a village. A city without history
+or tradition, and a cathedral that has been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and above all by the hands of luckless artists called upon to rebuild
+deteriorated parts.
+
+To the north of Lugo, at a respectable distance from the railway which
+runs from the latter to Corunna, and reached either by means of a stage
+or on horseback, Mondo�edo passes a sleeping existence in a picturesque
+vale surrounded by the greenest of hills. Rarely bothered by the tourist
+who prefers the train to the stage, it procures for the art lover many
+moments of delight--that is, if he will but take the trouble to visit
+the cathedral, the two towers of which loom up in the vale, and though
+rather too stumpy to be able to lend elegance to the ensemble, add a
+poetic charm to the valley and to the village itself.
+
+How on earth did it ever occur to any one to raise the church at
+Mondo�edo to a bishopric? Surely the sees in Galicia were badly
+shuffled; and yet, where can a quieter spot be found in this wide world
+of ours for the contemplation of a cathedral--and a Romanesque one, to
+boot!
+
+It is to the Norman vikings that is due the establishment of a see in
+this lonely valley. Until the sixth century it had been situated in
+Mindunietum of the Romans, when it was removed to Ribadeo, remaining
+there until late in the twelfth century. Both these towns were seaports,
+and both suffered from the cruel incursions and piratical expeditions of
+the vikings, and so after the total pillage of the church in Ribadeo,
+the see was removed inland out of harm's way, to a village known by the
+name of Villamayor or Mondo�edo. There it has remained till the present
+day, ignored by the tourist who "has no time," and who follows the
+beaten track established by Messrs. Cook and Company, in London.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF MONDO�EDO]
+
+As will have been seen, Mondo�edo is a city without history, and without
+a past; doubtless it will for ever remain a village without a future.
+Its doings, its _raison d'�tre_, are summed up in the cathedral that
+stands in its centre, just as in Santiago, though from different
+motives.
+
+It is, perhaps, the most picturesque spot in Galicia, a gently sloping
+landscape buried in a violet haze, reminding one of Swiss valleys in the
+quiet Jura. Besides, the streets are silent and often deserted, the
+village inn or _fonda_ is neither excellent nor very bad, and as for the
+villagers, they are happy, simple, and hospitable dawdlers along the
+paths of this life.
+
+According to a popular belief, the life of one man, a bishop named Don
+Martin (1219-48), is wrapped up in Mondo�edo's cathedral, so much so, in
+fact, that both their lives are one and the same. He began building his
+see; he saw it finished and consecrated it--_construxit, consumavit et
+consacravit_; then he died, but the church and his name lived on.
+
+Modern art critics disagree with the above belief; the older or
+primitive part of the church dates from the twelfth and not from the
+thirteenth century. Originally, as can easily be seen upon examining the
+older part of the building, it was a pure Romanesque basilica, the nave
+and the two aisles running up to the transept, where they were cut off,
+and immediately to the east of the latter came the apse with three
+chapels, the lady-chapel being slightly larger than the lateral ones.
+
+In the primitive construction of the building--and excepting all
+later-date additions, of which there are more than enough--early Gothic
+and Romanesque elements are so closely intermingled that one is perforce
+obliged to consider the monument as belonging to the period of
+Transition, as being, perhaps, a unique example of this period to be met
+with in Galicia or even in Spain. Of course, as in the case of the other
+Galician cathedrals, the original character of the interior, which if it
+had remained unaltered would be both majestic and imposing, has been
+greatly deformed by the addition of posterior reforms. The form of the
+apse has been completely changed by the introduction of an ambulatory or
+circular apsidal aisle dating at least from the fifteenth century, as
+shown by the presence of the late Gothic and Renaissance elements.
+
+[Illustration: MONDO�EDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The general plan is rectangular, 120 feet long by seventy-one wide, and
+seen from the outside is solid rather than elegant, a fortress rather
+than a temple. The height of the nave, crowned by a Gothic vaulting, is
+about forty-five feet; a triforium (ogival) runs around the top. The
+lateral aisles are slightly more than half as high and covered by a
+Romanesque vaulting reposing on capitals and shafts of the finest
+twelfth century execution.
+
+The original basilica form of the church has, unluckily, been altered by
+the additional length given to the arms of the transept, and, as
+mentioned already, by the ambulatory walk characteristic of Spanish
+cathedrals; the workmanship of the latter, though lamentably out of tune
+in this old cathedral, is, taken by itself, better than many similar
+additions in other churches.
+
+The western fa�ade, which is the only one worthy of contemplation, is as
+good an example of Romanesque, spoilt by the addition at a recent date
+of grotesque and bizarre figures and monsters, as can be seen anywhere.
+
+The buttresses are more developed than in either Lugo or Santiago, and
+though these bodies, from a decorative point of view, were evidently
+intended to give a certain seal of elegance to the ensemble, the
+stunted towers and the few windows in the body of the church only help
+to heighten its fortress-like aspect.
+
+In a previous paragraph it has been stated that this cathedral is
+perhaps a unique example of the period of Transition (Romanesque and
+early Gothic). It is an opinion shared by many art critics, but
+personally the author of these lines is inclined to consider it as an
+example of the Galician conservative spirit, and of the fight that was
+made in cathedral chapters _against_ the introduction of early Gothic.
+For the temple at Santiago was Romanesque; therefore, according to the
+narrow reasoning peculiar to Galicia, that style was the _best_ and
+consequently _good enough_ for any other church. As a result, we have in
+this region of Spain a series of cathedrals which are practically
+Romanesque, but into the structure of which ogival elements have
+filtered. Further, as there is no existing example of a finished Gothic
+church in Galicia, it is rather difficult to speak of a period of
+Transition, by which is meant the period of passing from one style to
+another. In Galicia, there was no passing: the conservative spirit of
+the country, the poetry of the Celtic inhabitants, and above all of
+their artists, found greater pleasure in Romanesque than in Gothic, and
+consequently the cathedrals are Romanesque, with slight Gothic
+additions, when these could combine or submit in arrangement to the
+heavier Romanesque principles of architecture.
+
+Later, in other centuries, the spirit of architecture had completely
+died out in Spain, and the additions made in these days are so many
+lamentable signs of decadence. Not so the ogival introduction in
+Romanesque churches, which in many cases improved the Romanesque
+appearance.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+LUGO
+
+
+What Santiago was as regards ecclesiastical politics, Lugo, one of the
+three cities on the Mi�o River, was as regards civil power. It was the
+nominal capital of Galicia, and at one time, in the reign of Alfonso the
+Chaste, it was intended to make it the capital of the nascent Spanish
+kingdom, but for some reason or other Oviedo was chosen instead as being
+more suitable. Since then the city of Lugo has completely fallen into
+ruins and insignificance.
+
+It first appears in history when the Romans conquered it from the Celts.
+It was their capital and their Holy City; in its centre was Lupa's
+Bower, where the Romans built a magnificent temple to Diana. Some
+mosaics of this edifice have been discovered recently, and the peculiar
+designs prove beyond a doubt that the mythological attributions of the
+Celts were made use of and intermingled with those of the Latin
+race--not at all a strange occurrence, as Lupa and Diana seem to have
+enjoyed many common qualities.
+
+Under the Roman rule, the city walls, remains of which are still
+standing in many places, were erected, and Locus Augusti became the
+capital of the northern provinces.
+
+All through the middle ages, when really Oviedo had usurped its civil,
+and Santiago its religious significance, Lugo was still considered as
+being the capital of Galicia, a stronghold against Arab incursions, and
+a hotbed of unruly noblemen who lost no opportunity in striking a blow
+for liberty against the encroaching power of the neighbouring kingdom of
+Asturias, and later on of Leon. When at last the central power of the
+Christian kings was firmly established in Leon and Castile, in Lugo the
+famous message of adhesion to the dynasty of the Alfonsos was voted, and
+the kingdom of Galicia, like that of Asturias, faded away, the shadow of
+a name without even the right to have its coat of arms placed on the
+national escutcheon.
+
+The ecclesiastical history of the city of Lugo is neither interesting
+nor does it differ from that of other Galician towns. Erected to a see
+in the fifth century, its cathedral was a primitive basilica destroyed
+by the Moors in one of their powerful northern raids in the eighth
+century. The legendary bishop Odoario lost no time in building a second
+basilica, which met the same fate about two hundred years later, in the
+tenth century. Alfonso the Chaste, one of the few kings of Asturias to
+take a lively interest in Galician politics, ordered either the
+reconstruction of the old basilica or the erection of a new temple.
+
+Those were stormy times for the city: between the rise and stand of
+ambitious noblemen, who, pretending to fight for Galicia's freedom,
+fought for their own interests, and the continual encroachments of the
+proud prelates on the rights and privileges of the people, barely a year
+passed without Lugo being the scene of street fights or sieges. As in
+Santiago, one prince of the Church lost his life, murdered by the
+faithful (_sic_) flocks, and many, upon coming to take possession of
+their see, found the city gates locked in their faces, and were obliged
+to conquer the cathedral before entering their palace.
+
+The new basilica suffered in consequence, and had to be entirely rebuilt
+in the twelfth century. The new edifice is the one standing to-day, but
+how changed from the primitive building! Thanks to graceless additions
+in all possible styles and combinations of styles, the Romanesque origin
+is hardly recognizable. Consequently, the cathedral church of Lugo,
+which otherwise might have been an architectural jewel, does not inspire
+the visitor with any of those sentiments that ought to be the very
+essence of time-worn religious edifices of all kinds.
+
+The general disposition of the church is Roman cruciform; the arms of
+the cross are exceedingly short, however, in comparison to their height;
+the _crois�e_ is surmounted by a semicircular vaulting (Spanish
+Romanesque).
+
+The nave shows decided affinity to early Gothic, as shown by the ogival
+arches and vaulting. The presence of the ogival arches (as well as those
+of the handsome triforium, perhaps the most elegant in Galicia) shows
+this church to be the first in Galicia to have submitted to the
+infiltration of Gothic elements. This peculiarity is explained by the
+fact that, in 1129, the erection of the cathedral was entrusted to one
+Maestro Raimundo, who stipulated that, in the case of his death before
+the completion of the church, his son should be commissioned to carry on
+the work. He died, and his son, a generation younger and imbued with the
+newer architectural theories, even went so far as to alter his father's
+plans; he built the nave higher than was customary in Romanesque
+churches, and gave elegance to the whole structure by employing the
+pointed arch even in the triforium, otherwise a copy of that of
+Santiago.
+
+The most curious and impressive part of the building is that constructed
+by Maestro Raimundo, father, namely the aisles, especially that part of
+them to the right and left of the choir; they are, with the _crois�e_,
+the best interior remains of the primitive Romanesque plans: short, even
+stumpy, rather dark it is true, for the light that comes in by the
+narrow windows is but poor at its best, they are, nevertheless, rich in
+decorative designs. The wealth of sculptural ornaments of pure
+Romanesque in these aisles is perhaps the cathedral's best claim to the
+tourist's admiration, and puts it in a prominent place among the
+Romanesque cathedrals of Spain.
+
+Not the same favourable opinion can be emitted when it is a question of
+the exterior. The towers are comparatively new; the apse--with the
+peculiar and salient addition of an octagonal body revealing Renaissance
+influence--is picturesque, it is true, but at the same time it has
+spoilt the architectural value of the cathedral as a Romanesque edifice.
+
+The northern fa�ade, preceded by an ogival porch so common in Galicia,
+contains a portal of greater beauty than the Puerta de la Plateria in
+Santiago, and stands forth in greater prominence than the other named
+example of twelfth-century art, by not being lost among or depressed by
+flanking bodies of greater height and mass. As regards the sculptural
+ornamentation of the door itself, it is felt and not only portrayed: the
+Christ standing between the immense valves of the _vesica piscis_ which
+crowns the portal is an example of twelfth-century sculpture. The
+iron-studded panels of the doors have already been praised by Street,
+who placed their execution likewise in the twelfth century.
+
+Excepting this portal--a marvel in its class with its rounded tympanum
+richly ornamented--the portion of the building doubtless more strongly
+imbued than any other with the general spirit of the edifice is that
+part of the apse independent of the octagonal addition previously
+mentioned, and which is dedicated to "_La Virgen de los Ojos
+Grandes_"--the Virgin of the Large Eyes. (She must have been
+Andalusian!) Of the true apse, the lower part has ogival arched windows
+of singular elegance; the upper body, also semicircular in form, but
+slightly smaller, has round-headed windows. Both the ogival windows of
+the first and the Romanesque windows of the second harmonize
+wonderfully, thanks to the lesser height and width of the upper row. The
+buttresses, simple, and yet alive with a gently curving line, are well
+worth noticing. It is strange, nevertheless, that they should not reach
+the ground, but only support the upper body, and unite it with the
+lower, forming thus a sort of crown for the latter's benefit.
+
+Personally--and the author must be excused if he emit his opinion--he
+considers the old apse of the cathedral in Lugo to be one of the finest
+pieces of architecture to be met with in Galicia. It belongs to what has
+been called the period of Transition (compare previous remarks in
+another chapter concerning this style), and yet it has a character of
+its own not to be found elsewhere, and the harmony of ogival and
+Romanesque has been so artfully revealed that it cannot fail to appeal
+to the tourist who contemplates it carefully.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+ORENSE
+
+
+Coming by rail from Lugo or Monforte toward Tuy and Vigo, the train
+suddenly escapes from the savage ca�on where the picturesque Mi�o rushes
+and boils beside the road, and emerges into a broad and fertile valley
+where figs, grapes, and olives grow in profusion. This valley is broad,
+its soil is of golden hue, and the sky above it is as brilliantly blue
+as a sapphire. In its centre Orense, heavy Orense, which claims as its
+founder a Greek hero fresh from the pages of the Iliad, basks in the sun
+beside the beautiful Mi�o; the while its cathedral looms up above the
+roofs of the surrounding houses.
+
+The history of the town is as agitated as any in Galicia and shows the
+same general happenings. The Romans appreciated it for its sulphur baths
+and called it Auria (golden) from the colour of the soil, of the water,
+and perhaps also on account of certain grains of gold discovered in the
+sands of the Mi�o.
+
+The Suevos, who dominated Galicia and proved so beneficial to Tuy, did
+not ignore the importance of Orense: one of the first bishoprics, if not
+_the_ first historical one in Galicia, was that of Orense, dating from
+before the fourth century, at least such is the opinion of to-day.
+
+More than any other Galician city, excepting Tuy, it suffered from the
+Arab invasions. Entirely destroyed, razed to the ground upon two
+occasions, it was ever being rebuilt by the returning inhabitants who
+had fled. Previous to these Arab incursions the cathedral had been
+dedicated to St. Martin de Tours (France), and yearly pilgrimages took
+place to the Galician shrine, where some relics belonging to the saint
+were revered. But with the infidels these relics, or whatever they were,
+were dispersed, and the next century (the eleventh) saw the new
+cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mother (?). Besides, the inhabitants
+seemed to have forgotten the patronage of St. Martin, he who protects
+the vine-grower's _m�tier_--and this in spite of the fact that the
+valley of Orense is and was famous above all Galician regions for the
+cultivation of vines. Even Froissart, the French historian, could not
+speak of the town without mentioning its wine. He passed a season in the
+valley, accompanying, I believe, the Duke of Lancaster and his English
+soldiers. The wine was so good and strong, wrote the historian, that the
+soldiers clamoured for it; after they had drunk a little they toppled
+over like ninepins.
+
+The Arabs defeated and thrown out of the peninsula, the vikings' last
+business trip to Galicia over, and the Portuguese arms driven to the
+valley of Braga beyond the Mi�o, Orense settled down to a peaceful life,
+the monotony of which was broken now and again--as it usually was in
+this part of the country--by squabbles between noblemen, prelates, and
+the _bons bourgeois_. If no prince of the Church was killed here, as
+happened in Lugo, one at least died mysteriously in the hands of his
+enemies. Not that it seemed to have mattered much, for said bishop
+appears to have been a peculiar sort of spiritual shepherd, full of
+vice, and devoid of virtue, some of whose doings have been
+caricatured--according to the popular belief--in the cornices and
+friezes of the convent of San Francisco.
+
+Otherwise, peace reigned in the land, and Orense passed a quiet
+existence, a circumstance that did not in the slightest add to its
+importance, either as an art, commercial, or industrial centre. To-day,
+full of strangers in summer, who visit the sulphurous baths as did the
+Romans, and empty in winter, it exists without living, as does so many a
+Spanish town.
+
+Nevertheless, with Vigo and Corunna, it is one of the cities with a
+future still before it. At least, its situation is bound to call
+attention as soon as ever the country is opened up to progress and
+commerce.
+
+The cathedral of Orense, like those of Tuy, Santiago, and Lugo, was
+erected in a _castro_. These _castros_ were circular dips in the ground,
+surrounded by a low wall, which served the druids as their place of
+worship. The erection of Christian churches in these sacred spots proves
+beyond a doubt that the new religion became amalgamated with the old,
+and even laid its foundations on the latter's most hallowed _castros_.
+
+Perhaps the question presents itself as to why a cathedral was erected
+in Orense previous to any other city. From a legend it would appear
+that the king of the Suevos, Carrarick, had a son who was dying; thanks
+to the advice of a Christian monk, a disciple of St. Martin, and, one is
+inclined to think, fresh from Tours, the king dipped his son in the
+baths of Orense, invoking at the same time the help of St. Martin. Upon
+pulling his offspring out of the water, he discovered that he had been
+miraculously cured. The grateful monarch immediately became a stout
+Christian, and erected a basilica--destroyed and rebuilt many a time
+during the dark ages of feudalism and Arab invasion--in honour of his
+son's saviour. What is more wonderful still is that, soon afterward, the
+relics of the French saint were cherished in Orense without its being
+positively known whence they came!
+
+The present cathedral, the date of the erection of which is a point of
+discussion to-day, is generally believed to have been built on the spot
+occupied by the primitive basilica. It is dedicated to Santa Maria la
+Madre according to the official (doubtful?) statement, and to St. Martin
+of Tours, Apostle of Gaul, according to the popular version.
+
+The general appearance of the cathedral proclaims it to have been begun,
+or at least planned, in the twelfth century, and not, as Baedeker
+states, in 1220. As a twelfth-century church we are not obliged to
+consider it for more reasons than one, and especially because, as we
+have seen, the twelfth century was the great period of Galician
+church-building. It was in this century that the northwest shone forth
+in the history of Spain as it had not done before, nor has done since.
+
+The church is another Romanesque specimen, but less pure in its style
+than any of the others mentioned so far: the ogival arch is prevalent,
+but rather as a decorative than as an essentially constructive element.
+As it is, it was commenced at least fifty years after the cathedral of
+Lugo, and though both are twelfth-century churches, the one is an early
+and the other presumably a late one; the employment of the ogival arch
+to a greater degree in Orense than in Lugo is thus easily explained.
+
+In short, the cathedral of Orense is another example of the peculiar
+Romanesque of Galicia, which, withstanding the invasion of Gothic,
+created a school of its own, pretty in details, bold in harmony, though
+it be a hybrid school after all.
+
+The influence of the cathedral of Santiago is self-evident in the
+cathedral of Orense. How could it be otherwise, when the bishop Don
+Diego, who sat on the chair, was a great friend and a continual visitor
+of that other Don Diego in Santiago who erected the primate cathedral of
+Galicia?
+
+This influence is above all to be seen in the Portico del Paraiso, an
+interior narthex leading from the western front to the body of the
+church. It is a handsome area of Romanesque sculpture covered by an
+ogival vaulting, and would be an important monument if its rival and
+prototype in Santiago were not greater, both as regards its perfection
+of design, and the grand idea which inspired it.
+
+Of the three doors which lead into the cathedral, the western is crowned
+by three rounded arches reposing on simple columns. The tympanum as a
+decorative element is lacking, as is also the low relief, which is
+usually superimposed above the upper arches. The latter are, however,
+carved in the most elaborate manner. As regards the other two portals,
+the northern and southern, their composition, as far as generalities are
+concerned, is the same as the western, excepting that they are
+surrounded by a depressed semicircular arch in relief, the whole of a
+primitive design.
+
+[Illustration: NORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL]
+
+The towers of the cathedral are not old. The general impression of the
+building from the outside--unluckily it cannot be contemplated from any
+distance, as the surrounding houses impede it--is agreeable. To be
+especially observed are some fine fourteenth-century (?) windows which
+show ogival pattern, but either of timid execution or else of a bold
+endeavour on the artist's part to subdue solemn Gothic to the Romanesque
+traditions of the country.
+
+The interior has been restored and changed many a time. In its original
+plan it consisted of two aisles and a nave with a one-aisled transept,
+and, just as in Lugo, an apse formed by three semicircles, of which the
+central was the largest, and contained the high altar. To-day, though
+the general appearance or disposition of the church (Roman cruciform
+with exceedingly short lateral arms) is the same, an ambulatory walk
+surrounds the high altar, which has been moved nearer the transept in
+the principal nave. The vaulting is ogival, reposing on solid and
+severe shafts; the aisles are slightly lower than the central nave, and
+the _crois�e_ is surmounted, as in Santiago, by a handsome cupola
+similar in construction to that of Valencia, though more reduced in
+size, and of a less elegant pattern.
+
+The lack of triforium is to be noted, and its want is felt.
+
+The northern aisle has no chapels let into its exterior wall, but a long
+row of sepulchres and sepulchral reliefs to replace them. Some of them
+are severe and beautiful. The choir has finely carved stalls, and the
+Gothic _retablo_ is the only one of its kind in Galicia, and one of the
+best in Spain.
+
+Many more details could be given concerning the worthy cathedral of
+Orense, second only in richness of certain elements to that of Santiago.
+The additions, both in Romanesque and ogival styles, are better than in
+most other cathedrals in Galicia, though, as far as Renaissance is
+concerned, Galicia showed but little love for Italia's art. This was due
+to the regional Celtic taste of the inhabitants, or else to the marked
+signs of art decadence in this part of Spain, when the Renaissance was
+introduced into the country.
+
+As regards the cloister,--small and rather compact in its
+composition,--it is held by many to be a jewel of the fifteenth century
+in the ogival style, handsome in its general outlines, and beautiful in
+its wealth of sculptural decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+TUY
+
+
+The last Spanish city on the Mi�o, the Rhine of Galicia, as beautiful as
+its German rival, and as rich in architectural remains, both military
+and ecclesiastical, is Tuy, the Castellum Tude of the Romans, lying
+half-way on the main road from Braga (Portugal) to Lugo and Astorga in
+Spain.
+
+The approach to the city by rail from Orense is simply superb. The
+valley of the Mi�o is broad and luxuriant, with ruins of castles to the
+right and to the left, ahead and behind; in the distance, time-old Tuy,
+the city of a hundred misfortunes, is seated on an isolated hill, the
+summit of which is crowned by a fortress-cathedral of the twelfth
+century.
+
+Tuy sits on her hill, and gazes across the river at Valen�a do Minho,
+the rival fortress opposite, and the first town in Portugal. A handsome
+bridge unites the enemies--friends to-day. Nevertheless, the cannons'
+mouths of the glaring strongholds are for ever pointed toward each
+other, as though wishing to recall those days of the middle ages when
+Tuy was the goal of Portuguese ambitions and the last Spanish town in
+Galicia.
+
+Before the Romans conquered Iberia, Tuy, which is evidently a Celtic
+name, was a most important town. This is easily explained by its
+position, a sort of inland Gibraltar, backed by the Sierra to the rear,
+and crowning the river which brought ships from the ocean to its
+wharves. The city's future was brilliant.
+
+Matters changed soon, however. The Romans drew away much of its power to
+cities further inland, as was their wont. The castle remained standing,
+as did the walls, which reached on the northern shores of the river down
+to Guardia, situated in the delta about thirty miles away. Remains of
+the cyclopean walls which crown the mountain chain on the Spanish side
+of the Mi�o are still to be seen to-day, yet they give but a feeble idea
+of the city's former strength.
+
+After the Romans had been defeated by the invasion of savage tribes from
+the north, Tuy became the capital of the Suevos, a tribe opposed to the
+Visigoths, who settled in the rest of Spain, and for centuries waged a
+cruel war against the kings whose subjects had settled principally in
+Galicia and in the north of Portugal.
+
+The power of the Suevos, who were seated firmly in Tuy, was at last
+completely broken, and the capital, its inhabitants fighting
+energetically to the end, was at length conquered. It was the last
+stronghold to fall into the hands of the conquerors. A century later
+Witiza, the sovereign of the Visigoths, made Tuy his capital for some
+length of time, and the district round about is full of the traditions
+of the doings of this monarch. Most of these legends denigrate his
+character, and make him appear cruel, wilful, and false. One of them,
+concerning Duke Favila and Do�a Luz, is perhaps the most popular.
+According to it, Witiza fell in love with the former's wife, Do�a Luz,
+and, to remove the husband, he heartlessly had his eyes put out, on the
+charge of being ambitious, and of having conspired against the throne.
+The fate that awaited Do�a Luz, who defended her honour, was no better,
+according to this legend.
+
+After the return of Witiza to Toledo, the city slowly lost its
+importance, and since then she has never recovered her ancient fame.
+
+Like the remaining seaports of Galicia,--or such cities as were situated
+near the ocean,--Tuy was sacked and pillaged by Arabs and vikings alike.
+The times were extremely warlike, and Galicia, from her position, and on
+account of the independent spirit of the noblemen, was called upon to
+suffer more than any other region, and Tuy, near the ocean, and a
+frontier town to boot, underwent greater hardships than any other
+Galician city. Of an admirable natural position, it would have been able
+to resist the attacks of Gudroed and Olaf, of the Portuguese noblemen
+and of Arab armies, had it been but decently fortified. The lack of such
+fortifications, however, and the neglect and indifference with which it
+was, as a rule, regarded by the kings of Asturias, easily account for
+its having fallen into the hands of enemies, of having been razed more
+than once to the ground, of having been the seat of ambitious and
+conspiring noblemen who were only bent on thrashing their neighbours,
+Christians and infidels alike.
+
+In the sixth century Tuy had already been raised to the dignity of a
+city, but until after the eleventh century the prelates of the church,
+tyrants when the times were propitious, but cowardly when danger was at
+hand, were continually removing their see to the neighbouring villages
+and mountains to the rear. They left their church with surprising
+alacrity and ease to the mercy of warriors and enemies, to such an
+extent, in fact, that neither are documents at hand to tell us what
+happened exactly in the darker ages of medi�val history, nor are the
+existing monuments in themselves sufficient to convince us of the
+vicissitudes which befell the city, its see, and the latter's flocks.
+
+Since the last Arab and Norseman raid, matters seemed to have gone
+better with fair Tuy, for, excepting the continual strife between
+Portuguese and Galician noblemen, who were for ever gaining and losing
+the city on the Mi�o, neither infidels nor pirates visited its wharves.
+It was then that the foundations of the present cathedral were laid, but
+not without disputes between the prelates (one of whom was taken
+prisoner, and had to give a handsome ransom to be released) and the
+noblemen who called themselves seigneurs of the city. Between the
+claims and struggles of these two factions, those who suffered most were
+the citizens themselves, who had nothing to gain and everything to lose.
+Between the bishops who pretended to possess the whole city, and the
+noblemen who endeavoured to leave the prelates without a groat, the
+ignored inhabitants of the poorer quarters of the town passed a
+miserable life.
+
+Since the middle ages, or better still, since the time when the Mi�o
+became definitely the frontier line between Spain and Portugal, the city
+of Tuy has been heard of but little. Few art students visit it to-day,
+and yet it is one of the most picturesquely situated cities in Galicia,
+or even in Spain. Its cathedral, as well as the Pre-Roman, Roman,
+Gothic, and middle age remains,--most of them covered over with heaps of
+dust and earth,--are well worth a visit, being highly interesting both
+to artists and to arch�ological students.
+
+In short, Tuy on her hill beside the Mi�o, glaring across an iron bridge
+at Portugal, is a city rich in traditions and legends of faded hopes and
+past glories. Unluckily for her, cities of less historical fame are
+better known and more admired.
+
+As has already been mentioned, the cathedral crowns the hill, upon the
+slopes of which the city descends to the river; moreover, the edifice
+occupies the summit only,--a _castro_, as explained in a previous
+chapter. Therefore, for proofs are lacking both ways, it is probable
+that the present building was erected on the same spot where the many
+basilicas which we know existed and were destroyed in one or another of
+the many sieges, stood in bygone days.
+
+The present cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, like that in Orense,
+was most likely begun in the first half of the twelfth century;
+successive earthquakes suffered by the city, especially that felt in
+Lisbon in 1755, obliged the edifice to be repaired more than once, which
+accounts for many of the base additions which spoil the ensemble.
+
+From the general disposition of the building, which is similar in many
+details to the cathedral at Lugo, it has been thought probable that
+Maestro Raimundo (father?) was the builder of the church; definite
+proofs are, however, lacking.
+
+The ground-plan is rectangular, with a square apse; the interior is
+Roman cruciform, consisting of a nave and two aisles; the transept, like
+that of Santiago, is also composed of a nave and two aisles; the four
+arms of the cross are all of them very short, and almost all are of the
+same length. Were it not for the height of the nave, crowned by a
+Romanesque triforium of blinded arches, the interior would be decidedly
+ugly. However, the height attained gives a noble aspect to the whole,
+and what is more, renders the ensemble curious rather than beautiful.
+
+The large and ungainly choir spoils the general view of the nave,
+whereas the continuation of the aisles, broad and light to the very
+apse, where, facing each aisle, there is a handsome rose window which
+throws a flood of coloured light into the building, cannot be too highly
+praised.
+
+The walls are devoid of all decoration, and if it were not for the
+chapels, some of which in default of pure workmanship are richly
+ornamented, this see of Tuy would have to pass as a very poor one
+indeed.
+
+The roof of the building has been added lately, doubtless after one of
+the many earthquakes. It is of a simple execution, neither good nor bad,
+composed of a series of slightly rounded arches with pronounced ribs.
+
+It is outside, however, that the tourist will pass the greater part of
+his time. Unluckily, the houses which closely surround the building
+forbid a general view from being obtained of any but the western front,
+yet this is perhaps a blessing, for none of the other sides are worthy
+of special notice.
+
+As mentioned, the appearance of the church is that of a fortress rather
+than of a temple, or better still, is that of a feudal castle. The
+crenelated square tower on the western front is heavy, and no higher
+than the peaked and simple crowning of the handsome Romanesque window
+above the narthex; the general impression is that of resistance rather
+than of faith, and the lack of all decoration has caused the temple to
+be called sombre.
+
+The handsome narthex, the summit of which is crenelated like the tower,
+is the simplest and noblest to be found in Galicia, and is really
+beautiful in its original severity. Though dating from a time when
+florid ogival had taken possession of Spain, the artist who erected it
+(it is posterior to the rest of the building--early fifteenth
+century) had the good taste to complete it simply, without
+decoration, so as to render it homogeneous with the rest of the
+building. It is also possible that there were no funds at hand for him
+to erect it otherwise!
+
+[Illustration: TUY CATHEDRAL]
+
+The doors stand immediately behind this narthex. The portal is carved or
+decorated in an elaborate late Romanesque style, one of the most richly
+ornamented porticos belonging to this school in Spain, and a handsome
+page in the history of Galician art in the twelfth century. The low
+reliefs above the door and in the tympanum of the richly carved arcade,
+are _felt_ and are admirably executed.
+
+The northern entrance to the building is another fine example of
+twelfth-century Spanish, or Galician Romanesque. Though simpler in
+execution than the western front, it nevertheless is by some critics
+considered purer in style (earlier?) than the first mentioned.
+
+The tower which stands to the left of the northern entrance is one of
+the few in the Romanesque style to be seen in northern Spain; it is
+severe in its structure and pierced by a series of round-headed windows.
+
+The cloister dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+another of Galicia's monuments well worth a visit, which proves the
+local mixture of Romanesque and ogival, and is, perhaps, the last
+example on record, as toward the fifteenth century Renaissance elements
+had completely captured all art monuments.
+
+Such is the cathedral of Tuy, a unique example of Galician Romanesque in
+certain details, an edifice that really ought to be better known than it
+is.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+BAYONA AND VIGO
+
+
+The prettiest bay in Galicia is that of Vigo, which reaches inland to
+Redondela--a village seated, as it were, on a Swiss lake, with two
+immense viaducts passing over its head where the train speeds to Tuy and
+Santiago. There is no lovelier spot in all Spain.
+
+The city of Vigo, with its suffragan church on the hillside, is a modern
+town dedicated to commerce; its wharves are important, and the water in
+the bay is deep enough to permit the largest vessels afloat to enter and
+anchor. The art student will not linger here, however, but will go by
+boat to Bayona outside the bay and to the south near the Portuguese
+frontier.
+
+Here, until quite recently, stood for an unknown length of time the
+suffragan church which has now been removed to Vigo. But Bayona, once
+upon a time the most important seaport in Galicia, is a ruin to-day, a
+delightful ruin, and one of the prettiest in its ensemble, thanks to the
+beautiful and weird surroundings.
+
+Its history extends from the times of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and
+Romans,--even earlier, as remains of lake-dwellers have been found. This
+statement is not an exaggeration, though it may appear to be one, for
+the bay is as quiet as a lake.
+
+After the defeat of the Armada, Bayona was left a prey to Drake and his
+worthy companions. They dealt the city a death-blow from which it has
+never recovered, and Vigo, the new, the commercial, has usurped its
+importance, as it did its church, which once upon a time, as is
+generally believed, was a bishopric.
+
+The present ruinous edifice of Bayona is peculiarly Galician and shows
+the same characteristics as the remaining cathedrals we have spoken
+about so far. It was ordained in 1482 by the Bishop of Tuy. The windows
+of the nave (clerestory) are decidedly pointed or ogival; those of the
+aisles are pure Romanesque. The peculiar feature is the use of animal
+designs in the decorative elements of the capitals,--a unique example
+in Galicia, where only floral or leaf motives were used in the best
+period of Romanesque. The design to be noticed here on one of the
+capitals is a bird devouring a toad, and it is so crudely and rustically
+carved that one is almost inclined to believe that a native of the
+country conceived and executed it.
+
+
+
+
+_PART III_
+
+_The North_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+OVIEDO
+
+
+"Oviedo was born of a religious inspiration; its first building was a
+temple (monastery?), and monks were its first inhabitants."
+
+In the valley adjoining Cangas, in the eighth century, the most
+important village in Asturias, a religious sect erected a monastery.
+Froila or Froela, one of the early noblemen (now called a king, though
+he was no king in those days) who fought against the Moors, erected in
+the same century a church in the vicinity of Cangas (in Oviedo?),
+dedicating it to the Saviour; he also built a palace near the same spot.
+His son, Alfonso the Chaste, born in this palace, was brought up in a
+convent near Lugo in Galicia. Upon becoming king he hesitated whether to
+establish his court in Lugo, or in the new village which had been his
+birthplace, namely Oviedo. At length, remembering perhaps his father's
+love for the country near Cangas, he established it in the latter place
+in the ninth century, and formed the kingdom of Asturias as opposed to
+that of Galicia; the capital of the new kingdom was Oviedo.
+
+"The king gave the city to the Saviour and to the venerable church built
+by his father, and which, like a sun surrounded by its planets, he
+placed within a circle of other temples.
+
+"He convocated an ecclesiastical council with a view to establish a
+primate see in Oviedo; he maintained an assembly of prelates who lent
+lustre to the church, and he gave each a particular residence; the
+spiritual splendour of Oviedo eclipsed even the brilliancy of the
+throne."
+
+This was in 812, and the first bishop consecrated was one Adulfo.
+
+The subsequent reign of Alfonso was signalized by the discovery in
+Galicia of the corpse of St. James the Apostle. The sovereign, it
+appears, showed great interest in the discovery, established a church on
+the sacred spot, and generously donated the nascent town. Not without
+reason did posterity celebrate his many Christian virtues by calling
+him the Chaste, _el Casto_.
+
+Two hundred years only did Oviedo play an important part in the history
+of Spain as capital of the Christian Kingdom. In 1020 its civil
+dignities were removed by Alfonso V. to Leon in the south. From then on
+the city remained important only as the alleged cradle of the new
+dynasty, and its church--that of the Salvador--was used as the pantheon
+of the kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the basilica was in a ruinous state, and almost
+completely destroyed. The fate of the Romanesque edifice which was then
+built was as short as the city's glory had been ephemeral, for in 1380
+it was destroyed by flames, and in its place the first stone of the
+present building was laid by one Bishop Gutierre. One hundred and
+seventy years later the then reigning prelate placed his coat of arms on
+the spire, and the Gothic monument which is to-day admired by all who
+visit it was completed.
+
+The history of the city--an ecclesiastical and civil metropolis--is
+devoid of interest since the tenth century. It was as though the streets
+were too crowded with the legends of the fictitious kingdom of Asturias,
+to be enabled to shake off the depression which little by little spread
+over the whole town.
+
+Apart from its cathedral, Oviedo and the surrounding country possesses
+many of the earliest religious monuments in Spain, dating from the
+eighth century. These, on account of their primary Romanesque and
+basilica style, form a chapter apart in the history of ecclesiastical
+architecture, and ought to be thoroughly studied. This is not the place,
+however, to speak about them, in spite of their extreme age and the
+great interest they awaken.
+
+Nothing could be more graceful than the famous tower of the cathedral of
+Oviedo, which is a superb Gothic _fl�che_ of well-proportioned elements,
+and literally covered over and encrusted with tiny pinnacles. Slender
+and tapering, it rises to a height of about 280 feet. It is composed of
+five distinct bodies, of which the penultimate betrays certain
+Renaissance influences in the triangular cornices of the windows, etc.;
+this passes, however, entirely unperceived from a certain distance. The
+angles formed by the sides of the tower are flanked by a pair of slender
+shafts in high relief, which tend to give it an even more majestic
+impression than would be the case without them.
+
+[Illustration: OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral itself is a late ogival building belonging to the
+fifteenth century; though it cannot compare in fairy-like beauty with
+that of Leon, nor in majesty with that of Burgos, it is nevertheless one
+of the richest Gothic structures in Spain, especially as regards the
+decoration of the interior.
+
+The western front is entirely taken up by the triple portal, surmounted
+by arches that prove a certain reluctance on the builder's part to make
+them pointed; the northern extremity of the front is devoid of a tower,
+though the base be standing. It was originally intended to erect a
+second _fl�che_ similar to the one described, but for some reason or
+other--without a doubt purely financial--it was never built.
+
+Of the three portals, that which corresponds to the central nave is the
+larger; it is flanked by the only two statuettes in the whole front,
+namely, by those of Alfonso the Chaste and Froela, and is surmounted by
+a bold low relief. The arches of the three doors are richly carved with
+ogival arabesques, and the panels, though more modern, have been wrought
+by the hand of a master.
+
+Taken all in all, this western front can be counted among the most
+sombre and naked in Spain, so naked, in fact, that it appears rather as
+though money had been lacking to give it a richer aspect than that the
+artist's genius should have been so completely devoid of decorative
+taste or imagination.
+
+The interior of the Roman cruciform building, though by no means one of
+the largest, is, as regards its architectural disposition, one of the
+most imposing Gothic interiors in Spain. High, long, and narrow, the
+central nave is rendered lighter and more elegant by the bold triforium
+and the lancet windows of the upper clerestory wall. The wider aisles,
+on the other hand, are dark in comparison to the nave, and tend to give
+the latter greater importance.
+
+This was doubtless the intention of the primitive master who terminated
+the aisles at the transept by constructing chapels to the right and to
+the left of the high altar and on a line with it. The sixteenth-century
+builders thought differently, however, and so the aisles were prolonged
+into an apsidal ambulatory behind the high altar. This part of the
+building is far less pure in style than the primitive structure, and the
+chapels which open to the right and to the left are of a more recent
+date, and consequently even more out of harmony than the plateresque
+ambulatory. The three rose windows in the semicircular apse are richly
+decorated with ogival nervures, and correspond, one to the nave and one
+to each of the aisles; they belong to the primitive structure, having
+illuminated the afore-mentioned chapels.
+
+Standing beneath the _crois�e_, under a simple ogival vaulting, the ribs
+of which are supported by richly carved capitals and elegant shafts, the
+tourist is almost as favourably impressed by the view of the high altar
+to the east and of the choir to the west, as is the case in Toledo. For
+in Oviedo begins that series of Gothic churches in which the �sthetic
+impression is not restricted to architectural or sculptural details
+alone, but is also produced by the blinding display of metal, wood, and
+other decorative accessories.
+
+The _retablo_--a fine Gothic specimen--stands boldly forth against the
+light coming from the apse in the rear, while on the opposite side of
+the transept handsome, deep brown choir stalls peep out from behind a
+magnificent iron _reja_. So beautiful is the view of the choir's
+ensemble that the spectator almost forgives it for breaking in upon the
+grandeur of the nave.
+
+The chapels buried in the walls of the north aisle have most of them
+been built in too extravagant a manner; the south aisle, on the other
+hand, is devoid of such characteristic rooms, but contains some highly
+interesting tomb slabs.
+
+The cloister to the south of the church is a rich and florid example of
+late ogival; it is, above all, conspicuous for the marvellous variety of
+its decorative motives, both as regards the sculptural scenes of the
+capitals (which portray scenes in the lives of saints and Asturian
+kings, and are almost grotesque, though by no means carved without fire
+and spirit) and the fretwork of the arches which look out upon the
+garth.
+
+The Camara Santa, or treasure-room, is an annex to the north of the
+cathedral, and dates from the ninth or tenth century; it is small, and
+was formerly used as a chapel in the old Romanesque building torn down
+in 1380. Beside it, in the eleventh century, was constructed another and
+larger room in the same style, with the characteristic Romanesque
+vaulting, the rounded windows, and the decorative motives of the massive
+pillars and capitals.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+COVADONGA
+
+
+To the battle of Covadonga modern Spain owes her existence, that is, if
+we are to believe the legends which have been handed down to us, and
+which rightfully or wrongfully belong to history. Under the
+circumstances, it is not surprising that the gratitude of later monarchs
+should have erected a church on the site of the famous battle, and
+should have raised it to a collegiate church.
+
+Covadonga lies in the vicinity of Oviedo, in a ravine lost in the heart
+of the Picos de Europa; it is at once the Morgarten and Sempach of
+Spanish history, and though no art monuments, excepting the above named
+monastic church and two Byzantine-Romanesque tombs, are to be seen,
+there is hardly a visitor who, having come as far north as Oviedo, does
+not pay a visit to the cradle of Spanish history.
+
+Nor is the time lost. For the tourist who leaves the capital of
+Asturias with the intention of going, as would a pilgrim, to Covadonga
+(by stage and not by rail!) will be delightfully surprised by the weird
+and savage wildness of the country through which he is driven.
+
+Following the bed of a river, he enters a ravine; up and up climbs the
+road bordered by steep declivities until at last it reaches a wall--a
+_cul-de-sac_ the French would call it--rising perpendicularly ahead of
+him. Half-way up, and on a platform, stands a solitary church; near by a
+small cave, with an authentic (?) image of the Virgin of Battles and two
+old sepulchres, is at first hidden from sight behind a protruding mass
+of rock.
+
+The guide or cicerone then explains to the tourist the origin of Spanish
+history in the middle ages, buried in the legends, of which the
+following is a short extract.
+
+Pelayo, the son of Do�a Luz and Duke Favila, who, as we have seen, was
+killed by Witiza in Tuy, fled from Toledo to the north of Spain, living
+among the savage inhabitants of Asturias.
+
+A few years later, when Rodrigo, who was king at the time, and by some
+strange coincidence Pelayo's cousin as well, lost the battle of
+Guadalete and his life to boot, the Arabs conquered the whole peninsula
+and placed in Gijon, a seaport town of Asturias, a garrison under the
+command of one Munuza. The latter fell desperately in love with Pelayo's
+sister Hermesinda, whom he had met in the village of Cangas. Wishing to
+get the brother out of the way, he sent him on an errand to Cordoba,
+expecting him to be assassinated on the road. But Pelayo escaped and
+returned in time to save his sister; mad with wrath and swearing eternal
+revenge, he retreated to the mountainous vales of Asturias, bearing
+Hermesinda away with him. He was joined by many refugee Christians
+dissatisfied with the Arab yoke, and aided by them, made many a bold
+incursion into the plains below, and grew so daring that at length
+Munuza mustered an army two hundred thousand (!) strong and set out to
+punish the rebel.
+
+Up a narrow pass between two high ridges went the pagan army, paying
+little heed to the growing asperity and savageness of the path it was
+treading.
+
+Suddenly ahead of the two hundred thousand a high sheet of rock rose
+perpendicularly skywards; on a platform Pelayo and his three hundred
+warriors, who somehow or other had managed to emerge from a miraculous
+cave where they had found an effigy of the Virgin of Battles, made a
+last stand for their lives and liberties.
+
+Immediately a shower of stones, beams, trunks, and what not was hurled
+down into the midst of the heathen army by the three hundred warriors.
+Confusion arose, and, like frightened deer, the Arabs turned and fled
+down the path to the vale, pushing each other, in their fear, into the
+precipice below.
+
+Then the Virgin of Battles arose, and wishing to make the defeat still
+more glorious, she caused the whole mountain to slide; an avalanche of
+stones and earth dragged the remnants of Munuza's army into the ravine
+beneath. So great was the slaughter and the loss of lives caused by this
+defeat, that "for centuries afterward bones and weapons were to be seen
+in the bed of the river when autumn's heat left the sands bare."
+
+This Pelayo was the first king of Asturias, the first king of Spain,
+from whom all later-date monarchs descended, though neither in a direct
+nor a legitimate line, be it remarked in parenthesis. The tourist will
+be told that it is Pelayo's tomb, and that of his sister, that are still
+to be seen in the cave at Covadonga. Perhaps, though no documents or
+other signs exist to bear out the statement. At any rate, the sepulchres
+are old, which is their chief merit. The monastical church which stands
+hard by cannot claim this latter quality; neither is it important as an
+art monument.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+LEON
+
+
+The civil power enjoyed by Oviedo previous to the eleventh century moved
+southwards in the wake of Asturias's conquering army. For about a
+century it stopped on its way to Toledo in a fortress-town situated in a
+wind-swept plain, at the juncture of two important rivers.
+
+Leon was the name of this fortress, one of the strategical points, not
+only of the early Romans, but of the Arabs who conquered the country,
+and later of the nascent Christian kingdom of Asturias. In the tenth
+century, or, better still, toward the beginning of the eleventh, and
+after the final retreat of the Moors and their terrible general
+Almanzor, Leon became the recognized capital of Asturias.
+
+When the Christian wave first spread over the Iberian peninsula in the
+time of the Romans, the fortress Legio Septima, established by
+Trajanus's soldiers, had already grown in importance, and was considered
+one of the promising North Spanish towns.
+
+The inhabitants were among the most fearless adherents of the new faith,
+and it is said that the first persecution of the martyrs took place in
+Leon; consequently, it is not to be wondered at that, as soon as
+Christianity was established in Iberia, a see should be erected on the
+blood-soaked soil of the Roman fortress. (First known bishop, Basilides,
+252 A. D.)
+
+Marcelo seems to have been the most stoically brave of the many Leonese
+martyrs. A soldier or subaltern in the Roman legion, he was daring
+enough to throw his sword at the feet of his commander, who stood in
+front of the regiment, saying:
+
+"I obey the eternal King and scorn your silent gods of stone and wood.
+If to obey C�sar is to revere him as an idol, I refuse to obey him."
+
+Stoic, with a grain of sad grandeur about them, were his last words when
+Agricolanus condemned him to death.
+
+"May God bless you, Agricolano."
+
+And his head was severed from his body.
+
+The next religious war to be waged in and around Leon took place
+between Christians and the invading Visigoths, who professed a doctrine
+called Arrianism. Persecutions were, of course, ripe again, and the
+story is told of how the prior of San Vicente, after having been
+beheaded, appeared in a dream to his cloister brethren trembling behind
+their monastic walls, and advised them to flee, as otherwise they would
+all be killed,--an advice the timid monks thought was an explicit order
+to be immediately obeyed.
+
+The conversion of Recaredo to Christianity--for political reasons
+only!--stopped all further persecution; during the following centuries
+Leon's inhabitants strove to keep away the Arab hordes who swept
+northwards; now the Christians were overcome and Allah was worshipped in
+the basilica; now the Asturian kings captured the town from Moorish
+hands, and the holy cross crowned the altar. Finally the dreaded infidel
+Almanzor burnt the city to the ground, and retreated to Cordoba. Ordo�o
+I., following in his wake, rebuilt the walls and the basilica, and from
+thenceforward Leon was never again to see an Arab army within its gates.
+
+Prosperity then smiled on the city soon to become the capital of the
+kingdom of Asturias. The cathedral church was built on the spot where
+Ordo�o had erected a palace; the first stone was laid in 1199.
+
+The traditions, legends, and historical events which took place in the
+kingdom's capital until late in the thirteenth century belong to Spanish
+history, or what is known as such. Ordo�o II. was mysteriously put to
+death, by the Counts of Castile, some say; Alfonso IV.--a monk rather
+than a king--renounced his right to the throne, and retired to a convent
+to pray for his soul. After awhile he tired of mumbling prayers and,
+coming out from his retreat, endeavoured to wrest the sceptre from the
+hands of his brother Ramiro. But alas, had he never left the cloister
+cell! He was taken prisoner by his humane brother, had his eyes burnt
+out for the pains he had taken, and died a few years later.
+
+Not long after, Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain in the church
+of San Isidoro, an event which marks the climax of Leon's fame and
+wealth. Gradually the kings moved southwards in pursuit of the
+retreating Moors, and with them went their court and their patronage,
+until finally the political centre of Castile and Leon was established
+in Burgos, and the fate that had befallen Oviedo and Lugo visited also
+the one-time powerful fortress of the Roman Legio Septima.
+
+To-day? A dormant city on a baking plain and an immense cathedral
+pointing back to centuries of desperate wars between Christians and
+Moors; a collegiate church, far older still, which served as cathedral
+when Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain.
+
+_Pulchra Leonina_ is the epithet applied to the beautiful cathedral of
+Leon, dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lady and to Nuestra Se�ora de la
+Blanca.
+
+The first stone was laid in 1199, presumably on the spot where Ordo�o I.
+had erected his palace; the construction of the edifice did not really
+take place, however, until toward 1250, so that it can be considered as
+belonging to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.
+
+"Two hundred years only did the temple enjoy a quiet life. In the
+sixteenth century, restorations and additions were begun; in 1631 the
+simple vault of the _crois�e_ fell in and was replaced by an absurd
+dome; in 1694 Manuel Conde destroyed and rebuilt the southern front
+according to the style then in vogue, and in 1743 a great number of the
+arches of the aisles fell in. Different parts of the building were
+continually tumbling down, having become too weak to support the heavier
+materials used in the construction of additions and renovations."
+
+The cathedral was closed to the public by the government in 1850 and
+handed over to a body of architects, who were to restore it in
+accordance with the thirteenth-century design; in 1901 the interior of
+the building had been definitely finished, and was opened once more to
+the religious cult.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform, with a semicircular
+apse composed of five chapels and an ambulatory behind the high altar.
+
+As peculiarities, the following may be mentioned: the two towers of the
+western front do not head the aisles, but flank them; the transept is
+exceptionally wide (in Spanish cathedrals the distance between the high
+altar and the choir must be regarded as the transept, properly speaking)
+and is composed of a broad nave and two aisles to the east and one to
+the west; the width also of the church at the transept is greater by
+two aisles than that of the body itself,--a modification which produces
+a double Roman cross and lends exceptional beauty to the ensemble, as it
+permits of an unobstructed view from the western porch to the very apse.
+
+Attention must also be drawn to the row of two chapels and a vestibule
+which separate the church from the cloister (one of the most celebrated
+in Spain as a Gothic structure, though mixed with Renaissance motives
+and spoilt by fresco paintings). Thanks to this arrangement, the
+cathedral possesses a northern portal similar to the southern one. As
+regards the exterior of the building, it is a pity that the two towers
+which flank the aisles are heavy in comparison to the general
+construction of the church; had light and slender towers like those of
+Burgos or that of Oviedo been placed here, how grand would have been the
+effect! Besides, they are not similar, but date from different periods,
+which is another circumstance to be regretted.
+
+The second bodies of the western and southern fa�ades also clash on
+account of the Renaissance elements, with their simple horizontal lines
+opposed to the vertical tendency of pure Gothic. But then, they also
+were erected at a later date.
+
+Excepting these remarks, however, nothing is more airily beautiful and
+elegant than the superb expression of the _razonadas locuras_ (logical
+nonsense) of the ogival style in all its phases, both early and late, or
+even decadent. For examples of each period are to be found here,
+corresponding to the century in which they were erected.
+
+The ensemble is an astonishing profusion of high and narrow windows, of
+which there are three rows: the clerestory, the triforium, and the
+aisles. Each window is divided into two by a column so fragile that it
+resembles a spider's thread. These windows peep forth from a forest of
+flying buttresses, and nowhere does the mixture of pinnacles and painted
+panes attain a more perfect eloquence than in the eastern extremity of
+the polygonal apse.
+
+The western and southern fa�ades--the northern being replaced by the
+cloister--are alike in their general design, and are composed of three
+portals surmounted by a decidedly pointed arch which, in the case of the
+central portals, adorns a richly sculptured tympanum. The artistic
+merit of the statuary in the niches of both central portals is devoid of
+exceptional praise, that of the southern fa�ade being perhaps of a
+better taste. As regards the stone pillar which divides the central door
+into two wings, that on the south represents Our Lady of the Blanca, and
+that on the west San Froilan, one of the early martyr bishops of Leon.
+
+Excepting the Renaissance impurities already referred to, each portal is
+surmounted by a row of five lancet windows, which give birth, as it
+were, to one immense window of delicate design.
+
+Penetrating into the interior of the building, preferably by the lateral
+doors of the western front, the tourist is overcome by a feeling of awe
+and amazement at the bold construction of aisles and nave, as slender as
+is the frost pattern on a spotless pane. The full value of the windows,
+which are gorgeous from the outside, is only obtained from the interior
+of the temple; those of the clerestory reach from the sharp ogival
+vaulting to the height of the triforium, which in its turn is backed by
+another row of painted windows; in the aisles, another series of panes
+rose in the sixteenth century from the very ground (!), though in
+recent times the bases have unluckily been blinded to about the height
+of a man.
+
+The pillars and columns are of the simplest and most sober construction,
+so simple that they do not draw the spectator's attention, but leave him
+to be impressed by the great height of nave and aisles as compared with
+their insignificant width, and above all by the profuse perforation of
+the walls by hundreds upon hundreds of windows.
+
+Unluckily, the original pattern of the painted glass does not exist but
+in an insignificant quantity: the northern window, the windows of the
+high altar, and those of the Chapel of St. James are about the only ones
+dating from the fifteenth century that are left standing to-day; they
+are easily recognizable by the rich, mellow tints unattained in modern
+stained glass.
+
+As accessories, foremost to be mentioned are the choir stalls, which are
+of an elegant and severe workmanship totally different from the florid
+carving of those in Toledo. The high altar, on the other hand, is devoid
+of interest excepting for the fine ogival sepulchre of King Ordo�o II;
+the remaining chapels, some of which contain art objects of value, need
+not claim the tourist's special attention.
+
+By way of conclusion: the cathedral of Leon, restored to-day after years
+of ruin and neglect, stands forth as one of the master examples of
+Gothic workmanship, unrivalled in fairy-like beauty and, from an
+architectural point of view, the very best example of French ogival to
+be met with in Spain.
+
+Moreover, those who wrought it, felt the real principles of all Gothic
+architecture. Many are the cathedrals in Spain pertaining to this great
+school, but not one of them can compare with that of Leon in the way the
+essential principle was _felt_ and _expressed_. They are all beautiful
+in their complex and hybrid style, but none of them can claim to be
+Gothic in the way they are built. For wealth, power, and luxury in
+details is generally the lesson Spanish cathedrals teach, but they do
+not give their lancets and shafts, their vertical lines and pointed
+arches, the chance to impress the visitor or true believer with those
+sentiments so peculiar to the great ogival style.
+
+The cathedral of Leon is, in Spain, the unique exception to this rule.
+Save only those constructive errors or dissonances previously referred
+to, and which tend to counteract the soaring characteristic, it could be
+considered as being pure in style. Nevertheless, it is not only the
+truest Gothic cathedral on the peninsula, but one of the finest in the
+world.
+
+At the same time, it is no less true that it is not so Spanish as either
+the Gothic of Burgos or of Toledo.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1063 the King of Leon, Fernando I., signed a treaty with the Arab
+governor of Sevilla, obliging the latter to hand over to the Catholic
+monarch, in exchange for some other privileges, the corpse of San
+Isidoro. It was conveyed to Leon, where a church was built to contain
+the remains of the saint; the same building was to serve as a royal
+pantheon.
+
+About a century later Alfonso VII. was battling against the pagans in
+Andalusia when, in the field of Baeza, the "warlike apparition of San
+Isidoro appeared in the heavens and encouraged the Christian soldiers."
+
+Thanks to this divine aid, the Moors were beaten, and Alfonso VII.,
+returning to Leon, enriched the saint's shrine, enlarged it, and raised
+it to a suffragan church, destined later to serve as the temporary see
+while the building of the real cathedral was going on.
+
+In 1135 Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of the West Roman Empire with
+extraordinary pomp and splendour in the Church of San Isidoro. The
+apogee of Leon's importance and power coincides with this memorable
+event.
+
+The emperor's sister, Sancha, a pious infanta, bequeathed her vast
+fortune as well as her palace to San Isidoro, her favourite saint; the
+church in Leon became, consequently, one of the richest in Spain, a
+privilege it was, however, unable to retain for any length of time.
+
+In 1029, shortly after the erection of the primitive building, its front
+was sullied, according to the tradition, by the blood of one Count
+Garcia of Castile. The following is the story:
+
+The King of Asturias at the time was Bermudo II., married to Urraca, the
+daughter of Count Sancho of Castile. Political motives had produced this
+union, for the Condes de Castile had grown to be the most important and
+powerful feudal lords of the kingdom.
+
+To assure the count's assistance and friendship, the king went even
+further: he promised his sister Sancha to the count's son Garcia, who
+lost no time in visiting Leon so as to become acquainted with his future
+spouse.
+
+Three sons of the defeated Count of Vela, a Basque nobleman whom the
+Counts of Castile had put to death, were in the city at the time.
+Pretending to be very friendly with the young _fianc�_, they conspired
+against his life, and, knowing that he paid matinal visits to San
+Isidoro, they hid in the portal one day, and slew the youth as he
+entered.
+
+The promised bride arrived in haste and fell weeping on the body of the
+murdered man; she wept bitterly and prayed to be allowed to be buried
+with her sweetheart. Her prayer was, of course, not granted: so she
+swore she would never marry. She was not long in breaking this oath,
+however, for a few months later she wedded a prince of the house of
+Navarra.
+
+The present state of the building of San Isidoro is ruinous, thanks to a
+stroke of lightning in 1811, and to the harsh treatment bestowed upon
+the building by Napoleon's soldiers during the War for Independence
+(1808).
+
+Seen from the outside, the edifice is as uninteresting as possible; the
+lower part is constructed in the early Latin Romanesque style; the
+upper, of a posterior construction, shows a decided tendency to early
+Gothic.
+
+The apse was originally three-lobed, composed of three identical chapels
+corresponding to the nave and aisles; in the sixteenth century the
+central lobe was prolonged and squared off; the same century saw the
+erection of the statue of San Isidoro in the southern front, which
+spoiled the otherwise excellently simple Romanesque portal.
+
+In the interior of the ruin--for such it is to-day--the only peculiarity
+to be noted is the use of the horseshoe arches in the arcades which
+separate the aisles from the nave, as well as the Arab dentated arches
+of the transept. It is the first case on record where, in a Christian
+temple of the importance of San Isidoro, Arab or pagan architectural
+elements were made use of in the decoration; that is to say, after the
+invasion, for previous examples were known, having most likely
+penetrated into the country by means of Byzantine workmen in the fifth
+and sixth centuries. (In San Juan de Ba�os.)
+
+[Illustration: APSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON]
+
+Instead of being lined with chapels the aisles are covered with mural
+paintings. These frescoes are of great arch�ological value on account of
+their great age and the evident Byzantine influence which characterizes
+them; artistically they are unimportant.
+
+The chief attraction of the building is the pantheon, a low, square
+chapel of six arches, supported in the centre by two gigantic pillars
+which are crowned by huge cylindrical capitals. Nothing more depressing
+or gloomy can be seen in the peninsula excepting the pantheon in the
+Escorial; it is doubtful which of the two is more melancholy. The pure
+Oriental origin (almost Indian!) of this pantheon is unmistakable and
+highly interesting.
+
+The fresco paintings which cover the ceiling and the massive ribs of the
+vaulting are equally morbid, representing hell-scenes from the
+Apocalypse, the massacre of the babes, etc.
+
+Only one or two of the Romanesque marble tombs which lined the walls
+are remaining to-day; the others were used by the French soldiers as
+drinking-troughs for their cavalry horses!
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+ASTORGA
+
+
+The Asturica Augusta of the Romans was the capital of the northern
+provinces of Asturias and the central point of four military roads which
+led to Braga, Aquitania, Saragosse, and Tarragon.
+
+During the Visigothic domination, and especially under the reign of
+Witiza, Astorga as well as Leon, Toledo, and Tuy were the only four
+cities allowed to retain their walls.
+
+According to some accounts, Astorga was the seat of the earliest
+bishopric in the peninsula, having been consecrated in the first century
+by Santiago or his immediate followers; historically, however, the first
+known bishop was Dominiciano, who lived about 347 A. D.
+
+In the fourth and fifth centuries several heresies or false doctrines
+were ripe in Spain. Of one of these, _Libelatism_, Astorga was the
+centre; the other, _Priscilianism_, originally Galician, found many
+adherents in the fortress-town, more so than elsewhere, excepting only
+Tuy, Orense, and Palencia.
+
+_Libelatism._--Its great defender was Basilides, Bishop of Astorga.
+Strictly speaking, this faith was no heresy, but a sham or fraud which
+spread out beyond the Pyrenees to France. It consisted in denying the
+new faith; those who proclaimed it, or, in other words, the Christians,
+who were severely persecuted in those days, pretended to worship the
+Latin gods so as to save their skins. With this object in view, and to
+be able to prove their sincerity, they were obliged to obtain a
+certificate, _libelum_ (libel?), from the Roman governor, stating their
+belief in Jupiter, Venus, etc. Doubtless they had to pay a tax for this
+certificate, and thus the Roman state showed its practical wisdom: it
+was paid by cowards for being tyrannical. But then, not all Christians
+are born martyrs.
+
+_Priscilianism._--Of quite a different character was the other heresy
+previously mentioned. It was a doctrine opposed to the Christian
+religion, proud of many adherents, and at one time threatening danger to
+the Holy Roman Catholic Church. Considering that it is but little known
+to-day (for after a lingering life of about three or four centuries in
+Galicia it was quite ignored by philosophers and Christians alike), it
+may be of some use to transcribe the salient points of this doctrine, in
+case some one be inclined to baptize him or herself as prophet of the
+new religion. It was preached by one Prisciliano in the fourth century,
+and was a mixture of Celtic mythology and Christian faith.
+
+"Prisciliano did not believe in the mystery of the Holy Trinity; he
+believed that the world had been created by the devil (perhaps he was
+not wrong!) and that the devil held it beneath his sway; further, that
+the soul is part of the Divine Essence and the body dependent upon the
+stars; that this life is a punishment, as only sinful souls descend on
+earth to be incarnated in organic bodies. He denied the resurrection of
+the flesh and the authenticity of the Old Testament. He defended the
+transmigration of souls, the invocation of the dead, and other ideas,
+doubtless taken from native Galician mythology. To conclude, he
+celebrated the Holy Communion with grape and milk instead of with wine,
+and admitted that all true believers (his true believers, I suppose,
+for we are all of us true believers of some sort) could celebrate
+religious ceremonies without being ordained curates."
+
+Sinfosio, Bishop of Astorga in 400, was converted to the new religion.
+But, upon intimation that he might be deprived of his see, he hurriedly
+turned Christian again, putting thus a full stop to the spread of
+heresy, by his brave and unselfish act.
+
+Toribio in 447 was, however, the bishop who wrought the greatest harm to
+Priscilianism. He seems to have been the divine instrument called upon
+to prove by marvellous happenings the true religion: he converted the
+King of the Suevos in Orense by miraculously curing his son; when
+surrounded by flames he emerged unharmed; when he left his diocese, and
+until his return, the crops were all lost; upon his return the
+church-bells rang without human help, etc., etc. All of which doings
+proved the authenticity of the true religion beyond a doubt, and that
+Toribio was a saint; the Pope canonized him.
+
+During the Arab invasion, Astorga, being a frontier town, suffered more
+than most cities farther north; it was continually being taken and
+lost, built up and torn down by the Christians and Moors.
+
+Terrible Almanzor conquered it in his raid in the tenth century, and
+utterly destroyed it. It was rebuilt by Veremundo or Bermudo III., but
+never regained its lost importance, which reverted to Leon.
+
+When the Christian armies had conquered the peninsula as far south as
+Toledo, Astorga was no longer a frontier town, and rapidly fell asleep,
+and has slept ever since. It remained a see, however, but only one of
+secondary importance.
+
+It would be difficult to state how many cathedral churches the city
+possessed previous to the eleventh century. In 1069 the first on record
+was built; in 1120 another; a third in the thirteenth century, and
+finally the fourth and present building in 1471.
+
+It was the evident intention of the architect to imitate the _Pulchra
+Leonina_, but other tastes and other styles had swept across the
+peninsula and the result of the unknown master's plans resembles rather
+a heavy, awkward caricature than anything else, and a bastard mixture of
+Gothic, plateresque, and grotesque styles.
+
+The northern front is by far the best of the two, boasting of a rather
+good relief in the tympanum of the ogival arch; some of the painted
+windows are also of good workmanship, though the greater part are modern
+glass, and unluckily unstained.
+
+Its peculiarities can be signalized; the windows of the southern aisle
+are situated above the lateral chapels, while those of the northern are
+lower and situated in the chapels. The height and width of the aisles
+are also remarkable--a circumstance that does not lend either beauty or
+effect to the building. There is no ambulatory behind the high altar,
+which stands in the lady-chapel; the apse is rounded. This peculiarity
+reminds one dimly of what the primitive plan of the Oviedo cathedral
+must have resembled.
+
+By far the most meritorious piece of work in the cathedral is the
+sixteenth-century _retablo_ of the high altar, which alone is worth a
+visit to Astorga. It is one of Becerra's masterpieces in the late
+plateresque style, as well as being one of the master's last known works
+(1569).
+
+It is composed of five vertical and three horizontal bodies; the niches
+in the lower are flanked by Doric, those of the second by Corinthian,
+and those of the upper by composite columns and capitals. The polychrome
+statues which fill the niches are life-size and among the best in Spain;
+together they are intended to give a graphic description of the life of
+the Virgin and of her Son.
+
+In some of the decorative details, however, this _retablo_ shows evident
+signs of plateresque decadence, and the birth of the florid grotesque
+style, which is but the natural reaction against the severity of early
+sixteenth-century art.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+BURGOS
+
+
+Burgos is the old capital of Castile.
+
+Castile--or properly Castilla--owed its name to the great number of
+castles which stood on solitary hills in the midst of the plains lying
+to the north of the Sierra de Guaderrama; one of these castles was
+called Burgos.
+
+Unlike Leon and Astorga, Burgos was not known to the Romans, but was
+founded by feudal noblemen in the middle ages, most likely by the Count
+of Castilla prior to 884 A. D., when its name first appears in history.
+
+Situated almost in the same line and to the west of Astorga and Leon, it
+entered the chain of fortresses which formed the frontier between the
+Christian kingdoms and the Moorish dominion. At the same time it looked
+westwards toward the kingdom of Navarra, and managed to keep the
+ambitious sovereigns of Pamplona from Castilian soil.
+
+During the first centuries which followed upon the foundation of the
+village of Burgos at the foot of a prominent castle, both belonged to
+the feudal lords of Castile, the celebrated counts of the same name.
+This family of intrepid noblemen grew to be the most important in
+Northern Spain; vassals of the kings of Asturias, they broke out in
+frequent rebellion, and their doings alone fill nine of every ten pages
+of medi�val history.
+
+Ordu�o III.--he who lost the battle of Valdejunquera against the Moors
+because the noblemen he had ordered to assist refrained from doing
+so--enticed the Count of Castile, together with other conspirators, to
+his palace, and had them foully murdered. So, at least, saith history.
+
+The successor to the title was no fool. On the contrary, he was one of
+the greatest characters in Spanish history, hero of a hundred legends
+and traditions. Fernan Gonzalez was his name, and he freed Castile from
+owing vassalage to Asturias, for he threw off the yoke which bound him
+to Leon, and lived as an independent sovereign in his castle of Burgos.
+This is the date of Castile's first appearance in history as one of the
+nuclei of Christian resistance (in the tenth century).
+
+Nevertheless, against the military genius of Almanzor (the victorious),
+Fernan Gonzalez could do no more than the kings of Leon. The fate that
+befell Santiago, Leon, and Astorga awaited Burgos, which was utterly
+destroyed with the exception of the impregnable castle. After the Arab's
+death, hailed by the Christians with shouts of joy, and from the pulpits
+with the grim remark: _"Almanzor mortuus est et sepultus et in
+inferno_," the strength of Castile grew year by year, until one Conde
+Garcia de Castilla married one of his daughters to the King of Navarra
+and the other to Bermudo III. of Leon. His son, as has already been seen
+in a previous chapter, was killed in Leon when he went to marry
+Bermudo's sister Sancha. But his grandson, the recognized heir to the
+throne of Navarra, Fernando by name, inherited his grandfather's title
+and estates, even his murdered uncle's promised bride, the sister of
+Bermudo. At the latter's death some years later, without an heir, he
+inherited--or conquered--Leon and Asturias, and for the first time in
+history, all the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula were united
+beneath one sceptre.
+
+Castile was now the most powerful state in the peninsula, and its
+capital, Burgos, the most important city north of Toledo.
+
+Two hundred years later the centralization of power in Burgos was an
+accomplished fact, as well as the death in all but name of the ancient
+kingdom of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. Castile was Spain, and Burgos
+its splendid capital (1230, in the reign of San Fernando).
+
+The above events are closely connected with the ecclesiastical history,
+which depends entirely upon the civil importance of the city.
+
+A few years after Fernando I. had inaugurated the title of King of
+Castile, he raised the parish church of Burgos to a bishopric (1075) by
+removing to his new capital the see that from time immemorial had
+existed in Oca. He also laid the first stone of the cathedral church in
+the same spot where Fernan Gonzalez had erected a summer palace,
+previous to the Arab raid under Almanzor. Ten years later the same king
+had the bishopric raised to an archiepiscopal see.
+
+San Fernando, being unable to do more than had already been done by his
+forefather Fernando I., had the ruined church pulled down, and in its
+place he erected the cathedral still standing to-day. This was in 1221.
+
+So rapidly was the main edifice constructed, that as early as 1230 the
+first holy mass was celebrated in the altar-chapel. The erection of the
+remaining parts took longer, however, for the building was not completed
+until about three hundred years later.
+
+Burgos did not remain the sole capital of Northern Spain for any great
+length of time. Before the close of the thirteenth century, Valladolid
+had destroyed the former's monopoly, and from then on, and during the
+next three hundred years, these two and Toledo were obliged to take
+turns in the honour of being considered capital, an honour that depended
+entirely upon the caprices of the rulers of the land, until it was
+definitely conferred upon Madrid in the seventeenth century.
+
+As regards legends and traditions of feudal romance and tragedy, hardly
+a city excepting Toledo and Salamanca can compete with Burgos.
+Historical events, produced by throne usurpers and defenders, by
+continual strife, by the obstinacy of the noblemen and the perfidy of
+the monarchs,--all interwoven with beautiful dames and cruel
+warriors--are sufficiently numerous to enable every house in and around
+Burgos to possess some secret or other, generally gruesome and
+licentious, which means chivalrous. The reign of Peter the Cruel and of
+his predecessor Alfonso, the father of four or five bastards, and the
+lover of Do�a Leonor; the heroic deeds of Fernan Gonzalez and of the Cid
+Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar); the splendour of the court of Isabel
+I., and the peculiar constitution of the land with its Cortes, its
+convents, and monasteries,--all tend to make Burgos the centre of a
+chivalrous literature still recited by the people and firmly believed in
+by them. Unluckily their recital cannot find a place here, and we pass
+on to examine the grand cathedral, object of the present chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The train, coming from the north, approaches the city of Burgos. A low
+horizon line and undulating plains stretch as far as the eye can reach;
+in the distance ahead are two church spires and a castle looming up
+against a blue sky.
+
+The train reaches the station; a mass of houses and, overtopping the
+roofs of all buildings, the same spires as seen before, lost as it were
+in a forest of pinnacles, emerging from two octagonal lanterns or
+cimborios. In the background, on a sandy hill, are the ruins of the
+castle which once upon a time was the stronghold of the Counts of
+Castile.
+
+Burgos! Passing beneath a four-hundred-year-old gateway--Arco de Santa
+Maria--raised by trembling bourgeois to appease a monarch's wrath, the
+visitor arrives after many a turn in a square situated in front of the
+cathedral.
+
+A poor architectural element is this western front of the cathedral as
+regards the first body or the portals. Devoid of all ornamentation, and
+consequently naked, three doors or portals, surmounted by a peculiar
+egg-shaped ogival arch, open into the nave and aisles. Originally they
+were richly decorated by means of sculptural reliefs and statuary, but
+in the plateresque period of the sixteenth century they were demolished.
+The two lateral doors leading into the aisles are situated beneath the
+275 feet high towers of excellent workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: BURGOS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The central door is surmounted by a plateresque-Renaissance pediment
+imbedded in an ogival arch (of all things!); the side doors are crowned
+by a simple window.
+
+Vastly superior in all respects to the lower body are the upper stories,
+of which the first is begun by a pinnacled balustrade running from tower
+to tower; in the centre, between the two towers, there is an immense
+rosace of a magnificent design and embellished by means of an ogival
+arch in delicate relief; the windows of the tower, as well as in the
+superior bodies, are pure ogival.
+
+The next story can be considered as the basement of the towers, properly
+speaking. The central part begins with a prominent balustrade of statues
+thrown against a background formed by twin ogival windows of exceptional
+size. The third story is composed, as regards the towers, of the last of
+the square bodies upon which the fl�che reposes; these square bases are
+united by a light frieze or perforated balustrade which crowns the
+central part of the fa�ade and is decorated with ogival designs.
+
+Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the _fl�ches_.
+Though short in comparison to the bold structure at Oviedo, they are,
+nevertheless, of surprising dignity and elegance, and richly ornamented,
+being covered over with an innumerable amount of tiny pinnacles
+encrusted, as it were, on the stone network of a perforated pyramid.
+
+The northern fa�ade is richer in sculptural details than the western,
+though the portal possesses but one row of statues. The rosace is
+substituted by a three-lobed window, the central pane of which is larger
+than the lateral two.
+
+As this northern fa�ade is almost fifteen feet higher than the
+ground-plan of the temple,--on account of the street being much
+higher,--a flight of steps leads down into the transept. As a
+Renaissance work, this golden staircase is one of Spain's marvels, but
+it looks rather out of place in an essentially Gothic cathedral.
+
+To avoid the danger of falling down these stairs and with a view to
+their preservation, the transept was pierced by another door in the
+sixteenth century, on a level with the floor of the building, and
+leading into a street lower than the previous one; it is situated on the
+east of the prolonged transept, or better still, of the prolonged
+northern transept arm.
+
+On the south side a cloister door corresponds to this last-named portal.
+Though the latter is plateresque, cold and severe, the former is the
+richest of all the portals as regards sculptural details; the carving of
+the panels is also of the finest workmanship. Beside it, the southern
+front of the cathedral coincides perfectly with the northern; like the
+Puerta de la Plateria in Santiago, it is rendered somewhat insignificant
+by the cloister to the right and by the archbishop's palace to the left,
+between which it is reached by a paved series of terraces, for on this
+side the street is lower than the floor of the cathedral. The impression
+produced by this alley is grand and imposing, unique in Spain.
+
+Neither is the situation of the temple exactly east and west, a rare
+circumstance in such a highly Catholic country like Spain. It is Roman
+cruciform in shape; the central nave contains both choir and high altar;
+the aisles are prolonged behind the latter in an ambulatory.
+
+The lateral walls of the church, enlarged here and there to make room
+for chapels of different dimensions, give an irregular outline to the
+building which has been partly remedied by the free use of buttresses,
+flying buttresses, and pinnacles.
+
+The first impression produced on the visitor standing in either of the
+aisles is that of size rather than beauty; a close examination, however,
+of the wealth of statues and tombs, and of the sculptural excellence of
+stone decoration, will draw from the tourist many an exclamation of
+wonder and delight. Further, the distribution of light is such as to
+render the interior of the temple gay rather than sombre; it is a pity,
+nevertheless, that the stained glasses of the sixteenth century see were
+all destroyed by a powder explosion in 1813, when the French soldiers
+demolished the castle.
+
+The unusual height of the choir mars the ensemble of the interior; the
+stalls are lavishly carved, but do not inspire the same feeling of
+wonderful beauty as do those of Leon and Toledo, for instance; the
+_reja_ or grille which separates the choir from the transept is one of
+the finest pieces of work in the cathedral, and, though massive, it is
+simple and elegant.
+
+The _retablo_ of the high altar, richly gilt, is of the Renaissance
+period; the statues and groups which fill the niches are marvellously
+drawn and full of life. In the ambulatory, imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_, there are six plaques in low relief; as sculptural work in
+stone they are unrivalled in the cathedral, and were carved, beyond a
+doubt, by the hand of a master. The _crois�e_ and the Chapel of the
+Condestable are the two chief attractions of the cathedral church.
+
+The last named chapel is an octagonal addition to the apse. Its walls
+from the exterior are seen to be richly sculptured and surmounted by a
+lantern, or windowed dome, surrounded by high pinnacles and spires
+placed on the angles of the polygon base. The _crois�e_ is similar in
+structure, but, due to its greater height, appears even more slender and
+aerial. The towers with their _fl�ches_, together with these original
+octagonal lanterns with their pinnacles, lend an undescribable grace,
+elegance, and majesty to what would otherwise have been a rather
+unwieldy edifice.
+
+The Chapel of the Condestable is separated from the ambulatory (in the
+interior of the temple) by a good grille of the sixteenth century, and
+by a profusely sculptured door. The windows above the altar are the only
+ones that retain painted panes of the sixteenth century. Among the other
+objects contained in this chapel--which is really a connoisseur's
+collection of art objects of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--can
+be mentioned the two marvellously carved tombs of the Condestable and of
+his wife.
+
+The _crois�e_, on the other hand, has been called the "cathedral's
+cathedral." Gazing skyward from the centre of the transept into the high
+_cimborio_, and admiring the harmony of its details, the wealth of
+decorative elements, and the no less original structure of the dome,
+whose vault is formed by an immense star, one can understand the epithet
+applied to this majestic piece of work, a marvel of its kind.
+
+Strange to say, the primitive cupola which crowned the _crois�e_ fell
+down in the sixteenth century, the date also of Burgos's growing
+insignificance in political questions. Consequently, it was believed by
+many that the same fate produced both accidents, and that the downfall
+of the one necessarily involved the decadence of the other.
+
+To conclude: The Gothic cathedral of Burgos is, with that of Leon and
+perhaps that of Sevilla, the one which expresses in a greater measure
+than any other on the peninsula the true ideal of ogival architecture.
+Less airy, light, and graceful than that of Leon, it is, nevertheless,
+more Spanish, or in other words, more majestic, heavier, and more
+imposing as regards size and weight. From a sculptural point of
+view--stone sculpture--it is the first of all Spanish Gothic cathedrals,
+and ranks among the most elaborate and perfect in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+SANTANDER
+
+
+The foundation of Santander is attributed to the Romans who baptized it
+Harbour of Victory. Its decadence after the Roman dominion seems to have
+been complete, and its name does not appear in the annals of Spanish
+history until in 1187, when Alfonso, eighth of that name and King of
+Castile, induced the repopulation of the deserted hamlet by giving it a
+special _fuero_ or privilege. At that time a monastery surrounded by a
+few miserable huts seems to have been all that was left of the Roman
+seaport; this monastery was dedicated to the martyr saints Emeterio and
+Celedonio, for it was, and still is, believed that they perished here,
+and not in Calahorra, as will be seen later on.
+
+The name of the nascent city in the times of Alfonso VIII. was Sancti
+Emetrii, from that of the monastery or of the old town, but within a
+few years the new town eclipsed the former in importance and, being
+dedicated to St. Andrew, gave its name to the present city
+(San-t-Andres, Santander).
+
+As a maritime town, Santander became connected with all the naval events
+undertaken by young Castile, and later by Philip II., against England.
+Kings, princes, princess-consorts, and ambassadors from foreign lands
+came by sea to Santander, and went from thence to Burgos and Valladolid;
+from Santander and the immediate seaports the fleet sailed which was to
+travel up the Guadalquivir and conquer Sevilla; in 1574 the Invincible
+Armada left the Bay of Biscay never to return, and from thence on until
+now, Santander has ever remained the most important Spanish seaport on
+the Cantabric Sea.
+
+Its ecclesiastical history is uninteresting--or, rather, the city
+possesses no ecclesiastical past; perhaps that is one of the causes of
+its flourishing state to-day. In the thirteenth century the monastical
+Church of San Emeterio was raised to a collegiate and in 1775 to a
+bishopric.
+
+The same unimportance, from an art point of view, attaches itself to the
+cathedral church. No one visits the city for the sake of the heavy,
+clumsy, and exceedingly irregularly built temple which stands on the
+highest part of the town. On the contrary, the great attraction is the
+fine beach of the Sardinero which lies to the west of the industrial
+town, and is, in summer, the Brighton of Spain. The coast-line, deeply
+dentated and backed by the Cantabric Mountains, is far more delightful
+and attractive than the Gothic cathedral structure of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+Consequently, little need be said about it. In the interior, the height
+of the nave and aisles, rendered more pronounced by the pointed ogival
+arches, gives the building a somewhat aerial appearance that is belied
+by the view from without.
+
+[Illustration: CRYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL]
+
+The square tower on the western end is undermined by a gallery or tunnel
+through which the Calle de Puente passes. To the right of the same, and
+reached by a flight of steps, stands the entrance to the crypt, which is
+used to-day as a most unhealthy parish church. This crypt of the late
+twelfth century or early thirteenth shows a decided Romanesque tendency
+in its general appearance: it is low, massive, strong, and crowned by
+a semicircular vaulting reposing on gigantic pillars whose capitals are
+roughly sculptured. The windows which let in the little light that
+enters are ogival, proving the Transition period to which the crypt
+belongs; it was originally intended as the pantheon for the abbots of
+the monastery. But unlike the Galician Romanesque, it lacks an
+individual _cachet_; if it resembles anything it is the pantheon of the
+kings in San Isidoro in Leon, though in point of view of beauty, the two
+cannot be compared.
+
+The form of the crypt is that of a perfect Romanesque basilica, a nave
+and two aisles terminating a three-lobed apse.
+
+In the cathedral, properly speaking, there is a baptismal font of
+marble, bearing an Arabic inscription by way of upper frieze; it is
+square, and of Moorish workmanship, and doubtless was brought from
+Cordoba after the reconquest. Its primitive use had been practical, for
+in Andalusia it stood at the entrance to some mezquita, and in its
+limpid waters the disciples of Mahomet performed their hygienic and
+religious ablutions.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+VITORIA
+
+
+If the foreigner enter Spain by Irun, the first cathedral town on his
+way south is Vitoria.
+
+Gazteiz seems to have been its Basque name prior to 1181, when it was
+enlarged by Don Sancho of Navarra and was given a _fuero_ or privilege,
+together with its new name, chosen to commemorate a victory obtained by
+the king over his rival, Alfonso of Castile.
+
+Fortune did not smile for any length of time on Don Sancho, for
+seventeen years later Alfonso VIII. incorporated the city in his kingdom
+of Castile, and it was lost for ever to Navarra.
+
+As regards the celebrated _fueros_ given by the last named monarch to
+the inhabitants of the city, a curious custom was in vogue in the city
+until a few years ago, when the Basque Provinces finally lost the
+privileges they had fought for during centuries.
+
+When Alfonso VIII. granted these privileges, he told the citizens they
+were to conserve them "as long as the waters of the Zadorria flowed into
+the Ebro."
+
+The Zadorria is the river upon which Vitoria is situated; about two
+miles up the river there is a historical village, Arriago, and a no less
+historical bridge. Hither, then, every year on St. John's Day, the
+inhabitants of Vitoria came in procession, headed by the municipal
+authorities, the bishop and clergy, the clerk of the town hall, and the
+sheriff. The latter on his steed waded into the waters of the Zadorria,
+and threw a letter into the stream; it flowed with the current toward
+the Ebro River. An act was then drawn up by the clerk, signed by the
+mayor and the sheriff, testifying that the "waters of the Zadorria
+flowed into the Ebro."
+
+To-day the waters still flow into the Ebro, but the procession does not
+take place, and the city's _fueros_ are no more.
+
+In the reign of Isabel the Catholic, the Church of St. Mary was raised
+to a Colegiata, and it is only quite recently, according to the latest
+treaty between Spain and Rome, that an episcopal see has been
+established in the city of Vitoria.
+
+Documents that have been discovered state that in 1281--a hundred years
+after the city had been newly baptized--the principal temple was a
+church and castle combined; in the fourteenth century this was
+completely torn down to make room for the new building, a modest ogival
+church of little or no merit.
+
+The tower is of a later date than the body of the cathedral, as is
+easily seen by the triangular pediments which crown the square windows:
+it is composed of three bodies, as is generally the case in Spain, the
+first of which is square in its cross-section, possessing four turrets
+which crown the angles; the second body is octagonal and the third is in
+the form of a pyramid terminating in a spire.
+
+The portal is cut into the base of the tower. It is the handsomest front
+of the building, though in a rather dilapidated state; the sculptural
+decorations of the three arches, as well as the aerial reliefs of the
+tympanum, are true to the period in which they were conceived.
+
+The sacristy encloses a primitive wooden effigy of the Virgin; it is of
+greater historic than artistic value. There is also a famous picture
+attributed now to Van Dyck, now to Murillo; it represents Christ in the
+arms of his mother, and Mary Magdalene weeping on her knees beside the
+principal group. The picture is known by the name of Piety or La Piedad.
+
+The high altar, instead of being placed to the east of the transept, as
+is generally the case, is set beneath the _crois�e_, in the circular
+area formed by the intersection of nave and transept. The view of the
+interior is therefore completely obstructed, no matter where the
+spectator stands.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+UPPER RIOJA
+
+
+To the south of Navarra and about a hundred miles to the west of Burgos,
+the Ebro River flows through a fertile vale called the Rioja, famous for
+its claret. It is little frequented by strangers or tourists, and yet it
+is well worth a visit. The train runs down the Ebro valley from Miranda
+to Saragosse. A hilly country to the north and south, well wooded and
+gently sloping like the Jura; nearer, and along the banks of the stream,
+_huertas_ or orchards, gardens, and vineyards offer a pleasant contrast
+to the distant landscape, and produce a favourable impression,
+especially when a village or town with its square, massive church-tower
+peeps forth from out of the foliage of fruit-trees and elms.
+
+Such is Upper Rioja--one of the prettiest spots in Spain, the Touraine,
+one might almost say, of Iberia, a circular region of about twenty-five
+miles in radius, containing four cities, Logro�o, Santo Domingo de la
+Calzada, N�jera, and Calahorra.
+
+The Roman military road from Tarragon to Astorga passed through the
+Rioja, and Calahorra, a Celtiberian stronghold slightly to the south,
+was conquered by the invaders after as sturdy a resistance as that of
+Numantia itself. It was not totally destroyed by the conquering Romans
+as happened in the last named town; on the contrary, it grew to be the
+most important fortress between Leon and Saragosse.
+
+When the Christian religion dawned in the West, two youths, inseparable
+brothers, and soldiers in the seventh legion stationed in Leon, embraced
+the true religion and migrated to Calahorra. They were beheaded after
+being submitted to a series of the most frightful tortures, and their
+tunics, leaving the bodies from which life had escaped, soared skywards
+with the saintly souls, to the great astonishment of the Roman
+spectators. The names of these two martyr saints were Emeterio and
+Celedonio, who, as we have seen, are worshipped in Santander; besides,
+they are also the patron saints of Calahorra.
+
+The first Bishop of Calahorra took possession of his see toward the
+middle of the fifth century; his name was Silvano. Unluckily, he was the
+only one whose name is known to-day, and yet it has been proven that
+when the Moors invaded the country two or three hundred years later, the
+see was removed to Oviedo, later to Alava (near Vitoria, where no
+remains of a cathedral church are to be seen to-day), and in the tenth
+century to N�jera. One hundred years later, when the King of Navarra,
+Don Garcia, conquered the Arab fortress at Calahorra, the wandering see
+was once more firmly chained down to the original spot of its creation
+(1030; the first bishop _de modernis_ being Don Sancho).
+
+Near by, and in a vale leading to the south from the Ebro, the Moors
+built a fortress and called it N�jera. Conquered by the early kings of
+Navarra, it was raised to the dignity of one of the cathedral towns of
+the country; from 950 (first bishop, Theodomio) to 1030 ten bishops held
+their court here, that is, until the see was removed to Calahorra. Since
+then, and especially after the conquest of Rioja by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile, the city's significance died out completely, and to-day it is
+but a shadow of what it previously had been, or better still, it is an
+ignored village among ruins.
+
+Still further west, and likewise situated in a vale to the south of the
+Ebro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada ranks as the third city. Originally
+its parish was but a suffragan church of Calahorra, but in 1227 it was
+raised to an episcopal see. Quite recently, in the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, when church funds were no longer what they had been,
+only one bishop was appointed to both sees, with an alternative
+residence in either of the two, that is to say, one prelate resided in
+Calahorra, his successor in Santo Domingo, and so forth and so on. Since
+1850, however, both villages--for they are cities in name only--have
+lost all right to a bishop, the see having been definitely removed to
+Logro�o, or it will be removed there as soon as the present bishop dies.
+But he has a long life, the present bishop!
+
+The origin of Santo Domingo is purely religious. In the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries a pious individual lived in the neighbourhood whose
+life-work and ambition it was to facilitate the travelling pilgrims to
+Santiago in Galicia. He served as guide, kept a road open in winter and
+summer, and even built bridges across the streams, one of which is still
+existing to-day, and leads into the town which bears his name.
+
+He had even gone so far as to establish a rustic sort of an inn where
+the pilgrims could pass the night and eat (without paying?). He also
+constructed a church beside his inn. Upon dying, he was canonized Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada (Domingo was his name, and _calzada_ is old
+Spanish for highroad). The Alfonsos of Castile were grateful to the
+humble saint for having saved them the expense and trouble of looking
+after their roads, and ordained that a handsome church should be erected
+on the spot where previously the humble inn and chapel had stood. Houses
+grew up around it rapidly and the dignity of the new temple was raised
+in consequence.
+
+Of the four cities of Upper Rioja, the only one worthy of the name of
+city is Logro�o, with its historical bridge across the Ebro, a bridge
+that was held, according to the tradition, by the hero, Ruy Diaz Gaona,
+and three valiant companions against a whole army of invading Navarrese.
+
+The name Lucronio or Logro�o is first mentioned in a document toward
+the middle of the eleventh century. The date of its foundation is
+absolutely unknown, and all that can be said is that, once it had fallen
+into the hands of the monarchs of Castile (1076), it grew rapidly in
+importance, out-shining the other three Rioja cities. It is seated on
+the southern banks of the Ebro in the most fertile part of the whole
+region, and enjoys a delightful climate. Since 1850 it has been raised
+to the dignity of an episcopal see.
+
+As regards the architectural remains of the four cities in the Upper
+Rioja valley, they are similar to those of Navarra, properly speaking,
+though not so pure in their general lines. In other words, they belong
+to the decadent period of Gothic art. Moreover, they have one and all
+been spoiled by ingenious, though dreadful mixtures of plateresque,
+Renaissance, and grotesque decorative details, and consequently the real
+remains of the old twelfth and thirteenth century Gothic and Romanesque
+constructions are difficult to trace.
+
+_N�jera._--Absolutely nothing remains of the old Romanesque church built
+by the king Don Garcia. A new edifice of decadent Gothic, mixed with
+Renaissance details, and dating from the fifteenth century, stands
+to-day; it contains a magnificent series of choir stalls of excellent
+workmanship, and similar to those of Burgos. The cloister, in spite of
+the Arab-looking geometrical tracery of the ogival arches, is both light
+and elegant.
+
+This cathedral was at one time used as the pantheon of the kings of
+Navarra. About ten elaborate marble tombs still lie at the foot of the
+building.
+
+_Santo Domingo de la Calzada._--The primitive ground-plan of the
+cathedral has been preserved, a nave and two aisles showing Romanesque
+strength in the lower and ogival lightness in the upper tiers. But
+otherwise nothing reminds one of a twelfth or thirteenth century church.
+
+The cloister, of the sixteenth century, is a handsome
+plateresque-Renaissance edifice, rather small, severe, and cold. The
+great merit of this church lies in the sepulchral tombs in the different
+chapels, all of which were executed toward the end of the fifteenth and
+during the first years of the seventeenth centuries, and any one wishing
+to form for himself an idea of this particular branch of Spanish
+monumental art must not fail to examine such sepulchres as those of
+Carranza, Fernando Alfonso, etc.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF N�JERA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The effigy of the patron saint (Santo Domingo) is of painted wood
+clothed in rich silver robes, which form a striking antithesis to the
+saint's humble and modest life. The chapel where the latter lies is
+closed by a gilded iron _reja_ of plateresque workmanship. The saint's
+body lies in a simple marble sepulchre, said to have been carved by
+Santo Domingo himself, who was both an architect and a sculptor. The
+truth of this version is, however, doubtful.
+
+Of the square tower and the principal entrance no remarks need be made,
+for both are insignificant. The _retablo_ of the high altar has been
+attributed to Foment, who constructed those of Saragosse and Huesca. The
+attribution is, however, most doubtful, as shown by the completely
+different styles employed by the artist of each. Not that the _retablo_
+in the Church of Santo Domingo is inferior to Foment's masterworks in
+Aragon, but the decorative motives of the flanking columns and low
+reliefs would prove--in case they had been executed by the Aragonese
+Foment--a departure from the latter's classic style.
+
+In one of the niches of the cloister, in a simple urn, lies the heart of
+Don Enrique, second King of Castile of that name, the half-brother (one
+of the bastards mentioned in a previous chapter and from whom all later
+Spanish monarchs are descended) of Peter the Cruel. The latter was
+murdered by his fond relative, who usurped the throne.
+
+_Logro�o._--In 1435 Santa Maria la Redonda was raised to a suffragan
+church of Santo Domingo de la Calzada; about this date the old building
+must have been almost entirely torn down, as the ogival arches of the
+nave are of the fifteenth century; so also are the lower windows which,
+on the west, flank the southern door.
+
+Excepting these few remains, nothing can bring to the tourist's mind the
+fifteenth-century edifice, and not a single stone can recall the
+twelfth-century church. For the remaining parts of the building are of
+the sixteenth, seventeenth, and successive centuries, and to-day the
+interior is being enlarged so as to make room for the see which is to be
+removed here from Santo Domingo and Calahorra.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGRO�O]
+
+The interior is Roman cruciform with a high and airy central nave, in
+which stands the choir, and on each hand a rather dark aisle of much
+smaller dimensions.
+
+The _trascoro_ is the only peculiarity possessed by this church. It is
+large and circular, closed by an immense vaulting which turns it into a
+chapel separated from the rest of the church (compare with the Church of
+the Pillar of Saragosse).
+
+True to the grotesque style to which it belongs, the whole surface of
+walls and vault is covered with paintings, the former apparently in oil,
+the latter frescoes. Vix�s painted them in the theatrical style of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+From the outside, the regular features of the church please the eye in
+spite of the evident signs of artistic decadence. The two towers, high
+and slender, are among the best produced by the period of decadence in
+Spain which followed upon Herrero's severe style, if only the uppermost
+body lacked the circular linterna which makes the spire top-heavy.
+
+Between the two towers, which, when seen from a distance, gain in beauty
+and lend to the city a noble and picturesque aspect, the fa�ade,
+properly speaking, reaches to their second body. It is a hollow, crowned
+by half a dome in the shape of a shell which in its turn is surmounted
+by a plateresque cornice in the shape of a long and narrow scroll.
+
+The hollow is a peculiar and daring medley of architectural elegance and
+sculptural bizarrerie and vice versa. From Madrazo it drew the
+exclamation that, since he had seen it, he was convinced that not all
+monuments belonging to the grotesque style were devoid of beauty.
+
+The date of the erection of the western front is doubtless the same as
+that of the _trascoro_; both are contemporaneous--the author is inclined
+to believe--with the erection of the Pillar in Saragosse; at least, they
+resemble each other in certain unmistakable details.
+
+_Calahorra._--The fourth of the cathedral churches of Upper Rioja is
+that of Calahorra. After the repopulation of the town by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile in the eleventh century, the bodies of the two martyr saints
+Emeterio and Celedonio were pulled up out of a well (to be seen to-day
+in the cloister) where they had been hidden by the Christians, when
+the Moors conquered the fortress, and a church was built near the same
+spot. Of this eleventh-century church nothing remains to-day.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the twelfth century, a new building was begun, but the process of
+construction continued slowly, and it was not until two hundred years
+later that the apse was finally finished. The body of the church, from
+the western front (this latter hideously modern and uninteresting) to
+the transept, is the oldest part,--simple Gothic of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+The numerous chapels which form a ring around the church have all been
+decorated in the grotesque style of the eighteenth century, and with
+their lively colours, their polychrome statues, and overdone
+ornamentation, they offer but little interest to the visitor. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is one of the largest to be seen anywhere;
+but the Renaissance elegance of the lower body is completely drowned by
+the grotesque decoration of the upper half, which was constructed at a
+later date.
+
+The choir stalls are fine specimens of that style in which the artist
+preferred an intricate composition to simple beauty. Biblical scenes,
+surrounded and separated by allegorical personages and symbolical lines
+in great profusion, show the carver's talent rather than his artistic
+genius.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+SORIA
+
+
+The Duero River, upon leaving its source at the foot of the Pico de
+Urbi�n (near Vinuesa), flows eastward for about fifty miles, then
+southward for another fifty miles, when it turns abruptly westward on
+its lengthy journey across the Iberian peninsula.
+
+The circular region, limited on three sides by the river's course, is
+the historical field of Soria--part of the province of the same name,
+Numantia, Rome's great enemy and almost the cause of her ruin, lay
+somewhere in this part of the country, though where is not exactly
+known, as the great Scipio took care to destroy it so thoroughly that
+not even a stone remains to-day to indicate where the heroic fortress
+stood.
+
+In the present day, two cities and two cathedrals are seated on the
+banks of the Duero within this circle; the one is Soria, the other Osma.
+The latter was a Roman town, an early episcopal see, and later an Arab
+fortress; the former was founded by one of the Alfonsos toward the end
+of the eleventh century, as a frontier fortress against Aragon to the
+east, the Moors to the south, and Navarra to the north.
+
+The town grew apace, thanks to the remarkable _fueros_ granted to the
+citizens, who lived as in a republic of their own making--an almost
+unique case of self-government to be recorded in the middle ages.
+
+The principal parish church was raised to a suffragan of Osma in the
+twelfth century. Since then, there has been a continual spirit of
+rivalry between the two cities, for the former, more important as a town
+and as the capital of a province, could not bend its head to the
+ecclesiastical authority of a village like Osma. Throughout the middle
+ages the jealousy between the two was food for incessant strife. Pope
+Clement IV., at Alfonso VIII.'s instigation, raised the Collegiate at
+Soria to an episcopal see independent of Osma, but the hard-headed
+chapter of the last named city refused to acknowledge the Pope's order,
+and no bishop was elected or appointed.
+
+This bitter hatred between the two rivals was the origin of many an
+amusing incident. Upon one occasion the Bishop of Osma, visiting his
+suffragan church in Soria, had the house in which he was stopping for
+the night burnt about his ears. He moved off to another house, and on
+the second night this was also mysteriously set on fire. His lordship
+did not await the third night, afraid of what might happen, but bolted
+back to his episcopal palace at Osma.
+
+In 1520 the chapter of the Collegiate in Soria sent a petition to the
+country's sovereign asking him to order the erection of a new church in
+place of the old twelfth-century building, and in another part of the
+town. The request was not granted, however, so what did the wily chapter
+do? It ordered an architect to construct a chapel in the very centre of
+the church, and when it was completed, admired the work with great
+enthusiasm, excepting only the pillar in front of it which obstructed
+the uninterrupted view. This pillar was the real support of the church,
+and though the chapter was told as much (as though it did not know it!)
+the architect was ordered to pull it down. After hesitating to do so,
+the latter acceded: the pillar was pulled down, and with it the whole
+church tumbled down as well! But the chapter's game was discovered, and
+it was obliged to rebuild the cathedral on the same spot and with the
+same materials.
+
+Consequently, the church at Soria is a sixteenth-century building of
+little or no merit, excepting the western front, which is the only part
+of the old building that did not fall down, and is a fine specimen of
+Castilian Romanesque, as well as the cloister, one of the handsomest,
+besides being one of the few twelfth-century cloisters in Spain, with a
+double row of slender columns supporting the round-headed arches. This
+modification of the conventional type lends an aspect of peculiar
+lightness to the otherwise heavy Romanesque.
+
+As regards the settlement of the strife between Soria and Osma, the see
+is to-day a double one, like that of Madrid and Alcal�. Upon the death
+of the present bishop, however, it will be transported definitely to
+Soria, and consequently the inhabitants of the last named city will at
+last be able to give thanks for the great mercies Allah or the True God
+has bestowed upon them.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+_Osma._--From an historical and architectural point of view, Osma,
+the rival city on the Duero River, is much more important than Soria.
+
+According to the tradition, St. James preached the Holy Gospel, and
+after him St. Peter (or St. Paul?), who left his disciple St. Astorgio
+behind as bishop (91 A. D.). Twenty-two bishops succeeded him, the
+twenty-third on the list being John I., really the first of whose
+existence we have any positive proof, for he signed the third council in
+Toledo in the sixth century. In the eighth century, the Saracens drove
+the shepherd of the Christian flock northward to Asturias, and it was
+not until 1100 that the first bishop _de modernis_ was appointed by
+Archbishop Bernardo of Toledo. The latter's choice fell on Peter, a
+virtuous French monastic monk, who was canonized by the Pope after his
+death, and figures in the calendar as St. Peter of Osma.
+
+When the first bishop took possession of his see, he started to build
+his cathedral. Instead of choosing Osma itself as the seat, however, he
+selected the site of a convent on the opposite banks of the Duero (to
+the north), where the Virgin had appeared to a shepherd. Houses soon
+grew up around the temple and, to distinguish it from Osma, the new
+city was called Burgo de Osma, a name it still retains.
+
+In 1232, not a hundred years after the erection of the cathedral, it was
+totally destroyed, excepting one or two chapels still to be seen in the
+cloister, by Juan Dominguez, who was bishop at the time, and who wished
+to possess a see more important in appearance than that left to him by
+his predecessor, St. Peter.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is small, but highly interesting. The
+original plan was that of a Romanesque basilica with a three-lobed apse,
+but in 1781 the ambulatory walk behind the altar joined the two lateral
+aisles.
+
+Two of the best pieces of sculptural work in the cathedral are the
+_retablo_ of the high altar, and the relief imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_--both of them carved in wood by Juan de Juni, one of the best
+Castilian sculptors of the sixteenth century. The plastic beauty of the
+figures and their lifelike postures harmonize well with the simple
+Renaissance columns ornamented here and there with finely wrought
+flowers and garlands.
+
+The chapel where St. Peter of Osma's body lies is an original rather
+than a beautiful annex of the church. For, given the small dimensions of
+the cathedral, it was difficult to find sufficient room for the chapels,
+sacristy, vestuary, etc. In the case of the above chapel, therefore, it
+was necessary to build it above the vestuary; it is reached by a flight
+of stairs, beneath which two three-lobed arches lead to the sombre room
+below. The result is highly original.
+
+The same remarks as regard lack of space can be made when speaking about
+the principal entrance. Previously the portal had been situated in the
+western front; the erection of the tower on one side, and of a chapel on
+the other, had rendered this entrance insignificant and half blinded by
+the prominent tower. So a new one had to be erected, considered by many
+art critics to be a beautiful addition to the cathedral properly
+speaking, but which strikes the author as excessively ugly, especially
+the upper half, with its balcony, and a hollow arch above it, in the
+shadows of which the rose window loses both its artistic and its useful
+object. So, being round, it is placed within a semicircular sort of
+_avant-porche_ or recess, the strong _contours_ of which deform the
+immense circle of the window.
+
+To conclude: in the cathedral of Osma, bad architecture is only too
+evident. The tower is perhaps the most elegant part, and yet the second
+body, which was to give it a gradually sloping elegance, was omitted,
+and the third placed directly upon the first. This is no improvement.
+
+Perhaps the real reason for these architectural mishaps is not so much
+the fault of the architects and artists as that of the chapter, and of
+the flock which could not help satisfactorily toward the erection of a
+worthy cathedral. Luckily, however, there are other cathedrals in Spain,
+where, in spite of reduced funds, a decent and homogeneous building was
+erected.
+
+The cloister, bare on the inner side, is nevertheless a modest Gothic
+structure with acceptable lobulated ogival windows.
+
+
+
+
+_PART IV_
+
+_Western Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+PALENCIA
+
+
+The history of Palencia can be divided into two distinct parts,
+separated from each other by a lapse of about five hundred years, during
+which the city was entirely blotted out from the map of Spain.
+
+The first period reaches from before the Roman Conquest to the
+Visigothic domination.
+
+Originally inhabited by the Vacceos, a Celtiberian tribe, it was one of
+the last fortresses to succumb to Roman arms, having joined Numantia in
+the terrible war waged by Spaniards and which has become both legendary
+and universal.
+
+Under Roman rule the broad belt of land, of which Palencia, a military
+town on the road from Astorga to Tarragon, was the capital, flourished
+as it had never done before. Consequently it is but natural that one of
+the first sees should have been established there as soon as
+Christianity invaded the peninsula. No records are, however, at hand as
+regards the names of the first bishops and of the martyr saints, as
+thick here as elsewhere and as numerous in Spain as in Rome itself. At
+any rate, contemporary documents mention a Bishop Toribio, not the first
+to occupy the see nor the same prelate who worked miracles in Orense and
+Astorga. The Palencian Toribio fought also against the Priscilian
+heresy, and was one of the impediments which stopped its spread further
+southward. Of this man it is said that, disgusted with the heresy
+practised at large in his Pallantia, he mounted on a hill, and,
+stretching his arms heavenwards, caused the waters of the river to leave
+their bed and inundate the city, a most efficacious means of bringing
+loitering sheep to the fold.
+
+Nowhere did the Visigoths wreak greater vengeance or harm on the
+Iberians who had hindered their entry into the peninsula than in
+Palencia. It was entirely wrecked and ruined, not one stone remaining to
+tell the tale of the city that had been. Slowly it emerged from the
+wreck, a village rather than a town; once in awhile its bishops are
+mentioned, living rather in Toledo than in their humble see.
+
+The Arab invasion devastated a second time the growing town; perhaps it
+was Alfonso I. himself who completely wrecked it, for the Moorish
+frontier was to the north of the city, and it was the sovereign's
+tactics to raze to the ground all cities he could not keep, when he made
+a risky incursion into hostile country.
+
+So Palencia was forgotten until the eleventh century, when Sancho el
+Mayor, King of Navarra, who had conquered this part of Castile,
+re�stablished the long-ignored see. He was hunting among the weeds that
+covered the ruins of what had once been a Roman fortress, when a boar
+sprang out of cover in front of him and escaped. Being light of foot,
+the king followed the animal until it disappeared in a cave, or what
+appeared to be such, though it really was a subterranean chapel
+dedicated to the martyrs, or to the patron saint of old Pallantia,
+namely, San Antolin.
+
+The hunted beast cowered down in front of the altar; the king lifted his
+arm to spear it, when lo, his arm was detained in mid-air by an
+invisible hand! Immediately the monarch prostrated himself before the
+miraculous effigy of the saint; he acknowledged his sacrilegious sin,
+and prayed for forgiveness; the boar escaped, the monarch's arm fell to
+his side, and a few days later the see was re�stablished, a church was
+erected above the subterranean chapel, and Bernardo was appointed the
+first bishop (1035). After Sancho's death, his son Ferdinand, who, as we
+have seen, managed to unite for the first time all Northern Spain
+beneath his sceptre, made it a point of honour to favour the see his
+father had erected a few months before his death, an example followed by
+all later monarchs until the times of Isabel the Catholic.
+
+A surprising number of houses were soon built around the cathedral, and
+the city's future was most promising. Its bishops were among the
+noble-blooded of the land, and enjoyed such exceptional privileges as
+gave them power and wealth rarely equalled in the history of the middle
+ages. But then, the city had been built for the church and not the
+church for the city, and it is not to be marvelled at that the prelates
+bore the title of "_hecho un rey y un papa_"--king and pope. The greater
+part of these princes, it is true, lived at court rather than in their
+episcopal see, which is, perhaps, one of the reasons why Palencia failed
+to emulate with Burgos and Valladolid, though at one time it was the
+residence of some of the kings of Castile.
+
+Moreover, being only second in importance to the two last named cities,
+Palencia was continually the seat of dissident noblemen and thwarted
+heirs to the throne; because these latter, being unable to conquer the
+capital, or Valladolid, invariably sought to establish themselves in
+Palencia, sometimes successfully, at others being obliged to retreat
+from the city walls. The story of the town is consequently one of the
+most adventurous and varied to be read in Spanish history, and it is due
+to the side it took in the rebellion against Charles-Quint, in the time
+of the Comuneros, that it was finally obliged to cede its place
+definitely to Valladolid, and lost its importance as one of the three
+cities of Castilla la Vieja.
+
+It remains to be mentioned that Palencia was the seat of the first
+Spanish university (Christian, not Moorish), previous to either that of
+Salamanca or Alcal�. In 1208 this educational institution was founded by
+Alfonso VIII.; professors were procured from Italy and France, and a
+building was erected beside the cathedral and under its protecting wing.
+It did not survive the monarch's death, however, for the reign of the
+latter's son left but little spare time for science and letters, and in
+1248 it was closed, though twenty years later Pope Urbano IV. futilely
+endeavoured to re�stablish it. According to a popular tradition, it owed
+its definite death to the inhabitants of the town, who, bent upon
+venging an outrage committed by one of the students upon a daughter of
+the city, fell upon them one night at a given signal and killed them to
+the last man.
+
+In the fourteenth century, the cathedral, which had suffered enormously
+from sieges and from the hands of enemies, was entirely pulled down and
+a new one built on the same spot (June, 1321). The subterranean chapel,
+which had been the cause of the city's resurrection, was still the
+central attraction and relic of the cathedral, and, according to another
+legend, no less marvellous than that of Toribio, its genuineness has
+been placed definitely (?) without the pale of skeptic doubts. It
+appears that one Pedro, Bishop of Osma (St. Peter of Osma?), was praying
+before the effigy of San Antolin when the lights went out. The pious
+yet doubting prelate prayed to God to give him a proof of the relic's
+authenticity by lighting the candles. To his surprise (?) and glee, the
+candles lit by themselves!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Let us approach the city by rail. The train leaves Venta de Ba�os, a
+junction station with a village about two miles away possessing a
+seventh-century Visigothic church which offers the great peculiarity of
+horseshoe arches in its structure, dating from before the Arab invasion.
+
+Immediately upon emerging from the station, the train enters an immense
+rolling plain of a ruddy, sandy appearance, with here and there an
+isolated sand-hill crowned by the forgotten ruins of a medi�val castle.
+
+The capital of this region is Palencia.
+
+The erection of the cathedral church of the town was begun in 1321; it
+was dedicated to the Mother and Child, and to San Antolin, whose chapel,
+devoid of all artistic merit, is still to be seen beneath the choir.
+
+This edifice was finished toward 1550. The same division as has been
+observed in the history of the city can be applied to the temple: at
+first it was intended to construct a modest Gothic church of red
+sandstone; the apse with its five chapels and traditional ambulatory was
+erected, as well as the transept and the high altar terminating the
+central nave. Then, after about a hundred years had passed away, the
+original plan was altered by lengthening the body of the building.
+Consequently the chapel of the high altar was too small in comparison
+with the enlarged proportions, and it was transformed into a parish
+chapel. Opposite it, and to the west of the old transept, another high
+altar was constructed in the central nave, and a second transept
+separated it from the choir which followed.
+
+In other words, and looking at this curious monument as it stands
+to-day, the central nave is surmounted by an ogival vaulting of a series
+of ten vaults. The first transept cuts the nave beneath the sixth, and
+the second beneath the ninth vault. (Vault No. 1 is at the western end
+of the church.) Both transepts protrude literally beyond the general
+width of the building. The choir stands beneath the fourth and fifth
+vaults, and the high altar between the two transepts, occupying the
+seventh and eighth space. Beneath the tenth stands the parish chapel or
+ex-high altar, behind which runs the ambulatory, on the off-side of
+which are situated the five apsidal chapels. Consequently the second
+transept separates the old from the new high altar.
+
+[Illustration: PALENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In spite of the low aisles and nave, and the absence of sculptural
+motives so pronounced in Burgos, the effect produced on the spectator by
+the double cross and the unusual length as compared with the width is
+agreeable. The evident lack of unity in the Gothic structure is
+recompensed by the original and pleasing plan.
+
+The final judgment that can be emitted concerning this cathedral church,
+when seen from the outside, is that it shows the typical Spanish-Gothic
+characteristic, namely, heaviness as contrasted to pure ogival
+lightness. There is poverty in the decorative details, and solemnity in
+the interior; the appearance from the outside is of a fortress rather
+than a temple, with slightly pointed Gothic windows, and a heavy and
+solid, rather than an elegant and light, general structure. Only the
+cathedral church of Palencia outgrew the original model and took the
+strange and exotic form it possesses to-day, without losing its
+fortress-like aspect.
+
+Though really built in stone (see the columns and pillars in the
+interior), brick has been largely used in the exterior; hence also the
+impossibility of erecting a pure Gothic building, and this is a remark
+that can be applied to most churches in Spain. The buttresses are heavy,
+the square tower (unfinished) is Romanesque or _Mudejar_ in form rather
+than Gothic, though the windows be ogival. There is no western fa�ade or
+portal; the tower is situated on the southern side between the true
+transepts.
+
+Of the four doorways, two to the north and two to the south, which give
+access to the transepts, the largest and richest in sculptural
+decoration is the Bishop's Door (south). Observe the geometrical designs
+in the panels of the otherwise ogival and slightly pointed doorway. The
+other portal on the south is far simpler, and the arch which surmounts
+it is of a purer Gothic style; not so the geometrically decorated panels
+and the almost Arabian frieze which runs above the arches. This frieze
+is Moorish or Mudejar-Byzantine, and though really it does not belong in
+an ogival building, it harmonizes strangely with it.
+
+In the interior of the cathedral the nakedness of the columns is
+partially recompensed by the richness in sculptural design of some
+sepulchres, as well as by several sixteenth-century grilles. The huge
+_retablo_ of the high altar shows Gothic luxuriousness in its details,
+and at the same time (in the capitals of the flanking columns) nascent
+plateresque severity.
+
+Perhaps the most interesting corner of the interior is the _trascoro_,
+or the exterior side of the wall which closes the choir on the west.
+Here the patronizing genius of Bishop Fonseca, a scion of the celebrated
+Castilian family, excelled itself. The wall itself is richly sculptured,
+and possesses two fine lateral reliefs. In the centre there is a Flemish
+canvas of the sixteenth century, of excellent colour, and an elegantly
+carved pulpit.
+
+In the chapter-room are to be seen some well-preserved Flemish
+tapestries, and in an apsidal chapel is one of Zurbaran's mystic
+subjects: a praying nun. (This portrait, I believe, has been sold or
+donated by the chapter, for, if I am not mistaken, it is to be seen
+to-day in the art collection of the Spanish royal family.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZAMORA
+
+
+Whatever may have been the origin of Zamora, erroneously confounded with
+that of Numantia, it is not until the ninth century that the city, or
+frontier fortress, appears in history as an Arab stronghold, taken from
+the Moors and fortified anew by Alfonso I. or by his son Froila, and
+necessarily lost and regained by Christians and Moors a hundred times
+over in such terrible battles as the celebrated and much sung _d�a de
+Zamora_ in 901. In 939 another famous siege of the town was undertaken
+by infidel hordes, but the strength of the citadel and the numerous
+moats, six it appears they were in number, separated by high walls
+surrounding the town, were invincible, and the Arab warriors had to
+retreat. Nevertheless, between 900 and 980 the fortress was lost five
+times by the Christians. The last Moor to take it was Almanzor, who
+razed it to the ground and then repopulated it with Arabs from
+Andalusia.
+
+Previously, in 905, the parish church had been raised to an episcopal
+see; the first to occupy it being one Atilano, canonized later by Pope
+Urbano II.
+
+Ten years after this bishop had taken possession of his spiritual
+throne, he was troubled by certain religious scruples, and, putting on a
+pilgrim's robe, he distributed his revenues among the parish poor and
+left the city. Crossing the bridge,--still standing to-day and leading
+from the town to Portugal,--he threw his pastoral ring into the river,
+swearing he would only reoccupy the lost see when the ring should have
+been given back into his hands; should this happen, it would prove that
+the Almighty had pardoned his sins.
+
+For two years he roamed about visiting shrines and succouring the poor;
+at last one day he dreamed that his Master ordered him to repair
+immediately to his see, where he was sorely needed. Returning to Zamora,
+he passed the night in a neighbouring hermitage, and while supping--it
+must have been Friday!--in the belly of the fish he was eating he
+discovered his pastoral ring.
+
+The following day the church-bells were rung by an invisible hand, and
+the pilgrim, entering the city, was hailed as a saint by the
+inhabitants; the same invisible hands took off his pilgrim's clothes and
+dressed him in rich episcopal garments. He took possession of his see,
+dying in the seventh year of his second reign.
+
+Almanzor _el terrible_, on the last powerful raid the Moors were to
+make, buried the Christian see beneath the ruins of the cathedral, and
+erected a mezquita to glorify Allah; fifteen years later the city fell
+into the hands of the Christians again, and saw no more an Arab army
+beneath its walls.
+
+It was not, however, until 125 years later that the ruined episcopal see
+was re�stablished _de modernis_, the first bishop being Bernardo (1124).
+
+But previous to the above date, an event took place in and around Zamora
+that has given national fame to the city, and has made it the centre of
+a Spanish Iliad hardly less poetic or dramatic than the Homerian legend,
+and therefore well worth narrating as perhaps unique in the peninsula,
+not to say in the history of the middle ages.
+
+When Fernando I. of Castile died in 1065, he left his vast territories
+to his five children, bequeathing Castile to his eldest son Sancho,
+Galicia to Garcia, Leon to Alfonso, Toro to Elvira, and Zamora to
+Urraca, who was the eldest daughter, and, with Sancho, the bravest and
+most intrepid of the five children.
+
+According to the romance of Zamora, she, Do�a Urraca, worried her
+father's last moments by trying to wheedle more than Zamora out of him;
+but the king was firm, adding only the following curse:
+
+     _"'Quien os la tomara, hija,_
+      _�La mi maldici�n le caiga!'--_
+      _Todos dicen am�n, am�n,_
+      _Sino Don Sancho que calla."_
+
+Which in other words means: "Let my curse fall on whomsoever endeavours
+to take Zamora from you.... Those who were present agreed by saying
+amen; only the eldest son, Don Sancho, remained silent."
+
+The latter, being ambitious, dethroned his brothers and sent them flying
+across the frontier to Andalusia, then Moorish territory. Toro also
+submitted to him, but not so Zamora, held by the dauntless Urraca and
+the governor of the citadel, Arias Gonzalo. So it was besieged by the
+royal troops and asked to surrender, the message being taken by the
+great Cid from Don Sancho to his sister. She, of course, refused to give
+up the town. Wherefore is not known, but the fact is that the Cid, the
+ablest warrior in the hostile army, after having carried the embassy to
+the Infanta, left the king's army; the many romances which treat of this
+siege accuse him of having fallen in love with Do�a Urraca's lovely
+eyes,--a love that was perhaps reciprocated,--who knows?
+
+In short, the city was besieged during nine months. Hunger, starvation,
+and illness glared at the besieged. On the point of surrendering, they
+were beseeched by the Infanta to hold out nine days longer; in the
+meantime one Vellido Dolfo, famous in song, emerged by the city's
+postern gate and went to King Sancho's camp, saying that he was tired of
+serving Do�a Urraca, with whom he had had a dispute, and that he would
+show the king how to enter the city by a secret path.
+
+According to the romances, it would appear that the king was warned by
+the inhabitants themselves against the traitorous intentions of Vellido.
+"Take care, King Sancho," they shouted from the walls, "and remember
+that we warn you; a traitor has left the city gates who has already
+committed treason four times, and is about to commit the fifth."
+
+The king did not hearken, as is generally the case, and went out walking
+with the knight who was to show him the secret gate; he never returned,
+being killed by a spear-thrust under almost similar circumstances to
+Siegfried's.
+
+The father's curse had thus been fulfilled.
+
+The traitor returned to the city, and, strange to say, was not punished,
+or only insufficiently so; consequently, it is to-day believed that the
+sister of the murdered monarch had a hand in the crime. Upon Vellido's
+return to the besieged town, the governor wished to imprison him--which
+in those days meant more than confinement--but the Infanta objected; it
+is even stated that the traitor spoke with his heartless mistress,
+saying: "It was time the promise should be fulfilled."
+
+In the meanwhile, from the besieging army a solitary knight, Diego
+Ordo�ez, rode up to the city walls, and accusing the inhabitants of
+felony and treason, both men and women, young and old, living and dead,
+born and to be born, he challenged them to a duel. It had to be
+accepted, and, according to the laws of chivalry, the challenger had to
+meet in single combat five champions, one after another, for he had
+insulted, not a single man, but a community.
+
+The gray-haired governor of the fortress reserved for himself and his
+four sons the duty of accepting the challenge; the Infanta beseeched him
+in vain to desist from his enterprise, but he was firm: his mistress's
+honour was at stake. At last, persuaded by royal tears, according to the
+romance, he agreed to let his sons precede him, and, only in case it
+should be necessary, would he take the last turn.
+
+The eldest son left the city gates, blessed by the weeping father; his
+helmet and head were cleft in twain by Diego Ordo�ez's terrible sword,
+and the latter's ironical shout was heard addressing the governor:
+
+"Don Arias, send me hither another of your charming sons, because this
+one cannot bear you the message."
+
+A second and third son went forth, meeting the same fate: but the
+latter's wounded horse, in throwing its rider, ran blindly into Ordo�ez
+and knocked him out of the ring; the duel was therefore judged to be a
+draw.
+
+Several days afterward Alfonso, the dead king's younger brother, hurried
+up from Toledo, and after swearing in Burgos that he had had nothing to
+do with the felonious murder, was anointed King of Castile, Leon, and
+Galicia. His brave sister Urraca lived with him at court, giving him
+useful advice, until she retired to a convent, and at her death left her
+palace and her fortune to the Collegiate Church at Leon.
+
+The remaining history of Zamora is one interminable list of revolts,
+sieges, massacres, and duels. As frontier fortress against Portugal in
+the west, its importance as the last garrison town on the Duero was
+exceptional, and consequently, though it never became important as a
+metropolis, as a stronghold it was one of Castile's most strategical
+points.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The best view of the city is obtained from the southern shore of the
+Duero; on a low hill opposite the spectator, the city walls run east and
+west; behind them, to the left, the castle towers loom up, square and
+Byzantine in appearance; immediately to the right the cathedral nave
+forms a horizontal line to where the _cimborio_ practically terminates
+the church. Thus from afar it seems as though the castle tower were part
+of the religious edifice, and the general appearance of the whole city
+surrounded by massive walls cannot be more warlike. The colour also of
+the ruddy sandstone and brick, brilliant beneath a bright blue sky, is
+characteristic of this part of Castile, and certainly constitutes one of
+its charms. What is more, the landscape is rendered more exotic or
+African by the Oriental appearance of the whole town, its castle, and
+its cathedral.
+
+The latter was begun and ended in the twelfth century; the first stone
+was laid in 1151, and the vaults were closed twenty-three years later,
+in 1174; consequently it is one of the unique twelfth-century churches
+in Spain completed before the year 1200. It is true that the original
+edifice has been deformed by posterior additions and changes dating from
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
+
+Excepting these abominable additions, the primitive building is
+Romanesque; not Romanesque as are the cathedrals we have seen in
+Galicia, but Byzantine, or military Romanesque, showing decided
+Oriental influences. Would to Heaven the cathedral of Zamora were to-day
+as it stood in the twelfth century!
+
+[Illustration: ZAMORA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The form of the church is that of a basilica. Like the cathedral of
+Palencia, it lacks a western front; the apse is semicircular,
+strengthened by heavy leaning buttresses; the upper, towerless rim of
+this same body is decorated with an ogival festoon set off by means of
+the primitive pinnacles of the top of the buttresses. The northern
+(Renaissance or plateresque) front is, though beautiful and severe in
+itself, a calamity when compared with the Romanesque edifice, as is also
+the new and horrid clock-tower.
+
+The view of the southern end of the transept, as seen from the left, is
+the most imposing to be obtained of the building. Two flights of steps
+lead up to the Romanesque portal, flanked by three simple pillars, which
+support three rounded arches deeply dentated(!). Blind windows, similar
+in structure to the portal, occupy the second body of the fa�ade, and
+are surmounted in their turn by a simple row of inverted crenelated
+teeth, showing in their rounded edges the timid use of the horseshoe
+arc. The superior body is formed by two concentric and slightly ogival
+arches embedded in the wall.
+
+The greatest attraction, and that which above all gives a warlike aspect
+to the whole building, is the _cimborio_, or lantern of the _crois�e_.
+Flanked by four circular turrets, which are pierced by round-topped
+windows and surmounted by Oriental domes that add a stunted, solid
+appearance to the whole, the principal cupola rises to the same height
+as the previously mentioned turrets. The whole is a marvel of simple
+architectural resource within the narrow limits of the round-arched
+style. What is more, though this cupola and that of Santiago belong to
+the same period, what a world of difference between the two! Seen as
+indicated above, the _factura_ of the whole is intensely Oriental
+(excepting the addition of the triangular cornices emerging from beneath
+the cupola), and, it may be said in parenthesis, exceptionally fine.
+Besides, the high walls of the aisles, as compared with the stunted
+growth of the _cimborio_, and with the compact and slightly angular form
+of the entire building, lend an unrivalled aspect of solidity, strength,
+and resistance to the twelfth-century cathedral church, so
+intrinsically different from that of Santiago.
+
+The interior is no less peculiar, and particularly so beneath the
+lantern of the _crois�e_. The latter is composed of more than a dozen
+windows, slightly ogival in shape, though from the outside the pillars
+of the flanking turrets support round-headed arches; these windows are
+separated from each other by simple columns or shafts. Again, what a
+difference between this solid and simple _cimborio_ and the marvellous
+lantern of the cathedral at Burgos! Two ages, two generations, even two
+ideals, are represented in both; the earlier, the stronger, in Zamora;
+the later, the more aerial and elaborate, in Burgos.
+
+Another Romanesque characteristic is the approximate height of nave and
+aisles. This circumstance examined from within or from without is one of
+the causes of the solid appearance of the church; the windows of the
+aisles--unimportant, it is true, from an artistic point of view--are
+slightly ogival; those of the nave are far more primitive and
+round-headed.
+
+The transept, originally of the same length as the width of the church,
+was prolonged in the fifteenth century. (On the south side also?... It
+is extremely doubtful, as the southern fa�ade previously described is
+hardly a fifteenth-century construction; on the other hand, that on the
+north side is easily classified as posterior to the general construction
+of the building.)
+
+Further, the western end, lacking a fa�ade, is terminated by an apse,
+that is, each aisle and the central nave run into a chapel. The effect
+of this _double apse_ is highly peculiar, especially as seen from
+within, with chapels to the east and chapels to the west.
+
+The _retablo_ is of indifferent workmanship; the choir stalls, on the
+other hand, are among the most exquisitely wrought--simple, sober, and
+natural--to be seen in Spain, especially those of the lower row.
+
+The chapels are as usual in Spanish cathedrals, as different in style as
+they are in size; none of those in Zamora can be considered as artistic
+jewels. The best is doubtless that which terminates the southern aisles
+on the western end of the church, where the principal fa�ade ought to
+have been placed. It is Gothic, rich in its decoration, but showing here
+and there the decadence of the northern style.
+
+The cloister--well, anywhere else it might have been praised for its
+plateresque simplicity and severity, but here!--it is out of date and
+place.
+
+To conclude, the general characteristics of the cathedral of Zamora are
+such as justify the opinion that the edifice, especially as its
+Byzantine-Oriental and severe primitive structure is concerned, is one
+of the great churches that can still be admired in Spain, in spite of
+the reduced size and of the additions which have been introduced.
+
+     NOTE.--To the traveller interested in church architecture, the
+     author wishes to draw attention to the parish church of La Magdalen
+     in Zamora. The northern portal of the same is one of the most
+     perfect--if not the most perfect--specimen of Byzantine-Romanesque
+     decoration to be met with in Spain. It is perhaps unique in the
+     world. At the same time, the severe Oriental appearance of the
+     church, both from the outside and as seen from within, cannot fail
+     to draw the attention of the most casual observer.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+TORO
+
+
+To the west of Valladolid, on the river Duero, Toro, the second of the
+two great fortress cities, uplifts its Alc�zar to the blue sky; like
+Zamora, it owed its fame to its strategic position: first, as one of the
+Christian outposts to the north of the Duero against the Arab
+possessions to the south, and, secondly, as a link between Valladolid
+and Zamora, the latter being the bulwark of Christian opposition against
+the ever encroaching Portuguese.
+
+Twin cities the fortresses have been called, and no better expression is
+at hand to denote at once the similarity of their history, their
+necessary origin, and their necessary decadence.
+
+Nevertheless, Toro appears in history somewhat later than Zamora, having
+been erected either on virgin soil, or upon the ruins of a destroyed
+Arab fortress as late as in the tenth century, by Garcia, son of
+Alfonso III. At any rate, it was not until a century later, in 1065,
+that the city attained any importance, when Fernando I. bequeathed it to
+his daughter Elvira, who, seeing her elder brother's impetuous
+ambitions, handed over the town and the citadel to him.
+
+Throughout the middle ages the name of Toro is foremost among the
+important fortresses of Castile, and many an event--generally tragic and
+bloody--took place behind its walls. Here Alfonso XI. murdered his uncle
+in cold blood, and Don Pedro el Cruel, after besieging the town and the
+citadel held in opposition to him by his mother, allowed her a free exit
+with the gentlemen defenders of the place, but broke his word when they
+were on the bridge, and murdered all excepting his widowed mother!
+
+In the days of Isabel the Catholic, Toro was taken by the kings of
+Portugal, who upheld the claims of Enrique IV's illegitimate daughter,
+Juana la Beltranaja. In the vicinity of the town, the great battle of
+Pelea Gonzalo was fought, which gave the western part of Castile to the
+rightful sovereigns. This battle is famous for the many prelates and
+curates who, armed,--and wearing trousers and not frocks!--fought like
+Christians (!) in the ranks.
+
+In Toro, Cortes was assembled in 1505 to open Queen Isabel's testament,
+and to promulgate those laws which have gone down in Spanish history as
+the Leyes de Toro; this was the last spark of Toro's fame, for since
+then its fate has been identical with that of Zamora, forty miles away.
+
+Strictly speaking, it is doubtful if Toro ever was a city; at one time
+it seems to have possessed an ephemeral bishop,--at least such is the
+popular belief,--who must have reigned in his see but a short time, as
+at an early date the city was submitted to the ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction of Astorga. Later, when the see was re�stablished in
+Zamora, the latter's twin sister, Toro, was definitely included in the
+new episcopal diocese.
+
+Be that as it may, the Catholic kings raised the church at Toro to a
+collegiate in the sixteenth century (1500?) because they were anxious to
+gain the good-will of the inhabitants after the Portuguese invasion.
+
+Built either toward the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, Santa Maria la Mayor, popularly called _la
+catedral_, closely resembles the cathedral church at Zamora. The style
+is the same (Byzantine-Romanesque), and the impression of strength and
+solidity produced by the warlike aspect of the building is even more
+pronounced than in the case of the sister church.
+
+The general plan is that of a basilica, rectangular in shape, with a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe being by far the largest in size, and
+a transept which protrudes slightly beyond the width of the church. This
+transept is situated immediately in front of the apse; the _crois�e_ is
+surmounted by the handsome _cimborio_, larger than that at Zamora,
+pierced by twice as many round-topped windows, but lacking a cupola, as
+do also the flanking towers, which are flat-topped. Above and between
+these latter, the cone-shaped roof of the _cimborio_, properly speaking,
+is sloping and triangular in its cross-section.
+
+This body, less Oriental in appearance than the one in Zamora, impresses
+one with a feeling of greater awe, thanks to the great diameter as
+compared with the foreshortened height. Crowning as it does the apse
+(from the proximity of the transept to the head of the church), the
+_crois�e_, and the two wings of the transept, the cupola in question
+produces a weird and incomprehensible effect on the spectator viewing it
+from the southeast. The more modern tower, which backs the _cimborio_,
+lends, it is true, a certain elegance to the edifice that the early
+builders were not willing to impart. The ensemble is, nevertheless,
+peculiarly Byzantine, and, with the mother-church in Zamora, which it
+resembles without copying, it stands almost unique in the history of
+art.
+
+The lateral doors, not situated in the transept, are located near the
+foot of the church. The southern portal is the larger, but the most
+simple; the arch which crowns it shows a decided ogival tendency, a
+circumstance which need not necessarily be attributed to Gothic
+influence, as in many churches prior to the introduction of the ogival
+arch the pointed top was known, and in isolated cases it was made use
+of, though purely by accident, and not as a constructive element.
+
+The northern door is smaller, but a hundred times richer in sculptural
+design. It shows Byzantine influence in the decoration, and as a
+Byzantine-Romanesque portal can figure among the best in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: TORO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It has been supposed that the western front of the building possessed at
+one time a narthex, like the cathedral Tuy, for instance. Nothing
+remains of it, however, as the portal which used to be here was done
+away with, and in its place a modern chapel with a fine Gothic _retablo_
+was consecrated.
+
+Seen from the interior, the almost similar height of the nave and
+aisles, leaves, as in Zamora, a somewhat stern and depressing impression
+on the visitor; the light which enters is also feeble, excepting beneath
+the _linterna_, where "the difficulty of placing a circular body on a
+square without the aid of supports (_pechinas_) has been so naturally
+and perfectly overcome that we are obliged to doubt of its ever having
+existed."
+
+Gothic elements, more so than in Zamora, mix with the Romanesque
+traditions in the decoration of the nave and aisles; nevertheless, the
+elements of construction are purely Romanesque, excepting the central
+apsidal chapel which contains the high altar. Restored by the Fonseca
+family in the sixteenth century, it is ogival in conception and
+execution, and contains some fine tombs of the above named aristocratic
+family. But the chapel passes unnoticed in this peculiarly exotic
+building, where solidity and not grace was the object sought and
+obtained.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+
+The very position of Salamanca, immediately to the north of the chain of
+mountains which served for many a century as a rough frontier wall
+between Christians and Moors, was bound to ensure the city's importance
+and fame. Its history is consequently unique, grander and more exciting
+than that of any other city; the universal name it acquired in the
+fourteenth century, thanks to its university, can only be compared with
+that of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.
+
+Consequently its fall from past renown to present insignificance was
+tremendous, and to-day, a heap of ruins, boasting of traditions like
+Toledo and Burgos, of two cathedrals and twenty-four parish churches, of
+twice as many convents and palaces, of a one-time glorious university
+and half a hundred colleges,--Salamanca sleeps away a useless existence
+from which it will never awaken.
+
+Its history has still to be penned. What an exciting and stirring
+account of middle age life in Spain it would be!
+
+The Romans knew Salamantia, and the first notice handed down to us of
+the city reads like a fairy story, as though predicting future events.
+
+According to Plutarch, the town was besieged by Hannibal, and had to
+surrender. The inhabitants were allowed to leave, unarmed, and taking
+away with them only their clothes; the men were searched as they passed
+out, but not so the women.
+
+Together men and women left the town. A mile away they halted, and the
+women drew forth from beneath their robes concealed weapons. Together
+the men and the women returned to their town and stealthily fell upon
+their foes, slaughtering them in considerable numbers. Hannibal was so
+"enchanted" (!) with the bravery displayed by the women, that he drew
+away his army from the town, leaving the patriotic inhabitants to settle
+again their beloved Salamanca.
+
+The Western Goths, upon their arrival in Spain, found Salamanca in a
+flourishing state, and respected its episcopal see, the origin of which
+is ignored. The first bishop we have any record of is Eleuterio, who
+signed the third Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+The Arabs treated the city more harshly; it was in turn taken and
+destroyed by infidels and Christians; the former sacking frontier towns,
+the latter destroying all fortresses they could not hold.
+
+In the eighth century no bishop seems to have existed in Salamanca; in
+the tenth, date of a partial re�stablishment of the see, seven prelates
+are mentioned; these did not, however, risk their skins by taking
+possession of their chair, but lived quietly in the north, either in
+Santiago--farther north they could not go!--or else in Leon and Burgos.
+The eleventh century is again devoid of any ecclesiastical news
+connected with the see of Salamanca; what is more, the very name of the
+city is forgotten until Alfonso VI. crossed the Guaderrama and fixed his
+court in Toledo. This bold step, taken in a hostile country far from the
+centre of the kingdom and from his base of operations, obliged the
+monarch to erect with all speed a series of fortresses to the north; as
+a result, Salamanca, Segovia, and Avila, beyond the Guaderrama
+Mountains, and Madrid to the south, were quickly populated by
+Christians.
+
+This occurred in 1102; the first bishop _de modernis_ was Jeronimo, a
+French warrior-monk, who had accompanied his bosom friend el Cid to
+Valencia, had fought beside him, and had been appointed bishop of the
+conquered see. Not for any length of time, however, for as soon as el
+Cid died, the Moors drove the Christians out of the new kingdom, and the
+bishop came to Leon with the Cristo de las Batallas,--a miraculous cross
+of old Byzantine workmanship, supposed to have aided the Cid in many a
+battle,--as the only _souvenir_ of his stay in the Valencian see.
+
+The next four or five bishops fought among themselves. At one time the
+city had no fewer than two, a usurper, and another who was not much
+better; the Pope deprived one of his dignity, the king another, the
+influential Archbishop of Santiago chose a third, who was also
+deposed--the good old times!--until at last one Berengario was
+appointed, and the ignominious conflict was peacefully settled.
+
+The inhabitants of the city at the beginning were a strong, warlike
+medley of Jews (these were doubtless the least warlike!), Arabs,
+Aragonese, Castilian, French, and Leonese. Bands of these without a
+commander invaded Moorish territory, sacking and pillaging where they
+could. On one occasion they were pursued by an Arab army, whose general
+asked to speak with the captain of the Salamantinos. The answer was,
+"Each of us is his own captain!" words that can be considered typical of
+the anarchy which reigned in Spain until the advent of Isabel and
+Ferdinand in the fifteenth century.
+
+If the bishops fought among themselves, and if the low class people
+lived in a state of utter anarchy, the same spirit spread to--or
+emanated from--the nobility, of whom Salamanca had more than its share,
+especially as soon as the university was founded. The annals of no other
+city are so replete with family traditions and feuds, which were not
+only restricted to the original disputers, to their families and
+acquaintances, but became generalized among the inhabitants themselves,
+who took part in the feud. Thus it often happened that the city was
+divided into two camps, separated by an imaginary line, and woe betide
+the daring or careless individual who crossed it!
+
+One of the most dramatic of these feuds--a savage species of
+vendetta--was the following:
+
+Do�a Maria Perez, a Plasencian dame of noble birth, had married one of
+the most powerful noblemen in Salamanca, Monroy by name, and upon the
+latter's death remained a widowed mother of two sons. One of them asked
+and obtained in marriage the hand of a noble lady who had refused a
+similar proposition made by one Enriquez, son of a Sevillan aristocrat.
+The youth's jealousy and anger was therefore bitterly aroused, and he
+and his brother waited for a suitable opportunity in which to avenge
+themselves. It soon came: they were playing Spanish ball, _pelota_, one
+day with the accepted suitor, when a dispute arose as to who was the
+better player; the two brothers fell upon their victim and foully
+murdered him. But afraid lest his brother should venge the latter's
+death, they lay in wait for him behind a street corner, and as he came
+along they rapidly killed him as they had his brother. Then they fled
+across the frontier to Portugal.
+
+The two corpses had in the meantime been carried on a bier by the crowds
+and laid down in front of Do�a Maria's house; the latter stepped out on
+the balcony, with dishevelled hair; an angry murmur went from one end of
+the crowd to the other, and a universal clamour arose: vengeance was on
+every one's lips. But Do�a Maria commanded silence.
+
+"Be calm," she said, "and take these bodies to the cathedral. Vengeance?
+Fear not, I shall venge myself."
+
+An hour later she left the town with an escort, apparently with a view
+to retire to her estates near Plasencia. Once well away from the city,
+she divulged her plan to the escort and asked if they were willing to
+follow her. Receiving an affirmative reply, she tore off her woman's
+clothes and appeared dressed in full armour; placing a helmet on her
+head, she took the lead of her troops again, and set out for the
+Portuguese frontier.
+
+The strange company arrived on the third day at a Portuguese frontier
+town, where they were told that two foreigners had arrived the night
+before. By the description of the two Spaniards, Do�a Maria felt sure
+they were her sons' murderers, and consequently she and her escort
+approached the house where the fugitives were passing the night. Placing
+the escort beneath the window, she stealthily entered the house and
+stole to the brothers' room; then she slew them whilst they were
+sleeping, and, rushing to the window, threw it open, and, spearing the
+heads of her enemies on her lance, she showed them to her retinue, with
+the words:
+
+"I'm venged! Back to Salamanca."
+
+Silently, at the head of her troops, and bearing the two heads on her
+lance, Do�a Maria returned to Salamanca. Entering the cathedral, she
+threw them on the newly raised slabs which covered her sons' remains.
+
+Ever after she was known as Do�a Maria _la brava_, and is as celebrated
+to-day as she was in the fifteenth century, during the abominable reign
+of Henry IV. And so great was the feud which divided the city into two
+camps, that it lasted many years, and many were the victims of the
+gigantic vendetta.
+
+The city's greatest fame lay in its university, founded toward 1215, by
+Alfonso IX. of Leon, who was jealous of his cousin Alfonso VIII. of
+Castile, the founder of the luckless university of Palencia.
+
+The fate of the last named university has been duly mentioned elsewhere;
+that of Salamanca was far different. In 1255 the Pope called it one of
+the four lamps of the world; strangers--students from all corners of
+Europe--flocked to the city to study. Perhaps its greatest merit was the
+study of Arabic and Arabian letters, and it has been said that the study
+of the Orient penetrated into Europe through Salamanca alone.
+
+What a glorious life must have been the university city's during the
+apogee of her fame! Students from all European lands, dressed in the
+picturesque costume worn by those who attended the university, wended
+their way through the streets, singing and playing the guitar or the
+mandolin; they mingled with dusky noblemen, richly dressed in satins and
+silks, and wearing the rapier hanging by their sides; they flirted with
+the beautiful daughters of Spain, and gravely saluted the bishop when he
+was carried along in his chair, or rode a quiet palfrey. At one time the
+court was established in the university city, lending a still more
+brilliant lustre to the every-day life of the inhabitants, and to the
+sombre streets lined with palaces, churches, colleges, convents, and
+monasteries.
+
+Gone! To-day the city lies beneath an immense weight of ruins of all
+kinds, that chain her down to the past which was her glory, and impede
+her from looking ahead into her future with ambitions and hopes.
+
+The cathedrals Salamanca can boast of to-day are two, an old one and a
+comparatively new one; the latter was built beside the former, a
+praiseworthy and exceptional proceeding, for, instead of pulling down
+the old to make room for the new, as happens throughout the world, the
+cathedral chapter convocated an assembly of architects, and was
+intelligent enough--another wonder!--to accept the verdict that the old
+building, a Romanesque-Byzantine edifice of exceptional value, should
+not be demolished. The new temple was therefore erected beside the
+former, and, obeying the art impulses of the centuries which witnessed
+its construction, is an ogival church spoilt--or bettered--by
+Renaissance, plateresque, and grotesque decorative elements.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Old Cathedral._--The exact date of the erection of the old see is
+not known; toward 1152 it was already in construction, and 150 years
+later, in 1299, it was not concluded. Consequently, and more than in the
+case of Zamora and Toro, the upper part of the building shows decided
+ogival tendencies; yet in spite of these evident signs of transition,
+the ensemble, the spirit of the building, is, beyond a doubt,
+Romanesque-Byzantine, and not Gothic.
+
+[Illustration: OLD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The plan of the church is the same as those of Zamora, Toro, and Coria:
+a nave and two aisles cut short at the transept, which is slightly
+prolonged beyond the width of the body of the church; there is no
+ambulatory walk, but to the east of the transept are three chapels in a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe larger than the others and containing
+the high altar; the choir was placed (originally) in the centre of the
+nave, and a _cimborio_ crowns the _crois�e_, this latter being a
+peculiarity of the three cathedral churches of Zamora, Toro, and
+Salamanca.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new building as an annex of the old one
+required (as in Plasencia, though from different reasons) the demolition
+of certain parts of the latter; as, for instance, the two towers of the
+western front, the northern portal as well as the northern half of the
+apse, and the corresponding part of the transept. Parts of these have
+either been surrounded or replaced by the new building.
+
+The narthex and the western end are still preserved. They are of the
+same width as the nave, for, beneath the towers, of which one seems to
+have been far higher than the other, each of the aisles terminates in a
+chapel. Byzantine in appearance, the two western doors are,
+nevertheless, crowned by an ogival arch, and flanked by statuettes of
+the same style. The fa�ade, repaired and spoilt, is of Renaissance
+severity.
+
+The interior of the building is more impressive than that of either
+Zamora or Toro; this is due to the absence of the choir,--removed to the
+new cathedral,--which permits an uninterrupted view of the whole church,
+which does not occur in any other temple throughout Spain. Romanesque
+strength and gloominess is clearly discernible, whereas the height of
+the central nave (sixty feet) is rendered stumpy in appearance by the
+almost equal height of the aisles. The strength and solidity of the
+pillars and columns, supporting capitals and friezes of a peculiar and
+decided Byzantine taste (animals, dragons, etc.), show more keenly than
+in Galicia the Oriental influence which helped so thoroughly to shape
+Central Spanish Romanesque.
+
+Of the chapels, but one deserves special mention, both as seen from
+without and from within, namely, the high altar, or central apsidal
+chapel. Seen from without, it is of perfect Romanesque construction,
+excepting the upper row of rose windows, which are ogival in their
+traceries; inside, it contains a mural painting of an exceedingly
+primitive design, and a _retablo_ in low reliefs enchased in ogival
+arches; it is of Italian workmanship.
+
+Of the remaining chapels, that of San Bartolom� contains an alabaster
+sepulchre of the Bishop Diego de Anaya--one of the many prelates of
+those times who was the possessor of illegitimate sons; the bodies of
+most of the latter lie within this chapel, which can be regarded not
+only as a family pantheon, but as a symbol of ecclesiastical greatness
+and human weakness.
+
+The windows which light up the nave are round-headed, and yet they are
+delicately decorated, as is rarely to be seen in the Romanesque type.
+The aisles, on the contrary, are not lit up by any windows.
+
+Like the churches of Zamora and Toro, the whole cathedral resembles a
+fortress rather than a place of worship. The simplicity of the general
+structure, the rounded turrets buried in the walls, serving as leaning
+buttresses, the narrow slits in the walls instead of windows, lend an
+indisputable aspect of strength. The beautiful, the really beautiful
+lantern, situated above the _crois�e_, with its turrets, its niches, its
+thirty odd windows, and its elegant cupola, is an architectural body
+that wins the admiration of all who behold it, either from within the
+church or from without, and which, strictly Byzantine in conception
+(though rendered peculiarly Spanish by the addition of certain elements
+which pertain rather to Gothic military art than to church
+architecture), is unique--to the author's knowledge--in all Europe. Less
+pure in style, and less Oriental in appearance than that of Zamora, it
+was nevertheless, created more perfect by the artistic conception of the
+architect, and consequently more finished or developed than those of
+Toro and Zamora. Without hesitation, it can claim to be one of
+Salamanca's chief attractions.
+
+The thickness of the walls (ten feet!), the admirable simpleness of the
+vaulting, and the general aspect from the exterior, have won for the
+church the name of _fortis Salamantini_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The New Cathedral._--It was begun in 1513, the old temple having been
+judged too small, and above all too narrow for a city of the importance
+of Salamanca.
+
+Over two hundred years did the building of the present edifice last; at
+times all work was stopped for years, no funds being at hand to pay
+either artists or masons.
+
+The primitive plan of the church, as proposed by the congress of
+architects, was Gothic of the second period, with an octagonal apse; the
+lower part of the church, from the foot to the transept, was the first
+to be constructed.
+
+The upper part of the apse was not begun until the year 1588, and the
+artist, imbued with the beauty of Herrero's Escorial, squared the apse
+with the evident intention of constructing turrets on the exterior
+angles, which would have rendered the building symmetrical: two towers
+on the western front, a cupola on the _crois�e_, and two smaller turrets
+on the eastern end.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is a perfect rectangle cut in its
+length by a nave (containing the choir and the high altar), and by two
+aisles, lower than the nave and continued in an ambulatory walk behind
+the high altar.
+
+The same symmetry is visible in the lateral chapels: eight square
+_huecos_ on the exterior walls of the aisles, five to the west, and
+three to the east of the transept, and three in the extreme eastern wall
+of the apse.
+
+Magnificence rather than beauty is the characteristic note of the new
+cathedral. The primitive part--pure ogival with but little
+mixture--contrasts with the eastern end, which is covered over with the
+most glaring grotesque decoration; most of the chapels are spoiled by
+the same shocking profusion of super-ornamentation; the otherwise
+majestic cupola, the high altar, and the choir--all suffer from the same
+defect.
+
+The double triforium--one higher than the other--in the clerestory
+produces a most favourable impression; this is heightened by the wealth
+of light, which, entering by two rows of windows and by the _cimborio_,
+falls upon the rich decoration of friezes and capitals. The general view
+of the whole building is also freer than in most Spanish cathedrals,
+and this harmony existing in the proportions of the different parts
+strikes the visitor more favourably, perhaps, than in the severer
+cathedral at Burgos.
+
+[Illustration: NEW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The exterior of the building reflects more truthfully than the interior
+the different art waves which spread over Spain during the centuries of
+the temple's erection. In the western front, the rich Gothic portal of
+the third period, the richest perhaps in sculptural variety of any on
+the peninsula, contrasts with the high mongrel tower, a true example of
+the composite towers so frequently met with in certain Spanish regions.
+The second body of the same fa�ade (western) is highly interesting, not
+on account of its ornamentation, which is simple, but because of the
+solid, frank structure, and the curious fortress-like turrets embedded
+in the angles.
+
+The flank of the building, seen from the north--for on the south side
+stand the ruins of the old cathedral--is none too homogeneous, thanks to
+the different styles in which the three piers of windows--of chapels,
+aisles, and clerestory--have been constructed. The ensemble is
+picturesque, nevertheless: the three rows of windows, surmounted by the
+huge cupola and half-lost among the buttresses, certainly contribute
+toward the general elegance of the granite structure.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+
+In the times of the Romans, the country to the west of Salamanca seems
+to have been thickly populated. Calabria, situated between the Agueda
+and Coa Rivers, was an episcopal see; in its vicinity August�briga and
+Mir�briga were two other important towns.
+
+Of these three Roman fortresses, and perhaps native towns, before the
+invasion, not as much as a stone or a legend remains to relate the tale
+of their existence and death.
+
+Toward 1150, Fernando II. of Castile, obeying the military requirements
+of the Reconquest, and at the same time wishing to erect a
+fortress-town, which, together with Zamora to the north, Salamanca to
+the west, and Coria to the south, could resist the invasion of Spain by
+Portuguese armies, founded Ciudad Rodrigo, and twenty years later raised
+the church to an episcopal see, a practical means of attracting
+God-fearing settlers. Consequently, the twelfth-century town, inheriting
+the ecclesiastical dignity of Calabria, if the latter ever possessed it,
+besides being situated in the same region as the three Roman cities
+previously mentioned, can claim to have been born a city.
+
+One of the early bishops (the first was a certain Domingo) was the
+famous Pedro Diaz, about whom a legend has been handed down to us. This
+legend has also been graphically illustrated by an artist of the
+sixteenth century; his painting is to be seen to the right of the
+northern transept door in the cathedral.
+
+Pedro Diaz seems to have been a worldly priest, "fond of the sins of the
+flesh and of good eating," who fell ill in the third year of his reign.
+His secretary, a pious servant of the Lord, dreamt he saw his master's
+soul devoured by demons, and persuaded him to confess his sins. It was
+too late, for a few days later he died; his death was, however, kept a
+secret by his menials, who wished to have plenty of time to make a
+generous division of his fortune. When all had been settled to their
+liking, the funeral procession moved through the streets of the city,
+and, to the surprise of all, the dead bishop, resurrected by St.
+Francis of Assisi, at the time in Ciudad Rodrigo, opened the coffin and
+stood upon the hearse. He accused his servants of their greed, and at
+the same time made certain revelations concerning the life hereafter.
+His experiences must have been rather pessimistic, to judge by the
+bishop's later deeds, for, having been granted a respite of twenty days
+upon this earth, he "fasted and made penitence," doubtless eager to
+escape a second time the tortures of the other world.
+
+Other traditions concerning the lives and doings of the noblemen who
+disputed the feudal right or _se�orio_ over the town, are as numerous as
+in Plasencia, with which city Ciudad Rodrigo has certain historical
+affinities. The story of the Virgen Coronada, who, though poor, did not
+hesitate in killing a powerful and wealthy libertine nobleman whom she
+was serving; the no less stirring account of Do�a Maria Adan's vow that
+she would give her fair daughter's hand to whomsoever venged her wrongs
+on the five sons of her husband's murderer, are among the most tragic
+and thrilling. There are many other traditions beside, which constitute
+the past's legacy to the solitary city near the Portuguese frontier.
+
+It was in the nineteenth century that Ciudad Rodrigo earned fame as a
+brave city. The Spanish war for independence had broken out against the
+French, who overran the country, and passed from Bayonne in the Gascogne
+to Lisbon in Portugal. Ciudad Rodrigo lay on the shortest route for the
+French army, and had to suffer two sieges, one in 1810 and the second in
+1812. In the latter, Wellington was the commander of the English forces
+who had come to help the Spanish chase the French out of the peninsula;
+the siege of the town and the battle which ensued were long and
+terrible, but at last the allied English and Spanish won, with the loss
+of two English generals. The Iron Duke was rewarded by Spanish Cortes,
+with the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, together with the honours of
+grandee of Spain, which are still retained by Wellington's descendants.
+
+[Illustration: CUIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral church of Ciudad Rodrigo is a twelfth-century building, in
+which the Romanesque style, similar to those of Zamora and Toro, fights
+with the nascent ogival style. Notwithstanding these remarks,
+however, the building does not pertain to the Transition period, but
+rather to the second or last period of Spanish Romanesque. This is
+easily seen by the basilica form of the church, the three-lobed apse,
+the lack of an ambulatory walk, and the apparently similar height of
+nave and aisles.
+
+The square tower, surmounted by a cupola, at the foot of the church, as
+well as the entire western front, dates from the eighteenth century; it
+is cold, anti-artistic, utterly unable to appeal to the poetic instincts
+of the spectator.
+
+Behind the western front, and leading directly into the body of the
+church, is a delightful Romanesque narthex which doubtlessly served as
+the western fa�ade prior to the eighteenth-century additions. It is
+separated from the principal nave by a door divided into two by a solid
+pediment, upon which is encrusted a statue of the Virgin with Child in
+her arms. The semicircular arches which surmount the door are finely
+executed, and the columns which support them are decorated with handsome
+twelfth-century statuettes. There is a great similarity between this
+portal and the principal one (del Obispo) in Toro: it almost seems as
+though the same hand had chiselled both, or at least traced the plan of
+their decoration.
+
+Of the two doors which lead, one on the south and the other on the
+north, into the transept, the former is perhaps the more perfect
+specimen of the primitive style. Both are richly decorated; unluckily,
+in both portals, the rounded arches have been crowned in more recent
+times by an ogival arch, which certainly mars the pureness of the style,
+though not the harmony of the ensemble.
+
+To the left of these doors, a niche has been carved into the wall to
+contain a full-length statue of the Virgin; this is an unusual
+arrangement in Spanish churches.
+
+The exterior of the apse retains its primitive _cachet_; the central
+chapel, where the high altar is placed, was, however, rebuilt in the
+sixteenth century by Tavera, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Toledo, who had
+at one time occupied the see of Ciudad Rodrigo. It is a peculiar mixture
+of Gothic and Romanesque, of pointed windows and heavy buttresses; the
+flat roof is decorated by means of a low stone railing or balustrade
+composed of elegantly carved pinnacles.
+
+To conclude: excepting the western front and the central lobe of the
+apse, the tower and the ogival arch surmounting the northern and
+southern portals, the cathedral of Ciudad Rodrigo is one of the most
+perfectly preserved Romanesque buildings to the south of Zamora and
+Toro. It is less grim and warlike than the two last-named edifices, and
+yet it is also a fair example of severe and gloomy (though not less
+artistic!) Castilian Romanesque. Its _crois�e_ is not surmounted by the
+heavy cupola as in Salamanca and elsewhere, and it is perhaps just this
+suppression or omission which gives the whole building a far less
+Oriental appearance than the others mentioned heretofore.
+
+In the inside, the choir occupies its usual place. Its stalls, it is
+believed, were carved by Alem�n, the same who probably wrought those
+superb seats at Plasencia. It is doubtful if the same master carved
+both, however, but were it so, the stalls at Ciudad Rodrigo would have
+to be classified as older, executed before those we shall examine in a
+future chapter.
+
+The nave and two aisles, pierced by ogival windows in the clerestory and
+round-headed windows in the aisles, constitute the church; the
+_crois�e_ is covered by means of a simple ogival vaulting; the arches
+separating the nave from the aisles are Romanesque, as is the vaulting
+of the former. It was originally the intention of the chapter to
+beautify the solemn appearance of the interior by means of a triforium
+or running gallery. Unluckily, perhaps because of lack of funds, the
+triforium was never begun excepting that here and there are seen
+remnants of the primitive tracing.
+
+With the lady-chapel profusely and lavishly ornamented, and quite out of
+place in this solemn building, there are five chapels, one at the foot
+of each aisle and two in the apse, to the right and left of the
+lady-chapel. They all lack art interest, however, as does the actual
+_retablo_, which replaces the one destroyed by the French; remnants of
+the latter are to be seen patched up on the cloister walls.
+
+This cloister to the north of the church is a historical monument, for
+each of the four sides of the square edifice is an architectural page
+differing from its companions. Studying first the western, then the
+southern, and lastly the two remaining sides, the student can obtain an
+idea of how Romanesque principles struggled with Gothic before dying
+completely out, and how the latter, having reached its apogee,
+deteriorated into the most lamentable superdecoration before fading away
+into the naked, straight-lined features of the Renaissance so little
+compatible with Christian ideals.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CORIA
+
+
+To the west of Toledo and to the south of the Sierra de Gata, which,
+with the mountains of Gredo and the Guaderrama, formed in the middle
+ages a natural frontier between Christians and Moors, lies, in a
+picturesque and fertile vale about twenty miles distant from the nearest
+railway station, the little known cathedral town of Coria. It is
+situated on the northern shores of the Alag�n, a river flowing about ten
+miles farther west into the Tago, near where the latter leaves Spanish
+territory and enters that of Portugal.
+
+Caurium, or Curia Vetona, was its name when the Romans held Extremadura,
+and it was in this town, or in its vicinity, that Viriato, the Spanish
+hero, destroyed four Roman armies sent to conquer his wild hordes. He
+never lost a single battle or skirmish, and might possibly have dealt a
+death-blow to Roman plans of domination in the peninsula, had not the
+traitor's knife ended his noble career.
+
+Their enemy dead, the Romans entered the city of Coria, which they
+immediately surrounded by a circular wall half a mile in length, and
+twenty-six feet thick (!). This Roman wall, considered by many to be the
+most perfectly preserved in Europe, is severely simple in structure, and
+flanked by square towers; it constitutes the city's one great
+attraction.
+
+The episcopal see was erected in 338. The names of the first bishops
+have long been forgotten, the first mentioned being one Laquinto, who
+signed the third Toledo Council in 589.
+
+Two centuries later the Moors raised Al-K�rica to one of their capitals;
+in 854 Zeth, an ambitious Saracen warrior, freed it from the yoke of
+Cordoba, and reigned in the city as an independent sovereign.
+
+Like Zamora and Toro, Coria was continually being lost and won by
+Christians and Moors, with this difference, that whereas the first two
+can be looked upon as the last Christian outposts to the north of the
+Duero, Coria was the last Arab stronghold to the north of the Tago.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century, the strong fortress on
+the Alag�n was definitely torn from the hands of its independent
+sovereign by Alfonso VIII., after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. A
+bishop was immediately reinstated in the see, and after five centuries
+of Mussulman domination, Coria saw the standard of Castile waving from
+its citadel.
+
+As happened with so many other provincial towns in Spain, the
+centralization of power to the north of Toledo shoved Coria into the
+background; to-day it is a cathedral village forgotten or completely
+ignored by the rest of Spain. Really, it might perhaps have been better
+for the Arabs to have preserved it, for under their rule it flourished.
+
+It is picturesque, this village on the banks of the Alag�n: a heap or
+bundle of red bricks surrounded by grim stone walls, over-topped by a
+cathedral tower and citadel,--the whole picture emerging from a prairie
+and thrown against a background formed by the mountains to the north and
+the bright blue sky in the distance.
+
+Arab influence is only too evident in the buildings and houses, in the
+Alc�zar, and in the streets; unluckily, these remembrances of a happy
+past depress the dreamy visitor obliged to recognize the infinite
+sadness which accompanied the expulsion of the Moors by intolerant
+tyrants from the land they had inhabited, formed, and moulded to their
+taste. Nowhere is this so evident as in Coria, a forgotten bit of
+medi�val Moor-land. The poet's exclamation is full of bitterness and
+resignation when he exclaims:
+
+"Is it possible that this heap of ruins should have been in other times
+the splendid court of Zeth and Mondhir!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As an architectural building, the cathedral of Coria is a parish church,
+which, removed to any other town, would be devoid of any and all beauty.
+In other words, the impressions it produces are entirely dependent upon
+its local surroundings; eliminate these, and the temple is worthless
+from an artistic or poetical point of view.
+
+It was begun in 1120, most likely by Arab workmen; it was finished
+toward the beginning of the sixteenth century. Honestly speaking, it is
+a puzzle what the artisans did in all those long years; doubtless they
+slept at their task, or else decades passed away without work of any
+kind being done, or again, perhaps only one mason was employed at a
+time.
+
+The interior is that of a simple Gothic church of one aisle, 150 feet
+long by fifty-two wide and eighty-four high; the high altar is situated
+in the rounded apse; in the centre of the church the choir stalls of the
+fifteenth century obstruct the view of the walls, decorated only by
+means of pilasters which pretend to support the Gothic vaulting.
+
+To the right, in the altar chapel, is a fine marble sepulchre of the
+sixteenth century, in which the chasuble of the kneeling bishop
+portrayed is among the best pieces of imitative sculpture to be seen in
+Spain.
+
+To the right of the high altar, and buried in the cathedral wall, a door
+leads out into the _paseo_,--a walk on the broad walls of the city, with
+a delightful view southwards across the river to the prairie in the
+distance. Where can a prettier and more natural cloister be found?
+
+The western fa�ade is never used, and is surrounded by the old
+cemetery,--a rather peculiar place for a cemetery in a cathedral church;
+the northern fa�ade is anti-artistic, but the tower to the right has
+one great virtue, that of comparative height. Though evidently intended
+to be Gothic, the Arab taste, so pronounced throughout this region, got
+the better of the architect, and he erected a square steeple crowned by
+a cupola.
+
+Yet, and in spite of criticism which can hardly find an element worthy
+of praise in the whole cathedral building, the tourist should not
+hesitate in visiting the city. Besides, the whole region of Northern
+Extremadura, in which Coria and Plasencia lie, is historically most
+interesting: Yuste, where Charles-Quint spent the last years of his
+life, is not far off; neither is the Convent of Guadalupe, famous for
+its pictures by the great Zurbaran.
+
+As for Coria itself, it is a forgotten corner of Moor-land.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+
+The foundation of Plasencia by King Alfonso VIII. in 1178, and the
+erection of a new episcopal see twelve years later, can be regarded as
+the _coup de gr�ce_ given to the importance of Coria, the twin sister
+forty miles away. Nevertheless, the Royal City, as Plasencia was called,
+which ended by burying its older rival in the most shocking oblivion,
+was not able to acquire a name in history. Founded by a king, and handed
+over to a bishop and to favourite courtiers, who ruled it indifferently
+well, not to say badly, it grew up to be an aristocratic town without a
+_bourgeoisie_. Its history in the middle ages is consequently one long
+series of family feuds, duels, and tragedies, the record of bloody
+happenings, and acts of heroic brutality and bravery.
+
+In 1233 a Moorish army conquered it, shortly after the battle of Alarcos
+was lost to Alfonso VIII., at that time blindly in love with his
+beautiful Jewish mistress, Rachel of Toledo. But the infidels did not
+remain master of the situation, far less of the city, for any length of
+time, as within the next year or so it fell again into the hands of its
+founder, who strengthened the walls still standing to-day, and completed
+the citadel.
+
+The population of the city, like that of Toledo, was mixed. Christians,
+Jews, and Moors lived together, each in their quarter, and together they
+used the fertile _vegas_, which surround the town. The Jews and Moors
+were, in the fifteenth century, about ten thousand in number; in 1492
+the former were expelled by the Catholic kings, and in 1609 Philip III.
+signed a decree expelling the Moors. Since then Plasencia has lost its
+municipal wealth and importance, and the see, from being one of the
+richest in Spain, rapidly sank until to-day it drags along a weary life,
+impoverished and unimportant.
+
+The Jewish cemetery is still to be seen in the outskirts of the town;
+Arab remains, both architectural and irrigatory, are everywhere present,
+and the quarter inhabited by them, the most picturesque in Plasencia,
+is a Moorish village.
+
+The city itself, crowning a hill beside the rushing Ierte, is a small
+Toledo; its streets are narrow and winding; its church towers are
+numerous, and the red brick houses warmly reflect the brilliancy of the
+southern atmosphere. The same death, however, the same inactivity and
+lack of movement, which characterize Toledo and other cities, hover in
+the alleys and in the public squares, in the fertile _vegas_ and silent
+_patios_ of Plasencia.
+
+The history of the feuds between the great Castilian families who lived
+here is tragically interesting: Hernan Perez killed by Diego Alvarez,
+the son of one of the former's victims; the family of Monroye pitched
+against the Zu�igas and other noblemen,--these and many other traditions
+are among the most stirring of the events that happened in Spain in the
+middle ages.
+
+Even the bishops called upon to occupy the see seem to have been slaves
+to the warlike spirit that hovered, as it were, in the very atmosphere
+of the town. The first prelate, Don Domingo, won the battle of Navas de
+Tolosa for his protector, Alfonso VIII. When the Christian army was
+wavering, he rushed to the front (with his naked sword, the cross having
+been left at home), at the head of his soldiers, and drove the already
+triumphant Moors back until they broke their ranks and fled. The same
+bishop carried the Christian sword to the very heart of the Moorish
+dominions, to Granada, and conquered neighbouring Loja. The next
+prelate, Don Ad�n, was one of the leaders of the army that conquered
+Cordoba in 1236, and, entering the celebrated _mezquita_, sanctified its
+use as a Christian church.
+
+The history of the cathedral church is no less interesting. The
+primitive see was temporarily placed in a church on a hill near the
+fortress; this building was pulled down in the fifteenth century, and
+replaced by a Jesuit college.
+
+Toward the beginning of the fourteenth century a cathedral church was
+inaugurated. Its life was short, however, for in 1498 it was partially
+pulled down to make way for a newer and larger edifice, which is to-day
+the unfinished Renaissance cathedral visited by the tourist.
+
+Parts of the old cathedral are, however, still standing. Between the
+tower of the new temple and the episcopal palace, but unluckily
+weighted down by modern superstructures, stands the old fa�ade, almost
+intact. The grossness of the structural work, the timid use of the
+ogival arch, the primitive rose window, and the general heaviness of the
+structure, show it to belong to the decadent period of the Romanesque
+style, when the artists were attempting something new and forgetting the
+lessons of the past.
+
+The new cathedral is a complicated Gothic-Renaissance building of a nave
+and two aisles, with an ambulatory behind the high altar. Not a square
+inch but what has been hollowed out into a niche or covered over with
+sculptural designs; the Gothic plan is anything but pure Gothic, and the
+Renaissance style has been so overwrought that it is anything but
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+The fa�ade of the building is imposing, if not artistic; it is composed
+of four bodies, each supported laterally by pillars and columns of
+different shapes and orders, and possessing a _hueco_ or hollow in the
+centre, the lowest being the door, the highest a stained glass window,
+and the two central ones blind windows, which spoil the whole. The
+floral and Byzantine (Arab?) decoration of pillars and friezes is of
+a great wealth of varied designs; statuettes are missing in the niches,
+proving the unfinished state of the church.
+
+[Illustration: FA�ADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+Three arches and four pillars, sumptuously decorated, uphold each of the
+clerestory walls, which are pierced at the top by a handsome triforium
+running completely around the church. The _retablo_ of the high altar is
+richly decorated, perhaps too richly; the _reja_, which closes off the
+sacred area, is of fine seventeenth-century workmanship.
+
+The choir stalls are of a surprising richness, carved scenes covering
+the backs and seats. They are famous throughout the country, and the
+genius, above all the imagination, of the artist who executed them (his
+name is unluckily not known, though it is believed to be Alem�n) must
+have been notable. Pious when carving the upper and visible seats, he
+seems to have been exceedingly ironical and profane when sculpturing the
+inside of the same, where the reverse or the caustic observation
+produced in the carver's mind has been artfully drawn, though sometimes
+with an undignified grain of indecency and obscenity not quite in
+harmony with our Puritanic spirit of to-day.
+
+
+
+
+_PART V_
+
+_Eastern Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+
+The origin of Valladolid is lost in the shadows of the distant past. As
+it was the capital of a vast kingdom, it was thought necessary, as in
+the case of Madrid, to place its foundation prior to the Roman invasion;
+the attempt failed, however, and though Roman ruins have been found in
+the vicinity, nothing is positively known about the city's history prior
+to the eleventh century.
+
+When Sancho II. fought against his sister locked up in Zamora, he
+offered her Vallisoletum in exchange for the powerful fortress she had
+inherited from her father. In vain, and the town seated on the Pisuerga
+is not mentioned again in historical documents until 1074, when Alfonso
+VI. handed it over, with several other villages, to Pedro Ansurez, who
+made it his capital, raised the church (Santa Maria la Mayor) to a
+suffragan of Palencia, and laid the first foundations of its future
+greatness. In 1208 the family of Ansurez died out, and the _villa_
+reverted to the crown; from then until the reign of Philip IV.
+Valladolid was doubtless one of the most important cities in Castile,
+and the capital of all the Spains, from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabel to that of Philip III.
+
+Consequently, the history of Valladolid from the thirteenth to the
+sixteenth century is that of Spain.
+
+In Valladolid, Peter the Cruel, after three days' marriage, forsook his
+bride, Do�a Blanca de Bourbon, and returned to the arms of his mistress
+Maria; several years later he committed most of his terrible crimes
+within the limits of the town. Here Maria de Molina upheld her son's
+right to the throne during his minority, and in Valladolid also, after
+her son's death, the same widow fought for her grandson against the
+intrigues of uncles and cousins.
+
+Isabel and Alfonso fought in Valladolid against the proclamation of
+their niece, Juana, the illegitimate daughter of Henry IV., as heiress
+to the throne; the citizens upheld the Catholic princess's claims, and
+it is not surprising that when the princess became queen--the greatest
+Spain ever had--she made Valladolid her capital, in gratitude to the
+loyalty of its inhabitants.
+
+In Valladolid, Columbus obtained the royal permission to sail westwards
+in 1492, and, upon his last return from America, he died in the selfsame
+city in 1506; here also Berruguete, the sculptor, created many of his
+_chefs-d'oeuvres_ and the immortal Cervantes appeared before the law
+courts and wrote the second part of his "Quixote."
+
+Unlucky Juana _la Loca_ (Jane the Mad) and her husband Felipe _el
+Hermoso_ (Philip the Handsome) reigned here after the death of Isabel
+the Catholic, and fifty years later, when Philip II. returned from
+England to ascend the Spanish throne, he settled in Valladolid, until
+his religious fanaticism or craze obliged him to move to a city nearer
+the Escorial. Then he fixed upon Madrid as his court. Being a religious
+man, nevertheless, and conscious of a certain love for Valladolid, his
+natal town, he had the suffragan church erected to a cathedral in 1595,
+appointing Don Bartolom� de la Plaza to be its first bishop. At the same
+time, he ordered Juan de Herrero, the severe architect of the Escorial,
+to draw the plans and commence the building of the new edifice.
+
+The growing importance of Madrid, and the final establishment in the
+last named city of all the honours which belonged to Valladolid, threw
+the city seated on the Pisuerga into the shade, and its star of fortune
+slowly waned. But not to such a degree as that of Salamanca or Burgos,
+for to-day, of all the old cities of Castile, the only one which has a
+life of its own, and a commercial and industrial personality, is
+Valladolid, the one-time capital of all the Spains, and now the seat of
+an archbishopric. It began by usurping the dignity of Burgos; then it
+rose to greater heights of fame than its rival, thanks to the discovery
+of America, and finally it lost its _prestige_ when Madrid was crowned
+the _unica villa_.
+
+The general appearance of the city is peculiarly Spanish, especially as
+regards the prolific use of brick in the construction of churches and
+edifices in general. It is presumable that the Arabs were possessors of
+the town before the Christian conquest, though no documental proofs are
+at hand. The etymology of the city's name, Medinat-el-Walid, is purely
+Arabic, Walid being the name of a Moorish general.
+
+If the cathedral church was erected as late as the sixteenth century, it
+must not be supposed that the town lacked parish churches. On the
+contrary, there is barely a city in Spain with more religious edifices
+of all kinds, and the greater part of them of far more architectural
+merit than the cathedral itself. The astonishing number of convents is
+remarkable; many of them date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and are, consequently, Romanesque with a good deal of Byzantine taste
+about them, or else they belong to the period of Transition. Taken all
+in all, they are really the only architectural attractions to be
+discovered in the city to-day. The traditions which explain the
+foundation of some of these are among the most characteristic in
+Valladolid, and a thread of Oriental romance is more predominant among
+them than elsewhere. A good example of one of these explains the
+foundation of the large convent of the Mercedes.
+
+Do�a Leonor was the wife of one Acu�a, a fearless (?) knight. The King
+of Portugal unluckily fell in love with Do�a Leonor, and, wishing to
+marry her, had her previous marriage annulled and placed her on his
+throne. Acu�a fled from Portugal and came to Valladolid, where, with
+unparalleled sarcasm, he wore a badge on his hat proclaiming his
+dishonour.
+
+Both Acu�a and the King of Portugal died, and Do�a Leonor, whose morals
+were none too edifying, fell in love with a certain Zu�iguez; the
+daughter of these two was handed over to the care of a knight, Fernan by
+name, and Do�a Leonor ordered him to found a convent, upon her death,
+and lock up her daughter within its walls; the mother was doubtless only
+too anxious to have her daughter escape the ills of this life. Unluckily
+she counted without the person principally concerned, namely, the
+daughter, for the latter fell secretly in love with her keeper's nephew.
+She thought he was her cousin, however, for it appears she was passed
+off as Fernan's daughter. Upon her mother's death she learnt her real
+origin, and wedded her lover. In gratitude for her non-relationship with
+her husband, she founded the convent her mother had ordered, but she
+herself remained without its walls!
+
+The least that can be said about the cathedral of Valladolid, the
+better. Doubtless there are many people who consider the building a
+marvel of beauty. As a specimen of Juan de Herrero's severe and majestic
+style, it is second to no other building excepting only that great
+masterwork, the Escorial, and perhaps parts of the Pillar at Saragosse.
+But as an art monument, where beauty and not Greco-Roman effects are
+sought, it is a failure.
+
+The original plan of the building was a rectangle, 411 feet long by 204
+wide, divided in its length by a nave and two aisles, and in its width
+by a broad transept situated exactly half-way between the apse and the
+foot of the church. The form was thus that of a Greek cross; each angle
+of the building was to be surmounted by a tower, and the _crois�e_ by an
+immense cupola or dome. (Compare with the new cathedral in Salamanca.)
+The lateral walls of the aisles were to contain symmetrical chapels, as
+was also the apse.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that symmetry and the Greco-Roman
+straight horizontal line were to replace the ogival arch and the
+generally vertical, soaring effect of Gothic buildings.
+
+The architect died before his monument was completed, and Churriguera,
+the most anti-artistic artist that ever breathed,--according to the
+author's personal opinion,--was called upon to finish the edifice: his
+trade-mark covers almost the entire western front, where the second body
+shows the defects into which Herrero's severe style degenerated soon
+after his death.
+
+Of the four towers and the cupola which were to render the capitol of
+Valladolid "second in grandeur to none excepting St. Peter's at Rome,"
+only one tower was erected: it fell down in 1841, and is being re�rected
+at the present time.
+
+In the interior the same disparity is everywhere visible, as well as in
+the unfinished state of the temple. Greek columns are prevalent, and,
+contrasting with their simplicity, the high altar, as grotesque a body
+as ever was placed in a holy cathedral, attracts the eye of the vulgar
+with something of the same feeling as a blood-and-thunder melodrama.
+Needless to say, the art connoisseur flees therefrom.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL]
+
+To the rear of the building the remains of the Romanesque Church of
+Santa Maria la Mayor are still to be seen; what a difference between
+the rigid, anti-artistic conception of Herrero, ridiculized by
+Churriguera, and left but half-completed by successive generations of
+moneyless believers, and the simple but elegant features of the old
+collegiate church, with its tower still standing, a Byzantine _recuerdo_
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+AVILA
+
+
+To the west of Madrid, in the very heart of the Sierra de Gredos, lies
+Avila, another of the interesting cities of Castile, whose time-old
+mansions and palaces, built of a gray granite, lend a solemn and almost
+repulsively melancholic air to the city.
+
+Perhaps more than any other town, Avila is characteristic of the middle
+ages, of the continual strife between the noblemen, the Church, and the
+common people. The houses of the aristocrats are castles rather than
+palaces, with no artistic decoration to hide their bare nakedness; the
+cathedral is really a fortress, and not only apparently so, as in
+Salamanca and Toro, for its very apse is embedded in the city walls, of
+which it forms a part, a battlemented, turreted, and warlike projection,
+sure of having to bear the brunt of an attack in case of a siege.
+
+Like the general aspect of the city is also the character of the
+inhabitant, and it is but drawing it mildly to state that Avila's sons
+were ever foremost in battle and strife. Kings in their minority were
+brought hither by prudent mothers who relied more upon the city's walls
+than upon the promises of noblemen in Valladolid and Burgos; this trust
+was never misplaced. In the conquest of Extremadura and of Andalusia,
+also, the Avilese troops, headed by daring warrior-prelates, played a
+most important part, and, as a frontier fortress, together with Segovia,
+against Aragon to the east, it managed to keep away from Castilian
+territory the ambitions of the monarchs of the rival kingdom.
+
+Avela of the Romans was a garrison town, the walls of which were partly
+thrown down by the Western Goths upon their arrival in the peninsula.
+Previously, San Segundo, one of the disciples of the Apostles who had
+visited B�tica (Andalusia), preached the True Word in Avila, and was
+created its first bishop--in the first century. During the terrible
+persecution of the Christians under the reign of Trajanus, one San
+Vicente and his two sisters, Sabina and Cristeta, escaped from Portugal
+and came to Avila, hoping to be hospitably received. All in vain; their
+heads were smashed between stones, and their bodies left to rot in the
+streets. An immense serpent emerged from the city walls and kept guard
+over the three saintly corpses. The first to approach was a Jew, drawn
+hither by curiosity; he was immediately enveloped by the reptile's body.
+On the point of being strangled, he pronounced the word, "Jesus"--and
+the serpent released him. So grateful was the Jew at being delivered
+from death that he turned Christian and erected a church in honour of
+San Vicente, Sabina, and Cristeta, and had them buried within its walls.
+
+This church subsisted throughout the dark ages of the Moorish invasion
+until at last Fernando I. removed the saintly remains to Leon in the
+eleventh century. The church was then destroyed, and, it is believed,
+the present cathedral was built on the same spot.
+
+The Moors, calling the city Abila, used it as one of the fortresses
+defending Toledo on the north against the continual Christian raids;
+with varying success they held it until the end of the eleventh century,
+when it finally fell into the hands of the Christians, and was
+repopulated a short time before Salamanca toward the end of the same
+century.
+
+During the centuries of Moorish dominion the see had fallen into the
+completest oblivion, no mention being made of any bishops of Avila; the
+ecclesiastical dignity was re�stablished immediately after the final
+conquest of the region to the north of the Sierra of Guaderrama, and
+though documents are lacking as to who was the first prelate _de
+modernis_, it is generally believed to have been one Jeronimo, toward
+the end of the eleventh century.
+
+The city grew rapidly in strength; settlers came from the north--from
+Castile and Leon--and from the east, from Aragon; they travelled to
+their new home in bullock-carts containing household furniture,
+agricultural and war implements, wives, and children.
+
+In the subsequent history of Spain Avila played an important part, and
+many a stirring event took place within its walls. It was besieged by
+the Aragonese Alfonso el Batallador, whose army advanced to the attack
+behind its prisoners, sons of Avila. Brothers, fathers, and relatives
+were thus obliged to fire upon their own kin if they wished to save
+their city. The same king, it is said, killed his hostages by having
+their heads cut off and boiled in oil, as though severed heads were
+capable of feeling the delightful sensation of seething oil!
+
+Of all the traditions as numerous here as elsewhere, the prettiest and
+most improbable is doubtless that of Nalvillos, a typical chevalier of
+romance, who fell desperately in love with a beautiful Moorish princess
+and wedded her. She pined, however, for a lover whom in her youth she
+had promised to wed, and though her husband erected palaces and bought
+slaves for her, she escaped with her sweetheart. Nalvillos followed the
+couple to where they lay retired in a castle, and it was surrounded by
+him and his trusty followers. The hero himself, disguised as a seller of
+curative herbs, entered the apartment where his wife was waiting for her
+lover's return, and made himself known. The former's return, however,
+cut matters short, and Nalvillos was obliged to hide himself. The
+Moorish girl was true to her love, and told her sweetheart where the
+Christian was hiding; brought out of his retreat, he was on the point of
+being killed when he asked permission to blow a last blast on his
+bugle--a wish that was readily conceded by the magnanimous lover. The
+result? The princess and her sweetheart were burnt to death by the
+flames ignited by Nalvillos's soldiers. The Christian warrior was, of
+course, able to escape.
+
+In 1455 the effigy of Henry IV. was dethroned in Avila by the prelates
+of Toledo and other cities, and by an assembly of noblemen who felt that
+feudalism was dying out, and were anxious to strike a last blow at the
+weak king whom they considered was their enemy.
+
+The effigy was placed on a throne; the Archbishop of Toledo harangued
+the multitude which, silent and scowling, was kept away from the throne
+by a goodly number of obedient mercenary soldiers. Then the prelate tore
+off the mock crown, another of the conspirators the sceptre, another the
+royal garments, and so on, each accompanying his act by an ignominious
+curse. At last the effigy was torn from the throne and trampled under
+the feet of the soldiers. Alfonso, a boy of eleven, stepped on the dais
+and was proclaimed king. His hand was kissed by the humble (!) prelates
+and noblemen, who swore allegiance, an oath they had not the slightest
+intention of keeping, and did not keep, either.
+
+Philip III.'s decree expelling Moors from Spain, was, as in the case of
+Plasencia, the _coup de grace_ given to the city's importance; half the
+population was obliged to leave, and Avila never recovered her lost
+importance and influence. To-day, with only about ten thousand
+inhabitants, thrown in the background by Madrid, it manages to keep
+alive and nothing more.
+
+The date when the erection of the cathedral church of Avila was begun is
+utterly unknown. According to a pious legend, it was founded by the
+third bishop, Don Pedro, who, being anxious to erect a temple worthy of
+his dignity, undertook a long pilgrimage to foreign countries in search
+of arms, and returned to his see in 1091. Sixteen years later, according
+to the same tradition, the present cathedral was essentially completed,
+a bold statement that cannot be accepted because in manifest
+contradiction with the build of the church.
+
+According to Se�or Quadrado, the oldest part of the building, the apse,
+was probably erected toward the end of the twelfth century. It is a
+massive, almost windowless, semicircular body, its bare walls
+unsupported by buttresses, and every inch of it like the corner-tower of
+a castle wall, crenelated and flat-topped.
+
+The same author opines that the transept, a handsome, broad, and airy
+ogival nave, dates from the fourteenth century, whereas the western
+front of the church is of a much more recent date.
+
+Be that as it may, the fact is that the cathedral of Avila, seen from
+the east, west, or north, is a fortress building, a huge, unwieldy and
+anti-artistic composition of Romanesque, Gothic, and other elements. The
+western front, with its heavy tower to the north, and the lack of such
+to the south, appears more gloomy than ever on account of the obscure
+colour of the stone; the fa�ade above the portal is of one of the most
+peculiar of artistic conceptions ever imagined; above the first body or
+the pointed arch which crowns the portal comes the second body, divided
+from the former by a straight line, which supports eight columns
+flanking seven niches; on the top of this unlucky part comes an ogival
+window. The whole fa�ade is narrow--one door--and high. The effect is
+disastrous: an unnecessary contortion or misplacement of vertical,
+horizontal, slanting, and circular lines.
+
+The tower is flanked at the angles by two rims of stone, the edges of
+which are cut into _bolas_ (balls). If this shows certain _Mudejar_
+taste, so, also, do the geometrical designs carved in relief against a
+background, as seen in the arabesques above the upper windows.
+
+The northern portal, excepting the upper arch, which is but slightly
+curved and almost horizontal, and weighs down the ogival arches, is far
+better as regards the artist's conception of beauty; the stone carving
+is also of a better class.
+
+Returning to the interior of the building, preferably by the transept,
+the handsomest part of the church, the spectator perceives a double
+ambulatory behind the high altar; the latter, as well as the choir, is
+low, and a fine view is obtained of the ensemble. The central nave,
+almost twice as high and little broader than the aisles, is crowned by a
+double triforium of Gothic elegance.
+
+Seen from the transept, it would appear as though there were four aisles
+on the west side instead of two, a peculiar deception produced by the
+lateral opening of the last chapels, exactly similar in construction
+to the arch which crowns the intersection of the aisles and transept.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the northern and southern extremity of the transept two handsome
+rosaces, above a row of lancet windows, let in the outside light through
+stained panes.
+
+The impression produced by the interior of the cathedral is greatly
+superior to that received from without. In the latter case curiosity is
+about the only sentiment felt by the spectator, whereas within the
+temple does not lack a simple beauty and mystery.
+
+As regards sculptural details, the best are doubtless the low reliefs to
+be seen to the rear of the choir, as well as several sepulchres, of
+which the best--and one of the best Renaissance monuments of its kind in
+Spain--is that of the Bishop Alfonso Tostado in the ambulatory. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is also a magnificent piece of work of the
+second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the
+sixteenth.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+
+Avila's twin sister, Segovia, retains its old Celtiberian name; it
+retains, also, the undeniable proofs of Roman domination in its
+far-famed aqueduct and in its amphitheatre.
+
+According to the popular tradition, San Hierateo, the disciple of St.
+Paul, was the first bishop in the first century, but probably the see
+was not erected until about 527, when it is first mentioned in a
+Tolesian document; the name of the first bishop (historical) is Peter,
+who was present at the third Council in Toledo (589).
+
+The local saint is one San Fruto, who, upon the approach of the Saracen
+hosts, gathered together a handful of fugitives and retired to the
+mountains; his brother Valentine and his sister Engracia (of Aragonese
+fame?) died martyrs to their belief. San Fruto, on the other hand, lived
+the life of a hermit in the mountains and wrought many miracles, such
+as splitting open a rock with his jack-knife, etc. The most miraculous
+of his deeds was the proof he gave to the Moors of the genuineness of
+the Catholic religion: on a tray of oats he placed the host and offered
+it to a mule, which, instead of munching oats and host, fell on its
+knees, and perhaps even crossed itself!
+
+Disputed by Arabs and Christians, like all Castilian towns, Segovia
+lagged along until it fell definitely into the hands of the latter. A
+Christian colony seems, nevertheless, to have lived in the town during
+the Arab dominion, because the documents of the time speak of a Bishop
+Ilderedo in 940.
+
+The exact year of the repopulation of Segovia is not known, but
+doubtless it was a decade or so prior to either that of Salamanca or
+Avila.
+
+Neither was the warlike spirit of the inhabitants inferior to that of
+their brethren in the last named cities. It was due to their bravery
+that Madrid fell into the hands of the Christians toward 1110, for,
+arriving late at the besieging camp, the king, who was present, told
+them that if they wished to pass the night comfortably, there was but
+one place, namely, the city itself. Without a moment's hesitation the
+daring warriors dashed at the walls of Madrid, and, scaling them, took a
+tower, where they passed the night at their ease, and to their monarch's
+great astonishment.
+
+In 1115, the first bishop _de modernis_, Don Pedro, was consecrated, and
+the cathedral was begun at about the same time. Several of the
+successive prelates were battling warriors rather than spiritual
+shepherds, and fought with energy and success against the infidel in
+Andalusia. One, Don Gutierre Gir�n, even found his death in the terrible
+defeat of the Christian arms at Alarcon.
+
+The event which brought the greatest fame to Segovia was the erection of
+its celebrated Alc�zar, or castle, the finest specimen of military
+architecture in Spain. Every city had its citadel, it is true, but none
+were so strong and invulnerable as that of Segovia, and in the stormy
+days of Castilian history the monarchs found a safe retreat from the
+attacks of unscrupulous noblemen behind its walls.
+
+Until 1530 the old cathedral stood at the back of the Alc�zar, but in a
+revolution of the Comuneros against Charles-Quint, the infuriated mob,
+anxious to seize the castle, tore down the temple and used its stones,
+beams, stalls, and railings as a means to scale the high walls of the
+fortress. Their efforts were in vain, for an army came to the relief of
+the castle from Valladolid; a general pardon was, nevertheless, granted
+to the population by the monarch, who was too far off to care much what
+his Spanish subjects did. After the storm was over, the hot-headed
+citizens found themselves with a bishop and a chapter, but without a
+church or means wherewith to erect a new one.
+
+The struggles between city and fortress were numerous, and were the
+cause, in a great measure, of the town's decadence. Upon one occasion,
+Isabel the Catholic infringed upon the citizens' rights by making a gift
+of some of the feudal villages to a court favourite. The day after the
+news of this infringement reached the city, by a common accord the
+citizens "dressed in black, did not amuse themselves, nor put on clean
+linen; neither did they sweep the house steps, nor light the lamps at
+night; neither did they buy nor sell, and what is more, they boxed their
+children's ears so that they should for ever remember the day." So great
+were the public signs of grief that it has been said that "never did a
+republic wear deeper mourning for the loss of its liberties."
+
+The end of the matter was that the queen in her famous testament revoked
+her gift and returned the villages to the city.
+
+The old cathedral was torn down in November, 1520, and it was not until
+June, 1525, that the bishop, who had made a patriotic appeal to all
+Spaniards in behalf of the church funds, laid the first stone of the new
+edifice. Thirty years later the building was consecrated.
+
+Nowhere else can a church be found which is a more thorough expression
+of a city's fervour and enthusiasm. It was as though the sacrilegious
+act of the enraged mob reacted on the penitent minds of the calmed
+citizens, for rich and poor alike gave their alms to the cathedral
+chapter. Jewels were sold, donations came from abroad, feudal lords gave
+whole villages to the church, and the poor men, the workmen, and the
+peasants gave their pennies. Daily processions arrived at Santa Clara,
+then used as cathedral church, from all parts of the diocese. To-day
+they were composed of tradesmen, of _Z�nfte_, who gave their offerings
+of a few pounds; to-morrow a village would bring in a cartload of
+stone, of mortar, of wood, etc. On holidays and Sundays the repentant
+citizens, instead of amusing themselves at the dance or bull-fight,
+carted materials for their new cathedral's erection, and all this they
+did of their own free will.
+
+[Illustration: SEGOVIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The act of consecrating the finished building constituted a grand
+holiday. The long aqueduct was illuminated from top to bottom, as was
+also the cathedral tower, and every house in the city. During a week the
+holiday-making lasted with open-air amusements for the poor and banquets
+for the rich.
+
+The date of the construction of the new building was contemporaneous
+with that of Salamanca, and the architect was, to a certain extent, the
+same. It is not strange, therefore, that both should resemble each other
+in their general disposition. What is more, the construction in both
+churches was begun at the foot (west), and not in the east, as is
+generally the case. The oldest part of the building is consequently the
+western front, classic in its outline, but showing among its ogival
+details both the symmetry and triangular pediment of Renaissance art.
+The tower, higher than that of Sevilla, and broader than that of Toledo,
+is simple in its structure; it is Byzantine, and does not lack a
+certain _cachet_ of elegance; the first body is surmounted by a dome,
+upon which rises the second,--smaller, and also crowned by a cupola. The
+tower was twice struck by lightning and partly ruined in 1620; it was
+rebuilt in 1825, and a lightning conductor replaced the cross of the
+spire.
+
+Though consecrated, as has been said, in 1558, the new temple was by no
+means finished: the transept and the eastern end were still to be built.
+The latter was finished prior to 1580, and in 1615 the Renaissance dome
+which surmounts the _crois�e_ was erected by an artist-architect, who
+evidently was incapable of giving it a true Gothic appearance.
+
+The apse, with its three harmonizing _�tages_ corresponding to the
+chapels, aisles, and nave, and flanked by leaning buttresses ornamented
+with delicate pinnacles, is Gothic in its details; the ensemble is,
+nevertheless, Renaissance, thanks to a perfect symmetry painfully
+pronounced by naked horizontal lines--so contradictory to the spirit of
+true ogival. Less regularity and a greater profusion of buttresses, and
+above all of flying buttresses, would have been more agreeable, but the
+times had changed and new tastes had entered the country.
+
+Neither does the broad transept, its fa�ade,--either southern or
+northern,--and the cupola join, as it were, the eastern and the western
+half of the building; on the contrary, it distinctly separates them, not
+to the building's advantage.
+
+The interior is gay rather than solemn: the general disposition of the
+parts is as customary in a Gothic church of the Transition
+(Renaissance). The nave and transept are of the same width; the lateral
+chapels, running along the exterior walls of the aisles, are
+symmetrical, as in Salamanca; the ambulatory separates the high altar
+from the apse and its seven chapels.
+
+The pavement of the church is of black and white marble slabs, like that
+of Toledo, for instance; as for the stained windows, they are numerous,
+and those in the older part of the building of good (Flemish?)
+workmanship and of a rich colour, which heightens the happy expression
+of the whole building.
+
+The cloister is the oldest part of the building, having pertained to the
+previous cathedral. After the latter's destruction, and the successful
+erection of the new temple, the cloister was transported stone by stone
+from its old emplacement to where it now stands. It is a handsome and
+richly decorated Gothic building, containing many tombs, among them
+those of the architects of the cathedral and of Maria del Salto. This
+Mary was a certain Jewess, who, condemned to death, and thrown over the
+Pe�a Grajera, invoked the aid of the Virgin, and was saved.
+
+Another tomb is that of Prince Don Pedro, son of Enrique II., who fell
+out of a window of the Alc�zar. His nurse, according to the tradition,
+threw herself out of the window after her charge, and together they were
+picked up, one locked in the arms of the other.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+MADRID-ALCAL�
+
+
+Though Madrid was proclaimed the capital of Spain in the sixteenth
+century, it was not until 1850 that its collegiate church of San Isidro
+was raised to an episcopal see.
+
+The appointment met with a storm of disapproval in the neighbouring town
+of Alcal� de Henares, the citizens claiming the erection of the
+ecclesiastical throne in their own collegiate, instead of in Madrid.
+Their reasons were purely historical, as will be seen later on, whereas
+the capital lacked both history and ecclesiastical significance.
+
+To pacify the inhabitants of Alcal�, and at the same time to raise
+Madrid to the rank of a city, the following arrangement was made: the
+newly created see was to be called Madrid-Alcal�; the bishop was to
+possess two cathedral churches, and both towns were to be cities.
+
+Such is the state of affairs at present. The recent governmental
+closure of the old cathedral in Alcal� has deprived the partisans of the
+double see of one of their chief arguments, namely, the possession of a
+worthy temple, unique in the world as regards its organization.
+Consequently, it is generally stated that the title of Madrid-Alcal�
+will die out with the present bishop, and that the next will simply be
+the Bishop of Madrid.
+
+
+_Madrid_
+
+The city of Madrid is new and uninteresting; it is an overgrown village,
+with no buildings worthy of the capital of a kingdom. From an
+architectural point of view, the royal palace, majestic and imposing,
+though decidedly poor in style, is about the only edifice that can be
+admired.
+
+In history, Madrid plays a most unimportant part until the times of
+Philip II., the black-browed monarch who, intent upon erecting his
+mausoleum in the Escorial, proclaimed Madrid to be the only capital.
+That was in 1560; previously Magerit had been an Arab fortress to the
+north of Toledo, and the first in the region now called Castilla la
+Nueva (New Castile), to distinguish it from Old Castile, which lies to
+the north of the mountain chain.
+
+Most likely Magerit had been founded by the Moors, though, as soon as it
+had become the capital of Spain, its inhabitants, who were only too
+eager to lend their town a history it did not possess, invented a series
+of traditions and legends more ridiculous than veracious.
+
+On the slopes of the last hill, descending to the Manzanares, and beside
+the present royal palace, the Christian conquerors of the Arab fortress
+in the twelfth century discovered an effigy of the Virgin, in an
+_almudena_ or storehouse. This was the starting-point for the traditions
+of the twelfth-century monks who discovered (?) that this effigy had
+been placed where it was found by St. James, according to some, and by
+the Virgin herself, according to others; what is more, they even
+established a series of bishops in Magerit previous to the Arab
+invasion.
+
+No foundations are of course at hand for such fabulous inventions, and
+if the effigy really were found in the _almudena_, it must have been
+placed there by the Moors themselves, who most likely had taken it as
+their booty when sacking a church or convent to the north.
+
+The patron saint of Madrid is one Isidro, not to be confounded with San
+Isidoro of Leon. The former was a farmer or labourer, who, with his
+wife, lived a quiet and unpretentious life in the vicinity of Madrid, on
+the opposite banks of the Manzanares, where a chapel was erected to his
+memory sometime in the seventeenth century. Of the many miracles this
+saint is supposed to have wrought, not one differs from the usual deeds
+attributed to holy individuals. Being a farmer, his voice called forth
+water from the parched land, and angels helped his oxen to plough the
+fields.
+
+Save the effigy of the Virgin de la Almudena, and the life of San
+Isidro, Madrid has no ecclesiastical history,--the Virgin de la Atocha
+has been forgotten, but she is only a duplicate of her sister virgin.
+Convents and monasteries are of course as numerous as elsewhere in
+Spain; brick parish churches of a decided Spanish-Oriental appearance
+rear their cupolas skyward in almost every street, the largest among
+them being San Francisco el Grande, which, with San Antonio de la
+Florida (containing several handsome paintings by Goya), is the only
+temple worth visiting.
+
+As regards a cathedral building, there is, in the lower part of the
+city, a large stone church dedicated to San Isidro; it serves the stead
+of a cathedral church until a new building, begun about 1885, will have
+been completed.
+
+This new building, the cathedral properly speaking, is to be a tenth
+wonder; it is to be constructed in granite, and its foundations stand
+beside the royal palace in the very spot where the Virgin de la Almudena
+was found, and where, until 1869, a church enclosed the sacred effigy;
+the new building is to be dedicated to the same deity.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new cathedral proceeds but slowly; so far
+only the basement stones have been laid and the crypt finished. The
+funds for its erection are entirely dependent upon alms, but, as the
+religious fervour which incited the inhabitants of Segovia in the
+sixteenth century is almost dead to-day, it is an open question whether
+the cathedral of Madrid will ever be finished.
+
+The temporary cathedral of San Isidro was erected in the seventeenth
+century; its two clumsy towers are unfinished, its western front,
+between the towers, is severe; four columns support the balcony, behind
+which the cupola, which crowns the _crois�e_, peeps forth.
+
+Inside there is nothing worthy of interest to be admired except some
+pictures, one of them painted by the Divino Morales. The nave is light,
+but the chapels are so dark that almost nothing can be seen in their
+interior.
+
+This church, until the expulsion of the Jesuits, was the temple of their
+order, dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul; adjoining it a Jesuit school
+was erected, which has been incorporated in the government colleges.
+
+
+_Alcal� de Henares_
+
+About twenty miles to the east of Madrid lies the one-time glorious
+university city of Alcal�, famous above all things for having been the
+cradle of Cervantes, and the hearth, if not the home, of Cardinal
+Cisneros.
+
+Its history and its decadence are of the saddest; the latter serves in
+many respects as an adequate symbol of Spain's own tremendous downfall.
+
+[Illustration: SAN ISIDRO, MADRID]
+
+The Romans founded Alcal�; it was their Complutum, of which some few
+remains have been discovered in the vicinity of the modern city. Yet,
+notwithstanding this lack of substantial evidence, the inhabitants of
+the region still proudly call themselves Complutenses.
+
+When the West Goths were rulers of the peninsula, the Roman monuments
+must have been completely destroyed, for all traces of the strategic
+stronghold were effaced from the map of Spain. The invading Arabs,
+possessing to a certain degree both Roman military instinct and
+foresight, built a fortress on the spot where the State Archives
+Building stands to-day. This castle was used by them as one of Toledo's
+northern defences against the warlike Christian kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the fortress fell into the hands of the
+Christians; in the succeeding centuries it was strongly rebuilt by the
+cardinal-archbishops of Toledo, who used it both as their palace and as
+their stronghold.
+
+Outside the bastioned and turreted walls of the castle, the new-born
+city grew up under its protecting shadows. Known by the Arabic name of
+its fortress (Al-Kal�), it was successively baptized Alcal� de San
+Justo, Alcal� de Fenares, and since the sixteenth century, Alcal� de
+Henares (_heno_, old Spanish _feno_, meaning hay). Protected by such
+powerful arms as those of the princes of the Church, it grew up to be a
+second Toledo, a city of church spires and convent walls, but of which
+only a reduced number stand to-day to point back to the religious
+fervour of the middle ages.
+
+The world-spread fame acquired by Alcal� in the fifteenth century was
+due to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros, who built the university, at
+one time one of the most celebrated in Europe, and to-day a mere
+skeleton of architectural beauty.
+
+The same prelate raised San Justo to a suffragan church; its chapter was
+composed only of learned professors of the university, as were also its
+canons; Leon X. gave it the enviable title of La Magistral, the Learned,
+which points it out as unique in the Christian world. The Polyglot
+Bible, published in the sixteenth century, and famous in all Europe, was
+worked out by these scholars under Cisneros's direction, and the
+favoured city outshone the newly built Madrid twenty miles away, and
+rivalled Salamanca in learning, and Toledo in worldly and religious
+splendour.
+
+Madrid grew greater and greater as years went by, and consequently
+Alcal� de Henares dwindled away to the shadow of a name. The university,
+the just pride of the Complutenses, was removed to the capital; the
+cathedral, for lack of proper care, became an untimely ruin; the
+episcopal palace was confiscated by the state, which, besides repairing
+it, filled its seventy odd halls with rows upon rows of dusty documents
+and governmental papers.
+
+To-day the city drags along a weary, inactive existence: soldiers from
+the barracks and long-robed priests from the church fill the streets,
+and are as numerous as the civil inhabitants, if not more so; convents
+and cloisters of nuns, either grass-grown ruins or else sombre grated
+and barred edifices, are to be met with at every step.
+
+Strangers visit the place hurriedly in the morning and return to Madrid
+in the afternoon; they buy a tin box of sugar almonds (the city's
+specialty), carelessly examine the university and the archiepiscopal
+palace, gaze unmoved at some Cervantes relics, and at the fa�ade of the
+cathedral. Besides, they are told that in such and such a house the
+immortal author of Don Quixote was born, which is a base, though
+comprehensible, invention, because no such house exists to-day.
+
+That is all; perchance in crossing the city's only square, the traveller
+notices that it can boast of no fewer than three names, doubtless with a
+view to hide its glaring nakedness. These three names are Plaza de
+Cervantes, Plaza Mayor, and Plaza de la Constituci�n, of which the
+latter is spread out boldly across the town hall and seems to invoke the
+remembrance of the ephemeral efforts of the republic in 1869.
+
+In the third century after the birth of Christ, two infants, Justo and
+Pastor, preached the True Word to the unbelieving Roman rulers of
+Complutum. The result was not in the least surprising: the two infants
+lost their baby heads for the trouble they had taken in trying to
+trouble warriors.
+
+But the Vatican remembered them, and canonized Pastor and Justo.
+Hundreds of churches, sown by the blood of martyrs, grew up in all
+corners of the peninsula to commemorate pagan cruelty, and to induce all
+men to follow the examples set by the two babes.
+
+No one knew, however, where the mortal remains of Justo and Pastor were
+lying. In the fourth century their resting-place was miraculously
+revealed to one Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, who had them removed to
+his cathedral. They did not stay long in the primate city, for the
+invasion of the Moors obliged all True Believers to hide Church relics.
+Thus, Justo and Pastor wandered forth again from village to village,
+running away from the infidels until they reposed temporarily in the
+cathedral of Huesca in the north of Aragon.
+
+In Alcal� their memory was kept alive in the parish church dedicated to
+them. But as the city grew, it was deemed preferable to build a solid
+temple worthy of the saintly pair, and Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo,
+had the old church pulled down and began the erection of a larger
+edifice. This took place in the middle of the fifteenth century, when
+Ximenez de Cisneros, who ruled the fate of Spain and its church, gave it
+the ecclesiastical constitution previously mentioned.
+
+Fifty years later the weary bodies of the two infants were brought back
+in triumph to their native town amid the rejoicings and admiration of
+the people, and were placed in the cathedral of San Justo, then a
+collegiate church of Toledo.
+
+A few years ago the cathedral church of San Justo was denounced by the
+state architect and closed. To-day it is a dreary ruin, with tufts of
+grass growing among the battlements. The chapter, depriving the hoary
+building of its high altar, its precious relics and paintings, its
+stalls and other accessories, installed the cathedral in the Jesuit
+temple, an insignificant building in the other extremity of the town.
+Recently the abandoned ruin has been declared a national monument, which
+means that the state is obliged to undertake its restoration.
+
+La Magistral is a brick building of imposing simplicity and severity in
+its general outlines. Its decorative elements are ogival, but of true
+Spanish nakedness and lack of elegance. Though Renaissance principles
+have not entered into the composition, as might have been supposed,
+considering the date of the erection, nevertheless, the lack of flying
+buttresses, the scarcity of windows, the undecorated angles of the
+western front, the barren walls, and flat-topped, though slightly
+sloping, roofs prove that the "simple and severe style" is latent in the
+minds of artists.
+
+[Illustration: ALCAL� DE HENARES CATHEDRAL]
+
+The apse is well developed, and the _crois�e_ surmounted by a cupola;
+the tower which flanks the western front is massive; it is decorated
+with blind arches and ogival arabesques.
+
+The ground plan of the building is Latin Cruciform; the aisles are but
+slightly lower than the nave and join in the apse behind the high altar
+in an ambulatory walk. The crypt, reached by two Renaissance doors in
+the _trasaltar_, is spacious, and contains the bodies of San Justo and
+San Pastor.
+
+The general impression produced on the mind of the tourist is sadness.
+The severity of the structure is heightened by the absence of any
+distracting decorative elements, excepting the fine _Mudejar_ ceiling to
+the left upon entering.
+
+In the reigning shadows of this deserted temple, two magnificent tombs
+stand in solitude and silence. They are those of Carillo and Cardinal
+Cisneros, the latter one of the greatest sons of Spain and one of her
+most contradictory geniuses. His sepulchre is a gorgeous marble monument
+of Renaissance style, surrounded by a massive bronze grille of excellent
+workmanship, a marvel of Spanish metal art of the sixteenth century.
+The other sepulchre is simple in its ogival decorations, and the
+prostrate effigy of Carillo is among the best to be admired by the
+tourist in Iberia.
+
+Carillo's life was that of a restless, ambitious, and worldly man. When
+he died, he was buried in the Convent of San Juan de Dios, where his
+illegitimate son had been buried before him, "for," said the
+archbishop-father, "if in life my robes separated me from my son, in
+death we shall be united."
+
+But he reckoned without his host, or rather his successor, the man whose
+remains now lie beside his own in the shadows of the great ruin. "For,"
+said Cisneros, "the Church must separate man from his sin even in
+death." So he ordered the son to be left in the convent, and the father
+to be brought to the temple he had begun to erect.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SIG�ENZA
+
+
+The origin of the fortress admirably situated to the north of
+Guadalajara was doubtless Moorish, though in the vicinity is Villavieja,
+where the Romans had established a town on the transverse road from
+Cadiz to Tarragon, and called by them Seguncia, or Segoncia.
+
+When the Christian religion first appeared in Spain, it is believed that
+Sig�enza, or Segoncia, possessed an episcopal see; nothing is positively
+known, however, of the early bishops, until Protogenes signed the third
+Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+It is believed that in the reign of Alfonso VI., he who conquered Toledo
+and the region to the south of Valladolid and as far east as Aragon,
+Sig�enza was repopulated, though no mention is made of the place in the
+earlier chronicles of the time. All that is known is that a bishop was
+immediately appointed by Alfonso VII. to the vacancy which had lasted
+for over two hundred years, during which Sig�enza had been one of the
+provincial capitals of the Kingdom of Toledo. The first known bishop was
+Don Bernardo.
+
+The history of the town was never of the most brilliant. In the times of
+Alfonso VII. and his immediate successors it gained certain importance
+as a frontier stronghold, as a check to the growing ambitions of the
+royal house of Aragon. But after the union of Castile and Aragon, its
+importance gradually dwindled; to-day, if it were not for the bishopric,
+it would be one historic village more on the map of Spain.
+
+In the reign of Peter the Cruel, its castle--considered with that of
+Segovia to be the strongest in Castile--was used for some time as the
+prison palace for that most unhappy princess, Do�a Blanca, who, married
+to his Catholic Majesty, had been deposed on the third day of the
+wedding by the heartless and passionate lover of the Padilla. She was at
+first shut up in Toledo, but the king did not consider the Alc�zar
+strong enough. So she was sent off to Sig�enza, where it is popularly
+believed, though documents deny it, that she died, or was put to death.
+
+The city belonged to the bishop; it was his feudal property, and passed
+down to his successors in the see. Of the doings of these
+prelate-warriors, the first, Don Bernardo, was doubtless the most
+striking personality, lord of a thousand armed vassals and of three
+hundred horse, who fought with the emperor in almost all the great
+battles in Andalusia. It is even believed he died wielding the naked
+sword, and that his remains were brought back to the town of which he
+had been the first and undisputed lord.
+
+The strong castle which crowns the city did not possess, as was
+generally the case, an _alcalde_, or governor; it was the episcopal
+palace or residence, a circumstance which proves beyond a doubt the
+double significance of the bishop: a spiritual leader and military
+personage, more influential and wealthy than any prelate in Spain,
+excepting the Archbishops of Toledo and Santiago.
+
+During the French invasion in the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+Sig�enza had already lost its political significance. The invaders
+occupied the castle, and, as was their custom, threw documents and
+archives into the fire, to make room for themselves, and to spend the
+winter comfortably.
+
+Consequently, the notices we have of the cathedral church are but
+scarce. The fourth bishop was Jocelyn, an Englishman who had come over
+with Eleanor, Henry II.'s daughter, and married to the King of Castile.
+He (the bishop) was not a whit less warlike than his predecessors had
+been; he helped the king to win the town of Cuenca, and when he died on
+the battle-field, only his right arm was carried back to the see, to the
+chapel of St. Thomas of Canterbury, which the dead prelate had founded
+in the new cathedral, and it was buried beneath a stone which bears the
+following inscription:
+
+    "_Hic est inclusa Jocelini pr�sulis ulna._"
+
+From the above we can conclude that the cathedral must have been begun
+previous to the Englishman's coming to Spain, that is, in the beginning
+of the twelfth century. Doubtless the vaulting was not closed until at
+least one hundred years later; nevertheless, it is one of the unique and
+at the same time one of the handsomest Spanish monuments of the
+Transition period.
+
+The city of Sig�enza, situated on the slopes of a hill crowned by the
+castle, is a village rather than a town; there are, however, fewer spots
+in Spain that are more picturesque in their old age, and there is a
+certain uniformity in the architecture that reminds one of German towns;
+this is not at all characteristic of Spain, where so many styles mix and
+mingle until hardly distinguishable from each other.
+
+The Transition style--between the strong Romanesque and the airy
+ogival--is the city's _cachet_, printed with particular care on the
+handsome cathedral which stands on the slope of the hill to the north of
+the castle.
+
+Two massive square towers, crenelated at the top and pierced by a few
+round-headed windows, flank the western front. The three portals are
+massive Romanesque without floral or sculptural decoration of any kind;
+the central door is larger and surmounted by a large though primitive
+rosace. The height of the aisles and nave is indicated by three ogival
+arches cut in relief on the fa�ade; here already the mixture of both
+styles, of the round-arched Romanesque and the pointed Gothic, is
+clearly visible--as it is also in the windows of the aisles, which are
+Romanesque, and of the nave, which are ogival--in the buttresses, which
+are leaning on the lower body, and flying in the upper story, uniting
+the exterior of the clerestory with that of the aisles. (Compare with
+apse of the cathedral of Lugo.)
+
+The portal of the southern arm of the transept is an ugly addition, more
+modern and completely out of harmony with the rest. The rosace above the
+door is one of the handsomest of the Transition period in Spain, and the
+stained glass is both rich and mellow.
+
+The interior shows the same harmonious mixture of the stronger and more
+solemn old style, and the graceful lightness of the newer. But the
+hesitancy in the mind of the architect is also evident, especially in
+the vaulting, which is timidly arched.
+
+The original plan of the church was, doubtless, purely Romanesque: Roman
+cruciform with a three-lobed apse, the central one much longer so as to
+contain the high altar.
+
+In the sixteenth century, however, an ambulatory was constructed behind
+the high altar, joining the two aisles, and the high altar was removed
+to the east of the transept.
+
+What a pity that the huge choir, placed in the centre of the church,
+should so completely obstruct the view of the ensemble of the nave and
+aisles, separated by massive Byzantine arches between the solid pillars,
+which, in their turn, support the nascent ogival vaulting of the high
+nave! Were it, as well as the grotesque _trascoro_--of the unhappiest
+artistic taste--anywhere but in the centre of the church, what a
+splendid view would be obtained of the long, narrow, and high aisles and
+nave in which the old and the new were moulded together in perfect
+harmony, instead of fighting each other and clashing together, as
+happened in so many Spanish cathedral churches!
+
+One of the most richly decorated parts of the church is the sacristy, a
+small room entirely covered with medallions and sculptural designs of
+the greatest variety of subjects. Though of Arabian taste (_Mudejar_),
+no Moorish elements have entered into the composition, and consequently
+it is one of the very finest, if not the very best specimen, of
+Christian Arab decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CUENCA
+
+
+To the east of Toledo, and to the north of the plains of La Mancha,
+Cuenca sits on its steep hill surrounded by mountains; a high stone
+bridge, spanning a green valley and the rushing river, joined the city
+to a mountain plateau; to-day the medi�val bridge has been replaced by
+an iron one, which contrasts harshly with the somnolent aspect of the
+landscape.
+
+Never was a city founded in a more picturesque spot. It almost resembles
+G�schenen in Switzerland, with the difference that whereas in the last
+named village a white-washed church rears its spire skyward, in Cuenca a
+large cathedral, rich in decorative accessories, and yet sombre and
+severe in its wealth, occupies the most prominent place in the town.
+
+Of the origin of the city nothing is known. In the tenth and the
+eleventh centuries Conca was an impregnable Arab fortress. In 1176 the
+united armies of Castile and Aragon, commanded by two sovereigns,
+Alfonso VIII. of Castile and Alfonso II. of Aragon, laid siege to the
+fortress, and after nine months' patience, the Alc�zar surrendered.
+According to the popular tradition, it was won by treachery: one Martin
+Alhaxa, a captive and a shepherd by trade, introduced the Christians
+disguised with sheepskins into the city through a postern gate.
+
+As the conquest of Cuenca had cost the King of Castile such trouble (his
+Aragonese partner had not waited to see the end of the siege), and as he
+was fully conscious of its importance as a strategical outpost against
+Aragon to the north and against the Moors to the south and east, he laid
+special stress on the city's being strongly fortified; he also gave
+special privileges to such Christians as would repopulate, or rather
+populate, the nascent town. A few years later Pone Lucio III. raised the
+church to an episcopal see, appointing Juan Ya�ez, a Tolesian Muzarab,
+to be its first bishop (1183).
+
+Unlike Sig�enza, a feudal possession of the bishop, Cuenca belonged
+exclusively to the monarch of Castile; the castle was consequently held
+in the sovereign's name by a governor,--at one time there were even four
+who governed simultaneously. Between these governors and the inhabitants
+of the city, fights were numerous, especially during the first half of
+the fifteenth century, the darkest and most ignoble period of Castilian
+history.
+
+The story is told of one Do�a Inez de Barrientos, granddaughter of a
+bishop on her mother's side, and of a governor on that of her father. It
+appears that her husband had been murdered by some of the wealthiest
+citizens of the town. Feigning joy at her spouse's death, the widow
+invited the murderers to her house to a banquet, when, "_despu�s de
+op�para cena_ (after an excellent dinner), they passed from the lethargy
+of drunkenness to the sleep of eternity, assassinated by hidden
+servants." The following morning their bodies hung from the windows of
+the palace, and provoked not anger but silent dread and shivers among
+the terror-stricken inhabitants.
+
+With the Inquisition, the siege by the English in 1706, the invasion of
+the French in 1808, Cuenca rapidly lost all importance and even
+political significance. To-day it is one of the many picturesque ruins
+that offer but little interest to the art traveller, for even its old
+age is degenerated, and the monuments of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
+fifteenth centuries have one and all been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and by the less grasping hand of _restauradores_--or
+architect-repairers.
+
+The Byzantine character, the Arab taste of the primitive inhabitants,
+has also been lost. Who would think, upon examining the cathedral, that
+it had served once upon a time as the principal Arab mosque? Entirely
+rebuilt, as were most of the primitive Arab houses, it has lost all
+traces of the early founders, more so than in other cities where the
+Arabs remained but a few years.
+
+The patron saint of Cuenca is San Julian, one of the cathedral's first
+bishops, who led a saintly life, giving all he had and taking nothing
+that was not his, and who retired from his see to live the humble life
+of a basket-maker, seated with willow branches beneath the arches of the
+high bridge, and preaching saintly words to teamsters and mule-drivers
+as they approached the city, until his death in 1207.
+
+In the same century the Arab mosque was torn down and the new cathedral
+begun. It is a primitive ogival (Spanish) temple of the thirteenth
+century, with smatterings of Romanesque-Byzantine. Unlike the cathedral
+of Sig�enza, it is neither elegant, harmonious, nor of great
+architectural value; its wealth lies chiefly in the chapels, in the
+doors which lead to the cloister, in the sacristy, and in the elegant
+high altar.
+
+The cloister door is perhaps one of the finest details of the cathedral
+church: decorated in the plateresque style general in Spain in the
+sixteenth century, it offers one of the finest examples of said style to
+be found anywhere, and though utterly different in ornamentation to the
+sacristy of Sig�enza, it nevertheless resembles it in the general
+composition.
+
+The nave, exceedingly high, is decorated by a blind triforium of ogival
+arches; the aisles are sombre and lower than the nave. On the other
+hand, the transept, broad and simple, is similar to the nave and as long
+as the width of the church, including the lateral chapels. The _crois�e_
+is surmounted by a _cimborio_, insignificant in comparison to those of
+Salamanca, Zamora, and Toro.
+
+The northern and southern extremities of the transept differ from each
+other as regard style. The southern has an ogival portal surmounted by a
+rosace; the northern, one that is plateresque, the rounded arch,
+delicately decorated, reposing on Corinthian columns.
+
+The eastern end of the church has been greatly modified--as is clearly
+seen by the mixture of fifteenth-century styles, and not to the
+advantage of the ensemble. Byzantine pillars, and even horseshoe arches,
+mingle with Gothic elements.
+
+Of the chapels, the greater number are richly decorated, not only with
+sepulchres and sepulchral works, but with paintings, some of them by
+well-known masters.
+
+Taken all in all, the cathedral of Cuenca does not inspire any of the
+sentiments peculiar to religious temples. Not the worst cathedral in
+Spain, by any means, neither as regards size nor majesty, it
+nevertheless lacks conviction, as though the artist who traced the
+primitive plan miscalculated its final appearance. The additions, due to
+necessity or to the ruinous state of some of the parts, were luckless,
+as are generally all those undertaken at a posterior date.
+
+The decorative wealth of the chapels, which is really astonishing in so
+small a town, the luxurious display of grotesque elements, the presence
+of a fairly good _transparente_, as well as the rich leaf-decoration of
+Byzantine pillars and plateresque arches, give a peculiar _cachet_ to
+this church which is not to be found elsewhere.
+
+The same can be said of the city and of the inhabitant. In the words of
+an authority, "Cuenca is national, it is Spanish, it is a typical rural
+town." Yet, it is so typical, that no other city resembles it.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+TOLEDO
+
+
+A forest of spires and _alminar_ towers rising from a roof-covered hill
+to pierce the distant azure sky; a ruined cemetery surrounded on three
+sides by the rushing Tago as it cuts out a foaming path through
+foothills, and stretching away on the fourth toward the snow-capped
+Sierra de Gredo in the distance, beyond the fruitful prairies and the
+intervening plains of New Castile.
+
+Such is Toledo, the famous, the wonderful, the legend-spun primate city
+of all the Spains, the former wealthy capital of the Spanish Empire!
+
+Madrid usurped all her civic honours under the reign of Philip II., he
+who lost the Armada and built the Escorial. Since then Toledo, like
+Alcal� de Henares, Segovia, and Burgos, has dragged along a forlorn
+existence, frozen in winter and scorched in summer, and visited at all
+times of the year by gaping tourists of all nationalities.
+
+Even the approach to the city from the mile distant station is
+peculiarly characteristic. Seated in an old and shaky omnibus, pulled by
+four thrashed mules, and followed along the dusty road by racing
+beggars, who whine their would-be French, "_Un p'it sou, mouchieur_,"
+with surprising alacrity and a melancholy smile in their big black eyes,
+the visitor is driven sharply around a bluff, when suddenly Toledo, the
+mysterious, comes into sight, crowning the opposite hill.
+
+At a canter the mules cross the bridge of Alc�ntara and pass beneath the
+gateway of the same name, a ponderous structure still guarding the
+time-rusty city as it did centuries ago when Toledo was the Gothic
+metropolis. Up the winding road, beneath the solemn and fire-devastated
+walls of the Alc�zar, the visitor is hurriedly driven along; he
+disappears from the burning sunlight into a gloomy labyrinth of
+ill-paved streets to emerge a few minutes later in the principal square.
+
+A shoal of yelling, gesticulating interpreters literally grab at the
+tourist, and in ten seconds exhaust their vocabulary of foreign words.
+At last one walks triumphantly off beside the newcomer, while the
+others, with a depreciative shrug of the shoulders and extinguishing
+their volcanic outburst of energy, loiter around the square smoking
+cigarettes.
+
+It does not take the visitor long to notice that he is in a great
+arch�ological museum. The streets are crooked and narrow, so narrow that
+the tiny patch of sky above seems more brilliant than ever and farther
+away, while on each side are gloomy houses with but few windows, and
+monstrous, nail-studded doors. At every turn a church rears its head,
+and the cheerless spirit of a palace glares with a sadly vacant stare
+from behind wrought-iron _rejas_ and a complicated stone-carved blazon.
+Rarely is the door opened; when it is, the passer catches a glimpse of a
+sun-bathed courtyard, gorgeously alive with light and many flowers. The
+effect produced by the sudden contrast between the joyless street and
+the sunny garden, whose existence was never dreamt of, is delightful and
+never to be forgotten; from Th�ophile Gautier, who had been in Northern
+Africa, land of Mohammedan harems, it wrung the piquant exclamation:
+"The Moors have been here!"
+
+Every stick, stone, mound, house, lantern, and what not has its legend.
+In this humble _posada_, Cervantes, whose ancestral castle is on yonder
+bluff overlooking the Tago, wrote his "_Ilustre Fregona_." The family
+history of yonder fortress-palace inspired Zorilla's romantic pen, and a
+thousand and one other objects recall the past,--the past that is
+Toledo's present and doubtless will have to be her future.
+
+Gone are the days when Tolaitola was a peerless jewel, for which Moors
+and Christians fought, until at last the Believers of the True Faith
+drove back the Arabs who fled southward from whence they had emerged.
+Long closed are also the famous smithies, where swords--Tolesian blades
+they were then called--were hammered so supple that they could bend like
+a watchspring, so strong they could cleave an anvil, and so sharp they
+could cut an eiderdown pillow in twain without displacing a feather.
+
+Distant, moreover, are the nights of _capa y espada_ and of miracles
+wrought by the Virgin; dwindled away to a meagre shadow is the princely
+magnificence of the primate prelates of all the Spains, of those
+spiritual princes who neither asked the Pope's advice nor received
+orders from St. Peter at Rome. Besides, of the two hundred thousand
+souls proud to be called sons of Toledo in the days of Charles-Quint,
+but seventeen thousand inhabitants remain to-day to guard the nation's
+great city-museum, unsullied as yet by progress and modern civilization,
+by immense advertisements and those other necessities of daily life in
+other climes.
+
+The city's history explains the mixture of architectural styles and the
+bizarre modifications introduced in Gothic, Byzantine, or Arab
+structures.
+
+Legends accuse Toledo of having been mysteriously founded long before
+the birth of Rome on her seven hills. To us, however, it first appears
+in history as a Roman stronghold, capital of one of Hispania's
+provinces.
+
+St. James, as has been seen, roamed across this peninsula; he came to
+Toledo. So delighted was he with the site and the people--saith the
+tradition--that he ordained that the city on the Tago should contain the
+primate church of all the Spains.
+
+The vanquished Romans withdrew, leaving to posterity but feeble ruins to
+the north of the city; the West Goths built the threatening city walls
+which still are standing, and, having turned Christians, their King
+Recaredo was baptized in the river's waters, and Toledo became the
+flourishing capital of the Visigothic kingdom (512 A.D.).
+
+The Moors, in their northward march, conquered both the Church and the
+state. Legends hover around the sudden apparition of Berber hordes in
+Andalusia, and accuse Rodrigo, the last King of the Goths, of having
+outraged Florinda, a beautiful girl whom he saw, from his palace window,
+bathing herself in a marble bath near the Tago,--the bath is still shown
+to this day,--and with whom he fell in love. The father, Count Julian,
+Governor of Ceuta, called in the Moors to aid him in his righteous work
+of vengeance, and, as often happens in similar cases, the allies lost no
+time in becoming the masters and the conquerors.
+
+Nearly four hundred years did the Arabs remain in their beloved
+Tolaitola; the traces of their occupancy are everywhere visible: in the
+streets and in the _patios_, in fanciful arabesques, and above all in
+Santa Maria la Blanca.
+
+The Spaniards returned and brought Christianity back with them. They
+erected an immense cathedral and turned mosques into chapels without
+altering the Oriental form.
+
+Jews, Arabs, and Christians lived peacefully together during the four
+following centuries. Together they created the _Mudejar_ style tower of
+San Tomas and the Puerta de Sol. Pure Gothic was transformed, rendered
+even more insubstantial and lighter, thanks to Oriental decorative
+motives. In San Juan de los Reyes, the _Mudejar_ style left a unique
+specimen of what it might have developed into had it not been murdered
+by the Renaissance fresh from Italy, where Aragonese troops had
+conquered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
+
+With the first Philips--and even earlier--foreign workmen came over to
+Toledo in shoals from Germany, France, Flanders, and Italy. They also
+had their way, more so than in any other Spanish city, and their tastes
+helped to weld together that incongruous mass of architectural styles
+which is Toledo's alone of all cities. Granada may have its Alhambra,
+and Cordoba its mosque; Leon its cathedral and Segovia its Alc�zar, but
+none of them is so luxuriously rich in complex grandeur and in the
+excellent--and yet frequently grotesque--confusion of all those art
+waves which flooded Spain. In this respect Toledo is unique in Spain,
+unique in the world. Can we wonder at her being called a museum?
+
+The Alc�zar, which overlooks the rushing Tago, is a symbol of Toledo's
+past. It was successively burnt and rebuilt; its four fa�ades, here
+stern and forbidding, there grotesque and worthless, differ from each
+other as much as the centuries in which they were built. The eastern
+fa�ade dates from the eleventh, the western from the fifteenth, and the
+other two from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
+
+But other arts than those purely architectural are richly represented in
+Toledo. For Spain's capital in the days following upon the fall of
+Granada was a centre of industrial arts, where both foreign and national
+workmen, heathen, Jews, and Christians mixed, wrought such wonders as
+have forced their way into museums the world over; besides, Tolesian
+sculptors are among Spain's most famous.
+
+As regards painting, one artist's life is wrapped up in that of the
+wonderful city on the Tago; many of his masterworks are to be seen in
+Toledo's churches and in the provincial museum. I refer to Domenico
+Theotocopuli, he who was considered a madman because he was a genius,
+and who has been called _el Greco_ when really he ought to have been
+called _el Toledano_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+If Toledo is the nation's architectural museum, the city's cathedral,
+the huge imposing Gothic structure, is, beyond a doubt, an incomparable
+art museum. Centuries of sculptors carved marble and _berroque�a_;
+armies of artisans wrought marvels in cloths, metals, precious stones,
+glass, and wood, and a host of painters, both foreign and national, from
+Goya and Ribera to the Greco and Rubens, painted religious compositions
+for the sacristy and chapels.
+
+Consequently, and besides the architectural beauty of the primate church
+of Spain, what interests perhaps more keenly than the study of the
+cathedral's skeleton, is the study of the ensemble, of that wealth of
+decorative designs and of priceless art objects for which the temple is
+above all renowned.
+
+Previous to the coming of the Moors in the eighth century, a humble
+cathedral stood where the magnificent church now lifts its
+three-hundred-foot tower in the summer sky. It had been built in the
+sixth century and dedicated to the Virgin, who had appeared in the
+selfsame spot to San Ildefonso, when the latter, ardent and vehement,
+had defended her Immaculate Honour before a body of skeptics.
+
+The Moors tore down or modified the cathedral, and erected their
+principal mosque in its stead. When, three hundred years later, they
+surrendered their Tolaitola to Alfonso VI. (1085), they stipulated for
+the retention of their _mezquita_, a clause the king, who had but little
+time to lose squabbling, was only too glad to allow.
+
+The following year, however, King Alfonso went off on a campaign,
+leaving his wife Do�a Constanza and the Archbishop Don Bernardo to look
+after the city in his absence. No sooner was his back turned, when, one
+fine morning, Don Bernardo arrived with a motley crowd of goodly
+Christians in front of the mosque. He knocked in the principal door,
+and, entering, threw out into the street the sacred objects of the Islam
+cult. Then the Christians proceeded to set up an altar, a crucifix, and
+an image of the Virgin; the archbishop hallowed his work, and in an hour
+was the smiling possessor of his see. Strange to say, Don Bernardo was
+no Spaniard, but a worthy Frenchman.
+
+The news of this outrage upon his honour brought Alfonso rushing back to
+Toledo, vowing to revenge himself upon those who had seemingly made him
+break his royal word; on the way he was met by a committee of the Arab
+inhabitants, who, clever enough to understand that the sovereign would
+reinstate the mosque, but would ever after look upon them as the cause
+of his rupture with his wife and his friend the prelate, asked the king
+to pardon the evil-doers, stating that they renounced voluntarily their
+mosque, knowing as they did that the other conditions of the surrender
+would be sacredly adhered to by his Majesty.
+
+Thanks to this noble (cunning) attitude on the part of the outraged
+Moors, the latter were able to live at peace within the walls of Toledo
+well into the seventeenth century.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century Fernando el Santo was
+King of Castile, and his capital was the city on the Tago. The growing
+nation was strong and full of ambition, while the coming of the Cluny
+monks and Flemish and German artisans had brought Northern Gothic
+across the frontiers. So it occurred to the sovereign and his people to
+erect a primate cathedral of Christian Spain worthy of its name. In 1227
+the first stone was laid by the pious warrior-king. The cathedral's
+outline was traced: a Roman cruciform Gothic structure of five aisles
+and a bold transept; two flanking towers,--of which only the northern
+has been constructed, the other having been substituted by a cupola of
+decided Byzantine or Oriental taste,--and a noble western fa�ade of
+three immense doors surmounted by a circular rosace thirty feet wide.
+
+The size of the building was in itself a guarantee that it would be one
+of the largest in the world, being four hundred feet long by two hundred
+broad, and one hundred feet high at the intersection of transept and
+nave.
+
+[Illustration: TOLEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It took 250 years for the cathedral to be built, and even then it was
+not really completed until toward the middle of the eighteenth century.
+In the meantime the nation had risen to its climax of power and wealth,
+and showered riches and jewels upon its great cathedral. Columbus
+returned from America, and the first gold he brought was handed over to
+the archbishop; foreign artisans--especially Flemish and
+German--arrived by hundreds, and were employed by Talavera, Cisneros,
+and Mendoza, in the decoration of the church. Unluckily, additions were
+made: the pointed arches of the fa�ade were surmounted by a rectangular
+body which had nothing in common with the principle set down when the
+cathedral was to have been purely ogival.
+
+The interior of the church was also enlarged, especially the high altar,
+the base of which was doubled in size. The _retablo_ of painted wood was
+erected toward the end of the fifteenth century, as well as many of the
+chapels, which are built into the walls of the building, and are as
+different in style as the saints to whom they are dedicated.
+
+As time went on, and the rich continued sending their jewels and relics
+to the cathedral, the Treasury Room, with its pictures by Rubens, D�rer,
+Titian, etc., and with its _sagrario_,--a carved image of Our Lady,
+crowning an admirably chiselled cone of silver and jewels, and covered
+over with the richest cloths woven in gold, silver, silk, and precious
+stones,--was gradually filled with hoarded wealth. Even to-day, when
+Spain has apparently reached the very low ebb of her glory, the
+cathedral of Toledo remains almost intact as the only living
+representative of the grandeur of the Church and of the arts it fostered
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Almost up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the building was
+continually being enlarged, modified, and repaired. Six hundred years
+since the first stone had been laid! What vicissitudes had not the
+country seen--and how many art waves had swept over the peninsula!
+
+Gothic is traceable throughout the building: here it is flamboyant,
+there rayonnant. Here the gold and red of _Mudejar_ ceilings are
+exquisitely represented, as in the chapter-room; there Moorish influence
+in _azulejos_ (multicoloured glazed tiles) and in decorative designs is
+to be seen, such as in the horseshoe arches of the triforium in the
+chapel of the high altar. Renaissance details are not lacking, nor the
+severe plateresque taste (in the grilles of the choir and high altar),
+and neither did the grotesque style avoid Spain's great cathedral, for
+there is the double ambulatory behind the high altar, that is to say,
+the _transparente_, a circular chapel of the most gorgeous
+ultra-decoration to be found anywhere in Spain.
+
+Signs of decadence are unluckily to be observed in the cathedral to-day.
+The same care is no longer taken to repair fallen bits of carved stone;
+pigeon-lamps that burn little oil replace the huge bronze lamps of other
+days, and no new additions are being made. The cathedral's apogee has
+been reached; from now on it will either remain intact for centuries, or
+else it will gradually crumble away.
+
+Seen from the exterior, the cathedral does not impress to such an extent
+as it might. Houses are built up around it, and the small square to the
+south and west is too insignificant to permit a good view of the
+ensemble.
+
+Nevertheless, the spectator who is standing near the western fa�ade,
+either craning his neck skyward or else examining the seventy odd
+statues which compose the huge portal of the principal entrance, is
+overawed at the immensity of the edifice in front of him, as well as
+amazed at the amount of work necessary for the decorating of the portal.
+
+The Puerta de los Leones, or the southern entrance giving access to the
+transept, is perhaps of a more careful workmanship as regards the
+sculptural decoration. The door itself, studded on the outside with
+nails and covered over with a sheet of bronze of the most exquisite
+workmanship in relief, is a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of metal-stamping of the
+sixteenth century, whilst the wood-carving on the interior is among the
+finest in the cathedral.
+
+The effect produced on the spectator within the building is totally
+different. The height and length of the aisles, which are buried in
+shadows,--for the light which enters illuminates rather the chapels
+which are built into the walls between the flying
+buttresses,--astonishes; the _factura_ is severe and beautiful in its
+grand simplicity.
+
+Not so the chapels, which are decorated in all manner of styles, and
+ornamented in all degrees of lavishness. The largest is the Muzarab
+chapel beneath the dome which substitutes the missing tower; except the
+dome, this chapel, where the old Gothic Rite (as opposed to the
+Gregorian Rite) is sung every day in the year, is constructed in pure
+Gothic; it contains a beautiful Italian mosaic of the Virgin as well as
+frescoes illustrating Cardinal Cisneros's African wars, when the
+battling prelate thought it was his duty to bear the crucifix and
+Spanish rights into Morocco as his royal masters had carried them into
+Granada.
+
+The remaining chapels, some of them of impressive though generally
+complex structure, will have to be omitted here. So also the sacristy
+with its wonderful picture by the Greco, and the chapter-room with the
+portraits of all the archbishops, the elegant carved door, and the
+well-preserved _Mudejar_ ceiling, etc. And we pass on to the central
+nave, and stand beneath the _crois�e_. To the east the high altar, to
+the west the choir, claim the greater part of our attention. For it is
+here that the people centred their gifts.
+
+The objects used on the altar-table are of gold, silver, jasper, and
+agate; the _monstrance_ in the central niche of the altar-piece is also
+of silver, and the garments worn by the effigy are woven in gold, silk,
+and precious stones. The two immense grilles which close off the high
+altar and the eastern end of the choir are of iron, tin, and copper,
+gilded and silvered, having been covered over with black paint in the
+nineteenth century so as to escape the greedy eyes--and hands!--of the
+French soldiery. The workmanship of these two _rejas_ is of the most
+sober Spanish classic or plateresque period, and though the black has
+not as yet been taken off, the silver and gold peep forth here and
+there, and show what a brilliancy must have radiated from these
+elegantly decorated bars and cross-bars in the eighteenth century.
+
+The three tiers of choir stalls, carved in walnut, are among the very
+finest in Spain, both as regards the accomplished craftsmanship and the
+astonishing variety in the composition. The two organs, opposite each
+other and attaining the very height of the nave, are the best in the
+peninsula, whilst the designs of the marble pavement, red and white in
+the high altar, and black and white in the choir, only add to the
+luxurious effect produced by statues, pulpits, and other accessories,
+either brilliantly coloured, or else wrought in polished metal or stone.
+
+The altar-piece itself, slightly concave in shape, is the largest, if
+not the best, of its kind. It is composed of pyramidically superimposed
+niches flanked by gilded columns and occupied by statues of painted and
+gilded wood. The effect from a distance is dazzling,--the reds, blues,
+and gold mingle together and produce a multicoloured mass reaching to
+the height of the nave; on closer examination, the workmanship is seen
+to be both coarse and na�ve,--primitive as compared to the more finished
+_retablos_ of Burgos, Astorga, etc.
+
+To conclude: The visitor who, standing between the choir and the high
+altar of the cathedral, looks at both, stands, as it were, in the
+presence of an immense riddle. He cannot classify: there is no purity of
+one style, but a medley of hundreds of styles, pure in themselves, it is
+true, but not in the ensemble. Besides, the personality of each has been
+lost or drowned, either by ultra-decoration or by juxtaposition. A
+collective value is thus obtained which cannot be pulled to pieces, for
+then it would lose all its significance as an art unity--a complex art
+unity, in this case peculiar to Spain.
+
+Neither is repose, meditation, or frank admiration to be gleaned from
+such a gigantic _potpourri_ of art wonders, but rather a feeling--as far
+as we Northerners are concerned--of amazement, of stupor, and of an
+utter impossibility to understand such a luxurious display of idolatry
+rather than of faith, of scenic effect rather than of discreet prayer.
+
+But then, it may just be this idolatry and love of scenic effect which
+produces in the Spaniard what we have called _religious awe_. We feel it
+in a long-aisled Gothic temple; the Spaniard feels it when standing
+beneath the _crois�e_ of his cathedral churches.
+
+The whole matter is a question of race.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+_Appendices_
+
+
+I
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain_
+
+
+II
+
+_Dimensions and Chronology_
+
+ASTORGA
+
+See dedicated to Saviour and San Toribio.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see, 1st century (oldest in peninsula).
+
+First historical bishop, Dominiciano, 347 A. D.
+
+During Arab invasion see was being continually destroyed and rebuilt.
+
+1069, first cathedral (on record) was erected.
+
+1120, second cathedral was erected.
+
+XIIIth century, third cathedral was erected.
+
+1471, fourth (present) cathedral was begun; terminated XVIth century.
+
+XVth and XVIth century ogival; imitation of that of Leon.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Northern front, plateresque retablo.
+
+
+AVILA
+
+Dedicated to San Salvador.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Segundo, in Ist century.
+
+See destroyed during Arab invasion.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Jeronimo in XIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of foundation and erection unknown.
+
+Legendary foundation, 1091; finished in 1105 (?).
+
+Late XIIth century Spanish Gothic fortress church.
+
+Apse XIIth century; transept XIVth century.
+
+Western front XVth century; tower late XIVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Width of transept and of nave, 30 feet.
+
+Width of aisles, 25 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Exterior of apse, nave and transept with rose
+windows, tomb of Bishop Tostada.
+
+
+BURGOS
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Mary and Son.
+
+Bishopric erected, 1075; archbishopric, 1085.
+
+First bishop, Don Sim�n; first archbishop, Gomez II.
+
+* * *
+
+Present cathedral begun, 1221.
+
+First holy mass celebrated in altar-chapel, 1230.
+
+Building terminated 300 years later (1521).
+
+XIIIth-XIVth century Spanish ogival.
+
+* * *
+
+Length (excluding Chapel of Condestable), 273 feet.
+
+Length of transept, 195 feet; width, 32 feet.
+
+Height of lantern crowning crois�e, 162 feet.
+
+Height of western front, 47 feet.
+
+Height of towers, 273 feet; width at base, 19 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 31 feet; of aisles, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, interior decoration, lantern on
+crois�e, the Chapel of the Condestable, choir, high altar, etc. (With
+that of Toledo, the richest cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+CALAHORRA
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio and San Celedonio, martyrs.
+
+Bishopric erected Vth century; first bishop, Silvano.
+
+Daring Arab invasion see removed to Oviedo (750).
+
+Removed to Alava in IXth century; in Xth century, to N�jera.
+
+In 1030, moved again to Calahorra; first bishop, Don Sancho.
+
+Since XIXth century, one bishop appointed to double see Calahorra-Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+This double see to be removed to Logro�o.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in XIIth century; terminated in XIVth century.
+
+XIIIth century Gothic (body of church only).
+
+Western front of a much later date.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Choir-stalls.
+
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin and Child.
+
+Origin of bishopric in Calabria under Romans (legendary?).
+
+Foundation of city in 1150; erection of see, 1170.
+
+First bishop, Domingo, 1170.
+
+See nominally suppressed in 1870; in reality the suppression has not
+taken place as yet.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1160.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Tower and western front date from XVIIIth century.
+
+Lady-chapel from XVIth century.
+
+Building suffered considerably from French in 1808.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Romanesque narthex, cloister, choir-stalls,
+Romanesque doors leading into transept.
+
+
+CORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+Date of erection, 338.
+
+First known bishop, Laquinto, in 589.
+
+During Moorish domination the bishopric entirely destroyed.
+
+See re�stablished toward beginning XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun in 1120.
+
+Terminated in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Is an unimportant village church rather than a cathedral.
+
+One aisle, 150 feet long, 52 feet wide, 84 feet high.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Paseo, or cloister walk; in lady-chapel, sepulchre of
+XVIth century.
+
+
+CUENCA
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Erected in 1183.
+
+First bishop, Juan Ya�ez.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIIth century ogival church greatly deteriorated, in a ruinous state.
+
+Tower which stood on western end fell down recently.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 312 feet; width, 140 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cloister door, chapels.
+
+
+LEON
+
+See dedicated to San Froilan and Santa Maria de la Blanca.
+
+Date of erection not known.
+
+First known bishop, Basilides, 252 A.D.
+
+During Arab invasion, see existed on and off.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid in 1199.
+
+The building did not begin until 1250; terminated end of XIVth century.
+
+XIIth century French ogival.
+
+Vaulting above crois�e fell down in 1631.
+
+Southern front rebuilt in 1694.
+
+Whole cathedral partly ruined in 1743.
+
+Closed to public by government in 1850.
+
+Reopened in 1901.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 300 feet; width, 130 feet; height of nave, 100 feet.
+
+Height of northern tower, 211 feet; of southern, 221 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 97 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, windows, choir-stalls, cloister.
+
+
+LOGRO�O
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Santa Maria raised to collegiate church in 1435.
+
+Old building torn down in same year, excepting some few remains.
+
+Present church begun in 1435; not terminated yet.
+
+Enlargements being introduced at the present date.
+
+Belongs to Spanish-Grotesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, trascoro, towers.
+
+
+LUGO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected in Vth century; first bishop, Agrestio, in 433.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral began in 1129; completed in 1177.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Building greatly reformed in XVIth to XVIIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), western portal, exterior of
+apse.
+
+
+MADRID-ALCAL�
+
+See erected in 1850.
+
+MADRID
+
+Temporary cathedral dedicated to San Isidro.
+
+Seventeenth century building of no art merit.
+
+New cathedral dedicated to the Virgen de la Almudena.
+
+In course of construction; begun in 1885.
+
+ALCAL�
+
+Dedicated to Santos Justo and Pastor; called la Magistral.
+
+In a ruinous state; closed, and see temporarily removed to Jesuit
+temple.
+
+Constructed in XVth century, and raised to suffragan in same century.
+
+Severe and naked (gloomy) Spanish-Gothic.
+
+Interior of building cannot be visited.
+
+
+MONDO�EDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Bishopric removed here from Ribadeo, late XIIth century.
+
+First (or second) bishop, Don Martin, about 1219.
+
+* * *
+
+Foundation of cathedral dates probably from XIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century Galician Romanesque structure.
+
+Greatly spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Ambulatory dates from XVth or XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in form; 120 feet long by 71 wide.
+
+Height of nave, 45 feet; of aisles, 28 feet.
+
+
+ORENSE
+
+See dedicated to St. Martin of Tours and St. Mary Mother.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to IVth century (?).
+
+* * *
+
+Erection of present building begun late XIIth century.
+
+Probably terminated late XIIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century, Galician Romanesque with pronounced ogival mixture.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Portico del Paraiso, western portal, decoration of
+the interior.
+
+
+OSMA
+
+See dedicated to San Pedro de Osma.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see in 91 A. D.
+
+First bishop, San Astorgio.
+
+First historical bishop, Juan I, in 589.
+
+Destruction of see during Arab invasion.
+
+See restored, 1100; first bishop, San Pedro de Osma.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIth century cathedral destroyed in XIIIth century, excepting a few
+chapels.
+
+Erection of new cathedral begun in 1232; terminated, beginning XIVth
+century.
+
+XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic (not pure).
+
+Ambulatory introduced in XVIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Retablo, reliefs of trasaltar.
+
+
+OVIEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected, 812; first bishop, Adulfo.
+
+* * *
+
+Until XIIth century cathedral was a basilica; destroyed.
+
+Romanesque edifice erected in XIIth century; destroyed 1380.
+
+Present edifice begun 1380; completed 1550.
+
+XVth century ogival (French?).
+
+Decoration of the interior terminated XVIIth century.
+
+Tower and spire, XVIth century.
+
+Camara Santa dates from XIIth century; a remnant of the early Romanesque
+edifice.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 218 feet; width, 72 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 65 feet; of aisles, 33 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 267 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Fl�che, decoration of the interior, rosaces in apse,
+Gothic retablo, cloister, Camara Santa.
+
+
+PALENCIA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child and San Antolin, martyr.
+
+Date of erection unknown; IId or IIId century.
+
+One of the earliest bishops, San Toribio.
+
+During the Arab invasion city and see completely destroyed.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo, in 1035.
+
+* * *
+
+XVth century florid Gothic building.
+
+Erection begun in 1321.
+
+Eastern end finished prior to 1400.
+
+Century later western end begun on larger scale.
+
+Temple completed in 1550.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 405 feet.
+
+Width (at transept), 160 feet.
+
+Height (of nave), 95 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior and exterior), Bishop's Door,
+choir-stalls, trascoro.
+
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+Dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Erection of see 12 years after foundation city (1190).
+
+First bishop, Domingo; second, Adam; both were warrior prelates.
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral (few remains left) commenced in beginning XIVth century.
+
+Partially destroyed to make room for--
+
+New cathedral, commenced in 1498.
+
+XVIth century Renaissance-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ultra-decorated and ornamented in later centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Choir-stalls, western entrance, decorative motives,
+sepulchres.
+
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+Bishopric existed in Vth century. First known bishop, Eleuterio (589).
+
+VIIIth century, devoid of notices concerning see.
+
+Xth century, 7 bishops mentioned--living in Leon or Oviedo.
+
+XIth century, no news, even name of city forgotten.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Jeronimo of Valencia (1102).
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral still standing; city possesses therefore two cathedrals.
+
+OLD CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to St. Mary (Santa Maria de la Sede).
+
+In 1152 already in construction; not finished in 1299.
+
+XIIth or XIIIth century, Castilian Romanesque with ogival mixture.
+
+Nave, 33 feet wide, 190 feet long, 60 feet high.
+
+Aisles, 20 feet wide, 180 feet long, 40 feet high.
+
+Thickness of walls, 10 feet.
+
+Part of cathedral demolished to make room for new in 1513.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cimborio, central apsidal chapel, and retablo.
+
+
+NEW CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to the Mother and Saviour.
+
+Begun in 1513; not completed until XVIIIth century.
+
+Originally Late Gothic building. Plateresque, Herrera and grotesque
+additions.
+
+Compare churches of Valladolid and Segovia.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; 378 feet long, 181 feet wide.
+
+Height of nave, 130 feet; that of aisles, 88 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 50 feet; of aisles, 37 feet.
+
+Length (and width) of chapels, 28 feet; height, 54 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 320 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western fa�ade, decorative wealth, ensemble.
+
+
+SANTANDER
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio, martyr, and to the Virgin.
+
+Monastical church of San Emeterio raised to collegiate in XIIIth
+century.
+
+Bishopric erected in 1775.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church built in XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Crypt, fount.
+
+
+SANTIAGO
+
+See dedicated to St. James, patron saint of Spain.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to 842; first bishop, Sisnando.
+
+Archbishopric erected XIIth century; first archbishop, Diego Galmirez.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun, 1078; terminated, 1211.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque building.
+
+Exterior suffered grotesque and plateresque repairs, XVIIth century.
+
+Cloister dates from 1530.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 305 feet; width (at transept), 204 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 78 feet; of aisles, 23 feet; of cupola, 107 feet; of
+tower (de la Trinidad), 260 feet; of western towers, 227 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 114 feet; width, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), Portico de la Gloria, crypt,
+cloister, southern portal.
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO DE LA CALZADA
+
+See dedicated to Santo Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+Bishopric dates from 1227.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1150.
+
+Terminated, 1250.
+
+XIIth-XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic structure.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: The retablo, XVth and XVIth sepulchres.
+
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+See dedicated to San Fruto and the Virgin.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Hierateo, in Ist century.
+
+See known to have existed in 527.
+
+First historical bishop, Peter (589).
+
+During Arab invasion only one bishop mentioned, Ilderedo, 940.
+
+First bishop after the Reconquest, Don Pedro, in 1115.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid, 1525.
+
+Cathedral consecrated, 1558; finished in 1580.
+
+Cupola erected in 1615.
+
+Gothic-Renaissance building.
+
+Tower struck by lightning and partly ruined, 1620.
+
+Rebuilt (tower) in 1825.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 341 feet; width, 156 feet.
+
+Height of dome, 218 feet.
+
+Width of nave and transept, 44 feet; aisles, 33 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Old cloister, apse, tower.
+
+
+SIG�ENZA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child.
+
+First known bishop, Protogenes, in VIth century.
+
+During Arab invasion no mention is made of see.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo (1195).
+
+Fourth bishop an Englishman, Jocelyn.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of erection of the cathedral unknown.
+
+Probably XIIth or XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ambulatory added in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 313 feet; width, 112 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 68 feet; of aisles, 63 feet.
+
+Circumference of central pillar, 50 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, sacristy, rose window in southern
+transept arm.
+
+
+SORIA
+
+See to be moved here from Osma.
+
+Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+Raised to suffragan of Osma in XIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+XVIth century, Gothic-plateresque building.
+
+XIIth century, western front; Castilian Romanesque.
+
+XIIth century, Romanesque cloister.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, cloister.
+
+
+TOLEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mother and her Apparition to San Ildefonso.
+
+Bishopric erected prior to 513 A. D.
+
+One of first bishops is San Ildefonso.
+
+During Arab domination see remains vacant.
+
+First archbishop, Don Bernardo (1085).
+
+Primate cathedral of all the Spains since XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present building laid in 1227.
+
+Church completed in 1493.
+
+Additions, repairs, etc., dating from XVIth-XVIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 404 feet; width, 204 feet; height of tower, 298 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 98 feet.
+
+Height of principal door, 20 feet; width, 7 feet.
+
+Diameter of rose window in western front, 30 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, decorative and industrial accessories,
+chapter-room, sacristy, paintings, bell-tower, etc. (The richest
+cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+TORO
+
+Collegiate Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+* * *
+
+Existence of bishopric cannot be proven, though believed to have been
+erected during first decade of Reconquest in Xth century.
+
+Is definitely made a suffragan of Zamora in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral--or collegiate--erected end of XIIth or beginning of XIIIth
+century.
+
+Castilian Romanesque building.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Military aspect of building, height of walls, massive
+cimborio.
+
+
+TUY
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
+
+Bishopric erected in VIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral erected in first half XIIth century.
+
+Suffered greatly from earthquakes, especially in 1755.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque in spoilt conditions.
+
+Western porch or narthex dates from XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, northern portal, cloister.
+
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+Santa Maria la Antigua raised to suffragan of Palencia, 1074.
+
+Church built in XIIth century, Castilian Romanesque.
+
+Ruins still to be seen to rear of--
+
+Santa Maria la Mayor. Seat of archbishopric since 1850.
+
+Bishopric established, 1595; first bishop, Don Bartolom�.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in 1585 by Juan de Herrera.
+
+Continued XVIIth century by Churriguera.
+
+Escorial style spoilt by grotesque decoration.
+
+Tower falls down in 1841; new one being erected.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; length, 411 feet; width, 204 feet.
+
+Transept half-way between apse and western front.
+
+Crois�e surmounted by cupola.
+
+Only one of four towers was constructed.
+
+
+VITORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+St. Mary erected to collegiate, XVth century.
+
+Bishopric erected in XIXth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church erected in XIVth century.
+
+XIVth century Late Gothic structure of no art interest.
+
+Tower of XVIth and XVIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: In sacristy a canvas called Piety.
+
+
+ZAMORA
+
+See dedicated to San Atilano and the Holy Mother.
+
+Bishopric established 905; first bishop, San Atilano.
+
+Destroyed by Moors in 998; vacancy not filled until 1124.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Bernardo.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral commenced 1151; vaulting terminated 1174.
+
+XIIth century Castilian Romanesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The cimborio, southern entrance.
+
+
+III
+
+_A List of the Provinces of Spain and of the Middle Age States or
+Kingdoms from which they have evolved._
+
+   _Principal Kingdoms_ _Conquered States_ _Present-day Provinces_
+
+    Castile              Galicia            La Coru�a*
+                                            Lugo*
+                                            Orense*
+                                            Pontevedra*
+                         Asturias*          Oviedo*
+                         Leon               Leon*
+                                            Palencia*
+                                            Zamora*
+                         Basque Provinces   Guipuzcua*
+                                            Vizcaya*
+                                            Alava*
+                         Rioja              Logro�o*
+                         Old Castile        Santander*
+                                            Burgos*
+                                            Soria*
+                                            Valladolid*
+                                            Avila*
+                                            Segovia*
+                                            Salamanca*
+                         New Castile        Madrid*
+                                            Guadalajara*
+                                            Toledo*
+                                            Cuenca*
+                                            Ciudad Real*
+                         Extremadura        Caceres*
+                                            Badajoz
+                         Andalusia          Sevilla
+                                            Huelva
+                                            Cadiz
+                                            Cordoba
+                                            Jaen
+                         Granada            Granada
+                                            Malaga
+                                            Almeria
+                         Murcia             Murcia
+                                            Albacete
+    Aragon               Aragon             Zaragoza
+                                            Huesca
+                                            Teruel
+                         Catalu�a           Barcelona
+                                            Gerona
+                                            Lerida
+                                            Tarragona
+                         Valencia           Valencia
+                                            Alicante
+                                            Castell�n
+                         Navarra            Navarra (Pamplona)
+
+     NOTES
+
+     The star (*) indicates the provinces treated of in this volume; the
+     remainder will be treated of in Volume II.
+
+     Two provinces have not been mentioned: that of the Balearic Isles
+     (belonged to the old kingdom of Aragon), and that of the Canary
+     Isles (belonged to the old kingdom of Castile).
+
+     Dates have not been indicated. For so complicated was the evolution
+     of the different states (regions) throughout the Middle Ages, that
+     a series of tables would be necessary, as well as a series of
+     geographical maps.
+
+     The above list, however, shows Spain (minus Portugal) at the death
+     of Fernando (the husband of Isabel) in 1516, as well as the
+     component parts of Castile and Aragon. The division of Spain into
+     provinces dates from 1833.
+
+     A bishopric does not necessarily coincide with a province. Thus,
+     the Province of Lugo has two sees (Lugo and Mondo�edo); on the
+     other hand, three Basque Provinces have but one see (Vitoria).
+
+     Excepting in the case of Navarra, whose capital is Pamplona, the
+     different provinces of Spain bear the name of the capital. Thus the
+     capital of the Province of Madrid is Madrid, and Jaen is the
+     capital of the province of the same name.
+
+
+
+
+_Bibliography_
+
+
+Espa�a, sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza � Historia:
+
+  Burgos, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Santander, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Navarra y Logro�o, Vol. III., by P. de Madrazo.
+
+  Soria, by N. Rabal.
+
+  Galicia, by M. Murguia.
+
+  Alava, etc., by A. Pirala.
+
+  Extremadura, by N. Diaz y Perez.
+
+Recuerdos y Bellezas de Espa�a:
+
+  Castilla La Nueva, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Asturias y Leon, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Valladolid, etc., by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Salamanca, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+Espagne et Portugal, by Baedeker.
+
+Historia del Pueblo Espa�ol (Spanish translation), by Major M. Hume.
+
+Historia de Espa�a, by R. Altamira.
+
+Toledo en la Mano, by S. Parro.
+
+Estudios Historico-Artisticos relativos � Valladolid, by Marti y Mons�.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acu�a, Don, 297, 298.
+
+Ad�n, Maria, 271;
+  Don, Bishop of Plasencia, 287, 376.
+
+Adulfo, Bishop of Oviedo, 138, 375.
+
+African Wars, 364.
+
+Agrestio, Bishop of Lugo, 373.
+
+Agricolanus, 151.
+
+Agueda River, 269.
+
+Alag�n River, 278, 280.
+
+Alarcos, Battle of, 284, 314.
+
+Alava, 198, 371.
+
+Alcal� (_See_ Alcal� de Henares).
+
+Alcal� de Fenares (_See_ Alcal� de Henares).
+
+Alcal� de Henares, 61, 64, 212, 223, 321, 322, 326-334, 349;
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches); University of, 328.
+
+Alcal� de San Justo (_See_ Alcal� de Henares).
+
+Alc�ntara, Bridge of, 350.
+
+Alc�zar (Cuenca), 343,   (Segovia) 314, 320, 355, (Toledo) 336, 350, 356.
+
+Alem�n, 275, 289.
+
+Alfonso, 307.
+
+Alfonso I., 221, 230.
+
+Alfonso II., 343.
+
+Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Alfonso IV., 153.
+
+Alfonso V., 139, 294.
+
+Alfonso VI., 198, 206, 233, 237, 253, 293, 335, 358, 359.
+
+Alfonso VII., 153, 154, 161, 162, 336.
+
+Alfonso VIII., 188, 192, 193, 210, 223, 258, 280, 284, 286, 338, 343.
+
+Alfonso IX., 258.
+
+Alfonso XI., 179, 245.
+
+Alfonso the Chaste, 102, 104, 137, 138, 139, 141.
+
+Alfonsos, Dynasty of, 103, 200.
+
+Alfonso el Batallador, 305.
+
+Al-Kal� (_See_ Alcal� de Henares).
+
+Alhambra, The, 22, 41, 355.
+
+Alhaxa, Martin, 343.
+
+Al-K�rica (_See_ Coria).
+
+Almanzor, 79, 150, 152, 171, 176, 177, 230, 232.
+
+Alps, The, 58.
+
+Altamira, Rafael, 14.
+
+Alvarez, Diego, 286.
+
+America, 29, 32, 90, 295, 296, 360.
+
+Anaya, Diego de, Tomb of, 263.
+
+Andalusia, 16, 22, 66, 67, 76, 81, 161, 191, 303, 314, 337, 354.
+
+Ansurez, Pedro, 293;
+  Family of, 294.
+
+Aquitania, 167.
+
+Arabs and Arab Invasions, 23, 38, 71, 79, 80, 111, 112, 114, 123, 124,
+147, 148, 152, 170, 177, 221, 225, 253, 254, 280, 296, 313, 323, 327,
+354, 370, 371, 372, 375, 378, 379.
+
+Aragon, 23, 25, 58, 66, 67, 68, 71, 203, 210, 303, 305, 331, 335, 336,
+342, 343.
+
+Arco de Santa Marta (Burgos), 180.
+
+Armada, The, 31, 90, 132, 189, 349.
+
+Arriago, 193.
+
+Arrianism, 153.
+
+Astorga, 70, 71, 120, 167-173, 174, 176, 197, 219, 220, 246, 369;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Asturias, 57, 66, 70, 79, 103, 104, 123, 138, 139, 146, 147, 148, 150,
+153, 162, 167, 175, 176, 177, 213.
+
+Asturica Augusta (_See_ Astorga).
+
+August�briga, 269.
+
+Auria (_See_ Orense).
+
+Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, 331.
+
+Avila, 70, 71, 253, 302-311, 312, 313, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishop);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+Baeza, 161.
+
+Baedeker, 115.
+
+Barcelona, 66.
+
+Barrientos, Inez de, 344.
+
+Bartolom�, Bishop of Valladolid, 381.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Astorga, 168.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Leon, 151, 372.
+
+Basque Provinces, 33, 192.
+
+Bay of Biscay, 189.
+
+Bayona, 131, 132;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Bayonne in Gascogne, 272.
+
+Becerra, 172.
+
+Berengario, 254.
+
+Bermudo II., 162.
+
+Bermudo III., 171, 176.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Palencia, 222, 375.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Sig�enza, 336, 337, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Archbishop of Toledo, 213, 358, 359, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Zamora, 232.
+
+Berruguete, 50, 295.
+
+B�tica (_See_ Andalusia).
+
+Bishops and Archbishops (Basilides), 168;
+  Astorga (Dominiciano), 167, 369;
+  Avila (Jeronimo), 370, (Pedro) 308, (San Segundo) 370, (Tostada) 370;
+  Burgos (Don Sim�n), 370, (Gomez II.) 370;
+  Calahorra (Don Sancho), 198, 371, (Silvano) 371;
+  Cuidad Rodrigo (Domingo), 270, 371, (Pedro Diaz) 270;
+  Coria (Laquinto), 279, 372;
+  Cuenca (Juan Ya�ez), 343, 372;
+  Iria (Theodosio), 76, 77, 78;
+  Leon (Basilides), 151, 272;
+  Lugo (Agrestio), 373, (Odoario) 104;
+  Mondo�edo (Martin), 97, 374;
+  Osma, 211, (Juan I.) 214, 375, (Pedro) 224, 375, (San Astorgio) 375;
+  Orense (Diego), 116;
+  Oviedo (Adulfo), 138, (Gutierre) 139;
+  Palencia (Bernardo), 222, 375, (San Toribio) 375;
+  Plasencia (Ad�n), 287, 376, (Domingo) 286, 376;
+  Salamanca (Eleuterio), 253, 376, (Jeronimo) 254, 305, 376;
+  Santiago, 254, 337, (Diego Galmirez) 80, 116, 377, (Sisnando), 377;
+  Segovia (Don Pedro), 312, 314, 378, (Ilderedo) 313, 378, (San Hierateo),
+    312, 378;
+  Sig�enza (Austurio), 331, (Bernardo) 336, 337, 379, (Jocelyn) 338, 379,
+    (Protogenes) 335, 379;
+  Toledo, 307, 331, 337, (Bernardo) 213, 358, 359, 379, (Carillo) 331, 334,
+    (Ildefonso) 358, 379, (Tavera) 274; Tuy, 132;
+  Valladolid (Bartolom�), 381, (Bernardo) 232;
+  Zamora (San Atilano), 231, 381.
+
+"Bishop's Door" (Palencia Cathedral), 228, 376.
+
+Blanca de Bourbon, 294, 336.
+
+Boabdil el Chico, 22.
+
+Bologna, 251.
+
+Bourbon, Blanca de, 294, 336.
+
+Bourbon Dynasty, 30.
+
+Braga, 112, 120, 167.
+
+Brigandtia (_See_ Corunna).
+
+Bruneti�re, 75.
+
+Burgos, 39, 43, 67, 69, 70, 71, 154, 174-180, 186, 189, 196, 223, 237, 251,
+   253, 296, 303, 349, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Burgo de Osma, 214.
+
+
+Cadiz 335.
+
+Calabria, 269, 270, 371.
+
+Calahorra, 188, 197, 198, 199, 204, 206, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Calle de Puente, 190.
+
+Camara Sagrada, 69.
+
+Camara Santa (Oviedo), 144, 375.
+
+Cangas, 137, 138, 147.
+
+Cantabric Mountains, 190.
+
+Cantabric Sea, 189.
+
+Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo, 331, 334;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Carlist Wars, 33.
+
+Carranza, 203.
+
+Carrarick, King of the Suevos, 114.
+
+Castellum Tude (_See_ Tuy).
+
+Castile, 16, 23, 25, 59, 66-77, 81, 103, 154, 174-177, 189, 192, 198,
+200, 201, 206, 221, 233, 245, 280, 294, 296, 302, 305, 336, 343.
+
+Castile, Counts of, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Cathedrals, Astorga, 167-173, 367, 369;
+  Avila, 302-311, 370;
+  Burgos, 62, 141, 156, 161, 174-187, 202, 227-241, 267, 367-370;
+  Calahorra, 206-208, 373, 378;
+  Canterbury (St. Thomas), 338;
+  Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Coria, 261, 278, 283, 372;
+  Huesca, 203, 331;
+  Leon, 62, 141, 150-166, 171, 372;
+  Lugo, 99, 102-109, 113, 115, 117, 340, 373;
+  Madrid, San Isidro and Virgen de la Almudena, 321, 326, 373;
+  Mondo�edo, 95-101, 374;
+  N�jera, 201-202;
+  Orense, Santa Maria la Madre, 110-119, 126, 374;
+  Osma, 212-216, 374, 375;
+  Nuestra Se�ora de la Blanca (_See_ Leon);
+  Oviedo, 137-144, 156, 172, 182, 375;
+  Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Leon);
+  Palencia, 219-229, 239, 375;
+  Plasencia, 275, 284-289, 376;
+  Rome (St. Peter's), 300;
+  Salamanca, Old and New Cathedrals, 251-268, 275, 299, 317, 346, 376, 377;
+  Santiago, Santiago de Campostela, 75-88, 92, 99, 100, 106, 107, 113, 116,
+    118, 127, 240, 241, 377;
+  Santander, 188-191, 377;
+  Segovia, 312-320, 377, 378;
+  Sevilla, 187;
+  Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Sig�enza, 335-341, 346, 379;
+  Tours, St. Martin, 374;
+  Tuy, Santa Maria la Madre, 113, 120-130, 249, 380;
+  Valladolid, 293-301, 377, 380;
+  Vitoria, 192-195, 381;
+  Zamora, 230-243, 247, 248, 249, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 275, 346, 381;
+  Toledo, 16, 64, 143, 159, 161, 184, 317, 319, 332, 349-368, 371, 379;
+  Toulouse, St. Saturnin, 82;
+  Toro, Santa Maria la Mayor, 244-250, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 273,
+    275, 346, 380.
+
+Celedonio, 188, 197, 206.
+
+Celts, The, 84, 102.
+
+Cervantes, 295, 326, 352.
+
+Charles-Quinte, 223, 283, 314, 353.
+
+Choir Stalls, 48, 49.
+
+Churches: Alcal� de Henares, La Magistral, 328, 332, 374;
+  San Justo, 328, 332;
+  Burgos, Chapel of the Condestable, 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Bayona and Vigo, 131-133;
+  Corunna (Colegiata), 91, 93, Church of Santiago, 93, 94,
+    Santa Maria del Campo, 92;
+  Cordoba, The Mosque, 41, 68;
+  Cuenca, 342-348, 372;
+  Leon, San Isidoro, 153, 163, 191, Chapel of St. James, 159,
+    Santa Maria la Blanca, 372, Santa Maria la Redonda, San Froilan, 372;
+  Logro�o, 204, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 204;
+  Madrid, San Antonio de la Florida, 324, San Francisco el Grande, 324,
+    San Isidro, 321, 325, 373;
+  Oviedo, Salvador, 139;
+  Palencia, San Antolin, 375;
+  Rioja, Santa Maria la Redonda, 204-206, San Juan de Ba�os, 165;
+  Santander, San Emeterio, 189, 377;
+  Saragosse, Church of the Pillar, 205, 206, 299,
+    Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Soria, 209-212, 379;
+  Segovia, Santa Clara, 316;
+  Toledo, San Juan de las Reyes, 355, Santa Maria la Blanca, 354,
+    San Tomas, 355, Puerta de Sol, 355;
+  Valladolid, Santa Maria la Mayor, 293, 300, 381,
+    Santa Maria la Antiqua, 380, Venta de Ba�os, 57;
+  Zamora, La Magdalen, 243.
+
+Churriguera, 63, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Cid, The Great, 234, 254.
+
+Cid Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar), 179.
+
+Cisneros, Cardinal, 326, 328, 331, 334, 361, 364;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Clement IV., 210.
+
+Cluny Monks, The, 24, 30, 60, 359.
+
+Coa River, 269.
+
+Columbus, Christopher, 28, 31, 32, 295, 360.
+
+Complutum (Alcal�), 327, 330.
+
+Complutenses, 327-329.
+
+Comuneros, The, 314.
+
+Conca (_See_ Cuenca).
+
+Conde, Manuel, 154.
+
+Condestable, Chapel of the (Burgos), 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Tomb of (Burgos), 186.
+
+Constanza, Do�a, 358.
+
+Convent of Guadalupe, 283.
+
+Convent of the Mercedes (Valladolid), 297.
+
+Convent of San Juan de Dios, 334.
+
+Cordoba, 147, 152, 191, 279, 286;
+  Mosque of, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Coria, 68, 71, 269, 278-283, 284, 372;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Roman Wall of, 279.
+
+Coronada, 271.
+
+Cortez, 246, 272.
+
+Corunna, 89, 90, 91, 113;
+
+Churches of, 89-94.
+
+Council of Toledo, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Counts of Castile, 153, 162, 163, 174, 175, 180.
+
+Covadonga, 145, 146, 149;
+  Battle of, 145.
+
+Cristeta, 303.
+
+"Cristo de las Batallas" (Salamanca), 254.
+
+Cuenca, 68, 70, 71, 342-348, 372;
+  Alc�zar, 343; Battle of, 338;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Cunninghame-Graham, Mr., 21.
+
+Curia Vetona, or Caurium (_See_ Coria).
+
+
+Del Obispo (Portal in Toro Cathedral), 273.
+
+Del Salto, Maria, Tomb of, 320.
+
+Diana, Temple to, 102, 103.
+
+Diaz, Pedro, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270.
+
+Dolfo, Vellido, 234, 235.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270, 371.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Plasencia, 286, 376.
+
+Dominguez, Juan, Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Dominiciano, Bishop of Astorga, 167, 369.
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, 132.
+
+Duero River, 209, 213, 237, 244, 279.
+
+Duke of Lancaster, 112.
+
+D�rer, 361.
+
+
+Eleanor (Daughter of Henry II.), 338.
+
+Early Christian Art, 54.
+
+Eastern Castile, 70.
+
+Ebro River, 193, 196, 198, 199, 200.
+
+Eleuterio, Bishop of Salamanca, 253, 376.
+
+Elvira, 233, 245.
+
+England, 29, 31, 78, 90, 189, 295.
+
+Engracia (of Aragon), 312.
+
+Enrique II., King of Castile, 204, 320.
+
+Enrique IV., 245.
+
+Enriquez, Don, 256.
+
+Escorial (Madrid), 31, 62, 165, 265, 295, 299, 322, 349.
+
+Extremadura, 16, 69, 278, 303.
+
+
+Favila, Duke, 122, 146.
+
+Felipe el Hermoso (Philip the Handsome), 295.
+
+Ferdinand, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Fernan, Knight, 298.
+
+Fernando I., 161, 176-178, 222, 232, 245, 304.
+
+Fernando II., 269.
+
+Fernando Alfonso, 203.
+
+Fernando el Santo, 359.
+
+Florinda, 354.
+
+Flanders, 355.
+
+Foment, 50, 203, 204.
+
+Fonseca, Bishop, 229;
+  Family, 249.
+
+France, 24, 53, 57, 58, 78, 168, 224, 355.
+
+Froila (or Froela), 137, 141, 230.
+
+Froissart, 112.
+
+
+Galicia, 23, 40, 60, 66, 68, 75, 76, 79, 80, 88, 90, 96, 97, 98, 100,
+102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122,
+123, 125, 128, 130, 131, 132, 137, 138, 169, 177, 199, 233, 238.
+
+Galician Romanesque Art, 59.
+
+Galmirez, Diego, Archbishop of Santiago, 80, 377.
+
+Garcia, Count of Castile, 162, 163, 176, 233.
+
+Garcia, Don, King of Navarra, 198, 201.
+
+Garcia, Son of Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Gasteiz (_See_ Vitoria).
+
+Gautier, Th�ophile, 351.
+
+Germany, 78, 355.
+
+Gibraltar, 22;
+  Straits of, 21, 28.
+
+Gijon, 147.
+
+Gir�n, Don Gutierre, 314.
+
+Gold and Silversmiths, 50-51.
+
+Gomez II., Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Gonzalez, Fernan, 175, 176, 177, 179.
+
+Gonzalo, Arias, 233.
+
+G�schenen in Switzerland, 342.
+
+Goya, 325, 357.
+
+Granada, 22, 67, 287, 355, 356, 365.
+
+Greco, 357, 365.
+
+Gredo Mountains, 278.
+
+Greeks, The, 89, 132.
+
+Guadalajara, 335.
+
+Guadalete, Battle of, 147.
+
+Guadalquivir, 189.
+
+Guaderrama Mountains, 253, 278.
+
+Guardia, 121.
+
+Gudroed, 123.
+
+Gutierre, Bishop of Oviedo, 139.
+
+
+Hannibal, 252.
+
+Harbour of Victory, 188.
+
+Henry IV., 258, 294, 307.
+
+Hermesinda, 147.
+
+Herrero, 62, 205, 265, 295, 299, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Huesca, Cathedral of, 203, 331.
+
+Hume, Martin, 14.
+
+
+Ierte River, 286.
+
+Ilderedo, Bishop of Segovia, 313, 378.
+
+Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 379.
+
+Inquisition, The, 26, 27, 344.
+
+Ireland, 89.
+
+Iria, 76, 77.
+
+Ironcraft, 51, 52.
+
+Irun, 192.
+
+Isabella, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Isabel the Catholic, 193, 222, 245, 246, 294, 295, 315.
+
+Italy, 24, 37, 57, 58, 62, 78, 224, 355.
+
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Avila, 370.
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Salamanca, 254, 305, 376.
+
+Jesuit School (Madrid), 326.
+
+Jocelyn, Bishop of Sig�enza, 338, 379.
+
+John I., 213.
+
+Juan I., Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Juana, 294.
+
+Juana la Beltranaja, 245.
+
+Juana la Loca, 295.
+
+Julian, Count, 354.
+
+Juni, Juan de, 50, 214.
+
+Jura, The, 97, 196.
+
+
+La Magistral, Church of (Alcal� de Henares), 328, 332, 374.
+
+La Mancha, 16, 342.
+
+Lancaster, Duke of, 112.
+
+Laquinto, Bishop of Coria, 279, 372.
+
+Las Navas de Tolosa, 280.
+
+Leon, 23, 25, 43, 66, 69, 70, 79, 80, 103, 139, 150-166, 167, 171, 174,
+175, 176, 177, 197, 233, 253, 254, 304, 305, 355, 372, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  King of, 161.
+
+Leon X., 328.
+
+Leonese, The, 254.
+
+Leonor, Do�a, 179, 297, 298.
+
+"Leyes de Toro," 246.
+
+Libelatism, 167, 168.
+
+Lisbon, 126, 272.
+
+Locus Augusti (_See_ Lugo).
+
+Logro�o, 71, 197, 199, 200, 204, 371, 373;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Loja, 287.
+
+Lucio III., 343.
+
+Lugo, 90, 91, 93, 95, 102-109, 110, 112, 120, 137, 154, 373;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Lupa, 75, 76, 102, 103.
+
+Luz, Do�a, 122, 146.
+
+
+Madrazo, 206.
+
+Madrid, 66, 68, 71, 178, 212, 253, 293, 295, 296, 313, 314, 321-326,
+328, 329, 349, 373;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Maestro Mateo, 87.
+
+Maestro Raimundo, 106, 126.
+
+Magerit, 322, 323.
+
+Munuza, 147, 148.
+
+Manzanares River, 323, 324.
+
+Marcelo, 151.
+
+Martin, Bishop of Mondo�edo, 97, 374.
+
+Martel, Charles, 22.
+
+Medinat-el-Walid, 296.
+
+Mendoza, 361.
+
+Mindunietum, 96.
+
+Mi�o River, 70, 102, 110, 111, 112, 120, 121, 124, 125.
+
+Miranda, 196.
+
+Mir�briga, 269.
+
+Molina, Maria de, 294.
+
+Mondo�edo, 93, 95-101, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Monroy Family, 256, 286.
+
+Monforte, 110.
+
+Moore, General, 90.
+
+Moorish Art, 55, 56.
+
+Moors, The, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 55, 56, 59, 71, 76, 79, 104,
+137, 153, 154, 161, 171, 175, 198, 207, 210, 230, 232, 251, 254, 279,
+281, 285, 287, 304, 305, 308, 313, 323, 331, 343, 352, 354, 357, 358,
+359, 381.
+
+Morales, Divino, 326.
+
+Morgarten, 145.
+
+Morocco, 364.
+
+Mosque of Cordoba, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Mount of Joys, 81.
+
+Mudejar Art, 63-65.
+
+Muguira, 81.
+
+Murillo, 195.
+
+
+N�jera, 197, 198, 201, 202, 371;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Nalvillos, 306, 307.
+
+Napoleon, 90, 164.
+
+Navarra, 23, 33, 58, 66, 68, 70, 80, 174, 176, 192, 196, 198, 201, 202, 210.
+
+Navas de Tolosa, Battle of, 286.
+
+Neustra Se�ora de la Blanca (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+New World, The (_See_ America).
+
+Norman Vikings, 79, 96, 112, 123, 124.
+
+North, The, 69.
+
+Numantia, 197, 209, 219, 230.
+
+
+Odoario, Bishop of Lugo, 104.
+
+Ogival Art, 61.
+
+Olaf, 123.
+
+Old Castile, Plain of, 69.
+
+Ordo�ez, Diego, 235, 236.
+
+Ordo�o I., 152, 153, 154.
+
+Ordo�o II., 153, 159.
+
+Ordu�o III., 175.
+
+Orense, 70, 71, 110-119, 120, 168, 170, 220, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Portico del Paraiso, 116, 374.
+
+Osma, 209, 210, 212-216, 374-379;
+  Bishops of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Oviedo, 23, 43, 69, 70, 80, 102, 103, 137-144, 145, 150, 154, 198, 371, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Oxford, 251.
+
+
+Padilla, Maria de, 294, 336.
+
+Palencia, 71, 168, 219-229, 258, 293, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  "Bishop's Door," 228, 376;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 223-224, 258.
+
+Pallantia, 220, 221.
+
+Palos Harbour, 32.
+
+Pamplona, 174.
+
+Paris, 251;
+  Treaty of, 32.
+
+Pedro, Prince Don, 320.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Avila, 308.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Osma, 224, 375.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Segovia, 378.
+
+Pelayo, 146, 147, 148, 149.
+
+Pelea Gonzalo, Battle of, 245.
+
+Pe�a Grajera, 320.
+
+Perez, Do�a Maria, 256, 257, 258.
+
+Perez, Hernan, 286.
+
+Peter, Bishop of Segovia, 312, 314, 378.
+
+Peter the Cruel, 179, 204, 245, 294, 336.
+
+Philip II., 31, 62, 189, 295, 322, 349.
+
+Philip III., 285, 308.
+
+Philip IV., 294.
+
+Philip the Handsome, 295.
+
+Phoenicians, The, 89, 132.
+
+Picos de Europa, 145.
+
+Pico de Urbi�n, 209.
+
+"Piedad" (Pity), 195.
+
+Pillar at Saragosse, 299.
+
+Pisuerga, 293, 296.
+
+Plasencia, 71, 257, 261, 271, 283, 284-289, 308, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Plaza, Bartolom� de la (Bishop of Valladolid), 295.
+
+Plaza de Cervantes (Alcal�), 330.
+
+Plaza de la Constituci�n (Alcal�), 330.
+
+Plaza Mayor (Alcal�), 330.
+
+Plutarch, 252.
+
+Poitiers, 22.
+
+Polyglot Bible, The, 328.
+
+Portico de la Gloria (Santiago), 85-88, 92, 378.
+
+Portico del Paraiso (Orense), 116, 374.
+
+Portugal, 120, 122, 125, 231, 256, 278;
+  King of, 297, 298.
+
+Portuguese, The, 112, 123, 124, 244, 246.
+
+Priscilianism, 167, 168, 169, 170, 220.
+
+Prisciliano, 169.
+
+Protogenes, Bishop of Sig�enza, 335, 379.
+
+Puerta de la Plateria (Santiago), 83, 107, 183.
+
+Puerta de la Sol (Toledo), 355.
+
+Puerta de los Leones (Toledo), 363.
+
+Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+Pyrenees, 53, 58, 59, 168.
+
+
+Quadrado, Se�or, 308.
+
+Quixote, Don, 330.
+
+
+Rachel of Toledo, 285.
+
+Ramiro, 153.
+
+Recaredo, 152, 354.
+
+Reconquest, The, 269, 370, 375, 379, 380.
+
+Redondela, 131.
+
+Reformation, The, 26.
+
+Renaissance, 54, 62;
+  Italian, 63.
+
+Retablo, 49-50.
+
+Rhine, The, 120.
+
+Ribadeo, 96, 374.
+
+Ribera, 357.
+
+Rioja, The Upper, 70, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 206.
+
+Rodrigo, 146.
+
+Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (Cid Campeador), 179.
+
+Rodrigo, King of Visigoths, 21, 354.
+
+Romanesque Art, 57-58, 59.
+
+Romans, The, 18, 19, 24, 75, 89, 96, 102, 112, 113, 120, 121, 132, 150,
+174, 188, 252, 293, 303, 326, 335, 353, 371.
+
+Rome, 29, 220, 353.
+
+Rubens, 357, 361.
+
+Ruy Diaz Gaona, 200.
+
+
+Sabina, 303.
+
+Salamanca, 71, 178, 223, 251, 268, 269, 296, 302, 305, 313, 376;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 258, 259.
+
+San Antolin, 221, 224, 225, 375.
+
+San Antonio de la Florida, 324.
+
+San Astorgio, Bishop of Osma, 375.
+
+San Atilano, Bishop of Zamora, 231, 381.
+
+San Bartolom� (Salamanca), Chapel of, 263.
+
+San Celedonio, 371.
+
+Sancha, 162, 163, 176.
+
+Sancho, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Sancho, Count of Castile, 162, 233, 234, 293.
+
+Sancho, Don, of Navarra, 192.
+
+Sancho el Mayor, King of Navarra, 221, 222.
+
+Sancti Emetrii, 188.
+
+San Emeterio, 188, 197, 206, 371, 377.
+
+San Emeterio, Church of (Santander), 189.
+
+San Fernando, 25, 177-178.
+
+San Francisco, Convent of, 113.
+
+San Francisco el Grande (Madrid), 324.
+
+San Froilan, 158, 372.
+
+San Fruto, 312, 378.
+
+San Hierateo, 312, 378.
+
+San Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 358, 379.
+
+San Isidro (of Madrid), 324.
+
+San Isidro, Church of (Madrid), 321, 325.
+
+San Isidoro, Church of (Leon), 153, 162, 163, 164, 191, 324.
+
+San Isidoro, 161, 162, 164.
+
+San Juan de Ba�os, 165.
+
+San Juan de Dios, Convent of, 334.
+
+San Juan de los Reyes (Toledo), 355.
+
+San Julian, 345.
+
+San Justo, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Justo, Church of (Alcal� de Henares), 328.
+
+San Pastor, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Salvador, 370.
+
+San Segundo, 303.
+
+Santa Clara (Segovia), 316.
+
+Santa Maria de la Blanca (Leon), 372.
+
+Santa Maria la Blanca (Toledo), 354.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Orense), 114.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Tuy), 120-130.
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, 204.
+
+Santander, 69, 188-191, 197, 277;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Santiago, 75-88, 91, 92, 97, 102, 103, 104, 116, 131, 167, 176, 199, 377;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+San Tomas (Toledo), 355.
+
+Santo Domingo, 203.
+
+Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 197, 199, 200, 202-204, 371. 378;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+San Toribio (Astorga), 369;
+  (Palencia), 375.
+
+San Vicente, 152, 303.
+
+Saracens, The, 213, 312.
+
+Saragosse, 67, 167, 196, 197, 203;
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Sardinero, 190.
+
+Scipio, 209.
+
+Segovia, 71, 253, 303, 312, 313, 325, 349, 378;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Seguncia (or Segoncia), _See_ Sig�enza.
+
+Sempach, 145.
+
+Sevilla, 67, 91, 161, 189, 317;
+  Cathedral of, 187.
+
+Sierra de Guaderrama, 66, 68, 174, 305.
+
+Sierra de Gredos, 66, 302, 349.
+
+Sierra de Gata, 66, 69, 278.
+
+Sig�enza, 70, 71, 335-341, 343, 379;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Silvano, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Sim�n, Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Sinfosio, 170.
+
+Sisnando, Bishop of Santiago, 377.
+
+Sohail, 21-22.
+
+Soria, 71, 209-212, 213, 379;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+State Archives Building (Alcal�), 327.
+
+Street, 87, 107.
+
+St. Astorgio, 213.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi, 271.
+
+St. James, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 88, 138, 213, 323, 353;
+  Chapel of (Leon), 159.
+
+St. Martin, 111, 114.
+
+St. Martin of Tours (Cathedral), 374.
+
+St. Paul, 312.
+
+St. Peter, 213, 352.
+
+St. Peter's at Rome, 300.
+
+St. Thomas of Canterbury, Chapel of, 338.
+
+St. Saturnin (Toulouse), 82.
+
+Suevos, 111, 122;
+  King of, 114, 170.
+
+
+Tago River, 278, 280, 349, 352, 353, 354, 356, 359.
+
+Talavera, 361.
+
+Tarik, 22.
+
+Tarragon, 67, 167, 197, 219, 335.
+
+Tavera, Bishop of Toledo, 274.
+
+Theodomio, 198.
+
+Theodosio, Bishop of Iria, 76, 77, 78.
+
+Theotocopuli, Domenico, 357.
+
+Titian, 361.
+
+Tolaitola (_See_ Toledo).
+
+Toledo, 67, 68, 70, 71, 91, 123, 146, 150, 167, 171, 178, 237, 251, 278,
+280, 285, 286, 304, 307, 322, 327, 328, 329, 335, 342, 349-368, 379;
+  Alc�zar, 336, 350, 356;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Council of, 213, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Tomb, Bishop Tostado, 311, 370;
+  Carillo (Alcal�), 333, 334;
+  Cisneros (Alcal�), 333, 334;
+  Condestable, 186;
+  Diego de Anaya (Salamanca), 263;
+  Maria del Salto, 320;
+  Prince Don Pedro, 320.
+
+Toribio, 170, 220, 224.
+
+Toro, 71, 233, 244-250, 279, 302, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Torquemada, 27.
+
+Tostado, Bishop, Tomb of, 311, 370.
+
+Tours, 22, 114.
+
+Tower de la Trinidad (Santiago), 83, 378.
+
+Tower of Hercules, 89, 90.
+
+Trajanus, 151, 303.
+
+Transition Art, 60.
+
+Tuy, 70, 71, 91, 110, 111, 120-130, 131, 146, 167, 168, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+University of Alcal� de Henares, 328.
+
+University of Palencia, 223, 224, 258.
+
+University of Salamanca, 258, 259.
+
+Urbano II., 231.
+
+Urbano IV., 224.
+
+Urraca, Do�a, 162, 233, 234, 235, 236.
+
+
+Vacceos, 219.
+
+Valdejunquera, Battle of, 175.
+
+Valencia, 66, 67, 254.
+
+Valencia Cupola, 118.
+
+Valen�a do Minho, 120.
+
+Valentine, 312.
+
+Valladolid, 67, 70, 71, 72, 178, 189, 223, 244, 293-301, 303, 314, 335, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Vallisoletum, 293.
+
+Van Dyck, 195.
+
+Vela, Count of, 163.
+
+Venta de Ba�os, 57, 225.
+
+Veremundo, 171.
+
+Vigo, 110, 113, 131-133;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Villamayor, 96.
+
+Villavieja, 335.
+
+Vinuesa, 209.
+
+Virgin de la Atocha, 324.
+
+Virgin de la Almudena, 324, 325, 374.
+
+Viriato, 278.
+
+Visigoths, The, 20, 24, 122, 152, 220, 327, 353.
+
+Vitoria, 69, 192-195, 381;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+War for Independence, 164.
+
+Wellington, Duke of, 272.
+
+Western Castile, 69; Art of, 59.
+
+Witiza, 122, 123, 146, 167.
+
+
+Ya�ez, Juan, Bishop of Cuenca, 343, 372.
+
+Yuste, 283.
+
+
+Zadorria River, 193.
+
+Zamora, 71, 230-243, 244, 246, 269, 279, 293, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Zaragoza (_See_ Saragosse).
+
+Zeth, 279.
+
+Zorilla, 352.
+
+Zurbaran, 229, 283.
+
+Zu�igas, 286.
+
+Zu�iguez, 298.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+Changes made:
+
+SIGUENZA => SIG�ENZA {2}
+
+Al-Karica => Al-K�rica {1}
+
+Alarg�n => Alag�n
+
+Bartolome => Bartolom�
+
+Guadalquiver => Guadalquivir
+
+Isidore => Isidoro {2 page 163}
+
+Protogones => Protogenes {2}
+
+Theodosia => Theodosio {1 index}
+
+dia de Zamora => d�a de Zamora {1}
+
+despues de op�pera cena => despu�s de op�para cena {1}
+
+Neustra Se�ora => Nuestra Se�ora {1 index}
+
+Del Obisco => Del Obispo {1 index}
+
+Maria Del Sarto => Maria Del Salto {2}
+
+Manuza => Munuza {1 index}
+
+Constituti�n => Constituci�n {1 index}
+
+Talaitola => Tolaitola {1 index}
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
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+ table {margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;border:none;text-align:left;}
+
+ body{margin-left:10%;margin-right:10%;background:#fdfdfd;color:black;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:medium;}
+
+ ul {list-style-type:none;text-indent:-1em;text-align:justify;}
+
+ ul.appendices {text-align:justify;list-style-type:none;text-indent:-1em;margin-left:15%;font-size:80%;}
+
+ li.letter {margin-top:5%;}
+
+ li {padding:.1em;}
+
+.un {text-decoration:underline;}
+
+a:link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;}
+
+  link {background-color:#ffffff;color:blue;text-decoration:none;}
+
+a:visited {background-color:#ffffff;color:purple;text-decoration:none;}
+
+a:hover {background-color:#ffffff;color:#FF0000;text-decoration:underline;}
+
+.smcap  {font-variant:small-caps;font-family:"Times New Roman", serif;font-size:95%;}
+
+ img {border:4px black double;}
+
+ sup {font-size:75%;}
+
+.caption  {font-weight:400;font-size:90%;}
+
+.imagecentered   {padding:5%;margin:auto;text-align:center;border:none;}
+
+.poem {margin-left:25%;white-space:nowrap;text-indent:0%;}
+
+.pagenumber  {font-style:normal;position:absolute;left:92%;font-size:75%;text-align:right;color:gray;background-color:#ffffff;font-variant:normal;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-indent:0em;}
+</style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Cathedrals of Northern Spain
+
+Author: Charles Rudy
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [EBook #31965]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This ebook was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material at
+Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div class="imagecentered">
+<a href="images/ill_cover.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_cover_th.jpg"
+style="border:none;"
+alt="image of book's cover"
+width="359"
+height="550"
+title="image of book's cover"
+/></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="imagecentered">
+<a href="images/ill_inscover.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_inscover_th.jpg"
+style="border:none;"
+alt="image of inside the book's cover"
+width="364"
+height="550"
+title="image of inside the book's cover"
+/></a>
+</div>
+
+<h3>THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN</h3>
+
+<table summary="contents"
+style="border:3px double gray;padding:2%;text-align:center;margin:10% auto 10% auto;"><tr><td>
+<a href="#PREFACE"><b>Preface</b></a><br />
+<a href="#CONTENTS"><b>Contents</b></a><br />
+<a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"><b>List of Illustrations</b></a><br />
+<a href="#Appendices"><b>Appendices</b></a><br />
+<a href="#Bibliography"><b>Bibliography</b></a><br />
+<a href="#INDEX"><b>Index</b></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table summary="series"
+cellpadding="0"
+cellspacing="0"
+style="text-align:center;border:black 6px double;padding:2%;margin:10% auto 10%;font-weight:bold;">
+<tr><td><i>The Cathedral Series</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><img src="images/ill_series.png"
+alt="image"
+width="40"
+height="18"
+/></td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>The following, each 1 vol., library<br />
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.<br />
+$2.50</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><br /><i>The Cathedrals of Northern<br />
+France <span class="smcap">BY FRANCIS MILTOUN</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><br /><i>The Cathedrals of Southern<br />
+France <span class="smcap">BY FRANCIS MILTOUN</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><br /><i>The Cathedrals of England<br /><span class="smcap">BY MARY J. TABER</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><img src="images/ill_series.png"
+alt="image"
+width="40"
+height="18"
+/></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The following, each 1 vol., library<br />
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.<br />
+Net, $2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td><br /><i>The Cathedrals and Churches<br />
+of the Rhine <span class="smcap">BY FRANCIS MILTOUN</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><br /><i>The Cathedrals of Northern<br />
+Spain <span class="smcap">BY CHARLES RUDY</span></i></td></tr>
+<tr><td><img src="images/ill_series.png"
+alt="image"
+width="40"
+height="18"
+/></td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>L. C. PAGE &amp; COMPANY<br />
+New England Building, Boston, Mass.</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="imagecentered"><a name="FRONTISPIECE" id="FRONTISPIECE"></a>
+<p class="nind"><span class="frontispiece"><span class="lgletter2">L</span>EON<br /> &nbsp; CATHEDRAL</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">(<i>See <a href="#page_154">page 154</a></i>)</span></p>
+<br />
+<a href="images/ill_frontispiece.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_frontispiece_th.jpg"
+alt="LEON CATHEDRAL"
+width="359"
+height="550"
+title="LEON CATHEDRAL"
+style="border:none;"
+/></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="imagecentered">
+<a href="images/ill_title.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_title.jpg"
+style="border:none;"
+alt="The Cathedrals of
+Northern Spain
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURE; TOGETHER
+WITH MUCH OF INTEREST CONCERNING
+THE BISHOPS, RULERS,
+AND OTHER PERSONAGES IDENTIFIED
+WITH THEM
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES RUDY
+
+Illustrated
+
+BOSTON L. C. PAGE &amp;
+COMPANY MDCCCCVI"
+width="372"
+height="550"
+title="The Cathedrals of
+Northern Spain
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURE; TOGETHER
+WITH MUCH OF INTEREST CONCERNING
+THE BISHOPS, RULERS,
+AND OTHER PERSONAGES IDENTIFIED
+WITH THEM
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES RUDY
+
+Illustrated
+
+BOSTON L. C. PAGE &amp;
+COMPANY MDCCCCVI"
+/></a>
+</div>
+
+<p class="c sml75"><i>Copyright, 1905</i><br />
+<span class="smcap">By L. C. Page &amp; Company</span><br />
+(INCORPORATED)<br />
+&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+<i>All rights reserved</i><br />
+<br />
+Published October, 1905<br />
+<br />
+<i>COLONIAL PRESS<br />
+Electrotyped and Printed by C. H. Simonds &amp; Co.<br />
+Boston, U. S. A.</i><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="lovers">
+<p class="nind"><i><span style="float:left;font-size:275%;margin-top:-1.5%;margin-right:2px;">T</span>O ALL TRUE<br />
+LOVERS OF SPAIN,<br />
+OTHERWISE CALLED<br />
+HISPAN�FILOS</i><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_002" id="page_002">{2}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_003" id="page_003">{3}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h3>
+
+<p>I<span class="smcap">t</span> is <i>� la mode</i> to write prefaces. Some of us write good ones, others
+bad, and most of us write neither good nor bad ones.</p>
+
+<p>The chapter entitled "General Remarks" is the real introduction to the
+book, so in these lines I shall pen a few words of self-introduction to
+such readers as belong to the class to whom I have dedicated this
+volume.</p>
+
+<p>My love for Spain is unbounded. As great as is my love for the people,
+so great also is my depreciation for those who have wronged her, being
+her sons. Who are they? They know that best themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Spain's architecture is both agreeable and disagreeable, but it is all
+of it peculiarly Spanish. A foreigner, dropping as by accident across
+the Pyrenees from France, can do nothing better than criticize all
+architectural monuments he meets with in a five days' journey across
+Spain with a Cook's ticket in his pocketbook. It is natural he should do
+so. Everything is so totally different from<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_004" id="page_004">{4}</a></span> the pure (<i>sic</i>) styles he
+has learned to admire in France!</p>
+
+<p>But we who have lived years in Spain grow to like and admire just such
+complex compositions as the cathedrals of Toledo, of Santiago, and La
+Seo in Saragosse; we lose our narrow-mindedness, and fail to see why a
+pure Gothic or an Italian Renaissance should be better than an Iberian
+cathedral. As long as harmony exists between the different parts, all is
+well. The moment this harmony does not exist, our sense of the
+artistically beautiful is shocked&mdash;and the building is a bad one.</p>
+
+<p>Personality is consequently ever uppermost in all art criticism or
+admiration. But it should not be influenced by the words pure, flawless,
+etc. Were such to be the case, there would be but one good cathedral in
+Spain, namely, that of Leon, a French temple built by foreigners on
+Spanish soil. Yet nothing is less Spanish than the cathedral of Leon.</p>
+
+<p>Under the circumstances, it is necessary, upon visiting Spain, to
+discard foreignisms and turn a Spaniard, if but for a few days.
+Otherwise the tourist will not understand the country's art monuments,
+and will be inclined<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_005" id="page_005">{5}</a></span> to leave the peninsula as he entered it, not a
+whit the wiser for having come.</p>
+
+<p>To help the traveller to understand the whys and wherefores of Spanish
+architecture, I have written the "Introductory Studies." I hope they
+will enable him to become a Spaniard, or, at least, to join the
+enthusiastic army of <i>Hispan�filos</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="r">C. R<span class="smcap">udy.</span></p>
+
+<p class="sml75"><span class="smcap">Madrid</span>, <i>July, 1905</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_007" id="page_007">{7}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table summary="toc"
+cellpadding="3"
+cellspacing="2">
+<tr class="sml75"><td>CHAPTER</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap"><a href="#PART_I">Part I. Introductory Studies</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Ia">I</a>.</td><td>General Remarks</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_013">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIa">II</a>.</td><td> Historical Arabesques</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_018">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIIa">III</a>.</td><td> Architectural Arabesques</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_035">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IVa">IV</a>.</td><td> Conclusion</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><a href="#PART_II">Part II. Galicia</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Ib">I</a>.</td><td> Santiago de Campostela</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_075">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIb">II</a>.</td><td> Corunna</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_089">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIIb">III</a>.</td><td> Mondo�edo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_095">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IVb">IV</a>.</td><td> Lugo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Vb">V</a>.</td><td> Orense</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIb">VI</a>.</td><td> Tuy</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIIb">VII</a>.</td><td> Bayona and Vigo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><a href="#PART_III">Part III. The North</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Ic">I</a>.</td><td> Oviedo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIc">II</a>.</td><td> Covadonga</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIIc">III</a>.</td><td> Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IVc">IV</a>.</td><td> Astorga</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Vc">V</a>.</td><td> Burgos</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIc">VI</a>.</td><td> Santander</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIIc">VII</a>.</td><td> Vitoria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_192">192</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_008" id="page_008">{8}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIIIc">VIII</a>.</td><td> Upper Rioja</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IXc">IX</a>.</td><td> Soria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><a href="#PART_IV">Part IV. Western Castile</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Id">I</a>.</td><td> Palencia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IId">II</a>.</td><td> Zamora</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIId">III</a>.</td><td> Toro</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_244">244</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IVd">IV</a>.</td><td> Salamanca</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Vd">V</a>.</td><td> Ciudad Rodrigo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_269">269</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VId">VI</a>.</td><td> Coria</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_278">278</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIId">VII</a>.</td><td> Plasencia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_284">284</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><br /><a href="#PART_V">Part V. Eastern Castile</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Ie">I</a>.</td><td> Valladolid</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIe">II</a>.</td><td> Avila</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IIIe">III</a>.</td><td> Segovia</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#IVe">IV</a>.</td><td> Madrid-Alcal�</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#Ve">V</a>.</td><td> Sig�enza</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIe">VI</a>.</td><td> Cuenca</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" style="padding-right:5%;"><a href="#VIIe">VII</a>.</td><td> Toledo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_349">349</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Appendices">Appendices</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Bibliography">Bibliography</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_385">385</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#page_387">387</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<table summary="toc"
+cellpadding="2"
+cellspacing="2">
+<tr class="sml75"><td colspan="3" align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Leon Cathedral (<i>See page <a href="#page_154">154</a></i>)</td><td align="right"><a href="#FRONTISPIECE"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cloister Stalls in a Monastic Church at Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_048">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Typical Retablo (Palencia)</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mudejar Architecture (Sahagun)</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_064">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Santiago and Its Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Church of Santiago, Corunna</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_092">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>General View of Mondo�edo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_096">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mondo�edo Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Northern Portal of Orense Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tuy Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_128">128</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Oviedo Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cloister of Oviedo Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Apse of San Isidoro, Leon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Burgos Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_180">180</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Crypt of Santander Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cloister of N�jera Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Santa Maria la Redonda, Logro�o</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Western Front of Calahorra Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cloister of Soria Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_212">212</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Palencia Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Zamora Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Toro Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Old Salamanca Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_260">260</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_010" id="page_010">{10}</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>New Salamanca Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_266">266</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cuidad Rodrigo Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_272">272</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fa�ade of Plasencia Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Western Front of Valladolid Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tower of Avila Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Segovia Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>San Isidro, Madrid</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_326">326</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Alcal� de Henares Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_332">332</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Toledo Cathedral</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a><i>PART I</i><br /><br /><i>Introductory Studies</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_012" id="page_012">{12}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_013" id="page_013">{13}</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><i>The Cathedrals</i><br /><i>of Northern Spain</i></h2>
+
+<h3><a name="Ia" id="Ia"></a>I</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">GENERAL REMARKS</p>
+
+<p>H<span class="smcap">istory</span> and architecture go hand in hand; the former is not complete if
+it does not mention the latter, and the latter is incomprehensible if
+the former is entirely ignored.</p>
+
+<p>The following chapters are therefore historical and architectural; they
+are based on evolutionary principles and seek to demonstrate the motives
+of certain artistic phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the ideas superficially mentioned in the following essays will
+be severely discussed, for they are original; others are based on two
+excellent modern historical works, namely, "The History of the Spanish<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_014" id="page_014">{14}</a></span>
+People," by Major Martin Hume, and "Historia de Espa�a," by Se�or Rafael
+Altamira. These two works can be regarded as the <i>dernier mot</i>
+concerning the evolution of Spanish history.</p>
+
+<p>Unluckily, however, the author has been unable to consult any work on
+architecture which might have given him a concise idea of the story of
+its gradual evolution and development, and of the different art-waves
+which flowed across the peninsula during the stormy period of the middle
+ages, which, properly speaking, begins with the Arab invasion of the
+eighth century and ends with the fall of Granada, in the fifteenth.</p>
+
+<p>Several works on Spanish architecture have been written (the reader will
+find them mentioned elsewhere), but none treats the matter from an
+evolutionary standpoint. On the contrary, most of them are limited to
+the study of a period, of a style or of a locality; hence they cannot
+claim to be a <i>dernier mot</i>. Such a work has still to be written.</p>
+
+<p>Be it understood, nevertheless, that the author does not pretend&mdash;<i>Dios
+me libre!</i>&mdash;to have supplied the lack in the following pages. In a
+couple of thousand words it would be utterly impossible to do so. No;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_015" id="page_015">{15}</a></span> a
+complete, evolutionary study of Spanish architecture would imply years
+of labour, of travel, and of study. For so much on the peninsula is
+hybrid and exotic, and yet again, so much is peculiar to Spain alone.
+Thus it is often most difficult to determine which art phenomena are
+natural&mdash;that is, which are the logical results of a well-defined art
+movement&mdash;and which are artificial or the casual product of elements
+utterly foreign to Spanish soil.</p>
+
+<p>Willingly the author leaves to other and wiser heads the solving of the
+above riddle. He hopes, nevertheless, that they (those who care to
+undertake the mentioned task) will find some remarks or some
+observations in the following chapters to help them discover the real
+truth concerning the Spaniard's love, or his insensibility for
+architectural monuments, as well as his share in the erection of
+cathedrals, palaces, and castles.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish architecture&mdash;better still, architecture in Spain&mdash;is peculiarly
+strange and foreign to us Northerners. We admire many edifices in
+Iberia, but are unable to say wherefore; we are overawed at the
+magnificence displayed in the interior of cathedral churches and at a
+loss to explain the reason.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_016" id="page_016">{16}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As regards the former, it can be attributed to the Oriental spirit still
+throbbing in the country; not in vain did the Moor inhabit Iberia for
+nearly eight hundred years!</p>
+
+<p>The powerful influence of the Church on the inhabitants, an influence
+that has lasted from the middle ages to the present day, explains the
+other phenomenon. Even to-day, in Spain, the Pope is supreme and the
+princes of the Church are the rulers.</p>
+
+<p>Does the country gain thereby? Not at all. Andalusia is in a miserable
+state of poverty, so are Extremadura, La Mancha, and Castile. Not a
+penny do the rich, or even royalty, give to better the country people's
+piteous lot; neither does the Church.</p>
+
+<p>It is nevertheless necessary to be just. In studying the evolutionary
+history of architecture in Spain, we must praise the tyranny of the
+Church which spent the millions of dollars of the poor in erecting such
+marvels as the cathedral of Toledo, etc., and we must ignore the
+sweating farmer, the terror-stricken Jew, the accused heretic, the
+disgraced courtier, the seafaring conquistador, who gave up their all to
+buy a few months' life, the respite of an hour.</p>
+
+<p>And the author has striven to be impartial<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_017" id="page_017">{17}</a></span> in the following pages. Once
+in awhile his bitterness has escaped the pen, but be it plainly
+understood that not one of his remarks is aimed against Spain, a country
+and a people to be admired,&mdash;above all to be pitied, for they, the
+people, are slaves to an arrogant Church, to a self-amusing royalty, and
+to a grasping horde of second-rate politicians.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_018" id="page_018">{18}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIa" id="IIa"></a>II</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">HISTORICAL ARABESQUES</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> history of Spain is, perhaps, more than that of any other nation,
+one long series of thrilling, contradictory, and frequently
+incomprehensible events.</p>
+
+<p>This is not only due to the country's past importance as a powerful
+factor in the evolution of our modern civilization, but to the
+unforeseen doings of fate. Fate enchained and enslaved its people,
+moulded its greatness and wrought its ruin. Of no other country can it
+so truthfully be said that it was the unwitting tool of some higher
+destiny. Most of the phenomena of its history took place in spite of the
+people's wishes or votes; neither did the different art questions,
+styles, periods, or movements emanate from the people. This must be
+borne in mind.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans were the first to come to Spain with a view to conquering the
+land, and to organizing the half-savage clans or<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_019" id="page_019">{19}</a></span> tribes who roamed
+through the thickets and across the plains. But nowhere did the great
+rulers of the world encounter such fierce resistance. The clans were
+extremely warlike and, besides, intensely individual. They did not only
+oppose the foreigner's conquest of the land, but also his system of
+organization, which consisted in the submission of the individual to the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>The clans or tribes recognized no other law than their own sweet will;
+they acted independently of each other, and only on rare occasions did
+they fight in groups. They were local patriots who recognized no
+fatherland beyond their natal vale or village.</p>
+
+<p>This primary characteristic of the Spanish people is the clue to many of
+the subsequent events of the country's history. Against it the Romans
+fought, but fought in vain, for they were not able to overcome it.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity dawned in the East and was introduced into Spain, some say
+by St. James in the north, others by St. Peter or St. Paul in the south.</p>
+
+<p>The result was astonishing: what Roman swords, laws, and highroads had
+been unable to accomplish (as regards the organization of the savage
+tribes) Christianity brought<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_020" id="page_020">{20}</a></span> about in a comparatively short lapse of
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The reason is twofold. In the first place, the new form of religion
+taught that all men were equal; consequently it was more to the taste of
+the individualistic Spaniard than the state doctrines of the Roman
+Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, it permitted him to worship his deity in as many forms
+(saints) as there were days in the year; consequently each village or
+town could boast of its own saint, prophet, or martyr, who, in the minds
+of the citizens, was greater than all other saints, and really the god
+of their fervent adoration.</p>
+
+<p>Hence Christianity was able to introduce into the Roman province of
+Hispania a social organization which was to exert a lasting influence on
+the country and to acquire an unheard-of degree of wealth and power.</p>
+
+<p>When the temporal domination of Rome in Spain had dwindled away to
+nothing, other foreigners, the Visigoths, usurped the fictitious rule.
+Their state was civil in name, military in organization, and
+ecclesiastical in reality.</p>
+
+<p>They formed no nation, however, though they preserved the broken
+fragments of the West Roman Empire. The same spirit of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_021" id="page_021">{21}</a></span> individualism
+characterized the tribes or people, and they swore allegiance to their
+local saint (God) and to the priest who was his representative on earth
+(Church)&mdash;but to no one else.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently it can be assumed that the Spanish nation had not as yet
+been born; the controlling power had passed from the hands of one
+foreigner to those of another: only one institution&mdash;the Church&mdash;could
+claim to possess a national character; around it, or upon its
+foundations, the nation was to be built up, stone by stone, and turret
+by turret.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">The third foreigner appeared on the scene. He was doubtless the most
+important factor in the formation of the Spanish nation.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the Church called him over the Straits of Gibraltar
+as an aid against Rodrigo, the last Visigothic king, who lost his throne
+and his life because too deeply in love with his beautiful Tolesian
+mistress.</p>
+
+<p>Legends explain the Moor's landing differently. Sohail, as powerfully
+narrated by Mr. Cunninghame-Graham, is one of these legends, beautifully
+fatalistic and exceptionally interesting. According to it, the destiny<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_022" id="page_022">{22}</a></span>
+of the Moors is ruled by a star named Sohail. Whither it goes they must
+follow it.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighth century it happened that Sohail, in her irregular course
+across the heavens, was to be seen, a brilliant star, from Gibraltar.
+Obeying the stellar call, Tarik landed in Spain and moved northwards at
+the head of his irresistible, fanatic hordes. The star continued its
+northerly movement, visible one fine night from the Arab tents pitched
+on the plains between Poitiers and Tours. The next night, however, it
+was no longer visible, and Charles Martel drove the invading Moors back
+to the south.</p>
+
+<p>Centuries went by and Sohail appeared ever lower down on the southern
+horizon. One night it was only visible from Granada, and then Spain saw
+it no more. That same day&mdash;'twas in the fifteenth century&mdash;Boabdil el
+Chico surrendered the keys of Granada, and the Arabs fled, obeying the
+retreating star's call.</p>
+
+<p>To-day they are waiting in the north of Africa for Sohail to move once
+again to the north: when she does so, they will rise again as a single
+man, and regain their passionately loved Alhambra, their beautiful
+kingdom of Andalusia.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_023" id="page_023">{23}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tradition is fond of showing us a nucleus of fervent Christian patriots
+obliged by the invading Arab hordes to retire to the north-western
+corner of the Iberian peninsula. Here they made a stand, a last glorious
+stand, and, gradually increasing in strength, they were at last able to
+drive back the invader inch by inch until he fled across the straits to
+trouble Iberia no more.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is, however, less true. The noblemen and monarchs of Galicia,
+Leon, and Oviedo&mdash;later of Castile, Navarra, and Aragon&mdash;were so many
+petty lords who, fighting continually among themselves, ruled over
+fragments of the defeated Visigothic kingdom. At times they called in
+the Arab enemy&mdash;to whom in the early centuries they paid a yearly
+tribute&mdash;to help them against the encroachments of their brother
+Christians. Consequently they lacked that spirit of patriotism and of
+national ambition which might have justified their claims to be called
+monarchs or rulers of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The Church was no better. Its bishops were independent princes who ruled
+in their dioceses like sovereigns in their palaces; they recognized no
+supreme master, not even<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_024" id="page_024">{24}</a></span> the Pope, whose advice was ignored, and whose
+orders were disobeyed.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the twelfth or thirteenth century that the Christian
+incursions into Moorish territory took the form of patriotic crusades,
+in which fervent Christians burnt with the holy desire of weeding out of
+the peninsula the Saracen infidel.</p>
+
+<p>This holy crusade was due to the coming from France and Italy of the
+Cluny monks. Foreigners,&mdash;like the Romans, the Church, the Visigoths,
+and the Moors,&mdash;they created a situation which facilitated the union of
+the different monarchs, prelates, and noblemen, by showing them a common
+cause to fight for. Besides, anxious to establish the supreme power of
+the Pope in a land where his authority was a dead letter, they crossed
+the Pyrenees and broke the absolute power of the arrogant prelates.</p>
+
+<p>The result was obvious: the Church became uniform throughout the
+country, and its influence waxed to the detriment of that of the
+noblemen. Once again the kings learnt to rely upon the former, thus
+putting an end to the power of the latter. Once more the Church grew to
+be an ecclesiastical organization<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_025" id="page_025">{25}</a></span> in which the role of the prelates
+became more important as time went on.</p>
+
+<p>In short, if the coming of the Moors retarded for nearly six hundred
+years the birth of the Spanish nation, this birth was directly brought
+about by the political ability of the Cluny monks; the Moors, on the
+other hand, exerted a direct and lasting influence on the shaping and
+moulding of the future nation.</p>
+
+<p>Christian Spain, at the time of the death of the pious warrior-king San
+Fernando, was roughly divided into an eastern and a western half, into
+the kingdom of Castile (and Leon) and that of Aragon. The fusion of
+these two halves by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel, two hundred
+years later, marks the date of the birth of Spain as a nation.</p>
+
+<p>It is true, nevertheless, that the people had little or no voice in the
+arrangement of matters. They were indifferent to what their crowned
+rulers were doing, and ignorant of the growing power, wealth, and
+learning of the prelates. All they asked for was individual liberty and
+permission to pray to the God of their choice. Neither had as yet the
+spirit of patriotism burned in their breasts, and they were utterly
+insensible to any and all<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_026" id="page_026">{26}</a></span> politics which concerned the peninsula as a
+unity.</p>
+
+<p>But the Church-state had successfully evolutionized, and Catholic kings
+sat on the only available throne. The last Moor had been driven from the
+peninsula, the Jews had been expelled from the Catholic kingdom, and the
+Inquisition&mdash;now that the Church could no longer direct its energy
+against the infidel&mdash;strengthened the Pope's hold on the land and
+increased the importance and magnificence of the prelates themselves.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">A word as to heresy (the Reformation) and the Inquisition. The latter
+was not directed against the former, for it would have been impossible
+for the people to accept the reformed faith in the fifteenth century.
+For the Spaniard the charm of the Christian religion was that it placed
+him on an equal footing with all men; hence, it flattered his love of
+personal liberty and his self-consciousness or pride. The charm of
+Catholicism was that it enabled him to adore a local deity in the shape
+of a martyred saint; thus, it flattered his vanity as a clansman, and
+his spirit of individualism.</p>
+
+<p>It was not so much the God of Christianity<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_027" id="page_027">{27}</a></span> he worshipped as Our Lady of
+the Pillar, Our Lady of Sorrows, of the Camino, etc., and he obeyed less
+readily the archbishop than the custodian priest of his particular
+saint, of whom he declared "that he could humiliate all other saints."</p>
+
+<p>Consequently Protestantism, which tended to kill this local worship by
+upholding that of a collective deity, could never have taken a serious
+hold of the country, and it is doubtful if it ever will.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand&mdash;as previously remarked&mdash;the Spanish Inquisition
+helped to centralize the Church's power and obliged the people to accept
+its decisions as final. The effect of Torquemada's policy is still to be
+felt in Spain&mdash;could it be otherwise?</p>
+
+<p class="top5">Had successive events in this stage of Spain's history followed a normal
+course, and had the education of the people been fostered by the state
+instead of being cursed by the Church, it is more than probable that the
+map of Europe would have been different to-day from what it is. For the
+Spanish people would have learnt to think as patriots, as a nation; they
+would have developed their country's rich soil and thickly populated
+the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_028" id="page_028">{28}</a></span> vast <i>vegas</i>; they would have taken the offensive against foreign
+nations, and would have chased and battled the Moor beyond the Straits
+of Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>It was not to be, however. An abnormal event was to take place&mdash;and did
+take place&mdash;which repeated in fair Iberia the retrograde movement
+initiated by the Arab invasion 750 years earlier.</p>
+
+<p>A foreigner was again the cause of this new phenomenon, a harebrained
+Genoese navigator whom the world calls a genius because he was
+successful, but who was an evil genius for the new-born Spanish nation,
+one who was to load his adopted country with unparalleled fame and glory
+before causing her rapid and clashing downfall.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher Columbus came to Spain from the east; he sailed westwards
+from Spain and discovered&mdash;for Spain!&mdash;two vast continents.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of this event for Spain is apt to be overlooked by those
+who are blinded by the unexpected realization of Columbus's daring
+dreams. It was as though a volcanic eruption had taken place in a virgin
+soil, tossing earth and grass, layers and strata of stone, hither and
+thither in utter<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_029" id="page_029">{29}</a></span> confusion, impeding the further growth of young
+plantlets and forbidding the building up of a solid national edifice.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of devoting their energies to the interior organization of the
+country, Spaniards turned their eyes to the New World. In exchange for
+the gold and precious stones which poured into the land, they gave that
+which left the country poor and weak indeed: their blood and their
+lives. The bravest and most intrepid leaders crossed the seas with their
+followers, and behind them sailed thousands upon thousands of hardy
+adventurers and soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>But the Spaniards could not colonize. They lacked those qualities of
+collectivity which characterized Rome and England. The individualistic
+spirit of the people caused them to go and to come as they chose without
+possessing any ambition of establishing in the newly acquired
+territories a home and a family; neither did the women folk
+emigrate&mdash;and hence the failure of Spain as a colonizing power.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, those who had sailed the seas to the Spanish main,
+and had hoarded up a significant treasure, invariably returned, not to
+Spain exactly, but to their<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_030" id="page_030">{30}</a></span> native town or village. Upon arriving home,
+their first act was to bequeath a considerable sum to the Church, so as
+to ease their conscience and to assure themselves homage, respect, and
+unrestrained liberty.</p>
+
+<p>The effects produced by this phenomenon of individualism were manifold.
+They exist even to-day, so lasting were they.</p>
+
+<p>A new nobility was created&mdash;wealthy, powerful, and generally arrogant
+and unscrupulous, which replaced the feudal aristocracy of the middle
+ages.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, oligarchy&mdash;or better still, <i>caciquismo</i>, an individualistic
+form of oligarchy&mdash;sprung up into existence, and rapidly became the bane
+of modern Spain; that is, ever since the Bourbon dynasty ruled the
+country's fate. As can easily be understood, this <i>caciquismo</i> can only
+flourish there where individualism is the leading characteristic of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, all hopes of the country's possessing a well-to-do middle
+class&mdash;stamina of a wealthy nation, and without which no people can
+attain a national standard of wealth&mdash;vanished completely away.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly the Church, which had become wealthy beyond the dreams of the
+Cluny<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_031" id="page_031">{31}</a></span> monks, retained its iron grip on the country, and retarded the
+liberal education of the masses. To repay the fidelity of servile
+Catholics, it canonized legions of local prophets and martyrs, and
+organized hundreds of gay annual <i>fiestas</i> to honour their memory. The
+ignorant people, flattered at the tribute of admiration paid to their
+deities, looked no further ahead into the growing chaos of misery and
+poverty, and were happy.</p>
+
+<p>The crash came&mdash;could it be otherwise? Beyond the seas an immense
+territory, hundreds of times larger than the natal <i>solar</i>, or mother
+country, stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific; at home, a
+stillborn nation lay in an arid meadow beside a solemn church, a
+frivolous, selfish throne, and a mute and gloomy brick-built convent.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Armada sailed to England never to return, and Philip II.
+built the Escorial, a melancholy pantheon for the kings of the Iberian
+peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>One by one the colonies dropped off, fragments of an illusory empire,
+and at last the mother country stood once more stark naked as in the
+days before Columbus<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_032" id="page_032">{32}</a></span> left Palos harbour. But the mother's face was no
+longer young and fresh like an infant's: wrinkles of age and of
+suffering creased the brow and the chin, for not in vain was she, during
+centuries, the toy of unmerciful fate.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">Such is, in gigantic strides, the history of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The volcanic eruption in the fifteenth century has left, it is true,
+indelible traces in the country's soil. Nevertheless, on the very day
+when the treaty of Paris was signed and the last of the Spanish colonies
+<i>de ultramar</i> were lost for ever, that day a Spanish nation was born
+again on the disturbed foundations of the old.</p>
+
+<p>There is no denying it: when Ferdinand and Isabel united their kingdoms
+a nation was born; it fell to pieces (though apparently not until a
+later date) when Columbus landed in America.</p>
+
+<p>Anarchy, misrule, and oppression, ignorance and poverty, now frivolity
+and now austerity at court, fill the succeeding centuries until the
+coronation of Alfonso XII. During all those years, but once did
+Spain&mdash;no longer a nation&mdash;shine forth in history<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_033" id="page_033">{33}</a></span> with an even greater
+brilliancy than when she claimed to be mistress of the world. But, on
+this occasion, when she opposed, in brave but disbanded groups, the
+invasion of the French legions, she gave another proof of the
+individualistic instincts of the race, as opposed to all social and
+compact organization of the masses.</p>
+
+<p>The Carlist wars need but a passing remark. They were not national; they
+were caused by the ambitions of rulers and noblemen, and fought out by
+the inhabitants of Navarra and the Basque Provinces who upheld their
+<i>fueros</i>, by paid soldiery, and by <i>aldeanos</i> whose houses and families
+were threatened.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">New Spain was born a few years ago, but so far she has given no proof of
+vitality. As it is, she is cumbered by traditions and harassed by
+memories. She must fight a sharp battle with existing evil institutions
+handed down to her as a questionable legacy from the past.</p>
+
+<p>If she emerge victorious from the struggle, universal history will hear
+her name again, for the country is not <i>gastado</i> or degenerate, as many
+would have us believe.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_034" id="page_034">{34}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If she fail to throw overboard the worthless and superfluous ballast, it
+is possible that the ship of state will founder&mdash;and then, who knows?</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, let us not misjudge the Spaniard nor throw stones at
+his broken glass mansion. To help us in this, let us remember that
+unexpected vicissitudes, entirely foreign to his country, were the cause
+of his illusory grandeur in the sixteenth century. Besides, no more
+ardent a lover of individual (not social) freedom than the Spaniard
+breathes in this wide world of ours&mdash;excepting it be the Moor.</p>
+
+<p>Under the circumstances he is to be admired&mdash;even pitied.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_035" id="page_035">{35}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIIa" id="IIIa"></a>III</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">ARCHITECTURAL ARABESQUES</p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Preliminaries</i></p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> different periods mentioned in the preceding chapter are
+characterized by a corresponding art-movement.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of these movements came invariably from abroad. In Spain they
+lingered, were localized and grew up, a species of hybrid plants in
+which the foreign element was still visible, though it had undergone a
+series of changes, due either to the addition of other elements, to the
+inventive genius of the artist-architect, or else peculiar to the
+locality in which the building was erected.</p>
+
+<p>Other conclusive remarks arrived at in the foregoing study help to
+explain the evolution of church architecture. Five were the conclusions:
+(1) The power and wealth of the Church, (2) the influence exerted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_036" id="page_036">{36}</a></span> by
+foreigners on the country's fate, (3) the individualistic spirit of the
+clanspeople, (4) the short duration of a Spanish nation, nipped in the
+bud before it could bloom, and (5) the formation of an oligarchy
+(<i>caciquismo</i>) which hindered the establishment of an educated
+<i>bourgeoisie</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the above conclusive observations needs no further remarks,
+considering that we are studying church architecture. It suffices to
+indicate the great number of cathedrals, churches, hermitages,
+monasteries, convents, cloisters, and episcopal palaces to be convinced
+of the Church's influence on the country and on the purses of the
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniard, psychologically speaking, is no artist; it is doubtful if
+illiterate and uneducated people are, and the average inhabitant of
+Spain forms no exception to this rule. His artistic talents are
+exclusively limited to music, for which he has an excessively fine ear.
+But beauty in the plastic arts and architecture leave him cold and
+indifferent; he is influenced by mass, weight, and quantity rather than
+by elegance or lightness, and consequently it is the same to him whether
+a cathedral be Gothic or<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_037" id="page_037">{37}</a></span> Romanesque, as long as it be dedicated to the
+deity of his choice.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between Italian and Iberian is therefore very marked.
+Even the landscapes in each country prove it beyond a doubt. In Italy
+they are composed of soft rolling lines; the colours are varied,&mdash;green,
+red, and blue; the soil is damp and fruitful. In Spain, on the contrary,
+everything is dry, arid, and savage; blue is the sky, red the brick
+houses, and grayish golden the soil; the inhabitants are as savage as
+the country, and the proverbial "<i>ma � piu bello</i>" of the Italian does
+not bother the former in the slightest.</p>
+
+<p>All of which goes to explain the Spaniard's insensibility to the plastic
+arts, as well as (for instance) the universal use of huge <i>retablos</i> or
+altar-pieces, in which size and bright colours are all that is required
+and the greater the size, the more clashing the colours, the better.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is it surprising that the Spaniard created no architectural
+school of his own. All he possesses is borrowed from abroad. His love of
+Byzantine grotesqueness and of Moorish geometrical arabesques is
+inherited, the one from the Visigoths, and the other<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_038" id="page_038">{38}</a></span> directly from the
+Moors. The remaining styles are northern and Italian, and were
+introduced into the country by such foreigners&mdash;monks and artists&mdash;as
+crowded to Spain in search of Spanish gold.</p>
+
+<p>These artists (it is true that some, and perhaps the best of them, were
+Spaniards) did not work for the people, for there was no <i>bourgeoisie</i>.
+They worked for the wealthy prelates, for the aristocracy, and for the
+<i>caciques</i>. These latter had sumptuous chapels decorated, dedicated an
+altar to such and such a deity, and erected a magnificent sepulchre or
+series of sepulchres for themselves and their families.</p>
+
+<p>This peculiar phenomenon explains the wealth of Spanish churches in
+lateral chapels. Not a cathedral but has about twenty of them; not a
+church but possesses its half a dozen. Moreover, some of the very finest
+examples of sepulchral art are not to be found in cathedrals, but in
+out-of-the-way village churches, where some <i>cacique</i> or other laid his
+bones to rest and had his effigy carved on a gorgeous marble tomb.</p>
+
+<p>These chapels are built in all possible styles and in all degrees of
+splendour and magnificence, according to the generosity<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_039" id="page_039">{39}</a></span> of the donor.
+Here they bulge out, deforming the regular plan of the church, or else
+they take up an important part of the interior of the building. There
+they are Renaissance jewels in a Gothic temple, or else ogival marvels
+in a Romanesque building. They are, as it were, small churches&mdash;or
+important annexes like that of the Condestable in Burgos, possessing a
+dome of its own&mdash;absolutely independent of the cathedral itself, rich in
+decorative details, luxurious in the use of polished stone and metal, of
+agate and golden accessories, of gilded friezes, low reliefs, and
+painted <i>retablos</i>. They constitute one of the most characteristic
+features of Spanish religious architecture and art in general, and it is
+above all due to them that Iberia's cathedrals are museums rather than
+solemn places of worship.</p>
+
+<p>But the Spanish people did not erect them; they were commanded by vain
+and death-fearing <i>caciques</i>, and erected by artists&mdash;generally
+foreigners, though often natives. The people did not care nor take any
+interest in the matter; so long as the village saint was not insulted,
+nor their individual liberty (<i>fuero</i>) infringed upon,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_040" id="page_040">{40}</a></span> the world, its
+artists and <i>caciques</i>, could do as it liked.</p>
+
+<p>This insensibility helped to hinder the formation of a national style.
+Besides, as the duration of the Spanish nation was so exceedingly short,
+there was no time at hand to develop a national art school. In certain
+localities, as in Galicia, a prevailing type or style was in common use,
+and was slowly evolving into something strictly local and excellent.
+These types, together with Moorish art, and above all <i>Mudejar</i> work,
+might have evolved still further and produced a national style. But the
+nation fell to pieces like a dried-up barrel whose hoops are broken, and
+the nation's style was never formed.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, contemporary with the birth of the nation was the advent of the
+Renaissance movement. This was the <i>coup de gr�ce</i>, the final blow to
+any germs of a Spanish style, of a style composed of Christian and Islam
+principles and ideals:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Es w�r zu sch�n gewesen,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Es h�tt' nicht sollen sein!"</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Under the circumstances, the art student in Spain, however enthusiastic
+or one-sided<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_041" id="page_041">{41}</a></span> he may be, cannot claim to discover a national school. He
+must necessarily limit his studies to the analysis of the foreign art
+waves which inundated the land; he must observe how they became
+localized and were modified, how they were united both wisely and
+ridiculously, and he must point out the reasons or causes of these
+medleys and transformations. There his task ends.</p>
+
+<p>One peculiarity will strike him: the peninsula possesses no pure Gothic,
+Romanesque, or Renaissance building. The same might almost be stated as
+regards Moorish art. The capitals of the pillars in the mezquita of
+Cordoba are Latin-Romanesque, torn from a previous building by the
+invading Arab to adorn his own temple. The Alhambra, likewise, shows
+animal arabesques which are Byzantine and not Moorish. Nevertheless,
+Arab art is, on the whole, purer in style than Christian art.</p>
+
+<p>This transformation of foreign styles proves: (1) That though the
+Spanish artist lacked creative genius, he was no base imitator, but
+sought to combine; he sought to give the temple he had to construct that
+heavy, massive, strong, and sombre aspect<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_042" id="page_042">{42}</a></span> so well in harmony with the
+religious and warlike spirit of the different clanspeople; and (2) that
+the same artist failed completely to understand the ideal of soaring
+ogival, of simple Renaissance, or of pure Romanesque (this latter he
+understood better than either of the others). For him, they&mdash;as well as
+Islam art&mdash;were but elements to be made use of. Apart from their
+constructive use, they were superfluous, and the artist-architect was
+blind to their ethical object or �sthetical value. With their aid he
+built architectural wonders, but hybrid marvels, complex, grand,
+luxurious, and magnificent.</p>
+
+<p>Be it plainly understood, nevertheless, that in the above paragraphs no
+contempt for Spanish cathedrals is either felt or implied. Facts are
+stated, but no personal opinion is emitted as to which is better, a pure
+Gothic or a complicated Spanish Gothic. In art there is really no
+better; besides, comparisons are odious and here they are utterly
+superfluous.</p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Cathedral Churches</i></p>
+
+<p>Before accompanying the art student in his task of determining the
+different foreign<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_043" id="page_043">{43}</a></span> styles, we will do well to examine certain general
+characteristics common to all Spanish cathedrals. We will then be able
+to understand with greater ease the causes of the changes introduced
+into pure styles.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior aspect of all cathedrals is severe and massive, even naked
+and solemn. Neither windows nor flying buttresses are used in such
+profusion as in French cathedrals, and the height of the aisles is
+greater. The object is doubtless to impart an idea of strength to the
+exterior walls by raising them in a compact mass. An even greater effect
+is obtained by square, heavy towers instead of elegant spires. (Compare,
+however, chapters on Leon, Oviedo, Burgos, etc.) The use of domes
+(<i>cimborios</i>, lanterns, and cupolas) is also frequent, most of them
+being decidedly Oriental in appearance. The apse is prominent and
+generally five-sided, warlike in its severe outline. Stone is invariably
+used as the principal constructive element,&mdash;granite, <i>berroque�a</i> (a
+soft white stone turning deep gray with age and exposure), and <i>sillar</i>
+or <i>silleria</i> (a red sandstone cut into similar slabs of the size and
+aspect of brick). Where red sandstone is used, the weaker parts of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_044" id="page_044">{44}</a></span>
+buildings are very often constructed in brick, and it is these
+last-named cathedrals that are most Oriental in appearance, especially
+when the brick surface is carved into <i>Mudejar</i> reliefs.</p>
+
+<p>Taken all in all, the whole building often resembles a castle or
+fortress rather than a temple, in harmony with the austere, arid
+landscape, and the fierce, passionate, and idolatrous character of the
+clanspeople or inhabitants of the different regions.</p>
+
+<p>The principal entrance is usually small in comparison to the height and
+great mass of the building. The pointed arch&mdash;or series of arches&mdash;which
+crowns the portal, is timid in its structure, or, in other words, is but
+slightly pointed or not at all.</p>
+
+<p>The interior aspect of the church is totally different. As bare and
+naked as was the outside, so luxurious and magnificent is the inside.
+Involuntarily medi�val Spanish palaces come to our mind: their gloomy
+appearance from the outside, and the gay <i>patio</i> or courtyard behind the
+heavy, uninviting panels of the doors. The Moors even to this day employ
+this system of architecture; its origin, even in the case of Christian
+churches, is Oriental.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_045" id="page_045">{45}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Leaving aside all architectural considerations, which will be referred
+to in the chapters dedicated to the description of the various
+cathedrals, let us examine the general disposition of some of the most
+interesting parts of the Spanish church.</p>
+
+<p>The aisles are, as a rule, high and dark, buried in perpetual shadow.
+The lightest and airiest part of the building is beneath the <i>crois�e</i>
+(intersection of nave and transept), which is often crowned by a
+handsome <i>cimborio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The nave is the most important member of the church, and the most
+impressive view is obtained by the visitor standing beneath the
+<i>crois�e</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To the east of him, the nave terminates in a semicircular chapel, the
+farther end of which boasts of an immense <i>retablo</i>; to the west, the
+choir, with its stalls and organs, interrupts likewise the continuity of
+the nave. Both choir and altar are rich in decorative details.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the high altar runs the ambulatory, joining the aisles and
+separating the former from the apse and its chapels. The rear wall of
+the high altar (in the ambulatory) is called the <i>trasaltar</i>, where a
+small altar<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_046" id="page_046">{46}</a></span> is generally situated in a recess and dedicated to the
+patron saint, that is, if the cathedral itself be dedicated to the
+Virgin, as generally happens.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes an oval window pierces the wall of the <i>trasaltar</i> and lets
+the light from the apsidal windows enter the high altar; this
+arrangement is called a <i>transparente</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The choir, as wide as the nave and often as high, is rectangular; an
+altar-table generally stands in the western extremity, which is closed
+off by a wall. The rear of this wall (facing the western entrance to the
+temple) is called the <i>trascoro</i>, and contains the altar or a chapel;
+the lateral walls are also pierced by low rooms or niches which serve
+either as chapels or as altar-frames.</p>
+
+<p>The placing of the choir in the very centre of the church, its width and
+height, and its enclosure on the western end by a wall, render
+impossible a view of the whole building such as occurs in Northern
+cathedrals, and upon which the impression of architectural grandeur and
+majesty largely depends. It was as though Spanish architects were
+utterly foreign to the latter impression, or wilfully murdered it by
+substituting<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_047" id="page_047">{47}</a></span> another more to their taste, namely, that of magnificence
+and sumptuousness. Nowhere&mdash;to the author's knowledge&mdash;is this
+impression more acutely felt than in a Spanish cathedral, viewed from
+beneath the <i>crois�e</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Glittering brilliancy, dazzling gold, silver, or gilt, polished marble,
+agate, and jasper, and a luxuriance of vivid colours meet the visitor's
+eyes when standing there. The effect is theatrical, doubtless, but it
+impresses the humble true believer as Oriental splendour; and what, in
+other countries, might be considered as grotesque and unhealthy art,
+must in Spain be regarded as the very essence of the country's worship,
+the very <i>raison d'�tre</i> of the cathedral. Neither can it be considered
+as unhealthy: with us in the North, our <i>religious awe</i> is produced by
+the solemn majesty of rising shafts and long, high, and narrow aisles;
+this fails to impress the Iberian of to-day; and yet, the same sentiment
+of <i>religious awe</i>, of the terrible unknown, be it saint, Saviour,
+Virgin, or God, is imparted to him by this brilliant display of
+incalculable wealth.</p>
+
+<p>To produce this magnificence in choir and high altar, decorative and
+industrial<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_048" id="page_048">{48}</a></span> art were given a free hand, and together wrought those
+wonders of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries which
+placed Spain in a prominent position in the history of art. Goldsmiths
+and silversmiths, masters of ironcraft, sculptors in stone and wood,
+painters and <i>estofadores</i>, together with a legion of other artists and
+artisans of all classes and nationalities, worked together in unison to
+create both choir and high altar.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, from an artistic point of view, the Spanish cathedral is for
+the foreigner a museum, a collection of art objects, pertaining, most of
+them, to the country's industrial arts, for which Iberia was first among
+all nations.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Choir Stalls.</span>&mdash;Space cannot allow us to classify this most important
+accessory of Spanish cathedrals. Carved in walnut or oak, now simple and
+severe, now rich and florid, this branch of graphic art in low relief
+constitutes one of Spain's most legitimate glories. It is strange that
+no illustrated work dedicated exclusively to choir stalls should have
+been published in any language. The tourist's attention must
+nevertheless be drawn to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_049" id="page_049">{49}</a></span> this part of religious buildings; it must
+not escape his observation when visiting cathedral and parish churches,
+and above all, monastical churches.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_094.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_094_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="387" alt="CLOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON" title="CLOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>LOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Retablo.</span>&mdash;The above remarks hold good here as well, when speaking about
+the huge and imposing altar-pieces so universally characteristic of
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern wall of the holy chapel in a cathedral is entirely hidden
+from top to bottom by the <i>retablo</i>, a painted wooden structure
+resembling a huge honeycomb. It consists of niches flanked by gilded
+columns. According to the construction of these columns, now Gothic
+shafts, now Greek or composite, now simple and severe, the period to
+which the <i>retablo</i> belongs is determined.</p>
+
+<p>Generally pyramidically superimposed, these niches, of the height,
+breadth, and depth of an average man, contain life-size statues of
+apostle or saint, painted and decorated by the <i>estofadores</i> in
+brilliant colours (of course, as they are intended to be seen from a
+distance!), in which red and blue are predominant, and which produce a
+gorgeous effect <i>rehauss�</i> by the gilt columns of the niches. (Compare
+with the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_050" id="page_050">{50}</a></span> Oriental taste of <i>Mudejar</i> work in ceilings or
+<i>artesonados</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>The whole <i>retablo</i>, in the low reliefs which form the base, and in the
+statues or groups in the niches, represents graphically the life of the
+Saviour or the Virgin, of the patron saint or an apostle; some of them
+are of exquisite execution and of great variety and movement; in others,
+greater attention has been paid to the decoration of the columns or
+shafts by original floral garlands, etc. Foment, Juni, and Berruguete
+are among the most noted <i>retablo</i> sculptors, but space will not permit
+of a more prolific classification or analysis.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Gold and Silversmiths.</span>&mdash;The vessels used on the altar-table, effigies of
+saints, processional crosses, etc., in beaten gold and silver, are well
+worth examination. So is also the cathedral treasure, in some cases of
+an immense value, both artistic and intrinsic. Cloths, woven in coloured
+silks, gold, and precious stones, are beautiful enough to make any art
+lover envious.</p>
+
+<p>The central niche of the <i>retablo</i>, immediately above the altar-table,
+is generally occupied by a massive beaten silver effigy,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_051" id="page_051">{51}</a></span> the artistic
+value of which is unluckily partially concealed beneath a heap of
+valuable cloths and jewels.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_100.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_100_th.jpg"
+width="360" height="550" alt="TYPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)" title="TYPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">T</span>YPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But where the silversmith's art is purest and most lavishly pronounced
+is in the <i>sagrarios</i>. These are solid silver carved pyramids about two
+or three feet high: they represent miniature temples or thrones with
+shafts or columns supporting arches, windows, pinnacles, and cupolas. In
+the interior, an effigy of the saint, or the Virgin, etc., to whom the
+cathedral is dedicated, is to be seen seated on a throne.</p>
+
+<p>In all cases the workmanship of these miniature temples is exquisite,
+and has brought just fame to Spain's fifteenth and sixteenth century
+silversmiths.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Ironcraft.</span>&mdash;Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the
+artisans who worked in iron. They brought their trade up to the height
+of a fine art of universal fame; their artistic window <i>rejas</i>, in the
+houses and palaces of the rich, are the wonder of all art lovers, and so
+also are the immense <i>rejas</i> or grilles which close off the high altar
+and the choir from the transept, or the entrance to chapels from the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_052" id="page_052">{52}</a></span>
+aisles. Though this art has completely degenerated to-day, nevertheless,
+a just remark was made in the author's hearing by an Englishman, who
+said:</p>
+
+<p>"Even to-day, Spaniards are unable to make a bad <i>reja</i>."</p>
+
+<p class="top5">The reader's and tourist's attention has been called to the salient
+artistic points of a Spanish cathedral. They must be examined one by
+one, and they will be admired; the view of the ensemble will puzzle and
+amaze him, yet it will be wise for him not to criticize harshly the lack
+of <i>unity of style</i>. Frequently the choir stalls are ogival, the
+<i>retablo</i> Renaissance, the <i>rejas</i> plateresque, and the general
+decoration of columns, etc., of the most lavish grotesque.</p>
+
+<p>This in itself is no sin, neither artistic nor ethical, as long as the
+<i>religious awe</i> comes home to the Spaniard, for whom these cathedrals
+are intended. Besides, it is an open question whether the monotony of a
+pure style be nobler than a luxurious moulding together of all styles.
+The whole question is, do the different parts harmonize, or do they
+produce a <i>criard</i> impression.</p>
+
+<p>The answer in all cases is purely personal.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_053" id="page_053">{53}</a></span> Yet, even if unfavourable,
+the utility of the art demonstration must be borne in mind and
+considered as well. And as regards the Spaniard, the utility does exist
+beyond a doubt.</p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Architectural Styles</i></p>
+
+<p>Let us now follow the art student in his task. He will determine the
+different styles, and, to make the matter clearer, he will employ a
+rhetorical figure:</p>
+
+<p>There is an island in the sea. Huge breakers roar on the beach and dash
+against the rocky cliffs. Second, third, and fourth breakers of varying
+strength and energy race with the first, and are in their turn pushed
+relentlessly on from behind until they ripple in dying surf on the
+golden sands and boil in white spray in hidden clifts and caves. With
+the years that roll along the island is shaped according to the will of
+the waves.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, figuratively speaking, is that island, or a peninsula off the
+southwestern coast of the Old World, barred from France by the
+impassable Pyrenees, and forming the link between Africa and Europe:
+the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_054" id="page_054">{54}</a></span> first stepping-stone for the former in its northern march, the last
+extremity or the rear-guard of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The breakers represent the different art movements which, born in
+countries where <i>compact</i> nations were fighting energetically for an
+existence and for an ideal, flooded with terrible force the civilized
+lands of the middle ages, and sought to outdo and conquer their rivals.</p>
+
+<p>These breakers were: from the east, early Christian (both Latin-Lombard
+and Byzantine); from the north, Gothic; from the south, Arab, or, to be
+more accurate, Moorish. The first two were advocates of one
+civilization, the Christian or Occidental; the latter was the
+propagandist of another, the Neo-Oriental or Mohammedan.</p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance was but a second or third breaker coming from the east,
+which breathed new life into antiquated constructive and decorative
+elements by adapting them to a new religion or faith.</p>
+
+<p>Later architectural forms were but the periodical revival or combination
+of one or another of the already existing elements.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, thanks to her unique position, was the point where all these
+contradictory waves<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_055" id="page_055">{55}</a></span> met in a final endeavour to crush their opponents.
+In Spain, Byzantine pillars fought against Lombard shafts, and Gothic
+pinnacles rose haughtily beside the horseshoe arch and the <i>arc bris�</i>.
+In Spain Christianity grappled with the Islam faith and sent it bleeding
+back to the wilds of Africa; in Spain the polygon, circle, and square
+struggled for supremacy and lost their personality in the complex
+blending of the one with the other, and minarets, cupolas, and spires
+combined in bizarre fantasy and richness of decoration to serve the
+ambitions of mighty prelates, fanatic kings, and death-fearing noblemen.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">Such is, rhetorically speaking, the history of architecture of Spain.
+Cathedrals had a <i>cachet</i> of their own, either national (in certain
+characteristics) or else local. But the elements of which they were
+composed were foreign. That is, excepting in the case of Spanish-Moorish
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Moorish art! In the second volume (Southern Spain), the author of these
+lines will dedicate several paragraphs to the art of the Moors in Spain.
+Suffice to assert in the present chapter the following statements.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_056" id="page_056">{56}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(1) Moorish art in Spain is peculiar to the Arabs who inhabited the
+peninsula during seven hundred years. Consequently this art, born on
+Iberian soil, cannot be regarded as foreign.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Much of what is called Moorish art owes its existence to the
+Christians, to the Muzarabs and Jews who inhabited cities which were
+dependent upon or belonged to the Moors. In the same way, much of the
+Oriental taste of the Spanish Christians was inherited from the Moors
+and received in Spain the generic name of <i>Mudejar</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The art of the Moors, though largely used in Spain, especially in
+the south, rarely entered into cathedral structures, though often
+noticeable in churches, cloisters, and in decorative motives.</p>
+
+<p>(4) The Moors learnt more art motives in Spain than they introduced into
+the country.</p>
+
+<p>These and many other points of interest will have to be neglected in the
+present chapter. For the cathedrals of the north are (as regards the
+ideal which brought about their erection) radically opposed to Moorish
+art.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_057" id="page_057">{57}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prehistoric Roman and Visigothic (?) art are equally unimportant in this
+study, as neither the one nor the other constructed any Christian temple
+standing to-day. That is to say, cathedral; for Visigothic or early
+Latin and Byzantine Romanesque churches do exist in Asturias, and a
+notable specimen in Venta de Ba�os. They are peculiarly strange
+edifices, and it is to be regretted that they are not cathedrals, for
+their study would be most interesting, not only as regards Iberian art,
+but above all as regards the history of art in the middle ages. So far,
+they have been completely neglected, and, unfortunately, are but little
+known abroad.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Romanesque.</span>&mdash;The origin of Romanesque is greatly discussed. Some
+attribute it to Italy, others to France; others again are of the
+conviction that all Christian (religious) art previous to the birth of
+Gothic is Romanesque, etc., etc. The most plausible theory is that the
+style in question evolved out of the early Latin-Christian (basilique)
+style, at the same time borrowing many decorative details from the
+Byzantine-Christian style.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_058" id="page_058">{58}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In Spain, pre-Romanesque Christian architecture (or Visigothic) shows
+decided Byzantine influence, more so, probably, than in any other
+European country. This peculiarity influences also Romanesque, both
+early and late. It is not strange, either, considering that an important
+colony of <i>Bizantinos</i> (Christians) settled in Eastern Andalusia during
+the Visigothic period.</p>
+
+<p>In the tenth century churches, and in the eleventh cathedrals, commenced
+to be erected in Northern Spain. Byzantine influence was very marked in
+the earlier monuments.</p>
+
+<p>Was Romanesque a foreign style? Was it introduced from Italy or France,
+or was it a natural outcome or evolutionary product of decadent early
+Christian architecture? In the latter case there is no saying where it
+evolved, possibly to the north or to the south of the Pyrenees, possibly
+to the east or to the west of the Alps. What is more, the Pyrenees in
+those days did not serve as a strict frontier line like to-day; on the
+contrary, both Navarra and Aragon extended beyond the mountainous wall,
+and the dukes of Southern France occasionally<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_059" id="page_059">{59}</a></span> possessed immense
+territories and cities to the south of the Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, Romanesque, as a style, first dawned in Spain in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. Its birth coincided with that of the
+popular religious crusade against the Moor who had inhabited the
+peninsula during four centuries; it coincided also with the great
+church-erecting period of Northern Spanish history, when the Alfonsos of
+Castile created bishoprics (to aid them in their political ambitions) as
+easily as they broke inconvenient treaties and savagely murdered
+friends, relatives, and foes alike. Consequently, many were the
+Romanesque cathedrals erected, and though the greater part were
+destroyed later and replaced by Gothic structures, several fine
+specimens of the former style are still to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Needless to say, Romanesque became localized; in other words, it
+acquired certain characteristics restricted to determined regions.
+Galician Romanesque and that of Western Castile, for instance, are
+almost totally different in aspect: the former is exceedingly poetical
+and possesses carved wall decorations both rich and excellent; the
+latter is intensely strong and warlike, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_060" id="page_060">{60}</a></span> the decorations, if
+employed at all, are Byzantine, or at least Oriental in taste.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Transition.</span>&mdash;Many of the cathedrals of Galicia belong, according to
+several authors, to this period in which Romanesque strength evolved
+into primitive Gothic or ogival airiness. In another chapter a personal
+opinion has been emitted denying the accuracy of the above remark.</p>
+
+<p>There is no typical example of Transition in Spain. Ogival changes
+introduced at a later date into Romanesque churches, a very common
+occurrence, cannot justify the classification of the buildings as
+Transition monuments.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is it surprising that such buildings should be lacking in Spain. For
+Gothic did not evolve from Romanesque in the peninsula, but was
+introduced from France. A short time after its first appearance it swept
+all before it, thanks to the Cluny monks, and was exclusively used in
+church-building. In a strict sense it stands, moreover, to reason that
+the former (Transition) can only exist there where a new style emerges
+from an old without being introduced from abroad.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_061" id="page_061">{61}</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Ogival Art.</span>&mdash;The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are,
+properly speaking, those of the great northern art wave which spread
+rapidly through the peninsula, bending all before its irresistible will.
+Romanesque churches were destroyed or modified (the introduction of an
+ambulatory in almost all Romanesque buildings), and new cathedrals
+sprung up, called into existence by the needs and requirements of a new
+people, a conquering, Christian people, driving the infidel out of the
+land, and raising the Holy Cross on the sacred monuments of the Islam
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>The changements introduced into the new style tended to give it a more
+severe and defiant exterior appearance than in northern churches,&mdash;a
+scarcity of windows and flying buttresses, timidly pointed arches, and
+solid towers. Besides, round-headed arches (vaultings and horizontal
+lines) were indiscriminately used to break the vertical tendency of pure
+ogival; so also were Byzantine cupolas and domes.</p>
+
+<p>The solemn, cold, and naked cathedral church of Alcal� de Henares is a
+fine example of the above. Few people would consider it to belong to the
+same class as the eloquent<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_062" id="page_062">{62}</a></span> cathedral of Leon and the no less imposing
+see of Burgos. Nevertheless, it is, every inch of it, as pure Gothic as
+the last named, only, it is essentially Spanish, the other two being
+French; it bears the sombre <i>cachet</i> of the age of Spanish Inquisition,
+of the fanatic intolerant age of the Catholic kings.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Later Styles.</span>&mdash;Toward the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
+sixteenth centuries, Italian Renaissance entered the country and drove
+Gothic architecture out of the minds of artists and patronizing
+prelates.</p>
+
+<p>But Italian Renaissance failed to impress the Spaniard, whose character
+was opposed to that of his Mediterranean cousin; so also was the general
+aspect of his country different from that of Italy. Consequently, it is
+not surprising that we should find very few pure Renaissance monuments
+on the peninsula. On the other hand, Spanish Renaissance&mdash;a florid form
+of the Italian&mdash;is frequently to be met with; in its severest form it is
+called <i>plateresco</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the times of Philip II., Juan Herrero created his style (Escorial),
+of which symmetry, grandeur in size, and poverty in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_063" id="page_063">{63}</a></span> decoration were the
+leading characteristics. The reaction came, however, quickly, and
+Churriguera introduced the most astounding and theatrical grotesque
+imaginable.</p>
+
+<p>The later history of Spanish architecture is similar to that of the rest
+of Europe. As it is, the period which above all interests us here is
+that reaching from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, embracing
+Romanesque, ogival, and plateresque styles. Of the cathedrals treated of
+in this volume, all belong to either of the two first named
+architectural schools, excepting those of Valladolid, Madrid, and, to a
+certain extent, the new cathedral of Salamanca and that of Segovia.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><span class="smcap">Mudejar Art.</span>&mdash;Previous to the advent of Italian Renaissance in Spain, a
+new art had been created which was purely national, having been born on
+the peninsula as the complex product of Christian and Islam elements.
+This art, known by the generic name of <i>Mudejar</i>, received a mortal blow
+at the hands of the new Italian art movement. Consequently, the only
+school which might have been regarded as Spanish, degenerated sadly,
+sharing the fate of the new-born nation.
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_064" id="page_064">{64}</a></span>
+Rather than a constructive style, the <i>Mudejar</i> or Spanish style is
+decorative. With admirable variety and profusion it ornamented brick
+surfaces by covering them with reliefs, either geometrical (Moorish) or
+Gothic, either sunk into the wall or else the latter cut around the
+former.</p>
+
+<p>The aspect of these <i>Mudejar</i> buildings is peculiar. In a ruddy plain
+beneath a dazzling blue sky, these red brick churches gleam thirstily
+from afar. Shadows play among the reliefs, lending them strength and
+vigour; the <i>alminar</i> tower stands forth prominently against the sky and
+contrasts delightfully with the cupola raised on the apse or on the
+<i>crois�e</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the finest examples of <i>Mudejar</i> art, must be counted the
+brilliantly coloured ceilings, such as are to be seen in Alcal�, Toledo,
+and elsewhere. These <i>artesonados</i>, without being Moorish, are,
+nevertheless, of a pronounced Oriental taste. A geometrical pattern is
+carved on the wood of the ceiling and brilliantly painted. Prominent
+surfaces are preferably golden in hue, and such as are sunk beneath the
+level are red or blue. The effect is dazzling.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_118.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_118_th.jpg"
+width="360" height="550" alt="MUDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)" title="MUDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">M</span>UDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unluckily, but little attention has been<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_065" id="page_065">{65}</a></span> paid out of Spain to
+<i>Mudejar</i> art, and it is but little known. Even Spanish critics do not
+agree as to the national significance of this art, and it is a great
+pity, as unfortunately the country can point to no other art phenomena
+and claim them to be Spanish. How can it, when the nation had not as yet
+been born, and, once born, was to die almost simultaneously, like a moth
+that flies blindly and headlong into an intense flame?</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_066" id="page_066">{66}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IVa" id="IVa"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">CONCLUSION</p>
+
+<p>S<span class="smcap">pain</span> geographically can be roughly divided into two parts, a northern
+and southern, separated by a mountain chain, composed of the Sierras de
+Guaderrama, Gredos, and Gata to the north of Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>Such a division does not, however, explain the historical development of
+the Christian kingdoms from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries, nor
+is it advisable to adopt it for an architectural study.</p>
+
+<p>During the great period of church-building, the nine kingdoms of Spain
+formed four distinct groups: Galicia, Asturias, Leon, and Castile;
+Navarra and Aragon; Barcelona and Valencia; Andalusia.</p>
+
+<p>The first group gradually evolved until Castile absorbed the remaining
+three kingdoms, and later Andalusia as well; the second and third groups
+succumbed to the royal house of Aragon.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_067" id="page_067">{67}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>From an architectural point of view, there are three groups, or even
+four: Castile, Aragon, the Mediterranean coast-line, and Andalusia. In
+the last three the Oriental influence is far more pronounced than in the
+first named.</p>
+
+<p>Further, Spain is divided into nine archbishoprics: four corresponding
+to Castile (Santiago, Burgos, Valladolid, and Toledo); one to Aragon
+(Zaragoza); two to the Mediterranean coast (Tarragon and Valencia); and
+two to Andalusia (Sevilla and Granada).</p>
+
+<p>It was the author's object to preserve as far as possible in the
+following chapters and in the general subdivision of his work, not only
+the geographical, but the historical, architectural, and ecclesiastical
+divisions as well. Better still, he sacrificed the first when
+incompatible with the latter three.</p>
+
+<p>But&mdash;and here the difficulty arose&mdash;what title should be chosen for each
+of the two volumes which were to be dedicated to Spain? Because two
+volumes were necessary, considering the eighty odd cathedrals to be
+described.</p>
+
+<p>"Cathedrals of Northern Spain" as opposed to "Cathedrals of Southern
+Spain"&mdash;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_068" id="page_068">{68}</a></span>was one of the titles. "Gothic cathedrals of Spain"&mdash;as opposed
+to "Moorish Cathedrals of Spain"&mdash;was another; the latter had to be
+discarded, as only one Moorish mezquita converted into a Christian
+temple exists to-day, namely, that of Cordoba.</p>
+
+<p>There remained, therefore, the first title.</p>
+
+<p>The first volume, discarding Navarra and Aragon (in the north), is
+dedicated to Castile, as well as its four archbishoprics.</p>
+
+<p>The narrow belt of land, running from east to west, from Cuenca to
+Coria, to the south of the Sierra de Guaderrama, and constituting the
+archbishopric of Toledo, has been added to the region lying to the north
+and to the northwest of Madrid.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, to aid the reader, the present volume has been divided into
+parts, namely: Galicia, the North, and Castile; the latter has been
+subdivided into western and eastern, making in all four divisions.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Galicia.</i> Santiago de Campostela is, from an ecclesiastical point
+of view, all Galicia. Thanks to this spirit, the entire region shows a
+decided uniformity in the style of its churches, for that of Santiago
+(Romanesque) served as a pattern or model to be adopted in the remaining
+sees. The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_069" id="page_069">{69}</a></span> character of the people is no less uniform, and the Celtic
+inheritance of poetry has drifted into the monuments of the Christian
+religion.</p>
+
+<p>The episcopal see of Oviedo falls under the jurisdiction of Santiago;
+the Gothic cathedral shows no Romanesque motives excepting the Camara
+Sagrada, and has therefore been included in&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>The North.</i> With the exception of Oviedo, all the bishoprics in
+this group fall under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Burgos. The
+two finest Gothic temples in Northern Spain pertain to this group:
+Burgos and Leon.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, but little uniformity in this northern region, for
+Santander and Vitoria have but little in common with the remaining sees.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Western Castile.</i> A certain degree of uniformity is seen to exist
+among the sees of Western Castile, namely, the warlike appearance of the
+Byzantine Romanesque edifices. Besides, the use of sandstone and brick
+is here universal, and the immense plain of Old Castile to the north of
+the Sierra de Gata, and of Northern Extremadura to the south of the same
+range, have a peculiar<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_070" id="page_070">{70}</a></span> ruddy aspect, dry and Oriental (African?), that
+is perfectly delightful.</p>
+
+<p>The sees to the north of the mentioned mountain chain belong to
+Valladolid; those of the south to Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>Eastern Castile</i> extends from Valladolid in the north
+(archbishopric) to Toledo in the south (archbishopric), from Avila in
+the west to Sig�enza in the east, and to Cuenca in the extreme southeast
+of New Castile.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">In the middle ages the Christian kings of Asturias (Galicia?) grew more
+and more powerful, and their territory stretched out to the south and to
+the east.</p>
+
+<p>On the Mi�o River, Tuy and Orense were frontier towns, to populate
+which, bishoprics were erected. To the south of Oviedo, and almost on a
+line with the two Galician towns, Astorga, Leon and Burgos were strongly
+fortified, and formed an imaginary line to the north of which ruled
+Christian monarchs, and to the south Arab emirs.</p>
+
+<p>Burgos at the same time served as fortress-town against the rival kings
+of Navarra to the north and east; the latter, on the other hand,
+fortified the Rioja against Castile<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_071" id="page_071">{71}</a></span> until at last it fell into the
+hands of the latter. Then Burgos, no longer a frontier town, grew to be
+capital of the new-formed kingdom of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Slowly, but surely, the Arabs moved southwards, followed by the
+implacable line of Christian fortresses. At one time Valladolid,
+Palencia, Toro, and Zamora formed this line. When Toledo was conquered
+it was substituted by Coria, Plasencia, Sig�enza, and, slightly to the
+north, by Madrid, Avila, Segovia, and Salamanca. At the same time
+Sig�enza, Segovia, Soria, and Logro�o formed another strategic line of
+fortifications against Aragon, whilst in the west Plasencia, Coria, Toro
+and Zamora, Tuy, Orense, and Astorga kept the Portuguese from Castilian
+soil. In the extreme southwest Cuenca, impregnable and highly
+strategical, looked eastwards and southwards against the Moor, and
+northwards against the Aragonese.</p>
+
+<p>In all these links of the immense strategical chain which protected
+Castile from her enemies, the monarchs were cunning enough to erect sees
+and appoint warrior-bishops. They even donated the new fortress-cities
+with special privileges or <i>fueros</i>, in virtue<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_072" id="page_072">{72}</a></span> of which settlers came
+from all parts of the country to inhabit and constitute the new
+municipality.</p>
+
+<p>Such&mdash;in gigantic strides&mdash;is the story of most of Castile's world-famed
+cities. In each chapter, dates, anecdotes, and more details are given,
+with a view to enable the reader to become acquainted not only with the
+ecclesiastical history of cities like Burgos and Valladolid, but also
+with the causes which produced the growing importance of each see, as
+well as its decadence within the last few centuries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_073" id="page_073">{73}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_074" id="page_074">{74}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a><i>PART II</i><br /><br /><i>Galicia</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_075" id="page_075">{75}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Ib" id="Ib"></a>I</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SANTIAGO DE CAMPOSTELA</p>
+
+<p>W<span class="smcap">hen</span> the Christian religion was still young, St. James the Apostle&mdash;he
+whom Christ called his brother&mdash;landed in Galicia and roamed across the
+northern half of the Iberian peninsula dressed in a pilgrim's modest
+garb and leaning upon a pilgrim's humble staff. After years of wandering
+from place to place, he returned to Galicia and was beheaded by the
+Romans, his enemies.</p>
+
+<p>This legend&mdash;or truth&mdash;has been poetically interwoven with other legends
+of Celtic origin, until the whole story forms what Bruneti�re would call
+a <i>cycle chevaleresque</i> with St. James&mdash;or Santiago&mdash;as the central
+hero.</p>
+
+<p>According to one of these legends, it would appear that the apostle was
+persecuted by his great enemy Lupa, a woman of singular beauty whom the
+ascetic pilgrim had mortally offended. Thanks to certain<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_076" id="page_076">{76}</a></span> accessory
+details, it is possible to assume that Lupa is the symbol of the "God
+without a name" of Celtic mythology, and it is she who finally venges
+herself by decapitating the pilgrim saint.</p>
+
+<p>The disciples of St. James laid his corpse in a cart, together with the
+executioner's axe and the pilgrim's staff. Two wild bulls were then
+harnessed to the vehicle, and away went cart and saint. As night fell
+and the moon rose over the vales of Galicia, the weary animals stopped
+on the summit of a wooded hill in an unknown vale, surrounded by other
+hillocks likewise covered with foliage and verdure.</p>
+
+<p>The disciples buried the saint, together with axe and staff, and there
+they left him with the secret of his burial-ground.</p>
+
+<p>This must have happened in the first or second century of the Christian
+era. Six hundred years later, and one hundred years after the Moors had
+landed in Andalusia, one Theodosio, Bishop of Iria (Galicia), took a
+walk one day in his wide domains accompanied by a monk. Together they
+lost their way and roamed about till night-fall, when they found
+themselves far from home.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_077" id="page_077">{77}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Stars twinkled in the heavens as they do to this day. Being tired, the
+bishop and his companion dreamt as they walked along&mdash;at least it
+appears so from what followed&mdash;and the stars were so many miraculous
+lights which led the wanderers on and on. At last the stars remained
+motionless above a wooded hill standing isolated in a beautiful vale.
+The prelate stopped also, and it occurred to him to dig, for he
+attributed his dreams to a supernatural miracle. Digging, a coffin was
+revealed to him, and therein the saintly remains of St. James or
+Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>Giving thanks to Him who guides all steps, Theodosio returned to Iria,
+and, by his orders, a primitive basilica was erected some years later on
+the very spot where the saint had been buried, and in such a manner as
+to place the high altar just above the coffin. A crypt was then dug out
+and lined with mosaic, and the coffin, either repaired or renewed, was
+laid therein,&mdash;some say it was visible to the hordes of pilgrims in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The shrine was then called Santiago de Campostela.&mdash;Santiago, which
+means St.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_078" id="page_078">{78}</a></span> James, and Campostela, field of stars, in memory of the
+miraculous lights the Bishop of Iria and his companion had perceived
+whilst sweetly dreaming.</p>
+
+<p>The news of the discovery spread abroad with wonderful rapidity.
+Monasteries, churches, and inns soon surrounded the basilica, and within
+a few years a village and then a city (the bishop's see was created
+previous to 842 A. D.) filled the vale, which barely fifty years earlier
+had been an undiscovered and savage region.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the middle ages, from the eleventh to the fifteenth
+centuries, Santiago de Campostela was the scene of pilgrimages&mdash;not to
+say crusades&mdash;to the tomb of St. James. From France, Italy, Germany, and
+England hundreds and thousands of men, women, and children wandered to
+the Galician valley, then one of the foci of ecclesiastical significance
+and industrial activity. The city, despite its local character, wore an
+international garb, much to the benefit of Galician, even Spanish, arts
+and literature. It is a pity that so little research has been made
+concerning these pilgrimages and the influences they brought to bear on
+the history of the country. A book treating<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_079" id="page_079">{79}</a></span> of this subject would be a
+highly interesting account of one of the most important movements of the
+middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Moors under Almanzor pillaged the city of Santiago in 999; then they
+retreated southwards, as was their wont. The Norman vikings also visited
+the sacred vale, attracted thither by the reports of its wealth; but
+they also retreated, like the waves of the sea when the tide goes out.</p>
+
+<p>After the last Arab invasion, an extemporaneous edifice was erected in
+place of the shrine which had been demolished. It did not stand long,
+however, for the Christian kings of Spain, whose dominions were limited
+to Asturias, Leon, and Galicia, ordered the construction of a building
+worthy of St. James, who was looked upon as the god of battles, much
+like St. George in England.</p>
+
+<p>So in 1078 the new cathedral, the present building, was commenced, and,
+as the story runs, it was built around the then existing basilica, which
+was left standing until after the vault of the new edifice had been
+closed.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Spain at this moment helped to increase the religious
+importance of Santiago. The kingdom of Asturias<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_080" id="page_080">{80}</a></span> (Oviedo) had stretched
+out beyond its limits and died; the Christian nuclei were Galicia, Leon,
+and Navarra. In these three the power of the noblemen, and consequently
+of the bishops and archbishops, was greater than it had ever been
+before. Each was lord or sovereign in his own domains, and fought
+against his enemies with or without the aid of the infidel Arab armies,
+which he had no compunction in inviting to help him against his
+Christian brothers. Now and again a king managed to subdue these
+aristocratic lords and ecclesiastical prelates, but only for a short
+time. Besides, nowhere was the independent spirit of the noblemen more
+accentuated than in Galicia; nowhere were the prelates so rebellious as
+in Santiago, the Sacred City, and none attained a greater height of
+personal power and wealth than Diego Galmirez, the first archbishop of
+Santiago, and one of the most striking and interesting personalities of
+Spanish history in the twelfth century, to whom Santiago owes much of
+her glory, and Spain not little of her future history.</p>
+
+<p>The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were thus the period of Santiago's
+greatest fame and renown. Little by little the central<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_081" id="page_081">{81}</a></span> power of the
+monarchs went southwards to Castile and Andalusia, and little by little
+Santiago declined and dwindled in importance, until to-day it is one
+city more of those that have been and are no longer.</p>
+
+<p>For the city's history is that of its cathedral, of its shrine. With the
+birth of Protestantism and the death of feudal power, both city and
+cathedral lost their previous importance: they had sprung into life
+together, and the existence of the one was intricately interwoven with
+that of the other.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">The stranger who visits Santiago to-day does not approach it fervently
+by the Mount of Joys as did the footsore pilgrims in the middle ages. On
+the contrary, he steps out of the train and hurries to the cathedral
+church, which sadly seems to repeat the thoughts of the city itself, or
+the words of Se�or Muguira:</p>
+
+<p>"To-day, what am I? An echo of the joys and pains of hundreds of
+generations; a distant rumour both confused and undefinable, a last
+sunbeam fading at evening and dying on the glassy surface of sleeping
+waters. Never will man learn my secrets, never will he be able to open
+my granite<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_082" id="page_082">{82}</a></span> lips and oblige them to reveal the mysterious past."</p>
+
+<p>As is generally known, the cathedral is a Romanesque building of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries mutilated by posterior additions and
+recent ameliorations (<i>sic</i>). It was begun in 1078, and, though finished
+about 150 years later, no ogival elements drifted into the construction
+until long after its completion. As will be seen later on, it served as
+the model for most of Galicia's cathedrals. On the other hand, it is
+generally believed to be an imitation&mdash;as regards the general
+disposition&mdash;of St. Saturnin in Toulouse: a combatable theory, however,
+as the churches were contemporaneous.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the outside, the Cathedral of Santiago lacks harmony; few
+remains of the primitive structure are to be discovered among the many
+later-date additions and reforms. The base of the towers and some fine
+blinded windows, with na�ve low reliefs in the semicircular tympanum,
+will have to be excepted.</p>
+
+<p>The Holy Door&mdash;a peculiarly placed apsidal portal on the eastern
+front&mdash;is built up of decorative elements saved from<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_083" id="page_083">{83}</a></span> the northern and
+western fa�ades when they were torn down.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_140.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_140_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="386" alt="SANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL" title="SANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">S</span>ANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The best portal is the Puerta de la Plateria, opening into the southern
+arm of the transept. It is, unluckily, depressed and thrown into the
+background by the cloister walls on the left, and by the Trinity Tower
+on the right. Nevertheless, both handsome and sober, it can be counted
+among the finest examples of its kind&mdash;pure Romanesque&mdash;in Spain, and is
+rendered even more attractive by the peculiar Galician poetry which
+inspired its sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately above the panels of the door, which are covered with
+twelfth-century metal reliefs, there is a stone plaque or low relief,
+representing the Passion scene; to the left of it is to be seen a
+kneeling woman holding a skull in her hand. Evidently it is a weeping,
+penitent Magdalene. The popular tongue has invented a legend&mdash;perhaps a
+true one&mdash;concerning this woman, who is believed to symbolize the
+adulteress. It appears that a certain hidalgo, discovering his wife's
+sins, killed her lover by cutting off his head; he then obliged her to
+kiss and adore the skull twice daily throughout her life,&mdash;a rather
+cruel punishment and a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_084" id="page_084">{84}</a></span> slow torture, quite in accordance with the
+mystic spirit of the Celts.</p>
+
+<p>The apse of the church, circular in the interior, is squared off on the
+outside by the addition of chapels. As regards the plateresque northern
+and western fa�ades, they are out of place, though the former might have
+passed off elsewhere as a fairly good example of the severe
+sixteenth-century style.</p>
+
+<p>The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform; the principal nave
+is high, and contains both choir and high altar; the two aisles are much
+lower and darker, and terminate behind the high altar in an ambulatory
+walk. The width of the transept is enormous, and is composed of a nave
+and two aisles similar in size to those of the body of the church. The
+<i>crois�e</i> is surmounted by a dome, which, though not Romanesque, is
+certainly an advantageous addition.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting the high altar with its <i>retablo</i>, the choir with its none too
+beautiful stalls, and the various chapels of little interest and less
+taste, the general view of the interior is impressively beautiful. The
+height of the central nave, rendered more elegant<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_085" id="page_085">{85}</a></span> by the addition of a
+handsome Romanesque triforium of round-headed arches, contrasts
+harmoniously with the sombre aisles, whereas the bareness of the
+walls&mdash;for all mural paintings were washed away by a bigoted prelate
+somewhere in the fifteenth century&mdash;helps to show off to better
+advantage the rich sculptural decorations, leaf and floral designs on
+capitals and friezes.</p>
+
+<p>The real wonder of the cathedral is the far-famed Portico de la Gloria,
+the vestibule or narthex behind the western entrance of the church, and
+as renowned as its sculptural value is meritorious.</p>
+
+<p>So much has already been written concerning this work of art that really
+little need be mentioned here. Street, who persuaded the British
+Government to send a body of artists to take a plaster copy of this
+strange work, could not help declaring that: "I pronounce this effort of
+Master Mathews at Santiago to be one of the greatest glories of
+Christian art."</p>
+
+<p>And so it is. Executed in the true Romanesque period, each column and
+square inch of surface covered with exquisite decorative designs,
+elaborated with care and not hastily, as was the habit of later-day<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_086" id="page_086">{86}</a></span>
+artists, the three-vaulted rectangular vestibule between the body of the
+church and the western extremity where the light streams in through the
+rose window, is an immense allegory of the Christian religion, of human
+life, and above all of the mystic, melancholy poetry of Celtic Galicia.
+Buried in half-lights, this song of stone with the statue of the Trinity
+and St. James, with the angels blowing their trumpets from the walls,
+and the virtues and vices of this world symbolized by groups and by
+persons, is of a sincere poetry that leaves a lasting impression upon
+the spectator. Life, Faith, and Death, Judgment and Purgatory, Hell and
+Paradise or Glory, are the motives carved out in stone in this unique
+narthex, so masterful in the execution, and so vivid in the tale it
+tells, that we can compare its author to Dante, and call the Portico de
+la Gloria the "Divina Commedia" of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>At one end there is the figure of a kneeling man, the head almost
+touching the ground in the body's fervent prostration in front of the
+group representing Glory, Trinity, and St. James. Is it a
+twelfth-century pilgrim whom the artist in a moment of realistic
+enthusiasm has portrayed here, in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_087" id="page_087">{87}</a></span> the act of praying to his Creator and
+invoking his mercy? Or is it the portrait of the artist, who, even after
+death, wished to live in the midst of the wonders of his creation? It is
+not positively known, though it is generally supposed to be Maestro
+Mateo himself, kneeling in front of his Glory, admiring it as do all
+visitors, and watching over it as would a mother over her son.</p>
+
+<p>If the chapels which surround the building have been omitted on account
+of their artistic worthlessness, not the same fate awaits the cloister.</p>
+
+<p>Of a much later date than the cathedral itself, having been constructed
+in the sixteenth century, it is a late Gothic monument betraying
+Renaissance additions and mixtures; consequently it is entirely out of
+place and time here, and does not harmonize with the cathedral. Examined
+as a detached edifice, it impresses favourably as regards the height and
+length of the galleries, which show it to be one of the largest
+cloisters in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral's crypt is one of its most peculiar features, and
+certainly well worth examining better than has been heretofore<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_088" id="page_088">{88}</a></span> done. It
+is reached by a small door behind the high altar (evidently used when
+the saint's coffin was placed on grand occasions on the altar-table) or
+by a subterranean gallery leading down from the Portico de la Gloria, a
+gallery as rich in sculptural decorations as the vestibule itself.</p>
+
+<p>The popular belief in Galicia is that in this crypt the cathedral
+reflects itself, towers and all, as it would in the limpid surface of a
+lake. Hardly; and yet the crypt is a nude copy of the ground floor
+above, with the corresponding naves and aisles and apsidal chapels. The
+height of the crypt is surprising, the architectural construction is
+pure Romanesque,&mdash;more so than that of the building itself,&mdash;and just
+beneath the high altar the shrine of St. James is situated where it was
+found in the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_089" id="page_089">{89}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIb" id="IIb"></a>II</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">CORUNNA</p>
+
+<p>C<span class="smcap">orunna</span>, seated on her beautiful bay, the waters of which are ever
+warmed by the Gulf Stream, gazes out westwards across the turbulent
+waves of the ocean as she has done for nearly two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>Brigandtia was her first known name, a centre of the Celtic druid
+religion. The inhabitants of the town, it is to-day believed,
+communicated by sea with their brethren in Ireland long before the
+coming of the Ph&oelig;nicians and Greeks who established a trading post
+and a tin factory, and built the Tower of Hercules.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman conquest saved Brigandtium from being great before her time.
+For the Latin people were miserable sailors, and gazed with awe into the
+waves of the Atlantic. For them Brigandtia was the last spot in the
+world, a dangerous spot, to be shunned. So they left her seated on her<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_090" id="page_090">{90}</a></span>
+beautiful bay beside the Torre de Hercules, and made Lugo their capital.</p>
+
+<p>In the shuffling of bishops and sees in the fifth and sixth centuries,
+Corunna was forgotten. Unimportant, known only for its castle and its
+tower, it passed a useless existence, patiently waiting for a change in
+its favour.</p>
+
+<p>This change came in the fifteenth century as a result of the discovery
+of America. Since then, and with varying success, the city has grown in
+importance, until to-day it is the most wealthy and active of Galicia's
+towns, and one of the largest seaports on Spain's Atlantic coast.</p>
+
+<p>Its history since the sixteenth century is well known, especially to
+Englishmen, who, whenever their country had a rupture with Spain, were
+quick in entering Corunna's bay. From here part of the Invincible Armada
+sailed one day to fight the Saxons and to be destroyed by a tempest; ten
+years later England returned the challenge with better luck, and her
+fleets entered the historical bay and burned the town. During the war
+with Napoleon, General Moore fought the French in the vicinity and lost
+his life, whereas a few years earlier an English<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_091" id="page_091">{91}</a></span> fleet defeated, just
+outside the bay, a united French and Spanish squadron.</p>
+
+<p>To-day, the old city on the hill looks down upon the new one below; the
+former is poetic and artistic, the latter is straight-lined, industrial,
+and modern. Nevertheless, the aspect of the city denies its age, for it
+is more modern than many cities that are younger. What is more,
+tradition does not weigh heavily on its brow, and depress its
+inhabitants, as is the case in Lugo and Tuy and Santiago. The movement
+on the wharves, the continual coming and going of vessels of all sizes,
+commerce, industry, and other delights of modern civilization do not
+give the citizens leisure to ponder over the city's two thousand years,
+nor to preoccupy themselves about art problems. Moreover, the tourist
+who has come to Spain to visit Toledo and Sevilla hurries off inland,
+gladly leaving Corunna's streets to sailors and to merchants.</p>
+
+<p>There are, nevertheless, two churches well worth a visit; one is the
+Colegiata (supposed to have been a bishopric for a short time in the
+thirteenth century) or suffragan church, and the other the Church of
+Santiago. The latter has a fine Romanesque portal<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_092" id="page_092">{92}</a></span> of the twelfth
+century, reminding one in certain decorative details of the Portico de
+la Gloria in Santiago. The interior of the building consists of one nave
+or aisle spanned by a daring vault, executed in the early ogival style;
+doubtless it was originally Romanesque, as is evidently shown by the
+capitals of the pillars, and was most likely rebuilt after the terrible
+fire which broke out early in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Santa Maria del Campo is the name of the suffragan church dedicated to
+the Virgin. The church itself was erected to a suffragan of Santiago in
+1441. The date of its erection is doubtful, some authors placing it in
+the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century. Street, whom we can
+take as an intelligent guide in these matters, calls it a
+twelfth-century church, contemporaneous with and perhaps even built by
+the same architect who built that of Santiago de Campostela. Moreover,
+the mentioned critic affirms this in spite of a doubtful inscription
+placed in the vault above the choir, which accuses the building of
+having been completed in 1307.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_154.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_154_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="381" alt="CHURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA" title="CHURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>HURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The primitive plan of the church was doubtless Romanesque, of one nave
+and two<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_093" id="page_093">{93}</a></span> aisles. As in Mondo�edo and Lugo, the former is surmounted by
+an ogival vault, and the aisles, lower in height, are somewhat depressed
+by the use of Romanesque <i>plein-cintr�</i> vaultings. The form of the
+building is that of a Roman cross with rather short arms; the apse
+consists of but one chapel, the lady-chapel. As regards the light, it is
+horrible, for the window in the west is insignificant and, what is more,
+has recently been blinded, though only Heaven knows why. The towers
+emerging from the western front are unmeaning, and not similar, which
+detracts from the harmony of the whole. As regards the different
+fa�ades, the western has been spoilt quite recently; the northern and
+southern are, however, Romanesque, though not pure, as ogival arches are
+used in the decoration of the tympanum.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, the Church of Santiago at Corunna is more important,
+from an arch�ological point of view, than the Colegiata. The fishing
+folk do not think so, however; they care but little for such secondary
+details, and their veneration is entirely centred in the suffragan
+church&mdash;"one of the three Virgins," as they call her to whom<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_094" id="page_094">{94}</a></span> it is
+dedicated. To them this particular Mary is the <i>estrella del mar</i> (sea
+star), and she is the principal object of their devotion. It is
+strange&mdash;be it said in parenthesis&mdash;how frequently in Galicia mention is
+made of stars: they form a most important feature of the country's
+superstitions. Blood will out&mdash;and Celtic mythology peeps through the
+Christian surface in spite of centuries of true belief.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_095" id="page_095">{95}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIIb" id="IIIb"></a>III</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">MONDO�EDO</p>
+
+<p>A <span class="smcap">village</span> grown to be a city, and yet a village. A city without history
+or tradition, and a cathedral that has been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and above all by the hands of luckless artists called upon to rebuild
+deteriorated parts.</p>
+
+<p>To the north of Lugo, at a respectable distance from the railway which
+runs from the latter to Corunna, and reached either by means of a stage
+or on horseback, Mondo�edo passes a sleeping existence in a picturesque
+vale surrounded by the greenest of hills. Rarely bothered by the tourist
+who prefers the train to the stage, it procures for the art lover many
+moments of delight&mdash;that is, if he will but take the trouble to visit
+the cathedral, the two towers of which loom up in the vale, and though
+rather too stumpy to be able to lend elegance to the ensemble, add a
+poetic charm to the valley and to the village itself.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_096" id="page_096">{96}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>How on earth did it ever occur to any one to raise the church at
+Mondo�edo to a bishopric? Surely the sees in Galicia were badly
+shuffled; and yet, where can a quieter spot be found in this wide world
+of ours for the contemplation of a cathedral&mdash;and a Romanesque one, to
+boot!</p>
+
+<p>It is to the Norman vikings that is due the establishment of a see in
+this lonely valley. Until the sixth century it had been situated in
+Mindunietum of the Romans, when it was removed to Ribadeo, remaining
+there until late in the twelfth century. Both these towns were seaports,
+and both suffered from the cruel incursions and piratical expeditions of
+the vikings, and so after the total pillage of the church in Ribadeo,
+the see was removed inland out of harm's way, to a village known by the
+name of Villamayor or Mondo�edo. There it has remained till the present
+day, ignored by the tourist who "has no time," and who follows the
+beaten track established by Messrs. Cook and Company, in London.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_162.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_162_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="385" alt="GENERAL VIEW OF MONDO�EDO" title="GENERAL VIEW OF MONDO�EDO" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">G</span>ENERAL VIEW OF MONDO�EDO</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As will have been seen, Mondo�edo is a city without history, and without
+a past; doubtless it will for ever remain a village without a future.
+Its doings, its <i>raison<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_097" id="page_097">{97}</a></span> d'�tre</i>, are summed up in the cathedral that
+stands in its centre, just as in Santiago, though from different
+motives.</p>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, the most picturesque spot in Galicia, a gently sloping
+landscape buried in a violet haze, reminding one of Swiss valleys in the
+quiet Jura. Besides, the streets are silent and often deserted, the
+village inn or <i>fonda</i> is neither excellent nor very bad, and as for the
+villagers, they are happy, simple, and hospitable dawdlers along the
+paths of this life.</p>
+
+<p>According to a popular belief, the life of one man, a bishop named Don
+Martin (1219-48), is wrapped up in Mondo�edo's cathedral, so much so, in
+fact, that both their lives are one and the same. He began building his
+see; he saw it finished and consecrated it&mdash;<i>construxit, consumavit et
+consacravit</i>; then he died, but the church and his name lived on.</p>
+
+<p>Modern art critics disagree with the above belief; the older or
+primitive part of the church dates from the twelfth and not from the
+thirteenth century. Originally, as can easily be seen upon examining the
+older part of the building, it was a pure Romanesque basilica, the nave
+and the two aisles running<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_098" id="page_098">{98}</a></span> up to the transept, where they were cut off,
+and immediately to the east of the latter came the apse with three
+chapels, the lady-chapel being slightly larger than the lateral ones.</p>
+
+<p>In the primitive construction of the building&mdash;and excepting all
+later-date additions, of which there are more than enough&mdash;early Gothic
+and Romanesque elements are so closely intermingled that one is perforce
+obliged to consider the monument as belonging to the period of
+Transition, as being, perhaps, a unique example of this period to be met
+with in Galicia or even in Spain. Of course, as in the case of the other
+Galician cathedrals, the original character of the interior, which if it
+had remained unaltered would be both majestic and imposing, has been
+greatly deformed by the addition of posterior reforms. The form of the
+apse has been completely changed by the introduction of an ambulatory or
+circular apsidal aisle dating at least from the fifteenth century, as
+shown by the presence of the late Gothic and Renaissance elements.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_168.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_168_th.jpg"
+width="361" height="550" alt="MONDO�EDO CATHEDRAL" title="MONDO�EDO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">M</span>ONDO�EDO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general plan is rectangular, 120 feet long by seventy-one wide, and
+seen from the outside is solid rather than elegant,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_099" id="page_099">{99}</a></span> a fortress rather
+than a temple. The height of the nave, crowned by a Gothic vaulting, is
+about forty-five feet; a triforium (ogival) runs around the top. The
+lateral aisles are slightly more than half as high and covered by a
+Romanesque vaulting reposing on capitals and shafts of the finest
+twelfth century execution.</p>
+
+<p>The original basilica form of the church has, unluckily, been altered by
+the additional length given to the arms of the transept, and, as
+mentioned already, by the ambulatory walk characteristic of Spanish
+cathedrals; the workmanship of the latter, though lamentably out of tune
+in this old cathedral, is, taken by itself, better than many similar
+additions in other churches.</p>
+
+<p>The western fa�ade, which is the only one worthy of contemplation, is as
+good an example of Romanesque, spoilt by the addition at a recent date
+of grotesque and bizarre figures and monsters, as can be seen anywhere.</p>
+
+<p>The buttresses are more developed than in either Lugo or Santiago, and
+though these bodies, from a decorative point of view, were evidently
+intended to give a certain seal of elegance to the ensemble, the
+stunted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span> towers and the few windows in the body of the church only help
+to heighten its fortress-like aspect.</p>
+
+<p>In a previous paragraph it has been stated that this cathedral is
+perhaps a unique example of the period of Transition (Romanesque and
+early Gothic). It is an opinion shared by many art critics, but
+personally the author of these lines is inclined to consider it as an
+example of the Galician conservative spirit, and of the fight that was
+made in cathedral chapters <i>against</i> the introduction of early Gothic.
+For the temple at Santiago was Romanesque; therefore, according to the
+narrow reasoning peculiar to Galicia, that style was the <i>best</i> and
+consequently <i>good enough</i> for any other church. As a result, we have in
+this region of Spain a series of cathedrals which are practically
+Romanesque, but into the structure of which ogival elements have
+filtered. Further, as there is no existing example of a finished Gothic
+church in Galicia, it is rather difficult to speak of a period of
+Transition, by which is meant the period of passing from one style to
+another. In Galicia, there was no passing: the conservative spirit of
+the country, the poetry of the Celtic inhabitants,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span> and above all of
+their artists, found greater pleasure in Romanesque than in Gothic, and
+consequently the cathedrals are Romanesque, with slight Gothic
+additions, when these could combine or submit in arrangement to the
+heavier Romanesque principles of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Later, in other centuries, the spirit of architecture had completely
+died out in Spain, and the additions made in these days are so many
+lamentable signs of decadence. Not so the ogival introduction in
+Romanesque churches, which in many cases improved the Romanesque
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IVb" id="IVb"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">LUGO</p>
+
+<p>W<span class="smcap">hat</span> Santiago was as regards ecclesiastical politics, Lugo, one of the
+three cities on the Mi�o River, was as regards civil power. It was the
+nominal capital of Galicia, and at one time, in the reign of Alfonso the
+Chaste, it was intended to make it the capital of the nascent Spanish
+kingdom, but for some reason or other Oviedo was chosen instead as being
+more suitable. Since then the city of Lugo has completely fallen into
+ruins and insignificance.</p>
+
+<p>It first appears in history when the Romans conquered it from the Celts.
+It was their capital and their Holy City; in its centre was Lupa's
+Bower, where the Romans built a magnificent temple to Diana. Some
+mosaics of this edifice have been discovered recently, and the peculiar
+designs prove beyond a doubt that the mythological attributions of the
+Celts were made use of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span> and intermingled with those of the Latin
+race&mdash;not at all a strange occurrence, as Lupa and Diana seem to have
+enjoyed many common qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Roman rule, the city walls, remains of which are still
+standing in many places, were erected, and Locus Augusti became the
+capital of the northern provinces.</p>
+
+<p>All through the middle ages, when really Oviedo had usurped its civil,
+and Santiago its religious significance, Lugo was still considered as
+being the capital of Galicia, a stronghold against Arab incursions, and
+a hotbed of unruly noblemen who lost no opportunity in striking a blow
+for liberty against the encroaching power of the neighbouring kingdom of
+Asturias, and later on of Leon. When at last the central power of the
+Christian kings was firmly established in Leon and Castile, in Lugo the
+famous message of adhesion to the dynasty of the Alfonsos was voted, and
+the kingdom of Galicia, like that of Asturias, faded away, the shadow of
+a name without even the right to have its coat of arms placed on the
+national escutcheon.</p>
+
+<p>The ecclesiastical history of the city of Lugo is neither interesting
+nor does it differ<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span> from that of other Galician towns. Erected to a see
+in the fifth century, its cathedral was a primitive basilica destroyed
+by the Moors in one of their powerful northern raids in the eighth
+century. The legendary bishop Odoario lost no time in building a second
+basilica, which met the same fate about two hundred years later, in the
+tenth century. Alfonso the Chaste, one of the few kings of Asturias to
+take a lively interest in Galician politics, ordered either the
+reconstruction of the old basilica or the erection of a new temple.</p>
+
+<p>Those were stormy times for the city: between the rise and stand of
+ambitious noblemen, who, pretending to fight for Galicia's freedom,
+fought for their own interests, and the continual encroachments of the
+proud prelates on the rights and privileges of the people, barely a year
+passed without Lugo being the scene of street fights or sieges. As in
+Santiago, one prince of the Church lost his life, murdered by the
+faithful (<i>sic</i>) flocks, and many, upon coming to take possession of
+their see, found the city gates locked in their faces, and were obliged
+to conquer the cathedral before entering their palace.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The new basilica suffered in consequence, and had to be entirely rebuilt
+in the twelfth century. The new edifice is the one standing to-day, but
+how changed from the primitive building! Thanks to graceless additions
+in all possible styles and combinations of styles, the Romanesque origin
+is hardly recognizable. Consequently, the cathedral church of Lugo,
+which otherwise might have been an architectural jewel, does not inspire
+the visitor with any of those sentiments that ought to be the very
+essence of time-worn religious edifices of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The general disposition of the church is Roman cruciform; the arms of
+the cross are exceedingly short, however, in comparison to their height;
+the <i>crois�e</i> is surmounted by a semicircular vaulting (Spanish
+Romanesque).</p>
+
+<p>The nave shows decided affinity to early Gothic, as shown by the ogival
+arches and vaulting. The presence of the ogival arches (as well as those
+of the handsome triforium, perhaps the most elegant in Galicia) shows
+this church to be the first in Galicia to have submitted to the
+infiltration of Gothic elements. This peculiarity is explained by the
+fact that, in 1129, the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> erection of the cathedral was entrusted to one
+Maestro Raimundo, who stipulated that, in the case of his death before
+the completion of the church, his son should be commissioned to carry on
+the work. He died, and his son, a generation younger and imbued with the
+newer architectural theories, even went so far as to alter his father's
+plans; he built the nave higher than was customary in Romanesque
+churches, and gave elegance to the whole structure by employing the
+pointed arch even in the triforium, otherwise a copy of that of
+Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>The most curious and impressive part of the building is that constructed
+by Maestro Raimundo, father, namely the aisles, especially that part of
+them to the right and left of the choir; they are, with the <i>crois�e</i>,
+the best interior remains of the primitive Romanesque plans: short, even
+stumpy, rather dark it is true, for the light that comes in by the
+narrow windows is but poor at its best, they are, nevertheless, rich in
+decorative designs. The wealth of sculptural ornaments of pure
+Romanesque in these aisles is perhaps the cathedral's best claim to the
+tourist's admiration, and puts<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span> it in a prominent place among the
+Romanesque cathedrals of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Not the same favourable opinion can be emitted when it is a question of
+the exterior. The towers are comparatively new; the apse&mdash;with the
+peculiar and salient addition of an octagonal body revealing Renaissance
+influence&mdash;is picturesque, it is true, but at the same time it has
+spoilt the architectural value of the cathedral as a Romanesque edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The northern fa�ade, preceded by an ogival porch so common in Galicia,
+contains a portal of greater beauty than the Puerta de la Plateria in
+Santiago, and stands forth in greater prominence than the other named
+example of twelfth-century art, by not being lost among or depressed by
+flanking bodies of greater height and mass. As regards the sculptural
+ornamentation of the door itself, it is felt and not only portrayed: the
+Christ standing between the immense valves of the <i>vesica piscis</i> which
+crowns the portal is an example of twelfth-century sculpture. The
+iron-studded panels of the doors have already been praised by Street,
+who placed their execution likewise in the twelfth century.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Excepting this portal&mdash;a marvel in its class with its rounded tympanum
+richly ornamented&mdash;the portion of the building doubtless more strongly
+imbued than any other with the general spirit of the edifice is that
+part of the apse independent of the octagonal addition previously
+mentioned, and which is dedicated to "<i>La Virgen de los Ojos
+Grandes</i>"&mdash;the Virgin of the Large Eyes. (She must have been
+Andalusian!) Of the true apse, the lower part has ogival arched windows
+of singular elegance; the upper body, also semicircular in form, but
+slightly smaller, has round-headed windows. Both the ogival windows of
+the first and the Romanesque windows of the second harmonize
+wonderfully, thanks to the lesser height and width of the upper row. The
+buttresses, simple, and yet alive with a gently curving line, are well
+worth noticing. It is strange, nevertheless, that they should not reach
+the ground, but only support the upper body, and unite it with the
+lower, forming thus a sort of crown for the latter's benefit.</p>
+
+<p>Personally&mdash;and the author must be excused if he emit his opinion&mdash;he
+considers the old apse of the cathedral in Lugo to be<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span> one of the finest
+pieces of architecture to be met with in Galicia. It belongs to what has
+been called the period of Transition (compare previous remarks in
+another chapter concerning this style), and yet it has a character of
+its own not to be found elsewhere, and the harmony of ogival and
+Romanesque has been so artfully revealed that it cannot fail to appeal
+to the tourist who contemplates it carefully.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Vb" id="Vb"></a>V</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">ORENSE</p>
+
+<p>C<span class="smcap">oming</span> by rail from Lugo or Monforte toward Tuy and Vigo, the train
+suddenly escapes from the savage ca�on where the picturesque Mi�o rushes
+and boils beside the road, and emerges into a broad and fertile valley
+where figs, grapes, and olives grow in profusion. This valley is broad,
+its soil is of golden hue, and the sky above it is as brilliantly blue
+as a sapphire. In its centre Orense, heavy Orense, which claims as its
+founder a Greek hero fresh from the pages of the Iliad, basks in the sun
+beside the beautiful Mi�o; the while its cathedral looms up above the
+roofs of the surrounding houses.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the town is as agitated as any in Galicia and shows the
+same general happenings. The Romans appreciated it for its sulphur baths
+and called it Auria (golden) from the colour of the soil, of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> water,
+and perhaps also on account of certain grains of gold discovered in the
+sands of the Mi�o.</p>
+
+<p>The Suevos, who dominated Galicia and proved so beneficial to Tuy, did
+not ignore the importance of Orense: one of the first bishoprics, if not
+<i>the</i> first historical one in Galicia, was that of Orense, dating from
+before the fourth century, at least such is the opinion of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>More than any other Galician city, excepting Tuy, it suffered from the
+Arab invasions. Entirely destroyed, razed to the ground upon two
+occasions, it was ever being rebuilt by the returning inhabitants who
+had fled. Previous to these Arab incursions the cathedral had been
+dedicated to St. Martin de Tours (France), and yearly pilgrimages took
+place to the Galician shrine, where some relics belonging to the saint
+were revered. But with the infidels these relics, or whatever they were,
+were dispersed, and the next century (the eleventh) saw the new
+cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mother (?). Besides, the inhabitants
+seemed to have forgotten the patronage of St. Martin, he who protects
+the vine-grower's <i>m�tier</i>&mdash;and this in spite of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span> the fact that the
+valley of Orense is and was famous above all Galician regions for the
+cultivation of vines. Even Froissart, the French historian, could not
+speak of the town without mentioning its wine. He passed a season in the
+valley, accompanying, I believe, the Duke of Lancaster and his English
+soldiers. The wine was so good and strong, wrote the historian, that the
+soldiers clamoured for it; after they had drunk a little they toppled
+over like ninepins.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs defeated and thrown out of the peninsula, the vikings' last
+business trip to Galicia over, and the Portuguese arms driven to the
+valley of Braga beyond the Mi�o, Orense settled down to a peaceful life,
+the monotony of which was broken now and again&mdash;as it usually was in
+this part of the country&mdash;by squabbles between noblemen, prelates, and
+the <i>bons bourgeois</i>. If no prince of the Church was killed here, as
+happened in Lugo, one at least died mysteriously in the hands of his
+enemies. Not that it seemed to have mattered much, for said bishop
+appears to have been a peculiar sort of spiritual shepherd, full of
+vice, and devoid of virtue, some of whose doings have been
+caricatured&mdash;according to the popular belief<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span>&mdash;in the cornices and
+friezes of the convent of San Francisco.</p>
+
+<p>Otherwise, peace reigned in the land, and Orense passed a quiet
+existence, a circumstance that did not in the slightest add to its
+importance, either as an art, commercial, or industrial centre. To-day,
+full of strangers in summer, who visit the sulphurous baths as did the
+Romans, and empty in winter, it exists without living, as does so many a
+Spanish town.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, with Vigo and Corunna, it is one of the cities with a
+future still before it. At least, its situation is bound to call
+attention as soon as ever the country is opened up to progress and
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Orense, like those of Tuy, Santiago, and Lugo, was
+erected in a <i>castro</i>. These <i>castros</i> were circular dips in the ground,
+surrounded by a low wall, which served the druids as their place of
+worship. The erection of Christian churches in these sacred spots proves
+beyond a doubt that the new religion became amalgamated with the old,
+and even laid its foundations on the latter's most hallowed <i>castros</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the question presents itself as to why a cathedral was erected
+in Orense previous<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span> to any other city. From a legend it would appear
+that the king of the Suevos, Carrarick, had a son who was dying; thanks
+to the advice of a Christian monk, a disciple of St. Martin, and, one is
+inclined to think, fresh from Tours, the king dipped his son in the
+baths of Orense, invoking at the same time the help of St. Martin. Upon
+pulling his offspring out of the water, he discovered that he had been
+miraculously cured. The grateful monarch immediately became a stout
+Christian, and erected a basilica&mdash;destroyed and rebuilt many a time
+during the dark ages of feudalism and Arab invasion&mdash;in honour of his
+son's saviour. What is more wonderful still is that, soon afterward, the
+relics of the French saint were cherished in Orense without its being
+positively known whence they came!</p>
+
+<p>The present cathedral, the date of the erection of which is a point of
+discussion to-day, is generally believed to have been built on the spot
+occupied by the primitive basilica. It is dedicated to Santa Maria la
+Madre according to the official (doubtful?) statement, and to St. Martin
+of Tours, Apostle of Gaul, according to the popular version.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The general appearance of the cathedral proclaims it to have been begun,
+or at least planned, in the twelfth century, and not, as Baedeker
+states, in 1220. As a twelfth-century church we are not obliged to
+consider it for more reasons than one, and especially because, as we
+have seen, the twelfth century was the great period of Galician
+church-building. It was in this century that the northwest shone forth
+in the history of Spain as it had not done before, nor has done since.</p>
+
+<p>The church is another Romanesque specimen, but less pure in its style
+than any of the others mentioned so far: the ogival arch is prevalent,
+but rather as a decorative than as an essentially constructive element.
+As it is, it was commenced at least fifty years after the cathedral of
+Lugo, and though both are twelfth-century churches, the one is an early
+and the other presumably a late one; the employment of the ogival arch
+to a greater degree in Orense than in Lugo is thus easily explained.</p>
+
+<p>In short, the cathedral of Orense is another example of the peculiar
+Romanesque of Galicia, which, withstanding the invasion of Gothic,
+created a school of its own, pretty<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span> in details, bold in harmony, though
+it be a hybrid school after all.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the cathedral of Santiago is self-evident in the
+cathedral of Orense. How could it be otherwise, when the bishop Don
+Diego, who sat on the chair, was a great friend and a continual visitor
+of that other Don Diego in Santiago who erected the primate cathedral of
+Galicia?</p>
+
+<p>This influence is above all to be seen in the Portico del Paraiso, an
+interior narthex leading from the western front to the body of the
+church. It is a handsome area of Romanesque sculpture covered by an
+ogival vaulting, and would be an important monument if its rival and
+prototype in Santiago were not greater, both as regards its perfection
+of design, and the grand idea which inspired it.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three doors which lead into the cathedral, the western is crowned
+by three rounded arches reposing on simple columns. The tympanum as a
+decorative element is lacking, as is also the low relief, which is
+usually superimposed above the upper arches. The latter are, however,
+carved in the most elaborate manner. As regards the other two portals,
+the northern and southern, their composition, as far as generalities are
+concerned,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span> is the same as the western, excepting that they are
+surrounded by a depressed semicircular arch in relief, the whole of a
+primitive design.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 363px;">
+<a href="images/ill_190.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_190_th.jpg"
+width="363" height="550" alt="NORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL" title="NORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">N</span>ORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The towers of the cathedral are not old. The general impression of the
+building from the outside&mdash;unluckily it cannot be contemplated from any
+distance, as the surrounding houses impede it&mdash;is agreeable. To be
+especially observed are some fine fourteenth-century (?) windows which
+show ogival pattern, but either of timid execution or else of a bold
+endeavour on the artist's part to subdue solemn Gothic to the Romanesque
+traditions of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The interior has been restored and changed many a time. In its original
+plan it consisted of two aisles and a nave with a one-aisled transept,
+and, just as in Lugo, an apse formed by three semicircles, of which the
+central was the largest, and contained the high altar. To-day, though
+the general appearance or disposition of the church (Roman cruciform
+with exceedingly short lateral arms) is the same, an ambulatory walk
+surrounds the high altar, which has been moved nearer the transept in
+the principal nave. The vaulting is ogival, reposing on solid and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span>
+severe shafts; the aisles are slightly lower than the central nave, and
+the <i>crois�e</i> is surmounted, as in Santiago, by a handsome cupola
+similar in construction to that of Valencia, though more reduced in
+size, and of a less elegant pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The lack of triforium is to be noted, and its want is felt.</p>
+
+<p>The northern aisle has no chapels let into its exterior wall, but a long
+row of sepulchres and sepulchral reliefs to replace them. Some of them
+are severe and beautiful. The choir has finely carved stalls, and the
+Gothic <i>retablo</i> is the only one of its kind in Galicia, and one of the
+best in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Many more details could be given concerning the worthy cathedral of
+Orense, second only in richness of certain elements to that of Santiago.
+The additions, both in Romanesque and ogival styles, are better than in
+most other cathedrals in Galicia, though, as far as Renaissance is
+concerned, Galicia showed but little love for Italia's art. This was due
+to the regional Celtic taste of the inhabitants, or else to the marked
+signs of art decadence in this part of Spain, when the Renaissance was
+introduced into the country.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As regards the cloister,&mdash;small and rather compact in its
+composition,&mdash;it is held by many to be a jewel of the fifteenth century
+in the ogival style, handsome in its general outlines, and beautiful in
+its wealth of sculptural decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIb" id="VIb"></a>VI</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">TUY</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> last Spanish city on the Mi�o, the Rhine of Galicia, as beautiful as
+its German rival, and as rich in architectural remains, both military
+and ecclesiastical, is Tuy, the Castellum Tude of the Romans, lying
+half-way on the main road from Braga (Portugal) to Lugo and Astorga in
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The approach to the city by rail from Orense is simply superb. The
+valley of the Mi�o is broad and luxuriant, with ruins of castles to the
+right and to the left, ahead and behind; in the distance, time-old Tuy,
+the city of a hundred misfortunes, is seated on an isolated hill, the
+summit of which is crowned by a fortress-cathedral of the twelfth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Tuy sits on her hill, and gazes across the river at Valen�a do Minho,
+the rival fortress opposite, and the first town in Portugal. A handsome
+bridge unites the enemies&mdash;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span>friends to-day. Nevertheless, the cannons'
+mouths of the glaring strongholds are for ever pointed toward each
+other, as though wishing to recall those days of the middle ages when
+Tuy was the goal of Portuguese ambitions and the last Spanish town in
+Galicia.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Romans conquered Iberia, Tuy, which is evidently a Celtic
+name, was a most important town. This is easily explained by its
+position, a sort of inland Gibraltar, backed by the Sierra to the rear,
+and crowning the river which brought ships from the ocean to its
+wharves. The city's future was brilliant.</p>
+
+<p>Matters changed soon, however. The Romans drew away much of its power to
+cities further inland, as was their wont. The castle remained standing,
+as did the walls, which reached on the northern shores of the river down
+to Guardia, situated in the delta about thirty miles away. Remains of
+the cyclopean walls which crown the mountain chain on the Spanish side
+of the Mi�o are still to be seen to-day, yet they give but a feeble idea
+of the city's former strength.</p>
+
+<p>After the Romans had been defeated by the invasion of savage tribes from
+the north,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> Tuy became the capital of the Suevos, a tribe opposed to the
+Visigoths, who settled in the rest of Spain, and for centuries waged a
+cruel war against the kings whose subjects had settled principally in
+Galicia and in the north of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the Suevos, who were seated firmly in Tuy, was at last
+completely broken, and the capital, its inhabitants fighting
+energetically to the end, was at length conquered. It was the last
+stronghold to fall into the hands of the conquerors. A century later
+Witiza, the sovereign of the Visigoths, made Tuy his capital for some
+length of time, and the district round about is full of the traditions
+of the doings of this monarch. Most of these legends denigrate his
+character, and make him appear cruel, wilful, and false. One of them,
+concerning Duke Favila and Do�a Luz, is perhaps the most popular.
+According to it, Witiza fell in love with the former's wife, Do�a Luz,
+and, to remove the husband, he heartlessly had his eyes put out, on the
+charge of being ambitious, and of having conspired against the throne.
+The fate that awaited Do�a Luz, who defended her honour, was no better,
+according to this legend.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>After the return of Witiza to Toledo, the city slowly lost its
+importance, and since then she has never recovered her ancient fame.</p>
+
+<p>Like the remaining seaports of Galicia,&mdash;or such cities as were situated
+near the ocean,&mdash;Tuy was sacked and pillaged by Arabs and vikings alike.
+The times were extremely warlike, and Galicia, from her position, and on
+account of the independent spirit of the noblemen, was called upon to
+suffer more than any other region, and Tuy, near the ocean, and a
+frontier town to boot, underwent greater hardships than any other
+Galician city. Of an admirable natural position, it would have been able
+to resist the attacks of Gudroed and Olaf, of the Portuguese noblemen
+and of Arab armies, had it been but decently fortified. The lack of such
+fortifications, however, and the neglect and indifference with which it
+was, as a rule, regarded by the kings of Asturias, easily account for
+its having fallen into the hands of enemies, of having been razed more
+than once to the ground, of having been the seat of ambitious and
+conspiring noblemen who were only bent on thrashing their neighbours,
+Christians and infidels alike.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_124" id="page_124">{124}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the sixth century Tuy had already been raised to the dignity of a
+city, but until after the eleventh century the prelates of the church,
+tyrants when the times were propitious, but cowardly when danger was at
+hand, were continually removing their see to the neighbouring villages
+and mountains to the rear. They left their church with surprising
+alacrity and ease to the mercy of warriors and enemies, to such an
+extent, in fact, that neither are documents at hand to tell us what
+happened exactly in the darker ages of medi�val history, nor are the
+existing monuments in themselves sufficient to convince us of the
+vicissitudes which befell the city, its see, and the latter's flocks.</p>
+
+<p>Since the last Arab and Norseman raid, matters seemed to have gone
+better with fair Tuy, for, excepting the continual strife between
+Portuguese and Galician noblemen, who were for ever gaining and losing
+the city on the Mi�o, neither infidels nor pirates visited its wharves.
+It was then that the foundations of the present cathedral were laid, but
+not without disputes between the prelates (one of whom was taken
+prisoner, and had to give a handsome ransom to be released) and the
+noblemen who called themselves<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_125" id="page_125">{125}</a></span> seigneurs of the city. Between the
+claims and struggles of these two factions, those who suffered most were
+the citizens themselves, who had nothing to gain and everything to lose.
+Between the bishops who pretended to possess the whole city, and the
+noblemen who endeavoured to leave the prelates without a groat, the
+ignored inhabitants of the poorer quarters of the town passed a
+miserable life.</p>
+
+<p>Since the middle ages, or better still, since the time when the Mi�o
+became definitely the frontier line between Spain and Portugal, the city
+of Tuy has been heard of but little. Few art students visit it to-day,
+and yet it is one of the most picturesquely situated cities in Galicia,
+or even in Spain. Its cathedral, as well as the Pre-Roman, Roman,
+Gothic, and middle age remains,&mdash;most of them covered over with heaps of
+dust and earth,&mdash;are well worth a visit, being highly interesting both
+to artists and to arch�ological students.</p>
+
+<p>In short, Tuy on her hill beside the Mi�o, glaring across an iron bridge
+at Portugal, is a city rich in traditions and legends of faded hopes and
+past glories. Unluckily for her,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">{126}</a></span> cities of less historical fame are
+better known and more admired.</p>
+
+<p>As has already been mentioned, the cathedral crowns the hill, upon the
+slopes of which the city descends to the river; moreover, the edifice
+occupies the summit only,&mdash;a <i>castro</i>, as explained in a previous
+chapter. Therefore, for proofs are lacking both ways, it is probable
+that the present building was erected on the same spot where the many
+basilicas which we know existed and were destroyed in one or another of
+the many sieges, stood in bygone days.</p>
+
+<p>The present cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, like that in Orense,
+was most likely begun in the first half of the twelfth century;
+successive earthquakes suffered by the city, especially that felt in
+Lisbon in 1755, obliged the edifice to be repaired more than once, which
+accounts for many of the base additions which spoil the ensemble.</p>
+
+<p>From the general disposition of the building, which is similar in many
+details to the cathedral at Lugo, it has been thought probable that
+Maestro Raimundo (father?) was the builder of the church; definite
+proofs are, however, lacking.</p>
+
+<p>The ground-plan is rectangular, with a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_127" id="page_127">{127}</a></span> square apse; the interior is
+Roman cruciform, consisting of a nave and two aisles; the transept, like
+that of Santiago, is also composed of a nave and two aisles; the four
+arms of the cross are all of them very short, and almost all are of the
+same length. Were it not for the height of the nave, crowned by a
+Romanesque triforium of blinded arches, the interior would be decidedly
+ugly. However, the height attained gives a noble aspect to the whole,
+and what is more, renders the ensemble curious rather than beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>The large and ungainly choir spoils the general view of the nave,
+whereas the continuation of the aisles, broad and light to the very
+apse, where, facing each aisle, there is a handsome rose window which
+throws a flood of coloured light into the building, cannot be too highly
+praised.</p>
+
+<p>The walls are devoid of all decoration, and if it were not for the
+chapels, some of which in default of pure workmanship are richly
+ornamented, this see of Tuy would have to pass as a very poor one
+indeed.</p>
+
+<p>The roof of the building has been added lately, doubtless after one of
+the many earthquakes. It is of a simple execution, neither good nor bad,
+composed of a series of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_128" id="page_128">{128}</a></span> slightly rounded arches with pronounced ribs.</p>
+
+<p>It is outside, however, that the tourist will pass the greater part of
+his time. Unluckily, the houses which closely surround the building
+forbid a general view from being obtained of any but the western front,
+yet this is perhaps a blessing, for none of the other sides are worthy
+of special notice.</p>
+
+<p>As mentioned, the appearance of the church is that of a fortress rather
+than of a temple, or better still, is that of a feudal castle. The
+crenelated square tower on the western front is heavy, and no higher
+than the peaked and simple crowning of the handsome Romanesque window
+above the narthex; the general impression is that of resistance rather
+than of faith, and the lack of all decoration has caused the temple to
+be called sombre.</p>
+
+<p>The handsome narthex, the summit of which is crenelated like the tower,
+is the simplest and noblest to be found in Galicia, and is really
+beautiful in its original severity. Though dating from a time when
+florid ogival had taken possession of Spain, the artist who erected it
+(it is posterior to the rest of the building&mdash;early fifteenth
+century<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">{129}</a></span>) had the good taste to complete it simply, without
+decoration, so as to render it homogeneous with the rest of the
+building. It is also possible that there were no funds at hand for him
+to erect it otherwise!</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_206.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_206_th.jpg"
+width="362" height="550" alt="TUY CATHEDRAL" title="TUY CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">T</span>UY CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The doors stand immediately behind this narthex. The portal is carved or
+decorated in an elaborate late Romanesque style, one of the most richly
+ornamented porticos belonging to this school in Spain, and a handsome
+page in the history of Galician art in the twelfth century. The low
+reliefs above the door and in the tympanum of the richly carved arcade,
+are <i>felt</i> and are admirably executed.</p>
+
+<p>The northern entrance to the building is another fine example of
+twelfth-century Spanish, or Galician Romanesque. Though simpler in
+execution than the western front, it nevertheless is by some critics
+considered purer in style (earlier?) than the first mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The tower which stands to the left of the northern entrance is one of
+the few in the Romanesque style to be seen in northern Spain; it is
+severe in its structure and pierced by a series of round-headed windows.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister dating from the fourteenth<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_130" id="page_130">{130}</a></span> and fifteenth centuries is
+another of Galicia's monuments well worth a visit, which proves the
+local mixture of Romanesque and ogival, and is, perhaps, the last
+example on record, as toward the fifteenth century Renaissance elements
+had completely captured all art monuments.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the cathedral of Tuy, a unique example of Galician Romanesque in
+certain details, an edifice that really ought to be better known than it
+is.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_131" id="page_131">{131}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIIb" id="VIIb"></a>VII</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">BAYONA AND VIGO</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> prettiest bay in Galicia is that of Vigo, which reaches inland to
+Redondela&mdash;a village seated, as it were, on a Swiss lake, with two
+immense viaducts passing over its head where the train speeds to Tuy and
+Santiago. There is no lovelier spot in all Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Vigo, with its suffragan church on the hillside, is a modern
+town dedicated to commerce; its wharves are important, and the water in
+the bay is deep enough to permit the largest vessels afloat to enter and
+anchor. The art student will not linger here, however, but will go by
+boat to Bayona outside the bay and to the south near the Portuguese
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>Here, until quite recently, stood for an unknown length of time the
+suffragan church which has now been removed to Vigo. But Bayona, once
+upon a time the most important<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_132" id="page_132">{132}</a></span> seaport in Galicia, is a ruin to-day, a
+delightful ruin, and one of the prettiest in its ensemble, thanks to the
+beautiful and weird surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>Its history extends from the times of the Ph&oelig;nicians, Greeks, and
+Romans,&mdash;even earlier, as remains of lake-dwellers have been found. This
+statement is not an exaggeration, though it may appear to be one, for
+the bay is as quiet as a lake.</p>
+
+<p>After the defeat of the Armada, Bayona was left a prey to Drake and his
+worthy companions. They dealt the city a death-blow from which it has
+never recovered, and Vigo, the new, the commercial, has usurped its
+importance, as it did its church, which once upon a time, as is
+generally believed, was a bishopric.</p>
+
+<p>The present ruinous edifice of Bayona is peculiarly Galician and shows
+the same characteristics as the remaining cathedrals we have spoken
+about so far. It was ordained in 1482 by the Bishop of Tuy. The windows
+of the nave (clerestory) are decidedly pointed or ogival; those of the
+aisles are pure Romanesque. The peculiar feature is the use of animal
+designs in the decorative elements of the capitals,&mdash;a unique example<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span>
+in Galicia, where only floral or leaf motives were used in the best
+period of Romanesque. The design to be noticed here on one of the
+capitals is a bird devouring a toad, and it is so crudely and rustically
+carved that one is almost inclined to believe that a native of the
+country conceived and executed it.
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a><i>PART III</i><br /><br /><i>The North</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Ic" id="Ic"></a>I</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">OVIEDO</p>
+
+<p>"O<span class="smcap">viedo</span> was born of a religious inspiration; its first building was a
+temple (monastery?), and monks were its first inhabitants."</p>
+
+<p>In the valley adjoining Cangas, in the eighth century, the most
+important village in Asturias, a religious sect erected a monastery.
+Froila or Froela, one of the early noblemen (now called a king, though
+he was no king in those days) who fought against the Moors, erected in
+the same century a church in the vicinity of Cangas (in Oviedo?),
+dedicating it to the Saviour; he also built a palace near the same spot.
+His son, Alfonso the Chaste, born in this palace, was brought up in a
+convent near Lugo in Galicia. Upon becoming king he hesitated whether to
+establish his court in Lugo, or in the new village which had been his
+birthplace, namely Oviedo. At length, remembering<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span> perhaps his father's
+love for the country near Cangas, he established it in the latter place
+in the ninth century, and formed the kingdom of Asturias as opposed to
+that of Galicia; the capital of the new kingdom was Oviedo.</p>
+
+<p>"The king gave the city to the Saviour and to the venerable church built
+by his father, and which, like a sun surrounded by its planets, he
+placed within a circle of other temples.</p>
+
+<p>"He convocated an ecclesiastical council with a view to establish a
+primate see in Oviedo; he maintained an assembly of prelates who lent
+lustre to the church, and he gave each a particular residence; the
+spiritual splendour of Oviedo eclipsed even the brilliancy of the
+throne."</p>
+
+<p>This was in 812, and the first bishop consecrated was one Adulfo.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent reign of Alfonso was signalized by the discovery in
+Galicia of the corpse of St. James the Apostle. The sovereign, it
+appears, showed great interest in the discovery, established a church on
+the sacred spot, and generously donated the nascent town. Not without
+reason did posterity<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span> celebrate his many Christian virtues by calling
+him the Chaste, <i>el Casto</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years only did Oviedo play an important part in the history
+of Spain as capital of the Christian Kingdom. In 1020 its civil
+dignities were removed by Alfonso V. to Leon in the south. From then on
+the city remained important only as the alleged cradle of the new
+dynasty, and its church&mdash;that of the Salvador&mdash;was used as the pantheon
+of the kings.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century the basilica was in a ruinous state, and almost
+completely destroyed. The fate of the Romanesque edifice which was then
+built was as short as the city's glory had been ephemeral, for in 1380
+it was destroyed by flames, and in its place the first stone of the
+present building was laid by one Bishop Gutierre. One hundred and
+seventy years later the then reigning prelate placed his coat of arms on
+the spire, and the Gothic monument which is to-day admired by all who
+visit it was completed.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the city&mdash;an ecclesiastical and civil metropolis&mdash;is
+devoid of interest since the tenth century. It was as though the streets
+were too crowded with the legends of the fictitious kingdom of Asturias,
+to be<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span> enabled to shake off the depression which little by little spread
+over the whole town.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from its cathedral, Oviedo and the surrounding country possesses
+many of the earliest religious monuments in Spain, dating from the
+eighth century. These, on account of their primary Romanesque and
+basilica style, form a chapter apart in the history of ecclesiastical
+architecture, and ought to be thoroughly studied. This is not the place,
+however, to speak about them, in spite of their extreme age and the
+great interest they awaken.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing could be more graceful than the famous tower of the cathedral of
+Oviedo, which is a superb Gothic <i>fl�che</i> of well-proportioned elements,
+and literally covered over and encrusted with tiny pinnacles. Slender
+and tapering, it rises to a height of about 280 feet. It is composed of
+five distinct bodies, of which the penultimate betrays certain
+Renaissance influences in the triangular cornices of the windows, etc.;
+this passes, however, entirely unperceived from a certain distance. The
+angles formed by the sides of the tower are flanked by a pair of slender
+shafts in high relief, which tend to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span> give it an even more majestic
+impression than would be the case without them.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 361px;">
+<a href="images/ill_222.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_222_th.jpg"
+width="361" height="550" alt="OVIEDO CATHEDRAL" title="OVIEDO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">O</span>VIEDO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cathedral itself is a late ogival building belonging to the
+fifteenth century; though it cannot compare in fairy-like beauty with
+that of Leon, nor in majesty with that of Burgos, it is nevertheless one
+of the richest Gothic structures in Spain, especially as regards the
+decoration of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The western front is entirely taken up by the triple portal, surmounted
+by arches that prove a certain reluctance on the builder's part to make
+them pointed; the northern extremity of the front is devoid of a tower,
+though the base be standing. It was originally intended to erect a
+second <i>fl�che</i> similar to the one described, but for some reason or
+other&mdash;without a doubt purely financial&mdash;it was never built.</p>
+
+<p>Of the three portals, that which corresponds to the central nave is the
+larger; it is flanked by the only two statuettes in the whole front,
+namely, by those of Alfonso the Chaste and Froela, and is surmounted by
+a bold low relief. The arches of the three doors are richly carved with
+ogival arabesques, and the panels, though more modern, have been wrought
+by the hand of a master.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Taken all in all, this western front can be counted among the most
+sombre and naked in Spain, so naked, in fact, that it appears rather as
+though money had been lacking to give it a richer aspect than that the
+artist's genius should have been so completely devoid of decorative
+taste or imagination.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the Roman cruciform building, though by no means one of
+the largest, is, as regards its architectural disposition, one of the
+most imposing Gothic interiors in Spain. High, long, and narrow, the
+central nave is rendered lighter and more elegant by the bold triforium
+and the lancet windows of the upper clerestory wall. The wider aisles,
+on the other hand, are dark in comparison to the nave, and tend to give
+the latter greater importance.</p>
+
+<p>This was doubtless the intention of the primitive master who terminated
+the aisles at the transept by constructing chapels to the right and to
+the left of the high altar and on a line with it. The sixteenth-century
+builders thought differently, however, and so the aisles were prolonged
+into an apsidal ambulatory behind the high altar. This part of the
+building is far less pure in style than the primitive structure, and the
+chapels<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span> which open to the right and to the left are of a more recent
+date, and consequently even more out of harmony than the plateresque
+ambulatory. The three rose windows in the semicircular apse are richly
+decorated with ogival nervures, and correspond, one to the nave and one
+to each of the aisles; they belong to the primitive structure, having
+illuminated the afore-mentioned chapels.</p>
+
+<p>Standing beneath the <i>crois�e</i>, under a simple ogival vaulting, the ribs
+of which are supported by richly carved capitals and elegant shafts, the
+tourist is almost as favourably impressed by the view of the high altar
+to the east and of the choir to the west, as is the case in Toledo. For
+in Oviedo begins that series of Gothic churches in which the �sthetic
+impression is not restricted to architectural or sculptural details
+alone, but is also produced by the blinding display of metal, wood, and
+other decorative accessories.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>retablo</i>&mdash;a fine Gothic specimen&mdash;stands boldly forth against the
+light coming from the apse in the rear, while on the opposite side of
+the transept handsome, deep brown choir stalls peep out from behind a
+magnificent iron <i>reja</i>. So beautiful is the view of the choir's
+ensemble that the spectator<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span> almost forgives it for breaking in upon the
+grandeur of the nave.</p>
+
+<p>The chapels buried in the walls of the north aisle have most of them
+been built in too extravagant a manner; the south aisle, on the other
+hand, is devoid of such characteristic rooms, but contains some highly
+interesting tomb slabs.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister to the south of the church is a rich and florid example of
+late ogival; it is, above all, conspicuous for the marvellous variety of
+its decorative motives, both as regards the sculptural scenes of the
+capitals (which portray scenes in the lives of saints and Asturian
+kings, and are almost grotesque, though by no means carved without fire
+and spirit) and the fretwork of the arches which look out upon the
+garth.</p>
+
+<p>The Camara Santa, or treasure-room, is an annex to the north of the
+cathedral, and dates from the ninth or tenth century; it is small, and
+was formerly used as a chapel in the old Romanesque building torn down
+in 1380. Beside it, in the eleventh century, was constructed another and
+larger room in the same style, with the characteristic Romanesque
+vaulting, the rounded windows, and the decorative motives of the massive
+pillars and capitals.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_230.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_230_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="385" alt="CLOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL" title="CLOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>LOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIc" id="IIc"></a>II</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">COVADONGA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the battle of Covadonga modern Spain owes her existence, that is, if
+we are to believe the legends which have been handed down to us, and
+which rightfully or wrongfully belong to history. Under the
+circumstances, it is not surprising that the gratitude of later monarchs
+should have erected a church on the site of the famous battle, and
+should have raised it to a collegiate church.</p>
+
+<p>Covadonga lies in the vicinity of Oviedo, in a ravine lost in the heart
+of the Picos de Europa; it is at once the Morgarten and Sempach of
+Spanish history, and though no art monuments, excepting the above named
+monastic church and two Byzantine-Romanesque tombs, are to be seen,
+there is hardly a visitor who, having come as far north as Oviedo, does
+not pay a visit to the cradle of Spanish history.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the time lost. For the tourist who<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span> leaves the capital of
+Asturias with the intention of going, as would a pilgrim, to Covadonga
+(by stage and not by rail!) will be delightfully surprised by the weird
+and savage wildness of the country through which he is driven.</p>
+
+<p>Following the bed of a river, he enters a ravine; up and up climbs the
+road bordered by steep declivities until at last it reaches a wall&mdash;a
+<i>cul-de-sac</i> the French would call it&mdash;rising perpendicularly ahead of
+him. Half-way up, and on a platform, stands a solitary church; near by a
+small cave, with an authentic (?) image of the Virgin of Battles and two
+old sepulchres, is at first hidden from sight behind a protruding mass
+of rock.</p>
+
+<p>The guide or cicerone then explains to the tourist the origin of Spanish
+history in the middle ages, buried in the legends, of which the
+following is a short extract.</p>
+
+<p>Pelayo, the son of Do�a Luz and Duke Favila, who, as we have seen, was
+killed by Witiza in Tuy, fled from Toledo to the north of Spain, living
+among the savage inhabitants of Asturias.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later, when Rodrigo, who was king at the time, and by some
+strange coincidence<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> Pelayo's cousin as well, lost the battle of
+Guadalete and his life to boot, the Arabs conquered the whole peninsula
+and placed in Gijon, a seaport town of Asturias, a garrison under the
+command of one Munuza. The latter fell desperately in love with Pelayo's
+sister Hermesinda, whom he had met in the village of Cangas. Wishing to
+get the brother out of the way, he sent him on an errand to Cordoba,
+expecting him to be assassinated on the road. But Pelayo escaped and
+returned in time to save his sister; mad with wrath and swearing eternal
+revenge, he retreated to the mountainous vales of Asturias, bearing
+Hermesinda away with him. He was joined by many refugee Christians
+dissatisfied with the Arab yoke, and aided by them, made many a bold
+incursion into the plains below, and grew so daring that at length
+Munuza mustered an army two hundred thousand (!) strong and set out to
+punish the rebel.</p>
+
+<p>Up a narrow pass between two high ridges went the pagan army, paying
+little heed to the growing asperity and savageness of the path it was
+treading.</p>
+
+<p>Suddenly ahead of the two hundred thousand a high sheet of rock rose
+perpendicularly<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> skywards; on a platform Pelayo and his three hundred
+warriors, who somehow or other had managed to emerge from a miraculous
+cave where they had found an effigy of the Virgin of Battles, made a
+last stand for their lives and liberties.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately a shower of stones, beams, trunks, and what not was hurled
+down into the midst of the heathen army by the three hundred warriors.
+Confusion arose, and, like frightened deer, the Arabs turned and fled
+down the path to the vale, pushing each other, in their fear, into the
+precipice below.</p>
+
+<p>Then the Virgin of Battles arose, and wishing to make the defeat still
+more glorious, she caused the whole mountain to slide; an avalanche of
+stones and earth dragged the remnants of Munuza's army into the ravine
+beneath. So great was the slaughter and the loss of lives caused by this
+defeat, that "for centuries afterward bones and weapons were to be seen
+in the bed of the river when autumn's heat left the sands bare."</p>
+
+<p>This Pelayo was the first king of Asturias, the first king of Spain,
+from whom all later-date monarchs descended, though neither in a direct
+nor a legitimate line, be it remarked in parenthesis. The tourist will<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span>
+be told that it is Pelayo's tomb, and that of his sister, that are still
+to be seen in the cave at Covadonga. Perhaps, though no documents or
+other signs exist to bear out the statement. At any rate, the sepulchres
+are old, which is their chief merit. The monastical church which stands
+hard by cannot claim this latter quality; neither is it important as an
+art monument.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIIc" id="IIIc"></a>III</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">LEON</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> civil power enjoyed by Oviedo previous to the eleventh century moved
+southwards in the wake of Asturias's conquering army. For about a
+century it stopped on its way to Toledo in a fortress-town situated in a
+wind-swept plain, at the juncture of two important rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Leon was the name of this fortress, one of the strategical points, not
+only of the early Romans, but of the Arabs who conquered the country,
+and later of the nascent Christian kingdom of Asturias. In the tenth
+century, or, better still, toward the beginning of the eleventh, and
+after the final retreat of the Moors and their terrible general
+Almanzor, Leon became the recognized capital of Asturias.</p>
+
+<p>When the Christian wave first spread over the Iberian peninsula in the
+time of the Romans, the fortress Legio Septima, established<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> by
+Trajanus's soldiers, had already grown in importance, and was considered
+one of the promising North Spanish towns.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants were among the most fearless adherents of the new faith,
+and it is said that the first persecution of the martyrs took place in
+Leon; consequently, it is not to be wondered at that, as soon as
+Christianity was established in Iberia, a see should be erected on the
+blood-soaked soil of the Roman fortress. (First known bishop, Basilides,
+252 <span class="smcap">A. D.</span>)</p>
+
+<p>Marcelo seems to have been the most stoically brave of the many Leonese
+martyrs. A soldier or subaltern in the Roman legion, he was daring
+enough to throw his sword at the feet of his commander, who stood in
+front of the regiment, saying:</p>
+
+<p>"I obey the eternal King and scorn your silent gods of stone and wood.
+If to obey C�sar is to revere him as an idol, I refuse to obey him."</p>
+
+<p>Stoic, with a grain of sad grandeur about them, were his last words when
+Agricolanus condemned him to death.</p>
+
+<p>"May God bless you, Agricolano."</p>
+
+<p>And his head was severed from his body.</p>
+
+<p>The next religious war to be waged in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> and around Leon took place
+between Christians and the invading Visigoths, who professed a doctrine
+called Arrianism. Persecutions were, of course, ripe again, and the
+story is told of how the prior of San Vicente, after having been
+beheaded, appeared in a dream to his cloister brethren trembling behind
+their monastic walls, and advised them to flee, as otherwise they would
+all be killed,&mdash;an advice the timid monks thought was an explicit order
+to be immediately obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>The conversion of Recaredo to Christianity&mdash;for political reasons
+only!&mdash;stopped all further persecution; during the following centuries
+Leon's inhabitants strove to keep away the Arab hordes who swept
+northwards; now the Christians were overcome and Allah was worshipped in
+the basilica; now the Asturian kings captured the town from Moorish
+hands, and the holy cross crowned the altar. Finally the dreaded infidel
+Almanzor burnt the city to the ground, and retreated to Cordoba. Ordo�o
+I., following in his wake, rebuilt the walls and the basilica, and from
+thenceforward Leon was never again to see an Arab army within its gates.</p>
+
+<p>Prosperity then smiled on the city soon to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span> become the capital of the
+kingdom of Asturias. The cathedral church was built on the spot where
+Ordo�o had erected a palace; the first stone was laid in 1199.</p>
+
+<p>The traditions, legends, and historical events which took place in the
+kingdom's capital until late in the thirteenth century belong to Spanish
+history, or what is known as such. Ordo�o II. was mysteriously put to
+death, by the Counts of Castile, some say; Alfonso IV.&mdash;a monk rather
+than a king&mdash;renounced his right to the throne, and retired to a convent
+to pray for his soul. After awhile he tired of mumbling prayers and,
+coming out from his retreat, endeavoured to wrest the sceptre from the
+hands of his brother Ramiro. But alas, had he never left the cloister
+cell! He was taken prisoner by his humane brother, had his eyes burnt
+out for the pains he had taken, and died a few years later.</p>
+
+<p>Not long after, Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain in the church
+of San Isidoro, an event which marks the climax of Leon's fame and
+wealth. Gradually the kings moved southwards in pursuit of the
+retreating Moors, and with them went their court and their patronage,
+until finally the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span> political centre of Castile and Leon was established
+in Burgos, and the fate that had befallen Oviedo and Lugo visited also
+the one-time powerful fortress of the Roman Legio Septima.</p>
+
+<p>To-day? A dormant city on a baking plain and an immense cathedral
+pointing back to centuries of desperate wars between Christians and
+Moors; a collegiate church, far older still, which served as cathedral
+when Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pulchra Leonina</i> is the epithet applied to the beautiful cathedral of
+Leon, dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lady and to Nuestra Se�ora de la
+Blanca.</p>
+
+<p>The first stone was laid in 1199, presumably on the spot where Ordo�o I.
+had erected his palace; the construction of the edifice did not really
+take place, however, until toward 1250, so that it can be considered as
+belonging to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>"Two hundred years only did the temple enjoy a quiet life. In the
+sixteenth century, restorations and additions were begun; in 1631 the
+simple vault of the <i>crois�e</i> fell in and was replaced by an absurd
+dome; in 1694 Manuel Conde destroyed and rebuilt<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span> the southern front
+according to the style then in vogue, and in 1743 a great number of the
+arches of the aisles fell in. Different parts of the building were
+continually tumbling down, having become too weak to support the heavier
+materials used in the construction of additions and renovations."</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral was closed to the public by the government in 1850 and
+handed over to a body of architects, who were to restore it in
+accordance with the thirteenth-century design; in 1901 the interior of
+the building had been definitely finished, and was opened once more to
+the religious cult.</p>
+
+<p>The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform, with a semicircular
+apse composed of five chapels and an ambulatory behind the high altar.</p>
+
+<p>As peculiarities, the following may be mentioned: the two towers of the
+western front do not head the aisles, but flank them; the transept is
+exceptionally wide (in Spanish cathedrals the distance between the high
+altar and the choir must be regarded as the transept, properly speaking)
+and is composed of a broad nave and two aisles to the east and one to
+the west; the width also of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span> church at the transept is greater by
+two aisles than that of the body itself,&mdash;a modification which produces
+a double Roman cross and lends exceptional beauty to the ensemble, as it
+permits of an unobstructed view from the western porch to the very apse.</p>
+
+<p>Attention must also be drawn to the row of two chapels and a vestibule
+which separate the church from the cloister (one of the most celebrated
+in Spain as a Gothic structure, though mixed with Renaissance motives
+and spoilt by fresco paintings). Thanks to this arrangement, the
+cathedral possesses a northern portal similar to the southern one. As
+regards the exterior of the building, it is a pity that the two towers
+which flank the aisles are heavy in comparison to the general
+construction of the church; had light and slender towers like those of
+Burgos or that of Oviedo been placed here, how grand would have been the
+effect! Besides, they are not similar, but date from different periods,
+which is another circumstance to be regretted.</p>
+
+<p>The second bodies of the western and southern fa�ades also clash on
+account of the Renaissance elements, with their simple horizontal<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span> lines
+opposed to the vertical tendency of pure Gothic. But then, they also
+were erected at a later date.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting these remarks, however, nothing is more airily beautiful and
+elegant than the superb expression of the <i>razonadas locuras</i> (logical
+nonsense) of the ogival style in all its phases, both early and late, or
+even decadent. For examples of each period are to be found here,
+corresponding to the century in which they were erected.</p>
+
+<p>The ensemble is an astonishing profusion of high and narrow windows, of
+which there are three rows: the clerestory, the triforium, and the
+aisles. Each window is divided into two by a column so fragile that it
+resembles a spider's thread. These windows peep forth from a forest of
+flying buttresses, and nowhere does the mixture of pinnacles and painted
+panes attain a more perfect eloquence than in the eastern extremity of
+the polygonal apse.</p>
+
+<p>The western and southern fa�ades&mdash;the northern being replaced by the
+cloister&mdash;are alike in their general design, and are composed of three
+portals surmounted by a decidedly pointed arch which, in the case of the
+central portals, adorns a richly sculptured<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span> tympanum. The artistic
+merit of the statuary in the niches of both central portals is devoid of
+exceptional praise, that of the southern fa�ade being perhaps of a
+better taste. As regards the stone pillar which divides the central door
+into two wings, that on the south represents Our Lady of the Blanca, and
+that on the west San Froilan, one of the early martyr bishops of Leon.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting the Renaissance impurities already referred to, each portal is
+surmounted by a row of five lancet windows, which give birth, as it
+were, to one immense window of delicate design.</p>
+
+<p>Penetrating into the interior of the building, preferably by the lateral
+doors of the western front, the tourist is overcome by a feeling of awe
+and amazement at the bold construction of aisles and nave, as slender as
+is the frost pattern on a spotless pane. The full value of the windows,
+which are gorgeous from the outside, is only obtained from the interior
+of the temple; those of the clerestory reach from the sharp ogival
+vaulting to the height of the triforium, which in its turn is backed by
+another row of painted windows; in the aisles, another series of panes
+rose in the sixteenth century<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> from the very ground (!), though in
+recent times the bases have unluckily been blinded to about the height
+of a man.</p>
+
+<p>The pillars and columns are of the simplest and most sober construction,
+so simple that they do not draw the spectator's attention, but leave him
+to be impressed by the great height of nave and aisles as compared with
+their insignificant width, and above all by the profuse perforation of
+the walls by hundreds upon hundreds of windows.</p>
+
+<p>Unluckily, the original pattern of the painted glass does not exist but
+in an insignificant quantity: the northern window, the windows of the
+high altar, and those of the Chapel of St. James are about the only ones
+dating from the fifteenth century that are left standing to-day; they
+are easily recognizable by the rich, mellow tints unattained in modern
+stained glass.</p>
+
+<p>As accessories, foremost to be mentioned are the choir stalls, which are
+of an elegant and severe workmanship totally different from the florid
+carving of those in Toledo. The high altar, on the other hand, is devoid
+of interest excepting for the fine ogival sepulchre of King Ordo�o II;
+the remaining chapels, some of which contain art objects<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span> of value, need
+not claim the tourist's special attention.</p>
+
+<p>By way of conclusion: the cathedral of Leon, restored to-day after years
+of ruin and neglect, stands forth as one of the master examples of
+Gothic workmanship, unrivalled in fairy-like beauty and, from an
+architectural point of view, the very best example of French ogival to
+be met with in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, those who wrought it, felt the real principles of all Gothic
+architecture. Many are the cathedrals in Spain pertaining to this great
+school, but not one of them can compare with that of Leon in the way the
+essential principle was <i>felt</i> and <i>expressed</i>. They are all beautiful
+in their complex and hybrid style, but none of them can claim to be
+Gothic in the way they are built. For wealth, power, and luxury in
+details is generally the lesson Spanish cathedrals teach, but they do
+not give their lancets and shafts, their vertical lines and pointed
+arches, the chance to impress the visitor or true believer with those
+sentiments so peculiar to the great ogival style.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral of Leon is, in Spain, the unique exception to this rule.
+Save only<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> those constructive errors or dissonances previously referred
+to, and which tend to counteract the soaring characteristic, it could be
+considered as being pure in style. Nevertheless, it is not only the
+truest Gothic cathedral on the peninsula, but one of the finest in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, it is no less true that it is not so Spanish as either
+the Gothic of Burgos or of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">In 1063 the King of Leon, Fernando I., signed a treaty with the Arab
+governor of Sevilla, obliging the latter to hand over to the Catholic
+monarch, in exchange for some other privileges, the corpse of San
+Isidoro. It was conveyed to Leon, where a church was built to contain
+the remains of the saint; the same building was to serve as a royal
+pantheon.</p>
+
+<p>About a century later Alfonso VII. was battling against the pagans in
+Andalusia when, in the field of Baeza, the "warlike apparition of San
+Isidoro appeared in the heavens and encouraged the Christian soldiers."</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to this divine aid, the Moors were beaten, and Alfonso VII.,
+returning to Leon,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span> enriched the saint's shrine, enlarged it, and raised
+it to a suffragan church, destined later to serve as the temporary see
+while the building of the real cathedral was going on.</p>
+
+<p>In 1135 Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of the West Roman Empire with
+extraordinary pomp and splendour in the Church of San Isidoro. The
+apogee of Leon's importance and power coincides with this memorable
+event.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor's sister, Sancha, a pious infanta, bequeathed her vast
+fortune as well as her palace to San Isidoro, her favourite saint; the
+church in Leon became, consequently, one of the richest in Spain, a
+privilege it was, however, unable to retain for any length of time.</p>
+
+<p>In 1029, shortly after the erection of the primitive building, its front
+was sullied, according to the tradition, by the blood of one Count
+Garcia of Castile. The following is the story:</p>
+
+<p>The King of Asturias at the time was Bermudo II., married to Urraca, the
+daughter of Count Sancho of Castile. Political motives had produced this
+union, for the Condes de Castile had grown to be the most<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span> important and
+powerful feudal lords of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>To assure the count's assistance and friendship, the king went even
+further: he promised his sister Sancha to the count's son Garcia, who
+lost no time in visiting Leon so as to become acquainted with his future
+spouse.</p>
+
+<p>Three sons of the defeated Count of Vela, a Basque nobleman whom the
+Counts of Castile had put to death, were in the city at the time.
+Pretending to be very friendly with the young <i>fianc�</i>, they conspired
+against his life, and, knowing that he paid matinal visits to San
+Isidoro, they hid in the portal one day, and slew the youth as he
+entered.</p>
+
+<p>The promised bride arrived in haste and fell weeping on the body of the
+murdered man; she wept bitterly and prayed to be allowed to be buried
+with her sweetheart. Her prayer was, of course, not granted: so she
+swore she would never marry. She was not long in breaking this oath,
+however, for a few months later she wedded a prince of the house of
+Navarra.</p>
+
+<p>The present state of the building of San Isidoro is ruinous, thanks to a
+stroke of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span> lightning in 1811, and to the harsh treatment bestowed upon
+the building by Napoleon's soldiers during the War for Independence
+(1808).</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the outside, the edifice is as uninteresting as possible; the
+lower part is constructed in the early Latin Romanesque style; the
+upper, of a posterior construction, shows a decided tendency to early
+Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>The apse was originally three-lobed, composed of three identical chapels
+corresponding to the nave and aisles; in the sixteenth century the
+central lobe was prolonged and squared off; the same century saw the
+erection of the statue of San Isidoro in the southern front, which
+spoiled the otherwise excellently simple Romanesque portal.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of the ruin&mdash;for such it is to-day&mdash;the only peculiarity
+to be noted is the use of the horseshoe arches in the arcades which
+separate the aisles from the nave, as well as the Arab dentated arches
+of the transept. It is the first case on record where, in a Christian
+temple of the importance of San Isidoro, Arab or pagan architectural
+elements were made use of in the decoration; that is to say, after the
+invasion,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span> for previous examples were known, having most likely
+penetrated into the country by means of Byzantine workmen in the fifth
+and sixth centuries. (In San Juan de Ba�os.)</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 353px;">
+<a href="images/ill_254.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_254_th.jpg"
+width="353" height="550" alt="APSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON" title="APSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON" />
+</a><br /><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">A</span>PSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Instead of being lined with chapels the aisles are covered with mural
+paintings. These frescoes are of great arch�ological value on account of
+their great age and the evident Byzantine influence which characterizes
+them; artistically they are unimportant.</p>
+
+<p>The chief attraction of the building is the pantheon, a low, square
+chapel of six arches, supported in the centre by two gigantic pillars
+which are crowned by huge cylindrical capitals. Nothing more depressing
+or gloomy can be seen in the peninsula excepting the pantheon in the
+Escorial; it is doubtful which of the two is more melancholy. The pure
+Oriental origin (almost Indian!) of this pantheon is unmistakable and
+highly interesting.</p>
+
+<p>The fresco paintings which cover the ceiling and the massive ribs of the
+vaulting are equally morbid, representing hell-scenes from the
+Apocalypse, the massacre of the babes, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Only one or two of the Romanesque marble<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span> tombs which lined the walls
+are remaining to-day; the others were used by the French soldiers as
+drinking-troughs for their cavalry horses!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IVc" id="IVc"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">ASTORGA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> Asturica Augusta of the Romans was the capital of the northern
+provinces of Asturias and the central point of four military roads which
+led to Braga, Aquitania, Saragosse, and Tarragon.</p>
+
+<p>During the Visigothic domination, and especially under the reign of
+Witiza, Astorga as well as Leon, Toledo, and Tuy were the only four
+cities allowed to retain their walls.</p>
+
+<p>According to some accounts, Astorga was the seat of the earliest
+bishopric in the peninsula, having been consecrated in the first century
+by Santiago or his immediate followers; historically, however, the first
+known bishop was Dominiciano, who lived about 347 <span class="smcap">A. D.</span></p>
+
+<p>In the fourth and fifth centuries several heresies or false doctrines
+were ripe in Spain. Of one of these, <i>Libelatism</i>, Astorga was the
+centre; the other, <i>Priscilianism</i>, originally<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span> Galician, found many
+adherents in the fortress-town, more so than elsewhere, excepting only
+Tuy, Orense, and Palencia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Libelatism.</i>&mdash;Its great defender was Basilides, Bishop of Astorga.
+Strictly speaking, this faith was no heresy, but a sham or fraud which
+spread out beyond the Pyrenees to France. It consisted in denying the
+new faith; those who proclaimed it, or, in other words, the Christians,
+who were severely persecuted in those days, pretended to worship the
+Latin gods so as to save their skins. With this object in view, and to
+be able to prove their sincerity, they were obliged to obtain a
+certificate, <i>libelum</i> (libel?), from the Roman governor, stating their
+belief in Jupiter, Venus, etc. Doubtless they had to pay a tax for this
+certificate, and thus the Roman state showed its practical wisdom: it
+was paid by cowards for being tyrannical. But then, not all Christians
+are born martyrs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Priscilianism.</i>&mdash;Of quite a different character was the other heresy
+previously mentioned. It was a doctrine opposed to the Christian
+religion, proud of many adherents, and at one time threatening danger to
+the Holy Roman Catholic Church. Considering<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span> that it is but little known
+to-day (for after a lingering life of about three or four centuries in
+Galicia it was quite ignored by philosophers and Christians alike), it
+may be of some use to transcribe the salient points of this doctrine, in
+case some one be inclined to baptize him or herself as prophet of the
+new religion. It was preached by one Prisciliano in the fourth century,
+and was a mixture of Celtic mythology and Christian faith.</p>
+
+<p>"Prisciliano did not believe in the mystery of the Holy Trinity; he
+believed that the world had been created by the devil (perhaps he was
+not wrong!) and that the devil held it beneath his sway; further, that
+the soul is part of the Divine Essence and the body dependent upon the
+stars; that this life is a punishment, as only sinful souls descend on
+earth to be incarnated in organic bodies. He denied the resurrection of
+the flesh and the authenticity of the Old Testament. He defended the
+transmigration of souls, the invocation of the dead, and other ideas,
+doubtless taken from native Galician mythology. To conclude, he
+celebrated the Holy Communion with grape and milk instead of with wine,
+and admitted that all true believers<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span> (his true believers, I suppose,
+for we are all of us true believers of some sort) could celebrate
+religious ceremonies without being ordained curates."</p>
+
+<p>Sinfosio, Bishop of Astorga in 400, was converted to the new religion.
+But, upon intimation that he might be deprived of his see, he hurriedly
+turned Christian again, putting thus a full stop to the spread of
+heresy, by his brave and unselfish act.</p>
+
+<p>Toribio in 447 was, however, the bishop who wrought the greatest harm to
+Priscilianism. He seems to have been the divine instrument called upon
+to prove by marvellous happenings the true religion: he converted the
+King of the Suevos in Orense by miraculously curing his son; when
+surrounded by flames he emerged unharmed; when he left his diocese, and
+until his return, the crops were all lost; upon his return the
+church-bells rang without human help, etc., etc. All of which doings
+proved the authenticity of the true religion beyond a doubt, and that
+Toribio was a saint; the Pope canonized him.</p>
+
+<p>During the Arab invasion, Astorga, being a frontier town, suffered more
+than most cities farther north; it was continually being<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span> taken and
+lost, built up and torn down by the Christians and Moors.</p>
+
+<p>Terrible Almanzor conquered it in his raid in the tenth century, and
+utterly destroyed it. It was rebuilt by Veremundo or Bermudo III., but
+never regained its lost importance, which reverted to Leon.</p>
+
+<p>When the Christian armies had conquered the peninsula as far south as
+Toledo, Astorga was no longer a frontier town, and rapidly fell asleep,
+and has slept ever since. It remained a see, however, but only one of
+secondary importance.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to state how many cathedral churches the city
+possessed previous to the eleventh century. In 1069 the first on record
+was built; in 1120 another; a third in the thirteenth century, and
+finally the fourth and present building in 1471.</p>
+
+<p>It was the evident intention of the architect to imitate the <i>Pulchra
+Leonina</i>, but other tastes and other styles had swept across the
+peninsula and the result of the unknown master's plans resembles rather
+a heavy, awkward caricature than anything else, and a bastard mixture of
+Gothic, plateresque, and grotesque styles.</p>
+
+<p>The northern front is by far the best of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> the two, boasting of a rather
+good relief in the tympanum of the ogival arch; some of the painted
+windows are also of good workmanship, though the greater part are modern
+glass, and unluckily unstained.</p>
+
+<p>Its peculiarities can be signalized; the windows of the southern aisle
+are situated above the lateral chapels, while those of the northern are
+lower and situated in the chapels. The height and width of the aisles
+are also remarkable&mdash;a circumstance that does not lend either beauty or
+effect to the building. There is no ambulatory behind the high altar,
+which stands in the lady-chapel; the apse is rounded. This peculiarity
+reminds one dimly of what the primitive plan of the Oviedo cathedral
+must have resembled.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most meritorious piece of work in the cathedral is the
+sixteenth-century <i>retablo</i> of the high altar, which alone is worth a
+visit to Astorga. It is one of Becerra's masterpieces in the late
+plateresque style, as well as being one of the master's last known works
+(1569).</p>
+
+<p>It is composed of five vertical and three horizontal bodies; the niches
+in the lower are flanked by Doric, those of the second by<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span> Corinthian,
+and those of the upper by composite columns and capitals. The polychrome
+statues which fill the niches are life-size and among the best in Spain;
+together they are intended to give a graphic description of the life of
+the Virgin and of her Son.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the decorative details, however, this <i>retablo</i> shows evident
+signs of plateresque decadence, and the birth of the florid grotesque
+style, which is but the natural reaction against the severity of early
+sixteenth-century art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Vc" id="Vc"></a>V</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">BURGOS</p>
+
+<p>B<span class="smcap">urgos</span> is the old capital of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Castile&mdash;or properly Castilla&mdash;owed its name to the great number of
+castles which stood on solitary hills in the midst of the plains lying
+to the north of the Sierra de Guaderrama; one of these castles was
+called Burgos.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike Leon and Astorga, Burgos was not known to the Romans, but was
+founded by feudal noblemen in the middle ages, most likely by the Count
+of Castilla prior to 884 <span class="smcap">A. D.</span>, when its name first appears in history.</p>
+
+<p>Situated almost in the same line and to the west of Astorga and Leon, it
+entered the chain of fortresses which formed the frontier between the
+Christian kingdoms and the Moorish dominion. At the same time it looked
+westwards toward the kingdom of Navarra, and managed to keep the
+ambitious sovereigns of Pamplona from Castilian soil.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the first centuries which followed upon the foundation of the
+village of Burgos at the foot of a prominent castle, both belonged to
+the feudal lords of Castile, the celebrated counts of the same name.
+This family of intrepid noblemen grew to be the most important in
+Northern Spain; vassals of the kings of Asturias, they broke out in
+frequent rebellion, and their doings alone fill nine of every ten pages
+of medi�val history.</p>
+
+<p>Ordu�o III.&mdash;he who lost the battle of Valdejunquera against the Moors
+because the noblemen he had ordered to assist refrained from doing
+so&mdash;enticed the Count of Castile, together with other conspirators, to
+his palace, and had them foully murdered. So, at least, saith history.</p>
+
+<p>The successor to the title was no fool. On the contrary, he was one of
+the greatest characters in Spanish history, hero of a hundred legends
+and traditions. Fernan Gonzalez was his name, and he freed Castile from
+owing vassalage to Asturias, for he threw off the yoke which bound him
+to Leon, and lived as an independent sovereign in his castle of Burgos.
+This is the date of Castile's first appearance in history as one<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> of the
+nuclei of Christian resistance (in the tenth century).</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, against the military genius of Almanzor (the victorious),
+Fernan Gonzalez could do no more than the kings of Leon. The fate that
+befell Santiago, Leon, and Astorga awaited Burgos, which was utterly
+destroyed with the exception of the impregnable castle. After the Arab's
+death, hailed by the Christians with shouts of joy, and from the pulpits
+with the grim remark: <i>"Almanzor mortuus est et sepultus et in
+inferno</i>," the strength of Castile grew year by year, until one Conde
+Garcia de Castilla married one of his daughters to the King of Navarra
+and the other to Bermudo III. of Leon. His son, as has already been seen
+in a previous chapter, was killed in Leon when he went to marry
+Bermudo's sister Sancha. But his grandson, the recognized heir to the
+throne of Navarra, Fernando by name, inherited his grandfather's title
+and estates, even his murdered uncle's promised bride, the sister of
+Bermudo. At the latter's death some years later, without an heir, he
+inherited&mdash;or conquered&mdash;Leon and Asturias, and for the first time in
+history,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> all the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula were united
+beneath one sceptre.</p>
+
+<p>Castile was now the most powerful state in the peninsula, and its
+capital, Burgos, the most important city north of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>Two hundred years later the centralization of power in Burgos was an
+accomplished fact, as well as the death in all but name of the ancient
+kingdom of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. Castile was Spain, and Burgos
+its splendid capital (1230, in the reign of San Fernando).</p>
+
+<p>The above events are closely connected with the ecclesiastical history,
+which depends entirely upon the civil importance of the city.</p>
+
+<p>A few years after Fernando I. had inaugurated the title of King of
+Castile, he raised the parish church of Burgos to a bishopric (1075) by
+removing to his new capital the see that from time immemorial had
+existed in Oca. He also laid the first stone of the cathedral church in
+the same spot where Fernan Gonzalez had erected a summer palace,
+previous to the Arab raid under Almanzor. Ten years later the same king
+had the bishopric raised to an archiepiscopal see.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>San Fernando, being unable to do more than had already been done by his
+forefather Fernando I., had the ruined church pulled down, and in its
+place he erected the cathedral still standing to-day. This was in 1221.</p>
+
+<p>So rapidly was the main edifice constructed, that as early as 1230 the
+first holy mass was celebrated in the altar-chapel. The erection of the
+remaining parts took longer, however, for the building was not completed
+until about three hundred years later.</p>
+
+<p>Burgos did not remain the sole capital of Northern Spain for any great
+length of time. Before the close of the thirteenth century, Valladolid
+had destroyed the former's monopoly, and from then on, and during the
+next three hundred years, these two and Toledo were obliged to take
+turns in the honour of being considered capital, an honour that depended
+entirely upon the caprices of the rulers of the land, until it was
+definitely conferred upon Madrid in the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>As regards legends and traditions of feudal romance and tragedy, hardly
+a city excepting Toledo and Salamanca can compete with Burgos.
+Historical events, produced by throne usurpers and defenders, by
+continual<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span> strife, by the obstinacy of the noblemen and the perfidy of
+the monarchs,&mdash;all interwoven with beautiful dames and cruel
+warriors&mdash;are sufficiently numerous to enable every house in and around
+Burgos to possess some secret or other, generally gruesome and
+licentious, which means chivalrous. The reign of Peter the Cruel and of
+his predecessor Alfonso, the father of four or five bastards, and the
+lover of Do�a Leonor; the heroic deeds of Fernan Gonzalez and of the Cid
+Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar); the splendour of the court of Isabel
+I., and the peculiar constitution of the land with its Cortes, its
+convents, and monasteries,&mdash;all tend to make Burgos the centre of a
+chivalrous literature still recited by the people and firmly believed in
+by them. Unluckily their recital cannot find a place here, and we pass
+on to examine the grand cathedral, object of the present chapter.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">The train, coming from the north, approaches the city of Burgos. A low
+horizon line and undulating plains stretch as far as the eye can reach;
+in the distance ahead are two church spires and a castle looming up
+against a blue sky.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The train reaches the station; a mass of houses and, overtopping the
+roofs of all buildings, the same spires as seen before, lost as it were
+in a forest of pinnacles, emerging from two octagonal lanterns or
+cimborios. In the background, on a sandy hill, are the ruins of the
+castle which once upon a time was the stronghold of the Counts of
+Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Burgos! Passing beneath a four-hundred-year-old gateway&mdash;Arco de Santa
+Maria&mdash;raised by trembling bourgeois to appease a monarch's wrath, the
+visitor arrives after many a turn in a square situated in front of the
+cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>A poor architectural element is this western front of the cathedral as
+regards the first body or the portals. Devoid of all ornamentation, and
+consequently naked, three doors or portals, surmounted by a peculiar
+egg-shaped ogival arch, open into the nave and aisles. Originally they
+were richly decorated by means of sculptural reliefs and statuary, but
+in the plateresque period of the sixteenth century they were demolished.
+The two lateral doors leading into the aisles are situated beneath the
+275 feet high towers of excellent workmanship.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 359px;">
+<a href="images/ill_274.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_274_th.jpg"
+width="359" height="550" alt="BURGOS CATHEDRAL" title="BURGOS CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">B</span>URGOS CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">{181}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The central door is surmounted by a plateresque-Renaissance pediment
+imbedded in an ogival arch (of all things!); the side doors are crowned
+by a simple window.</p>
+
+<p>Vastly superior in all respects to the lower body are the upper stories,
+of which the first is begun by a pinnacled balustrade running from tower
+to tower; in the centre, between the two towers, there is an immense
+rosace of a magnificent design and embellished by means of an ogival
+arch in delicate relief; the windows of the tower, as well as in the
+superior bodies, are pure ogival.</p>
+
+<p>The next story can be considered as the basement of the towers, properly
+speaking. The central part begins with a prominent balustrade of statues
+thrown against a background formed by twin ogival windows of exceptional
+size. The third story is composed, as regards the towers, of the last of
+the square bodies upon which the fl�che reposes; these square bases are
+united by a light frieze or perforated balustrade which crowns the
+central part of the fa�ade and is decorated with ogival designs.</p>
+
+<p>Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the <i>fl�ches</i>.
+Though short<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> in comparison to the bold structure at Oviedo, they are,
+nevertheless, of surprising dignity and elegance, and richly ornamented,
+being covered over with an innumerable amount of tiny pinnacles
+encrusted, as it were, on the stone network of a perforated pyramid.</p>
+
+<p>The northern fa�ade is richer in sculptural details than the western,
+though the portal possesses but one row of statues. The rosace is
+substituted by a three-lobed window, the central pane of which is larger
+than the lateral two.</p>
+
+<p>As this northern fa�ade is almost fifteen feet higher than the
+ground-plan of the temple,&mdash;on account of the street being much
+higher,&mdash;a flight of steps leads down into the transept. As a
+Renaissance work, this golden staircase is one of Spain's marvels, but
+it looks rather out of place in an essentially Gothic cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid the danger of falling down these stairs and with a view to
+their preservation, the transept was pierced by another door in the
+sixteenth century, on a level with the floor of the building, and
+leading into a street lower than the previous one; it is situated on the
+east of the prolonged transept,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span> or better still, of the prolonged
+northern transept arm.</p>
+
+<p>On the south side a cloister door corresponds to this last-named portal.
+Though the latter is plateresque, cold and severe, the former is the
+richest of all the portals as regards sculptural details; the carving of
+the panels is also of the finest workmanship. Beside it, the southern
+front of the cathedral coincides perfectly with the northern; like the
+Puerta de la Plateria in Santiago, it is rendered somewhat insignificant
+by the cloister to the right and by the archbishop's palace to the left,
+between which it is reached by a paved series of terraces, for on this
+side the street is lower than the floor of the cathedral. The impression
+produced by this alley is grand and imposing, unique in Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is the situation of the temple exactly east and west, a rare
+circumstance in such a highly Catholic country like Spain. It is Roman
+cruciform in shape; the central nave contains both choir and high altar;
+the aisles are prolonged behind the latter in an ambulatory.</p>
+
+<p>The lateral walls of the church, enlarged here and there to make room
+for chapels<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span> of different dimensions, give an irregular outline to the
+building which has been partly remedied by the free use of buttresses,
+flying buttresses, and pinnacles.</p>
+
+<p>The first impression produced on the visitor standing in either of the
+aisles is that of size rather than beauty; a close examination, however,
+of the wealth of statues and tombs, and of the sculptural excellence of
+stone decoration, will draw from the tourist many an exclamation of
+wonder and delight. Further, the distribution of light is such as to
+render the interior of the temple gay rather than sombre; it is a pity,
+nevertheless, that the stained glasses of the sixteenth century see were
+all destroyed by a powder explosion in 1813, when the French soldiers
+demolished the castle.</p>
+
+<p>The unusual height of the choir mars the ensemble of the interior; the
+stalls are lavishly carved, but do not inspire the same feeling of
+wonderful beauty as do those of Leon and Toledo, for instance; the
+<i>reja</i> or grille which separates the choir from the transept is one of
+the finest pieces of work in the cathedral, and, though massive, it is
+simple and elegant.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>retablo</i> of the high altar, richly gilt,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span> is of the Renaissance
+period; the statues and groups which fill the niches are marvellously
+drawn and full of life. In the ambulatory, imbedded in the wall of the
+<i>trascoro</i>, there are six plaques in low relief; as sculptural work in
+stone they are unrivalled in the cathedral, and were carved, beyond a
+doubt, by the hand of a master. The <i>crois�e</i> and the Chapel of the
+Condestable are the two chief attractions of the cathedral church.</p>
+
+<p>The last named chapel is an octagonal addition to the apse. Its walls
+from the exterior are seen to be richly sculptured and surmounted by a
+lantern, or windowed dome, surrounded by high pinnacles and spires
+placed on the angles of the polygon base. The <i>crois�e</i> is similar in
+structure, but, due to its greater height, appears even more slender and
+aerial. The towers with their <i>fl�ches</i>, together with these original
+octagonal lanterns with their pinnacles, lend an undescribable grace,
+elegance, and majesty to what would otherwise have been a rather
+unwieldy edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The Chapel of the Condestable is separated from the ambulatory (in the
+interior of the temple) by a good grille of the sixteenth<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span> century, and
+by a profusely sculptured door. The windows above the altar are the only
+ones that retain painted panes of the sixteenth century. Among the other
+objects contained in this chapel&mdash;which is really a connoisseur's
+collection of art objects of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries&mdash;can
+be mentioned the two marvellously carved tombs of the Condestable and of
+his wife.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>crois�e</i>, on the other hand, has been called the "cathedral's
+cathedral." Gazing skyward from the centre of the transept into the high
+<i>cimborio</i>, and admiring the harmony of its details, the wealth of
+decorative elements, and the no less original structure of the dome,
+whose vault is formed by an immense star, one can understand the epithet
+applied to this majestic piece of work, a marvel of its kind.</p>
+
+<p>Strange to say, the primitive cupola which crowned the <i>crois�e</i> fell
+down in the sixteenth century, the date also of Burgos's growing
+insignificance in political questions. Consequently, it was believed by
+many that the same fate produced both accidents, and that the downfall
+of the one necessarily involved the decadence of the other.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To conclude: The Gothic cathedral of Burgos is, with that of Leon and
+perhaps that of Sevilla, the one which expresses in a greater measure
+than any other on the peninsula the true ideal of ogival architecture.
+Less airy, light, and graceful than that of Leon, it is, nevertheless,
+more Spanish, or in other words, more majestic, heavier, and more
+imposing as regards size and weight. From a sculptural point of
+view&mdash;stone sculpture&mdash;it is the first of all Spanish Gothic cathedrals,
+and ranks among the most elaborate and perfect in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIc" id="VIc"></a>VI</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SANTANDER</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> foundation of Santander is attributed to the Romans who baptized it
+Harbour of Victory. Its decadence after the Roman dominion seems to have
+been complete, and its name does not appear in the annals of Spanish
+history until in 1187, when Alfonso, eighth of that name and King of
+Castile, induced the repopulation of the deserted hamlet by giving it a
+special <i>fuero</i> or privilege. At that time a monastery surrounded by a
+few miserable huts seems to have been all that was left of the Roman
+seaport; this monastery was dedicated to the martyr saints Emeterio and
+Celedonio, for it was, and still is, believed that they perished here,
+and not in Calahorra, as will be seen later on.</p>
+
+<p>The name of the nascent city in the times of Alfonso VIII. was Sancti
+Emetrii, from that of the monastery or of the old town,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span> but within a
+few years the new town eclipsed the former in importance and, being
+dedicated to St. Andrew, gave its name to the present city
+(San-t-Andres, Santander).</p>
+
+<p>As a maritime town, Santander became connected with all the naval events
+undertaken by young Castile, and later by Philip II., against England.
+Kings, princes, princess-consorts, and ambassadors from foreign lands
+came by sea to Santander, and went from thence to Burgos and Valladolid;
+from Santander and the immediate seaports the fleet sailed which was to
+travel up the Guadalquivir and conquer Sevilla; in 1574 the Invincible
+Armada left the Bay of Biscay never to return, and from thence on until
+now, Santander has ever remained the most important Spanish seaport on
+the Cantabric Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Its ecclesiastical history is uninteresting&mdash;or, rather, the city
+possesses no ecclesiastical past; perhaps that is one of the causes of
+its flourishing state to-day. In the thirteenth century the monastical
+Church of San Emeterio was raised to a collegiate and in 1775 to a
+bishopric.</p>
+
+<p>The same unimportance, from an art point of view, attaches itself to the
+cathedral<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span> church. No one visits the city for the sake of the heavy,
+clumsy, and exceedingly irregularly built temple which stands on the
+highest part of the town. On the contrary, the great attraction is the
+fine beach of the Sardinero which lies to the west of the industrial
+town, and is, in summer, the Brighton of Spain. The coast-line, deeply
+dentated and backed by the Cantabric Mountains, is far more delightful
+and attractive than the Gothic cathedral structure of the thirteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, little need be said about it. In the interior, the height
+of the nave and aisles, rendered more pronounced by the pointed ogival
+arches, gives the building a somewhat aerial appearance that is belied
+by the view from without.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_288.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_288_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="392" alt="CRYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL" title="CRYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>RYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The square tower on the western end is undermined by a gallery or tunnel
+through which the Calle de Puente passes. To the right of the same, and
+reached by a flight of steps, stands the entrance to the crypt, which is
+used to-day as a most unhealthy parish church. This crypt of the late
+twelfth century or early thirteenth shows a decided Romanesque tendency
+in its general appearance: it is low, massive, strong, and crowned<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> by
+a semicircular vaulting reposing on gigantic pillars whose capitals are
+roughly sculptured. The windows which let in the little light that
+enters are ogival, proving the Transition period to which the crypt
+belongs; it was originally intended as the pantheon for the abbots of
+the monastery. But unlike the Galician Romanesque, it lacks an
+individual <i>cachet</i>; if it resembles anything it is the pantheon of the
+kings in San Isidoro in Leon, though in point of view of beauty, the two
+cannot be compared.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the crypt is that of a perfect Romanesque basilica, a nave
+and two aisles terminating a three-lobed apse.</p>
+
+<p>In the cathedral, properly speaking, there is a baptismal font of
+marble, bearing an Arabic inscription by way of upper frieze; it is
+square, and of Moorish workmanship, and doubtless was brought from
+Cordoba after the reconquest. Its primitive use had been practical, for
+in Andalusia it stood at the entrance to some mezquita, and in its
+limpid waters the disciples of Mahomet performed their hygienic and
+religious ablutions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIIc" id="VIIc"></a>VII</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">VITORIA</p>
+
+<p>I<span class="smcap">f</span> the foreigner enter Spain by Irun, the first cathedral town on his
+way south is Vitoria.</p>
+
+<p>Gazteiz seems to have been its Basque name prior to 1181, when it was
+enlarged by Don Sancho of Navarra and was given a <i>fuero</i> or privilege,
+together with its new name, chosen to commemorate a victory obtained by
+the king over his rival, Alfonso of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Fortune did not smile for any length of time on Don Sancho, for
+seventeen years later Alfonso VIII. incorporated the city in his kingdom
+of Castile, and it was lost for ever to Navarra.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the celebrated <i>fueros</i> given by the last named monarch to
+the inhabitants of the city, a curious custom was in vogue in the city
+until a few years ago, when the Basque Provinces finally lost the
+privileges they had fought for during centuries.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When Alfonso VIII. granted these privileges, he told the citizens they
+were to conserve them "as long as the waters of the Zadorria flowed into
+the Ebro."</p>
+
+<p>The Zadorria is the river upon which Vitoria is situated; about two
+miles up the river there is a historical village, Arriago, and a no less
+historical bridge. Hither, then, every year on St. John's Day, the
+inhabitants of Vitoria came in procession, headed by the municipal
+authorities, the bishop and clergy, the clerk of the town hall, and the
+sheriff. The latter on his steed waded into the waters of the Zadorria,
+and threw a letter into the stream; it flowed with the current toward
+the Ebro River. An act was then drawn up by the clerk, signed by the
+mayor and the sheriff, testifying that the "waters of the Zadorria
+flowed into the Ebro."</p>
+
+<p>To-day the waters still flow into the Ebro, but the procession does not
+take place, and the city's <i>fueros</i> are no more.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Isabel the Catholic, the Church of St. Mary was raised
+to a Colegiata, and it is only quite recently, according to the latest
+treaty between Spain and Rome, that an episcopal see has been
+established in the city of Vitoria.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Documents that have been discovered state that in 1281&mdash;a hundred years
+after the city had been newly baptized&mdash;the principal temple was a
+church and castle combined; in the fourteenth century this was
+completely torn down to make room for the new building, a modest ogival
+church of little or no merit.</p>
+
+<p>The tower is of a later date than the body of the cathedral, as is
+easily seen by the triangular pediments which crown the square windows:
+it is composed of three bodies, as is generally the case in Spain, the
+first of which is square in its cross-section, possessing four turrets
+which crown the angles; the second body is octagonal and the third is in
+the form of a pyramid terminating in a spire.</p>
+
+<p>The portal is cut into the base of the tower. It is the handsomest front
+of the building, though in a rather dilapidated state; the sculptural
+decorations of the three arches, as well as the aerial reliefs of the
+tympanum, are true to the period in which they were conceived.</p>
+
+<p>The sacristy encloses a primitive wooden effigy of the Virgin; it is of
+greater historic than artistic value. There is also a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span> famous picture
+attributed now to Van Dyck, now to Murillo; it represents Christ in the
+arms of his mother, and Mary Magdalene weeping on her knees beside the
+principal group. The picture is known by the name of Piety or La Piedad.</p>
+
+<p>The high altar, instead of being placed to the east of the transept, as
+is generally the case, is set beneath the <i>crois�e</i>, in the circular
+area formed by the intersection of nave and transept. The view of the
+interior is therefore completely obstructed, no matter where the
+spectator stands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIIIc" id="VIIIc"></a>VIII</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">UPPER RIOJA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the south of Navarra and about a hundred miles to the west of Burgos,
+the Ebro River flows through a fertile vale called the Rioja, famous for
+its claret. It is little frequented by strangers or tourists, and yet it
+is well worth a visit. The train runs down the Ebro valley from Miranda
+to Saragosse. A hilly country to the north and south, well wooded and
+gently sloping like the Jura; nearer, and along the banks of the stream,
+<i>huertas</i> or orchards, gardens, and vineyards offer a pleasant contrast
+to the distant landscape, and produce a favourable impression,
+especially when a village or town with its square, massive church-tower
+peeps forth from out of the foliage of fruit-trees and elms.</p>
+
+<p>Such is Upper Rioja&mdash;one of the prettiest spots in Spain, the Touraine,
+one might almost say, of Iberia, a circular region of about<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span> twenty-five
+miles in radius, containing four cities, Logro�o, Santo Domingo de la
+Calzada, N�jera, and Calahorra.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman military road from Tarragon to Astorga passed through the
+Rioja, and Calahorra, a Celtiberian stronghold slightly to the south,
+was conquered by the invaders after as sturdy a resistance as that of
+Numantia itself. It was not totally destroyed by the conquering Romans
+as happened in the last named town; on the contrary, it grew to be the
+most important fortress between Leon and Saragosse.</p>
+
+<p>When the Christian religion dawned in the West, two youths, inseparable
+brothers, and soldiers in the seventh legion stationed in Leon, embraced
+the true religion and migrated to Calahorra. They were beheaded after
+being submitted to a series of the most frightful tortures, and their
+tunics, leaving the bodies from which life had escaped, soared skywards
+with the saintly souls, to the great astonishment of the Roman
+spectators. The names of these two martyr saints were Emeterio and
+Celedonio, who, as we have seen, are worshipped in Santander; besides,
+they are also the patron saints of Calahorra.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first Bishop of Calahorra took possession of his see toward the
+middle of the fifth century; his name was Silvano. Unluckily, he was the
+only one whose name is known to-day, and yet it has been proven that
+when the Moors invaded the country two or three hundred years later, the
+see was removed to Oviedo, later to Alava (near Vitoria, where no
+remains of a cathedral church are to be seen to-day), and in the tenth
+century to N�jera. One hundred years later, when the King of Navarra,
+Don Garcia, conquered the Arab fortress at Calahorra, the wandering see
+was once more firmly chained down to the original spot of its creation
+(1030; the first bishop <i>de modernis</i> being Don Sancho).</p>
+
+<p>Near by, and in a vale leading to the south from the Ebro, the Moors
+built a fortress and called it N�jera. Conquered by the early kings of
+Navarra, it was raised to the dignity of one of the cathedral towns of
+the country; from 950 (first bishop, Theodomio) to 1030 ten bishops held
+their court here, that is, until the see was removed to Calahorra. Since
+then, and especially after the conquest of Rioja by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile, the city's significance died out<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span> completely, and to-day it is
+but a shadow of what it previously had been, or better still, it is an
+ignored village among ruins.</p>
+
+<p>Still further west, and likewise situated in a vale to the south of the
+Ebro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada ranks as the third city. Originally
+its parish was but a suffragan church of Calahorra, but in 1227 it was
+raised to an episcopal see. Quite recently, in the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, when church funds were no longer what they had been,
+only one bishop was appointed to both sees, with an alternative
+residence in either of the two, that is to say, one prelate resided in
+Calahorra, his successor in Santo Domingo, and so forth and so on. Since
+1850, however, both villages&mdash;for they are cities in name only&mdash;have
+lost all right to a bishop, the see having been definitely removed to
+Logro�o, or it will be removed there as soon as the present bishop dies.
+But he has a long life, the present bishop!</p>
+
+<p>The origin of Santo Domingo is purely religious. In the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries a pious individual lived in the neighbourhood whose
+life-work and ambition it was to facilitate the travelling pilgrims to
+Santiago in Galicia. He served as guide,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span> kept a road open in winter and
+summer, and even built bridges across the streams, one of which is still
+existing to-day, and leads into the town which bears his name.</p>
+
+<p>He had even gone so far as to establish a rustic sort of an inn where
+the pilgrims could pass the night and eat (without paying?). He also
+constructed a church beside his inn. Upon dying, he was canonized Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada (Domingo was his name, and <i>calzada</i> is old
+Spanish for highroad). The Alfonsos of Castile were grateful to the
+humble saint for having saved them the expense and trouble of looking
+after their roads, and ordained that a handsome church should be erected
+on the spot where previously the humble inn and chapel had stood. Houses
+grew up around it rapidly and the dignity of the new temple was raised
+in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four cities of Upper Rioja, the only one worthy of the name of
+city is Logro�o, with its historical bridge across the Ebro, a bridge
+that was held, according to the tradition, by the hero, Ruy Diaz Gaona,
+and three valiant companions against a whole army of invading Navarrese.</p>
+
+<p>The name Lucronio or Logro�o is first<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span> mentioned in a document toward
+the middle of the eleventh century. The date of its foundation is
+absolutely unknown, and all that can be said is that, once it had fallen
+into the hands of the monarchs of Castile (1076), it grew rapidly in
+importance, out-shining the other three Rioja cities. It is seated on
+the southern banks of the Ebro in the most fertile part of the whole
+region, and enjoys a delightful climate. Since 1850 it has been raised
+to the dignity of an episcopal see.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the architectural remains of the four cities in the Upper
+Rioja valley, they are similar to those of Navarra, properly speaking,
+though not so pure in their general lines. In other words, they belong
+to the decadent period of Gothic art. Moreover, they have one and all
+been spoiled by ingenious, though dreadful mixtures of plateresque,
+Renaissance, and grotesque decorative details, and consequently the real
+remains of the old twelfth and thirteenth century Gothic and Romanesque
+constructions are difficult to trace.</p>
+
+<p><i>N�jera.</i>&mdash;Absolutely nothing remains of the old Romanesque church built
+by the king Don Garcia. A new edifice of decadent<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span> Gothic, mixed with
+Renaissance details, and dating from the fifteenth century, stands
+to-day; it contains a magnificent series of choir stalls of excellent
+workmanship, and similar to those of Burgos. The cloister, in spite of
+the Arab-looking geometrical tracery of the ogival arches, is both light
+and elegant.</p>
+
+<p>This cathedral was at one time used as the pantheon of the kings of
+Navarra. About ten elaborate marble tombs still lie at the foot of the
+building.</p>
+
+<p><i>Santo Domingo de la Calzada.</i>&mdash;The primitive ground-plan of the
+cathedral has been preserved, a nave and two aisles showing Romanesque
+strength in the lower and ogival lightness in the upper tiers. But
+otherwise nothing reminds one of a twelfth or thirteenth century church.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister, of the sixteenth century, is a handsome
+plateresque-Renaissance edifice, rather small, severe, and cold. The
+great merit of this church lies in the sepulchral tombs in the different
+chapels, all of which were executed toward the end of the fifteenth and
+during the first years of the seventeenth centuries, and any one wishing
+to form for himself an idea of this particular<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span> branch of Spanish
+monumental art must not fail to examine such sepulchres as those of
+Carranza, Fernando Alfonso, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_304.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_304_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="393" alt="CLOISTER OF N�JERA CATHEDRAL" title="CLOISTER OF N�JERA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>LOISTER OF N�JERA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The effigy of the patron saint (Santo Domingo) is of painted wood
+clothed in rich silver robes, which form a striking antithesis to the
+saint's humble and modest life. The chapel where the latter lies is
+closed by a gilded iron <i>reja</i> of plateresque workmanship. The saint's
+body lies in a simple marble sepulchre, said to have been carved by
+Santo Domingo himself, who was both an architect and a sculptor. The
+truth of this version is, however, doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>Of the square tower and the principal entrance no remarks need be made,
+for both are insignificant. The <i>retablo</i> of the high altar has been
+attributed to Foment, who constructed those of Saragosse and Huesca. The
+attribution is, however, most doubtful, as shown by the completely
+different styles employed by the artist of each. Not that the <i>retablo</i>
+in the Church of Santo Domingo is inferior to Foment's masterworks in
+Aragon, but the decorative motives of the flanking columns and low
+reliefs would prove&mdash;in case they had been executed by the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span> Aragonese
+Foment&mdash;a departure from the latter's classic style.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the niches of the cloister, in a simple urn, lies the heart of
+Don Enrique, second King of Castile of that name, the half-brother (one
+of the bastards mentioned in a previous chapter and from whom all later
+Spanish monarchs are descended) of Peter the Cruel. The latter was
+murdered by his fond relative, who usurped the throne.</p>
+
+<p><i>Logro�o.</i>&mdash;In 1435 Santa Maria la Redonda was raised to a suffragan
+church of Santo Domingo de la Calzada; about this date the old building
+must have been almost entirely torn down, as the ogival arches of the
+nave are of the fifteenth century; so also are the lower windows which,
+on the west, flank the southern door.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting these few remains, nothing can bring to the tourist's mind the
+fifteenth-century edifice, and not a single stone can recall the
+twelfth-century church. For the remaining parts of the building are of
+the sixteenth, seventeenth, and successive centuries, and to-day the
+interior is being enlarged so as to make room for the see which is to be
+removed here from Santo Domingo and Calahorra.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_310.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_310_th.jpg"
+width="360" height="550" alt="SANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGRO�O" title="SANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGRO�O" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">S</span>ANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGRO�O</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The interior is Roman cruciform with a high and airy central nave, in
+which stands the choir, and on each hand a rather dark aisle of much
+smaller dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>trascoro</i> is the only peculiarity possessed by this church. It is
+large and circular, closed by an immense vaulting which turns it into a
+chapel separated from the rest of the church (compare with the Church of
+the Pillar of Saragosse).</p>
+
+<p>True to the grotesque style to which it belongs, the whole surface of
+walls and vault is covered with paintings, the former apparently in oil,
+the latter frescoes. Vix�s painted them in the theatrical style of the
+eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>From the outside, the regular features of the church please the eye in
+spite of the evident signs of artistic decadence. The two towers, high
+and slender, are among the best produced by the period of decadence in
+Spain which followed upon Herrero's severe style, if only the uppermost
+body lacked the circular linterna which makes the spire top-heavy.</p>
+
+<p>Between the two towers, which, when seen from a distance, gain in beauty
+and lend to the city a noble and picturesque aspect, the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span> fa�ade,
+properly speaking, reaches to their second body. It is a hollow, crowned
+by half a dome in the shape of a shell which in its turn is surmounted
+by a plateresque cornice in the shape of a long and narrow scroll.</p>
+
+<p>The hollow is a peculiar and daring medley of architectural elegance and
+sculptural bizarrerie and vice versa. From Madrazo it drew the
+exclamation that, since he had seen it, he was convinced that not all
+monuments belonging to the grotesque style were devoid of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the erection of the western front is doubtless the same as
+that of the <i>trascoro</i>; both are contemporaneous&mdash;the author is inclined
+to believe&mdash;with the erection of the Pillar in Saragosse; at least, they
+resemble each other in certain unmistakable details.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calahorra.</i>&mdash;The fourth of the cathedral churches of Upper Rioja is
+that of Calahorra. After the repopulation of the town by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile in the eleventh century, the bodies of the two martyr saints
+Emeterio and Celedonio were pulled up out of a well (to be seen to-day
+in the cloister) where they had been hidden by the Christians,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span> when
+the Moors conquered the fortress, and a church was built near the same
+spot. Of this eleventh-century church nothing remains to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_316.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_316_th.jpg"
+width="362" height="550" alt="WESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL" title="WESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">W</span>ESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century, a new building was begun, but the process of
+construction continued slowly, and it was not until two hundred years
+later that the apse was finally finished. The body of the church, from
+the western front (this latter hideously modern and uninteresting) to
+the transept, is the oldest part,&mdash;simple Gothic of the thirteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous chapels which form a ring around the church have all been
+decorated in the grotesque style of the eighteenth century, and with
+their lively colours, their polychrome statues, and overdone
+ornamentation, they offer but little interest to the visitor. The
+<i>retablo</i> of the high altar is one of the largest to be seen anywhere;
+but the Renaissance elegance of the lower body is completely drowned by
+the grotesque decoration of the upper half, which was constructed at a
+later date.</p>
+
+<p>The choir stalls are fine specimens of that style in which the artist
+preferred an intricate composition to simple beauty. Biblical<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span> scenes,
+surrounded and separated by allegorical personages and symbolical lines
+in great profusion, show the carver's talent rather than his artistic
+genius.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IXc" id="IXc"></a>IX</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SORIA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> Duero River, upon leaving its source at the foot of the Pico de
+Urbi�n (near Vinuesa), flows eastward for about fifty miles, then
+southward for another fifty miles, when it turns abruptly westward on
+its lengthy journey across the Iberian peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>The circular region, limited on three sides by the river's course, is
+the historical field of Soria&mdash;part of the province of the same name,
+Numantia, Rome's great enemy and almost the cause of her ruin, lay
+somewhere in this part of the country, though where is not exactly
+known, as the great Scipio took care to destroy it so thoroughly that
+not even a stone remains to-day to indicate where the heroic fortress
+stood.</p>
+
+<p>In the present day, two cities and two cathedrals are seated on the
+banks of the Duero within this circle; the one is Soria, the other Osma.
+The latter was a Roman<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> town, an early episcopal see, and later an Arab
+fortress; the former was founded by one of the Alfonsos toward the end
+of the eleventh century, as a frontier fortress against Aragon to the
+east, the Moors to the south, and Navarra to the north.</p>
+
+<p>The town grew apace, thanks to the remarkable <i>fueros</i> granted to the
+citizens, who lived as in a republic of their own making&mdash;an almost
+unique case of self-government to be recorded in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The principal parish church was raised to a suffragan of Osma in the
+twelfth century. Since then, there has been a continual spirit of
+rivalry between the two cities, for the former, more important as a town
+and as the capital of a province, could not bend its head to the
+ecclesiastical authority of a village like Osma. Throughout the middle
+ages the jealousy between the two was food for incessant strife. Pope
+Clement IV., at Alfonso VIII.'s instigation, raised the Collegiate at
+Soria to an episcopal see independent of Osma, but the hard-headed
+chapter of the last named city refused to acknowledge the Pope's order,
+and no bishop was elected or appointed.</p>
+
+<p>This bitter hatred between the two rivals<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> was the origin of many an
+amusing incident. Upon one occasion the Bishop of Osma, visiting his
+suffragan church in Soria, had the house in which he was stopping for
+the night burnt about his ears. He moved off to another house, and on
+the second night this was also mysteriously set on fire. His lordship
+did not await the third night, afraid of what might happen, but bolted
+back to his episcopal palace at Osma.</p>
+
+<p>In 1520 the chapter of the Collegiate in Soria sent a petition to the
+country's sovereign asking him to order the erection of a new church in
+place of the old twelfth-century building, and in another part of the
+town. The request was not granted, however, so what did the wily chapter
+do? It ordered an architect to construct a chapel in the very centre of
+the church, and when it was completed, admired the work with great
+enthusiasm, excepting only the pillar in front of it which obstructed
+the uninterrupted view. This pillar was the real support of the church,
+and though the chapter was told as much (as though it did not know it!)
+the architect was ordered to pull it down. After hesitating to do so,
+the latter acceded: the pillar was pulled down, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> with it the whole
+church tumbled down as well! But the chapter's game was discovered, and
+it was obliged to rebuild the cathedral on the same spot and with the
+same materials.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, the church at Soria is a sixteenth-century building of
+little or no merit, excepting the western front, which is the only part
+of the old building that did not fall down, and is a fine specimen of
+Castilian Romanesque, as well as the cloister, one of the handsomest,
+besides being one of the few twelfth-century cloisters in Spain, with a
+double row of slender columns supporting the round-headed arches. This
+modification of the conventional type lends an aspect of peculiar
+lightness to the otherwise heavy Romanesque.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the settlement of the strife between Soria and Osma, the see
+is to-day a double one, like that of Madrid and Alcal�. Upon the death
+of the present bishop, however, it will be transported definitely to
+Soria, and consequently the inhabitants of the last named city will at
+last be able to give thanks for the great mercies Allah or the True God
+has bestowed upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_326.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_326_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="384" alt="CLOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL" title="CLOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>LOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Osma.</i>&mdash;From an historical and architectural<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span> point of view, Osma,
+the rival city on the Duero River, is much more important than Soria.</p>
+
+<p>According to the tradition, St. James preached the Holy Gospel, and
+after him St. Peter (or St. Paul?), who left his disciple St. Astorgio
+behind as bishop (91 A. D.). Twenty-two bishops succeeded him, the
+twenty-third on the list being John I., really the first of whose
+existence we have any positive proof, for he signed the third council in
+Toledo in the sixth century. In the eighth century, the Saracens drove
+the shepherd of the Christian flock northward to Asturias, and it was
+not until 1100 that the first bishop <i>de modernis</i> was appointed by
+Archbishop Bernardo of Toledo. The latter's choice fell on Peter, a
+virtuous French monastic monk, who was canonized by the Pope after his
+death, and figures in the calendar as St. Peter of Osma.</p>
+
+<p>When the first bishop took possession of his see, he started to build
+his cathedral. Instead of choosing Osma itself as the seat, however, he
+selected the site of a convent on the opposite banks of the Duero (to
+the north), where the Virgin had appeared to a shepherd. Houses soon
+grew up around<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span> the temple and, to distinguish it from Osma, the new
+city was called Burgo de Osma, a name it still retains.</p>
+
+<p>In 1232, not a hundred years after the erection of the cathedral, it was
+totally destroyed, excepting one or two chapels still to be seen in the
+cloister, by Juan Dominguez, who was bishop at the time, and who wished
+to possess a see more important in appearance than that left to him by
+his predecessor, St. Peter.</p>
+
+<p>The building as it stands to-day is small, but highly interesting. The
+original plan was that of a Romanesque basilica with a three-lobed apse,
+but in 1781 the ambulatory walk behind the altar joined the two lateral
+aisles.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the best pieces of sculptural work in the cathedral are the
+<i>retablo</i> of the high altar, and the relief imbedded in the wall of the
+<i>trascoro</i>&mdash;both of them carved in wood by Juan de Juni, one of the best
+Castilian sculptors of the sixteenth century. The plastic beauty of the
+figures and their lifelike postures harmonize well with the simple
+Renaissance columns ornamented here and there with finely wrought
+flowers and garlands.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The chapel where St. Peter of Osma's body lies is an original rather
+than a beautiful annex of the church. For, given the small dimensions of
+the cathedral, it was difficult to find sufficient room for the chapels,
+sacristy, vestuary, etc. In the case of the above chapel, therefore, it
+was necessary to build it above the vestuary; it is reached by a flight
+of stairs, beneath which two three-lobed arches lead to the sombre room
+below. The result is highly original.</p>
+
+<p>The same remarks as regard lack of space can be made when speaking about
+the principal entrance. Previously the portal had been situated in the
+western front; the erection of the tower on one side, and of a chapel on
+the other, had rendered this entrance insignificant and half blinded by
+the prominent tower. So a new one had to be erected, considered by many
+art critics to be a beautiful addition to the cathedral properly
+speaking, but which strikes the author as excessively ugly, especially
+the upper half, with its balcony, and a hollow arch above it, in the
+shadows of which the rose window loses both its artistic and its useful
+object. So, being round, it is placed within a semicircular sort of
+<i>avant-porche</i> or recess,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span> the strong <i>contours</i> of which deform the
+immense circle of the window.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude: in the cathedral of Osma, bad architecture is only too
+evident. The tower is perhaps the most elegant part, and yet the second
+body, which was to give it a gradually sloping elegance, was omitted,
+and the third placed directly upon the first. This is no improvement.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the real reason for these architectural mishaps is not so much
+the fault of the architects and artists as that of the chapter, and of
+the flock which could not help satisfactorily toward the erection of a
+worthy cathedral. Luckily, however, there are other cathedrals in Spain,
+where, in spite of reduced funds, a decent and homogeneous building was
+erected.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister, bare on the inner side, is nevertheless a modest Gothic
+structure with acceptable lobulated ogival windows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PART_IV" id="PART_IV"></a><i>PART IV</i><br /><br /><i>Western Castile</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Id" id="Id"></a>I</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">PALENCIA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> history of Palencia can be divided into two distinct parts,
+separated from each other by a lapse of about five hundred years, during
+which the city was entirely blotted out from the map of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The first period reaches from before the Roman Conquest to the
+Visigothic domination.</p>
+
+<p>Originally inhabited by the Vacceos, a Celtiberian tribe, it was one of
+the last fortresses to succumb to Roman arms, having joined Numantia in
+the terrible war waged by Spaniards and which has become both legendary
+and universal.</p>
+
+<p>Under Roman rule the broad belt of land, of which Palencia, a military
+town on the road from Astorga to Tarragon, was the capital, flourished
+as it had never done before. Consequently it is but natural that one of
+the first sees should have been established<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_220" id="page_220">{220}</a></span> there as soon as
+Christianity invaded the peninsula. No records are, however, at hand as
+regards the names of the first bishops and of the martyr saints, as
+thick here as elsewhere and as numerous in Spain as in Rome itself. At
+any rate, contemporary documents mention a Bishop Toribio, not the first
+to occupy the see nor the same prelate who worked miracles in Orense and
+Astorga. The Palencian Toribio fought also against the Priscilian
+heresy, and was one of the impediments which stopped its spread further
+southward. Of this man it is said that, disgusted with the heresy
+practised at large in his Pallantia, he mounted on a hill, and,
+stretching his arms heavenwards, caused the waters of the river to leave
+their bed and inundate the city, a most efficacious means of bringing
+loitering sheep to the fold.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere did the Visigoths wreak greater vengeance or harm on the
+Iberians who had hindered their entry into the peninsula than in
+Palencia. It was entirely wrecked and ruined, not one stone remaining to
+tell the tale of the city that had been. Slowly it emerged from the
+wreck, a village rather than a town; once in awhile its bishops<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span> are
+mentioned, living rather in Toledo than in their humble see.</p>
+
+<p>The Arab invasion devastated a second time the growing town; perhaps it
+was Alfonso I. himself who completely wrecked it, for the Moorish
+frontier was to the north of the city, and it was the sovereign's
+tactics to raze to the ground all cities he could not keep, when he made
+a risky incursion into hostile country.</p>
+
+<p>So Palencia was forgotten until the eleventh century, when Sancho el
+Mayor, King of Navarra, who had conquered this part of Castile,
+re�stablished the long-ignored see. He was hunting among the weeds that
+covered the ruins of what had once been a Roman fortress, when a boar
+sprang out of cover in front of him and escaped. Being light of foot,
+the king followed the animal until it disappeared in a cave, or what
+appeared to be such, though it really was a subterranean chapel
+dedicated to the martyrs, or to the patron saint of old Pallantia,
+namely, San Antolin.</p>
+
+<p>The hunted beast cowered down in front of the altar; the king lifted his
+arm to spear it, when lo, his arm was detained in mid-air by an
+invisible hand! Immediately the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span> monarch prostrated himself before the
+miraculous effigy of the saint; he acknowledged his sacrilegious sin,
+and prayed for forgiveness; the boar escaped, the monarch's arm fell to
+his side, and a few days later the see was re�stablished, a church was
+erected above the subterranean chapel, and Bernardo was appointed the
+first bishop (1035). After Sancho's death, his son Ferdinand, who, as we
+have seen, managed to unite for the first time all Northern Spain
+beneath his sceptre, made it a point of honour to favour the see his
+father had erected a few months before his death, an example followed by
+all later monarchs until the times of Isabel the Catholic.</p>
+
+<p>A surprising number of houses were soon built around the cathedral, and
+the city's future was most promising. Its bishops were among the
+noble-blooded of the land, and enjoyed such exceptional privileges as
+gave them power and wealth rarely equalled in the history of the middle
+ages. But then, the city had been built for the church and not the
+church for the city, and it is not to be marvelled at that the prelates
+bore the title of "<i>hecho un rey y un papa</i>"&mdash;king and pope. The greater
+part of these princes, it is true,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span> lived at court rather than in their
+episcopal see, which is, perhaps, one of the reasons why Palencia failed
+to emulate with Burgos and Valladolid, though at one time it was the
+residence of some of the kings of Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, being only second in importance to the two last named cities,
+Palencia was continually the seat of dissident noblemen and thwarted
+heirs to the throne; because these latter, being unable to conquer the
+capital, or Valladolid, invariably sought to establish themselves in
+Palencia, sometimes successfully, at others being obliged to retreat
+from the city walls. The story of the town is consequently one of the
+most adventurous and varied to be read in Spanish history, and it is due
+to the side it took in the rebellion against Charles-Quint, in the time
+of the Comuneros, that it was finally obliged to cede its place
+definitely to Valladolid, and lost its importance as one of the three
+cities of Castilla la Vieja.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to be mentioned that Palencia was the seat of the first
+Spanish university (Christian, not Moorish), previous to either that of
+Salamanca or Alcal�. In 1208 this educational institution was founded by
+Alfonso VIII.; professors were procured<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span> from Italy and France, and a
+building was erected beside the cathedral and under its protecting wing.
+It did not survive the monarch's death, however, for the reign of the
+latter's son left but little spare time for science and letters, and in
+1248 it was closed, though twenty years later Pope Urbano IV. futilely
+endeavoured to re�stablish it. According to a popular tradition, it owed
+its definite death to the inhabitants of the town, who, bent upon
+venging an outrage committed by one of the students upon a daughter of
+the city, fell upon them one night at a given signal and killed them to
+the last man.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourteenth century, the cathedral, which had suffered enormously
+from sieges and from the hands of enemies, was entirely pulled down and
+a new one built on the same spot (June, 1321). The subterranean chapel,
+which had been the cause of the city's resurrection, was still the
+central attraction and relic of the cathedral, and, according to another
+legend, no less marvellous than that of Toribio, its genuineness has
+been placed definitely (?) without the pale of skeptic doubts. It
+appears that one Pedro, Bishop of Osma (St. Peter of Osma?), was praying
+before the effigy of San Antolin when the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span> lights went out. The pious
+yet doubting prelate prayed to God to give him a proof of the relic's
+authenticity by lighting the candles. To his surprise (?) and glee, the
+candles lit by themselves!</p>
+
+<p class="top5">Let us approach the city by rail. The train leaves Venta de Ba�os, a
+junction station with a village about two miles away possessing a
+seventh-century Visigothic church which offers the great peculiarity of
+horseshoe arches in its structure, dating from before the Arab invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately upon emerging from the station, the train enters an immense
+rolling plain of a ruddy, sandy appearance, with here and there an
+isolated sand-hill crowned by the forgotten ruins of a medi�val castle.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of this region is Palencia.</p>
+
+<p>The erection of the cathedral church of the town was begun in 1321; it
+was dedicated to the Mother and Child, and to San Antolin, whose chapel,
+devoid of all artistic merit, is still to be seen beneath the choir.</p>
+
+<p>This edifice was finished toward 1550. The same division as has been
+observed in the history of the city can be applied to the temple: at
+first it was intended to construct<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span> a modest Gothic church of red
+sandstone; the apse with its five chapels and traditional ambulatory was
+erected, as well as the transept and the high altar terminating the
+central nave. Then, after about a hundred years had passed away, the
+original plan was altered by lengthening the body of the building.
+Consequently the chapel of the high altar was too small in comparison
+with the enlarged proportions, and it was transformed into a parish
+chapel. Opposite it, and to the west of the old transept, another high
+altar was constructed in the central nave, and a second transept
+separated it from the choir which followed.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, and looking at this curious monument as it stands
+to-day, the central nave is surmounted by an ogival vaulting of a series
+of ten vaults. The first transept cuts the nave beneath the sixth, and
+the second beneath the ninth vault. (Vault No. 1 is at the western end
+of the church.) Both transepts protrude literally beyond the general
+width of the building. The choir stands beneath the fourth and fifth
+vaults, and the high altar between the two transepts, occupying the
+seventh and eighth space. Beneath the tenth stands the parish chapel or
+ex-high<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span> altar, behind which runs the ambulatory, on the off-side of
+which are situated the five apsidal chapels. Consequently the second
+transept separates the old from the new high altar.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_344.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_344_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="387" alt="PALENCIA CATHEDRAL" title="PALENCIA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">P</span>ALENCIA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In spite of the low aisles and nave, and the absence of sculptural
+motives so pronounced in Burgos, the effect produced on the spectator by
+the double cross and the unusual length as compared with the width is
+agreeable. The evident lack of unity in the Gothic structure is
+recompensed by the original and pleasing plan.</p>
+
+<p>The final judgment that can be emitted concerning this cathedral church,
+when seen from the outside, is that it shows the typical Spanish-Gothic
+characteristic, namely, heaviness as contrasted to pure ogival
+lightness. There is poverty in the decorative details, and solemnity in
+the interior; the appearance from the outside is of a fortress rather
+than a temple, with slightly pointed Gothic windows, and a heavy and
+solid, rather than an elegant and light, general structure. Only the
+cathedral church of Palencia outgrew the original model and took the
+strange and exotic form it possesses to-day, without losing its
+fortress-like aspect.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Though really built in stone (see the columns and pillars in the
+interior), brick has been largely used in the exterior; hence also the
+impossibility of erecting a pure Gothic building, and this is a remark
+that can be applied to most churches in Spain. The buttresses are heavy,
+the square tower (unfinished) is Romanesque or <i>Mudejar</i> in form rather
+than Gothic, though the windows be ogival. There is no western fa�ade or
+portal; the tower is situated on the southern side between the true
+transepts.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four doorways, two to the north and two to the south, which give
+access to the transepts, the largest and richest in sculptural
+decoration is the Bishop's Door (south). Observe the geometrical designs
+in the panels of the otherwise ogival and slightly pointed doorway. The
+other portal on the south is far simpler, and the arch which surmounts
+it is of a purer Gothic style; not so the geometrically decorated panels
+and the almost Arabian frieze which runs above the arches. This frieze
+is Moorish or Mudejar-Byzantine, and though really it does not belong in
+an ogival building, it harmonizes strangely with it.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of the cathedral the nakedness<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span> of the columns is
+partially recompensed by the richness in sculptural design of some
+sepulchres, as well as by several sixteenth-century grilles. The huge
+<i>retablo</i> of the high altar shows Gothic luxuriousness in its details,
+and at the same time (in the capitals of the flanking columns) nascent
+plateresque severity.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting corner of the interior is the <i>trascoro</i>,
+or the exterior side of the wall which closes the choir on the west.
+Here the patronizing genius of Bishop Fonseca, a scion of the celebrated
+Castilian family, excelled itself. The wall itself is richly sculptured,
+and possesses two fine lateral reliefs. In the centre there is a Flemish
+canvas of the sixteenth century, of excellent colour, and an elegantly
+carved pulpit.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter-room are to be seen some well-preserved Flemish
+tapestries, and in an apsidal chapel is one of Zurbaran's mystic
+subjects: a praying nun. (This portrait, I believe, has been sold or
+donated by the chapter, for, if I am not mistaken, it is to be seen
+to-day in the art collection of the Spanish royal family.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IId" id="IId"></a>II</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">ZAMORA</p>
+
+<p>W<span class="smcap">hatever</span> may have been the origin of Zamora, erroneously confounded with
+that of Numantia, it is not until the ninth century that the city, or
+frontier fortress, appears in history as an Arab stronghold, taken from
+the Moors and fortified anew by Alfonso I. or by his son Froila, and
+necessarily lost and regained by Christians and Moors a hundred times
+over in such terrible battles as the celebrated and much sung <i>d�a de
+Zamora</i> in 901. In 939 another famous siege of the town was undertaken
+by infidel hordes, but the strength of the citadel and the numerous
+moats, six it appears they were in number, separated by high walls
+surrounding the town, were invincible, and the Arab warriors had to
+retreat. Nevertheless, between 900 and 980 the fortress was lost five
+times by the Christians. The last Moor to take it was Almanzor, who
+razed it to the ground and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> then repopulated it with Arabs from
+Andalusia.</p>
+
+<p>Previously, in 905, the parish church had been raised to an episcopal
+see; the first to occupy it being one Atilano, canonized later by Pope
+Urbano II.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years after this bishop had taken possession of his spiritual
+throne, he was troubled by certain religious scruples, and, putting on a
+pilgrim's robe, he distributed his revenues among the parish poor and
+left the city. Crossing the bridge,&mdash;still standing to-day and leading
+from the town to Portugal,&mdash;he threw his pastoral ring into the river,
+swearing he would only reoccupy the lost see when the ring should have
+been given back into his hands; should this happen, it would prove that
+the Almighty had pardoned his sins.</p>
+
+<p>For two years he roamed about visiting shrines and succouring the poor;
+at last one day he dreamed that his Master ordered him to repair
+immediately to his see, where he was sorely needed. Returning to Zamora,
+he passed the night in a neighbouring hermitage, and while supping&mdash;it
+must have been Friday!&mdash;in the belly of the fish he was eating he
+discovered his pastoral ring.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following day the church-bells were rung by an invisible hand, and
+the pilgrim, entering the city, was hailed as a saint by the
+inhabitants; the same invisible hands took off his pilgrim's clothes and
+dressed him in rich episcopal garments. He took possession of his see,
+dying in the seventh year of his second reign.</p>
+
+<p>Almanzor <i>el terrible</i>, on the last powerful raid the Moors were to
+make, buried the Christian see beneath the ruins of the cathedral, and
+erected a mezquita to glorify Allah; fifteen years later the city fell
+into the hands of the Christians again, and saw no more an Arab army
+beneath its walls.</p>
+
+<p>It was not, however, until 125 years later that the ruined episcopal see
+was re�stablished <i>de modernis</i>, the first bishop being Bernardo (1124).</p>
+
+<p>But previous to the above date, an event took place in and around Zamora
+that has given national fame to the city, and has made it the centre of
+a Spanish Iliad hardly less poetic or dramatic than the Homerian legend,
+and therefore well worth narrating as perhaps unique in the peninsula,
+not to say in the history of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>When Fernando I. of Castile died in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span> 1065, he left his vast territories
+to his five children, bequeathing Castile to his eldest son Sancho,
+Galicia to Garcia, Leon to Alfonso, Toro to Elvira, and Zamora to
+Urraca, who was the eldest daughter, and, with Sancho, the bravest and
+most intrepid of the five children.</p>
+
+<p>According to the romance of Zamora, she, Do�a Urraca, worried her
+father's last moments by trying to wheedle more than Zamora out of him;
+but the king was firm, adding only the following curse:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>"&nbsp;'Quien os la tomara, hija,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>�La mi maldici�n le caiga!'&mdash;</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Todos dicen am�n, am�n,</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><i>Sino Don Sancho que calla."</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Which in other words means: "Let my curse fall on whomsoever endeavours
+to take Zamora from you.... Those who were present agreed by saying
+amen; only the eldest son, Don Sancho, remained silent."</p>
+
+<p>The latter, being ambitious, dethroned his brothers and sent them flying
+across the frontier to Andalusia, then Moorish territory. Toro also
+submitted to him, but not so Zamora, held by the dauntless Urraca and
+the governor of the citadel, Arias Gonzalo.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span> So it was besieged by the
+royal troops and asked to surrender, the message being taken by the
+great Cid from Don Sancho to his sister. She, of course, refused to give
+up the town. Wherefore is not known, but the fact is that the Cid, the
+ablest warrior in the hostile army, after having carried the embassy to
+the Infanta, left the king's army; the many romances which treat of this
+siege accuse him of having fallen in love with Do�a Urraca's lovely
+eyes,&mdash;a love that was perhaps reciprocated,&mdash;who knows?</p>
+
+<p>In short, the city was besieged during nine months. Hunger, starvation,
+and illness glared at the besieged. On the point of surrendering, they
+were beseeched by the Infanta to hold out nine days longer; in the
+meantime one Vellido Dolfo, famous in song, emerged by the city's
+postern gate and went to King Sancho's camp, saying that he was tired of
+serving Do�a Urraca, with whom he had had a dispute, and that he would
+show the king how to enter the city by a secret path.</p>
+
+<p>According to the romances, it would appear that the king was warned by
+the inhabitants themselves against the traitorous intentions of Vellido.
+"Take care, King Sancho,"<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span> they shouted from the walls, "and remember
+that we warn you; a traitor has left the city gates who has already
+committed treason four times, and is about to commit the fifth."</p>
+
+<p>The king did not hearken, as is generally the case, and went out walking
+with the knight who was to show him the secret gate; he never returned,
+being killed by a spear-thrust under almost similar circumstances to
+Siegfried's.</p>
+
+<p>The father's curse had thus been fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>The traitor returned to the city, and, strange to say, was not punished,
+or only insufficiently so; consequently, it is to-day believed that the
+sister of the murdered monarch had a hand in the crime. Upon Vellido's
+return to the besieged town, the governor wished to imprison him&mdash;which
+in those days meant more than confinement&mdash;but the Infanta objected; it
+is even stated that the traitor spoke with his heartless mistress,
+saying: "It was time the promise should be fulfilled."</p>
+
+<p>In the meanwhile, from the besieging army a solitary knight, Diego
+Ordo�ez, rode up to the city walls, and accusing the inhabitants of
+felony and treason, both men and women, young and old, living and dead,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span>
+born and to be born, he challenged them to a duel. It had to be
+accepted, and, according to the laws of chivalry, the challenger had to
+meet in single combat five champions, one after another, for he had
+insulted, not a single man, but a community.</p>
+
+<p>The gray-haired governor of the fortress reserved for himself and his
+four sons the duty of accepting the challenge; the Infanta beseeched him
+in vain to desist from his enterprise, but he was firm: his mistress's
+honour was at stake. At last, persuaded by royal tears, according to the
+romance, he agreed to let his sons precede him, and, only in case it
+should be necessary, would he take the last turn.</p>
+
+<p>The eldest son left the city gates, blessed by the weeping father; his
+helmet and head were cleft in twain by Diego Ordo�ez's terrible sword,
+and the latter's ironical shout was heard addressing the governor:</p>
+
+<p>"Don Arias, send me hither another of your charming sons, because this
+one cannot bear you the message."</p>
+
+<p>A second and third son went forth, meeting the same fate: but the
+latter's wounded horse, in throwing its rider, ran blindly into Ordo�ez
+and knocked him out of the ring;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span> the duel was therefore judged to be a
+draw.</p>
+
+<p>Several days afterward Alfonso, the dead king's younger brother, hurried
+up from Toledo, and after swearing in Burgos that he had had nothing to
+do with the felonious murder, was anointed King of Castile, Leon, and
+Galicia. His brave sister Urraca lived with him at court, giving him
+useful advice, until she retired to a convent, and at her death left her
+palace and her fortune to the Collegiate Church at Leon.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining history of Zamora is one interminable list of revolts,
+sieges, massacres, and duels. As frontier fortress against Portugal in
+the west, its importance as the last garrison town on the Duero was
+exceptional, and consequently, though it never became important as a
+metropolis, as a stronghold it was one of Castile's most strategical
+points.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">The best view of the city is obtained from the southern shore of the
+Duero; on a low hill opposite the spectator, the city walls run east and
+west; behind them, to the left, the castle towers loom up, square and
+Byzantine in appearance; immediately to the right the cathedral nave
+forms a horizontal<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span> line to where the <i>cimborio</i> practically terminates
+the church. Thus from afar it seems as though the castle tower were part
+of the religious edifice, and the general appearance of the whole city
+surrounded by massive walls cannot be more warlike. The colour also of
+the ruddy sandstone and brick, brilliant beneath a bright blue sky, is
+characteristic of this part of Castile, and certainly constitutes one of
+its charms. What is more, the landscape is rendered more exotic or
+African by the Oriental appearance of the whole town, its castle, and
+its cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>The latter was begun and ended in the twelfth century; the first stone
+was laid in 1151, and the vaults were closed twenty-three years later,
+in 1174; consequently it is one of the unique twelfth-century churches
+in Spain completed before the year 1200. It is true that the original
+edifice has been deformed by posterior additions and changes dating from
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Excepting these abominable additions, the primitive building is
+Romanesque; not Romanesque as are the cathedrals we have seen in
+Galicia, but Byzantine, or military<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> Romanesque, showing decided
+Oriental influences. Would to Heaven the cathedral of Zamora were to-day
+as it stood in the twelfth century!</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_360.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_360_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="388" alt="ZAMORA CATHEDRAL" title="ZAMORA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">Z</span>AMORA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The form of the church is that of a basilica. Like the cathedral of
+Palencia, it lacks a western front; the apse is semicircular,
+strengthened by heavy leaning buttresses; the upper, towerless rim of
+this same body is decorated with an ogival festoon set off by means of
+the primitive pinnacles of the top of the buttresses. The northern
+(Renaissance or plateresque) front is, though beautiful and severe in
+itself, a calamity when compared with the Romanesque edifice, as is also
+the new and horrid clock-tower.</p>
+
+<p>The view of the southern end of the transept, as seen from the left, is
+the most imposing to be obtained of the building. Two flights of steps
+lead up to the Romanesque portal, flanked by three simple pillars, which
+support three rounded arches deeply dentated(!). Blind windows, similar
+in structure to the portal, occupy the second body of the fa�ade, and
+are surmounted in their turn by a simple row of inverted crenelated
+teeth, showing in their rounded edges the timid use of the horseshoe
+arc. The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span> superior body is formed by two concentric and slightly ogival
+arches embedded in the wall.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest attraction, and that which above all gives a warlike aspect
+to the whole building, is the <i>cimborio</i>, or lantern of the <i>crois�e</i>.
+Flanked by four circular turrets, which are pierced by round-topped
+windows and surmounted by Oriental domes that add a stunted, solid
+appearance to the whole, the principal cupola rises to the same height
+as the previously mentioned turrets. The whole is a marvel of simple
+architectural resource within the narrow limits of the round-arched
+style. What is more, though this cupola and that of Santiago belong to
+the same period, what a world of difference between the two! Seen as
+indicated above, the <i>factura</i> of the whole is intensely Oriental
+(excepting the addition of the triangular cornices emerging from beneath
+the cupola), and, it may be said in parenthesis, exceptionally fine.
+Besides, the high walls of the aisles, as compared with the stunted
+growth of the <i>cimborio</i>, and with the compact and slightly angular form
+of the entire building, lend an unrivalled aspect of solidity, strength,
+and resistance to the twelfth-century cathedral<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span> church, so
+intrinsically different from that of Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>The interior is no less peculiar, and particularly so beneath the
+lantern of the <i>crois�e</i>. The latter is composed of more than a dozen
+windows, slightly ogival in shape, though from the outside the pillars
+of the flanking turrets support round-headed arches; these windows are
+separated from each other by simple columns or shafts. Again, what a
+difference between this solid and simple <i>cimborio</i> and the marvellous
+lantern of the cathedral at Burgos! Two ages, two generations, even two
+ideals, are represented in both; the earlier, the stronger, in Zamora;
+the later, the more aerial and elaborate, in Burgos.</p>
+
+<p>Another Romanesque characteristic is the approximate height of nave and
+aisles. This circumstance examined from within or from without is one of
+the causes of the solid appearance of the church; the windows of the
+aisles&mdash;unimportant, it is true, from an artistic point of view&mdash;are
+slightly ogival; those of the nave are far more primitive and
+round-headed.</p>
+
+<p>The transept, originally of the same length as the width of the church,
+was prolonged in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> the fifteenth century. (On the south side also?... It
+is extremely doubtful, as the southern fa�ade previously described is
+hardly a fifteenth-century construction; on the other hand, that on the
+north side is easily classified as posterior to the general construction
+of the building.)</p>
+
+<p>Further, the western end, lacking a fa�ade, is terminated by an apse,
+that is, each aisle and the central nave run into a chapel. The effect
+of this <i>double apse</i> is highly peculiar, especially as seen from
+within, with chapels to the east and chapels to the west.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>retablo</i> is of indifferent workmanship; the choir stalls, on the
+other hand, are among the most exquisitely wrought&mdash;simple, sober, and
+natural&mdash;to be seen in Spain, especially those of the lower row.</p>
+
+<p>The chapels are as usual in Spanish cathedrals, as different in style as
+they are in size; none of those in Zamora can be considered as artistic
+jewels. The best is doubtless that which terminates the southern aisles
+on the western end of the church, where the principal fa�ade ought to
+have been placed. It is Gothic, rich in its decoration, but showing here
+and there the decadence of the northern style.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The cloister&mdash;well, anywhere else it might have been praised for its
+plateresque simplicity and severity, but here!&mdash;it is out of date and
+place.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude, the general characteristics of the cathedral of Zamora are
+such as justify the opinion that the edifice, especially as its
+Byzantine-Oriental and severe primitive structure is concerned, is one
+of the great churches that can still be admired in Spain, in spite of
+the reduced size and of the additions which have been introduced.</p>
+
+<p class="sml75"><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;To the traveller interested in church architecture, the
+author wishes to draw attention to the parish church of La Magdalen
+in Zamora. The northern portal of the same is one of the most
+perfect&mdash;if not the most perfect&mdash;specimen of Byzantine-Romanesque
+decoration to be met with in Spain. It is perhaps unique in the
+world. At the same time, the severe Oriental appearance of the
+church, both from the outside and as seen from within, cannot fail
+to draw the attention of the most casual observer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIId" id="IIId"></a>III</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">TORO</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the west of Valladolid, on the river Duero, Toro, the second of the
+two great fortress cities, uplifts its Alc�zar to the blue sky; like
+Zamora, it owed its fame to its strategic position: first, as one of the
+Christian outposts to the north of the Duero against the Arab
+possessions to the south, and, secondly, as a link between Valladolid
+and Zamora, the latter being the bulwark of Christian opposition against
+the ever encroaching Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>Twin cities the fortresses have been called, and no better expression is
+at hand to denote at once the similarity of their history, their
+necessary origin, and their necessary decadence.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, Toro appears in history somewhat later than Zamora, having
+been erected either on virgin soil, or upon the ruins of a destroyed
+Arab fortress as late as<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span> in the tenth century, by Garcia, son of
+Alfonso III. At any rate, it was not until a century later, in 1065,
+that the city attained any importance, when Fernando I. bequeathed it to
+his daughter Elvira, who, seeing her elder brother's impetuous
+ambitions, handed over the town and the citadel to him.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the middle ages the name of Toro is foremost among the
+important fortresses of Castile, and many an event&mdash;generally tragic and
+bloody&mdash;took place behind its walls. Here Alfonso XI. murdered his uncle
+in cold blood, and Don Pedro el Cruel, after besieging the town and the
+citadel held in opposition to him by his mother, allowed her a free exit
+with the gentlemen defenders of the place, but broke his word when they
+were on the bridge, and murdered all excepting his widowed mother!</p>
+
+<p>In the days of Isabel the Catholic, Toro was taken by the kings of
+Portugal, who upheld the claims of Enrique IV's illegitimate daughter,
+Juana la Beltranaja. In the vicinity of the town, the great battle of
+Pelea Gonzalo was fought, which gave the western part of Castile to the
+rightful<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span> sovereigns. This battle is famous for the many prelates and
+curates who, armed,&mdash;and wearing trousers and not frocks!&mdash;fought like
+Christians (!) in the ranks.</p>
+
+<p>In Toro, Cortes was assembled in 1505 to open Queen Isabel's testament,
+and to promulgate those laws which have gone down in Spanish history as
+the Leyes de Toro; this was the last spark of Toro's fame, for since
+then its fate has been identical with that of Zamora, forty miles away.</p>
+
+<p>Strictly speaking, it is doubtful if Toro ever was a city; at one time
+it seems to have possessed an ephemeral bishop,&mdash;at least such is the
+popular belief,&mdash;who must have reigned in his see but a short time, as
+at an early date the city was submitted to the ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction of Astorga. Later, when the see was re�stablished in
+Zamora, the latter's twin sister, Toro, was definitely included in the
+new episcopal diocese.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, the Catholic kings raised the church at Toro to a
+collegiate in the sixteenth century (1500?) because they were anxious to
+gain the good-will of the inhabitants after the Portuguese invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Built either toward the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the
+thirteenth century,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span> Santa Maria la Mayor, popularly called <i>la
+catedral</i>, closely resembles the cathedral church at Zamora. The style
+is the same (Byzantine-Romanesque), and the impression of strength and
+solidity produced by the warlike aspect of the building is even more
+pronounced than in the case of the sister church.</p>
+
+<p>The general plan is that of a basilica, rectangular in shape, with a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe being by far the largest in size, and
+a transept which protrudes slightly beyond the width of the church. This
+transept is situated immediately in front of the apse; the <i>crois�e</i> is
+surmounted by the handsome <i>cimborio</i>, larger than that at Zamora,
+pierced by twice as many round-topped windows, but lacking a cupola, as
+do also the flanking towers, which are flat-topped. Above and between
+these latter, the cone-shaped roof of the <i>cimborio</i>, properly speaking,
+is sloping and triangular in its cross-section.</p>
+
+<p>This body, less Oriental in appearance than the one in Zamora, impresses
+one with a feeling of greater awe, thanks to the great diameter as
+compared with the foreshortened height. Crowning as it does the apse
+(from<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span> the proximity of the transept to the head of the church), the
+<i>crois�e</i>, and the two wings of the transept, the cupola in question
+produces a weird and incomprehensible effect on the spectator viewing it
+from the southeast. The more modern tower, which backs the <i>cimborio</i>,
+lends, it is true, a certain elegance to the edifice that the early
+builders were not willing to impart. The ensemble is, nevertheless,
+peculiarly Byzantine, and, with the mother-church in Zamora, which it
+resembles without copying, it stands almost unique in the history of
+art.</p>
+
+<p>The lateral doors, not situated in the transept, are located near the
+foot of the church. The southern portal is the larger, but the most
+simple; the arch which crowns it shows a decided ogival tendency, a
+circumstance which need not necessarily be attributed to Gothic
+influence, as in many churches prior to the introduction of the ogival
+arch the pointed top was known, and in isolated cases it was made use
+of, though purely by accident, and not as a constructive element.</p>
+
+<p>The northern door is smaller, but a hundred times richer in sculptural
+design. It shows Byzantine influence in the decoration,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span> and as a
+Byzantine-Romanesque portal can figure among the best in Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_374.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_374_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="383" alt="TORO CATHEDRAL" title="TORO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">T</span>ORO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has been supposed that the western front of the building possessed at
+one time a narthex, like the cathedral Tuy, for instance. Nothing
+remains of it, however, as the portal which used to be here was done
+away with, and in its place a modern chapel with a fine Gothic <i>retablo</i>
+was consecrated.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the interior, the almost similar height of the nave and
+aisles, leaves, as in Zamora, a somewhat stern and depressing impression
+on the visitor; the light which enters is also feeble, excepting beneath
+the <i>linterna</i>, where "the difficulty of placing a circular body on a
+square without the aid of supports (<i>pechinas</i>) has been so naturally
+and perfectly overcome that we are obliged to doubt of its ever having
+existed."</p>
+
+<p>Gothic elements, more so than in Zamora, mix with the Romanesque
+traditions in the decoration of the nave and aisles; nevertheless, the
+elements of construction are purely Romanesque, excepting the central
+apsidal chapel which contains the high altar. Restored by the Fonseca
+family in the sixteenth century, it is ogival in conception and
+execution, and contains some fine tombs of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> above named aristocratic
+family. But the chapel passes unnoticed in this peculiarly exotic
+building, where solidity and not grace was the object sought and
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IVd" id="IVd"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SALAMANCA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> very position of Salamanca, immediately to the north of the chain of
+mountains which served for many a century as a rough frontier wall
+between Christians and Moors, was bound to ensure the city's importance
+and fame. Its history is consequently unique, grander and more exciting
+than that of any other city; the universal name it acquired in the
+fourteenth century, thanks to its university, can only be compared with
+that of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently its fall from past renown to present insignificance was
+tremendous, and to-day, a heap of ruins, boasting of traditions like
+Toledo and Burgos, of two cathedrals and twenty-four parish churches, of
+twice as many convents and palaces, of a one-time glorious university
+and half a hundred colleges,&mdash;Salamanca sleeps away a useless existence
+from which it will never awaken.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Its history has still to be penned. What an exciting and stirring
+account of middle age life in Spain it would be!</p>
+
+<p>The Romans knew Salamantia, and the first notice handed down to us of
+the city reads like a fairy story, as though predicting future events.</p>
+
+<p>According to Plutarch, the town was besieged by Hannibal, and had to
+surrender. The inhabitants were allowed to leave, unarmed, and taking
+away with them only their clothes; the men were searched as they passed
+out, but not so the women.</p>
+
+<p>Together men and women left the town. A mile away they halted, and the
+women drew forth from beneath their robes concealed weapons. Together
+the men and the women returned to their town and stealthily fell upon
+their foes, slaughtering them in considerable numbers. Hannibal was so
+"enchanted" (!) with the bravery displayed by the women, that he drew
+away his army from the town, leaving the patriotic inhabitants to settle
+again their beloved Salamanca.</p>
+
+<p>The Western Goths, upon their arrival in Spain, found Salamanca in a
+flourishing state, and respected its episcopal see, the origin of which
+is ignored. The first bishop we<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> have any record of is Eleuterio, who
+signed the third Council of Toledo in 589.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs treated the city more harshly; it was in turn taken and
+destroyed by infidels and Christians; the former sacking frontier towns,
+the latter destroying all fortresses they could not hold.</p>
+
+<p>In the eighth century no bishop seems to have existed in Salamanca; in
+the tenth, date of a partial re�stablishment of the see, seven prelates
+are mentioned; these did not, however, risk their skins by taking
+possession of their chair, but lived quietly in the north, either in
+Santiago&mdash;farther north they could not go!&mdash;or else in Leon and Burgos.
+The eleventh century is again devoid of any ecclesiastical news
+connected with the see of Salamanca; what is more, the very name of the
+city is forgotten until Alfonso VI. crossed the Guaderrama and fixed his
+court in Toledo. This bold step, taken in a hostile country far from the
+centre of the kingdom and from his base of operations, obliged the
+monarch to erect with all speed a series of fortresses to the north; as
+a result, Salamanca, Segovia, and Avila, beyond the Guaderrama
+Mountains, and Madrid to the south, were quickly populated by
+Christians.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This occurred in 1102; the first bishop <i>de modernis</i> was Jeronimo, a
+French warrior-monk, who had accompanied his bosom friend el Cid to
+Valencia, had fought beside him, and had been appointed bishop of the
+conquered see. Not for any length of time, however, for as soon as el
+Cid died, the Moors drove the Christians out of the new kingdom, and the
+bishop came to Leon with the Cristo de las Batallas,&mdash;a miraculous cross
+of old Byzantine workmanship, supposed to have aided the Cid in many a
+battle,&mdash;as the only <i>souvenir</i> of his stay in the Valencian see.</p>
+
+<p>The next four or five bishops fought among themselves. At one time the
+city had no fewer than two, a usurper, and another who was not much
+better; the Pope deprived one of his dignity, the king another, the
+influential Archbishop of Santiago chose a third, who was also
+deposed&mdash;the good old times!&mdash;until at last one Berengario was
+appointed, and the ignominious conflict was peacefully settled.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the city at the beginning were a strong, warlike
+medley of Jews (these were doubtless the least warlike!), Arabs,
+Aragonese, Castilian, French, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span> Leonese. Bands of these without a
+commander invaded Moorish territory, sacking and pillaging where they
+could. On one occasion they were pursued by an Arab army, whose general
+asked to speak with the captain of the Salamantinos. The answer was,
+"Each of us is his own captain!" words that can be considered typical of
+the anarchy which reigned in Spain until the advent of Isabel and
+Ferdinand in the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>If the bishops fought among themselves, and if the low class people
+lived in a state of utter anarchy, the same spirit spread to&mdash;or
+emanated from&mdash;the nobility, of whom Salamanca had more than its share,
+especially as soon as the university was founded. The annals of no other
+city are so replete with family traditions and feuds, which were not
+only restricted to the original disputers, to their families and
+acquaintances, but became generalized among the inhabitants themselves,
+who took part in the feud. Thus it often happened that the city was
+divided into two camps, separated by an imaginary line, and woe betide
+the daring or careless individual who crossed it!</p>
+
+<p>One of the most dramatic of these feuds&mdash;a <span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span>savage species of
+vendetta&mdash;was the following:</p>
+
+<p>Do�a Maria Perez, a Plasencian dame of noble birth, had married one of
+the most powerful noblemen in Salamanca, Monroy by name, and upon the
+latter's death remained a widowed mother of two sons. One of them asked
+and obtained in marriage the hand of a noble lady who had refused a
+similar proposition made by one Enriquez, son of a Sevillan aristocrat.
+The youth's jealousy and anger was therefore bitterly aroused, and he
+and his brother waited for a suitable opportunity in which to avenge
+themselves. It soon came: they were playing Spanish ball, <i>pelota</i>, one
+day with the accepted suitor, when a dispute arose as to who was the
+better player; the two brothers fell upon their victim and foully
+murdered him. But afraid lest his brother should venge the latter's
+death, they lay in wait for him behind a street corner, and as he came
+along they rapidly killed him as they had his brother. Then they fled
+across the frontier to Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>The two corpses had in the meantime been carried on a bier by the crowds
+and laid down in front of Do�a Maria's house; the latter<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span> stepped out on
+the balcony, with dishevelled hair; an angry murmur went from one end of
+the crowd to the other, and a universal clamour arose: vengeance was on
+every one's lips. But Do�a Maria commanded silence.</p>
+
+<p>"Be calm," she said, "and take these bodies to the cathedral. Vengeance?
+Fear not, I shall venge myself."</p>
+
+<p>An hour later she left the town with an escort, apparently with a view
+to retire to her estates near Plasencia. Once well away from the city,
+she divulged her plan to the escort and asked if they were willing to
+follow her. Receiving an affirmative reply, she tore off her woman's
+clothes and appeared dressed in full armour; placing a helmet on her
+head, she took the lead of her troops again, and set out for the
+Portuguese frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The strange company arrived on the third day at a Portuguese frontier
+town, where they were told that two foreigners had arrived the night
+before. By the description of the two Spaniards, Do�a Maria felt sure
+they were her sons' murderers, and consequently she and her escort
+approached the house where the fugitives were passing the night. Placing
+the escort beneath the window,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> she stealthily entered the house and
+stole to the brothers' room; then she slew them whilst they were
+sleeping, and, rushing to the window, threw it open, and, spearing the
+heads of her enemies on her lance, she showed them to her retinue, with
+the words:</p>
+
+<p>"I'm venged! Back to Salamanca."</p>
+
+<p>Silently, at the head of her troops, and bearing the two heads on her
+lance, Do�a Maria returned to Salamanca. Entering the cathedral, she
+threw them on the newly raised slabs which covered her sons' remains.</p>
+
+<p>Ever after she was known as Do�a Maria <i>la brava</i>, and is as celebrated
+to-day as she was in the fifteenth century, during the abominable reign
+of Henry IV. And so great was the feud which divided the city into two
+camps, that it lasted many years, and many were the victims of the
+gigantic vendetta.</p>
+
+<p>The city's greatest fame lay in its university, founded toward 1215, by
+Alfonso IX. of Leon, who was jealous of his cousin Alfonso VIII. of
+Castile, the founder of the luckless university of Palencia.</p>
+
+<p>The fate of the last named university has been duly mentioned elsewhere;
+that of Salamanca was far different. In 1255 the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span> Pope called it one of
+the four lamps of the world; strangers&mdash;students from all corners of
+Europe&mdash;flocked to the city to study. Perhaps its greatest merit was the
+study of Arabic and Arabian letters, and it has been said that the study
+of the Orient penetrated into Europe through Salamanca alone.</p>
+
+<p>What a glorious life must have been the university city's during the
+apogee of her fame! Students from all European lands, dressed in the
+picturesque costume worn by those who attended the university, wended
+their way through the streets, singing and playing the guitar or the
+mandolin; they mingled with dusky noblemen, richly dressed in satins and
+silks, and wearing the rapier hanging by their sides; they flirted with
+the beautiful daughters of Spain, and gravely saluted the bishop when he
+was carried along in his chair, or rode a quiet palfrey. At one time the
+court was established in the university city, lending a still more
+brilliant lustre to the every-day life of the inhabitants, and to the
+sombre streets lined with palaces, churches, colleges, convents, and
+monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>Gone! To-day the city lies beneath an immense weight of ruins of all
+kinds, that<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span> chain her down to the past which was her glory, and impede
+her from looking ahead into her future with ambitions and hopes.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedrals Salamanca can boast of to-day are two, an old one and a
+comparatively new one; the latter was built beside the former, a
+praiseworthy and exceptional proceeding, for, instead of pulling down
+the old to make room for the new, as happens throughout the world, the
+cathedral chapter convocated an assembly of architects, and was
+intelligent enough&mdash;another wonder!&mdash;to accept the verdict that the old
+building, a Romanesque-Byzantine edifice of exceptional value, should
+not be demolished. The new temple was therefore erected beside the
+former, and, obeying the art impulses of the centuries which witnessed
+its construction, is an ogival church spoilt&mdash;or bettered&mdash;by
+Renaissance, plateresque, and grotesque decorative elements.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><i>The Old Cathedral.</i>&mdash;The exact date of the erection of the old see is
+not known; toward 1152 it was already in construction, and 150 years
+later, in 1299, it was not concluded. Consequently, and more than in the
+case of Zamora and Toro, the upper<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span> part of the building shows decided
+ogival tendencies; yet in spite of these evident signs of transition,
+the ensemble, the spirit of the building, is, beyond a doubt,
+Romanesque-Byzantine, and not Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_390.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_390_th.jpg"
+width="365" height="550" alt="OLD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL" title="OLD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">O</span>LD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plan of the church is the same as those of Zamora, Toro, and Coria:
+a nave and two aisles cut short at the transept, which is slightly
+prolonged beyond the width of the body of the church; there is no
+ambulatory walk, but to the east of the transept are three chapels in a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe larger than the others and containing
+the high altar; the choir was placed (originally) in the centre of the
+nave, and a <i>cimborio</i> crowns the <i>crois�e</i>, this latter being a
+peculiarity of the three cathedral churches of Zamora, Toro, and
+Salamanca.</p>
+
+<p>Unluckily, the erection of the new building as an annex of the old one
+required (as in Plasencia, though from different reasons) the demolition
+of certain parts of the latter; as, for instance, the two towers of the
+western front, the northern portal as well as the northern half of the
+apse, and the corresponding part of the transept. Parts of these have
+either been surrounded or replaced by the new building.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The narthex and the western end are still preserved. They are of the
+same width as the nave, for, beneath the towers, of which one seems to
+have been far higher than the other, each of the aisles terminates in a
+chapel. Byzantine in appearance, the two western doors are,
+nevertheless, crowned by an ogival arch, and flanked by statuettes of
+the same style. The fa�ade, repaired and spoilt, is of Renaissance
+severity.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the building is more impressive than that of either
+Zamora or Toro; this is due to the absence of the choir,&mdash;removed to the
+new cathedral,&mdash;which permits an uninterrupted view of the whole church,
+which does not occur in any other temple throughout Spain. Romanesque
+strength and gloominess is clearly discernible, whereas the height of
+the central nave (sixty feet) is rendered stumpy in appearance by the
+almost equal height of the aisles. The strength and solidity of the
+pillars and columns, supporting capitals and friezes of a peculiar and
+decided Byzantine taste (animals, dragons, etc.), show more keenly than
+in Galicia the Oriental influence which helped so thoroughly to shape
+Central Spanish Romanesque.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the chapels, but one deserves special mention, both as seen from
+without and from within, namely, the high altar, or central apsidal
+chapel. Seen from without, it is of perfect Romanesque construction,
+excepting the upper row of rose windows, which are ogival in their
+traceries; inside, it contains a mural painting of an exceedingly
+primitive design, and a <i>retablo</i> in low reliefs enchased in ogival
+arches; it is of Italian workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>Of the remaining chapels, that of San Bartolom� contains an alabaster
+sepulchre of the Bishop Diego de Anaya&mdash;one of the many prelates of
+those times who was the possessor of illegitimate sons; the bodies of
+most of the latter lie within this chapel, which can be regarded not
+only as a family pantheon, but as a symbol of ecclesiastical greatness
+and human weakness.</p>
+
+<p>The windows which light up the nave are round-headed, and yet they are
+delicately decorated, as is rarely to be seen in the Romanesque type.
+The aisles, on the contrary, are not lit up by any windows.</p>
+
+<p>Like the churches of Zamora and Toro, the whole cathedral resembles a
+fortress rather than a place of worship. The simplicity<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> of the general
+structure, the rounded turrets buried in the walls, serving as leaning
+buttresses, the narrow slits in the walls instead of windows, lend an
+indisputable aspect of strength. The beautiful, the really beautiful
+lantern, situated above the <i>crois�e</i>, with its turrets, its niches, its
+thirty odd windows, and its elegant cupola, is an architectural body
+that wins the admiration of all who behold it, either from within the
+church or from without, and which, strictly Byzantine in conception
+(though rendered peculiarly Spanish by the addition of certain elements
+which pertain rather to Gothic military art than to church
+architecture), is unique&mdash;to the author's knowledge&mdash;in all Europe. Less
+pure in style, and less Oriental in appearance than that of Zamora, it
+was nevertheless, created more perfect by the artistic conception of the
+architect, and consequently more finished or developed than those of
+Toro and Zamora. Without hesitation, it can claim to be one of
+Salamanca's chief attractions.</p>
+
+<p>The thickness of the walls (ten feet!), the admirable simpleness of the
+vaulting, and the general aspect from the exterior, have won<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span> for the
+church the name of <i>fortis Salamantini</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="top5"><i>The New Cathedral.</i>&mdash;It was begun in 1513, the old temple having been
+judged too small, and above all too narrow for a city of the importance
+of Salamanca.</p>
+
+<p>Over two hundred years did the building of the present edifice last; at
+times all work was stopped for years, no funds being at hand to pay
+either artists or masons.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive plan of the church, as proposed by the congress of
+architects, was Gothic of the second period, with an octagonal apse; the
+lower part of the church, from the foot to the transept, was the first
+to be constructed.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the apse was not begun until the year 1588, and the
+artist, imbued with the beauty of Herrero's Escorial, squared the apse
+with the evident intention of constructing turrets on the exterior
+angles, which would have rendered the building symmetrical: two towers
+on the western front, a cupola on the <i>crois�e</i>, and two smaller turrets
+on the eastern end.</p>
+
+<p>The building as it stands to-day is a perfect rectangle cut in its
+length by a nave (containing<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span> the choir and the high altar), and by two
+aisles, lower than the nave and continued in an ambulatory walk behind
+the high altar.</p>
+
+<p>The same symmetry is visible in the lateral chapels: eight square
+<i>huecos</i> on the exterior walls of the aisles, five to the west, and
+three to the east of the transept, and three in the extreme eastern wall
+of the apse.</p>
+
+<p>Magnificence rather than beauty is the characteristic note of the new
+cathedral. The primitive part&mdash;pure ogival with but little
+mixture&mdash;contrasts with the eastern end, which is covered over with the
+most glaring grotesque decoration; most of the chapels are spoiled by
+the same shocking profusion of super-ornamentation; the otherwise
+majestic cupola, the high altar, and the choir&mdash;all suffer from the same
+defect.</p>
+
+<p>The double triforium&mdash;one higher than the other&mdash;in the clerestory
+produces a most favourable impression; this is heightened by the wealth
+of light, which, entering by two rows of windows and by the <i>cimborio</i>,
+falls upon the rich decoration of friezes and capitals. The general view
+of the whole building is also freer than in most Spanish<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span> cathedrals,
+and this harmony existing in the proportions of the different parts
+strikes the visitor more favourably, perhaps, than in the severer
+cathedral at Burgos.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_400.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_400_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="388" alt="NEW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL" title="NEW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">N</span>EW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exterior of the building reflects more truthfully than the interior
+the different art waves which spread over Spain during the centuries of
+the temple's erection. In the western front, the rich Gothic portal of
+the third period, the richest perhaps in sculptural variety of any on
+the peninsula, contrasts with the high mongrel tower, a true example of
+the composite towers so frequently met with in certain Spanish regions.
+The second body of the same fa�ade (western) is highly interesting, not
+on account of its ornamentation, which is simple, but because of the
+solid, frank structure, and the curious fortress-like turrets embedded
+in the angles.</p>
+
+<p>The flank of the building, seen from the north&mdash;for on the south side
+stand the ruins of the old cathedral&mdash;is none too homogeneous, thanks to
+the different styles in which the three piers of windows&mdash;of chapels,
+aisles, and clerestory&mdash;have been constructed. The ensemble is
+picturesque, nevertheless: the three rows of windows,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span> surmounted by the
+huge cupola and half-lost among the buttresses, certainly contribute
+toward the general elegance of the granite structure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Vd" id="Vd"></a>V</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">CIUDAD RODRIGO</p>
+
+<p>I<span class="smcap">n</span> the times of the Romans, the country to the west of Salamanca seems
+to have been thickly populated. Calabria, situated between the Agueda
+and Coa Rivers, was an episcopal see; in its vicinity August�briga and
+Mir�briga were two other important towns.</p>
+
+<p>Of these three Roman fortresses, and perhaps native towns, before the
+invasion, not as much as a stone or a legend remains to relate the tale
+of their existence and death.</p>
+
+<p>Toward 1150, Fernando II. of Castile, obeying the military requirements
+of the Reconquest, and at the same time wishing to erect a
+fortress-town, which, together with Zamora to the north, Salamanca to
+the west, and Coria to the south, could resist the invasion of Spain by
+Portuguese armies, founded Ciudad Rodrigo, and twenty years later raised
+the church to an episcopal see,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span> a practical means of attracting
+God-fearing settlers. Consequently, the twelfth-century town, inheriting
+the ecclesiastical dignity of Calabria, if the latter ever possessed it,
+besides being situated in the same region as the three Roman cities
+previously mentioned, can claim to have been born a city.</p>
+
+<p>One of the early bishops (the first was a certain Domingo) was the
+famous Pedro Diaz, about whom a legend has been handed down to us. This
+legend has also been graphically illustrated by an artist of the
+sixteenth century; his painting is to be seen to the right of the
+northern transept door in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Pedro Diaz seems to have been a worldly priest, "fond of the sins of the
+flesh and of good eating," who fell ill in the third year of his reign.
+His secretary, a pious servant of the Lord, dreamt he saw his master's
+soul devoured by demons, and persuaded him to confess his sins. It was
+too late, for a few days later he died; his death was, however, kept a
+secret by his menials, who wished to have plenty of time to make a
+generous division of his fortune. When all had been settled to their
+liking, the funeral procession moved through the streets of the city,
+and,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span> to the surprise of all, the dead bishop, resurrected by St.
+Francis of Assisi, at the time in Ciudad Rodrigo, opened the coffin and
+stood upon the hearse. He accused his servants of their greed, and at
+the same time made certain revelations concerning the life hereafter.
+His experiences must have been rather pessimistic, to judge by the
+bishop's later deeds, for, having been granted a respite of twenty days
+upon this earth, he "fasted and made penitence," doubtless eager to
+escape a second time the tortures of the other world.</p>
+
+<p>Other traditions concerning the lives and doings of the noblemen who
+disputed the feudal right or <i>se�orio</i> over the town, are as numerous as
+in Plasencia, with which city Ciudad Rodrigo has certain historical
+affinities. The story of the Virgen Coronada, who, though poor, did not
+hesitate in killing a powerful and wealthy libertine nobleman whom she
+was serving; the no less stirring account of Do�a Maria Adan's vow that
+she would give her fair daughter's hand to whomsoever venged her wrongs
+on the five sons of her husband's murderer, are among the most tragic
+and thrilling. There are many other traditions beside, which constitute<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span>
+the past's legacy to the solitary city near the Portuguese frontier.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the nineteenth century that Ciudad Rodrigo earned fame as a
+brave city. The Spanish war for independence had broken out against the
+French, who overran the country, and passed from Bayonne in the Gascogne
+to Lisbon in Portugal. Ciudad Rodrigo lay on the shortest route for the
+French army, and had to suffer two sieges, one in 1810 and the second in
+1812. In the latter, Wellington was the commander of the English forces
+who had come to help the Spanish chase the French out of the peninsula;
+the siege of the town and the battle which ensued were long and
+terrible, but at last the allied English and Spanish won, with the loss
+of two English generals. The Iron Duke was rewarded by Spanish Cortes,
+with the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, together with the honours of
+grandee of Spain, which are still retained by Wellington's descendants.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_410.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_410_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="389" alt="CUIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL" title="CUIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">C</span>UIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cathedral church of Ciudad Rodrigo is a twelfth-century building, in
+which the Romanesque style, similar to those of Zamora and Toro, fights
+with the nascent ogival style. Notwithstanding these remarks,
+however,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span> the building does not pertain to the Transition period, but
+rather to the second or last period of Spanish Romanesque. This is
+easily seen by the basilica form of the church, the three-lobed apse,
+the lack of an ambulatory walk, and the apparently similar height of
+nave and aisles.</p>
+
+<p>The square tower, surmounted by a cupola, at the foot of the church, as
+well as the entire western front, dates from the eighteenth century; it
+is cold, anti-artistic, utterly unable to appeal to the poetic instincts
+of the spectator.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the western front, and leading directly into the body of the
+church, is a delightful Romanesque narthex which doubtlessly served as
+the western fa�ade prior to the eighteenth-century additions. It is
+separated from the principal nave by a door divided into two by a solid
+pediment, upon which is encrusted a statue of the Virgin with Child in
+her arms. The semicircular arches which surmount the door are finely
+executed, and the columns which support them are decorated with handsome
+twelfth-century statuettes. There is a great similarity between this
+portal and the principal one (del Obispo) in Toro: it almost seems<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span> as
+though the same hand had chiselled both, or at least traced the plan of
+their decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two doors which lead, one on the south and the other on the
+north, into the transept, the former is perhaps the more perfect
+specimen of the primitive style. Both are richly decorated; unluckily,
+in both portals, the rounded arches have been crowned in more recent
+times by an ogival arch, which certainly mars the pureness of the style,
+though not the harmony of the ensemble.</p>
+
+<p>To the left of these doors, a niche has been carved into the wall to
+contain a full-length statue of the Virgin; this is an unusual
+arrangement in Spanish churches.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior of the apse retains its primitive <i>cachet</i>; the central
+chapel, where the high altar is placed, was, however, rebuilt in the
+sixteenth century by Tavera, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Toledo, who had
+at one time occupied the see of Ciudad Rodrigo. It is a peculiar mixture
+of Gothic and Romanesque, of pointed windows and heavy buttresses; the
+flat roof is decorated by means of a low stone railing or balustrade
+composed of elegantly carved pinnacles.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>To conclude: excepting the western front and the central lobe of the
+apse, the tower and the ogival arch surmounting the northern and
+southern portals, the cathedral of Ciudad Rodrigo is one of the most
+perfectly preserved Romanesque buildings to the south of Zamora and
+Toro. It is less grim and warlike than the two last-named edifices, and
+yet it is also a fair example of severe and gloomy (though not less
+artistic!) Castilian Romanesque. Its <i>crois�e</i> is not surmounted by the
+heavy cupola as in Salamanca and elsewhere, and it is perhaps just this
+suppression or omission which gives the whole building a far less
+Oriental appearance than the others mentioned heretofore.</p>
+
+<p>In the inside, the choir occupies its usual place. Its stalls, it is
+believed, were carved by Alem�n, the same who probably wrought those
+superb seats at Plasencia. It is doubtful if the same master carved
+both, however, but were it so, the stalls at Ciudad Rodrigo would have
+to be classified as older, executed before those we shall examine in a
+future chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The nave and two aisles, pierced by ogival windows in the clerestory and
+round-headed windows in the aisles, constitute the church;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> the
+<i>crois�e</i> is covered by means of a simple ogival vaulting; the arches
+separating the nave from the aisles are Romanesque, as is the vaulting
+of the former. It was originally the intention of the chapter to
+beautify the solemn appearance of the interior by means of a triforium
+or running gallery. Unluckily, perhaps because of lack of funds, the
+triforium was never begun excepting that here and there are seen
+remnants of the primitive tracing.</p>
+
+<p>With the lady-chapel profusely and lavishly ornamented, and quite out of
+place in this solemn building, there are five chapels, one at the foot
+of each aisle and two in the apse, to the right and left of the
+lady-chapel. They all lack art interest, however, as does the actual
+<i>retablo</i>, which replaces the one destroyed by the French; remnants of
+the latter are to be seen patched up on the cloister walls.</p>
+
+<p>This cloister to the north of the church is a historical monument, for
+each of the four sides of the square edifice is an architectural page
+differing from its companions. Studying first the western, then the
+southern, and lastly the two remaining sides, the student can obtain an
+idea of how Romanesque principles<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span> struggled with Gothic before dying
+completely out, and how the latter, having reached its apogee,
+deteriorated into the most lamentable superdecoration before fading away
+into the naked, straight-lined features of the Renaissance so little
+compatible with Christian ideals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VId" id="VId"></a>VI</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">CORIA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the west of Toledo and to the south of the Sierra de Gata, which,
+with the mountains of Gredo and the Guaderrama, formed in the middle
+ages a natural frontier between Christians and Moors, lies, in a
+picturesque and fertile vale about twenty miles distant from the nearest
+railway station, the little known cathedral town of Coria. It is
+situated on the northern shores of the Alag�n, a river flowing about ten
+miles farther west into the Tago, near where the latter leaves Spanish
+territory and enters that of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Caurium, or Curia Vetona, was its name when the Romans held Extremadura,
+and it was in this town, or in its vicinity, that Viriato, the Spanish
+hero, destroyed four Roman armies sent to conquer his wild hordes. He
+never lost a single battle or skirmish, and might possibly have dealt a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span>
+death-blow to Roman plans of domination in the peninsula, had not the
+traitor's knife ended his noble career.</p>
+
+<p>Their enemy dead, the Romans entered the city of Coria, which they
+immediately surrounded by a circular wall half a mile in length, and
+twenty-six feet thick (!). This Roman wall, considered by many to be the
+most perfectly preserved in Europe, is severely simple in structure, and
+flanked by square towers; it constitutes the city's one great
+attraction.</p>
+
+<p>The episcopal see was erected in 338. The names of the first bishops
+have long been forgotten, the first mentioned being one Laquinto, who
+signed the third Toledo Council in 589.</p>
+
+<p>Two centuries later the Moors raised Al-K�rica to one of their capitals;
+in 854 Zeth, an ambitious Saracen warrior, freed it from the yoke of
+Cordoba, and reigned in the city as an independent sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Like Zamora and Toro, Coria was continually being lost and won by
+Christians and Moors, with this difference, that whereas the first two
+can be looked upon as the last Christian outposts to the north of the
+Duero,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span> Coria was the last Arab stronghold to the north of the Tago.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century, the strong fortress on
+the Alag�n was definitely torn from the hands of its independent
+sovereign by Alfonso VIII., after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. A
+bishop was immediately reinstated in the see, and after five centuries
+of Mussulman domination, Coria saw the standard of Castile waving from
+its citadel.</p>
+
+<p>As happened with so many other provincial towns in Spain, the
+centralization of power to the north of Toledo shoved Coria into the
+background; to-day it is a cathedral village forgotten or completely
+ignored by the rest of Spain. Really, it might perhaps have been better
+for the Arabs to have preserved it, for under their rule it flourished.</p>
+
+<p>It is picturesque, this village on the banks of the Alag�n: a heap or
+bundle of red bricks surrounded by grim stone walls, over-topped by a
+cathedral tower and citadel,&mdash;the whole picture emerging from a prairie
+and thrown against a background formed by the mountains to the north and
+the bright blue sky in the distance.</p>
+
+<p>Arab influence is only too evident in the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> buildings and houses, in the
+Alc�zar, and in the streets; unluckily, these remembrances of a happy
+past depress the dreamy visitor obliged to recognize the infinite
+sadness which accompanied the expulsion of the Moors by intolerant
+tyrants from the land they had inhabited, formed, and moulded to their
+taste. Nowhere is this so evident as in Coria, a forgotten bit of
+medi�val Moor-land. The poet's exclamation is full of bitterness and
+resignation when he exclaims:</p>
+
+<p>"Is it possible that this heap of ruins should have been in other times
+the splendid court of Zeth and Mondhir!"</p>
+
+<p class="top5">As an architectural building, the cathedral of Coria is a parish church,
+which, removed to any other town, would be devoid of any and all beauty.
+In other words, the impressions it produces are entirely dependent upon
+its local surroundings; eliminate these, and the temple is worthless
+from an artistic or poetical point of view.</p>
+
+<p>It was begun in 1120, most likely by Arab workmen; it was finished
+toward the beginning of the sixteenth century. Honestly speaking, it is
+a puzzle what the artisans did in all those long years; doubtless they<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span>
+slept at their task, or else decades passed away without work of any
+kind being done, or again, perhaps only one mason was employed at a
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The interior is that of a simple Gothic church of one aisle, 150 feet
+long by fifty-two wide and eighty-four high; the high altar is situated
+in the rounded apse; in the centre of the church the choir stalls of the
+fifteenth century obstruct the view of the walls, decorated only by
+means of pilasters which pretend to support the Gothic vaulting.</p>
+
+<p>To the right, in the altar chapel, is a fine marble sepulchre of the
+sixteenth century, in which the chasuble of the kneeling bishop
+portrayed is among the best pieces of imitative sculpture to be seen in
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>To the right of the high altar, and buried in the cathedral wall, a door
+leads out into the <i>paseo</i>,&mdash;a walk on the broad walls of the city, with
+a delightful view southwards across the river to the prairie in the
+distance. Where can a prettier and more natural cloister be found?</p>
+
+<p>The western fa�ade is never used, and is surrounded by the old
+cemetery,&mdash;a rather peculiar place for a cemetery in a cathedral church;
+the northern fa�ade is anti-artistic,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span> but the tower to the right has
+one great virtue, that of comparative height. Though evidently intended
+to be Gothic, the Arab taste, so pronounced throughout this region, got
+the better of the architect, and he erected a square steeple crowned by
+a cupola.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, and in spite of criticism which can hardly find an element worthy
+of praise in the whole cathedral building, the tourist should not
+hesitate in visiting the city. Besides, the whole region of Northern
+Extremadura, in which Coria and Plasencia lie, is historically most
+interesting: Yuste, where Charles-Quint spent the last years of his
+life, is not far off; neither is the Convent of Guadalupe, famous for
+its pictures by the great Zurbaran.</p>
+
+<p>As for Coria itself, it is a forgotten corner of Moor-land.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIId" id="VIId"></a>VII</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">PLASENCIA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> foundation of Plasencia by King Alfonso VIII. in 1178, and the
+erection of a new episcopal see twelve years later, can be regarded as
+the <i>coup de gr�ce</i> given to the importance of Coria, the twin sister
+forty miles away. Nevertheless, the Royal City, as Plasencia was called,
+which ended by burying its older rival in the most shocking oblivion,
+was not able to acquire a name in history. Founded by a king, and handed
+over to a bishop and to favourite courtiers, who ruled it indifferently
+well, not to say badly, it grew up to be an aristocratic town without a
+<i>bourgeoisie</i>. Its history in the middle ages is consequently one long
+series of family feuds, duels, and tragedies, the record of bloody
+happenings, and acts of heroic brutality and bravery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1233 a Moorish army conquered it, shortly after the battle of Alarcos
+was lost<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span> to Alfonso VIII., at that time blindly in love with his
+beautiful Jewish mistress, Rachel of Toledo. But the infidels did not
+remain master of the situation, far less of the city, for any length of
+time, as within the next year or so it fell again into the hands of its
+founder, who strengthened the walls still standing to-day, and completed
+the citadel.</p>
+
+<p>The population of the city, like that of Toledo, was mixed. Christians,
+Jews, and Moors lived together, each in their quarter, and together they
+used the fertile <i>vegas</i>, which surround the town. The Jews and Moors
+were, in the fifteenth century, about ten thousand in number; in 1492
+the former were expelled by the Catholic kings, and in 1609 Philip III.
+signed a decree expelling the Moors. Since then Plasencia has lost its
+municipal wealth and importance, and the see, from being one of the
+richest in Spain, rapidly sank until to-day it drags along a weary life,
+impoverished and unimportant.</p>
+
+<p>The Jewish cemetery is still to be seen in the outskirts of the town;
+Arab remains, both architectural and irrigatory, are everywhere present,
+and the quarter inhabited by<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span> them, the most picturesque in Plasencia,
+is a Moorish village.</p>
+
+<p>The city itself, crowning a hill beside the rushing Ierte, is a small
+Toledo; its streets are narrow and winding; its church towers are
+numerous, and the red brick houses warmly reflect the brilliancy of the
+southern atmosphere. The same death, however, the same inactivity and
+lack of movement, which characterize Toledo and other cities, hover in
+the alleys and in the public squares, in the fertile <i>vegas</i> and silent
+<i>patios</i> of Plasencia.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the feuds between the great Castilian families who lived
+here is tragically interesting: Hernan Perez killed by Diego Alvarez,
+the son of one of the former's victims; the family of Monroye pitched
+against the Zu�igas and other noblemen,&mdash;these and many other traditions
+are among the most stirring of the events that happened in Spain in the
+middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>Even the bishops called upon to occupy the see seem to have been slaves
+to the warlike spirit that hovered, as it were, in the very atmosphere
+of the town. The first prelate, Don Domingo, won the battle of Navas de
+Tolosa for his protector, Alfonso VIII.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span> When the Christian army was
+wavering, he rushed to the front (with his naked sword, the cross having
+been left at home), at the head of his soldiers, and drove the already
+triumphant Moors back until they broke their ranks and fled. The same
+bishop carried the Christian sword to the very heart of the Moorish
+dominions, to Granada, and conquered neighbouring Loja. The next
+prelate, Don Ad�n, was one of the leaders of the army that conquered
+Cordoba in 1236, and, entering the celebrated <i>mezquita</i>, sanctified its
+use as a Christian church.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the cathedral church is no less interesting. The
+primitive see was temporarily placed in a church on a hill near the
+fortress; this building was pulled down in the fifteenth century, and
+replaced by a Jesuit college.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the beginning of the fourteenth century a cathedral church was
+inaugurated. Its life was short, however, for in 1498 it was partially
+pulled down to make way for a newer and larger edifice, which is to-day
+the unfinished Renaissance cathedral visited by the tourist.</p>
+
+<p>Parts of the old cathedral are, however, still standing. Between the
+tower of the new<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span> temple and the episcopal palace, but unluckily
+weighted down by modern superstructures, stands the old fa�ade, almost
+intact. The grossness of the structural work, the timid use of the
+ogival arch, the primitive rose window, and the general heaviness of the
+structure, show it to belong to the decadent period of the Romanesque
+style, when the artists were attempting something new and forgetting the
+lessons of the past.</p>
+
+<p>The new cathedral is a complicated Gothic-Renaissance building of a nave
+and two aisles, with an ambulatory behind the high altar. Not a square
+inch but what has been hollowed out into a niche or covered over with
+sculptural designs; the Gothic plan is anything but pure Gothic, and the
+Renaissance style has been so overwrought that it is anything but
+Italian Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>The fa�ade of the building is imposing, if not artistic; it is composed
+of four bodies, each supported laterally by pillars and columns of
+different shapes and orders, and possessing a <i>hueco</i> or hollow in the
+centre, the lowest being the door, the highest a stained glass window,
+and the two central ones blind windows, which spoil the whole. The
+floral and Byzantine (Arab?) decoration<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span> of pillars and friezes is of
+a great wealth of varied designs; statuettes are missing in the niches,
+proving the unfinished state of the church.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 362px;">
+<a href="images/ill_430.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_430_th.jpg"
+width="362" height="550" alt="FA�ADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL" title="FA�ADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">F</span>A�ADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Three arches and four pillars, sumptuously decorated, uphold each of the
+clerestory walls, which are pierced at the top by a handsome triforium
+running completely around the church. The <i>retablo</i> of the high altar is
+richly decorated, perhaps too richly; the <i>reja</i>, which closes off the
+sacred area, is of fine seventeenth-century workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The choir stalls are of a surprising richness, carved scenes covering
+the backs and seats. They are famous throughout the country, and the
+genius, above all the imagination, of the artist who executed them (his
+name is unluckily not known, though it is believed to be Alem�n) must
+have been notable. Pious when carving the upper and visible seats, he
+seems to have been exceedingly ironical and profane when sculpturing the
+inside of the same, where the reverse or the caustic observation
+produced in the carver's mind has been artfully drawn, though sometimes
+with an undignified grain of indecency and obscenity not quite in
+harmony with our Puritanic spirit of to-day.
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="PART_V" id="PART_V"></a><i>PART V</i><br /><br /><i>Eastern Castile</i></h3>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Ie" id="Ie"></a>I</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">VALLADOLID</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> origin of Valladolid is lost in the shadows of the distant past. As
+it was the capital of a vast kingdom, it was thought necessary, as in
+the case of Madrid, to place its foundation prior to the Roman invasion;
+the attempt failed, however, and though Roman ruins have been found in
+the vicinity, nothing is positively known about the city's history prior
+to the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>When Sancho II. fought against his sister locked up in Zamora, he
+offered her Vallisoletum in exchange for the powerful fortress she had
+inherited from her father. In vain, and the town seated on the Pisuerga
+is not mentioned again in historical documents until 1074, when Alfonso
+VI. handed it over, with several other villages, to Pedro Ansurez, who
+made it his capital, raised the church (Santa Maria la Mayor) to a
+suffragan of Palencia, and laid the first foundations of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span> its future
+greatness. In 1208 the family of Ansurez died out, and the <i>villa</i>
+reverted to the crown; from then until the reign of Philip IV.
+Valladolid was doubtless one of the most important cities in Castile,
+and the capital of all the Spains, from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabel to that of Philip III.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, the history of Valladolid from the thirteenth to the
+sixteenth century is that of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In Valladolid, Peter the Cruel, after three days' marriage, forsook his
+bride, Do�a Blanca de Bourbon, and returned to the arms of his mistress
+Maria; several years later he committed most of his terrible crimes
+within the limits of the town. Here Maria de Molina upheld her son's
+right to the throne during his minority, and in Valladolid also, after
+her son's death, the same widow fought for her grandson against the
+intrigues of uncles and cousins.</p>
+
+<p>Isabel and Alfonso fought in Valladolid against the proclamation of
+their niece, Juana, the illegitimate daughter of Henry IV., as heiress
+to the throne; the citizens upheld the Catholic princess's claims, and
+it is not surprising that when the princess became queen&mdash;the greatest
+Spain ever had<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span>&mdash;she made Valladolid her capital, in gratitude to the
+loyalty of its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>In Valladolid, Columbus obtained the royal permission to sail westwards
+in 1492, and, upon his last return from America, he died in the selfsame
+city in 1506; here also Berruguete, the sculptor, created many of his
+<i>chefs-d'&oelig;uvres</i> and the immortal Cervantes appeared before the law
+courts and wrote the second part of his "Quixote."</p>
+
+<p>Unlucky Juana <i>la Loca</i> (Jane the Mad) and her husband Felipe <i>el
+Hermoso</i> (Philip the Handsome) reigned here after the death of Isabel
+the Catholic, and fifty years later, when Philip II. returned from
+England to ascend the Spanish throne, he settled in Valladolid, until
+his religious fanaticism or craze obliged him to move to a city nearer
+the Escorial. Then he fixed upon Madrid as his court. Being a religious
+man, nevertheless, and conscious of a certain love for Valladolid, his
+natal town, he had the suffragan church erected to a cathedral in 1595,
+appointing Don Bartolom� de la Plaza to be its first bishop. At the same
+time, he ordered Juan de Herrero, the severe architect of the Escorial,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span>
+to draw the plans and commence the building of the new edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The growing importance of Madrid, and the final establishment in the
+last named city of all the honours which belonged to Valladolid, threw
+the city seated on the Pisuerga into the shade, and its star of fortune
+slowly waned. But not to such a degree as that of Salamanca or Burgos,
+for to-day, of all the old cities of Castile, the only one which has a
+life of its own, and a commercial and industrial personality, is
+Valladolid, the one-time capital of all the Spains, and now the seat of
+an archbishopric. It began by usurping the dignity of Burgos; then it
+rose to greater heights of fame than its rival, thanks to the discovery
+of America, and finally it lost its <i>prestige</i> when Madrid was crowned
+the <i>unica villa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The general appearance of the city is peculiarly Spanish, especially as
+regards the prolific use of brick in the construction of churches and
+edifices in general. It is presumable that the Arabs were possessors of
+the town before the Christian conquest, though no documental proofs are
+at hand. The etymology of the city's name, Medinat-<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span>el-Walid, is purely
+Arabic, Walid being the name of a Moorish general.</p>
+
+<p>If the cathedral church was erected as late as the sixteenth century, it
+must not be supposed that the town lacked parish churches. On the
+contrary, there is barely a city in Spain with more religious edifices
+of all kinds, and the greater part of them of far more architectural
+merit than the cathedral itself. The astonishing number of convents is
+remarkable; many of them date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and are, consequently, Romanesque with a good deal of Byzantine taste
+about them, or else they belong to the period of Transition. Taken all
+in all, they are really the only architectural attractions to be
+discovered in the city to-day. The traditions which explain the
+foundation of some of these are among the most characteristic in
+Valladolid, and a thread of Oriental romance is more predominant among
+them than elsewhere. A good example of one of these explains the
+foundation of the large convent of the Mercedes.</p>
+
+<p>Do�a Leonor was the wife of one Acu�a, a fearless (?) knight. The King
+of Portugal unluckily fell in love with Do�a Leonor,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span> and, wishing to
+marry her, had her previous marriage annulled and placed her on his
+throne. Acu�a fled from Portugal and came to Valladolid, where, with
+unparalleled sarcasm, he wore a badge on his hat proclaiming his
+dishonour.</p>
+
+<p>Both Acu�a and the King of Portugal died, and Do�a Leonor, whose morals
+were none too edifying, fell in love with a certain Zu�iguez; the
+daughter of these two was handed over to the care of a knight, Fernan by
+name, and Do�a Leonor ordered him to found a convent, upon her death,
+and lock up her daughter within its walls; the mother was doubtless only
+too anxious to have her daughter escape the ills of this life. Unluckily
+she counted without the person principally concerned, namely, the
+daughter, for the latter fell secretly in love with her keeper's nephew.
+She thought he was her cousin, however, for it appears she was passed
+off as Fernan's daughter. Upon her mother's death she learnt her real
+origin, and wedded her lover. In gratitude for her non-relationship with
+her husband, she founded the convent her mother had ordered, but she
+herself remained without its walls!<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The least that can be said about the cathedral of Valladolid, the
+better. Doubtless there are many people who consider the building a
+marvel of beauty. As a specimen of Juan de Herrero's severe and majestic
+style, it is second to no other building excepting only that great
+masterwork, the Escorial, and perhaps parts of the Pillar at Saragosse.
+But as an art monument, where beauty and not Greco-Roman effects are
+sought, it is a failure.</p>
+
+<p>The original plan of the building was a rectangle, 411 feet long by 204
+wide, divided in its length by a nave and two aisles, and in its width
+by a broad transept situated exactly half-way between the apse and the
+foot of the church. The form was thus that of a Greek cross; each angle
+of the building was to be surmounted by a tower, and the <i>crois�e</i> by an
+immense cupola or dome. (Compare with the new cathedral in Salamanca.)
+The lateral walls of the aisles were to contain symmetrical chapels, as
+was also the apse.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing it will be seen that symmetry and the Greco-Roman
+straight horizontal line were to replace the ogival arch and the
+generally vertical, soaring effect of Gothic buildings.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The architect died before his monument was completed, and Churriguera,
+the most anti-artistic artist that ever breathed,&mdash;according to the
+author's personal opinion,&mdash;was called upon to finish the edifice: his
+trade-mark covers almost the entire western front, where the second body
+shows the defects into which Herrero's severe style degenerated soon
+after his death.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four towers and the cupola which were to render the capitol of
+Valladolid "second in grandeur to none excepting St. Peter's at Rome,"
+only one tower was erected: it fell down in 1841, and is being re�rected
+at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior the same disparity is everywhere visible, as well as in
+the unfinished state of the temple. Greek columns are prevalent, and,
+contrasting with their simplicity, the high altar, as grotesque a body
+as ever was placed in a holy cathedral, attracts the eye of the vulgar
+with something of the same feeling as a blood-and-thunder melodrama.
+Needless to say, the art connoisseur flees therefrom.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 356px;">
+<a href="images/ill_446.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_446_th.jpg"
+width="356" height="550" alt="WESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL" title="WESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">W</span>ESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the rear of the building the remains of the Romanesque Church of
+Santa Maria la Mayor are still to be seen; what a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span> difference between
+the rigid, anti-artistic conception of Herrero, ridiculized by
+Churriguera, and left but half-completed by successive generations of
+moneyless believers, and the simple but elegant features of the old
+collegiate church, with its tower still standing, a Byzantine <i>recuerdo</i>
+of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIe" id="IIe"></a>II</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">AVILA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the west of Madrid, in the very heart of the Sierra de Gredos, lies
+Avila, another of the interesting cities of Castile, whose time-old
+mansions and palaces, built of a gray granite, lend a solemn and almost
+repulsively melancholic air to the city.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps more than any other town, Avila is characteristic of the middle
+ages, of the continual strife between the noblemen, the Church, and the
+common people. The houses of the aristocrats are castles rather than
+palaces, with no artistic decoration to hide their bare nakedness; the
+cathedral is really a fortress, and not only apparently so, as in
+Salamanca and Toro, for its very apse is embedded in the city walls, of
+which it forms a part, a battlemented, turreted, and warlike projection,
+sure of having to bear the brunt of an attack in case of a siege.</p>
+
+<p>Like the general aspect of the city is also<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span> the character of the
+inhabitant, and it is but drawing it mildly to state that Avila's sons
+were ever foremost in battle and strife. Kings in their minority were
+brought hither by prudent mothers who relied more upon the city's walls
+than upon the promises of noblemen in Valladolid and Burgos; this trust
+was never misplaced. In the conquest of Extremadura and of Andalusia,
+also, the Avilese troops, headed by daring warrior-prelates, played a
+most important part, and, as a frontier fortress, together with Segovia,
+against Aragon to the east, it managed to keep away from Castilian
+territory the ambitions of the monarchs of the rival kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Avela of the Romans was a garrison town, the walls of which were partly
+thrown down by the Western Goths upon their arrival in the peninsula.
+Previously, San Segundo, one of the disciples of the Apostles who had
+visited B�tica (Andalusia), preached the True Word in Avila, and was
+created its first bishop&mdash;in the first century. During the terrible
+persecution of the Christians under the reign of Trajanus, one San
+Vicente and his two sisters, Sabina and Cristeta, escaped from Portugal
+and came to Avila, hoping to be hospitably received. All in vain;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span> their
+heads were smashed between stones, and their bodies left to rot in the
+streets. An immense serpent emerged from the city walls and kept guard
+over the three saintly corpses. The first to approach was a Jew, drawn
+hither by curiosity; he was immediately enveloped by the reptile's body.
+On the point of being strangled, he pronounced the word, "Jesus"&mdash;and
+the serpent released him. So grateful was the Jew at being delivered
+from death that he turned Christian and erected a church in honour of
+San Vicente, Sabina, and Cristeta, and had them buried within its walls.</p>
+
+<p>This church subsisted throughout the dark ages of the Moorish invasion
+until at last Fernando I. removed the saintly remains to Leon in the
+eleventh century. The church was then destroyed, and, it is believed,
+the present cathedral was built on the same spot.</p>
+
+<p>The Moors, calling the city Abila, used it as one of the fortresses
+defending Toledo on the north against the continual Christian raids;
+with varying success they held it until the end of the eleventh century,
+when it finally fell into the hands of the Christians, and was
+repopulated a short time before<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span> Salamanca toward the end of the same
+century.</p>
+
+<p>During the centuries of Moorish dominion the see had fallen into the
+completest oblivion, no mention being made of any bishops of Avila; the
+ecclesiastical dignity was re�stablished immediately after the final
+conquest of the region to the north of the Sierra of Guaderrama, and
+though documents are lacking as to who was the first prelate <i>de
+modernis</i>, it is generally believed to have been one Jeronimo, toward
+the end of the eleventh century.</p>
+
+<p>The city grew rapidly in strength; settlers came from the north&mdash;from
+Castile and Leon&mdash;and from the east, from Aragon; they travelled to
+their new home in bullock-carts containing household furniture,
+agricultural and war implements, wives, and children.</p>
+
+<p>In the subsequent history of Spain Avila played an important part, and
+many a stirring event took place within its walls. It was besieged by
+the Aragonese Alfonso el Batallador, whose army advanced to the attack
+behind its prisoners, sons of Avila. Brothers, fathers, and relatives
+were thus obliged to fire upon their own kin if they<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> wished to save
+their city. The same king, it is said, killed his hostages by having
+their heads cut off and boiled in oil, as though severed heads were
+capable of feeling the delightful sensation of seething oil!</p>
+
+<p>Of all the traditions as numerous here as elsewhere, the prettiest and
+most improbable is doubtless that of Nalvillos, a typical chevalier of
+romance, who fell desperately in love with a beautiful Moorish princess
+and wedded her. She pined, however, for a lover whom in her youth she
+had promised to wed, and though her husband erected palaces and bought
+slaves for her, she escaped with her sweetheart. Nalvillos followed the
+couple to where they lay retired in a castle, and it was surrounded by
+him and his trusty followers. The hero himself, disguised as a seller of
+curative herbs, entered the apartment where his wife was waiting for her
+lover's return, and made himself known. The former's return, however,
+cut matters short, and Nalvillos was obliged to hide himself. The
+Moorish girl was true to her love, and told her sweetheart where the
+Christian was hiding; brought out of his retreat, he was on the point of
+being killed when he asked permission to blow a last blast on his
+bugle<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span>&mdash;a wish that was readily conceded by the magnanimous lover. The
+result? The princess and her sweetheart were burnt to death by the
+flames ignited by Nalvillos's soldiers. The Christian warrior was, of
+course, able to escape.</p>
+
+<p>In 1455 the effigy of Henry IV. was dethroned in Avila by the prelates
+of Toledo and other cities, and by an assembly of noblemen who felt that
+feudalism was dying out, and were anxious to strike a last blow at the
+weak king whom they considered was their enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The effigy was placed on a throne; the Archbishop of Toledo harangued
+the multitude which, silent and scowling, was kept away from the throne
+by a goodly number of obedient mercenary soldiers. Then the prelate tore
+off the mock crown, another of the conspirators the sceptre, another the
+royal garments, and so on, each accompanying his act by an ignominious
+curse. At last the effigy was torn from the throne and trampled under
+the feet of the soldiers. Alfonso, a boy of eleven, stepped on the dais
+and was proclaimed king. His hand was kissed by the humble (!) prelates
+and noblemen, who swore allegiance, an oath they had not the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span> slightest
+intention of keeping, and did not keep, either.</p>
+
+<p>Philip III.'s decree expelling Moors from Spain, was, as in the case of
+Plasencia, the <i>coup de grace</i> given to the city's importance; half the
+population was obliged to leave, and Avila never recovered her lost
+importance and influence. To-day, with only about ten thousand
+inhabitants, thrown in the background by Madrid, it manages to keep
+alive and nothing more.</p>
+
+<p>The date when the erection of the cathedral church of Avila was begun is
+utterly unknown. According to a pious legend, it was founded by the
+third bishop, Don Pedro, who, being anxious to erect a temple worthy of
+his dignity, undertook a long pilgrimage to foreign countries in search
+of arms, and returned to his see in 1091. Sixteen years later, according
+to the same tradition, the present cathedral was essentially completed,
+a bold statement that cannot be accepted because in manifest
+contradiction with the build of the church.</p>
+
+<p>According to Se�or Quadrado, the oldest part of the building, the apse,
+was probably erected toward the end of the twelfth century. It is a
+massive, almost windowless,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span> semicircular body, its bare walls
+unsupported by buttresses, and every inch of it like the corner-tower of
+a castle wall, crenelated and flat-topped.</p>
+
+<p>The same author opines that the transept, a handsome, broad, and airy
+ogival nave, dates from the fourteenth century, whereas the western
+front of the church is of a much more recent date.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, the fact is that the cathedral of Avila, seen from
+the east, west, or north, is a fortress building, a huge, unwieldy and
+anti-artistic composition of Romanesque, Gothic, and other elements. The
+western front, with its heavy tower to the north, and the lack of such
+to the south, appears more gloomy than ever on account of the obscure
+colour of the stone; the fa�ade above the portal is of one of the most
+peculiar of artistic conceptions ever imagined; above the first body or
+the pointed arch which crowns the portal comes the second body, divided
+from the former by a straight line, which supports eight columns
+flanking seven niches; on the top of this unlucky part comes an ogival
+window. The whole fa�ade is narrow&mdash;one door&mdash;and high. The effect is
+disastrous: an unnecessary contortion<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span> or misplacement of vertical,
+horizontal, slanting, and circular lines.</p>
+
+<p>The tower is flanked at the angles by two rims of stone, the edges of
+which are cut into <i>bolas</i> (balls). If this shows certain <i>Mudejar</i>
+taste, so, also, do the geometrical designs carved in relief against a
+background, as seen in the arabesques above the upper windows.</p>
+
+<p>The northern portal, excepting the upper arch, which is but slightly
+curved and almost horizontal, and weighs down the ogival arches, is far
+better as regards the artist's conception of beauty; the stone carving
+is also of a better class.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the interior of the building, preferably by the transept,
+the handsomest part of the church, the spectator perceives a double
+ambulatory behind the high altar; the latter, as well as the choir, is
+low, and a fine view is obtained of the ensemble. The central nave,
+almost twice as high and little broader than the aisles, is crowned by a
+double triforium of Gothic elegance.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the transept, it would appear as though there were four aisles
+on the west side instead of two, a peculiar deception produced by the
+lateral opening of the last chapels, exactly similar in construction
+to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span> the arch which crowns the intersection of the aisles and transept.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 354px;">
+<a href="images/ill_460.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_460_th.jpg"
+width="354" height="550" alt="TOWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL" title="TOWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">T</span>OWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the northern and southern extremity of the transept two handsome
+rosaces, above a row of lancet windows, let in the outside light through
+stained panes.</p>
+
+<p>The impression produced by the interior of the cathedral is greatly
+superior to that received from without. In the latter case curiosity is
+about the only sentiment felt by the spectator, whereas within the
+temple does not lack a simple beauty and mystery.</p>
+
+<p>As regards sculptural details, the best are doubtless the low reliefs to
+be seen to the rear of the choir, as well as several sepulchres, of
+which the best&mdash;and one of the best Renaissance monuments of its kind in
+Spain&mdash;is that of the Bishop Alfonso Tostado in the ambulatory. The
+<i>retablo</i> of the high altar is also a magnificent piece of work of the
+second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the
+sixteenth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IIIe" id="IIIe"></a>III</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SEGOVIA</p>
+
+<p>A<span class="smcap">vila's</span> twin sister, Segovia, retains its old Celtiberian name; it
+retains, also, the undeniable proofs of Roman domination in its
+far-famed aqueduct and in its amphitheatre.</p>
+
+<p>According to the popular tradition, San Hierateo, the disciple of St.
+Paul, was the first bishop in the first century, but probably the see
+was not erected until about 527, when it is first mentioned in a
+Tolesian document; the name of the first bishop (historical) is Peter,
+who was present at the third Council in Toledo (589).</p>
+
+<p>The local saint is one San Fruto, who, upon the approach of the Saracen
+hosts, gathered together a handful of fugitives and retired to the
+mountains; his brother Valentine and his sister Engracia (of Aragonese
+fame?) died martyrs to their belief. San Fruto, on the other hand, lived
+the life of a hermit in the mountains and wrought many<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span> miracles, such
+as splitting open a rock with his jack-knife, etc. The most miraculous
+of his deeds was the proof he gave to the Moors of the genuineness of
+the Catholic religion: on a tray of oats he placed the host and offered
+it to a mule, which, instead of munching oats and host, fell on its
+knees, and perhaps even crossed itself!</p>
+
+<p>Disputed by Arabs and Christians, like all Castilian towns, Segovia
+lagged along until it fell definitely into the hands of the latter. A
+Christian colony seems, nevertheless, to have lived in the town during
+the Arab dominion, because the documents of the time speak of a Bishop
+Ilderedo in 940.</p>
+
+<p>The exact year of the repopulation of Segovia is not known, but
+doubtless it was a decade or so prior to either that of Salamanca or
+Avila.</p>
+
+<p>Neither was the warlike spirit of the inhabitants inferior to that of
+their brethren in the last named cities. It was due to their bravery
+that Madrid fell into the hands of the Christians toward 1110, for,
+arriving late at the besieging camp, the king, who was present, told
+them that if they wished to pass the night comfortably, there was but
+one place, namely, the city itself. Without a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> moment's hesitation the
+daring warriors dashed at the walls of Madrid, and, scaling them, took a
+tower, where they passed the night at their ease, and to their monarch's
+great astonishment.</p>
+
+<p>In 1115, the first bishop <i>de modernis</i>, Don Pedro, was consecrated, and
+the cathedral was begun at about the same time. Several of the
+successive prelates were battling warriors rather than spiritual
+shepherds, and fought with energy and success against the infidel in
+Andalusia. One, Don Gutierre Gir�n, even found his death in the terrible
+defeat of the Christian arms at Alarcon.</p>
+
+<p>The event which brought the greatest fame to Segovia was the erection of
+its celebrated Alc�zar, or castle, the finest specimen of military
+architecture in Spain. Every city had its citadel, it is true, but none
+were so strong and invulnerable as that of Segovia, and in the stormy
+days of Castilian history the monarchs found a safe retreat from the
+attacks of unscrupulous noblemen behind its walls.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1530 the old cathedral stood at the back of the Alc�zar, but in a
+revolution of the Comuneros against Charles-Quint, the infuriated mob,
+anxious to seize the castle,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span> tore down the temple and used its stones,
+beams, stalls, and railings as a means to scale the high walls of the
+fortress. Their efforts were in vain, for an army came to the relief of
+the castle from Valladolid; a general pardon was, nevertheless, granted
+to the population by the monarch, who was too far off to care much what
+his Spanish subjects did. After the storm was over, the hot-headed
+citizens found themselves with a bishop and a chapter, but without a
+church or means wherewith to erect a new one.</p>
+
+<p>The struggles between city and fortress were numerous, and were the
+cause, in a great measure, of the town's decadence. Upon one occasion,
+Isabel the Catholic infringed upon the citizens' rights by making a gift
+of some of the feudal villages to a court favourite. The day after the
+news of this infringement reached the city, by a common accord the
+citizens "dressed in black, did not amuse themselves, nor put on clean
+linen; neither did they sweep the house steps, nor light the lamps at
+night; neither did they buy nor sell, and what is more, they boxed their
+children's ears so that they should for ever remember the day." So great
+were the public signs of grief that it has been<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> said that "never did a
+republic wear deeper mourning for the loss of its liberties."</p>
+
+<p>The end of the matter was that the queen in her famous testament revoked
+her gift and returned the villages to the city.</p>
+
+<p>The old cathedral was torn down in November, 1520, and it was not until
+June, 1525, that the bishop, who had made a patriotic appeal to all
+Spaniards in behalf of the church funds, laid the first stone of the new
+edifice. Thirty years later the building was consecrated.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere else can a church be found which is a more thorough expression
+of a city's fervour and enthusiasm. It was as though the sacrilegious
+act of the enraged mob reacted on the penitent minds of the calmed
+citizens, for rich and poor alike gave their alms to the cathedral
+chapter. Jewels were sold, donations came from abroad, feudal lords gave
+whole villages to the church, and the poor men, the workmen, and the
+peasants gave their pennies. Daily processions arrived at Santa Clara,
+then used as cathedral church, from all parts of the diocese. To-day
+they were composed of tradesmen, of <i>Z�nfte</i>, who gave their offerings
+of a few pounds; to-morrow a village would bring<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span> in a cartload of
+stone, of mortar, of wood, etc. On holidays and Sundays the repentant
+citizens, instead of amusing themselves at the dance or bull-fight,
+carted materials for their new cathedral's erection, and all this they
+did of their own free will.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 600px;">
+<a href="images/ill_470.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_470_th.jpg"
+width="600" height="388" alt="SEGOVIA CATHEDRAL" title="SEGOVIA CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">S</span>EGOVIA CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The act of consecrating the finished building constituted a grand
+holiday. The long aqueduct was illuminated from top to bottom, as was
+also the cathedral tower, and every house in the city. During a week the
+holiday-making lasted with open-air amusements for the poor and banquets
+for the rich.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the construction of the new building was contemporaneous
+with that of Salamanca, and the architect was, to a certain extent, the
+same. It is not strange, therefore, that both should resemble each other
+in their general disposition. What is more, the construction in both
+churches was begun at the foot (west), and not in the east, as is
+generally the case. The oldest part of the building is consequently the
+western front, classic in its outline, but showing among its ogival
+details both the symmetry and triangular pediment of Renaissance art.
+The tower, higher than that of Sevilla, and broader than that of Toledo,
+is simple in its<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> structure; it is Byzantine, and does not lack a
+certain <i>cachet</i> of elegance; the first body is surmounted by a dome,
+upon which rises the second,&mdash;smaller, and also crowned by a cupola. The
+tower was twice struck by lightning and partly ruined in 1620; it was
+rebuilt in 1825, and a lightning conductor replaced the cross of the
+spire.</p>
+
+<p>Though consecrated, as has been said, in 1558, the new temple was by no
+means finished: the transept and the eastern end were still to be built.
+The latter was finished prior to 1580, and in 1615 the Renaissance dome
+which surmounts the <i>crois�e</i> was erected by an artist-architect, who
+evidently was incapable of giving it a true Gothic appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The apse, with its three harmonizing <i>�tages</i> corresponding to the
+chapels, aisles, and nave, and flanked by leaning buttresses ornamented
+with delicate pinnacles, is Gothic in its details; the ensemble is,
+nevertheless, Renaissance, thanks to a perfect symmetry painfully
+pronounced by naked horizontal lines&mdash;so contradictory to the spirit of
+true ogival. Less regularity and a greater profusion of buttresses, and
+above all of flying buttresses, would have been more agreeable,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span> but the
+times had changed and new tastes had entered the country.</p>
+
+<p>Neither does the broad transept, its fa�ade,&mdash;either southern or
+northern,&mdash;and the cupola join, as it were, the eastern and the western
+half of the building; on the contrary, it distinctly separates them, not
+to the building's advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The interior is gay rather than solemn: the general disposition of the
+parts is as customary in a Gothic church of the Transition
+(Renaissance). The nave and transept are of the same width; the lateral
+chapels, running along the exterior walls of the aisles, are
+symmetrical, as in Salamanca; the ambulatory separates the high altar
+from the apse and its seven chapels.</p>
+
+<p>The pavement of the church is of black and white marble slabs, like that
+of Toledo, for instance; as for the stained windows, they are numerous,
+and those in the older part of the building of good (Flemish?)
+workmanship and of a rich colour, which heightens the happy expression
+of the whole building.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister is the oldest part of the building, having pertained to the
+previous cathedral. After the latter's destruction, and the successful
+erection of the new temple, the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span> cloister was transported stone by stone
+from its old emplacement to where it now stands. It is a handsome and
+richly decorated Gothic building, containing many tombs, among them
+those of the architects of the cathedral and of Maria del Salto. This
+Mary was a certain Jewess, who, condemned to death, and thrown over the
+Pe�a Grajera, invoked the aid of the Virgin, and was saved.</p>
+
+<p>Another tomb is that of Prince Don Pedro, son of Enrique II., who fell
+out of a window of the Alc�zar. His nurse, according to the tradition,
+threw herself out of the window after her charge, and together they were
+picked up, one locked in the arms of the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IVe" id="IVe"></a>IV</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">MADRID-ALCAL�</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">hough</span> Madrid was proclaimed the capital of Spain in the sixteenth
+century, it was not until 1850 that its collegiate church of San Isidro
+was raised to an episcopal see.</p>
+
+<p>The appointment met with a storm of disapproval in the neighbouring town
+of Alcal� de Henares, the citizens claiming the erection of the
+ecclesiastical throne in their own collegiate, instead of in Madrid.
+Their reasons were purely historical, as will be seen later on, whereas
+the capital lacked both history and ecclesiastical significance.</p>
+
+<p>To pacify the inhabitants of Alcal�, and at the same time to raise
+Madrid to the rank of a city, the following arrangement was made: the
+newly created see was to be called Madrid-Alcal�; the bishop was to
+possess two cathedral churches, and both towns were to be cities.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the state of affairs at present. The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span> recent governmental
+closure of the old cathedral in Alcal� has deprived the partisans of the
+double see of one of their chief arguments, namely, the possession of a
+worthy temple, unique in the world as regards its organization.
+Consequently, it is generally stated that the title of Madrid-Alcal�
+will die out with the present bishop, and that the next will simply be
+the Bishop of Madrid.</p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Madrid</i></p>
+
+<p>The city of Madrid is new and uninteresting; it is an overgrown village,
+with no buildings worthy of the capital of a kingdom. From an
+architectural point of view, the royal palace, majestic and imposing,
+though decidedly poor in style, is about the only edifice that can be
+admired.</p>
+
+<p>In history, Madrid plays a most unimportant part until the times of
+Philip II., the black-browed monarch who, intent upon erecting his
+mausoleum in the Escorial, proclaimed Madrid to be the only capital.
+That was in 1560; previously Magerit had been an Arab fortress to the
+north of Toledo, and the first in the region now called Castilla la
+Nueva (New Castile), to distinguish<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span> it from Old Castile, which lies to
+the north of the mountain chain.</p>
+
+<p>Most likely Magerit had been founded by the Moors, though, as soon as it
+had become the capital of Spain, its inhabitants, who were only too
+eager to lend their town a history it did not possess, invented a series
+of traditions and legends more ridiculous than veracious.</p>
+
+<p>On the slopes of the last hill, descending to the Manzanares, and beside
+the present royal palace, the Christian conquerors of the Arab fortress
+in the twelfth century discovered an effigy of the Virgin, in an
+<i>almudena</i> or storehouse. This was the starting-point for the traditions
+of the twelfth-century monks who discovered (?) that this effigy had
+been placed where it was found by St. James, according to some, and by
+the Virgin herself, according to others; what is more, they even
+established a series of bishops in Magerit previous to the Arab
+invasion.</p>
+
+<p>No foundations are of course at hand for such fabulous inventions, and
+if the effigy really were found in the <i>almudena</i>, it must have been
+placed there by the Moors themselves, who most likely had taken it as
+their<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span> booty when sacking a church or convent to the north.</p>
+
+<p>The patron saint of Madrid is one Isidro, not to be confounded with San
+Isidoro of Leon. The former was a farmer or labourer, who, with his
+wife, lived a quiet and unpretentious life in the vicinity of Madrid, on
+the opposite banks of the Manzanares, where a chapel was erected to his
+memory sometime in the seventeenth century. Of the many miracles this
+saint is supposed to have wrought, not one differs from the usual deeds
+attributed to holy individuals. Being a farmer, his voice called forth
+water from the parched land, and angels helped his oxen to plough the
+fields.</p>
+
+<p>Save the effigy of the Virgin de la Almudena, and the life of San
+Isidro, Madrid has no ecclesiastical history,&mdash;the Virgin de la Atocha
+has been forgotten, but she is only a duplicate of her sister virgin.
+Convents and monasteries are of course as numerous as elsewhere in
+Spain; brick parish churches of a decided Spanish-Oriental appearance
+rear their cupolas skyward in almost every street, the largest among
+them being San Francisco el Grande, which, with San Antonio de la
+Florida (containing<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span> several handsome paintings by Goya), is the only
+temple worth visiting.</p>
+
+<p>As regards a cathedral building, there is, in the lower part of the
+city, a large stone church dedicated to San Isidro; it serves the stead
+of a cathedral church until a new building, begun about 1885, will have
+been completed.</p>
+
+<p>This new building, the cathedral properly speaking, is to be a tenth
+wonder; it is to be constructed in granite, and its foundations stand
+beside the royal palace in the very spot where the Virgin de la Almudena
+was found, and where, until 1869, a church enclosed the sacred effigy;
+the new building is to be dedicated to the same deity.</p>
+
+<p>Unluckily, the erection of the new cathedral proceeds but slowly; so far
+only the basement stones have been laid and the crypt finished. The
+funds for its erection are entirely dependent upon alms, but, as the
+religious fervour which incited the inhabitants of Segovia in the
+sixteenth century is almost dead to-day, it is an open question whether
+the cathedral of Madrid will ever be finished.</p>
+
+<p>The temporary cathedral of San Isidro was erected in the seventeenth
+century; its<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span> two clumsy towers are unfinished, its western front,
+between the towers, is severe; four columns support the balcony, behind
+which the cupola, which crowns the <i>crois�e</i>, peeps forth.</p>
+
+<p>Inside there is nothing worthy of interest to be admired except some
+pictures, one of them painted by the Divino Morales. The nave is light,
+but the chapels are so dark that almost nothing can be seen in their
+interior.</p>
+
+<p>This church, until the expulsion of the Jesuits, was the temple of their
+order, dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul; adjoining it a Jesuit school
+was erected, which has been incorporated in the government colleges.</p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Alcal� de Henares</i></p>
+
+<p>About twenty miles to the east of Madrid lies the one-time glorious
+university city of Alcal�, famous above all things for having been the
+cradle of Cervantes, and the hearth, if not the home, of Cardinal
+Cisneros.</p>
+
+<p>Its history and its decadence are of the saddest; the latter serves in
+many respects as an adequate symbol of Spain's own tremendous downfall.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/ill_484.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_484_th.jpg"
+width="365" height="550" alt="SAN ISIDRO, MADRID" title="SAN ISIDRO, MADRID" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">S</span>AN ISIDRO, MADRID</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Romans founded Alcal�; it was their<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span> Complutum, of which some few
+remains have been discovered in the vicinity of the modern city. Yet,
+notwithstanding this lack of substantial evidence, the inhabitants of
+the region still proudly call themselves Complutenses.</p>
+
+<p>When the West Goths were rulers of the peninsula, the Roman monuments
+must have been completely destroyed, for all traces of the strategic
+stronghold were effaced from the map of Spain. The invading Arabs,
+possessing to a certain degree both Roman military instinct and
+foresight, built a fortress on the spot where the State Archives
+Building stands to-day. This castle was used by them as one of Toledo's
+northern defences against the warlike Christian kings.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century the fortress fell into the hands of the
+Christians; in the succeeding centuries it was strongly rebuilt by the
+cardinal-archbishops of Toledo, who used it both as their palace and as
+their stronghold.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the bastioned and turreted walls of the castle, the new-born
+city grew up under its protecting shadows. Known by the Arabic name of
+its fortress (Al-Kal�), it was successively baptized Alcal� de San
+Justo,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span> Alcal� de Fenares, and since the sixteenth century, Alcal� de
+Henares (<i>heno</i>, old Spanish <i>feno</i>, meaning hay). Protected by such
+powerful arms as those of the princes of the Church, it grew up to be a
+second Toledo, a city of church spires and convent walls, but of which
+only a reduced number stand to-day to point back to the religious
+fervour of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>The world-spread fame acquired by Alcal� in the fifteenth century was
+due to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros, who built the university, at
+one time one of the most celebrated in Europe, and to-day a mere
+skeleton of architectural beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The same prelate raised San Justo to a suffragan church; its chapter was
+composed only of learned professors of the university, as were also its
+canons; Leon X. gave it the enviable title of La Magistral, the Learned,
+which points it out as unique in the Christian world. The Polyglot
+Bible, published in the sixteenth century, and famous in all Europe, was
+worked out by these scholars under Cisneros's direction, and the
+favoured city outshone the newly built Madrid twenty miles away, and
+rivalled<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span> Salamanca in learning, and Toledo in worldly and religious
+splendour.</p>
+
+<p>Madrid grew greater and greater as years went by, and consequently
+Alcal� de Henares dwindled away to the shadow of a name. The university,
+the just pride of the Complutenses, was removed to the capital; the
+cathedral, for lack of proper care, became an untimely ruin; the
+episcopal palace was confiscated by the state, which, besides repairing
+it, filled its seventy odd halls with rows upon rows of dusty documents
+and governmental papers.</p>
+
+<p>To-day the city drags along a weary, inactive existence: soldiers from
+the barracks and long-robed priests from the church fill the streets,
+and are as numerous as the civil inhabitants, if not more so; convents
+and cloisters of nuns, either grass-grown ruins or else sombre grated
+and barred edifices, are to be met with at every step.</p>
+
+<p>Strangers visit the place hurriedly in the morning and return to Madrid
+in the afternoon; they buy a tin box of sugar almonds (the city's
+specialty), carelessly examine the university and the archiepiscopal
+palace, gaze unmoved at some Cervantes relics, and at the fa�ade of the
+cathedral. Besides, they are<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span> told that in such and such a house the
+immortal author of Don Quixote was born, which is a base, though
+comprehensible, invention, because no such house exists to-day.</p>
+
+<p>That is all; perchance in crossing the city's only square, the traveller
+notices that it can boast of no fewer than three names, doubtless with a
+view to hide its glaring nakedness. These three names are Plaza de
+Cervantes, Plaza Mayor, and Plaza de la Constituci�n, of which the
+latter is spread out boldly across the town hall and seems to invoke the
+remembrance of the ephemeral efforts of the republic in 1869.</p>
+
+<p>In the third century after the birth of Christ, two infants, Justo and
+Pastor, preached the True Word to the unbelieving Roman rulers of
+Complutum. The result was not in the least surprising: the two infants
+lost their baby heads for the trouble they had taken in trying to
+trouble warriors.</p>
+
+<p>But the Vatican remembered them, and canonized Pastor and Justo.
+Hundreds of churches, sown by the blood of martyrs, grew up in all
+corners of the peninsula to commemorate pagan cruelty, and to induce all
+men to follow the examples set by the two babes.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No one knew, however, where the mortal remains of Justo and Pastor were
+lying. In the fourth century their resting-place was miraculously
+revealed to one Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, who had them removed to
+his cathedral. They did not stay long in the primate city, for the
+invasion of the Moors obliged all True Believers to hide Church relics.
+Thus, Justo and Pastor wandered forth again from village to village,
+running away from the infidels until they reposed temporarily in the
+cathedral of Huesca in the north of Aragon.</p>
+
+<p>In Alcal� their memory was kept alive in the parish church dedicated to
+them. But as the city grew, it was deemed preferable to build a solid
+temple worthy of the saintly pair, and Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo,
+had the old church pulled down and began the erection of a larger
+edifice. This took place in the middle of the fifteenth century, when
+Ximenez de Cisneros, who ruled the fate of Spain and its church, gave it
+the ecclesiastical constitution previously mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years later the weary bodies of the two infants were brought back
+in triumph to their native town amid the rejoicings and admiration of
+the people, and were placed<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> in the cathedral of San Justo, then a
+collegiate church of Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>A few years ago the cathedral church of San Justo was denounced by the
+state architect and closed. To-day it is a dreary ruin, with tufts of
+grass growing among the battlements. The chapter, depriving the hoary
+building of its high altar, its precious relics and paintings, its
+stalls and other accessories, installed the cathedral in the Jesuit
+temple, an insignificant building in the other extremity of the town.
+Recently the abandoned ruin has been declared a national monument, which
+means that the state is obliged to undertake its restoration.</p>
+
+<p>La Magistral is a brick building of imposing simplicity and severity in
+its general outlines. Its decorative elements are ogival, but of true
+Spanish nakedness and lack of elegance. Though Renaissance principles
+have not entered into the composition, as might have been supposed,
+considering the date of the erection, nevertheless, the lack of flying
+buttresses, the scarcity of windows, the undecorated angles of the
+western front, the barren walls, and flat-topped, though slightly
+sloping, roofs prove that the "simple and severe style" is latent in the
+minds of artists.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 355px;">
+<a href="images/ill_494.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_494_th.jpg"
+width="355" height="550" alt="ALCAL� DE HENARES CATHEDRAL" title="ALCAL� DE HENARES CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">A</span>LCAL� DE HENARES CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The apse is well developed, and the <i>crois�e</i> surmounted by a cupola;
+the tower which flanks the western front is massive; it is decorated
+with blind arches and ogival arabesques.</p>
+
+<p>The ground plan of the building is Latin Cruciform; the aisles are but
+slightly lower than the nave and join in the apse behind the high altar
+in an ambulatory walk. The crypt, reached by two Renaissance doors in
+the <i>trasaltar</i>, is spacious, and contains the bodies of San Justo and
+San Pastor.</p>
+
+<p>The general impression produced on the mind of the tourist is sadness.
+The severity of the structure is heightened by the absence of any
+distracting decorative elements, excepting the fine <i>Mudejar</i> ceiling to
+the left upon entering.</p>
+
+<p>In the reigning shadows of this deserted temple, two magnificent tombs
+stand in solitude and silence. They are those of Carillo and Cardinal
+Cisneros, the latter one of the greatest sons of Spain and one of her
+most contradictory geniuses. His sepulchre is a gorgeous marble monument
+of Renaissance style, surrounded by a massive bronze grille of excellent
+workmanship, a marvel of Spanish metal art of the sixteenth century.
+The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span> other sepulchre is simple in its ogival decorations, and the
+prostrate effigy of Carillo is among the best to be admired by the
+tourist in Iberia.</p>
+
+<p>Carillo's life was that of a restless, ambitious, and worldly man. When
+he died, he was buried in the Convent of San Juan de Dios, where his
+illegitimate son had been buried before him, "for," said the
+archbishop-father, "if in life my robes separated me from my son, in
+death we shall be united."</p>
+
+<p>But he reckoned without his host, or rather his successor, the man whose
+remains now lie beside his own in the shadows of the great ruin. "For,"
+said Cisneros, "the Church must separate man from his sin even in
+death." So he ordered the son to be left in the convent, and the father
+to be brought to the temple he had begun to erect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Ve" id="Ve"></a>V</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">SIG�ENZA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">he</span> origin of the fortress admirably situated to the north of
+Guadalajara was doubtless Moorish, though in the vicinity is Villavieja,
+where the Romans had established a town on the transverse road from
+Cadiz to Tarragon, and called by them Seguncia, or Segoncia.</p>
+
+<p>When the Christian religion first appeared in Spain, it is believed that
+Sig�enza, or Segoncia, possessed an episcopal see; nothing is positively
+known, however, of the early bishops, until Protogenes signed the third
+Council of Toledo in 589.</p>
+
+<p>It is believed that in the reign of Alfonso VI., he who conquered Toledo
+and the region to the south of Valladolid and as far east as Aragon,
+Sig�enza was repopulated, though no mention is made of the place in the
+earlier chronicles of the time. All that is known is that a bishop was
+immediately appointed<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span> by Alfonso VII. to the vacancy which had lasted
+for over two hundred years, during which Sig�enza had been one of the
+provincial capitals of the Kingdom of Toledo. The first known bishop was
+Don Bernardo.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the town was never of the most brilliant. In the times of
+Alfonso VII. and his immediate successors it gained certain importance
+as a frontier stronghold, as a check to the growing ambitions of the
+royal house of Aragon. But after the union of Castile and Aragon, its
+importance gradually dwindled; to-day, if it were not for the bishopric,
+it would be one historic village more on the map of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Peter the Cruel, its castle&mdash;considered with that of
+Segovia to be the strongest in Castile&mdash;was used for some time as the
+prison palace for that most unhappy princess, Do�a Blanca, who, married
+to his Catholic Majesty, had been deposed on the third day of the
+wedding by the heartless and passionate lover of the Padilla. She was at
+first shut up in Toledo, but the king did not consider the Alc�zar
+strong enough. So she was sent off to Sig�enza, where it is<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span> popularly
+believed, though documents deny it, that she died, or was put to death.</p>
+
+<p>The city belonged to the bishop; it was his feudal property, and passed
+down to his successors in the see. Of the doings of these
+prelate-warriors, the first, Don Bernardo, was doubtless the most
+striking personality, lord of a thousand armed vassals and of three
+hundred horse, who fought with the emperor in almost all the great
+battles in Andalusia. It is even believed he died wielding the naked
+sword, and that his remains were brought back to the town of which he
+had been the first and undisputed lord.</p>
+
+<p>The strong castle which crowns the city did not possess, as was
+generally the case, an <i>alcalde</i>, or governor; it was the episcopal
+palace or residence, a circumstance which proves beyond a doubt the
+double significance of the bishop: a spiritual leader and military
+personage, more influential and wealthy than any prelate in Spain,
+excepting the Archbishops of Toledo and Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>During the French invasion in the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+Sig�enza had already lost its political significance. The invaders
+occupied the castle, and, as was their custom, threw documents and
+archives<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span> into the fire, to make room for themselves, and to spend the
+winter comfortably.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, the notices we have of the cathedral church are but
+scarce. The fourth bishop was Jocelyn, an Englishman who had come over
+with Eleanor, Henry II.'s daughter, and married to the King of Castile.
+He (the bishop) was not a whit less warlike than his predecessors had
+been; he helped the king to win the town of Cuenca, and when he died on
+the battle-field, only his right arm was carried back to the see, to the
+chapel of St. Thomas of Canterbury, which the dead prelate had founded
+in the new cathedral, and it was buried beneath a stone which bears the
+following inscription:</p>
+
+<p class="c">"<i>Hic est inclusa Jocelini pr�sulis ulna.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>From the above we can conclude that the cathedral must have been begun
+previous to the Englishman's coming to Spain, that is, in the beginning
+of the twelfth century. Doubtless the vaulting was not closed until at
+least one hundred years later; nevertheless, it is one of the unique and
+at the same time one of the handsomest Spanish monuments of the
+Transition period.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The city of Sig�enza, situated on the slopes of a hill crowned by the
+castle, is a village rather than a town; there are, however, fewer spots
+in Spain that are more picturesque in their old age, and there is a
+certain uniformity in the architecture that reminds one of German towns;
+this is not at all characteristic of Spain, where so many styles mix and
+mingle until hardly distinguishable from each other.</p>
+
+<p>The Transition style&mdash;between the strong Romanesque and the airy
+ogival&mdash;is the city's <i>cachet</i>, printed with particular care on the
+handsome cathedral which stands on the slope of the hill to the north of
+the castle.</p>
+
+<p>Two massive square towers, crenelated at the top and pierced by a few
+round-headed windows, flank the western front. The three portals are
+massive Romanesque without floral or sculptural decoration of any kind;
+the central door is larger and surmounted by a large though primitive
+rosace. The height of the aisles and nave is indicated by three ogival
+arches cut in relief on the fa�ade; here already the mixture of both
+styles, of the round-arched Romanesque and the pointed Gothic, is
+clearly visible&mdash;as it is also in the windows of the aisles, which are<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span>
+Romanesque, and of the nave, which are ogival&mdash;in the buttresses, which
+are leaning on the lower body, and flying in the upper story, uniting
+the exterior of the clerestory with that of the aisles. (Compare with
+apse of the cathedral of Lugo.)</p>
+
+<p>The portal of the southern arm of the transept is an ugly addition, more
+modern and completely out of harmony with the rest. The rosace above the
+door is one of the handsomest of the Transition period in Spain, and the
+stained glass is both rich and mellow.</p>
+
+<p>The interior shows the same harmonious mixture of the stronger and more
+solemn old style, and the graceful lightness of the newer. But the
+hesitancy in the mind of the architect is also evident, especially in
+the vaulting, which is timidly arched.</p>
+
+<p>The original plan of the church was, doubtless, purely Romanesque: Roman
+cruciform with a three-lobed apse, the central one much longer so as to
+contain the high altar.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth century, however, an ambulatory was constructed behind
+the high altar, joining the two aisles, and the high altar was removed
+to the east of the transept.</p>
+
+<p>What a pity that the huge choir, placed<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span> in the centre of the church,
+should so completely obstruct the view of the ensemble of the nave and
+aisles, separated by massive Byzantine arches between the solid pillars,
+which, in their turn, support the nascent ogival vaulting of the high
+nave! Were it, as well as the grotesque <i>trascoro</i>&mdash;of the unhappiest
+artistic taste&mdash;anywhere but in the centre of the church, what a
+splendid view would be obtained of the long, narrow, and high aisles and
+nave in which the old and the new were moulded together in perfect
+harmony, instead of fighting each other and clashing together, as
+happened in so many Spanish cathedral churches!</p>
+
+<p>One of the most richly decorated parts of the church is the sacristy, a
+small room entirely covered with medallions and sculptural designs of
+the greatest variety of subjects. Though of Arabian taste (<i>Mudejar</i>),
+no Moorish elements have entered into the composition, and consequently
+it is one of the very finest, if not the very best specimen, of
+Christian Arab decoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIe" id="VIe"></a>VI</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">CUENCA</p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcap">o</span> the east of Toledo, and to the north of the plains of La Mancha,
+Cuenca sits on its steep hill surrounded by mountains; a high stone
+bridge, spanning a green valley and the rushing river, joined the city
+to a mountain plateau; to-day the medi�val bridge has been replaced by
+an iron one, which contrasts harshly with the somnolent aspect of the
+landscape.</p>
+
+<p>Never was a city founded in a more picturesque spot. It almost resembles
+G�schenen in Switzerland, with the difference that whereas in the last
+named village a white-washed church rears its spire skyward, in Cuenca a
+large cathedral, rich in decorative accessories, and yet sombre and
+severe in its wealth, occupies the most prominent place in the town.</p>
+
+<p>Of the origin of the city nothing is known. In the tenth and the
+eleventh centuries Conca<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span> was an impregnable Arab fortress. In 1176 the
+united armies of Castile and Aragon, commanded by two sovereigns,
+Alfonso VIII. of Castile and Alfonso II. of Aragon, laid siege to the
+fortress, and after nine months' patience, the Alc�zar surrendered.
+According to the popular tradition, it was won by treachery: one Martin
+Alhaxa, a captive and a shepherd by trade, introduced the Christians
+disguised with sheepskins into the city through a postern gate.</p>
+
+<p>As the conquest of Cuenca had cost the King of Castile such trouble (his
+Aragonese partner had not waited to see the end of the siege), and as he
+was fully conscious of its importance as a strategical outpost against
+Aragon to the north and against the Moors to the south and east, he laid
+special stress on the city's being strongly fortified; he also gave
+special privileges to such Christians as would repopulate, or rather
+populate, the nascent town. A few years later Pone Lucio III. raised the
+church to an episcopal see, appointing Juan Ya�ez, a Tolesian Muzarab,
+to be its first bishop (1183).</p>
+
+<p>Unlike Sig�enza, a feudal possession of the bishop, Cuenca belonged
+exclusively to the monarch of Castile; the castle was consequently<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span> held
+in the sovereign's name by a governor,&mdash;at one time there were even four
+who governed simultaneously. Between these governors and the inhabitants
+of the city, fights were numerous, especially during the first half of
+the fifteenth century, the darkest and most ignoble period of Castilian
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The story is told of one Do�a Inez de Barrientos, granddaughter of a
+bishop on her mother's side, and of a governor on that of her father. It
+appears that her husband had been murdered by some of the wealthiest
+citizens of the town. Feigning joy at her spouse's death, the widow
+invited the murderers to her house to a banquet, when, "<i>despu�s de
+op�para cena</i> (after an excellent dinner), they passed from the lethargy
+of drunkenness to the sleep of eternity, assassinated by hidden
+servants." The following morning their bodies hung from the windows of
+the palace, and provoked not anger but silent dread and shivers among
+the terror-stricken inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>With the Inquisition, the siege by the English in 1706, the invasion of
+the French in 1808, Cuenca rapidly lost all importance and even
+political significance. To-day it<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span> is one of the many picturesque ruins
+that offer but little interest to the art traveller, for even its old
+age is degenerated, and the monuments of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
+fifteenth centuries have one and all been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and by the less grasping hand of <i>restauradores</i>&mdash;or
+architect-repairers.</p>
+
+<p>The Byzantine character, the Arab taste of the primitive inhabitants,
+has also been lost. Who would think, upon examining the cathedral, that
+it had served once upon a time as the principal Arab mosque? Entirely
+rebuilt, as were most of the primitive Arab houses, it has lost all
+traces of the early founders, more so than in other cities where the
+Arabs remained but a few years.</p>
+
+<p>The patron saint of Cuenca is San Julian, one of the cathedral's first
+bishops, who led a saintly life, giving all he had and taking nothing
+that was not his, and who retired from his see to live the humble life
+of a basket-maker, seated with willow branches beneath the arches of the
+high bridge, and preaching saintly words to teamsters and mule-drivers
+as they approached the city, until his death in 1207.</p>
+
+<p>In the same century the Arab mosque was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span> torn down and the new cathedral
+begun. It is a primitive ogival (Spanish) temple of the thirteenth
+century, with smatterings of Romanesque-Byzantine. Unlike the cathedral
+of Sig�enza, it is neither elegant, harmonious, nor of great
+architectural value; its wealth lies chiefly in the chapels, in the
+doors which lead to the cloister, in the sacristy, and in the elegant
+high altar.</p>
+
+<p>The cloister door is perhaps one of the finest details of the cathedral
+church: decorated in the plateresque style general in Spain in the
+sixteenth century, it offers one of the finest examples of said style to
+be found anywhere, and though utterly different in ornamentation to the
+sacristy of Sig�enza, it nevertheless resembles it in the general
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The nave, exceedingly high, is decorated by a blind triforium of ogival
+arches; the aisles are sombre and lower than the nave. On the other
+hand, the transept, broad and simple, is similar to the nave and as long
+as the width of the church, including the lateral chapels. The <i>crois�e</i>
+is surmounted by a <i>cimborio</i>, insignificant in comparison to those of
+Salamanca, Zamora, and Toro.</p>
+
+<p>The northern and southern extremities of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span> the transept differ from each
+other as regard style. The southern has an ogival portal surmounted by a
+rosace; the northern, one that is plateresque, the rounded arch,
+delicately decorated, reposing on Corinthian columns.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern end of the church has been greatly modified&mdash;as is clearly
+seen by the mixture of fifteenth-century styles, and not to the
+advantage of the ensemble. Byzantine pillars, and even horseshoe arches,
+mingle with Gothic elements.</p>
+
+<p>Of the chapels, the greater number are richly decorated, not only with
+sepulchres and sepulchral works, but with paintings, some of them by
+well-known masters.</p>
+
+<p>Taken all in all, the cathedral of Cuenca does not inspire any of the
+sentiments peculiar to religious temples. Not the worst cathedral in
+Spain, by any means, neither as regards size nor majesty, it
+nevertheless lacks conviction, as though the artist who traced the
+primitive plan miscalculated its final appearance. The additions, due to
+necessity or to the ruinous state of some of the parts, were luckless,
+as are generally all those undertaken at a posterior date.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative wealth of the chapels,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span> which is really astonishing in so
+small a town, the luxurious display of grotesque elements, the presence
+of a fairly good <i>transparente</i>, as well as the rich leaf-decoration of
+Byzantine pillars and plateresque arches, give a peculiar <i>cachet</i> to
+this church which is not to be found elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>The same can be said of the city and of the inhabitant. In the words of
+an authority, "Cuenca is national, it is Spanish, it is a typical rural
+town." Yet, it is so typical, that no other city resembles it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIIe" id="VIIe"></a>VII</h3>
+
+<p class="heading">TOLEDO</p>
+
+<p>A <span class="smcap">forest</span> of spires and <i>alminar</i> towers rising from a roof-covered hill
+to pierce the distant azure sky; a ruined cemetery surrounded on three
+sides by the rushing Tago as it cuts out a foaming path through
+foothills, and stretching away on the fourth toward the snow-capped
+Sierra de Gredo in the distance, beyond the fruitful prairies and the
+intervening plains of New Castile.</p>
+
+<p>Such is Toledo, the famous, the wonderful, the legend-spun primate city
+of all the Spains, the former wealthy capital of the Spanish Empire!</p>
+
+<p>Madrid usurped all her civic honours under the reign of Philip II., he
+who lost the Armada and built the Escorial. Since then Toledo, like
+Alcal� de Henares, Segovia, and Burgos, has dragged along a forlorn
+existence, frozen in winter and scorched in summer, and visited at all
+times of the year by gaping tourists of all nationalities.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Even the approach to the city from the mile distant station is
+peculiarly characteristic. Seated in an old and shaky omnibus, pulled by
+four thrashed mules, and followed along the dusty road by racing
+beggars, who whine their would-be French, "<i>Un p'it sou, mouchieur</i>,"
+with surprising alacrity and a melancholy smile in their big black eyes,
+the visitor is driven sharply around a bluff, when suddenly Toledo, the
+mysterious, comes into sight, crowning the opposite hill.</p>
+
+<p>At a canter the mules cross the bridge of Alc�ntara and pass beneath the
+gateway of the same name, a ponderous structure still guarding the
+time-rusty city as it did centuries ago when Toledo was the Gothic
+metropolis. Up the winding road, beneath the solemn and fire-devastated
+walls of the Alc�zar, the visitor is hurriedly driven along; he
+disappears from the burning sunlight into a gloomy labyrinth of
+ill-paved streets to emerge a few minutes later in the principal square.</p>
+
+<p>A shoal of yelling, gesticulating interpreters literally grab at the
+tourist, and in ten seconds exhaust their vocabulary of foreign words.
+At last one walks triumphantly off beside the newcomer, while the
+others, with<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span> a depreciative shrug of the shoulders and extinguishing
+their volcanic outburst of energy, loiter around the square smoking
+cigarettes.</p>
+
+<p>It does not take the visitor long to notice that he is in a great
+arch�ological museum. The streets are crooked and narrow, so narrow that
+the tiny patch of sky above seems more brilliant than ever and farther
+away, while on each side are gloomy houses with but few windows, and
+monstrous, nail-studded doors. At every turn a church rears its head,
+and the cheerless spirit of a palace glares with a sadly vacant stare
+from behind wrought-iron <i>rejas</i> and a complicated stone-carved blazon.
+Rarely is the door opened; when it is, the passer catches a glimpse of a
+sun-bathed courtyard, gorgeously alive with light and many flowers. The
+effect produced by the sudden contrast between the joyless street and
+the sunny garden, whose existence was never dreamt of, is delightful and
+never to be forgotten; from Th�ophile Gautier, who had been in Northern
+Africa, land of Mohammedan harems, it wrung the piquant exclamation:
+"The Moors have been here!"</p>
+
+<p>Every stick, stone, mound, house, lantern,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span> and what not has its legend.
+In this humble <i>posada</i>, Cervantes, whose ancestral castle is on yonder
+bluff overlooking the Tago, wrote his "<i>Ilustre Fregona</i>." The family
+history of yonder fortress-palace inspired Zorilla's romantic pen, and a
+thousand and one other objects recall the past,&mdash;the past that is
+Toledo's present and doubtless will have to be her future.</p>
+
+<p>Gone are the days when Tolaitola was a peerless jewel, for which Moors
+and Christians fought, until at last the Believers of the True Faith
+drove back the Arabs who fled southward from whence they had emerged.
+Long closed are also the famous smithies, where swords&mdash;Tolesian blades
+they were then called&mdash;were hammered so supple that they could bend like
+a watchspring, so strong they could cleave an anvil, and so sharp they
+could cut an eiderdown pillow in twain without displacing a feather.</p>
+
+<p>Distant, moreover, are the nights of <i>capa y espada</i> and of miracles
+wrought by the Virgin; dwindled away to a meagre shadow is the princely
+magnificence of the primate prelates of all the Spains, of those
+spiritual princes who neither asked the Pope's advice nor received
+orders from St. Peter at Rome.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span> Besides, of the two hundred thousand
+souls proud to be called sons of Toledo in the days of Charles-Quint,
+but seventeen thousand inhabitants remain to-day to guard the nation's
+great city-museum, unsullied as yet by progress and modern civilization,
+by immense advertisements and those other necessities of daily life in
+other climes.</p>
+
+<p>The city's history explains the mixture of architectural styles and the
+bizarre modifications introduced in Gothic, Byzantine, or Arab
+structures.</p>
+
+<p>Legends accuse Toledo of having been mysteriously founded long before
+the birth of Rome on her seven hills. To us, however, it first appears
+in history as a Roman stronghold, capital of one of Hispania's
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>St. James, as has been seen, roamed across this peninsula; he came to
+Toledo. So delighted was he with the site and the people&mdash;saith the
+tradition&mdash;that he ordained that the city on the Tago should contain the
+primate church of all the Spains.</p>
+
+<p>The vanquished Romans withdrew, leaving to posterity but feeble ruins to
+the north of the city; the West Goths built the threatening city walls
+which still are standing, and, having turned Christians, their King
+Recaredo<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> was baptized in the river's waters, and Toledo became the
+flourishing capital of the Visigothic kingdom (512 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Moors, in their northward march, conquered both the Church and the
+state. Legends hover around the sudden apparition of Berber hordes in
+Andalusia, and accuse Rodrigo, the last King of the Goths, of having
+outraged Florinda, a beautiful girl whom he saw, from his palace window,
+bathing herself in a marble bath near the Tago,&mdash;the bath is still shown
+to this day,&mdash;and with whom he fell in love. The father, Count Julian,
+Governor of Ceuta, called in the Moors to aid him in his righteous work
+of vengeance, and, as often happens in similar cases, the allies lost no
+time in becoming the masters and the conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly four hundred years did the Arabs remain in their beloved
+Tolaitola; the traces of their occupancy are everywhere visible: in the
+streets and in the <i>patios</i>, in fanciful arabesques, and above all in
+Santa Maria la Blanca.</p>
+
+<p>The Spaniards returned and brought Christianity back with them. They
+erected an immense cathedral and turned mosques<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span> into chapels without
+altering the Oriental form.</p>
+
+<p>Jews, Arabs, and Christians lived peacefully together during the four
+following centuries. Together they created the <i>Mudejar</i> style tower of
+San Tomas and the Puerta de Sol. Pure Gothic was transformed, rendered
+even more insubstantial and lighter, thanks to Oriental decorative
+motives. In San Juan de los Reyes, the <i>Mudejar</i> style left a unique
+specimen of what it might have developed into had it not been murdered
+by the Renaissance fresh from Italy, where Aragonese troops had
+conquered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.</p>
+
+<p>With the first Philips&mdash;and even earlier&mdash;foreign workmen came over to
+Toledo in shoals from Germany, France, Flanders, and Italy. They also
+had their way, more so than in any other Spanish city, and their tastes
+helped to weld together that incongruous mass of architectural styles
+which is Toledo's alone of all cities. Granada may have its Alhambra,
+and Cordoba its mosque; Leon its cathedral and Segovia its Alc�zar, but
+none of them is so luxuriously rich in complex grandeur and in the
+excellent&mdash;and yet frequently grotesque&mdash;confusion of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span> all those art
+waves which flooded Spain. In this respect Toledo is unique in Spain,
+unique in the world. Can we wonder at her being called a museum?</p>
+
+<p>The Alc�zar, which overlooks the rushing Tago, is a symbol of Toledo's
+past. It was successively burnt and rebuilt; its four fa�ades, here
+stern and forbidding, there grotesque and worthless, differ from each
+other as much as the centuries in which they were built. The eastern
+fa�ade dates from the eleventh, the western from the fifteenth, and the
+other two from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>But other arts than those purely architectural are richly represented in
+Toledo. For Spain's capital in the days following upon the fall of
+Granada was a centre of industrial arts, where both foreign and national
+workmen, heathen, Jews, and Christians mixed, wrought such wonders as
+have forced their way into museums the world over; besides, Tolesian
+sculptors are among Spain's most famous.</p>
+
+<p>As regards painting, one artist's life is wrapped up in that of the
+wonderful city on the Tago; many of his masterworks are to be seen in
+Toledo's churches and in the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span> provincial museum. I refer to Domenico
+Theotocopuli, he who was considered a madman because he was a genius,
+and who has been called <i>el Greco</i> when really he ought to have been
+called <i>el Toledano</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="top5">If Toledo is the nation's architectural museum, the city's cathedral,
+the huge imposing Gothic structure, is, beyond a doubt, an incomparable
+art museum. Centuries of sculptors carved marble and <i>berroque�a</i>;
+armies of artisans wrought marvels in cloths, metals, precious stones,
+glass, and wood, and a host of painters, both foreign and national, from
+Goya and Ribera to the Greco and Rubens, painted religious compositions
+for the sacristy and chapels.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, and besides the architectural beauty of the primate church
+of Spain, what interests perhaps more keenly than the study of the
+cathedral's skeleton, is the study of the ensemble, of that wealth of
+decorative designs and of priceless art objects for which the temple is
+above all renowned.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the coming of the Moors in the eighth century, a humble
+cathedral stood where the magnificent church now lifts its
+three-hundred-foot tower in the summer<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span> sky. It had been built in the
+sixth century and dedicated to the Virgin, who had appeared in the
+selfsame spot to San Ildefonso, when the latter, ardent and vehement,
+had defended her Immaculate Honour before a body of skeptics.</p>
+
+<p>The Moors tore down or modified the cathedral, and erected their
+principal mosque in its stead. When, three hundred years later, they
+surrendered their Tolaitola to Alfonso VI. (1085), they stipulated for
+the retention of their <i>mezquita</i>, a clause the king, who had but little
+time to lose squabbling, was only too glad to allow.</p>
+
+<p>The following year, however, King Alfonso went off on a campaign,
+leaving his wife Do�a Constanza and the Archbishop Don Bernardo to look
+after the city in his absence. No sooner was his back turned, when, one
+fine morning, Don Bernardo arrived with a motley crowd of goodly
+Christians in front of the mosque. He knocked in the principal door,
+and, entering, threw out into the street the sacred objects of the Islam
+cult. Then the Christians proceeded to set up an altar, a crucifix, and
+an image of the Virgin; the archbishop hallowed his work, and in an hour
+was the smiling possessor<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span> of his see. Strange to say, Don Bernardo was
+no Spaniard, but a worthy Frenchman.</p>
+
+<p>The news of this outrage upon his honour brought Alfonso rushing back to
+Toledo, vowing to revenge himself upon those who had seemingly made him
+break his royal word; on the way he was met by a committee of the Arab
+inhabitants, who, clever enough to understand that the sovereign would
+reinstate the mosque, but would ever after look upon them as the cause
+of his rupture with his wife and his friend the prelate, asked the king
+to pardon the evil-doers, stating that they renounced voluntarily their
+mosque, knowing as they did that the other conditions of the surrender
+would be sacredly adhered to by his Majesty.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to this noble (cunning) attitude on the part of the outraged
+Moors, the latter were able to live at peace within the walls of Toledo
+well into the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century Fernando el Santo was
+King of Castile, and his capital was the city on the Tago. The growing
+nation was strong and full of ambition, while the coming of the Cluny
+monks and Flemish and German<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> artisans had brought Northern Gothic
+across the frontiers. So it occurred to the sovereign and his people to
+erect a primate cathedral of Christian Spain worthy of its name. In 1227
+the first stone was laid by the pious warrior-king. The cathedral's
+outline was traced: a Roman cruciform Gothic structure of five aisles
+and a bold transept; two flanking towers,&mdash;of which only the northern
+has been constructed, the other having been substituted by a cupola of
+decided Byzantine or Oriental taste,&mdash;and a noble western fa�ade of
+three immense doors surmounted by a circular rosace thirty feet wide.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the building was in itself a guarantee that it would be one
+of the largest in the world, being four hundred feet long by two hundred
+broad, and one hundred feet high at the intersection of transept and
+nave.</p>
+
+<div class="imagecentered" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/ill_526.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_526_th.jpg"
+width="360" height="550" alt="TOLEDO CATHEDRAL" title="TOLEDO CATHEDRAL" />
+</a><p class="caption"><span class="lgletter2">T</span>OLEDO CATHEDRAL</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It took 250 years for the cathedral to be built, and even then it was
+not really completed until toward the middle of the eighteenth century.
+In the meantime the nation had risen to its climax of power and wealth,
+and showered riches and jewels upon its great cathedral. Columbus
+returned from America, and the first gold he brought was handed over to
+the archbishop; foreign<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span> artisans&mdash;especially Flemish and
+German&mdash;arrived by hundreds, and were employed by Talavera, Cisneros,
+and Mendoza, in the decoration of the church. Unluckily, additions were
+made: the pointed arches of the fa�ade were surmounted by a rectangular
+body which had nothing in common with the principle set down when the
+cathedral was to have been purely ogival.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the church was also enlarged, especially the high altar,
+the base of which was doubled in size. The <i>retablo</i> of painted wood was
+erected toward the end of the fifteenth century, as well as many of the
+chapels, which are built into the walls of the building, and are as
+different in style as the saints to whom they are dedicated.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, and the rich continued sending their jewels and relics
+to the cathedral, the Treasury Room, with its pictures by Rubens, D�rer,
+Titian, etc., and with its <i>sagrario</i>,&mdash;a carved image of Our Lady,
+crowning an admirably chiselled cone of silver and jewels, and covered
+over with the richest cloths woven in gold, silver, silk, and precious
+stones,&mdash;was gradually filled with hoarded wealth. Even to-day, when
+Spain has apparently reached the very low<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span> ebb of her glory, the
+cathedral of Toledo remains almost intact as the only living
+representative of the grandeur of the Church and of the arts it fostered
+in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Almost up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the building was
+continually being enlarged, modified, and repaired. Six hundred years
+since the first stone had been laid! What vicissitudes had not the
+country seen&mdash;and how many art waves had swept over the peninsula!</p>
+
+<p>Gothic is traceable throughout the building: here it is flamboyant,
+there rayonnant. Here the gold and red of <i>Mudejar</i> ceilings are
+exquisitely represented, as in the chapter-room; there Moorish influence
+in <i>azulejos</i> (multicoloured glazed tiles) and in decorative designs is
+to be seen, such as in the horseshoe arches of the triforium in the
+chapel of the high altar. Renaissance details are not lacking, nor the
+severe plateresque taste (in the grilles of the choir and high altar),
+and neither did the grotesque style avoid Spain's great cathedral, for
+there is the double ambulatory behind the high altar, that is to say,
+the <i>transparente</i>, a circular chapel of the most gorgeous
+ultra-decoration to be found anywhere in Spain.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Signs of decadence are unluckily to be observed in the cathedral to-day.
+The same care is no longer taken to repair fallen bits of carved stone;
+pigeon-lamps that burn little oil replace the huge bronze lamps of other
+days, and no new additions are being made. The cathedral's apogee has
+been reached; from now on it will either remain intact for centuries, or
+else it will gradually crumble away.</p>
+
+<p>Seen from the exterior, the cathedral does not impress to such an extent
+as it might. Houses are built up around it, and the small square to the
+south and west is too insignificant to permit a good view of the
+ensemble.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the spectator who is standing near the western fa�ade,
+either craning his neck skyward or else examining the seventy odd
+statues which compose the huge portal of the principal entrance, is
+overawed at the immensity of the edifice in front of him, as well as
+amazed at the amount of work necessary for the decorating of the portal.</p>
+
+<p>The Puerta de los Leones, or the southern entrance giving access to the
+transept, is perhaps of a more careful workmanship as regards the
+sculptural decoration. The door<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span> itself, studded on the outside with
+nails and covered over with a sheet of bronze of the most exquisite
+workmanship in relief, is a <i>chef-d'&oelig;uvre</i> of metal-stamping of the
+sixteenth century, whilst the wood-carving on the interior is among the
+finest in the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>The effect produced on the spectator within the building is totally
+different. The height and length of the aisles, which are buried in
+shadows,&mdash;for the light which enters illuminates rather the chapels
+which are built into the walls between the flying
+buttresses,&mdash;astonishes; the <i>factura</i> is severe and beautiful in its
+grand simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>Not so the chapels, which are decorated in all manner of styles, and
+ornamented in all degrees of lavishness. The largest is the Muzarab
+chapel beneath the dome which substitutes the missing tower; except the
+dome, this chapel, where the old Gothic Rite (as opposed to the
+Gregorian Rite) is sung every day in the year, is constructed in pure
+Gothic; it contains a beautiful Italian mosaic of the Virgin as well as
+frescoes illustrating Cardinal Cisneros's African wars, when the
+battling prelate thought it was his duty to bear the crucifix and
+Spanish rights<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span> into Morocco as his royal masters had carried them into
+Granada.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining chapels, some of them of impressive though generally
+complex structure, will have to be omitted here. So also the sacristy
+with its wonderful picture by the Greco, and the chapter-room with the
+portraits of all the archbishops, the elegant carved door, and the
+well-preserved <i>Mudejar</i> ceiling, etc. And we pass on to the central
+nave, and stand beneath the <i>crois�e</i>. To the east the high altar, to
+the west the choir, claim the greater part of our attention. For it is
+here that the people centred their gifts.</p>
+
+<p>The objects used on the altar-table are of gold, silver, jasper, and
+agate; the <i>monstrance</i> in the central niche of the altar-piece is also
+of silver, and the garments worn by the effigy are woven in gold, silk,
+and precious stones. The two immense grilles which close off the high
+altar and the eastern end of the choir are of iron, tin, and copper,
+gilded and silvered, having been covered over with black paint in the
+nineteenth century so as to escape the greedy eyes&mdash;and hands!&mdash;of the
+French soldiery. The workmanship of these two <i>rejas</i> is of the most
+sober Spanish<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span> classic or plateresque period, and though the black has
+not as yet been taken off, the silver and gold peep forth here and
+there, and show what a brilliancy must have radiated from these
+elegantly decorated bars and cross-bars in the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The three tiers of choir stalls, carved in walnut, are among the very
+finest in Spain, both as regards the accomplished craftsmanship and the
+astonishing variety in the composition. The two organs, opposite each
+other and attaining the very height of the nave, are the best in the
+peninsula, whilst the designs of the marble pavement, red and white in
+the high altar, and black and white in the choir, only add to the
+luxurious effect produced by statues, pulpits, and other accessories,
+either brilliantly coloured, or else wrought in polished metal or stone.</p>
+
+<p>The altar-piece itself, slightly concave in shape, is the largest, if
+not the best, of its kind. It is composed of pyramidically superimposed
+niches flanked by gilded columns and occupied by statues of painted and
+gilded wood. The effect from a distance is dazzling,&mdash;the reds, blues,
+and gold mingle together and produce a multicoloured mass reaching to
+the height of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span> nave; on closer examination, the workmanship is seen
+to be both coarse and na�ve,&mdash;primitive as compared to the more finished
+<i>retablos</i> of Burgos, Astorga, etc.</p>
+
+<p>To conclude: The visitor who, standing between the choir and the high
+altar of the cathedral, looks at both, stands, as it were, in the
+presence of an immense riddle. He cannot classify: there is no purity of
+one style, but a medley of hundreds of styles, pure in themselves, it is
+true, but not in the ensemble. Besides, the personality of each has been
+lost or drowned, either by ultra-decoration or by juxtaposition. A
+collective value is thus obtained which cannot be pulled to pieces, for
+then it would lose all its significance as an art unity&mdash;a complex art
+unity, in this case peculiar to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Neither is repose, meditation, or frank admiration to be gleaned from
+such a gigantic <i>potpourri</i> of art wonders, but rather a feeling&mdash;as far
+as we Northerners are concerned&mdash;of amazement, of stupor, and of an
+utter impossibility to understand such a luxurious display of idolatry
+rather than of faith, of scenic effect rather than of discreet prayer.</p>
+
+<p>But then, it may just be this idolatry and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span> love of scenic effect which
+produces in the Spaniard what we have called <i>religious awe</i>. We feel it
+in a long-aisled Gothic temple; the Spaniard feels it when standing
+beneath the <i>crois�e</i> of his cathedral churches.</p>
+
+<p>The whole matter is a question of race.</p>
+
+<p class="heading top15">THE END.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Appendices" id="Appendices"></a><i>Appendices</i></h3>
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<div class="imagecentered">
+<a href="images/ill_bishoprics.jpg"><img src="images/ill_bishoprics.jpg"
+alt="Map of Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain"
+width="500"
+height="366"
+style="border:none;"
+title="Map of Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain"
+/></a></div>
+<p class="heading un"><i>Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain</i></p>
+
+<h3>II</h3>
+<p class="heading"><i>Dimensions and Chronology</i></p>
+<h3>ASTORGA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Saviour and San Toribio.</li>
+<li>Legendary (?) erection of see, 1st century (oldest in peninsula).</li>
+<li>First historical bishop, Dominiciano, 347 A. D.</li>
+<li>During Arab invasion see was being continually destroyed and rebuilt.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span></li>
+<li>1069, first cathedral (on record) was erected.</li>
+<li>1120, second cathedral was erected.</li>
+<li>XIIIth century, third cathedral was erected.</li>
+<li>1471, fourth (present) cathedral was begun; terminated XVIth century.</li>
+<li>XVth and XVIth century ogival; imitation of that of Leon.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Northern front, plateresque retablo.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>AVILA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Dedicated to San Salvador.</li>
+<li>First bishop (legendary?), San Segundo, in Ist century.</li>
+<li>See destroyed during Arab invasion.</li>
+<li>First bishop after Reconquest, Jeronimo in XIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Date of foundation and erection unknown.</li>
+<li>Legendary foundation, 1091; finished in 1105 (?).</li>
+<li>Late XIIth century Spanish Gothic fortress church.</li>
+<li>Apse XIIth century; transept XIVth century.</li>
+<li>Western front XVth century; tower late XIVth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Width of transept and of nave, 30 feet.</li>
+<li>Width of aisles, 25 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Exterior of apse, nave and transept with rose
+windows, tomb of Bishop Tostada.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>BURGOS</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Holy Mary and Son.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected, 1075; archbishopric, 1085.</li>
+<li>First bishop, Don Sim�n; first archbishop, Gomez II.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Present cathedral begun, 1221.</li>
+<li>First holy mass celebrated in altar-chapel, 1230.</li>
+<li>Building terminated 300 years later (1521).</li>
+<li>XIIIth-XIVth century Spanish ogival.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Length (excluding Chapel of Condestable), 273 feet.</li>
+<li>Length of transept, 195 feet; width, 32 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of lantern crowning crois�e, 162 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of western front, 47 feet.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span></li>
+<li>Height of towers, 273 feet; width at base, 19 feet.</li>
+<li>Width of nave, 31 feet; of aisles, 19 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble, interior decoration, lantern on
+crois�e, the Chapel of the Condestable, choir, high altar, etc. (With
+that of Toledo, the richest cathedral in Spain.)</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>CALAHORRA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Emeterio and San Celedonio, martyrs.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected Vth century; first bishop, Silvano.</li>
+<li>Daring Arab invasion see removed to Oviedo (750).</li>
+<li>Removed to Alava in IXth century; in Xth century, to N�jera.</li>
+<li>In 1030, moved again to Calahorra; first bishop, Don Sancho.</li>
+<li>Since XIXth century, one bishop appointed to double see Calahorra-Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada.</li>
+<li>This double see to be removed to Logro�o.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral begun in XIIth century; terminated in XIVth century.</li>
+<li>XIIIth century Gothic (body of church only).</li>
+<li>Western front of a much later date.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attraction: Choir-stalls.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>CIUDAD RODRIGO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Virgin and Child.</li>
+<li>Origin of bishopric in Calabria under Romans (legendary?).</li>
+<li>Foundation of city in 1150; erection of see, 1170.</li>
+<li>First bishop, Domingo, 1170.</li>
+<li>See nominally suppressed in 1870; in reality the suppression has not
+taken place as yet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church begun toward 1160.</li>
+<li>XIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.</li>
+<li>Tower and western front date from XVIIIth century.</li>
+<li>Lady-chapel from XVIth century.</li>
+<li>Building suffered considerably from French in 1808.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Romanesque narthex, cloister, choir-stalls,
+Romanesque doors leading into transept.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+<h3>CORIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Santa Maria.</li>
+<li>Date of erection, 338.</li>
+<li>First known bishop, Laquinto, in 589.</li>
+<li>During Moorish domination the bishopric entirely destroyed.</li>
+<li>See re�stablished toward beginning XIIIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church begun in 1120.</li>
+<li>Terminated in XVIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Is an unimportant village church rather than a cathedral.</li>
+<li>One aisle, 150 feet long, 52 feet wide, 84 feet high.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Paseo, or cloister walk; in lady-chapel, sepulchre of
+XVIth century.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>CUENCA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Virgin.</li>
+<li>Erected in 1183.</li>
+<li>First bishop, Juan Ya�ez.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>XIIIth century ogival church greatly deteriorated, in a ruinous state.</li>
+<li>Tower which stood on western end fell down recently.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Length of building, 312 feet; width, 140 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Cloister door, chapels.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>LEON</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Froilan and Santa Maria de la Blanca.</li>
+<li>Date of erection not known.</li>
+<li>First known bishop, Basilides, 252 A.D.</li>
+<li>During Arab invasion, see existed on and off.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>First stone of present cathedral laid in 1199.</li>
+<li>The building did not begin until 1250; terminated end of XIVth century.</li>
+<li>XIIth century French ogival.</li>
+<li>Vaulting above crois�e fell down in 1631.</li>
+<li>Southern front rebuilt in 1694.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span></li>
+<li>Whole cathedral partly ruined in 1743.</li>
+<li>Closed to public by government in 1850.</li>
+<li>Reopened in 1901.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Total length, 300 feet; width, 130 feet; height of nave, 100 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of northern tower, 211 feet; of southern, 221 feet.</li>
+<li>Length of each side of cloister, 97 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble, windows, choir-stalls, cloister.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>LOGRO�O</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Holy Virgin.</li>
+<li>Compare Calahorra.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Santa Maria raised to collegiate church in 1435.</li>
+<li>Old building torn down in same year, excepting some few remains.</li>
+<li>Present church begun in 1435; not terminated yet.</li>
+<li>Enlargements being introduced at the present date.</li>
+<li>Belongs to Spanish-Grotesque.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Western front, trascoro, towers.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>LUGO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Mother and Child.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected in Vth century; first bishop, Agrestio, in 433.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral began in 1129; completed in 1177.</li>
+<li>XIIth century Galician Romanesque spoilt by posterior additions.</li>
+<li>Building greatly reformed in XVIth to XVIIIth centuries.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), western portal, exterior of
+apse.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>MADRID-ALCAL�</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See erected in 1850.</li></ul>
+
+<p class="heading75">MADRID</p>
+
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Temporary cathedral dedicated to San Isidro.</li>
+<li>Seventeenth century building of no art merit.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span></li>
+<li>New cathedral dedicated to the Virgen de la Almudena.</li>
+<li>In course of construction; begun in 1885.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="heading75">ALCAL�</p>
+
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Dedicated to Santos Justo and Pastor; called la Magistral.</li>
+<li>In a ruinous state; closed, and see temporarily removed to Jesuit
+temple.</li>
+<li>Constructed in XVth century, and raised to suffragan in same century.</li>
+<li>Severe and naked (gloomy) Spanish-Gothic.</li>
+<li>Interior of building cannot be visited.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>MONDO�EDO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Virgin.</li>
+<li>Bishopric removed here from Ribadeo, late XIIth century.</li>
+<li>First (or second) bishop, Don Martin, about 1219.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Foundation of cathedral dates probably from XIIth century.</li>
+<li>XIIIth century Galician Romanesque structure.</li>
+<li>Greatly spoilt by posterior additions.</li>
+<li>Ambulatory dates from XVth or XVIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Rectangular in form; 120 feet long by 71 wide.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 45 feet; of aisles, 28 feet.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>ORENSE</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to St. Martin of Tours and St. Mary Mother.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected previous to IVth century (?).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Erection of present building begun late XIIth century.</li>
+<li>Probably terminated late XIIIth century.</li>
+<li>XIIIth century, Galician Romanesque with pronounced ogival mixture.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Portico del Paraiso, western portal, decoration of
+the interior.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>OSMA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Pedro de Osma.</li>
+<li>Legendary (?) erection of see in 91 <span class="smcap">A. D.</span><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span></li>
+<li>First bishop, San Astorgio.</li>
+<li>First historical bishop, Juan I, in 589.</li>
+<li>Destruction of see during Arab invasion.</li>
+<li>See restored, 1100; first bishop, San Pedro de Osma.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>XIIth century cathedral destroyed in XIIIth century, excepting a few
+chapels.</li>
+<li>Erection of new cathedral begun in 1232; terminated, beginning XIVth
+century.</li>
+<li>XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic (not pure).</li>
+<li>Ambulatory introduced in XVIIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Retablo, reliefs of trasaltar.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>OVIEDO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Mother and Child.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected, 812; first bishop, Adulfo.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Until XIIth century cathedral was a basilica; destroyed.</li>
+<li>Romanesque edifice erected in XIIth century; destroyed 1380.</li>
+<li>Present edifice begun 1380; completed 1550.</li>
+<li>XVth century ogival (French?).</li>
+<li>Decoration of the interior terminated XVIIth century.</li>
+<li>Tower and spire, XVIth century.</li>
+<li>Camara Santa dates from XIIth century; a remnant of the early Romanesque
+edifice.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Total length, 218 feet; width, 72 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 65 feet; of aisles, 33 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of tower, 267 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Fl�che, decoration of the interior, rosaces in apse,
+Gothic retablo, cloister, Camara Santa.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>PALENCIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Mother and Child and San Antolin, martyr.</li>
+<li>Date of erection unknown; IId or IIId century.</li>
+<li>One of the earliest bishops, San Toribio.</li>
+<li>During the Arab invasion city and see completely destroyed.</li>
+<li>First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo, in 1035.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>XVth century florid Gothic building.</li>
+<li>Erection begun in 1321.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span></li>
+<li>Eastern end finished prior to 1400.</li>
+<li>Century later western end begun on larger scale.</li>
+<li>Temple completed in 1550.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Total length, 405 feet.</li>
+<li>Width (at transept), 160 feet.</li>
+<li>Height (of nave), 95 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior and exterior), Bishop's Door,
+choir-stalls, trascoro.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>PLASENCIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Dedicated to the Holy Virgin.</li>
+<li>Erection of see 12 years after foundation city (1190).</li>
+<li>First bishop, Domingo; second, Adam; both were warrior prelates.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Old cathedral (few remains left) commenced in beginning XIVth century.</li>
+<li>Partially destroyed to make room for&mdash;</li>
+<li>New cathedral, commenced in 1498.</li>
+<li>XVIth century Renaissance-Gothic edifice.</li>
+<li>Ultra-decorated and ornamented in later centuries.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Choir-stalls, western entrance, decorative motives,
+sepulchres.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SALAMANCA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Bishopric existed in Vth century. First known bishop, Eleuterio (589).</li>
+<li>VIIIth century, devoid of notices concerning see.</li>
+<li>Xth century, 7 bishops mentioned&mdash;living in Leon or Oviedo.</li>
+<li>XIth century, no news, even name of city forgotten.</li>
+<li>First bishop <i>de modernis</i>, Jeronimo of Valencia (1102).</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Old cathedral still standing; city possesses therefore two cathedrals.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="heading75">OLD CATHEDRAL</p>
+
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Dedicated to St. Mary (Santa Maria de la Sede).</li>
+<li>In 1152 already in construction; not finished in 1299.</li>
+<li>XIIth or XIIIth century, Castilian Romanesque with ogival mixture.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span></li>
+<li>Nave, 33 feet wide, 190 feet long, 60 feet high.</li>
+<li>Aisles, 20 feet wide, 180 feet long, 40 feet high.</li>
+<li>Thickness of walls, 10 feet.</li>
+<li>Part of cathedral demolished to make room for new in 1513.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Cimborio, central apsidal chapel, and retablo.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="heading75">NEW CATHEDRAL</p>
+
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Dedicated to the Mother and Saviour.</li>
+<li>Begun in 1513; not completed until XVIIIth century.</li>
+<li>Originally Late Gothic building. Plateresque, Herrera and grotesque
+additions.</li>
+<li>Compare churches of Valladolid and Segovia.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Rectangular in shape; 378 feet long, 181 feet wide.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 130 feet; that of aisles, 88 feet.</li>
+<li>Width of nave, 50 feet; of aisles, 37 feet.</li>
+<li>Length (and width) of chapels, 28 feet; height, 54 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of tower, 320 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Western fa�ade, decorative wealth, ensemble.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SANTANDER</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Emeterio, martyr, and to the Virgin.</li>
+<li>Monastical church of San Emeterio raised to collegiate in XIIIth
+century.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected in 1775.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church built in XIIIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attraction: Crypt, fount.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SANTIAGO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to St. James, patron saint of Spain.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected previous to 842; first bishop, Sisnando.</li>
+<li>Archbishopric erected XIIth century; first archbishop, Diego Galmirez.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church begun, 1078; terminated, 1211.</li>
+<li>XIIth century Romanesque building.</li>
+<li>Exterior suffered grotesque and plateresque repairs, XVIIth century.</li>
+<li>Cloister dates from 1530.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Length, 305 feet; width (at transept), 204 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 78 feet; of aisles, 23 feet; of cupola, 107 feet; of
+tower (de la Trinidad), 260 feet; of western towers, 227 feet.</li>
+<li>Length of each side of cloister, 114 feet; width, 19 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), Portico de la Gloria, crypt,
+cloister, southern portal.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SANTO DOMINGO DE LA CALZADA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Santo Domingo de la Calzada.</li>
+<li>Bishopric dates from 1227.</li>
+<li>Compare Calahorra.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church begun toward 1150.</li>
+<li>Terminated, 1250.</li>
+<li>XIIth-XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic structure.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attraction: The retablo, XVth and XVIth sepulchres.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SEGOVIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Fruto and the Virgin.</li>
+<li>First bishop (legendary?), San Hierateo, in Ist century.</li>
+<li>See known to have existed in 527.</li>
+<li>First historical bishop, Peter (589).</li>
+<li>During Arab invasion only one bishop mentioned, Ilderedo, 940.</li>
+<li>First bishop after the Reconquest, Don Pedro, in 1115.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>First stone of present cathedral laid, 1525.</li>
+<li>Cathedral consecrated, 1558; finished in 1580.</li>
+<li>Cupola erected in 1615.</li>
+<li>Gothic-Renaissance building.</li>
+<li>Tower struck by lightning and partly ruined, 1620.</li>
+<li>Rebuilt (tower) in 1825.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Total length, 341 feet; width, 156 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of dome, 218 feet.</li>
+<li>Width of nave and transept, 44 feet; aisles, 33 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Old cloister, apse, tower.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SIG�ENZA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Mother and Child.</li>
+<li>First known bishop, Protogenes, in VIth century.</li>
+<li>During Arab invasion no mention is made of see.</li>
+<li>First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo (1195).</li>
+<li>Fourth bishop an Englishman, Jocelyn.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Date of erection of the cathedral unknown.</li>
+<li>Probably XIIth or XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.</li>
+<li>Ambulatory added in XVIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Length of building, 313 feet; width, 112 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 68 feet; of aisles, 63 feet.</li>
+<li>Circumference of central pillar, 50 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Western front, sacristy, rose window in southern
+transept arm.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>SORIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See to be moved here from Osma.</li>
+<li>Church dedicated to St. Mary.</li>
+<li>Raised to suffragan of Osma in XIIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>XVIth century, Gothic-plateresque building.</li>
+<li>XIIth century, western front; Castilian Romanesque.</li>
+<li>XIIth century, Romanesque cloister.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Western front, cloister.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>TOLEDO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Virgin Mother and her Apparition to San Ildefonso.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected prior to 513 A. D.</li>
+<li>One of first bishops is San Ildefonso.</li>
+<li>During Arab domination see remains vacant.</li>
+<li>First archbishop, Don Bernardo (1085).</li>
+<li>Primate cathedral of all the Spains since XVth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>First stone of present building laid in 1227.</li>
+<li>Church completed in 1493.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span></li>
+<li>Additions, repairs, etc., dating from XVIth-XVIIIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Length, 404 feet; width, 204 feet; height of tower, 298 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of nave, 98 feet.</li>
+<li>Height of principal door, 20 feet; width, 7 feet.</li>
+<li>Diameter of rose window in western front, 30 feet.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The ensemble, decorative and industrial accessories,
+chapter-room, sacristy, paintings, bell-tower, etc. (The richest
+cathedral in Spain.)</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>TORO</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Collegiate Church dedicated to St. Mary.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Existence of bishopric cannot be proven, though believed to have been
+erected during first decade of Reconquest in Xth century.</li>
+<li>Is definitely made a suffragan of Zamora in XVIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral&mdash;or collegiate&mdash;erected end of XIIth or beginning of XIIIth
+century.</li>
+<li>Castilian Romanesque building.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Military aspect of building, height of walls, massive
+cimborio.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>TUY</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to the Virgin Mary.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected in VIth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral erected in first half XIIth century.</li>
+<li>Suffered greatly from earthquakes, especially in 1755.</li>
+<li>XIIth century Galician Romanesque in spoilt conditions.</li>
+<li>Western porch or narthex dates from XVth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: Western front, northern portal, cloister.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>VALLADOLID</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Santa Maria la Antigua raised to suffragan of Palencia, 1074.</li>
+<li>Church built in XIIth century, Castilian Romanesque.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span></li>
+<li>Ruins still to be seen to rear of&mdash;</li>
+<li>Santa Maria la Mayor. Seat of archbishopric since 1850.</li>
+<li>Bishopric established, 1595; first bishop, Don Bartolom�.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral begun in 1585 by Juan de Herrera.</li>
+<li>Continued XVIIth century by Churriguera.</li>
+<li>Escorial style spoilt by grotesque decoration.</li>
+<li>Tower falls down in 1841; new one being erected.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Rectangular in shape; length, 411 feet; width, 204 feet.</li>
+<li>Transept half-way between apse and western front.</li>
+<li>Crois�e surmounted by cupola.</li>
+<li>Only one of four towers was constructed.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>VITORIA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to Santa Maria.</li>
+<li>St. Mary erected to collegiate, XVth century.</li>
+<li>Bishopric erected in XIXth century.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral church erected in XIVth century.</li>
+<li>XIVth century Late Gothic structure of no art interest.</li>
+<li>Tower of XVIth and XVIIth centuries.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attraction: In sacristy a canvas called Piety.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3>ZAMORA</h3>
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>See dedicated to San Atilano and the Holy Mother.</li>
+<li>Bishopric established 905; first bishop, San Atilano.</li>
+<li>Destroyed by Moors in 998; vacancy not filled until 1124.</li>
+<li>First bishop <i>de modernis</i>, Bernardo.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cathedral commenced 1151; vaulting terminated 1174.</li>
+<li>XIIth century Castilian Romanesque.</li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Chief attractions: The cimborio, southern entrance.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3>III</h3>
+
+<p class="hang"><i>A List of the Provinces of Spain and of the Middle Age States or
+Kingdoms from which they have evolved.</i></p>
+<table summary="Provinces"
+cellpadding="2"
+cellspacing="0"
+class="sml75">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Principal Kingdoms &nbsp;</i></td>
+<td align="center"><i>Conquered States &nbsp;</i></td>
+<td align="center"><i>Present-day Provinces</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Castile</td><td>Galicia</td><td>La Coru�a*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Lugo*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Orense*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Pontevedra*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Asturias*</td><td>Oviedo*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Leon</td><td>Leon*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Palencia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Zamora*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Basque Provinces &nbsp;</td><td>Guipuzcua*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Vizcaya*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Alava*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Rioja</td><td>Logro�o*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Old Castile</td><td>Santander*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Burgos*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Soria*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Valladolid*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Avila*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Segovia*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Salamanca*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>New Castile</td><td>Madrid*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Guadalajara*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Toledo*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Cuenca*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Ciudad Real*</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Extremadura</td><td>Caceres*</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Badajoz</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Andalusia</td><td>Sevilla</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Huelva</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Cadiz</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Cordoba</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Jaen</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Granada</td><td>Granada</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Malaga</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Almeria</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Murcia</td><td>Murcia</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Albacete</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Aragon</td><td>Aragon</td><td>Zaragoza</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Huesca</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Teruel</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Catalu�a</td><td>Barcelona</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Gerona</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Lerida</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Tarragona</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Valencia</td><td>Valencia</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Alicante</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>Castell�n</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Navarra</td><td>Navarra (Pamplona)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="heading">NOTES</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">The star (*) indicates the provinces treated of in this volume; the
+remainder will be treated of in Volume II.</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">Two provinces have not been mentioned: that of the Balearic Isles
+(belonged to the old kingdom of Aragon), and that of the Canary
+Isles (belonged to the old kingdom of Castile).</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">Dates have not been indicated. For so complicated was the evolution
+of the different states (regions) throughout the Middle Ages, that
+a series of tables would be necessary, as well as a series of
+geographical maps.</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">The above list, however, shows Spain (minus Portugal) at the death
+of Fernando (the husband of Isabel) in 1516, as well as the
+component parts of Castile and Aragon. The division of Spain into
+provinces dates from 1833.</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">A bishopric does not necessarily coincide with a province. Thus,
+the Province of Lugo has two sees (Lugo and Mondo�edo); on the
+other hand, three Basque Provinces have but one see (Vitoria).</p>
+
+<p class="sml75">Excepting in the case of Navarra, whose capital is Pamplona, the
+different provinces of Spain bear the name of the capital. Thus the
+capital of the Province of Madrid is Madrid, and Jaen is the
+capital of the province of the same name.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_384" id="page_384">{384}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_385" id="page_385">{385}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Bibliography" id="Bibliography"></a><i>Bibliography</i></h3>
+
+<ul class="appendices">
+<li>Espa�a, sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza � Historia:
+<ul>
+<li>Burgos, by R. Amador de los Rios.</li>
+<li>Santander, by R. Amador de los Rios.</li>
+<li>Navarra y Logro�o, Vol. III., by P. de Madrazo.</li>
+<li>Soria, by N. Rabal.</li>
+<li>Galicia, by M. Murguia.</li>
+<li>Alava, etc., by A. Pirala.</li>
+<li>Extremadura, by N. Diaz y Perez.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Recuerdos y Bellezas de Espa�a:
+<ul>
+<li>Castilla La Nueva, by J. M. Quadrado.</li>
+<li>Asturias y Leon, by J. M. Quadrado.</li>
+<li>Valladolid, etc., by J. M. Quadrado.</li>
+<li>Salamanca, by J. M. Quadrado.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>Espagne et Portugal, by Baedeker.</li>
+<li>Historia del Pueblo Espa�ol (Spanish translation), by Major M. Hume.</li>
+<li>Historia de Espa�a, by R. Altamira.</li>
+<li>Toledo en la Mano, by S. Parro.</li>
+<li>Estudios Historico-Artisticos relativos � Valladolid, by Marti y Mons�.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_386" id="page_386">{386}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Acu�a, Don, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li>Ad�n, Maria, <a href="#page_271">271</a>;
+<ul><li>Don, Bishop of Plasencia, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Adulfo, Bishop of Oviedo, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>African Wars, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.</li>
+<li>Agrestio, Bishop of Lugo, <a href="#page_373">373</a>.</li>
+<li>Agricolanus, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Agueda River, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Alag�n River, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>.</li>
+<li>Alarcos, Battle of, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li>Alava, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Alcal� (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alcala_de_Henares">Alcal� de Henares</a>).</li>
+<li>Alcal� de Fenares (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alcala_de_Henares">Alcal� de Henares</a>).</li>
+<li><a name="Alcala_de_Henares" id="Alcala_de_Henares"></a>Alcal� de Henares, <a href="#page_061">61</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_326">326-334</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>;
+<ul><li>Churches of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>); University of, <a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Alcal� de San Justo (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alcala_de_Henares">Alcal� de Henares</a>).</li>
+<li>Alc�ntara, Bridge of, <a href="#page_350">350</a>.</li>
+<li>Alc�zar (Cuenca), <a href="#page_343">343</a>,   (Segovia) <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, (Toledo) <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li>Alem�n, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso I., <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso II., <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso III., <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso IV., <a href="#page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso V., <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso VI., <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso VII., <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso VIII., <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso IX., <a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso XI., <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso the Chaste, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonsos, Dynasty of, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li>Alfonso el Batallador, <a href="#page_305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-Kal� (<i>See</i> <a href="#Alcala_de_Henares">Alcal� de Henares</a>).</li>
+<li>Alhambra, The, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Alhaxa, Martin, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li>Al-K�rica (<i>See</i> <a href="#Coria">Coria</a>).</li>
+<li>Almanzor, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Alps, The, <a href="#page_058">58</a>.</li>
+<li>Altamira, Rafael, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.</li>
+<li>Alvarez, Diego, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>America, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li>Anaya, Diego de, Tomb of, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Andalusia" id="Andalusia"></a>Andalusia, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Ansurez, Pedro, <a href="#page_293">293</a>;
+<ul><li>Family of, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Aquitania, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Arabs and Arab Invasions,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_388" id="page_388">{388}</a></span> <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Aragon, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li>Arco de Santa Marta (Burgos), <a href="#page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Armada, The, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>Arriago, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Arrianism, <a href="#page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Astorga" id="Astorga"></a>Astorga, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_167">167-173</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Asturias, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Asturica Augusta (<i>See</i> <a href="#Astorga">Astorga</a>).</li>
+<li>August�briga, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Auria (<i>See</i> <a href="#Orense">Orense</a>).</li>
+<li>Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Avila, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_302">302-311</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishop</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li class="letter">Baeza, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li>Baedeker, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li>Barcelona, <a href="#page_066">66</a>.</li>
+<li>Barrientos, Inez de, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.</li>
+<li>Bartolom�, Bishop of Valladolid, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>Basilides, Bishop of Astorga, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Basilides, Bishop of Leon, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Basque Provinces, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Bay of Biscay, <a href="#page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Bayona, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>;
+<ul><li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Bayonne in Gascogne, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Becerra, <a href="#page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li>Berengario, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Bermudo II., <a href="#page_162">162</a>.</li>
+<li>Bermudo III., <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernardo, Bishop of Palencia, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernardo, Bishop of Sig�enza, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernardo, Archbishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernardo, Bishop of Zamora, <a href="#page_232">232</a>.</li>
+<li>Berruguete, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>B�tica (<i>See</i> <a href="#Andalusia">Andalusia</a>).</li>
+<li><a name="Bishops" id="Bishops"></a>Bishops and Archbishops (Basilides), <a href="#page_168">168</a>;
+<ul><li>Astorga (Dominiciano), <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>;</li>
+<li>Avila (Jeronimo), <a href="#page_370">370</a>, (Pedro) <a href="#page_308">308</a>, (San Segundo) <a href="#page_370">370</a>, (Tostada) <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li>Burgos (Don Sim�n), <a href="#page_370">370</a>, (Gomez II.) <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li>Calahorra (Don Sancho), <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, (Silvano) <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li>Cuidad Rodrigo (Domingo), <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, (Pedro Diaz) <a href="#page_270">270</a>;</li>
+<li>Coria (Laquinto), <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Cuenca (Juan Ya�ez), <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Iria (Theodosio), <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>;</li>
+<li>Leon (Basilides), <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>;</li>
+<li>Lugo (Agrestio), <a href="#page_373">373</a>, (Odoario) <a href="#page_104">104</a>;</li>
+<li>Mondo�edo (Martin), <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li>Osma, <a href="#page_211">211</a>, (Juan I.) <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, (Pedro) <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, (San Astorgio) <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li><a name="Orense" id="Orense"></a>Orense (Diego), <a href="#page_116">116</a>;</li>
+<li>Oviedo (Adulfo), <a href="#page_138">138</a>, (Gutierre) <a href="#page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>Palencia (Bernardo), <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, (San Toribio) <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>Plasencia (Ad�n), <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, (Domingo) <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li>Salamanca (Eleuterio), <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, (Jeronimo) <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_389" id="page_389">{389}</a></span></li>
+<li>Santiago, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, (Diego Galmirez) <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, (Sisnando), <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li>Segovia (Don Pedro), <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, (Ilderedo) <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>, (San Hierateo), <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Sig�enza (Austurio), <a href="#page_331">331</a>, (Bernardo) <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, (Jocelyn) <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, (Protogenes) <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;</li>
+<li>Toledo, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_337">337</a>, (Bernardo) <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, (Carillo) <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, (Ildefonso) <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, (Tavera) <a href="#page_274">274</a>; Tuy, <a href="#page_132">132</a>;</li>
+<li>Valladolid (Bartolom�), <a href="#page_381">381</a>, (Bernardo) <a href="#page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li>Zamora (San Atilano), <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>"Bishop's Door" (Palencia Cathedral), <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</li>
+<li>Blanca de Bourbon, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Boabdil el Chico, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Bologna, <a href="#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourbon, Blanca de, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourbon Dynasty, <a href="#page_030">30</a>.</li>
+<li>Braga, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.</li>
+<li>Brigandtia (<i>See</i> <a href="#Corunna">Corunna</a>).</li>
+<li>Bruneti�re, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.</li>
+<li>Burgos, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_174">174-180</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Burgo de Osma, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Cadiz <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Calabria, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Calahorra, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Calle de Puente, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Camara Sagrada, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Camara Santa (Oviedo), <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>Cangas, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Cantabric Mountains, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Cantabric Sea, <a href="#page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>;
+<ul><li>Tomb of, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Carlist Wars, <a href="#page_033">33</a>.</li>
+<li>Carranza, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Carrarick, King of the Suevos, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Castellum Tude (<i>See</i> <a href="#Tuy">Tuy</a>).</li>
+<li>Castile, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_066">66-77</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_174">174-177</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li>Castile, Counts of, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Cathedrals" id="Cathedrals"></a>Cathedrals, Astorga, <a href="#page_167">167-173</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>;
+<ul><li>Avila, <a href="#page_302">302-311</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;</li>
+<li>Burgos, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_174">174-187</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_227">227-241</a>, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_367">367-370</a>;</li>
+<li>Calahorra, <a href="#page_206">206-208</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Canterbury (St. Thomas), <a href="#page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li>Ciudad Rodrigo, <a href="#page_269">269-277</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li><a name="Coria" id="Coria"></a>Coria, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Huesca, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>;</li>
+<li><a name="CLeon" id="CLeon"></a>Leon, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_150">150-166</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Lugo, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_102">102-109</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li>Madrid, San Isidro and Virgen de la Almudena, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li>Mondo�edo, <a href="#page_095">95-101</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li>N�jera, <a href="#page_201">201-202</a>;</li>
+<li>Orense, Santa Maria la Madre, <a href="#page_110">110-119</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li>Osma, <a href="#page_212">212-216</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>Nuestra Se�ora de la Blanca (<i>See</i> <a href="#Leon">Leon</a>);</li>
+<li>Oviedo, <a href="#page_137">137-144</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>Pulchra Leonina (<i>See</i> <a href="#Leon">Leon</a>);</li>
+<li>Palencia, <a href="#page_219">219-229</a>, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>Plasencia, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_284">284-289</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li>Rome (St. Peter's), <a href="#page_300">300</a>;</li>
+<li>Salamanca, Old and New Cathedrals, <a href="#page_251">251-268</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_390" id="page_390">{390}</a></span></li>
+<li>Santiago, Santiago de Campostela, <a href="#page_075">75-88</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li>Santander, <a href="#page_188">188-191</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li>Segovia, <a href="#page_312">312-320</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Sevilla, <a href="#page_187">187</a>;</li>
+<li>Santo Domingo de la Calzada, <a href="#page_202">202-204</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Sig�enza, <a href="#page_335">335-341</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;</li>
+<li>Tours, St. Martin, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;</li>
+<li><a name="Tuy" id="Tuy"></a>Tuy, Santa Maria la Madre, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_120">120-130</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li>Valladolid, <a href="#page_293">293-301</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;</li>
+<li>Vitoria, <a href="#page_192">192-195</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li>Zamora, <a href="#page_230">230-243</a>, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>;</li>
+<li>Toledo, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_349">349-368</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;</li>
+<li>Toulouse, St. Saturnin, <a href="#page_082">82</a>;</li>
+<li>Toro, Santa Maria la Mayor, <a href="#page_244">244-250</a>, <a href="#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_262">262</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Celedonio, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li>Celts, The, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li>Cervantes, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.</li>
+<li>Charles-Quinte, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li>Choir Stalls, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Churches" id="Churches"></a>Churches: Alcal� de Henares, La Magistral, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;
+<ul><li>San Justo, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>;</li>
+<li>Burgos, Chapel of the Condestable, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;</li>
+<li>Bayona and Vigo, <a href="#page_131">131-133</a>;</li>
+<li>Corunna (Colegiata), <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, Church of Santiago, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, Santa Maria del Campo, <a href="#page_092">92</a>;</li>
+<li>Cordoba, The Mosque, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>;</li>
+<li>Cuenca, <a href="#page_342">342-348</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Leon, San Isidoro, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, Chapel of St. James, <a href="#page_159">159</a>, Santa Maria la Blanca, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, Santa Maria la Redonda, San Froilan, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;</li>
+<li>Logro�o, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, <a href="#page_204">204</a>;</li>
+<li>Madrid, San Antonio de la Florida, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, San Francisco el Grande, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, San Isidro, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;</li>
+<li>Oviedo, Salvador, <a href="#page_139">139</a>;</li>
+<li>Palencia, San Antolin, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;</li>
+<li>Rioja, Santa Maria la Redonda, <a href="#page_204">204-206</a>, San Juan de Ba�os, <a href="#page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li>Santander, San Emeterio, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;</li>
+<li>Saragosse, Church of the Pillar, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, <a href="#page_202">202-204</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;</li>
+<li>Soria, <a href="#page_209">209-212</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;</li>
+<li>Segovia, Santa Clara, <a href="#page_316">316</a>;</li>
+<li>Toledo, San Juan de las Reyes, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, Santa Maria la Blanca, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, San Tomas, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, Puerta de Sol, <a href="#page_355">355</a>;</li>
+<li>Valladolid, Santa Maria la Mayor, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>, Santa Maria la Antiqua, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, Venta de Ba�os, <a href="#page_057">57</a>;</li>
+<li>Zamora, La Magdalen, <a href="#page_243">243</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Churriguera, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid, The Great, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Cid Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar), <a href="#page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Cisneros, Cardinal, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a>;
+<ul><li>Tomb of, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Ciudad Rodrigo, <a href="#page_269">269-277</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Clement IV., <a href="#page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li>Cluny Monks, The, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_030">30</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.</li>
+<li>Coa River, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>.</li>
+<li>Complutum (Alcal�), <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_391" id="page_391">{391}</a></span></li>
+<li>Complutenses, <a href="#page_327">327-329</a>.</li>
+<li>Comuneros, The, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li>Conca (<i>See</i> <a href="#Cuenca">Cuenca</a>).</li>
+<li>Conde, Manuel, <a href="#page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Condestable, Chapel of the (Burgos), <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;
+<ul><li>Tomb of (Burgos), <a href="#page_186">186</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Constanza, Do�a, <a href="#page_358">358</a>.</li>
+<li>Convent of Guadalupe, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Convent of the Mercedes (Valladolid), <a href="#page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li>Convent of San Juan de Dios, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li>Cordoba, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>;
+<ul><li>Mosque of, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coria, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_278">278-283</a>, <a href="#page_284">284</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>Roman Wall of, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Coronada, <a href="#page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li>Cortez, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Corunna" id="Corunna"></a>Corunna, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>;</li>
+<li>Churches of, <a href="#page_089">89-94</a>.</li>
+<li>Council of Toledo, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Counts of Castile, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_180">180</a>.</li>
+<li>Covadonga, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>;
+<ul><li>Battle of, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cristeta, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>"Cristo de las Batallas" (Salamanca), <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Cuenca" id="Cuenca"></a>Cuenca, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_342">342-348</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>;
+<ul><li>Alc�zar, <a href="#page_343">343</a>; Battle of, <a href="#page_338">338</a>;</li>
+<li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Cunninghame-Graham, Mr., <a href="#page_021">21</a>.</li>
+<li>Curia Vetona, or Caurium (<i>See</i> <a href="#Coria">Coria</a>).</li>
+<li class="letter">Del Obispo (Portal in Toro Cathedral), <a href="#page_273">273</a>.</li>
+<li>Del Salto, Maria, Tomb of, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li>Diana, Temple to, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Diaz, Pedro, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, <a href="#page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li>Dolfo, Vellido, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li>Domingo, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Domingo, Bishop of Plasencia, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</li>
+<li>Dominguez, Juan, Bishop of Osma, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>Dominiciano, Bishop of Astorga, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>.</li>
+<li>Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>Duero River, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Duke of Lancaster, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>D�rer, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Eleanor (Daughter of Henry II.), <a href="#page_338">338</a>.</li>
+<li>Early Christian Art, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.</li>
+<li>Eastern Castile, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.</li>
+<li>Ebro River, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li>Eleuterio, Bishop of Salamanca, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</li>
+<li>Elvira, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>England, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>Engracia (of Aragon), <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>Enrique II., King of Castile, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li>Enrique IV., <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Enriquez, Don, <a href="#page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li>Escorial (Madrid), <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>Extremadura, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Favila, Duke, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Felipe el Hermoso (Philip the Handsome), <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdinand, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernan, Knight, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernando I., <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_176">176-178</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernando II., <a href="#page_269">269</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_392" id="page_392">{392}</a></span></li>
+<li>Fernando Alfonso, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Fernando el Santo, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.</li>
+<li>Florinda, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Flanders, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Foment, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li>Fonseca, Bishop, <a href="#page_229">229</a>;
+<ul><li>Family, <a href="#page_249">249</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>France, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Froila (or Froela), <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li>Froissart, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Galicia, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href="#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a>.</li>
+<li>Galician Romanesque Art, <a href="#page_059">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Galmirez, Diego, Archbishop of Santiago, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>Garcia, Count of Castile, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li>Garcia, Don, King of Navarra, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>.</li>
+<li>Garcia, Son of Alfonso III., <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Gasteiz (<i>See</i> <a href="#Vitoria">Vitoria</a>).</li>
+<li>Gautier, Th�ophile, <a href="#page_351">351</a>.</li>
+<li>Germany, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Gibraltar, <a href="#page_022">22</a>;
+<ul><li>Straits of, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Gijon, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Gir�n, Don Gutierre, <a href="#page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li>Gold and Silversmiths, <a href="#page_050">50-51</a>.</li>
+<li>Gomez II., Bishop of Burgos, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Gonzalez, Fernan, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Gonzalo, Arias, <a href="#page_233">233</a>.</li>
+<li>G�schenen in Switzerland, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li>Goya, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li>Granada, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_365">365</a>.</li>
+<li>Greco, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_365">365</a>.</li>
+<li>Gredo Mountains, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Greeks, The, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>Guadalajara, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Guadalete, Battle of, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Guadalquivir, <a href="#page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>Guaderrama Mountains, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Guardia, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li>Gudroed, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Gutierre, Bishop of Oviedo, <a href="#page_139">139</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Hannibal, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Harbour of Victory, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>Henry IV., <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li>Hermesinda, <a href="#page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li>Herrero, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>Huesca, Cathedral of, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li>Hume, Martin, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Ierte River, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Ilderedo, Bishop of Segovia, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Inquisition, The, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_344">344</a>.</li>
+<li>Ireland, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.</li>
+<li>Iria, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.</li>
+<li>Ironcraft, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>.</li>
+<li>Irun, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabella, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li>Isabel the Catholic, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li>Italy, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Jeronimo, Bishop of Avila, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Jeronimo, Bishop of Salamanca, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>.</li>
+<li>Jesuit School (Madrid), <a href="#page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Jocelyn, Bishop of Sig�enza, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>John I., <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>Juan I., Bishop of Osma, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_393" id="page_393">{393}</a></span></li>
+<li>Juana, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Juana la Beltranaja, <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Juana la Loca, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>Julian, Count, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Juni, Juan de, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li>Jura, The, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">La Magistral, Church of (Alcal� de Henares), <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>La Mancha, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li>Lancaster, Duke of, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li>Laquinto, Bishop of Coria, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Las Navas de Tolosa, <a href="#page_280">280</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Leon" id="Leon"></a>Leon, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_150">150-166</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>King of, <a href="#page_161">161</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Leon X., <a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>Leonese, The, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Leonor, Do�a, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.</li>
+<li>"Leyes de Toro," <a href="#page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Libelatism, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li>Lisbon, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Locus Augusti (<i>See</i> <a href="#Lugo">Lugo</a>).</li>
+<li>Logro�o, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;
+<ul><li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Loja, <a href="#page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li>Lucio III., <a href="#page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Lugo" id="Lugo"></a>Lugo, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_102">102-109</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Lupa, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li>Luz, Do�a, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Madrazo, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li>Madrid, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_321">321-326</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>Churches of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Maestro Mateo, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.</li>
+<li>Maestro Raimundo, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li>Magerit, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>.</li>
+<li>Munuza, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li>Manzanares River, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>Marcelo, <a href="#page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li>Martin, Bishop of Mondo�edo, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Martel, Charles, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Medinat-el-Walid, <a href="#page_296">296</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendoza, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Mindunietum, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Mi�o River, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li>Miranda, <a href="#page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li>Mir�briga, <a href="#page_269">269</a>.</li>
+<li>Molina, Maria de, <a href="#page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Mondo�edo, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_095">95-101</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Monroy Family, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Monforte, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li>Moore, General, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Moorish Art, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.</li>
+<li>Moors, The, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_207">207</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>Morales, Divino, <a href="#page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li>Morgarten, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Morocco, <a href="#page_364">364</a>.</li>
+<li>Mosque of Cordoba, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Mount of Joys, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Mudejar Art, <a href="#page_063">63-65</a>.</li>
+<li>Muguira, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</li>
+<li>Murillo, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">N�jera, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Nalvillos, <a href="#page_306">306</a>, <a href="#page_307">307</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">{394}</a></span></li>
+<li>Napoleon, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Navarra, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li>Navas de Tolosa, Battle of, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Neustra Se�ora de la Blanca (<i>See</i> <a href="#CLeon">Cathedral of Leon</a>).</li>
+<li>New World, The (<i>See</i> America).</li>
+<li>Norman Vikings, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li>North, The, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Numantia, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Odoario, Bishop of Lugo, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.</li>
+<li>Ogival Art, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.</li>
+<li>Olaf, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li>Old Castile, Plain of, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordo�ez, Diego, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordo�o I., <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordo�o II., <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li>Ordu�o III., <a href="#page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Orense, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_110">110-119</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>Portico del Paraiso, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Osma, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_212">212-216</a>, <a href="#page_374">374-379</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishops of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oviedo, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_137">137-144</a>, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>Church (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Oxford, <a href="#page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Padilla, Maria de, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Palencia, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_219">219-229</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>"Bishop's Door," <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>University of, <a href="#page_223">223-224</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pallantia, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li>Palos Harbour, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.</li>
+<li>Pamplona, <a href="#page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li>Paris, <a href="#page_251">251</a>;
+<ul><li>Treaty of, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Pedro, Prince Don, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro, Bishop of Avila, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro, Bishop of Osma, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>Pedro, Bishop of Segovia, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Pelayo, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li>Pelea Gonzalo, Battle of, <a href="#page_245">245</a>.</li>
+<li>Pe�a Grajera, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li>Perez, Do�a Maria, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>Perez, Hernan, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Peter, Bishop of Segovia, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Peter the Cruel, <a href="#page_179">179</a>, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip II., <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip III., <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip IV., <a href="#page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li>Philip the Handsome, <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>Ph&oelig;nicians, The, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li>Picos de Europa, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Pico de Urbi�n, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>"Piedad" (Pity), <a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Pillar at Saragosse, <a href="#page_299">299</a>.</li>
+<li>Pisuerga, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>.</li>
+<li>Plasencia, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_284">284-289</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Plaza, Bartolom� de la (Bishop of Valladolid), <a href="#page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li>Plaza de Cervantes (Alcal�), <a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Plaza de la Constituci�n (Alcal�), <a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li>Plaza Mayor (Alcal�), <a href="#page_330">330</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_395" id="page_395">{395}</a></span></li>
+<li>Plutarch, <a href="#page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li>Poitiers, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Polyglot Bible, The, <a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>Portico de la Gloria (Santiago), <a href="#page_085">85-88</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Portico del Paraiso (Orense), <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Portugal, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_256">256</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>;
+<ul><li>King of, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Portuguese, The, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li>Priscilianism, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li>Prisciliano, <a href="#page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li>Protogenes, Bishop of Sig�enza, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>Puerta de la Plateria (Santiago), <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li>Puerta de la Sol (Toledo), <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Puerta de los Leones (Toledo), <a href="#page_363">363</a>.</li>
+<li>Pulchra Leonina (<i>See</i> <a href="#CLeon">Cathedral of Leon</a>).</li>
+<li>Pyrenees, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Quadrado, Se�or, <a href="#page_308">308</a>.</li>
+<li>Quixote, Don, <a href="#page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Rachel of Toledo, <a href="#page_285">285</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramiro, <a href="#page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li>Recaredo, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Reconquest, The, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>.</li>
+<li>Redondela, <a href="#page_131">131</a>.</li>
+<li>Reformation, The, <a href="#page_026">26</a>.</li>
+<li>Renaissance, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>;
+<ul><li>Italian, <a href="#page_063">63</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Retablo, <a href="#page_049">49-50</a>.</li>
+<li>Rhine, The, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribadeo, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribera, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li>Rioja, The Upper, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodrigo, <a href="#page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (Cid Campeador), <a href="#page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li>Rodrigo, King of Visigoths, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Romanesque Art, <a href="#page_057">57-58</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Romans, The, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_326">326</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Rome, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li>Rubens, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Ruy Diaz Gaona, <a href="#page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Sabina, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>Salamanca, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>University of, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>San Antolin, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>San Antonio de la Florida, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>San Astorgio, Bishop of Osma, <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li>
+<li>San Atilano, Bishop of Zamora, <a href="#page_231">231</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>.</li>
+<li>San Bartolom� (Salamanca), Chapel of, <a href="#page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li>San Celedonio, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancha, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho, Bishop of Calahorra, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho, Count of Castile, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho, Don, of Navarra, <a href="#page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancho el Mayor, King of Navarra, <a href="#page_221">221</a>, <a href="#page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li>Sancti Emetrii, <a href="#page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li>San Emeterio, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_206">206</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>San Emeterio, Church of (Santander), <a href="#page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li>San Fernando, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_177">177-178</a>.</li>
+<li>San Francisco, Convent of, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li>San Francisco el Grande (Madrid), <a href="#page_324">324</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_396" id="page_396">{396</a></span></li>
+<li>San Froilan, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>San Fruto, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>San Hierateo, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>San Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidro (of Madrid), <a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidro, Church of (Madrid), <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidoro, Church of (Leon), <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_163">163</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>San Isidoro, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>San Juan de Ba�os, <a href="#page_165">165</a>.</li>
+<li>San Juan de Dios, Convent of, <a href="#page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li>San Juan de los Reyes (Toledo), <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>San Julian, <a href="#page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li>San Justo, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>San Justo, Church of (Alcal� de Henares), <a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>San Pastor, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>San Salvador, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>San Segundo, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Clara (Segovia), <a href="#page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Maria de la Blanca (Leon), <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Maria la Blanca (Toledo), <a href="#page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Maria la Madre (Orense), <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Maria la Madre (Tuy), <a href="#page_120">120-130</a>.</li>
+<li>Santa Maria la Redonda, <a href="#page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li>Santander, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_188">188-191</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Santiago, <a href="#page_075">75-88</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_377">377</a>;
+<ul><li>Archbishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>San Tomas (Toledo), <a href="#page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li>Santo Domingo, <a href="#page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li>Santo Domingo de la Calzada, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_199">199</a>, <a href="#page_200">200</a>, <a href="#page_202">202-204</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>. <a href="#page_378">378</a>;
+<ul><li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>San Toribio (Astorga), <a href="#page_369">369</a>;
+<ul><li>(Palencia), <a href="#page_375">375</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>San Vicente, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>Saracens, The, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>Saragosse, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>;
+<ul><li>Church (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sardinero, <a href="#page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li>Scipio, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>Segovia, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Seguncia (or Segoncia), <i>See</i> Sig�enza.</li>
+<li>Sempach, <a href="#page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li>Sevilla, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_317">317</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of, <a href="#page_187">187</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Sierra de Guaderrama, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_174">174</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>.</li>
+<li>Sierra de Gredos, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li>Sierra de Gata, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Sig�enza, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_335">335-341</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Silvano, Bishop of Calahorra, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href="#page_371">371</a>.</li>
+<li>Sim�n, Bishop of Burgos, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Sinfosio, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li>Sisnando, Bishop of Santiago, <a href="#page_377">377</a>.</li>
+<li>Sohail, <a href="#page_021">21-22</a>.</li>
+<li>Soria, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_209">209-212</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;
+<ul><li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>State Archives Building (Alcal�), <a href="#page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li>Street, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Astorgio, <a href="#page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Francis of Assisi, <a href="#page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li>St. James, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>;
+<ul><li>Chapel of (Leon), <a href="#page_159">159</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_397" id="page_397">{397}</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>St. Martin, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Martin of Tours (Cathedral), <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Paul, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Peter, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Peter's at Rome, <a href="#page_300">300</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Thomas of Canterbury, Chapel of, <a href="#page_338">338</a>.</li>
+<li>St. Saturnin (Toulouse), <a href="#page_082">82</a>.</li>
+<li>Suevos, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>;
+<ul><li>King of, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_170">170</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li class="letter">Tago River, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href="#page_359">359</a>.</li>
+<li>Talavera, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarik, <a href="#page_022">22</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarragon, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Tavera, Bishop of Toledo, <a href="#page_274">274</a>.</li>
+<li>Theodomio, <a href="#page_198">198</a>.</li>
+<li>Theodosio, Bishop of Iria, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>.</li>
+<li>Theotocopuli, Domenico, <a href="#page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li>Titian, <a href="#page_361">361</a>.</li>
+<li>Tolaitola (<i>See</i> Toledo).</li>
+<li>Toledo, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_150">150</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_322">322</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href="#page_349">349-368</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a>;
+<ul><li>Alc�zar, <a href="#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href="#page_356">356</a>;</li>
+<li>Archbishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>);</li>
+<li>Council of, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href="#page_253">253</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_312">312</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Tomb, Bishop Tostado, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>;
+<ul><li>Carillo (Alcal�), <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>Cisneros (Alcal�), <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_334">334</a>;</li>
+<li>Condestable, <a href="#page_186">186</a>;</li>
+<li>Diego de Anaya (Salamanca), <a href="#page_263">263</a>;</li>
+<li>Maria del Salto, <a href="#page_320">320</a>;</li>
+<li>Prince Don Pedro, <a href="#page_320">320</a>.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Toribio, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Toro, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_244">244-250</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Torquemada, <a href="#page_027">27</a>.</li>
+<li>Tostado, Bishop, Tomb of, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href="#page_370">370</a>.</li>
+<li>Tours, <a href="#page_022">22</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li>Tower de la Trinidad (Santiago), <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_378">378</a>.</li>
+<li>Tower of Hercules, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.</li>
+<li>Trajanus, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li>Transition Art, <a href="#page_060">60</a>.</li>
+<li>Tuy, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_120">120-130</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_168">168</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li class="letter">University of Alcal� de Henares, <a href="#page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li>University of Palencia, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_224">224</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li>University of Salamanca, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li>Urbano II., <a href="#page_231">231</a>.</li>
+<li>Urbano IV., <a href="#page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li>Urraca, Do�a, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>, <a href="#page_236">236</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Vacceos, <a href="#page_219">219</a>.</li>
+<li>Valdejunquera, Battle of, <a href="#page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li>Valencia Cupola, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li>Valen�a do Minho, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li>Valentine, <a href="#page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li>Valladolid, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_293">293-301</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;
+<ul><li>Bishop of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Bishops">Bishops</a>);</li>
+<li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Vallisoletum, <a href="#page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li>Van Dyck, <a href="#page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li>Vela, Count of, <a href="#page_163">163</a>.</li>
+<li>Venta de Ba�os, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li>Veremundo, <a href="#page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li>Vigo, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_131">131-133</a>;
+<ul><li>Church of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Churches">Churches</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Villamayor, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.</li>
+<li>Villavieja, <a href="#page_335">335</a>.</li>
+<li>Vinuesa, <a href="#page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li>Virgin de la Atocha, <a href="#page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li>Virgin de la Almudena, <a href="#page_324">324</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a>.</li>
+<li>Viriato, <a href="#page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li>Visigoths, The, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href="#page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li><a name="Vitoria" id="Vitoria"></a>Vitoria, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_192">192-195</a>, <a href="#page_381">381</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li class="letter">War for Independence, <a href="#page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li>Wellington, Duke of, <a href="#page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li>Western Castile, <a href="#page_069">69</a>; Art of, <a href="#page_059">59</a>.</li>
+<li>Witiza, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_399" id="page_399">{399</a></span></li>
+<li class="letter">Ya�ez, Juan, Bishop of Cuenca, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_372">372</a>.</li>
+<li>Yuste, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li class="letter">Zadorria River, <a href="#page_193">193</a>.</li>
+<li>Zamora, <a href="#page_071">71</a>, <a href="#page_230">230-243</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>;
+<ul><li>Cathedral of (<i>See</i> under <a href="#Cathedrals">Cathedrals</a>).</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>Zaragoza (<i>See</i> Saragosse).</li>
+<li>Zeth, <a href="#page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li>Zorilla, <a href="#page_352">352</a>.</li>
+<li>Zurbaran, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li>Zu�igas, <a href="#page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li>Zu�iguez, <a href="#page_298">298</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="imagecentered">
+<a href="images/ill_inscover.jpg">
+<img src="images/ill_inscover_th.jpg"
+style="border:none;"
+alt="image of inside the book's cover"
+width="364"
+height="550"
+title="image of inside the book's cover"
+/></a>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="c">[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]<br />Changes made:</p>
+
+<table summary="typos"
+cellpadding="0"
+cellspacing="0"><tr><td>SIGUENZA => SIG�ENZA {2}<br />
+Al-Karica => Al-K�rica {1}<br />
+Alarg�n => Alag�n<br />
+Bartolome => Bartolom�<br />
+Guadalquiver => Guadalquivir<br />
+Isidore => Isidoro {2 page 163}<br />
+Protogones => Protogenes {2}<br />
+Theodosia => Theodosio {1 index}<br />
+dia de Zamora => d�a de Zamora {1}<br />
+despues de op�pera cena => despu�s de op�para cena {1}<br />
+Neustra Se�ora => Nuestra Se�ora {1 index}<br />
+Del Obisco => Del Obispo {1 index}<br />
+Maria Del Sarto => Maria Del Salto {2}<br />
+Manuza => Munuza {1 index}<br />
+Constituti�n => Constituci�n {1 index}<br />
+Talaitola => Tolaitola {1 index}</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
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+Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Cathedrals of Northern Spain
+
+Author: Charles Rudy
+
+Release Date: April 12, 2010 [EBook #31965]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This ebook was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material at
+Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_THE_ CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN
+
+[Illustration: Bookcover]
+
+[Illustration: inside cover]
+
+_The Cathedral Series_
+
+_The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+$2.50_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Southern
+France BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of England BY MARY J. TABER_
+
+The following, each 1 vol., library
+12mo, cloth, gilt top, profusely illustrated.
+Net, $2.00
+
+_The Cathedrals and Churches
+of the Rhine BY FRANCIS MILTOUN_
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern
+Spain BY CHARLES RUDY_
+
+_L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+New England Building, Boston, Mass._
+
+[Illustration: LEON CATHEDRAL
+
+(_See page 154_)]
+
+
+
+
+The Cathedrals of
+Northern Spain
+
+THEIR HISTORY AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURE; TOGETHER
+WITH MUCH OF INTEREST CONCERNING
+THE BISHOPS, RULERS,
+AND OTHER PERSONAGES IDENTIFIED
+WITH THEM
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES RUDY
+
+Illustrated
+
+BOSTON L. C. PAGE &
+COMPANY MDCCCCVI
+
+_Copyright, 1905_
+BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
+(INCORPORATED)
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+Published October, 1905
+
+_COLONIAL PRESS
+Electrotyped and Printed by C. H. Simonds & Co.
+Boston, U. S. A._
+
+
+_TO ALL TRUE
+LOVERS OF SPAIN,
+OTHERWISE CALLED
+HISPANOFILOS_
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is _a la mode_ to write prefaces. Some of us write good ones, others
+bad, and most of us write neither good nor bad ones.
+
+The chapter entitled "General Remarks" is the real introduction to the
+book, so in these lines I shall pen a few words of self-introduction to
+such readers as belong to the class to whom I have dedicated this
+volume.
+
+My love for Spain is unbounded. As great as is my love for the people,
+so great also is my depreciation for those who have wronged her, being
+her sons. Who are they? They know that best themselves.
+
+Spain's architecture is both agreeable and disagreeable, but it is all
+of it peculiarly Spanish. A foreigner, dropping as by accident across
+the Pyrenees from France, can do nothing better than criticize all
+architectural monuments he meets with in a five days' journey across
+Spain with a Cook's ticket in his pocketbook. It is natural he should do
+so. Everything is so totally different from the pure (_sic_) styles he
+has learned to admire in France!
+
+But we who have lived years in Spain grow to like and admire just such
+complex compositions as the cathedrals of Toledo, of Santiago, and La
+Seo in Saragosse; we lose our narrow-mindedness, and fail to see why a
+pure Gothic or an Italian Renaissance should be better than an Iberian
+cathedral. As long as harmony exists between the different parts, all is
+well. The moment this harmony does not exist, our sense of the
+artistically beautiful is shocked--and the building is a bad one.
+
+Personality is consequently ever uppermost in all art criticism or
+admiration. But it should not be influenced by the words pure, flawless,
+etc. Were such to be the case, there would be but one good cathedral in
+Spain, namely, that of Leon, a French temple built by foreigners on
+Spanish soil. Yet nothing is less Spanish than the cathedral of Leon.
+
+Under the circumstances, it is necessary, upon visiting Spain, to
+discard foreignisms and turn a Spaniard, if but for a few days.
+Otherwise the tourist will not understand the country's art monuments,
+and will be inclined to leave the peninsula as he entered it, not a
+whit the wiser for having come.
+
+To help the traveller to understand the whys and wherefores of Spanish
+architecture, I have written the "Introductory Studies." I hope they
+will enable him to become a Spaniard, or, at least, to join the
+enthusiastic army of _Hispanofilos_.
+
+C. RUDY.
+
+MADRID, _July, 1905_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                               PAGE
+
+PART I. INTRODUCTORY STUDIES
+
+I. General Remarks                      11
+
+II. Historical Arabesques               18
+
+III. Architectural Arabesques           35
+
+IV. Conclusion                          66
+
+PART II. GALICIA
+
+I. Santiago de Campostela               75
+
+II. Corunna                             89
+
+III. Mondonedo                          95
+
+IV. Lugo                               102
+
+V. Orense                              110
+
+VI. Tuy                                120
+
+VII. Bayona and Vigo                   131
+
+PART III. THE NORTH
+
+I. Oviedo                              137
+
+II. Covadonga                          145
+
+III. Leon                              150
+
+IV. Astorga                            167
+
+V. Burgos                              174
+
+VI. Santander                          188
+
+VII. Vitoria                           192
+
+VIII. Upper Rioja                      196
+
+IX. Soria                              209
+
+PART IV. WESTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Palencia                            219
+
+II. Zamora                             230
+
+III. Toro                              244
+
+IV. Salamanca                          251
+
+V. Ciudad Rodrigo                      269
+
+VI. Coria                              278
+
+VII. Plasencia                         284
+
+PART V. EASTERN CASTILE
+
+I. Valladolid                          293
+
+II. Avila                              302
+
+III. Segovia                           312
+
+IV. Madrid-Alcala                      321
+
+V. Sigueenza                            335
+
+VI. Cuenca                             342
+
+VII. Toledo                            349
+
+Appendix                               369
+
+Index                                  387
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                PAGE
+
+Leon Cathedral (_See page 154_)        _Frontispiece_
+
+Cloister Stalls in a Monastic Church at Leon      48
+
+Typical Retablo (Palencia)                        50
+
+Mudejar Architecture (Sahagun)                    64
+
+Santiago and Its Cathedral                        82
+
+Church of Santiago, Corunna                       92
+
+General View of Mondonedo                         96
+
+Mondonedo Cathedral                               98
+
+Northern Portal of Orense Cathedral              116
+
+Tuy Cathedral                                    128
+
+Oviedo Cathedral                                 140
+
+Cloister of Oviedo Cathedral                     144
+
+Apse of San Isidoro, Leon                        164
+
+Burgos Cathedral                                 180
+
+Crypt of Santander Cathedral                     190
+
+Cloister of Najera Cathedral                     202
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, Logrono                  204
+
+Western Front of Calahorra Cathedral             207
+
+Cloister of Soria Cathedral                      212
+
+Palencia Cathedral                               226
+
+Zamora Cathedral                                 238
+
+Toro Cathedral                                   248
+
+Old Salamanca Cathedral                          260
+
+New Salamanca Cathedral                          266
+
+Cuidad Rodrigo Cathedral                         272
+
+Facade of Plasencia Cathedral                    288
+
+Western Front of Valladolid Cathedral            300
+
+Tower of Avila Cathedral                         310
+
+Segovia Cathedral                                316
+
+San Isidro, Madrid                               326
+
+Alcala de Henares Cathedral                      332
+
+Toledo Cathedral                                 360
+
+
+
+
+_PART I_
+
+_Introductory Studies_
+
+
+
+
+_The Cathedrals of Northern Spain_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+GENERAL REMARKS
+
+
+History and architecture go hand in hand; the former is not complete if
+it does not mention the latter, and the latter is incomprehensible if
+the former is entirely ignored.
+
+The following chapters are therefore historical and architectural; they
+are based on evolutionary principles and seek to demonstrate the motives
+of certain artistic phenomena.
+
+Many of the ideas superficially mentioned in the following essays will
+be severely discussed, for they are original; others are based on two
+excellent modern historical works, namely, "The History of the Spanish
+People," by Major Martin Hume, and "Historia de Espana," by Senor Rafael
+Altamira. These two works can be regarded as the _dernier mot_
+concerning the evolution of Spanish history.
+
+Unluckily, however, the author has been unable to consult any work on
+architecture which might have given him a concise idea of the story of
+its gradual evolution and development, and of the different art-waves
+which flowed across the peninsula during the stormy period of the middle
+ages, which, properly speaking, begins with the Arab invasion of the
+eighth century and ends with the fall of Granada, in the fifteenth.
+
+Several works on Spanish architecture have been written (the reader will
+find them mentioned elsewhere), but none treats the matter from an
+evolutionary standpoint. On the contrary, most of them are limited to
+the study of a period, of a style or of a locality; hence they cannot
+claim to be a _dernier mot_. Such a work has still to be written.
+
+Be it understood, nevertheless, that the author does not pretend--_Dios
+me libre!_--to have supplied the lack in the following pages. In a
+couple of thousand words it would be utterly impossible to do so. No; a
+complete, evolutionary study of Spanish architecture would imply years
+of labour, of travel, and of study. For so much on the peninsula is
+hybrid and exotic, and yet again, so much is peculiar to Spain alone.
+Thus it is often most difficult to determine which art phenomena are
+natural--that is, which are the logical results of a well-defined art
+movement--and which are artificial or the casual product of elements
+utterly foreign to Spanish soil.
+
+Willingly the author leaves to other and wiser heads the solving of the
+above riddle. He hopes, nevertheless, that they (those who care to
+undertake the mentioned task) will find some remarks or some
+observations in the following chapters to help them discover the real
+truth concerning the Spaniard's love, or his insensibility for
+architectural monuments, as well as his share in the erection of
+cathedrals, palaces, and castles.
+
+Spanish architecture--better still, architecture in Spain--is peculiarly
+strange and foreign to us Northerners. We admire many edifices in
+Iberia, but are unable to say wherefore; we are overawed at the
+magnificence displayed in the interior of cathedral churches and at a
+loss to explain the reason.
+
+As regards the former, it can be attributed to the Oriental spirit still
+throbbing in the country; not in vain did the Moor inhabit Iberia for
+nearly eight hundred years!
+
+The powerful influence of the Church on the inhabitants, an influence
+that has lasted from the middle ages to the present day, explains the
+other phenomenon. Even to-day, in Spain, the Pope is supreme and the
+princes of the Church are the rulers.
+
+Does the country gain thereby? Not at all. Andalusia is in a miserable
+state of poverty, so are Extremadura, La Mancha, and Castile. Not a
+penny do the rich, or even royalty, give to better the country people's
+piteous lot; neither does the Church.
+
+It is nevertheless necessary to be just. In studying the evolutionary
+history of architecture in Spain, we must praise the tyranny of the
+Church which spent the millions of dollars of the poor in erecting such
+marvels as the cathedral of Toledo, etc., and we must ignore the
+sweating farmer, the terror-stricken Jew, the accused heretic, the
+disgraced courtier, the seafaring conquistador, who gave up their all to
+buy a few months' life, the respite of an hour.
+
+And the author has striven to be impartial in the following pages. Once
+in awhile his bitterness has escaped the pen, but be it plainly
+understood that not one of his remarks is aimed against Spain, a country
+and a people to be admired,--above all to be pitied, for they, the
+people, are slaves to an arrogant Church, to a self-amusing royalty, and
+to a grasping horde of second-rate politicians.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+HISTORICAL ARABESQUES
+
+
+The history of Spain is, perhaps, more than that of any other nation,
+one long series of thrilling, contradictory, and frequently
+incomprehensible events.
+
+This is not only due to the country's past importance as a powerful
+factor in the evolution of our modern civilization, but to the
+unforeseen doings of fate. Fate enchained and enslaved its people,
+moulded its greatness and wrought its ruin. Of no other country can it
+so truthfully be said that it was the unwitting tool of some higher
+destiny. Most of the phenomena of its history took place in spite of the
+people's wishes or votes; neither did the different art questions,
+styles, periods, or movements emanate from the people. This must be
+borne in mind.
+
+The Romans were the first to come to Spain with a view to conquering the
+land, and to organizing the half-savage clans or tribes who roamed
+through the thickets and across the plains. But nowhere did the great
+rulers of the world encounter such fierce resistance. The clans were
+extremely warlike and, besides, intensely individual. They did not only
+oppose the foreigner's conquest of the land, but also his system of
+organization, which consisted in the submission of the individual to the
+state.
+
+The clans or tribes recognized no other law than their own sweet will;
+they acted independently of each other, and only on rare occasions did
+they fight in groups. They were local patriots who recognized no
+fatherland beyond their natal vale or village.
+
+This primary characteristic of the Spanish people is the clue to many of
+the subsequent events of the country's history. Against it the Romans
+fought, but fought in vain, for they were not able to overcome it.
+
+Christianity dawned in the East and was introduced into Spain, some say
+by St. James in the north, others by St. Peter or St. Paul in the south.
+
+The result was astonishing: what Roman swords, laws, and highroads had
+been unable to accomplish (as regards the organization of the savage
+tribes) Christianity brought about in a comparatively short lapse of
+time.
+
+The reason is twofold. In the first place, the new form of religion
+taught that all men were equal; consequently it was more to the taste of
+the individualistic Spaniard than the state doctrines of the Roman
+Empire.
+
+Secondly, it permitted him to worship his deity in as many forms
+(saints) as there were days in the year; consequently each village or
+town could boast of its own saint, prophet, or martyr, who, in the minds
+of the citizens, was greater than all other saints, and really the god
+of their fervent adoration.
+
+Hence Christianity was able to introduce into the Roman province of
+Hispania a social organization which was to exert a lasting influence on
+the country and to acquire an unheard-of degree of wealth and power.
+
+When the temporal domination of Rome in Spain had dwindled away to
+nothing, other foreigners, the Visigoths, usurped the fictitious rule.
+Their state was civil in name, military in organization, and
+ecclesiastical in reality.
+
+They formed no nation, however, though they preserved the broken
+fragments of the West Roman Empire. The same spirit of individualism
+characterized the tribes or people, and they swore allegiance to their
+local saint (God) and to the priest who was his representative on earth
+(Church)--but to no one else.
+
+Consequently it can be assumed that the Spanish nation had not as yet
+been born; the controlling power had passed from the hands of one
+foreigner to those of another: only one institution--the Church--could
+claim to possess a national character; around it, or upon its
+foundations, the nation was to be built up, stone by stone, and turret
+by turret.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The third foreigner appeared on the scene. He was doubtless the most
+important factor in the formation of the Spanish nation.
+
+It is probable that the Church called him over the Straits of Gibraltar
+as an aid against Rodrigo, the last Visigothic king, who lost his throne
+and his life because too deeply in love with his beautiful Tolesian
+mistress.
+
+Legends explain the Moor's landing differently. Sohail, as powerfully
+narrated by Mr. Cunninghame-Graham, is one of these legends, beautifully
+fatalistic and exceptionally interesting. According to it, the destiny
+of the Moors is ruled by a star named Sohail. Whither it goes they must
+follow it.
+
+In the eighth century it happened that Sohail, in her irregular course
+across the heavens, was to be seen, a brilliant star, from Gibraltar.
+Obeying the stellar call, Tarik landed in Spain and moved northwards at
+the head of his irresistible, fanatic hordes. The star continued its
+northerly movement, visible one fine night from the Arab tents pitched
+on the plains between Poitiers and Tours. The next night, however, it
+was no longer visible, and Charles Martel drove the invading Moors back
+to the south.
+
+Centuries went by and Sohail appeared ever lower down on the southern
+horizon. One night it was only visible from Granada, and then Spain saw
+it no more. That same day--'twas in the fifteenth century--Boabdil el
+Chico surrendered the keys of Granada, and the Arabs fled, obeying the
+retreating star's call.
+
+To-day they are waiting in the north of Africa for Sohail to move once
+again to the north: when she does so, they will rise again as a single
+man, and regain their passionately loved Alhambra, their beautiful
+kingdom of Andalusia.
+
+Tradition is fond of showing us a nucleus of fervent Christian patriots
+obliged by the invading Arab hordes to retire to the north-western
+corner of the Iberian peninsula. Here they made a stand, a last glorious
+stand, and, gradually increasing in strength, they were at last able to
+drive back the invader inch by inch until he fled across the straits to
+trouble Iberia no more.
+
+Nothing is, however, less true. The noblemen and monarchs of Galicia,
+Leon, and Oviedo--later of Castile, Navarra, and Aragon--were so many
+petty lords who, fighting continually among themselves, ruled over
+fragments of the defeated Visigothic kingdom. At times they called in
+the Arab enemy--to whom in the early centuries they paid a yearly
+tribute--to help them against the encroachments of their brother
+Christians. Consequently they lacked that spirit of patriotism and of
+national ambition which might have justified their claims to be called
+monarchs or rulers of Spain.
+
+The Church was no better. Its bishops were independent princes who ruled
+in their dioceses like sovereigns in their palaces; they recognized no
+supreme master, not even the Pope, whose advice was ignored, and whose
+orders were disobeyed.
+
+It was not until the twelfth or thirteenth century that the Christian
+incursions into Moorish territory took the form of patriotic crusades,
+in which fervent Christians burnt with the holy desire of weeding out of
+the peninsula the Saracen infidel.
+
+This holy crusade was due to the coming from France and Italy of the
+Cluny monks. Foreigners,--like the Romans, the Church, the Visigoths,
+and the Moors,--they created a situation which facilitated the union of
+the different monarchs, prelates, and noblemen, by showing them a common
+cause to fight for. Besides, anxious to establish the supreme power of
+the Pope in a land where his authority was a dead letter, they crossed
+the Pyrenees and broke the absolute power of the arrogant prelates.
+
+The result was obvious: the Church became uniform throughout the
+country, and its influence waxed to the detriment of that of the
+noblemen. Once again the kings learnt to rely upon the former, thus
+putting an end to the power of the latter. Once more the Church grew to
+be an ecclesiastical organization in which the role of the prelates
+became more important as time went on.
+
+In short, if the coming of the Moors retarded for nearly six hundred
+years the birth of the Spanish nation, this birth was directly brought
+about by the political ability of the Cluny monks; the Moors, on the
+other hand, exerted a direct and lasting influence on the shaping and
+moulding of the future nation.
+
+Christian Spain, at the time of the death of the pious warrior-king San
+Fernando, was roughly divided into an eastern and a western half, into
+the kingdom of Castile (and Leon) and that of Aragon. The fusion of
+these two halves by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabel, two hundred
+years later, marks the date of the birth of Spain as a nation.
+
+It is true, nevertheless, that the people had little or no voice in the
+arrangement of matters. They were indifferent to what their crowned
+rulers were doing, and ignorant of the growing power, wealth, and
+learning of the prelates. All they asked for was individual liberty and
+permission to pray to the God of their choice. Neither had as yet the
+spirit of patriotism burned in their breasts, and they were utterly
+insensible to any and all politics which concerned the peninsula as a
+unity.
+
+But the Church-state had successfully evolutionized, and Catholic kings
+sat on the only available throne. The last Moor had been driven from the
+peninsula, the Jews had been expelled from the Catholic kingdom, and the
+Inquisition--now that the Church could no longer direct its energy
+against the infidel--strengthened the Pope's hold on the land and
+increased the importance and magnificence of the prelates themselves.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A word as to heresy (the Reformation) and the Inquisition. The latter
+was not directed against the former, for it would have been impossible
+for the people to accept the reformed faith in the fifteenth century.
+For the Spaniard the charm of the Christian religion was that it placed
+him on an equal footing with all men; hence, it flattered his love of
+personal liberty and his self-consciousness or pride. The charm of
+Catholicism was that it enabled him to adore a local deity in the shape
+of a martyred saint; thus, it flattered his vanity as a clansman, and
+his spirit of individualism.
+
+It was not so much the God of Christianity he worshipped as Our Lady of
+the Pillar, Our Lady of Sorrows, of the Camino, etc., and he obeyed less
+readily the archbishop than the custodian priest of his particular
+saint, of whom he declared "that he could humiliate all other saints."
+
+Consequently Protestantism, which tended to kill this local worship by
+upholding that of a collective deity, could never have taken a serious
+hold of the country, and it is doubtful if it ever will.
+
+On the other hand--as previously remarked--the Spanish Inquisition
+helped to centralize the Church's power and obliged the people to accept
+its decisions as final. The effect of Torquemada's policy is still to be
+felt in Spain--could it be otherwise?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Had successive events in this stage of Spain's history followed a normal
+course, and had the education of the people been fostered by the state
+instead of being cursed by the Church, it is more than probable that the
+map of Europe would have been different to-day from what it is. For the
+Spanish people would have learnt to think as patriots, as a nation; they
+would have developed their country's rich soil and thickly populated
+the vast _vegas_; they would have taken the offensive against foreign
+nations, and would have chased and battled the Moor beyond the Straits
+of Gibraltar.
+
+It was not to be, however. An abnormal event was to take place--and did
+take place--which repeated in fair Iberia the retrograde movement
+initiated by the Arab invasion 750 years earlier.
+
+A foreigner was again the cause of this new phenomenon, a harebrained
+Genoese navigator whom the world calls a genius because he was
+successful, but who was an evil genius for the new-born Spanish nation,
+one who was to load his adopted country with unparalleled fame and glory
+before causing her rapid and clashing downfall.
+
+Christopher Columbus came to Spain from the east; he sailed westwards
+from Spain and discovered--for Spain!--two vast continents.
+
+The importance of this event for Spain is apt to be overlooked by those
+who are blinded by the unexpected realization of Columbus's daring
+dreams. It was as though a volcanic eruption had taken place in a virgin
+soil, tossing earth and grass, layers and strata of stone, hither and
+thither in utter confusion, impeding the further growth of young
+plantlets and forbidding the building up of a solid national edifice.
+
+Instead of devoting their energies to the interior organization of the
+country, Spaniards turned their eyes to the New World. In exchange for
+the gold and precious stones which poured into the land, they gave that
+which left the country poor and weak indeed: their blood and their
+lives. The bravest and most intrepid leaders crossed the seas with their
+followers, and behind them sailed thousands upon thousands of hardy
+adventurers and soldiers.
+
+But the Spaniards could not colonize. They lacked those qualities of
+collectivity which characterized Rome and England. The individualistic
+spirit of the people caused them to go and to come as they chose without
+possessing any ambition of establishing in the newly acquired
+territories a home and a family; neither did the women folk
+emigrate--and hence the failure of Spain as a colonizing power.
+
+On the other hand, those who had sailed the seas to the Spanish main,
+and had hoarded up a significant treasure, invariably returned, not to
+Spain exactly, but to their native town or village. Upon arriving home,
+their first act was to bequeath a considerable sum to the Church, so as
+to ease their conscience and to assure themselves homage, respect, and
+unrestrained liberty.
+
+The effects produced by this phenomenon of individualism were manifold.
+They exist even to-day, so lasting were they.
+
+A new nobility was created--wealthy, powerful, and generally arrogant
+and unscrupulous, which replaced the feudal aristocracy of the middle
+ages.
+
+Secondly, oligarchy--or better still, _caciquismo_, an individualistic
+form of oligarchy--sprung up into existence, and rapidly became the bane
+of modern Spain; that is, ever since the Bourbon dynasty ruled the
+country's fate. As can easily be understood, this _caciquismo_ can only
+flourish there where individualism is the leading characteristic of the
+people.
+
+Thirdly, all hopes of the country's possessing a well-to-do middle
+class--stamina of a wealthy nation, and without which no people can
+attain a national standard of wealth--vanished completely away.
+
+Lastly the Church, which had become wealthy beyond the dreams of the
+Cluny monks, retained its iron grip on the country, and retarded the
+liberal education of the masses. To repay the fidelity of servile
+Catholics, it canonized legions of local prophets and martyrs, and
+organized hundreds of gay annual _fiestas_ to honour their memory. The
+ignorant people, flattered at the tribute of admiration paid to their
+deities, looked no further ahead into the growing chaos of misery and
+poverty, and were happy.
+
+The crash came--could it be otherwise? Beyond the seas an immense
+territory, hundreds of times larger than the natal _solar_, or mother
+country, stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific; at home, a
+stillborn nation lay in an arid meadow beside a solemn church, a
+frivolous, selfish throne, and a mute and gloomy brick-built convent.
+
+The Spanish Armada sailed to England never to return, and Philip II.
+built the Escorial, a melancholy pantheon for the kings of the Iberian
+peninsula.
+
+One by one the colonies dropped off, fragments of an illusory empire,
+and at last the mother country stood once more stark naked as in the
+days before Columbus left Palos harbour. But the mother's face was no
+longer young and fresh like an infant's: wrinkles of age and of
+suffering creased the brow and the chin, for not in vain was she, during
+centuries, the toy of unmerciful fate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, in gigantic strides, the history of Spain.
+
+The volcanic eruption in the fifteenth century has left, it is true,
+indelible traces in the country's soil. Nevertheless, on the very day
+when the treaty of Paris was signed and the last of the Spanish colonies
+_de ultramar_ were lost for ever, that day a Spanish nation was born
+again on the disturbed foundations of the old.
+
+There is no denying it: when Ferdinand and Isabel united their kingdoms
+a nation was born; it fell to pieces (though apparently not until a
+later date) when Columbus landed in America.
+
+Anarchy, misrule, and oppression, ignorance and poverty, now frivolity
+and now austerity at court, fill the succeeding centuries until the
+coronation of Alfonso XII. During all those years, but once did
+Spain--no longer a nation--shine forth in history with an even greater
+brilliancy than when she claimed to be mistress of the world. But, on
+this occasion, when she opposed, in brave but disbanded groups, the
+invasion of the French legions, she gave another proof of the
+individualistic instincts of the race, as opposed to all social and
+compact organization of the masses.
+
+The Carlist wars need but a passing remark. They were not national; they
+were caused by the ambitions of rulers and noblemen, and fought out by
+the inhabitants of Navarra and the Basque Provinces who upheld their
+_fueros_, by paid soldiery, and by _aldeanos_ whose houses and families
+were threatened.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+New Spain was born a few years ago, but so far she has given no proof of
+vitality. As it is, she is cumbered by traditions and harassed by
+memories. She must fight a sharp battle with existing evil institutions
+handed down to her as a questionable legacy from the past.
+
+If she emerge victorious from the struggle, universal history will hear
+her name again, for the country is not _gastado_ or degenerate, as many
+would have us believe.
+
+If she fail to throw overboard the worthless and superfluous ballast, it
+is possible that the ship of state will founder--and then, who knows?
+
+In the meantime, let us not misjudge the Spaniard nor throw stones at
+his broken glass mansion. To help us in this, let us remember that
+unexpected vicissitudes, entirely foreign to his country, were the cause
+of his illusory grandeur in the sixteenth century. Besides, no more
+ardent a lover of individual (not social) freedom than the Spaniard
+breathes in this wide world of ours--excepting it be the Moor.
+
+Under the circumstances he is to be admired--even pitied.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ARABESQUES
+
+_Preliminaries_
+
+
+The different periods mentioned in the preceding chapter are
+characterized by a corresponding art-movement.
+
+The germs of these movements came invariably from abroad. In Spain they
+lingered, were localized and grew up, a species of hybrid plants in
+which the foreign element was still visible, though it had undergone a
+series of changes, due either to the addition of other elements, to the
+inventive genius of the artist-architect, or else peculiar to the
+locality in which the building was erected.
+
+Other conclusive remarks arrived at in the foregoing study help to
+explain the evolution of church architecture. Five were the conclusions:
+(1) The power and wealth of the Church, (2) the influence exerted by
+foreigners on the country's fate, (3) the individualistic spirit of the
+clanspeople, (4) the short duration of a Spanish nation, nipped in the
+bud before it could bloom, and (5) the formation of an oligarchy
+(_caciquismo_) which hindered the establishment of an educated
+_bourgeoisie_.
+
+The first of the above conclusive observations needs no further remarks,
+considering that we are studying church architecture. It suffices to
+indicate the great number of cathedrals, churches, hermitages,
+monasteries, convents, cloisters, and episcopal palaces to be convinced
+of the Church's influence on the country and on the purses of the
+inhabitants.
+
+The Spaniard, psychologically speaking, is no artist; it is doubtful if
+illiterate and uneducated people are, and the average inhabitant of
+Spain forms no exception to this rule. His artistic talents are
+exclusively limited to music, for which he has an excessively fine ear.
+But beauty in the plastic arts and architecture leave him cold and
+indifferent; he is influenced by mass, weight, and quantity rather than
+by elegance or lightness, and consequently it is the same to him whether
+a cathedral be Gothic or Romanesque, as long as it be dedicated to the
+deity of his choice.
+
+The difference between Italian and Iberian is therefore very marked.
+Even the landscapes in each country prove it beyond a doubt. In Italy
+they are composed of soft rolling lines; the colours are varied,--green,
+red, and blue; the soil is damp and fruitful. In Spain, on the contrary,
+everything is dry, arid, and savage; blue is the sky, red the brick
+houses, and grayish golden the soil; the inhabitants are as savage as
+the country, and the proverbial "_ma e piu bello_" of the Italian does
+not bother the former in the slightest.
+
+All of which goes to explain the Spaniard's insensibility to the plastic
+arts, as well as (for instance) the universal use of huge _retablos_ or
+altar-pieces, in which size and bright colours are all that is required
+and the greater the size, the more clashing the colours, the better.
+
+Neither is it surprising that the Spaniard created no architectural
+school of his own. All he possesses is borrowed from abroad. His love of
+Byzantine grotesqueness and of Moorish geometrical arabesques is
+inherited, the one from the Visigoths, and the other directly from the
+Moors. The remaining styles are northern and Italian, and were
+introduced into the country by such foreigners--monks and artists--as
+crowded to Spain in search of Spanish gold.
+
+These artists (it is true that some, and perhaps the best of them, were
+Spaniards) did not work for the people, for there was no _bourgeoisie_.
+They worked for the wealthy prelates, for the aristocracy, and for the
+_caciques_. These latter had sumptuous chapels decorated, dedicated an
+altar to such and such a deity, and erected a magnificent sepulchre or
+series of sepulchres for themselves and their families.
+
+This peculiar phenomenon explains the wealth of Spanish churches in
+lateral chapels. Not a cathedral but has about twenty of them; not a
+church but possesses its half a dozen. Moreover, some of the very finest
+examples of sepulchral art are not to be found in cathedrals, but in
+out-of-the-way village churches, where some _cacique_ or other laid his
+bones to rest and had his effigy carved on a gorgeous marble tomb.
+
+These chapels are built in all possible styles and in all degrees of
+splendour and magnificence, according to the generosity of the donor.
+Here they bulge out, deforming the regular plan of the church, or else
+they take up an important part of the interior of the building. There
+they are Renaissance jewels in a Gothic temple, or else ogival marvels
+in a Romanesque building. They are, as it were, small churches--or
+important annexes like that of the Condestable in Burgos, possessing a
+dome of its own--absolutely independent of the cathedral itself, rich in
+decorative details, luxurious in the use of polished stone and metal, of
+agate and golden accessories, of gilded friezes, low reliefs, and
+painted _retablos_. They constitute one of the most characteristic
+features of Spanish religious architecture and art in general, and it is
+above all due to them that Iberia's cathedrals are museums rather than
+solemn places of worship.
+
+But the Spanish people did not erect them; they were commanded by vain
+and death-fearing _caciques_, and erected by artists--generally
+foreigners, though often natives. The people did not care nor take any
+interest in the matter; so long as the village saint was not insulted,
+nor their individual liberty (_fuero_) infringed upon, the world, its
+artists and _caciques_, could do as it liked.
+
+This insensibility helped to hinder the formation of a national style.
+Besides, as the duration of the Spanish nation was so exceedingly short,
+there was no time at hand to develop a national art school. In certain
+localities, as in Galicia, a prevailing type or style was in common use,
+and was slowly evolving into something strictly local and excellent.
+These types, together with Moorish art, and above all _Mudejar_ work,
+might have evolved still further and produced a national style. But the
+nation fell to pieces like a dried-up barrel whose hoops are broken, and
+the nation's style was never formed.
+
+Besides, contemporary with the birth of the nation was the advent of the
+Renaissance movement. This was the _coup de grace_, the final blow to
+any germs of a Spanish style, of a style composed of Christian and Islam
+principles and ideals:
+
+    "Es waer zu schoen gewesen,
+     Es haett' nicht sollen sein!"
+
+Under the circumstances, the art student in Spain, however enthusiastic
+or one-sided he may be, cannot claim to discover a national school. He
+must necessarily limit his studies to the analysis of the foreign art
+waves which inundated the land; he must observe how they became
+localized and were modified, how they were united both wisely and
+ridiculously, and he must point out the reasons or causes of these
+medleys and transformations. There his task ends.
+
+One peculiarity will strike him: the peninsula possesses no pure Gothic,
+Romanesque, or Renaissance building. The same might almost be stated as
+regards Moorish art. The capitals of the pillars in the mezquita of
+Cordoba are Latin-Romanesque, torn from a previous building by the
+invading Arab to adorn his own temple. The Alhambra, likewise, shows
+animal arabesques which are Byzantine and not Moorish. Nevertheless,
+Arab art is, on the whole, purer in style than Christian art.
+
+This transformation of foreign styles proves: (1) That though the
+Spanish artist lacked creative genius, he was no base imitator, but
+sought to combine; he sought to give the temple he had to construct that
+heavy, massive, strong, and sombre aspect so well in harmony with the
+religious and warlike spirit of the different clanspeople; and (2) that
+the same artist failed completely to understand the ideal of soaring
+ogival, of simple Renaissance, or of pure Romanesque (this latter he
+understood better than either of the others). For him, they--as well as
+Islam art--were but elements to be made use of. Apart from their
+constructive use, they were superfluous, and the artist-architect was
+blind to their ethical object or aesthetical value. With their aid he
+built architectural wonders, but hybrid marvels, complex, grand,
+luxurious, and magnificent.
+
+Be it plainly understood, nevertheless, that in the above paragraphs no
+contempt for Spanish cathedrals is either felt or implied. Facts are
+stated, but no personal opinion is emitted as to which is better, a pure
+Gothic or a complicated Spanish Gothic. In art there is really no
+better; besides, comparisons are odious and here they are utterly
+superfluous.
+
+_Cathedral Churches_
+
+Before accompanying the art student in his task of determining the
+different foreign styles, we will do well to examine certain general
+characteristics common to all Spanish cathedrals. We will then be able
+to understand with greater ease the causes of the changes introduced
+into pure styles.
+
+The exterior aspect of all cathedrals is severe and massive, even naked
+and solemn. Neither windows nor flying buttresses are used in such
+profusion as in French cathedrals, and the height of the aisles is
+greater. The object is doubtless to impart an idea of strength to the
+exterior walls by raising them in a compact mass. An even greater effect
+is obtained by square, heavy towers instead of elegant spires. (Compare,
+however, chapters on Leon, Oviedo, Burgos, etc.) The use of domes
+(_cimborios_, lanterns, and cupolas) is also frequent, most of them
+being decidedly Oriental in appearance. The apse is prominent and
+generally five-sided, warlike in its severe outline. Stone is invariably
+used as the principal constructive element,--granite, _berroquena_ (a
+soft white stone turning deep gray with age and exposure), and _sillar_
+or _silleria_ (a red sandstone cut into similar slabs of the size and
+aspect of brick). Where red sandstone is used, the weaker parts of the
+buildings are very often constructed in brick, and it is these
+last-named cathedrals that are most Oriental in appearance, especially
+when the brick surface is carved into _Mudejar_ reliefs.
+
+Taken all in all, the whole building often resembles a castle or
+fortress rather than a temple, in harmony with the austere, arid
+landscape, and the fierce, passionate, and idolatrous character of the
+clanspeople or inhabitants of the different regions.
+
+The principal entrance is usually small in comparison to the height and
+great mass of the building. The pointed arch--or series of arches--which
+crowns the portal, is timid in its structure, or, in other words, is but
+slightly pointed or not at all.
+
+The interior aspect of the church is totally different. As bare and
+naked as was the outside, so luxurious and magnificent is the inside.
+Involuntarily mediaeval Spanish palaces come to our mind: their gloomy
+appearance from the outside, and the gay _patio_ or courtyard behind the
+heavy, uninviting panels of the doors. The Moors even to this day employ
+this system of architecture; its origin, even in the case of Christian
+churches, is Oriental.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural considerations, which will be referred
+to in the chapters dedicated to the description of the various
+cathedrals, let us examine the general disposition of some of the most
+interesting parts of the Spanish church.
+
+The aisles are, as a rule, high and dark, buried in perpetual shadow.
+The lightest and airiest part of the building is beneath the _croisee_
+(intersection of nave and transept), which is often crowned by a
+handsome _cimborio_.
+
+The nave is the most important member of the church, and the most
+impressive view is obtained by the visitor standing beneath the
+_croisee_.
+
+To the east of him, the nave terminates in a semicircular chapel, the
+farther end of which boasts of an immense _retablo_; to the west, the
+choir, with its stalls and organs, interrupts likewise the continuity of
+the nave. Both choir and altar are rich in decorative details.
+
+Behind the high altar runs the ambulatory, joining the aisles and
+separating the former from the apse and its chapels. The rear wall of
+the high altar (in the ambulatory) is called the _trasaltar_, where a
+small altar is generally situated in a recess and dedicated to the
+patron saint, that is, if the cathedral itself be dedicated to the
+Virgin, as generally happens.
+
+Sometimes an oval window pierces the wall of the _trasaltar_ and lets
+the light from the apsidal windows enter the high altar; this
+arrangement is called a _transparente_.
+
+The choir, as wide as the nave and often as high, is rectangular; an
+altar-table generally stands in the western extremity, which is closed
+off by a wall. The rear of this wall (facing the western entrance to the
+temple) is called the _trascoro_, and contains the altar or a chapel;
+the lateral walls are also pierced by low rooms or niches which serve
+either as chapels or as altar-frames.
+
+The placing of the choir in the very centre of the church, its width and
+height, and its enclosure on the western end by a wall, render
+impossible a view of the whole building such as occurs in Northern
+cathedrals, and upon which the impression of architectural grandeur and
+majesty largely depends. It was as though Spanish architects were
+utterly foreign to the latter impression, or wilfully murdered it by
+substituting another more to their taste, namely, that of magnificence
+and sumptuousness. Nowhere--to the author's knowledge--is this
+impression more acutely felt than in a Spanish cathedral, viewed from
+beneath the _croisee_.
+
+Glittering brilliancy, dazzling gold, silver, or gilt, polished marble,
+agate, and jasper, and a luxuriance of vivid colours meet the visitor's
+eyes when standing there. The effect is theatrical, doubtless, but it
+impresses the humble true believer as Oriental splendour; and what, in
+other countries, might be considered as grotesque and unhealthy art,
+must in Spain be regarded as the very essence of the country's worship,
+the very _raison d'etre_ of the cathedral. Neither can it be considered
+as unhealthy: with us in the North, our _religious awe_ is produced by
+the solemn majesty of rising shafts and long, high, and narrow aisles;
+this fails to impress the Iberian of to-day; and yet, the same sentiment
+of _religious awe_, of the terrible unknown, be it saint, Saviour,
+Virgin, or God, is imparted to him by this brilliant display of
+incalculable wealth.
+
+To produce this magnificence in choir and high altar, decorative and
+industrial art were given a free hand, and together wrought those
+wonders of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries which
+placed Spain in a prominent position in the history of art. Goldsmiths
+and silversmiths, masters of ironcraft, sculptors in stone and wood,
+painters and _estofadores_, together with a legion of other artists and
+artisans of all classes and nationalities, worked together in unison to
+create both choir and high altar.
+
+Therefore, from an artistic point of view, the Spanish cathedral is for
+the foreigner a museum, a collection of art objects, pertaining, most of
+them, to the country's industrial arts, for which Iberia was first among
+all nations.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CHOIR STALLS.--Space cannot allow us to classify this most important
+accessory of Spanish cathedrals. Carved in walnut or oak, now simple and
+severe, now rich and florid, this branch of graphic art in low relief
+constitutes one of Spain's most legitimate glories. It is strange that
+no illustrated work dedicated exclusively to choir stalls should have
+been published in any language. The tourist's attention must
+nevertheless be drawn to this part of religious buildings; it must
+not escape his observation when visiting cathedral and parish churches,
+and above all, monastical churches.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER STALLS IN A MONASTIC CHURCH AT LEON]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+RETABLO.--The above remarks hold good here as well, when speaking about
+the huge and imposing altar-pieces so universally characteristic of
+Spain.
+
+The eastern wall of the holy chapel in a cathedral is entirely hidden
+from top to bottom by the _retablo_, a painted wooden structure
+resembling a huge honeycomb. It consists of niches flanked by gilded
+columns. According to the construction of these columns, now Gothic
+shafts, now Greek or composite, now simple and severe, the period to
+which the _retablo_ belongs is determined.
+
+Generally pyramidically superimposed, these niches, of the height,
+breadth, and depth of an average man, contain life-size statues of
+apostle or saint, painted and decorated by the _estofadores_ in
+brilliant colours (of course, as they are intended to be seen from a
+distance!), in which red and blue are predominant, and which produce a
+gorgeous effect _rehausse_ by the gilt columns of the niches. (Compare
+with the Oriental taste of _Mudejar_ work in ceilings or
+_artesonados_.)
+
+The whole _retablo_, in the low reliefs which form the base, and in the
+statues or groups in the niches, represents graphically the life of the
+Saviour or the Virgin, of the patron saint or an apostle; some of them
+are of exquisite execution and of great variety and movement; in others,
+greater attention has been paid to the decoration of the columns or
+shafts by original floral garlands, etc. Foment, Juni, and Berruguete
+are among the most noted _retablo_ sculptors, but space will not permit
+of a more prolific classification or analysis.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS.--The vessels used on the altar-table, effigies of
+saints, processional crosses, etc., in beaten gold and silver, are well
+worth examination. So is also the cathedral treasure, in some cases of
+an immense value, both artistic and intrinsic. Cloths, woven in coloured
+silks, gold, and precious stones, are beautiful enough to make any art
+lover envious.
+
+The central niche of the _retablo_, immediately above the altar-table,
+is generally occupied by a massive beaten silver effigy, the artistic
+value of which is unluckily partially concealed beneath a heap of
+valuable cloths and jewels.
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL RETABLO (PALENCIA)]
+
+But where the silversmith's art is purest and most lavishly pronounced
+is in the _sagrarios_. These are solid silver carved pyramids about two
+or three feet high: they represent miniature temples or thrones with
+shafts or columns supporting arches, windows, pinnacles, and cupolas. In
+the interior, an effigy of the saint, or the Virgin, etc., to whom the
+cathedral is dedicated, is to be seen seated on a throne.
+
+In all cases the workmanship of these miniature temples is exquisite,
+and has brought just fame to Spain's fifteenth and sixteenth century
+silversmiths.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+IRONCRAFT.--Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the
+artisans who worked in iron. They brought their trade up to the height
+of a fine art of universal fame; their artistic window _rejas_, in the
+houses and palaces of the rich, are the wonder of all art lovers, and so
+also are the immense _rejas_ or grilles which close off the high altar
+and the choir from the transept, or the entrance to chapels from the
+aisles. Though this art has completely degenerated to-day, nevertheless,
+a just remark was made in the author's hearing by an Englishman, who
+said:
+
+"Even to-day, Spaniards are unable to make a bad _reja_."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The reader's and tourist's attention has been called to the salient
+artistic points of a Spanish cathedral. They must be examined one by
+one, and they will be admired; the view of the ensemble will puzzle and
+amaze him, yet it will be wise for him not to criticize harshly the lack
+of _unity of style_. Frequently the choir stalls are ogival, the
+_retablo_ Renaissance, the _rejas_ plateresque, and the general
+decoration of columns, etc., of the most lavish grotesque.
+
+This in itself is no sin, neither artistic nor ethical, as long as the
+_religious awe_ comes home to the Spaniard, for whom these cathedrals
+are intended. Besides, it is an open question whether the monotony of a
+pure style be nobler than a luxurious moulding together of all styles.
+The whole question is, do the different parts harmonize, or do they
+produce a _criard_ impression.
+
+The answer in all cases is purely personal. Yet, even if unfavourable,
+the utility of the art demonstration must be borne in mind and
+considered as well. And as regards the Spaniard, the utility does exist
+beyond a doubt.
+
+
+_Architectural Styles_
+
+Let us now follow the art student in his task. He will determine the
+different styles, and, to make the matter clearer, he will employ a
+rhetorical figure:
+
+There is an island in the sea. Huge breakers roar on the beach and dash
+against the rocky cliffs. Second, third, and fourth breakers of varying
+strength and energy race with the first, and are in their turn pushed
+relentlessly on from behind until they ripple in dying surf on the
+golden sands and boil in white spray in hidden clifts and caves. With
+the years that roll along the island is shaped according to the will of
+the waves.
+
+Spain, figuratively speaking, is that island, or a peninsula off the
+southwestern coast of the Old World, barred from France by the
+impassable Pyrenees, and forming the link between Africa and Europe:
+the first stepping-stone for the former in its northern march, the last
+extremity or the rear-guard of the latter.
+
+The breakers represent the different art movements which, born in
+countries where _compact_ nations were fighting energetically for an
+existence and for an ideal, flooded with terrible force the civilized
+lands of the middle ages, and sought to outdo and conquer their rivals.
+
+These breakers were: from the east, early Christian (both Latin-Lombard
+and Byzantine); from the north, Gothic; from the south, Arab, or, to be
+more accurate, Moorish. The first two were advocates of one
+civilization, the Christian or Occidental; the latter was the
+propagandist of another, the Neo-Oriental or Mohammedan.
+
+The Renaissance was but a second or third breaker coming from the east,
+which breathed new life into antiquated constructive and decorative
+elements by adapting them to a new religion or faith.
+
+Later architectural forms were but the periodical revival or combination
+of one or another of the already existing elements.
+
+Spain, thanks to her unique position, was the point where all these
+contradictory waves met in a final endeavour to crush their opponents.
+In Spain, Byzantine pillars fought against Lombard shafts, and Gothic
+pinnacles rose haughtily beside the horseshoe arch and the _arc brise_.
+In Spain Christianity grappled with the Islam faith and sent it bleeding
+back to the wilds of Africa; in Spain the polygon, circle, and square
+struggled for supremacy and lost their personality in the complex
+blending of the one with the other, and minarets, cupolas, and spires
+combined in bizarre fantasy and richness of decoration to serve the
+ambitions of mighty prelates, fanatic kings, and death-fearing noblemen.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Such is, rhetorically speaking, the history of architecture of Spain.
+Cathedrals had a _cachet_ of their own, either national (in certain
+characteristics) or else local. But the elements of which they were
+composed were foreign. That is, excepting in the case of Spanish-Moorish
+art.
+
+Moorish art! In the second volume (Southern Spain), the author of these
+lines will dedicate several paragraphs to the art of the Moors in Spain.
+Suffice to assert in the present chapter the following statements.
+
+(1) Moorish art in Spain is peculiar to the Arabs who inhabited the
+peninsula during seven hundred years. Consequently this art, born on
+Iberian soil, cannot be regarded as foreign.
+
+(2) Much of what is called Moorish art owes its existence to the
+Christians, to the Muzarabs and Jews who inhabited cities which were
+dependent upon or belonged to the Moors. In the same way, much of the
+Oriental taste of the Spanish Christians was inherited from the Moors
+and received in Spain the generic name of _Mudejar_.
+
+(3) The art of the Moors, though largely used in Spain, especially in
+the south, rarely entered into cathedral structures, though often
+noticeable in churches, cloisters, and in decorative motives.
+
+(4) The Moors learnt more art motives in Spain than they introduced into
+the country.
+
+These and many other points of interest will have to be neglected in the
+present chapter. For the cathedrals of the north are (as regards the
+ideal which brought about their erection) radically opposed to Moorish
+art.
+
+Prehistoric Roman and Visigothic (?) art are equally unimportant in this
+study, as neither the one nor the other constructed any Christian temple
+standing to-day. That is to say, cathedral; for Visigothic or early
+Latin and Byzantine Romanesque churches do exist in Asturias, and a
+notable specimen in Venta de Banos. They are peculiarly strange
+edifices, and it is to be regretted that they are not cathedrals, for
+their study would be most interesting, not only as regards Iberian art,
+but above all as regards the history of art in the middle ages. So far,
+they have been completely neglected, and, unfortunately, are but little
+known abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ROMANESQUE.--The origin of Romanesque is greatly discussed. Some
+attribute it to Italy, others to France; others again are of the
+conviction that all Christian (religious) art previous to the birth of
+Gothic is Romanesque, etc., etc. The most plausible theory is that the
+style in question evolved out of the early Latin-Christian (basilique)
+style, at the same time borrowing many decorative details from the
+Byzantine-Christian style.
+
+In Spain, pre-Romanesque Christian architecture (or Visigothic) shows
+decided Byzantine influence, more so, probably, than in any other
+European country. This peculiarity influences also Romanesque, both
+early and late. It is not strange, either, considering that an important
+colony of _Bizantinos_ (Christians) settled in Eastern Andalusia during
+the Visigothic period.
+
+In the tenth century churches, and in the eleventh cathedrals, commenced
+to be erected in Northern Spain. Byzantine influence was very marked in
+the earlier monuments.
+
+Was Romanesque a foreign style? Was it introduced from Italy or France,
+or was it a natural outcome or evolutionary product of decadent early
+Christian architecture? In the latter case there is no saying where it
+evolved, possibly to the north or to the south of the Pyrenees, possibly
+to the east or to the west of the Alps. What is more, the Pyrenees in
+those days did not serve as a strict frontier line like to-day; on the
+contrary, both Navarra and Aragon extended beyond the mountainous wall,
+and the dukes of Southern France occasionally possessed immense
+territories and cities to the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+Be that as it may, Romanesque, as a style, first dawned in Spain in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries. Its birth coincided with that of the
+popular religious crusade against the Moor who had inhabited the
+peninsula during four centuries; it coincided also with the great
+church-erecting period of Northern Spanish history, when the Alfonsos of
+Castile created bishoprics (to aid them in their political ambitions) as
+easily as they broke inconvenient treaties and savagely murdered
+friends, relatives, and foes alike. Consequently, many were the
+Romanesque cathedrals erected, and though the greater part were
+destroyed later and replaced by Gothic structures, several fine
+specimens of the former style are still to be seen.
+
+Needless to say, Romanesque became localized; in other words, it
+acquired certain characteristics restricted to determined regions.
+Galician Romanesque and that of Western Castile, for instance, are
+almost totally different in aspect: the former is exceedingly poetical
+and possesses carved wall decorations both rich and excellent; the
+latter is intensely strong and warlike, and the decorations, if
+employed at all, are Byzantine, or at least Oriental in taste.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TRANSITION.--Many of the cathedrals of Galicia belong, according to
+several authors, to this period in which Romanesque strength evolved
+into primitive Gothic or ogival airiness. In another chapter a personal
+opinion has been emitted denying the accuracy of the above remark.
+
+There is no typical example of Transition in Spain. Ogival changes
+introduced at a later date into Romanesque churches, a very common
+occurrence, cannot justify the classification of the buildings as
+Transition monuments.
+
+Nor is it surprising that such buildings should be lacking in Spain. For
+Gothic did not evolve from Romanesque in the peninsula, but was
+introduced from France. A short time after its first appearance it swept
+all before it, thanks to the Cluny monks, and was exclusively used in
+church-building. In a strict sense it stands, moreover, to reason that
+the former (Transition) can only exist there where a new style emerges
+from an old without being introduced from abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OGIVAL ART.--The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are,
+properly speaking, those of the great northern art wave which spread
+rapidly through the peninsula, bending all before its irresistible will.
+Romanesque churches were destroyed or modified (the introduction of an
+ambulatory in almost all Romanesque buildings), and new cathedrals
+sprung up, called into existence by the needs and requirements of a new
+people, a conquering, Christian people, driving the infidel out of the
+land, and raising the Holy Cross on the sacred monuments of the Islam
+religion.
+
+The changements introduced into the new style tended to give it a more
+severe and defiant exterior appearance than in northern churches,--a
+scarcity of windows and flying buttresses, timidly pointed arches, and
+solid towers. Besides, round-headed arches (vaultings and horizontal
+lines) were indiscriminately used to break the vertical tendency of pure
+ogival; so also were Byzantine cupolas and domes.
+
+The solemn, cold, and naked cathedral church of Alcala de Henares is a
+fine example of the above. Few people would consider it to belong to the
+same class as the eloquent cathedral of Leon and the no less imposing
+see of Burgos. Nevertheless, it is, every inch of it, as pure Gothic as
+the last named, only, it is essentially Spanish, the other two being
+French; it bears the sombre _cachet_ of the age of Spanish Inquisition,
+of the fanatic intolerant age of the Catholic kings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LATER STYLES.--Toward the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the
+sixteenth centuries, Italian Renaissance entered the country and drove
+Gothic architecture out of the minds of artists and patronizing
+prelates.
+
+But Italian Renaissance failed to impress the Spaniard, whose character
+was opposed to that of his Mediterranean cousin; so also was the general
+aspect of his country different from that of Italy. Consequently, it is
+not surprising that we should find very few pure Renaissance monuments
+on the peninsula. On the other hand, Spanish Renaissance--a florid form
+of the Italian--is frequently to be met with; in its severest form it is
+called _plateresco_.
+
+In the times of Philip II., Juan Herrero created his style (Escorial),
+of which symmetry, grandeur in size, and poverty in decoration were the
+leading characteristics. The reaction came, however, quickly, and
+Churriguera introduced the most astounding and theatrical grotesque
+imaginable.
+
+The later history of Spanish architecture is similar to that of the rest
+of Europe. As it is, the period which above all interests us here is
+that reaching from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, embracing
+Romanesque, ogival, and plateresque styles. Of the cathedrals treated of
+in this volume, all belong to either of the two first named
+architectural schools, excepting those of Valladolid, Madrid, and, to a
+certain extent, the new cathedral of Salamanca and that of Segovia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MUDEJAR ART.--Previous to the advent of Italian Renaissance in Spain, a
+new art had been created which was purely national, having been born on
+the peninsula as the complex product of Christian and Islam elements.
+This art, known by the generic name of _Mudejar_, received a mortal blow
+at the hands of the new Italian art movement. Consequently, the only
+school which might have been regarded as Spanish, degenerated sadly,
+sharing the fate of the new-born nation.
+
+Rather than a constructive style, the _Mudejar_ or Spanish style is
+decorative. With admirable variety and profusion it ornamented brick
+surfaces by covering them with reliefs, either geometrical (Moorish) or
+Gothic, either sunk into the wall or else the latter cut around the
+former.
+
+The aspect of these _Mudejar_ buildings is peculiar. In a ruddy plain
+beneath a dazzling blue sky, these red brick churches gleam thirstily
+from afar. Shadows play among the reliefs, lending them strength and
+vigour; the _alminar_ tower stands forth prominently against the sky and
+contrasts delightfully with the cupola raised on the apse or on the
+_croisee_.
+
+Among the finest examples of _Mudejar_ art, must be counted the
+brilliantly coloured ceilings, such as are to be seen in Alcala, Toledo,
+and elsewhere. These _artesonados_, without being Moorish, are,
+nevertheless, of a pronounced Oriental taste. A geometrical pattern is
+carved on the wood of the ceiling and brilliantly painted. Prominent
+surfaces are preferably golden in hue, and such as are sunk beneath the
+level are red or blue. The effect is dazzling.
+
+[Illustration: MUDEJAR ARCHITECTURE (SAHAGUN)]
+
+Unluckily, but little attention has been paid out of Spain to
+_Mudejar_ art, and it is but little known. Even Spanish critics do not
+agree as to the national significance of this art, and it is a great
+pity, as unfortunately the country can point to no other art phenomena
+and claim them to be Spanish. How can it, when the nation had not as yet
+been born, and, once born, was to die almost simultaneously, like a moth
+that flies blindly and headlong into an intense flame?
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Spain geographically can be roughly divided into two parts, a northern
+and southern, separated by a mountain chain, composed of the Sierras de
+Guaderrama, Gredos, and Gata to the north of Madrid.
+
+Such a division does not, however, explain the historical development of
+the Christian kingdoms from the eighth to the fifteenth centuries, nor
+is it advisable to adopt it for an architectural study.
+
+During the great period of church-building, the nine kingdoms of Spain
+formed four distinct groups: Galicia, Asturias, Leon, and Castile;
+Navarra and Aragon; Barcelona and Valencia; Andalusia.
+
+The first group gradually evolved until Castile absorbed the remaining
+three kingdoms, and later Andalusia as well; the second and third groups
+succumbed to the royal house of Aragon.
+
+From an architectural point of view, there are three groups, or even
+four: Castile, Aragon, the Mediterranean coast-line, and Andalusia. In
+the last three the Oriental influence is far more pronounced than in the
+first named.
+
+Further, Spain is divided into nine archbishoprics: four corresponding
+to Castile (Santiago, Burgos, Valladolid, and Toledo); one to Aragon
+(Zaragoza); two to the Mediterranean coast (Tarragon and Valencia); and
+two to Andalusia (Sevilla and Granada).
+
+It was the author's object to preserve as far as possible in the
+following chapters and in the general subdivision of his work, not only
+the geographical, but the historical, architectural, and ecclesiastical
+divisions as well. Better still, he sacrificed the first when
+incompatible with the latter three.
+
+But--and here the difficulty arose--what title should be chosen for each
+of the two volumes which were to be dedicated to Spain? Because two
+volumes were necessary, considering the eighty odd cathedrals to be
+described.
+
+"Cathedrals of Northern Spain" as opposed to "Cathedrals of Southern
+Spain"--was one of the titles. "Gothic cathedrals of Spain"--as opposed
+to "Moorish Cathedrals of Spain"--was another; the latter had to be
+discarded, as only one Moorish mezquita converted into a Christian
+temple exists to-day, namely, that of Cordoba.
+
+There remained, therefore, the first title.
+
+The first volume, discarding Navarra and Aragon (in the north), is
+dedicated to Castile, as well as its four archbishoprics.
+
+The narrow belt of land, running from east to west, from Cuenca to
+Coria, to the south of the Sierra de Guaderrama, and constituting the
+archbishopric of Toledo, has been added to the region lying to the north
+and to the northwest of Madrid.
+
+Moreover, to aid the reader, the present volume has been divided into
+parts, namely: Galicia, the North, and Castile; the latter has been
+subdivided into western and eastern, making in all four divisions.
+
+(1) _Galicia._ Santiago de Campostela is, from an ecclesiastical point
+of view, all Galicia. Thanks to this spirit, the entire region shows a
+decided uniformity in the style of its churches, for that of Santiago
+(Romanesque) served as a pattern or model to be adopted in the remaining
+sees. The character of the people is no less uniform, and the Celtic
+inheritance of poetry has drifted into the monuments of the Christian
+religion.
+
+The episcopal see of Oviedo falls under the jurisdiction of Santiago;
+the Gothic cathedral shows no Romanesque motives excepting the Camara
+Sagrada, and has therefore been included in--
+
+(2) _The North._ With the exception of Oviedo, all the bishoprics in
+this group fall under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Burgos. The
+two finest Gothic temples in Northern Spain pertain to this group:
+Burgos and Leon.
+
+There is, however, but little uniformity in this northern region, for
+Santander and Vitoria have but little in common with the remaining sees.
+
+(3) _Western Castile._ A certain degree of uniformity is seen to exist
+among the sees of Western Castile, namely, the warlike appearance of the
+Byzantine Romanesque edifices. Besides, the use of sandstone and brick
+is here universal, and the immense plain of Old Castile to the north of
+the Sierra de Gata, and of Northern Extremadura to the south of the same
+range, have a peculiar ruddy aspect, dry and Oriental (African?), that
+is perfectly delightful.
+
+The sees to the north of the mentioned mountain chain belong to
+Valladolid; those of the south to Toledo.
+
+(4) _Eastern Castile_ extends from Valladolid in the north
+(archbishopric) to Toledo in the south (archbishopric), from Avila in
+the west to Sigueenza in the east, and to Cuenca in the extreme southeast
+of New Castile.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the middle ages the Christian kings of Asturias (Galicia?) grew more
+and more powerful, and their territory stretched out to the south and to
+the east.
+
+On the Mino River, Tuy and Orense were frontier towns, to populate
+which, bishoprics were erected. To the south of Oviedo, and almost on a
+line with the two Galician towns, Astorga, Leon and Burgos were strongly
+fortified, and formed an imaginary line to the north of which ruled
+Christian monarchs, and to the south Arab emirs.
+
+Burgos at the same time served as fortress-town against the rival kings
+of Navarra to the north and east; the latter, on the other hand,
+fortified the Rioja against Castile until at last it fell into the
+hands of the latter. Then Burgos, no longer a frontier town, grew to be
+capital of the new-formed kingdom of Castile.
+
+Slowly, but surely, the Arabs moved southwards, followed by the
+implacable line of Christian fortresses. At one time Valladolid,
+Palencia, Toro, and Zamora formed this line. When Toledo was conquered
+it was substituted by Coria, Plasencia, Sigueenza, and, slightly to the
+north, by Madrid, Avila, Segovia, and Salamanca. At the same time
+Sigueenza, Segovia, Soria, and Logrono formed another strategic line of
+fortifications against Aragon, whilst in the west Plasencia, Coria, Toro
+and Zamora, Tuy, Orense, and Astorga kept the Portuguese from Castilian
+soil. In the extreme southwest Cuenca, impregnable and highly
+strategical, looked eastwards and southwards against the Moor, and
+northwards against the Aragonese.
+
+In all these links of the immense strategical chain which protected
+Castile from her enemies, the monarchs were cunning enough to erect sees
+and appoint warrior-bishops. They even donated the new fortress-cities
+with special privileges or _fueros_, in virtue of which settlers came
+from all parts of the country to inhabit and constitute the new
+municipality.
+
+Such--in gigantic strides--is the story of most of Castile's world-famed
+cities. In each chapter, dates, anecdotes, and more details are given,
+with a view to enable the reader to become acquainted not only with the
+ecclesiastical history of cities like Burgos and Valladolid, but also
+with the causes which produced the growing importance of each see, as
+well as its decadence within the last few centuries.
+
+
+
+
+_PART II_
+
+_Galicia_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+SANTIAGO DE CAMPOSTELA
+
+
+When the Christian religion was still young, St. James the Apostle--he
+whom Christ called his brother--landed in Galicia and roamed across the
+northern half of the Iberian peninsula dressed in a pilgrim's modest
+garb and leaning upon a pilgrim's humble staff. After years of wandering
+from place to place, he returned to Galicia and was beheaded by the
+Romans, his enemies.
+
+This legend--or truth--has been poetically interwoven with other legends
+of Celtic origin, until the whole story forms what Brunetiere would call
+a _cycle chevaleresque_ with St. James--or Santiago--as the central
+hero.
+
+According to one of these legends, it would appear that the apostle was
+persecuted by his great enemy Lupa, a woman of singular beauty whom the
+ascetic pilgrim had mortally offended. Thanks to certain accessory
+details, it is possible to assume that Lupa is the symbol of the "God
+without a name" of Celtic mythology, and it is she who finally venges
+herself by decapitating the pilgrim saint.
+
+The disciples of St. James laid his corpse in a cart, together with the
+executioner's axe and the pilgrim's staff. Two wild bulls were then
+harnessed to the vehicle, and away went cart and saint. As night fell
+and the moon rose over the vales of Galicia, the weary animals stopped
+on the summit of a wooded hill in an unknown vale, surrounded by other
+hillocks likewise covered with foliage and verdure.
+
+The disciples buried the saint, together with axe and staff, and there
+they left him with the secret of his burial-ground.
+
+This must have happened in the first or second century of the Christian
+era. Six hundred years later, and one hundred years after the Moors had
+landed in Andalusia, one Theodosio, Bishop of Iria (Galicia), took a
+walk one day in his wide domains accompanied by a monk. Together they
+lost their way and roamed about till night-fall, when they found
+themselves far from home.
+
+Stars twinkled in the heavens as they do to this day. Being tired, the
+bishop and his companion dreamt as they walked along--at least it
+appears so from what followed--and the stars were so many miraculous
+lights which led the wanderers on and on. At last the stars remained
+motionless above a wooded hill standing isolated in a beautiful vale.
+The prelate stopped also, and it occurred to him to dig, for he
+attributed his dreams to a supernatural miracle. Digging, a coffin was
+revealed to him, and therein the saintly remains of St. James or
+Santiago.
+
+Giving thanks to Him who guides all steps, Theodosio returned to Iria,
+and, by his orders, a primitive basilica was erected some years later on
+the very spot where the saint had been buried, and in such a manner as
+to place the high altar just above the coffin. A crypt was then dug out
+and lined with mosaic, and the coffin, either repaired or renewed, was
+laid therein,--some say it was visible to the hordes of pilgrims in the
+tenth and eleventh centuries.
+
+The shrine was then called Santiago de Campostela.--Santiago, which
+means St. James, and Campostela, field of stars, in memory of the
+miraculous lights the Bishop of Iria and his companion had perceived
+whilst sweetly dreaming.
+
+The news of the discovery spread abroad with wonderful rapidity.
+Monasteries, churches, and inns soon surrounded the basilica, and within
+a few years a village and then a city (the bishop's see was created
+previous to 842 A. D.) filled the vale, which barely fifty years earlier
+had been an undiscovered and savage region.
+
+Throughout the middle ages, from the eleventh to the fifteenth
+centuries, Santiago de Campostela was the scene of pilgrimages--not to
+say crusades--to the tomb of St. James. From France, Italy, Germany, and
+England hundreds and thousands of men, women, and children wandered to
+the Galician valley, then one of the foci of ecclesiastical significance
+and industrial activity. The city, despite its local character, wore an
+international garb, much to the benefit of Galician, even Spanish, arts
+and literature. It is a pity that so little research has been made
+concerning these pilgrimages and the influences they brought to bear on
+the history of the country. A book treating of this subject would be a
+highly interesting account of one of the most important movements of the
+middle ages.
+
+The Moors under Almanzor pillaged the city of Santiago in 999; then they
+retreated southwards, as was their wont. The Norman vikings also visited
+the sacred vale, attracted thither by the reports of its wealth; but
+they also retreated, like the waves of the sea when the tide goes out.
+
+After the last Arab invasion, an extemporaneous edifice was erected in
+place of the shrine which had been demolished. It did not stand long,
+however, for the Christian kings of Spain, whose dominions were limited
+to Asturias, Leon, and Galicia, ordered the construction of a building
+worthy of St. James, who was looked upon as the god of battles, much
+like St. George in England.
+
+So in 1078 the new cathedral, the present building, was commenced, and,
+as the story runs, it was built around the then existing basilica, which
+was left standing until after the vault of the new edifice had been
+closed.
+
+The history of Spain at this moment helped to increase the religious
+importance of Santiago. The kingdom of Asturias (Oviedo) had stretched
+out beyond its limits and died; the Christian nuclei were Galicia, Leon,
+and Navarra. In these three the power of the noblemen, and consequently
+of the bishops and archbishops, was greater than it had ever been
+before. Each was lord or sovereign in his own domains, and fought
+against his enemies with or without the aid of the infidel Arab armies,
+which he had no compunction in inviting to help him against his
+Christian brothers. Now and again a king managed to subdue these
+aristocratic lords and ecclesiastical prelates, but only for a short
+time. Besides, nowhere was the independent spirit of the noblemen more
+accentuated than in Galicia; nowhere were the prelates so rebellious as
+in Santiago, the Sacred City, and none attained a greater height of
+personal power and wealth than Diego Galmirez, the first archbishop of
+Santiago, and one of the most striking and interesting personalities of
+Spanish history in the twelfth century, to whom Santiago owes much of
+her glory, and Spain not little of her future history.
+
+The twelfth and thirteenth centuries were thus the period of Santiago's
+greatest fame and renown. Little by little the central power of the
+monarchs went southwards to Castile and Andalusia, and little by little
+Santiago declined and dwindled in importance, until to-day it is one
+city more of those that have been and are no longer.
+
+For the city's history is that of its cathedral, of its shrine. With the
+birth of Protestantism and the death of feudal power, both city and
+cathedral lost their previous importance: they had sprung into life
+together, and the existence of the one was intricately interwoven with
+that of the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The stranger who visits Santiago to-day does not approach it fervently
+by the Mount of Joys as did the footsore pilgrims in the middle ages. On
+the contrary, he steps out of the train and hurries to the cathedral
+church, which sadly seems to repeat the thoughts of the city itself, or
+the words of Senor Muguira:
+
+"To-day, what am I? An echo of the joys and pains of hundreds of
+generations; a distant rumour both confused and undefinable, a last
+sunbeam fading at evening and dying on the glassy surface of sleeping
+waters. Never will man learn my secrets, never will he be able to open
+my granite lips and oblige them to reveal the mysterious past."
+
+As is generally known, the cathedral is a Romanesque building of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries mutilated by posterior additions and
+recent ameliorations (_sic_). It was begun in 1078, and, though finished
+about 150 years later, no ogival elements drifted into the construction
+until long after its completion. As will be seen later on, it served as
+the model for most of Galicia's cathedrals. On the other hand, it is
+generally believed to be an imitation--as regards the general
+disposition--of St. Saturnin in Toulouse: a combatable theory, however,
+as the churches were contemporaneous.
+
+Seen from the outside, the Cathedral of Santiago lacks harmony; few
+remains of the primitive structure are to be discovered among the many
+later-date additions and reforms. The base of the towers and some fine
+blinded windows, with naive low reliefs in the semicircular tympanum,
+will have to be excepted.
+
+The Holy Door--a peculiarly placed apsidal portal on the eastern
+front--is built up of decorative elements saved from the northern and
+western facades when they were torn down.
+
+[Illustration: SANTIAGO AND ITS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The best portal is the Puerta de la Plateria, opening into the southern
+arm of the transept. It is, unluckily, depressed and thrown into the
+background by the cloister walls on the left, and by the Trinity Tower
+on the right. Nevertheless, both handsome and sober, it can be counted
+among the finest examples of its kind--pure Romanesque--in Spain, and is
+rendered even more attractive by the peculiar Galician poetry which
+inspired its sculptors.
+
+Immediately above the panels of the door, which are covered with
+twelfth-century metal reliefs, there is a stone plaque or low relief,
+representing the Passion scene; to the left of it is to be seen a
+kneeling woman holding a skull in her hand. Evidently it is a weeping,
+penitent Magdalene. The popular tongue has invented a legend--perhaps a
+true one--concerning this woman, who is believed to symbolize the
+adulteress. It appears that a certain hidalgo, discovering his wife's
+sins, killed her lover by cutting off his head; he then obliged her to
+kiss and adore the skull twice daily throughout her life,--a rather
+cruel punishment and a slow torture, quite in accordance with the
+mystic spirit of the Celts.
+
+The apse of the church, circular in the interior, is squared off on the
+outside by the addition of chapels. As regards the plateresque northern
+and western facades, they are out of place, though the former might have
+passed off elsewhere as a fairly good example of the severe
+sixteenth-century style.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform; the principal nave
+is high, and contains both choir and high altar; the two aisles are much
+lower and darker, and terminate behind the high altar in an ambulatory
+walk. The width of the transept is enormous, and is composed of a nave
+and two aisles similar in size to those of the body of the church. The
+_croisee_ is surmounted by a dome, which, though not Romanesque, is
+certainly an advantageous addition.
+
+Excepting the high altar with its _retablo_, the choir with its none too
+beautiful stalls, and the various chapels of little interest and less
+taste, the general view of the interior is impressively beautiful. The
+height of the central nave, rendered more elegant by the addition of a
+handsome Romanesque triforium of round-headed arches, contrasts
+harmoniously with the sombre aisles, whereas the bareness of the
+walls--for all mural paintings were washed away by a bigoted prelate
+somewhere in the fifteenth century--helps to show off to better
+advantage the rich sculptural decorations, leaf and floral designs on
+capitals and friezes.
+
+The real wonder of the cathedral is the far-famed Portico de la Gloria,
+the vestibule or narthex behind the western entrance of the church, and
+as renowned as its sculptural value is meritorious.
+
+So much has already been written concerning this work of art that really
+little need be mentioned here. Street, who persuaded the British
+Government to send a body of artists to take a plaster copy of this
+strange work, could not help declaring that: "I pronounce this effort of
+Master Mathews at Santiago to be one of the greatest glories of
+Christian art."
+
+And so it is. Executed in the true Romanesque period, each column and
+square inch of surface covered with exquisite decorative designs,
+elaborated with care and not hastily, as was the habit of later-day
+artists, the three-vaulted rectangular vestibule between the body of the
+church and the western extremity where the light streams in through the
+rose window, is an immense allegory of the Christian religion, of human
+life, and above all of the mystic, melancholy poetry of Celtic Galicia.
+Buried in half-lights, this song of stone with the statue of the Trinity
+and St. James, with the angels blowing their trumpets from the walls,
+and the virtues and vices of this world symbolized by groups and by
+persons, is of a sincere poetry that leaves a lasting impression upon
+the spectator. Life, Faith, and Death, Judgment and Purgatory, Hell and
+Paradise or Glory, are the motives carved out in stone in this unique
+narthex, so masterful in the execution, and so vivid in the tale it
+tells, that we can compare its author to Dante, and call the Portico de
+la Gloria the "Divina Commedia" of architecture.
+
+At one end there is the figure of a kneeling man, the head almost
+touching the ground in the body's fervent prostration in front of the
+group representing Glory, Trinity, and St. James. Is it a
+twelfth-century pilgrim whom the artist in a moment of realistic
+enthusiasm has portrayed here, in the act of praying to his Creator and
+invoking his mercy? Or is it the portrait of the artist, who, even after
+death, wished to live in the midst of the wonders of his creation? It is
+not positively known, though it is generally supposed to be Maestro
+Mateo himself, kneeling in front of his Glory, admiring it as do all
+visitors, and watching over it as would a mother over her son.
+
+If the chapels which surround the building have been omitted on account
+of their artistic worthlessness, not the same fate awaits the cloister.
+
+Of a much later date than the cathedral itself, having been constructed
+in the sixteenth century, it is a late Gothic monument betraying
+Renaissance additions and mixtures; consequently it is entirely out of
+place and time here, and does not harmonize with the cathedral. Examined
+as a detached edifice, it impresses favourably as regards the height and
+length of the galleries, which show it to be one of the largest
+cloisters in Spain.
+
+The cathedral's crypt is one of its most peculiar features, and
+certainly well worth examining better than has been heretofore done. It
+is reached by a small door behind the high altar (evidently used when
+the saint's coffin was placed on grand occasions on the altar-table) or
+by a subterranean gallery leading down from the Portico de la Gloria, a
+gallery as rich in sculptural decorations as the vestibule itself.
+
+The popular belief in Galicia is that in this crypt the cathedral
+reflects itself, towers and all, as it would in the limpid surface of a
+lake. Hardly; and yet the crypt is a nude copy of the ground floor
+above, with the corresponding naves and aisles and apsidal chapels. The
+height of the crypt is surprising, the architectural construction is
+pure Romanesque,--more so than that of the building itself,--and just
+beneath the high altar the shrine of St. James is situated where it was
+found in the ninth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+CORUNNA
+
+
+Corunna, seated on her beautiful bay, the waters of which are ever
+warmed by the Gulf Stream, gazes out westwards across the turbulent
+waves of the ocean as she has done for nearly two thousand years.
+
+Brigandtia was her first known name, a centre of the Celtic druid
+religion. The inhabitants of the town, it is to-day believed,
+communicated by sea with their brethren in Ireland long before the
+coming of the Phoenicians and Greeks who established a trading post
+and a tin factory, and built the Tower of Hercules.
+
+The Roman conquest saved Brigandtium from being great before her time.
+For the Latin people were miserable sailors, and gazed with awe into the
+waves of the Atlantic. For them Brigandtia was the last spot in the
+world, a dangerous spot, to be shunned. So they left her seated on her
+beautiful bay beside the Torre de Hercules, and made Lugo their capital.
+
+In the shuffling of bishops and sees in the fifth and sixth centuries,
+Corunna was forgotten. Unimportant, known only for its castle and its
+tower, it passed a useless existence, patiently waiting for a change in
+its favour.
+
+This change came in the fifteenth century as a result of the discovery
+of America. Since then, and with varying success, the city has grown in
+importance, until to-day it is the most wealthy and active of Galicia's
+towns, and one of the largest seaports on Spain's Atlantic coast.
+
+Its history since the sixteenth century is well known, especially to
+Englishmen, who, whenever their country had a rupture with Spain, were
+quick in entering Corunna's bay. From here part of the Invincible Armada
+sailed one day to fight the Saxons and to be destroyed by a tempest; ten
+years later England returned the challenge with better luck, and her
+fleets entered the historical bay and burned the town. During the war
+with Napoleon, General Moore fought the French in the vicinity and lost
+his life, whereas a few years earlier an English fleet defeated, just
+outside the bay, a united French and Spanish squadron.
+
+To-day, the old city on the hill looks down upon the new one below; the
+former is poetic and artistic, the latter is straight-lined, industrial,
+and modern. Nevertheless, the aspect of the city denies its age, for it
+is more modern than many cities that are younger. What is more,
+tradition does not weigh heavily on its brow, and depress its
+inhabitants, as is the case in Lugo and Tuy and Santiago. The movement
+on the wharves, the continual coming and going of vessels of all sizes,
+commerce, industry, and other delights of modern civilization do not
+give the citizens leisure to ponder over the city's two thousand years,
+nor to preoccupy themselves about art problems. Moreover, the tourist
+who has come to Spain to visit Toledo and Sevilla hurries off inland,
+gladly leaving Corunna's streets to sailors and to merchants.
+
+There are, nevertheless, two churches well worth a visit; one is the
+Colegiata (supposed to have been a bishopric for a short time in the
+thirteenth century) or suffragan church, and the other the Church of
+Santiago. The latter has a fine Romanesque portal of the twelfth
+century, reminding one in certain decorative details of the Portico de
+la Gloria in Santiago. The interior of the building consists of one nave
+or aisle spanned by a daring vault, executed in the early ogival style;
+doubtless it was originally Romanesque, as is evidently shown by the
+capitals of the pillars, and was most likely rebuilt after the terrible
+fire which broke out early in the sixteenth century.
+
+Santa Maria del Campo is the name of the suffragan church dedicated to
+the Virgin. The church itself was erected to a suffragan of Santiago in
+1441. The date of its erection is doubtful, some authors placing it in
+the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century. Street, whom we can
+take as an intelligent guide in these matters, calls it a
+twelfth-century church, contemporaneous with and perhaps even built by
+the same architect who built that of Santiago de Campostela. Moreover,
+the mentioned critic affirms this in spite of a doubtful inscription
+placed in the vault above the choir, which accuses the building of
+having been completed in 1307.
+
+[Illustration: CHURCH OF SANTIAGO, CORUNNA]
+
+The primitive plan of the church was doubtless Romanesque, of one nave
+and two aisles. As in Mondonedo and Lugo, the former is surmounted by
+an ogival vault, and the aisles, lower in height, are somewhat depressed
+by the use of Romanesque _plein-cintre_ vaultings. The form of the
+building is that of a Roman cross with rather short arms; the apse
+consists of but one chapel, the lady-chapel. As regards the light, it is
+horrible, for the window in the west is insignificant and, what is more,
+has recently been blinded, though only Heaven knows why. The towers
+emerging from the western front are unmeaning, and not similar, which
+detracts from the harmony of the whole. As regards the different
+facades, the western has been spoilt quite recently; the northern and
+southern are, however, Romanesque, though not pure, as ogival arches are
+used in the decoration of the tympanum.
+
+In other words, the Church of Santiago at Corunna is more important,
+from an archaeological point of view, than the Colegiata. The fishing
+folk do not think so, however; they care but little for such secondary
+details, and their veneration is entirely centred in the suffragan
+church--"one of the three Virgins," as they call her to whom it is
+dedicated. To them this particular Mary is the _estrella del mar_ (sea
+star), and she is the principal object of their devotion. It is
+strange--be it said in parenthesis--how frequently in Galicia mention is
+made of stars: they form a most important feature of the country's
+superstitions. Blood will out--and Celtic mythology peeps through the
+Christian surface in spite of centuries of true belief.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+MONDONEDO
+
+
+A Village grown to be a city, and yet a village. A city without history
+or tradition, and a cathedral that has been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and above all by the hands of luckless artists called upon to rebuild
+deteriorated parts.
+
+To the north of Lugo, at a respectable distance from the railway which
+runs from the latter to Corunna, and reached either by means of a stage
+or on horseback, Mondonedo passes a sleeping existence in a picturesque
+vale surrounded by the greenest of hills. Rarely bothered by the tourist
+who prefers the train to the stage, it procures for the art lover many
+moments of delight--that is, if he will but take the trouble to visit
+the cathedral, the two towers of which loom up in the vale, and though
+rather too stumpy to be able to lend elegance to the ensemble, add a
+poetic charm to the valley and to the village itself.
+
+How on earth did it ever occur to any one to raise the church at
+Mondonedo to a bishopric? Surely the sees in Galicia were badly
+shuffled; and yet, where can a quieter spot be found in this wide world
+of ours for the contemplation of a cathedral--and a Romanesque one, to
+boot!
+
+It is to the Norman vikings that is due the establishment of a see in
+this lonely valley. Until the sixth century it had been situated in
+Mindunietum of the Romans, when it was removed to Ribadeo, remaining
+there until late in the twelfth century. Both these towns were seaports,
+and both suffered from the cruel incursions and piratical expeditions of
+the vikings, and so after the total pillage of the church in Ribadeo,
+the see was removed inland out of harm's way, to a village known by the
+name of Villamayor or Mondonedo. There it has remained till the present
+day, ignored by the tourist who "has no time," and who follows the
+beaten track established by Messrs. Cook and Company, in London.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF MONDONEDO]
+
+As will have been seen, Mondonedo is a city without history, and without
+a past; doubtless it will for ever remain a village without a future.
+Its doings, its _raison d'etre_, are summed up in the cathedral that
+stands in its centre, just as in Santiago, though from different
+motives.
+
+It is, perhaps, the most picturesque spot in Galicia, a gently sloping
+landscape buried in a violet haze, reminding one of Swiss valleys in the
+quiet Jura. Besides, the streets are silent and often deserted, the
+village inn or _fonda_ is neither excellent nor very bad, and as for the
+villagers, they are happy, simple, and hospitable dawdlers along the
+paths of this life.
+
+According to a popular belief, the life of one man, a bishop named Don
+Martin (1219-48), is wrapped up in Mondonedo's cathedral, so much so, in
+fact, that both their lives are one and the same. He began building his
+see; he saw it finished and consecrated it--_construxit, consumavit et
+consacravit_; then he died, but the church and his name lived on.
+
+Modern art critics disagree with the above belief; the older or
+primitive part of the church dates from the twelfth and not from the
+thirteenth century. Originally, as can easily be seen upon examining the
+older part of the building, it was a pure Romanesque basilica, the nave
+and the two aisles running up to the transept, where they were cut off,
+and immediately to the east of the latter came the apse with three
+chapels, the lady-chapel being slightly larger than the lateral ones.
+
+In the primitive construction of the building--and excepting all
+later-date additions, of which there are more than enough--early Gothic
+and Romanesque elements are so closely intermingled that one is perforce
+obliged to consider the monument as belonging to the period of
+Transition, as being, perhaps, a unique example of this period to be met
+with in Galicia or even in Spain. Of course, as in the case of the other
+Galician cathedrals, the original character of the interior, which if it
+had remained unaltered would be both majestic and imposing, has been
+greatly deformed by the addition of posterior reforms. The form of the
+apse has been completely changed by the introduction of an ambulatory or
+circular apsidal aisle dating at least from the fifteenth century, as
+shown by the presence of the late Gothic and Renaissance elements.
+
+[Illustration: MONDONEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The general plan is rectangular, 120 feet long by seventy-one wide, and
+seen from the outside is solid rather than elegant, a fortress rather
+than a temple. The height of the nave, crowned by a Gothic vaulting, is
+about forty-five feet; a triforium (ogival) runs around the top. The
+lateral aisles are slightly more than half as high and covered by a
+Romanesque vaulting reposing on capitals and shafts of the finest
+twelfth century execution.
+
+The original basilica form of the church has, unluckily, been altered by
+the additional length given to the arms of the transept, and, as
+mentioned already, by the ambulatory walk characteristic of Spanish
+cathedrals; the workmanship of the latter, though lamentably out of tune
+in this old cathedral, is, taken by itself, better than many similar
+additions in other churches.
+
+The western facade, which is the only one worthy of contemplation, is as
+good an example of Romanesque, spoilt by the addition at a recent date
+of grotesque and bizarre figures and monsters, as can be seen anywhere.
+
+The buttresses are more developed than in either Lugo or Santiago, and
+though these bodies, from a decorative point of view, were evidently
+intended to give a certain seal of elegance to the ensemble, the
+stunted towers and the few windows in the body of the church only help
+to heighten its fortress-like aspect.
+
+In a previous paragraph it has been stated that this cathedral is
+perhaps a unique example of the period of Transition (Romanesque and
+early Gothic). It is an opinion shared by many art critics, but
+personally the author of these lines is inclined to consider it as an
+example of the Galician conservative spirit, and of the fight that was
+made in cathedral chapters _against_ the introduction of early Gothic.
+For the temple at Santiago was Romanesque; therefore, according to the
+narrow reasoning peculiar to Galicia, that style was the _best_ and
+consequently _good enough_ for any other church. As a result, we have in
+this region of Spain a series of cathedrals which are practically
+Romanesque, but into the structure of which ogival elements have
+filtered. Further, as there is no existing example of a finished Gothic
+church in Galicia, it is rather difficult to speak of a period of
+Transition, by which is meant the period of passing from one style to
+another. In Galicia, there was no passing: the conservative spirit of
+the country, the poetry of the Celtic inhabitants, and above all of
+their artists, found greater pleasure in Romanesque than in Gothic, and
+consequently the cathedrals are Romanesque, with slight Gothic
+additions, when these could combine or submit in arrangement to the
+heavier Romanesque principles of architecture.
+
+Later, in other centuries, the spirit of architecture had completely
+died out in Spain, and the additions made in these days are so many
+lamentable signs of decadence. Not so the ogival introduction in
+Romanesque churches, which in many cases improved the Romanesque
+appearance.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+LUGO
+
+
+What Santiago was as regards ecclesiastical politics, Lugo, one of the
+three cities on the Mino River, was as regards civil power. It was the
+nominal capital of Galicia, and at one time, in the reign of Alfonso the
+Chaste, it was intended to make it the capital of the nascent Spanish
+kingdom, but for some reason or other Oviedo was chosen instead as being
+more suitable. Since then the city of Lugo has completely fallen into
+ruins and insignificance.
+
+It first appears in history when the Romans conquered it from the Celts.
+It was their capital and their Holy City; in its centre was Lupa's
+Bower, where the Romans built a magnificent temple to Diana. Some
+mosaics of this edifice have been discovered recently, and the peculiar
+designs prove beyond a doubt that the mythological attributions of the
+Celts were made use of and intermingled with those of the Latin
+race--not at all a strange occurrence, as Lupa and Diana seem to have
+enjoyed many common qualities.
+
+Under the Roman rule, the city walls, remains of which are still
+standing in many places, were erected, and Locus Augusti became the
+capital of the northern provinces.
+
+All through the middle ages, when really Oviedo had usurped its civil,
+and Santiago its religious significance, Lugo was still considered as
+being the capital of Galicia, a stronghold against Arab incursions, and
+a hotbed of unruly noblemen who lost no opportunity in striking a blow
+for liberty against the encroaching power of the neighbouring kingdom of
+Asturias, and later on of Leon. When at last the central power of the
+Christian kings was firmly established in Leon and Castile, in Lugo the
+famous message of adhesion to the dynasty of the Alfonsos was voted, and
+the kingdom of Galicia, like that of Asturias, faded away, the shadow of
+a name without even the right to have its coat of arms placed on the
+national escutcheon.
+
+The ecclesiastical history of the city of Lugo is neither interesting
+nor does it differ from that of other Galician towns. Erected to a see
+in the fifth century, its cathedral was a primitive basilica destroyed
+by the Moors in one of their powerful northern raids in the eighth
+century. The legendary bishop Odoario lost no time in building a second
+basilica, which met the same fate about two hundred years later, in the
+tenth century. Alfonso the Chaste, one of the few kings of Asturias to
+take a lively interest in Galician politics, ordered either the
+reconstruction of the old basilica or the erection of a new temple.
+
+Those were stormy times for the city: between the rise and stand of
+ambitious noblemen, who, pretending to fight for Galicia's freedom,
+fought for their own interests, and the continual encroachments of the
+proud prelates on the rights and privileges of the people, barely a year
+passed without Lugo being the scene of street fights or sieges. As in
+Santiago, one prince of the Church lost his life, murdered by the
+faithful (_sic_) flocks, and many, upon coming to take possession of
+their see, found the city gates locked in their faces, and were obliged
+to conquer the cathedral before entering their palace.
+
+The new basilica suffered in consequence, and had to be entirely rebuilt
+in the twelfth century. The new edifice is the one standing to-day, but
+how changed from the primitive building! Thanks to graceless additions
+in all possible styles and combinations of styles, the Romanesque origin
+is hardly recognizable. Consequently, the cathedral church of Lugo,
+which otherwise might have been an architectural jewel, does not inspire
+the visitor with any of those sentiments that ought to be the very
+essence of time-worn religious edifices of all kinds.
+
+The general disposition of the church is Roman cruciform; the arms of
+the cross are exceedingly short, however, in comparison to their height;
+the _croisee_ is surmounted by a semicircular vaulting (Spanish
+Romanesque).
+
+The nave shows decided affinity to early Gothic, as shown by the ogival
+arches and vaulting. The presence of the ogival arches (as well as those
+of the handsome triforium, perhaps the most elegant in Galicia) shows
+this church to be the first in Galicia to have submitted to the
+infiltration of Gothic elements. This peculiarity is explained by the
+fact that, in 1129, the erection of the cathedral was entrusted to one
+Maestro Raimundo, who stipulated that, in the case of his death before
+the completion of the church, his son should be commissioned to carry on
+the work. He died, and his son, a generation younger and imbued with the
+newer architectural theories, even went so far as to alter his father's
+plans; he built the nave higher than was customary in Romanesque
+churches, and gave elegance to the whole structure by employing the
+pointed arch even in the triforium, otherwise a copy of that of
+Santiago.
+
+The most curious and impressive part of the building is that constructed
+by Maestro Raimundo, father, namely the aisles, especially that part of
+them to the right and left of the choir; they are, with the _croisee_,
+the best interior remains of the primitive Romanesque plans: short, even
+stumpy, rather dark it is true, for the light that comes in by the
+narrow windows is but poor at its best, they are, nevertheless, rich in
+decorative designs. The wealth of sculptural ornaments of pure
+Romanesque in these aisles is perhaps the cathedral's best claim to the
+tourist's admiration, and puts it in a prominent place among the
+Romanesque cathedrals of Spain.
+
+Not the same favourable opinion can be emitted when it is a question of
+the exterior. The towers are comparatively new; the apse--with the
+peculiar and salient addition of an octagonal body revealing Renaissance
+influence--is picturesque, it is true, but at the same time it has
+spoilt the architectural value of the cathedral as a Romanesque edifice.
+
+The northern facade, preceded by an ogival porch so common in Galicia,
+contains a portal of greater beauty than the Puerta de la Plateria in
+Santiago, and stands forth in greater prominence than the other named
+example of twelfth-century art, by not being lost among or depressed by
+flanking bodies of greater height and mass. As regards the sculptural
+ornamentation of the door itself, it is felt and not only portrayed: the
+Christ standing between the immense valves of the _vesica piscis_ which
+crowns the portal is an example of twelfth-century sculpture. The
+iron-studded panels of the doors have already been praised by Street,
+who placed their execution likewise in the twelfth century.
+
+Excepting this portal--a marvel in its class with its rounded tympanum
+richly ornamented--the portion of the building doubtless more strongly
+imbued than any other with the general spirit of the edifice is that
+part of the apse independent of the octagonal addition previously
+mentioned, and which is dedicated to "_La Virgen de los Ojos
+Grandes_"--the Virgin of the Large Eyes. (She must have been
+Andalusian!) Of the true apse, the lower part has ogival arched windows
+of singular elegance; the upper body, also semicircular in form, but
+slightly smaller, has round-headed windows. Both the ogival windows of
+the first and the Romanesque windows of the second harmonize
+wonderfully, thanks to the lesser height and width of the upper row. The
+buttresses, simple, and yet alive with a gently curving line, are well
+worth noticing. It is strange, nevertheless, that they should not reach
+the ground, but only support the upper body, and unite it with the
+lower, forming thus a sort of crown for the latter's benefit.
+
+Personally--and the author must be excused if he emit his opinion--he
+considers the old apse of the cathedral in Lugo to be one of the finest
+pieces of architecture to be met with in Galicia. It belongs to what has
+been called the period of Transition (compare previous remarks in
+another chapter concerning this style), and yet it has a character of
+its own not to be found elsewhere, and the harmony of ogival and
+Romanesque has been so artfully revealed that it cannot fail to appeal
+to the tourist who contemplates it carefully.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+ORENSE
+
+
+Coming by rail from Lugo or Monforte toward Tuy and Vigo, the train
+suddenly escapes from the savage canon where the picturesque Mino rushes
+and boils beside the road, and emerges into a broad and fertile valley
+where figs, grapes, and olives grow in profusion. This valley is broad,
+its soil is of golden hue, and the sky above it is as brilliantly blue
+as a sapphire. In its centre Orense, heavy Orense, which claims as its
+founder a Greek hero fresh from the pages of the Iliad, basks in the sun
+beside the beautiful Mino; the while its cathedral looms up above the
+roofs of the surrounding houses.
+
+The history of the town is as agitated as any in Galicia and shows the
+same general happenings. The Romans appreciated it for its sulphur baths
+and called it Auria (golden) from the colour of the soil, of the water,
+and perhaps also on account of certain grains of gold discovered in the
+sands of the Mino.
+
+The Suevos, who dominated Galicia and proved so beneficial to Tuy, did
+not ignore the importance of Orense: one of the first bishoprics, if not
+_the_ first historical one in Galicia, was that of Orense, dating from
+before the fourth century, at least such is the opinion of to-day.
+
+More than any other Galician city, excepting Tuy, it suffered from the
+Arab invasions. Entirely destroyed, razed to the ground upon two
+occasions, it was ever being rebuilt by the returning inhabitants who
+had fled. Previous to these Arab incursions the cathedral had been
+dedicated to St. Martin de Tours (France), and yearly pilgrimages took
+place to the Galician shrine, where some relics belonging to the saint
+were revered. But with the infidels these relics, or whatever they were,
+were dispersed, and the next century (the eleventh) saw the new
+cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mother (?). Besides, the inhabitants
+seemed to have forgotten the patronage of St. Martin, he who protects
+the vine-grower's _metier_--and this in spite of the fact that the
+valley of Orense is and was famous above all Galician regions for the
+cultivation of vines. Even Froissart, the French historian, could not
+speak of the town without mentioning its wine. He passed a season in the
+valley, accompanying, I believe, the Duke of Lancaster and his English
+soldiers. The wine was so good and strong, wrote the historian, that the
+soldiers clamoured for it; after they had drunk a little they toppled
+over like ninepins.
+
+The Arabs defeated and thrown out of the peninsula, the vikings' last
+business trip to Galicia over, and the Portuguese arms driven to the
+valley of Braga beyond the Mino, Orense settled down to a peaceful life,
+the monotony of which was broken now and again--as it usually was in
+this part of the country--by squabbles between noblemen, prelates, and
+the _bons bourgeois_. If no prince of the Church was killed here, as
+happened in Lugo, one at least died mysteriously in the hands of his
+enemies. Not that it seemed to have mattered much, for said bishop
+appears to have been a peculiar sort of spiritual shepherd, full of
+vice, and devoid of virtue, some of whose doings have been
+caricatured--according to the popular belief--in the cornices and
+friezes of the convent of San Francisco.
+
+Otherwise, peace reigned in the land, and Orense passed a quiet
+existence, a circumstance that did not in the slightest add to its
+importance, either as an art, commercial, or industrial centre. To-day,
+full of strangers in summer, who visit the sulphurous baths as did the
+Romans, and empty in winter, it exists without living, as does so many a
+Spanish town.
+
+Nevertheless, with Vigo and Corunna, it is one of the cities with a
+future still before it. At least, its situation is bound to call
+attention as soon as ever the country is opened up to progress and
+commerce.
+
+The cathedral of Orense, like those of Tuy, Santiago, and Lugo, was
+erected in a _castro_. These _castros_ were circular dips in the ground,
+surrounded by a low wall, which served the druids as their place of
+worship. The erection of Christian churches in these sacred spots proves
+beyond a doubt that the new religion became amalgamated with the old,
+and even laid its foundations on the latter's most hallowed _castros_.
+
+Perhaps the question presents itself as to why a cathedral was erected
+in Orense previous to any other city. From a legend it would appear
+that the king of the Suevos, Carrarick, had a son who was dying; thanks
+to the advice of a Christian monk, a disciple of St. Martin, and, one is
+inclined to think, fresh from Tours, the king dipped his son in the
+baths of Orense, invoking at the same time the help of St. Martin. Upon
+pulling his offspring out of the water, he discovered that he had been
+miraculously cured. The grateful monarch immediately became a stout
+Christian, and erected a basilica--destroyed and rebuilt many a time
+during the dark ages of feudalism and Arab invasion--in honour of his
+son's saviour. What is more wonderful still is that, soon afterward, the
+relics of the French saint were cherished in Orense without its being
+positively known whence they came!
+
+The present cathedral, the date of the erection of which is a point of
+discussion to-day, is generally believed to have been built on the spot
+occupied by the primitive basilica. It is dedicated to Santa Maria la
+Madre according to the official (doubtful?) statement, and to St. Martin
+of Tours, Apostle of Gaul, according to the popular version.
+
+The general appearance of the cathedral proclaims it to have been begun,
+or at least planned, in the twelfth century, and not, as Baedeker
+states, in 1220. As a twelfth-century church we are not obliged to
+consider it for more reasons than one, and especially because, as we
+have seen, the twelfth century was the great period of Galician
+church-building. It was in this century that the northwest shone forth
+in the history of Spain as it had not done before, nor has done since.
+
+The church is another Romanesque specimen, but less pure in its style
+than any of the others mentioned so far: the ogival arch is prevalent,
+but rather as a decorative than as an essentially constructive element.
+As it is, it was commenced at least fifty years after the cathedral of
+Lugo, and though both are twelfth-century churches, the one is an early
+and the other presumably a late one; the employment of the ogival arch
+to a greater degree in Orense than in Lugo is thus easily explained.
+
+In short, the cathedral of Orense is another example of the peculiar
+Romanesque of Galicia, which, withstanding the invasion of Gothic,
+created a school of its own, pretty in details, bold in harmony, though
+it be a hybrid school after all.
+
+The influence of the cathedral of Santiago is self-evident in the
+cathedral of Orense. How could it be otherwise, when the bishop Don
+Diego, who sat on the chair, was a great friend and a continual visitor
+of that other Don Diego in Santiago who erected the primate cathedral of
+Galicia?
+
+This influence is above all to be seen in the Portico del Paraiso, an
+interior narthex leading from the western front to the body of the
+church. It is a handsome area of Romanesque sculpture covered by an
+ogival vaulting, and would be an important monument if its rival and
+prototype in Santiago were not greater, both as regards its perfection
+of design, and the grand idea which inspired it.
+
+Of the three doors which lead into the cathedral, the western is crowned
+by three rounded arches reposing on simple columns. The tympanum as a
+decorative element is lacking, as is also the low relief, which is
+usually superimposed above the upper arches. The latter are, however,
+carved in the most elaborate manner. As regards the other two portals,
+the northern and southern, their composition, as far as generalities are
+concerned, is the same as the western, excepting that they are
+surrounded by a depressed semicircular arch in relief, the whole of a
+primitive design.
+
+[Illustration: NORTHERN PORTAL OF ORENSE CATHEDRAL]
+
+The towers of the cathedral are not old. The general impression of the
+building from the outside--unluckily it cannot be contemplated from any
+distance, as the surrounding houses impede it--is agreeable. To be
+especially observed are some fine fourteenth-century (?) windows which
+show ogival pattern, but either of timid execution or else of a bold
+endeavour on the artist's part to subdue solemn Gothic to the Romanesque
+traditions of the country.
+
+The interior has been restored and changed many a time. In its original
+plan it consisted of two aisles and a nave with a one-aisled transept,
+and, just as in Lugo, an apse formed by three semicircles, of which the
+central was the largest, and contained the high altar. To-day, though
+the general appearance or disposition of the church (Roman cruciform
+with exceedingly short lateral arms) is the same, an ambulatory walk
+surrounds the high altar, which has been moved nearer the transept in
+the principal nave. The vaulting is ogival, reposing on solid and
+severe shafts; the aisles are slightly lower than the central nave, and
+the _croisee_ is surmounted, as in Santiago, by a handsome cupola
+similar in construction to that of Valencia, though more reduced in
+size, and of a less elegant pattern.
+
+The lack of triforium is to be noted, and its want is felt.
+
+The northern aisle has no chapels let into its exterior wall, but a long
+row of sepulchres and sepulchral reliefs to replace them. Some of them
+are severe and beautiful. The choir has finely carved stalls, and the
+Gothic _retablo_ is the only one of its kind in Galicia, and one of the
+best in Spain.
+
+Many more details could be given concerning the worthy cathedral of
+Orense, second only in richness of certain elements to that of Santiago.
+The additions, both in Romanesque and ogival styles, are better than in
+most other cathedrals in Galicia, though, as far as Renaissance is
+concerned, Galicia showed but little love for Italia's art. This was due
+to the regional Celtic taste of the inhabitants, or else to the marked
+signs of art decadence in this part of Spain, when the Renaissance was
+introduced into the country.
+
+As regards the cloister,--small and rather compact in its
+composition,--it is held by many to be a jewel of the fifteenth century
+in the ogival style, handsome in its general outlines, and beautiful in
+its wealth of sculptural decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+TUY
+
+
+The last Spanish city on the Mino, the Rhine of Galicia, as beautiful as
+its German rival, and as rich in architectural remains, both military
+and ecclesiastical, is Tuy, the Castellum Tude of the Romans, lying
+half-way on the main road from Braga (Portugal) to Lugo and Astorga in
+Spain.
+
+The approach to the city by rail from Orense is simply superb. The
+valley of the Mino is broad and luxuriant, with ruins of castles to the
+right and to the left, ahead and behind; in the distance, time-old Tuy,
+the city of a hundred misfortunes, is seated on an isolated hill, the
+summit of which is crowned by a fortress-cathedral of the twelfth
+century.
+
+Tuy sits on her hill, and gazes across the river at Valenca do Minho,
+the rival fortress opposite, and the first town in Portugal. A handsome
+bridge unites the enemies--friends to-day. Nevertheless, the cannons'
+mouths of the glaring strongholds are for ever pointed toward each
+other, as though wishing to recall those days of the middle ages when
+Tuy was the goal of Portuguese ambitions and the last Spanish town in
+Galicia.
+
+Before the Romans conquered Iberia, Tuy, which is evidently a Celtic
+name, was a most important town. This is easily explained by its
+position, a sort of inland Gibraltar, backed by the Sierra to the rear,
+and crowning the river which brought ships from the ocean to its
+wharves. The city's future was brilliant.
+
+Matters changed soon, however. The Romans drew away much of its power to
+cities further inland, as was their wont. The castle remained standing,
+as did the walls, which reached on the northern shores of the river down
+to Guardia, situated in the delta about thirty miles away. Remains of
+the cyclopean walls which crown the mountain chain on the Spanish side
+of the Mino are still to be seen to-day, yet they give but a feeble idea
+of the city's former strength.
+
+After the Romans had been defeated by the invasion of savage tribes from
+the north, Tuy became the capital of the Suevos, a tribe opposed to the
+Visigoths, who settled in the rest of Spain, and for centuries waged a
+cruel war against the kings whose subjects had settled principally in
+Galicia and in the north of Portugal.
+
+The power of the Suevos, who were seated firmly in Tuy, was at last
+completely broken, and the capital, its inhabitants fighting
+energetically to the end, was at length conquered. It was the last
+stronghold to fall into the hands of the conquerors. A century later
+Witiza, the sovereign of the Visigoths, made Tuy his capital for some
+length of time, and the district round about is full of the traditions
+of the doings of this monarch. Most of these legends denigrate his
+character, and make him appear cruel, wilful, and false. One of them,
+concerning Duke Favila and Dona Luz, is perhaps the most popular.
+According to it, Witiza fell in love with the former's wife, Dona Luz,
+and, to remove the husband, he heartlessly had his eyes put out, on the
+charge of being ambitious, and of having conspired against the throne.
+The fate that awaited Dona Luz, who defended her honour, was no better,
+according to this legend.
+
+After the return of Witiza to Toledo, the city slowly lost its
+importance, and since then she has never recovered her ancient fame.
+
+Like the remaining seaports of Galicia,--or such cities as were situated
+near the ocean,--Tuy was sacked and pillaged by Arabs and vikings alike.
+The times were extremely warlike, and Galicia, from her position, and on
+account of the independent spirit of the noblemen, was called upon to
+suffer more than any other region, and Tuy, near the ocean, and a
+frontier town to boot, underwent greater hardships than any other
+Galician city. Of an admirable natural position, it would have been able
+to resist the attacks of Gudroed and Olaf, of the Portuguese noblemen
+and of Arab armies, had it been but decently fortified. The lack of such
+fortifications, however, and the neglect and indifference with which it
+was, as a rule, regarded by the kings of Asturias, easily account for
+its having fallen into the hands of enemies, of having been razed more
+than once to the ground, of having been the seat of ambitious and
+conspiring noblemen who were only bent on thrashing their neighbours,
+Christians and infidels alike.
+
+In the sixth century Tuy had already been raised to the dignity of a
+city, but until after the eleventh century the prelates of the church,
+tyrants when the times were propitious, but cowardly when danger was at
+hand, were continually removing their see to the neighbouring villages
+and mountains to the rear. They left their church with surprising
+alacrity and ease to the mercy of warriors and enemies, to such an
+extent, in fact, that neither are documents at hand to tell us what
+happened exactly in the darker ages of mediaeval history, nor are the
+existing monuments in themselves sufficient to convince us of the
+vicissitudes which befell the city, its see, and the latter's flocks.
+
+Since the last Arab and Norseman raid, matters seemed to have gone
+better with fair Tuy, for, excepting the continual strife between
+Portuguese and Galician noblemen, who were for ever gaining and losing
+the city on the Mino, neither infidels nor pirates visited its wharves.
+It was then that the foundations of the present cathedral were laid, but
+not without disputes between the prelates (one of whom was taken
+prisoner, and had to give a handsome ransom to be released) and the
+noblemen who called themselves seigneurs of the city. Between the
+claims and struggles of these two factions, those who suffered most were
+the citizens themselves, who had nothing to gain and everything to lose.
+Between the bishops who pretended to possess the whole city, and the
+noblemen who endeavoured to leave the prelates without a groat, the
+ignored inhabitants of the poorer quarters of the town passed a
+miserable life.
+
+Since the middle ages, or better still, since the time when the Mino
+became definitely the frontier line between Spain and Portugal, the city
+of Tuy has been heard of but little. Few art students visit it to-day,
+and yet it is one of the most picturesquely situated cities in Galicia,
+or even in Spain. Its cathedral, as well as the Pre-Roman, Roman,
+Gothic, and middle age remains,--most of them covered over with heaps of
+dust and earth,--are well worth a visit, being highly interesting both
+to artists and to archaeological students.
+
+In short, Tuy on her hill beside the Mino, glaring across an iron bridge
+at Portugal, is a city rich in traditions and legends of faded hopes and
+past glories. Unluckily for her, cities of less historical fame are
+better known and more admired.
+
+As has already been mentioned, the cathedral crowns the hill, upon the
+slopes of which the city descends to the river; moreover, the edifice
+occupies the summit only,--a _castro_, as explained in a previous
+chapter. Therefore, for proofs are lacking both ways, it is probable
+that the present building was erected on the same spot where the many
+basilicas which we know existed and were destroyed in one or another of
+the many sieges, stood in bygone days.
+
+The present cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, like that in Orense,
+was most likely begun in the first half of the twelfth century;
+successive earthquakes suffered by the city, especially that felt in
+Lisbon in 1755, obliged the edifice to be repaired more than once, which
+accounts for many of the base additions which spoil the ensemble.
+
+From the general disposition of the building, which is similar in many
+details to the cathedral at Lugo, it has been thought probable that
+Maestro Raimundo (father?) was the builder of the church; definite
+proofs are, however, lacking.
+
+The ground-plan is rectangular, with a square apse; the interior is
+Roman cruciform, consisting of a nave and two aisles; the transept, like
+that of Santiago, is also composed of a nave and two aisles; the four
+arms of the cross are all of them very short, and almost all are of the
+same length. Were it not for the height of the nave, crowned by a
+Romanesque triforium of blinded arches, the interior would be decidedly
+ugly. However, the height attained gives a noble aspect to the whole,
+and what is more, renders the ensemble curious rather than beautiful.
+
+The large and ungainly choir spoils the general view of the nave,
+whereas the continuation of the aisles, broad and light to the very
+apse, where, facing each aisle, there is a handsome rose window which
+throws a flood of coloured light into the building, cannot be too highly
+praised.
+
+The walls are devoid of all decoration, and if it were not for the
+chapels, some of which in default of pure workmanship are richly
+ornamented, this see of Tuy would have to pass as a very poor one
+indeed.
+
+The roof of the building has been added lately, doubtless after one of
+the many earthquakes. It is of a simple execution, neither good nor bad,
+composed of a series of slightly rounded arches with pronounced ribs.
+
+It is outside, however, that the tourist will pass the greater part of
+his time. Unluckily, the houses which closely surround the building
+forbid a general view from being obtained of any but the western front,
+yet this is perhaps a blessing, for none of the other sides are worthy
+of special notice.
+
+As mentioned, the appearance of the church is that of a fortress rather
+than of a temple, or better still, is that of a feudal castle. The
+crenelated square tower on the western front is heavy, and no higher
+than the peaked and simple crowning of the handsome Romanesque window
+above the narthex; the general impression is that of resistance rather
+than of faith, and the lack of all decoration has caused the temple to
+be called sombre.
+
+The handsome narthex, the summit of which is crenelated like the tower,
+is the simplest and noblest to be found in Galicia, and is really
+beautiful in its original severity. Though dating from a time when
+florid ogival had taken possession of Spain, the artist who erected it
+(it is posterior to the rest of the building--early fifteenth
+century) had the good taste to complete it simply, without
+decoration, so as to render it homogeneous with the rest of the
+building. It is also possible that there were no funds at hand for him
+to erect it otherwise!
+
+[Illustration: TUY CATHEDRAL]
+
+The doors stand immediately behind this narthex. The portal is carved or
+decorated in an elaborate late Romanesque style, one of the most richly
+ornamented porticos belonging to this school in Spain, and a handsome
+page in the history of Galician art in the twelfth century. The low
+reliefs above the door and in the tympanum of the richly carved arcade,
+are _felt_ and are admirably executed.
+
+The northern entrance to the building is another fine example of
+twelfth-century Spanish, or Galician Romanesque. Though simpler in
+execution than the western front, it nevertheless is by some critics
+considered purer in style (earlier?) than the first mentioned.
+
+The tower which stands to the left of the northern entrance is one of
+the few in the Romanesque style to be seen in northern Spain; it is
+severe in its structure and pierced by a series of round-headed windows.
+
+The cloister dating from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is
+another of Galicia's monuments well worth a visit, which proves the
+local mixture of Romanesque and ogival, and is, perhaps, the last
+example on record, as toward the fifteenth century Renaissance elements
+had completely captured all art monuments.
+
+Such is the cathedral of Tuy, a unique example of Galician Romanesque in
+certain details, an edifice that really ought to be better known than it
+is.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+BAYONA AND VIGO
+
+
+The prettiest bay in Galicia is that of Vigo, which reaches inland to
+Redondela--a village seated, as it were, on a Swiss lake, with two
+immense viaducts passing over its head where the train speeds to Tuy and
+Santiago. There is no lovelier spot in all Spain.
+
+The city of Vigo, with its suffragan church on the hillside, is a modern
+town dedicated to commerce; its wharves are important, and the water in
+the bay is deep enough to permit the largest vessels afloat to enter and
+anchor. The art student will not linger here, however, but will go by
+boat to Bayona outside the bay and to the south near the Portuguese
+frontier.
+
+Here, until quite recently, stood for an unknown length of time the
+suffragan church which has now been removed to Vigo. But Bayona, once
+upon a time the most important seaport in Galicia, is a ruin to-day, a
+delightful ruin, and one of the prettiest in its ensemble, thanks to the
+beautiful and weird surroundings.
+
+Its history extends from the times of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and
+Romans,--even earlier, as remains of lake-dwellers have been found. This
+statement is not an exaggeration, though it may appear to be one, for
+the bay is as quiet as a lake.
+
+After the defeat of the Armada, Bayona was left a prey to Drake and his
+worthy companions. They dealt the city a death-blow from which it has
+never recovered, and Vigo, the new, the commercial, has usurped its
+importance, as it did its church, which once upon a time, as is
+generally believed, was a bishopric.
+
+The present ruinous edifice of Bayona is peculiarly Galician and shows
+the same characteristics as the remaining cathedrals we have spoken
+about so far. It was ordained in 1482 by the Bishop of Tuy. The windows
+of the nave (clerestory) are decidedly pointed or ogival; those of the
+aisles are pure Romanesque. The peculiar feature is the use of animal
+designs in the decorative elements of the capitals,--a unique example
+in Galicia, where only floral or leaf motives were used in the best
+period of Romanesque. The design to be noticed here on one of the
+capitals is a bird devouring a toad, and it is so crudely and rustically
+carved that one is almost inclined to believe that a native of the
+country conceived and executed it.
+
+
+
+
+_PART III_
+
+_The North_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+OVIEDO
+
+
+"Oviedo was born of a religious inspiration; its first building was a
+temple (monastery?), and monks were its first inhabitants."
+
+In the valley adjoining Cangas, in the eighth century, the most
+important village in Asturias, a religious sect erected a monastery.
+Froila or Froela, one of the early noblemen (now called a king, though
+he was no king in those days) who fought against the Moors, erected in
+the same century a church in the vicinity of Cangas (in Oviedo?),
+dedicating it to the Saviour; he also built a palace near the same spot.
+His son, Alfonso the Chaste, born in this palace, was brought up in a
+convent near Lugo in Galicia. Upon becoming king he hesitated whether to
+establish his court in Lugo, or in the new village which had been his
+birthplace, namely Oviedo. At length, remembering perhaps his father's
+love for the country near Cangas, he established it in the latter place
+in the ninth century, and formed the kingdom of Asturias as opposed to
+that of Galicia; the capital of the new kingdom was Oviedo.
+
+"The king gave the city to the Saviour and to the venerable church built
+by his father, and which, like a sun surrounded by its planets, he
+placed within a circle of other temples.
+
+"He convocated an ecclesiastical council with a view to establish a
+primate see in Oviedo; he maintained an assembly of prelates who lent
+lustre to the church, and he gave each a particular residence; the
+spiritual splendour of Oviedo eclipsed even the brilliancy of the
+throne."
+
+This was in 812, and the first bishop consecrated was one Adulfo.
+
+The subsequent reign of Alfonso was signalized by the discovery in
+Galicia of the corpse of St. James the Apostle. The sovereign, it
+appears, showed great interest in the discovery, established a church on
+the sacred spot, and generously donated the nascent town. Not without
+reason did posterity celebrate his many Christian virtues by calling
+him the Chaste, _el Casto_.
+
+Two hundred years only did Oviedo play an important part in the history
+of Spain as capital of the Christian Kingdom. In 1020 its civil
+dignities were removed by Alfonso V. to Leon in the south. From then on
+the city remained important only as the alleged cradle of the new
+dynasty, and its church--that of the Salvador--was used as the pantheon
+of the kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the basilica was in a ruinous state, and almost
+completely destroyed. The fate of the Romanesque edifice which was then
+built was as short as the city's glory had been ephemeral, for in 1380
+it was destroyed by flames, and in its place the first stone of the
+present building was laid by one Bishop Gutierre. One hundred and
+seventy years later the then reigning prelate placed his coat of arms on
+the spire, and the Gothic monument which is to-day admired by all who
+visit it was completed.
+
+The history of the city--an ecclesiastical and civil metropolis--is
+devoid of interest since the tenth century. It was as though the streets
+were too crowded with the legends of the fictitious kingdom of Asturias,
+to be enabled to shake off the depression which little by little spread
+over the whole town.
+
+Apart from its cathedral, Oviedo and the surrounding country possesses
+many of the earliest religious monuments in Spain, dating from the
+eighth century. These, on account of their primary Romanesque and
+basilica style, form a chapter apart in the history of ecclesiastical
+architecture, and ought to be thoroughly studied. This is not the place,
+however, to speak about them, in spite of their extreme age and the
+great interest they awaken.
+
+Nothing could be more graceful than the famous tower of the cathedral of
+Oviedo, which is a superb Gothic _fleche_ of well-proportioned elements,
+and literally covered over and encrusted with tiny pinnacles. Slender
+and tapering, it rises to a height of about 280 feet. It is composed of
+five distinct bodies, of which the penultimate betrays certain
+Renaissance influences in the triangular cornices of the windows, etc.;
+this passes, however, entirely unperceived from a certain distance. The
+angles formed by the sides of the tower are flanked by a pair of slender
+shafts in high relief, which tend to give it an even more majestic
+impression than would be the case without them.
+
+[Illustration: OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral itself is a late ogival building belonging to the
+fifteenth century; though it cannot compare in fairy-like beauty with
+that of Leon, nor in majesty with that of Burgos, it is nevertheless one
+of the richest Gothic structures in Spain, especially as regards the
+decoration of the interior.
+
+The western front is entirely taken up by the triple portal, surmounted
+by arches that prove a certain reluctance on the builder's part to make
+them pointed; the northern extremity of the front is devoid of a tower,
+though the base be standing. It was originally intended to erect a
+second _fleche_ similar to the one described, but for some reason or
+other--without a doubt purely financial--it was never built.
+
+Of the three portals, that which corresponds to the central nave is the
+larger; it is flanked by the only two statuettes in the whole front,
+namely, by those of Alfonso the Chaste and Froela, and is surmounted by
+a bold low relief. The arches of the three doors are richly carved with
+ogival arabesques, and the panels, though more modern, have been wrought
+by the hand of a master.
+
+Taken all in all, this western front can be counted among the most
+sombre and naked in Spain, so naked, in fact, that it appears rather as
+though money had been lacking to give it a richer aspect than that the
+artist's genius should have been so completely devoid of decorative
+taste or imagination.
+
+The interior of the Roman cruciform building, though by no means one of
+the largest, is, as regards its architectural disposition, one of the
+most imposing Gothic interiors in Spain. High, long, and narrow, the
+central nave is rendered lighter and more elegant by the bold triforium
+and the lancet windows of the upper clerestory wall. The wider aisles,
+on the other hand, are dark in comparison to the nave, and tend to give
+the latter greater importance.
+
+This was doubtless the intention of the primitive master who terminated
+the aisles at the transept by constructing chapels to the right and to
+the left of the high altar and on a line with it. The sixteenth-century
+builders thought differently, however, and so the aisles were prolonged
+into an apsidal ambulatory behind the high altar. This part of the
+building is far less pure in style than the primitive structure, and the
+chapels which open to the right and to the left are of a more recent
+date, and consequently even more out of harmony than the plateresque
+ambulatory. The three rose windows in the semicircular apse are richly
+decorated with ogival nervures, and correspond, one to the nave and one
+to each of the aisles; they belong to the primitive structure, having
+illuminated the afore-mentioned chapels.
+
+Standing beneath the _croisee_, under a simple ogival vaulting, the ribs
+of which are supported by richly carved capitals and elegant shafts, the
+tourist is almost as favourably impressed by the view of the high altar
+to the east and of the choir to the west, as is the case in Toledo. For
+in Oviedo begins that series of Gothic churches in which the aesthetic
+impression is not restricted to architectural or sculptural details
+alone, but is also produced by the blinding display of metal, wood, and
+other decorative accessories.
+
+The _retablo_--a fine Gothic specimen--stands boldly forth against the
+light coming from the apse in the rear, while on the opposite side of
+the transept handsome, deep brown choir stalls peep out from behind a
+magnificent iron _reja_. So beautiful is the view of the choir's
+ensemble that the spectator almost forgives it for breaking in upon the
+grandeur of the nave.
+
+The chapels buried in the walls of the north aisle have most of them
+been built in too extravagant a manner; the south aisle, on the other
+hand, is devoid of such characteristic rooms, but contains some highly
+interesting tomb slabs.
+
+The cloister to the south of the church is a rich and florid example of
+late ogival; it is, above all, conspicuous for the marvellous variety of
+its decorative motives, both as regards the sculptural scenes of the
+capitals (which portray scenes in the lives of saints and Asturian
+kings, and are almost grotesque, though by no means carved without fire
+and spirit) and the fretwork of the arches which look out upon the
+garth.
+
+The Camara Santa, or treasure-room, is an annex to the north of the
+cathedral, and dates from the ninth or tenth century; it is small, and
+was formerly used as a chapel in the old Romanesque building torn down
+in 1380. Beside it, in the eleventh century, was constructed another and
+larger room in the same style, with the characteristic Romanesque
+vaulting, the rounded windows, and the decorative motives of the massive
+pillars and capitals.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF OVIEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+COVADONGA
+
+
+To the battle of Covadonga modern Spain owes her existence, that is, if
+we are to believe the legends which have been handed down to us, and
+which rightfully or wrongfully belong to history. Under the
+circumstances, it is not surprising that the gratitude of later monarchs
+should have erected a church on the site of the famous battle, and
+should have raised it to a collegiate church.
+
+Covadonga lies in the vicinity of Oviedo, in a ravine lost in the heart
+of the Picos de Europa; it is at once the Morgarten and Sempach of
+Spanish history, and though no art monuments, excepting the above named
+monastic church and two Byzantine-Romanesque tombs, are to be seen,
+there is hardly a visitor who, having come as far north as Oviedo, does
+not pay a visit to the cradle of Spanish history.
+
+Nor is the time lost. For the tourist who leaves the capital of
+Asturias with the intention of going, as would a pilgrim, to Covadonga
+(by stage and not by rail!) will be delightfully surprised by the weird
+and savage wildness of the country through which he is driven.
+
+Following the bed of a river, he enters a ravine; up and up climbs the
+road bordered by steep declivities until at last it reaches a wall--a
+_cul-de-sac_ the French would call it--rising perpendicularly ahead of
+him. Half-way up, and on a platform, stands a solitary church; near by a
+small cave, with an authentic (?) image of the Virgin of Battles and two
+old sepulchres, is at first hidden from sight behind a protruding mass
+of rock.
+
+The guide or cicerone then explains to the tourist the origin of Spanish
+history in the middle ages, buried in the legends, of which the
+following is a short extract.
+
+Pelayo, the son of Dona Luz and Duke Favila, who, as we have seen, was
+killed by Witiza in Tuy, fled from Toledo to the north of Spain, living
+among the savage inhabitants of Asturias.
+
+A few years later, when Rodrigo, who was king at the time, and by some
+strange coincidence Pelayo's cousin as well, lost the battle of
+Guadalete and his life to boot, the Arabs conquered the whole peninsula
+and placed in Gijon, a seaport town of Asturias, a garrison under the
+command of one Munuza. The latter fell desperately in love with Pelayo's
+sister Hermesinda, whom he had met in the village of Cangas. Wishing to
+get the brother out of the way, he sent him on an errand to Cordoba,
+expecting him to be assassinated on the road. But Pelayo escaped and
+returned in time to save his sister; mad with wrath and swearing eternal
+revenge, he retreated to the mountainous vales of Asturias, bearing
+Hermesinda away with him. He was joined by many refugee Christians
+dissatisfied with the Arab yoke, and aided by them, made many a bold
+incursion into the plains below, and grew so daring that at length
+Munuza mustered an army two hundred thousand (!) strong and set out to
+punish the rebel.
+
+Up a narrow pass between two high ridges went the pagan army, paying
+little heed to the growing asperity and savageness of the path it was
+treading.
+
+Suddenly ahead of the two hundred thousand a high sheet of rock rose
+perpendicularly skywards; on a platform Pelayo and his three hundred
+warriors, who somehow or other had managed to emerge from a miraculous
+cave where they had found an effigy of the Virgin of Battles, made a
+last stand for their lives and liberties.
+
+Immediately a shower of stones, beams, trunks, and what not was hurled
+down into the midst of the heathen army by the three hundred warriors.
+Confusion arose, and, like frightened deer, the Arabs turned and fled
+down the path to the vale, pushing each other, in their fear, into the
+precipice below.
+
+Then the Virgin of Battles arose, and wishing to make the defeat still
+more glorious, she caused the whole mountain to slide; an avalanche of
+stones and earth dragged the remnants of Munuza's army into the ravine
+beneath. So great was the slaughter and the loss of lives caused by this
+defeat, that "for centuries afterward bones and weapons were to be seen
+in the bed of the river when autumn's heat left the sands bare."
+
+This Pelayo was the first king of Asturias, the first king of Spain,
+from whom all later-date monarchs descended, though neither in a direct
+nor a legitimate line, be it remarked in parenthesis. The tourist will
+be told that it is Pelayo's tomb, and that of his sister, that are still
+to be seen in the cave at Covadonga. Perhaps, though no documents or
+other signs exist to bear out the statement. At any rate, the sepulchres
+are old, which is their chief merit. The monastical church which stands
+hard by cannot claim this latter quality; neither is it important as an
+art monument.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+LEON
+
+
+The civil power enjoyed by Oviedo previous to the eleventh century moved
+southwards in the wake of Asturias's conquering army. For about a
+century it stopped on its way to Toledo in a fortress-town situated in a
+wind-swept plain, at the juncture of two important rivers.
+
+Leon was the name of this fortress, one of the strategical points, not
+only of the early Romans, but of the Arabs who conquered the country,
+and later of the nascent Christian kingdom of Asturias. In the tenth
+century, or, better still, toward the beginning of the eleventh, and
+after the final retreat of the Moors and their terrible general
+Almanzor, Leon became the recognized capital of Asturias.
+
+When the Christian wave first spread over the Iberian peninsula in the
+time of the Romans, the fortress Legio Septima, established by
+Trajanus's soldiers, had already grown in importance, and was considered
+one of the promising North Spanish towns.
+
+The inhabitants were among the most fearless adherents of the new faith,
+and it is said that the first persecution of the martyrs took place in
+Leon; consequently, it is not to be wondered at that, as soon as
+Christianity was established in Iberia, a see should be erected on the
+blood-soaked soil of the Roman fortress. (First known bishop, Basilides,
+252 A. D.)
+
+Marcelo seems to have been the most stoically brave of the many Leonese
+martyrs. A soldier or subaltern in the Roman legion, he was daring
+enough to throw his sword at the feet of his commander, who stood in
+front of the regiment, saying:
+
+"I obey the eternal King and scorn your silent gods of stone and wood.
+If to obey Caesar is to revere him as an idol, I refuse to obey him."
+
+Stoic, with a grain of sad grandeur about them, were his last words when
+Agricolanus condemned him to death.
+
+"May God bless you, Agricolano."
+
+And his head was severed from his body.
+
+The next religious war to be waged in and around Leon took place
+between Christians and the invading Visigoths, who professed a doctrine
+called Arrianism. Persecutions were, of course, ripe again, and the
+story is told of how the prior of San Vicente, after having been
+beheaded, appeared in a dream to his cloister brethren trembling behind
+their monastic walls, and advised them to flee, as otherwise they would
+all be killed,--an advice the timid monks thought was an explicit order
+to be immediately obeyed.
+
+The conversion of Recaredo to Christianity--for political reasons
+only!--stopped all further persecution; during the following centuries
+Leon's inhabitants strove to keep away the Arab hordes who swept
+northwards; now the Christians were overcome and Allah was worshipped in
+the basilica; now the Asturian kings captured the town from Moorish
+hands, and the holy cross crowned the altar. Finally the dreaded infidel
+Almanzor burnt the city to the ground, and retreated to Cordoba. Ordono
+I., following in his wake, rebuilt the walls and the basilica, and from
+thenceforward Leon was never again to see an Arab army within its gates.
+
+Prosperity then smiled on the city soon to become the capital of the
+kingdom of Asturias. The cathedral church was built on the spot where
+Ordono had erected a palace; the first stone was laid in 1199.
+
+The traditions, legends, and historical events which took place in the
+kingdom's capital until late in the thirteenth century belong to Spanish
+history, or what is known as such. Ordono II. was mysteriously put to
+death, by the Counts of Castile, some say; Alfonso IV.--a monk rather
+than a king--renounced his right to the throne, and retired to a convent
+to pray for his soul. After awhile he tired of mumbling prayers and,
+coming out from his retreat, endeavoured to wrest the sceptre from the
+hands of his brother Ramiro. But alas, had he never left the cloister
+cell! He was taken prisoner by his humane brother, had his eyes burnt
+out for the pains he had taken, and died a few years later.
+
+Not long after, Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain in the church
+of San Isidoro, an event which marks the climax of Leon's fame and
+wealth. Gradually the kings moved southwards in pursuit of the
+retreating Moors, and with them went their court and their patronage,
+until finally the political centre of Castile and Leon was established
+in Burgos, and the fate that had befallen Oviedo and Lugo visited also
+the one-time powerful fortress of the Roman Legio Septima.
+
+To-day? A dormant city on a baking plain and an immense cathedral
+pointing back to centuries of desperate wars between Christians and
+Moors; a collegiate church, far older still, which served as cathedral
+when Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of Spain.
+
+_Pulchra Leonina_ is the epithet applied to the beautiful cathedral of
+Leon, dedicated to the Ascension of Our Lady and to Nuestra Senora de la
+Blanca.
+
+The first stone was laid in 1199, presumably on the spot where Ordono I.
+had erected his palace; the construction of the edifice did not really
+take place, however, until toward 1250, so that it can be considered as
+belonging to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries.
+
+"Two hundred years only did the temple enjoy a quiet life. In the
+sixteenth century, restorations and additions were begun; in 1631 the
+simple vault of the _croisee_ fell in and was replaced by an absurd
+dome; in 1694 Manuel Conde destroyed and rebuilt the southern front
+according to the style then in vogue, and in 1743 a great number of the
+arches of the aisles fell in. Different parts of the building were
+continually tumbling down, having become too weak to support the heavier
+materials used in the construction of additions and renovations."
+
+The cathedral was closed to the public by the government in 1850 and
+handed over to a body of architects, who were to restore it in
+accordance with the thirteenth-century design; in 1901 the interior of
+the building had been definitely finished, and was opened once more to
+the religious cult.
+
+The general plan of the building is Roman cruciform, with a semicircular
+apse composed of five chapels and an ambulatory behind the high altar.
+
+As peculiarities, the following may be mentioned: the two towers of the
+western front do not head the aisles, but flank them; the transept is
+exceptionally wide (in Spanish cathedrals the distance between the high
+altar and the choir must be regarded as the transept, properly speaking)
+and is composed of a broad nave and two aisles to the east and one to
+the west; the width also of the church at the transept is greater by
+two aisles than that of the body itself,--a modification which produces
+a double Roman cross and lends exceptional beauty to the ensemble, as it
+permits of an unobstructed view from the western porch to the very apse.
+
+Attention must also be drawn to the row of two chapels and a vestibule
+which separate the church from the cloister (one of the most celebrated
+in Spain as a Gothic structure, though mixed with Renaissance motives
+and spoilt by fresco paintings). Thanks to this arrangement, the
+cathedral possesses a northern portal similar to the southern one. As
+regards the exterior of the building, it is a pity that the two towers
+which flank the aisles are heavy in comparison to the general
+construction of the church; had light and slender towers like those of
+Burgos or that of Oviedo been placed here, how grand would have been the
+effect! Besides, they are not similar, but date from different periods,
+which is another circumstance to be regretted.
+
+The second bodies of the western and southern facades also clash on
+account of the Renaissance elements, with their simple horizontal lines
+opposed to the vertical tendency of pure Gothic. But then, they also
+were erected at a later date.
+
+Excepting these remarks, however, nothing is more airily beautiful and
+elegant than the superb expression of the _razonadas locuras_ (logical
+nonsense) of the ogival style in all its phases, both early and late, or
+even decadent. For examples of each period are to be found here,
+corresponding to the century in which they were erected.
+
+The ensemble is an astonishing profusion of high and narrow windows, of
+which there are three rows: the clerestory, the triforium, and the
+aisles. Each window is divided into two by a column so fragile that it
+resembles a spider's thread. These windows peep forth from a forest of
+flying buttresses, and nowhere does the mixture of pinnacles and painted
+panes attain a more perfect eloquence than in the eastern extremity of
+the polygonal apse.
+
+The western and southern facades--the northern being replaced by the
+cloister--are alike in their general design, and are composed of three
+portals surmounted by a decidedly pointed arch which, in the case of the
+central portals, adorns a richly sculptured tympanum. The artistic
+merit of the statuary in the niches of both central portals is devoid of
+exceptional praise, that of the southern facade being perhaps of a
+better taste. As regards the stone pillar which divides the central door
+into two wings, that on the south represents Our Lady of the Blanca, and
+that on the west San Froilan, one of the early martyr bishops of Leon.
+
+Excepting the Renaissance impurities already referred to, each portal is
+surmounted by a row of five lancet windows, which give birth, as it
+were, to one immense window of delicate design.
+
+Penetrating into the interior of the building, preferably by the lateral
+doors of the western front, the tourist is overcome by a feeling of awe
+and amazement at the bold construction of aisles and nave, as slender as
+is the frost pattern on a spotless pane. The full value of the windows,
+which are gorgeous from the outside, is only obtained from the interior
+of the temple; those of the clerestory reach from the sharp ogival
+vaulting to the height of the triforium, which in its turn is backed by
+another row of painted windows; in the aisles, another series of panes
+rose in the sixteenth century from the very ground (!), though in
+recent times the bases have unluckily been blinded to about the height
+of a man.
+
+The pillars and columns are of the simplest and most sober construction,
+so simple that they do not draw the spectator's attention, but leave him
+to be impressed by the great height of nave and aisles as compared with
+their insignificant width, and above all by the profuse perforation of
+the walls by hundreds upon hundreds of windows.
+
+Unluckily, the original pattern of the painted glass does not exist but
+in an insignificant quantity: the northern window, the windows of the
+high altar, and those of the Chapel of St. James are about the only ones
+dating from the fifteenth century that are left standing to-day; they
+are easily recognizable by the rich, mellow tints unattained in modern
+stained glass.
+
+As accessories, foremost to be mentioned are the choir stalls, which are
+of an elegant and severe workmanship totally different from the florid
+carving of those in Toledo. The high altar, on the other hand, is devoid
+of interest excepting for the fine ogival sepulchre of King Ordono II;
+the remaining chapels, some of which contain art objects of value, need
+not claim the tourist's special attention.
+
+By way of conclusion: the cathedral of Leon, restored to-day after years
+of ruin and neglect, stands forth as one of the master examples of
+Gothic workmanship, unrivalled in fairy-like beauty and, from an
+architectural point of view, the very best example of French ogival to
+be met with in Spain.
+
+Moreover, those who wrought it, felt the real principles of all Gothic
+architecture. Many are the cathedrals in Spain pertaining to this great
+school, but not one of them can compare with that of Leon in the way the
+essential principle was _felt_ and _expressed_. They are all beautiful
+in their complex and hybrid style, but none of them can claim to be
+Gothic in the way they are built. For wealth, power, and luxury in
+details is generally the lesson Spanish cathedrals teach, but they do
+not give their lancets and shafts, their vertical lines and pointed
+arches, the chance to impress the visitor or true believer with those
+sentiments so peculiar to the great ogival style.
+
+The cathedral of Leon is, in Spain, the unique exception to this rule.
+Save only those constructive errors or dissonances previously referred
+to, and which tend to counteract the soaring characteristic, it could be
+considered as being pure in style. Nevertheless, it is not only the
+truest Gothic cathedral on the peninsula, but one of the finest in the
+world.
+
+At the same time, it is no less true that it is not so Spanish as either
+the Gothic of Burgos or of Toledo.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1063 the King of Leon, Fernando I., signed a treaty with the Arab
+governor of Sevilla, obliging the latter to hand over to the Catholic
+monarch, in exchange for some other privileges, the corpse of San
+Isidoro. It was conveyed to Leon, where a church was built to contain
+the remains of the saint; the same building was to serve as a royal
+pantheon.
+
+About a century later Alfonso VII. was battling against the pagans in
+Andalusia when, in the field of Baeza, the "warlike apparition of San
+Isidoro appeared in the heavens and encouraged the Christian soldiers."
+
+Thanks to this divine aid, the Moors were beaten, and Alfonso VII.,
+returning to Leon, enriched the saint's shrine, enlarged it, and raised
+it to a suffragan church, destined later to serve as the temporary see
+while the building of the real cathedral was going on.
+
+In 1135 Alfonso VII. was crowned Emperor of the West Roman Empire with
+extraordinary pomp and splendour in the Church of San Isidoro. The
+apogee of Leon's importance and power coincides with this memorable
+event.
+
+The emperor's sister, Sancha, a pious infanta, bequeathed her vast
+fortune as well as her palace to San Isidoro, her favourite saint; the
+church in Leon became, consequently, one of the richest in Spain, a
+privilege it was, however, unable to retain for any length of time.
+
+In 1029, shortly after the erection of the primitive building, its front
+was sullied, according to the tradition, by the blood of one Count
+Garcia of Castile. The following is the story:
+
+The King of Asturias at the time was Bermudo II., married to Urraca, the
+daughter of Count Sancho of Castile. Political motives had produced this
+union, for the Condes de Castile had grown to be the most important and
+powerful feudal lords of the kingdom.
+
+To assure the count's assistance and friendship, the king went even
+further: he promised his sister Sancha to the count's son Garcia, who
+lost no time in visiting Leon so as to become acquainted with his future
+spouse.
+
+Three sons of the defeated Count of Vela, a Basque nobleman whom the
+Counts of Castile had put to death, were in the city at the time.
+Pretending to be very friendly with the young _fiance_, they conspired
+against his life, and, knowing that he paid matinal visits to San
+Isidoro, they hid in the portal one day, and slew the youth as he
+entered.
+
+The promised bride arrived in haste and fell weeping on the body of the
+murdered man; she wept bitterly and prayed to be allowed to be buried
+with her sweetheart. Her prayer was, of course, not granted: so she
+swore she would never marry. She was not long in breaking this oath,
+however, for a few months later she wedded a prince of the house of
+Navarra.
+
+The present state of the building of San Isidoro is ruinous, thanks to a
+stroke of lightning in 1811, and to the harsh treatment bestowed upon
+the building by Napoleon's soldiers during the War for Independence
+(1808).
+
+Seen from the outside, the edifice is as uninteresting as possible; the
+lower part is constructed in the early Latin Romanesque style; the
+upper, of a posterior construction, shows a decided tendency to early
+Gothic.
+
+The apse was originally three-lobed, composed of three identical chapels
+corresponding to the nave and aisles; in the sixteenth century the
+central lobe was prolonged and squared off; the same century saw the
+erection of the statue of San Isidoro in the southern front, which
+spoiled the otherwise excellently simple Romanesque portal.
+
+In the interior of the ruin--for such it is to-day--the only peculiarity
+to be noted is the use of the horseshoe arches in the arcades which
+separate the aisles from the nave, as well as the Arab dentated arches
+of the transept. It is the first case on record where, in a Christian
+temple of the importance of San Isidoro, Arab or pagan architectural
+elements were made use of in the decoration; that is to say, after the
+invasion, for previous examples were known, having most likely
+penetrated into the country by means of Byzantine workmen in the fifth
+and sixth centuries. (In San Juan de Banos.)
+
+[Illustration: APSE OF SAN ISIDORO, LEON]
+
+Instead of being lined with chapels the aisles are covered with mural
+paintings. These frescoes are of great archaeological value on account of
+their great age and the evident Byzantine influence which characterizes
+them; artistically they are unimportant.
+
+The chief attraction of the building is the pantheon, a low, square
+chapel of six arches, supported in the centre by two gigantic pillars
+which are crowned by huge cylindrical capitals. Nothing more depressing
+or gloomy can be seen in the peninsula excepting the pantheon in the
+Escorial; it is doubtful which of the two is more melancholy. The pure
+Oriental origin (almost Indian!) of this pantheon is unmistakable and
+highly interesting.
+
+The fresco paintings which cover the ceiling and the massive ribs of the
+vaulting are equally morbid, representing hell-scenes from the
+Apocalypse, the massacre of the babes, etc.
+
+Only one or two of the Romanesque marble tombs which lined the walls
+are remaining to-day; the others were used by the French soldiers as
+drinking-troughs for their cavalry horses!
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+ASTORGA
+
+
+The Asturica Augusta of the Romans was the capital of the northern
+provinces of Asturias and the central point of four military roads which
+led to Braga, Aquitania, Saragosse, and Tarragon.
+
+During the Visigothic domination, and especially under the reign of
+Witiza, Astorga as well as Leon, Toledo, and Tuy were the only four
+cities allowed to retain their walls.
+
+According to some accounts, Astorga was the seat of the earliest
+bishopric in the peninsula, having been consecrated in the first century
+by Santiago or his immediate followers; historically, however, the first
+known bishop was Dominiciano, who lived about 347 A. D.
+
+In the fourth and fifth centuries several heresies or false doctrines
+were ripe in Spain. Of one of these, _Libelatism_, Astorga was the
+centre; the other, _Priscilianism_, originally Galician, found many
+adherents in the fortress-town, more so than elsewhere, excepting only
+Tuy, Orense, and Palencia.
+
+_Libelatism._--Its great defender was Basilides, Bishop of Astorga.
+Strictly speaking, this faith was no heresy, but a sham or fraud which
+spread out beyond the Pyrenees to France. It consisted in denying the
+new faith; those who proclaimed it, or, in other words, the Christians,
+who were severely persecuted in those days, pretended to worship the
+Latin gods so as to save their skins. With this object in view, and to
+be able to prove their sincerity, they were obliged to obtain a
+certificate, _libelum_ (libel?), from the Roman governor, stating their
+belief in Jupiter, Venus, etc. Doubtless they had to pay a tax for this
+certificate, and thus the Roman state showed its practical wisdom: it
+was paid by cowards for being tyrannical. But then, not all Christians
+are born martyrs.
+
+_Priscilianism._--Of quite a different character was the other heresy
+previously mentioned. It was a doctrine opposed to the Christian
+religion, proud of many adherents, and at one time threatening danger to
+the Holy Roman Catholic Church. Considering that it is but little known
+to-day (for after a lingering life of about three or four centuries in
+Galicia it was quite ignored by philosophers and Christians alike), it
+may be of some use to transcribe the salient points of this doctrine, in
+case some one be inclined to baptize him or herself as prophet of the
+new religion. It was preached by one Prisciliano in the fourth century,
+and was a mixture of Celtic mythology and Christian faith.
+
+"Prisciliano did not believe in the mystery of the Holy Trinity; he
+believed that the world had been created by the devil (perhaps he was
+not wrong!) and that the devil held it beneath his sway; further, that
+the soul is part of the Divine Essence and the body dependent upon the
+stars; that this life is a punishment, as only sinful souls descend on
+earth to be incarnated in organic bodies. He denied the resurrection of
+the flesh and the authenticity of the Old Testament. He defended the
+transmigration of souls, the invocation of the dead, and other ideas,
+doubtless taken from native Galician mythology. To conclude, he
+celebrated the Holy Communion with grape and milk instead of with wine,
+and admitted that all true believers (his true believers, I suppose,
+for we are all of us true believers of some sort) could celebrate
+religious ceremonies without being ordained curates."
+
+Sinfosio, Bishop of Astorga in 400, was converted to the new religion.
+But, upon intimation that he might be deprived of his see, he hurriedly
+turned Christian again, putting thus a full stop to the spread of
+heresy, by his brave and unselfish act.
+
+Toribio in 447 was, however, the bishop who wrought the greatest harm to
+Priscilianism. He seems to have been the divine instrument called upon
+to prove by marvellous happenings the true religion: he converted the
+King of the Suevos in Orense by miraculously curing his son; when
+surrounded by flames he emerged unharmed; when he left his diocese, and
+until his return, the crops were all lost; upon his return the
+church-bells rang without human help, etc., etc. All of which doings
+proved the authenticity of the true religion beyond a doubt, and that
+Toribio was a saint; the Pope canonized him.
+
+During the Arab invasion, Astorga, being a frontier town, suffered more
+than most cities farther north; it was continually being taken and
+lost, built up and torn down by the Christians and Moors.
+
+Terrible Almanzor conquered it in his raid in the tenth century, and
+utterly destroyed it. It was rebuilt by Veremundo or Bermudo III., but
+never regained its lost importance, which reverted to Leon.
+
+When the Christian armies had conquered the peninsula as far south as
+Toledo, Astorga was no longer a frontier town, and rapidly fell asleep,
+and has slept ever since. It remained a see, however, but only one of
+secondary importance.
+
+It would be difficult to state how many cathedral churches the city
+possessed previous to the eleventh century. In 1069 the first on record
+was built; in 1120 another; a third in the thirteenth century, and
+finally the fourth and present building in 1471.
+
+It was the evident intention of the architect to imitate the _Pulchra
+Leonina_, but other tastes and other styles had swept across the
+peninsula and the result of the unknown master's plans resembles rather
+a heavy, awkward caricature than anything else, and a bastard mixture of
+Gothic, plateresque, and grotesque styles.
+
+The northern front is by far the best of the two, boasting of a rather
+good relief in the tympanum of the ogival arch; some of the painted
+windows are also of good workmanship, though the greater part are modern
+glass, and unluckily unstained.
+
+Its peculiarities can be signalized; the windows of the southern aisle
+are situated above the lateral chapels, while those of the northern are
+lower and situated in the chapels. The height and width of the aisles
+are also remarkable--a circumstance that does not lend either beauty or
+effect to the building. There is no ambulatory behind the high altar,
+which stands in the lady-chapel; the apse is rounded. This peculiarity
+reminds one dimly of what the primitive plan of the Oviedo cathedral
+must have resembled.
+
+By far the most meritorious piece of work in the cathedral is the
+sixteenth-century _retablo_ of the high altar, which alone is worth a
+visit to Astorga. It is one of Becerra's masterpieces in the late
+plateresque style, as well as being one of the master's last known works
+(1569).
+
+It is composed of five vertical and three horizontal bodies; the niches
+in the lower are flanked by Doric, those of the second by Corinthian,
+and those of the upper by composite columns and capitals. The polychrome
+statues which fill the niches are life-size and among the best in Spain;
+together they are intended to give a graphic description of the life of
+the Virgin and of her Son.
+
+In some of the decorative details, however, this _retablo_ shows evident
+signs of plateresque decadence, and the birth of the florid grotesque
+style, which is but the natural reaction against the severity of early
+sixteenth-century art.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+BURGOS
+
+
+Burgos is the old capital of Castile.
+
+Castile--or properly Castilla--owed its name to the great number of
+castles which stood on solitary hills in the midst of the plains lying
+to the north of the Sierra de Guaderrama; one of these castles was
+called Burgos.
+
+Unlike Leon and Astorga, Burgos was not known to the Romans, but was
+founded by feudal noblemen in the middle ages, most likely by the Count
+of Castilla prior to 884 A. D., when its name first appears in history.
+
+Situated almost in the same line and to the west of Astorga and Leon, it
+entered the chain of fortresses which formed the frontier between the
+Christian kingdoms and the Moorish dominion. At the same time it looked
+westwards toward the kingdom of Navarra, and managed to keep the
+ambitious sovereigns of Pamplona from Castilian soil.
+
+During the first centuries which followed upon the foundation of the
+village of Burgos at the foot of a prominent castle, both belonged to
+the feudal lords of Castile, the celebrated counts of the same name.
+This family of intrepid noblemen grew to be the most important in
+Northern Spain; vassals of the kings of Asturias, they broke out in
+frequent rebellion, and their doings alone fill nine of every ten pages
+of mediaeval history.
+
+Orduno III.--he who lost the battle of Valdejunquera against the Moors
+because the noblemen he had ordered to assist refrained from doing
+so--enticed the Count of Castile, together with other conspirators, to
+his palace, and had them foully murdered. So, at least, saith history.
+
+The successor to the title was no fool. On the contrary, he was one of
+the greatest characters in Spanish history, hero of a hundred legends
+and traditions. Fernan Gonzalez was his name, and he freed Castile from
+owing vassalage to Asturias, for he threw off the yoke which bound him
+to Leon, and lived as an independent sovereign in his castle of Burgos.
+This is the date of Castile's first appearance in history as one of the
+nuclei of Christian resistance (in the tenth century).
+
+Nevertheless, against the military genius of Almanzor (the victorious),
+Fernan Gonzalez could do no more than the kings of Leon. The fate that
+befell Santiago, Leon, and Astorga awaited Burgos, which was utterly
+destroyed with the exception of the impregnable castle. After the Arab's
+death, hailed by the Christians with shouts of joy, and from the pulpits
+with the grim remark: _"Almanzor mortuus est et sepultus et in
+inferno_," the strength of Castile grew year by year, until one Conde
+Garcia de Castilla married one of his daughters to the King of Navarra
+and the other to Bermudo III. of Leon. His son, as has already been seen
+in a previous chapter, was killed in Leon when he went to marry
+Bermudo's sister Sancha. But his grandson, the recognized heir to the
+throne of Navarra, Fernando by name, inherited his grandfather's title
+and estates, even his murdered uncle's promised bride, the sister of
+Bermudo. At the latter's death some years later, without an heir, he
+inherited--or conquered--Leon and Asturias, and for the first time in
+history, all the Christian kingdoms of the peninsula were united
+beneath one sceptre.
+
+Castile was now the most powerful state in the peninsula, and its
+capital, Burgos, the most important city north of Toledo.
+
+Two hundred years later the centralization of power in Burgos was an
+accomplished fact, as well as the death in all but name of the ancient
+kingdom of Leon, Asturias, and Galicia. Castile was Spain, and Burgos
+its splendid capital (1230, in the reign of San Fernando).
+
+The above events are closely connected with the ecclesiastical history,
+which depends entirely upon the civil importance of the city.
+
+A few years after Fernando I. had inaugurated the title of King of
+Castile, he raised the parish church of Burgos to a bishopric (1075) by
+removing to his new capital the see that from time immemorial had
+existed in Oca. He also laid the first stone of the cathedral church in
+the same spot where Fernan Gonzalez had erected a summer palace,
+previous to the Arab raid under Almanzor. Ten years later the same king
+had the bishopric raised to an archiepiscopal see.
+
+San Fernando, being unable to do more than had already been done by his
+forefather Fernando I., had the ruined church pulled down, and in its
+place he erected the cathedral still standing to-day. This was in 1221.
+
+So rapidly was the main edifice constructed, that as early as 1230 the
+first holy mass was celebrated in the altar-chapel. The erection of the
+remaining parts took longer, however, for the building was not completed
+until about three hundred years later.
+
+Burgos did not remain the sole capital of Northern Spain for any great
+length of time. Before the close of the thirteenth century, Valladolid
+had destroyed the former's monopoly, and from then on, and during the
+next three hundred years, these two and Toledo were obliged to take
+turns in the honour of being considered capital, an honour that depended
+entirely upon the caprices of the rulers of the land, until it was
+definitely conferred upon Madrid in the seventeenth century.
+
+As regards legends and traditions of feudal romance and tragedy, hardly
+a city excepting Toledo and Salamanca can compete with Burgos.
+Historical events, produced by throne usurpers and defenders, by
+continual strife, by the obstinacy of the noblemen and the perfidy of
+the monarchs,--all interwoven with beautiful dames and cruel
+warriors--are sufficiently numerous to enable every house in and around
+Burgos to possess some secret or other, generally gruesome and
+licentious, which means chivalrous. The reign of Peter the Cruel and of
+his predecessor Alfonso, the father of four or five bastards, and the
+lover of Dona Leonor; the heroic deeds of Fernan Gonzalez and of the Cid
+Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar); the splendour of the court of Isabel
+I., and the peculiar constitution of the land with its Cortes, its
+convents, and monasteries,--all tend to make Burgos the centre of a
+chivalrous literature still recited by the people and firmly believed in
+by them. Unluckily their recital cannot find a place here, and we pass
+on to examine the grand cathedral, object of the present chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The train, coming from the north, approaches the city of Burgos. A low
+horizon line and undulating plains stretch as far as the eye can reach;
+in the distance ahead are two church spires and a castle looming up
+against a blue sky.
+
+The train reaches the station; a mass of houses and, overtopping the
+roofs of all buildings, the same spires as seen before, lost as it were
+in a forest of pinnacles, emerging from two octagonal lanterns or
+cimborios. In the background, on a sandy hill, are the ruins of the
+castle which once upon a time was the stronghold of the Counts of
+Castile.
+
+Burgos! Passing beneath a four-hundred-year-old gateway--Arco de Santa
+Maria--raised by trembling bourgeois to appease a monarch's wrath, the
+visitor arrives after many a turn in a square situated in front of the
+cathedral.
+
+A poor architectural element is this western front of the cathedral as
+regards the first body or the portals. Devoid of all ornamentation, and
+consequently naked, three doors or portals, surmounted by a peculiar
+egg-shaped ogival arch, open into the nave and aisles. Originally they
+were richly decorated by means of sculptural reliefs and statuary, but
+in the plateresque period of the sixteenth century they were demolished.
+The two lateral doors leading into the aisles are situated beneath the
+275 feet high towers of excellent workmanship.
+
+[Illustration: BURGOS CATHEDRAL]
+
+The central door is surmounted by a plateresque-Renaissance pediment
+imbedded in an ogival arch (of all things!); the side doors are crowned
+by a simple window.
+
+Vastly superior in all respects to the lower body are the upper stories,
+of which the first is begun by a pinnacled balustrade running from tower
+to tower; in the centre, between the two towers, there is an immense
+rosace of a magnificent design and embellished by means of an ogival
+arch in delicate relief; the windows of the tower, as well as in the
+superior bodies, are pure ogival.
+
+The next story can be considered as the basement of the towers, properly
+speaking. The central part begins with a prominent balustrade of statues
+thrown against a background formed by twin ogival windows of exceptional
+size. The third story is composed, as regards the towers, of the last of
+the square bodies upon which the fleche reposes; these square bases are
+united by a light frieze or perforated balustrade which crowns the
+central part of the facade and is decorated with ogival designs.
+
+Last to be mentioned, but not least in importance, are the _fleches_.
+Though short in comparison to the bold structure at Oviedo, they are,
+nevertheless, of surprising dignity and elegance, and richly ornamented,
+being covered over with an innumerable amount of tiny pinnacles
+encrusted, as it were, on the stone network of a perforated pyramid.
+
+The northern facade is richer in sculptural details than the western,
+though the portal possesses but one row of statues. The rosace is
+substituted by a three-lobed window, the central pane of which is larger
+than the lateral two.
+
+As this northern facade is almost fifteen feet higher than the
+ground-plan of the temple,--on account of the street being much
+higher,--a flight of steps leads down into the transept. As a
+Renaissance work, this golden staircase is one of Spain's marvels, but
+it looks rather out of place in an essentially Gothic cathedral.
+
+To avoid the danger of falling down these stairs and with a view to
+their preservation, the transept was pierced by another door in the
+sixteenth century, on a level with the floor of the building, and
+leading into a street lower than the previous one; it is situated on the
+east of the prolonged transept, or better still, of the prolonged
+northern transept arm.
+
+On the south side a cloister door corresponds to this last-named portal.
+Though the latter is plateresque, cold and severe, the former is the
+richest of all the portals as regards sculptural details; the carving of
+the panels is also of the finest workmanship. Beside it, the southern
+front of the cathedral coincides perfectly with the northern; like the
+Puerta de la Plateria in Santiago, it is rendered somewhat insignificant
+by the cloister to the right and by the archbishop's palace to the left,
+between which it is reached by a paved series of terraces, for on this
+side the street is lower than the floor of the cathedral. The impression
+produced by this alley is grand and imposing, unique in Spain.
+
+Neither is the situation of the temple exactly east and west, a rare
+circumstance in such a highly Catholic country like Spain. It is Roman
+cruciform in shape; the central nave contains both choir and high altar;
+the aisles are prolonged behind the latter in an ambulatory.
+
+The lateral walls of the church, enlarged here and there to make room
+for chapels of different dimensions, give an irregular outline to the
+building which has been partly remedied by the free use of buttresses,
+flying buttresses, and pinnacles.
+
+The first impression produced on the visitor standing in either of the
+aisles is that of size rather than beauty; a close examination, however,
+of the wealth of statues and tombs, and of the sculptural excellence of
+stone decoration, will draw from the tourist many an exclamation of
+wonder and delight. Further, the distribution of light is such as to
+render the interior of the temple gay rather than sombre; it is a pity,
+nevertheless, that the stained glasses of the sixteenth century see were
+all destroyed by a powder explosion in 1813, when the French soldiers
+demolished the castle.
+
+The unusual height of the choir mars the ensemble of the interior; the
+stalls are lavishly carved, but do not inspire the same feeling of
+wonderful beauty as do those of Leon and Toledo, for instance; the
+_reja_ or grille which separates the choir from the transept is one of
+the finest pieces of work in the cathedral, and, though massive, it is
+simple and elegant.
+
+The _retablo_ of the high altar, richly gilt, is of the Renaissance
+period; the statues and groups which fill the niches are marvellously
+drawn and full of life. In the ambulatory, imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_, there are six plaques in low relief; as sculptural work in
+stone they are unrivalled in the cathedral, and were carved, beyond a
+doubt, by the hand of a master. The _croisee_ and the Chapel of the
+Condestable are the two chief attractions of the cathedral church.
+
+The last named chapel is an octagonal addition to the apse. Its walls
+from the exterior are seen to be richly sculptured and surmounted by a
+lantern, or windowed dome, surrounded by high pinnacles and spires
+placed on the angles of the polygon base. The _croisee_ is similar in
+structure, but, due to its greater height, appears even more slender and
+aerial. The towers with their _fleches_, together with these original
+octagonal lanterns with their pinnacles, lend an undescribable grace,
+elegance, and majesty to what would otherwise have been a rather
+unwieldy edifice.
+
+The Chapel of the Condestable is separated from the ambulatory (in the
+interior of the temple) by a good grille of the sixteenth century, and
+by a profusely sculptured door. The windows above the altar are the only
+ones that retain painted panes of the sixteenth century. Among the other
+objects contained in this chapel--which is really a connoisseur's
+collection of art objects of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries--can
+be mentioned the two marvellously carved tombs of the Condestable and of
+his wife.
+
+The _croisee_, on the other hand, has been called the "cathedral's
+cathedral." Gazing skyward from the centre of the transept into the high
+_cimborio_, and admiring the harmony of its details, the wealth of
+decorative elements, and the no less original structure of the dome,
+whose vault is formed by an immense star, one can understand the epithet
+applied to this majestic piece of work, a marvel of its kind.
+
+Strange to say, the primitive cupola which crowned the _croisee_ fell
+down in the sixteenth century, the date also of Burgos's growing
+insignificance in political questions. Consequently, it was believed by
+many that the same fate produced both accidents, and that the downfall
+of the one necessarily involved the decadence of the other.
+
+To conclude: The Gothic cathedral of Burgos is, with that of Leon and
+perhaps that of Sevilla, the one which expresses in a greater measure
+than any other on the peninsula the true ideal of ogival architecture.
+Less airy, light, and graceful than that of Leon, it is, nevertheless,
+more Spanish, or in other words, more majestic, heavier, and more
+imposing as regards size and weight. From a sculptural point of
+view--stone sculpture--it is the first of all Spanish Gothic cathedrals,
+and ranks among the most elaborate and perfect in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+SANTANDER
+
+
+The foundation of Santander is attributed to the Romans who baptized it
+Harbour of Victory. Its decadence after the Roman dominion seems to have
+been complete, and its name does not appear in the annals of Spanish
+history until in 1187, when Alfonso, eighth of that name and King of
+Castile, induced the repopulation of the deserted hamlet by giving it a
+special _fuero_ or privilege. At that time a monastery surrounded by a
+few miserable huts seems to have been all that was left of the Roman
+seaport; this monastery was dedicated to the martyr saints Emeterio and
+Celedonio, for it was, and still is, believed that they perished here,
+and not in Calahorra, as will be seen later on.
+
+The name of the nascent city in the times of Alfonso VIII. was Sancti
+Emetrii, from that of the monastery or of the old town, but within a
+few years the new town eclipsed the former in importance and, being
+dedicated to St. Andrew, gave its name to the present city
+(San-t-Andres, Santander).
+
+As a maritime town, Santander became connected with all the naval events
+undertaken by young Castile, and later by Philip II., against England.
+Kings, princes, princess-consorts, and ambassadors from foreign lands
+came by sea to Santander, and went from thence to Burgos and Valladolid;
+from Santander and the immediate seaports the fleet sailed which was to
+travel up the Guadalquivir and conquer Sevilla; in 1574 the Invincible
+Armada left the Bay of Biscay never to return, and from thence on until
+now, Santander has ever remained the most important Spanish seaport on
+the Cantabric Sea.
+
+Its ecclesiastical history is uninteresting--or, rather, the city
+possesses no ecclesiastical past; perhaps that is one of the causes of
+its flourishing state to-day. In the thirteenth century the monastical
+Church of San Emeterio was raised to a collegiate and in 1775 to a
+bishopric.
+
+The same unimportance, from an art point of view, attaches itself to the
+cathedral church. No one visits the city for the sake of the heavy,
+clumsy, and exceedingly irregularly built temple which stands on the
+highest part of the town. On the contrary, the great attraction is the
+fine beach of the Sardinero which lies to the west of the industrial
+town, and is, in summer, the Brighton of Spain. The coast-line, deeply
+dentated and backed by the Cantabric Mountains, is far more delightful
+and attractive than the Gothic cathedral structure of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+Consequently, little need be said about it. In the interior, the height
+of the nave and aisles, rendered more pronounced by the pointed ogival
+arches, gives the building a somewhat aerial appearance that is belied
+by the view from without.
+
+[Illustration: CRYPT OF SANTANDER CATHEDRAL]
+
+The square tower on the western end is undermined by a gallery or tunnel
+through which the Calle de Puente passes. To the right of the same, and
+reached by a flight of steps, stands the entrance to the crypt, which is
+used to-day as a most unhealthy parish church. This crypt of the late
+twelfth century or early thirteenth shows a decided Romanesque tendency
+in its general appearance: it is low, massive, strong, and crowned by
+a semicircular vaulting reposing on gigantic pillars whose capitals are
+roughly sculptured. The windows which let in the little light that
+enters are ogival, proving the Transition period to which the crypt
+belongs; it was originally intended as the pantheon for the abbots of
+the monastery. But unlike the Galician Romanesque, it lacks an
+individual _cachet_; if it resembles anything it is the pantheon of the
+kings in San Isidoro in Leon, though in point of view of beauty, the two
+cannot be compared.
+
+The form of the crypt is that of a perfect Romanesque basilica, a nave
+and two aisles terminating a three-lobed apse.
+
+In the cathedral, properly speaking, there is a baptismal font of
+marble, bearing an Arabic inscription by way of upper frieze; it is
+square, and of Moorish workmanship, and doubtless was brought from
+Cordoba after the reconquest. Its primitive use had been practical, for
+in Andalusia it stood at the entrance to some mezquita, and in its
+limpid waters the disciples of Mahomet performed their hygienic and
+religious ablutions.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+VITORIA
+
+
+If the foreigner enter Spain by Irun, the first cathedral town on his
+way south is Vitoria.
+
+Gazteiz seems to have been its Basque name prior to 1181, when it was
+enlarged by Don Sancho of Navarra and was given a _fuero_ or privilege,
+together with its new name, chosen to commemorate a victory obtained by
+the king over his rival, Alfonso of Castile.
+
+Fortune did not smile for any length of time on Don Sancho, for
+seventeen years later Alfonso VIII. incorporated the city in his kingdom
+of Castile, and it was lost for ever to Navarra.
+
+As regards the celebrated _fueros_ given by the last named monarch to
+the inhabitants of the city, a curious custom was in vogue in the city
+until a few years ago, when the Basque Provinces finally lost the
+privileges they had fought for during centuries.
+
+When Alfonso VIII. granted these privileges, he told the citizens they
+were to conserve them "as long as the waters of the Zadorria flowed into
+the Ebro."
+
+The Zadorria is the river upon which Vitoria is situated; about two
+miles up the river there is a historical village, Arriago, and a no less
+historical bridge. Hither, then, every year on St. John's Day, the
+inhabitants of Vitoria came in procession, headed by the municipal
+authorities, the bishop and clergy, the clerk of the town hall, and the
+sheriff. The latter on his steed waded into the waters of the Zadorria,
+and threw a letter into the stream; it flowed with the current toward
+the Ebro River. An act was then drawn up by the clerk, signed by the
+mayor and the sheriff, testifying that the "waters of the Zadorria
+flowed into the Ebro."
+
+To-day the waters still flow into the Ebro, but the procession does not
+take place, and the city's _fueros_ are no more.
+
+In the reign of Isabel the Catholic, the Church of St. Mary was raised
+to a Colegiata, and it is only quite recently, according to the latest
+treaty between Spain and Rome, that an episcopal see has been
+established in the city of Vitoria.
+
+Documents that have been discovered state that in 1281--a hundred years
+after the city had been newly baptized--the principal temple was a
+church and castle combined; in the fourteenth century this was
+completely torn down to make room for the new building, a modest ogival
+church of little or no merit.
+
+The tower is of a later date than the body of the cathedral, as is
+easily seen by the triangular pediments which crown the square windows:
+it is composed of three bodies, as is generally the case in Spain, the
+first of which is square in its cross-section, possessing four turrets
+which crown the angles; the second body is octagonal and the third is in
+the form of a pyramid terminating in a spire.
+
+The portal is cut into the base of the tower. It is the handsomest front
+of the building, though in a rather dilapidated state; the sculptural
+decorations of the three arches, as well as the aerial reliefs of the
+tympanum, are true to the period in which they were conceived.
+
+The sacristy encloses a primitive wooden effigy of the Virgin; it is of
+greater historic than artistic value. There is also a famous picture
+attributed now to Van Dyck, now to Murillo; it represents Christ in the
+arms of his mother, and Mary Magdalene weeping on her knees beside the
+principal group. The picture is known by the name of Piety or La Piedad.
+
+The high altar, instead of being placed to the east of the transept, as
+is generally the case, is set beneath the _croisee_, in the circular
+area formed by the intersection of nave and transept. The view of the
+interior is therefore completely obstructed, no matter where the
+spectator stands.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+UPPER RIOJA
+
+
+To the south of Navarra and about a hundred miles to the west of Burgos,
+the Ebro River flows through a fertile vale called the Rioja, famous for
+its claret. It is little frequented by strangers or tourists, and yet it
+is well worth a visit. The train runs down the Ebro valley from Miranda
+to Saragosse. A hilly country to the north and south, well wooded and
+gently sloping like the Jura; nearer, and along the banks of the stream,
+_huertas_ or orchards, gardens, and vineyards offer a pleasant contrast
+to the distant landscape, and produce a favourable impression,
+especially when a village or town with its square, massive church-tower
+peeps forth from out of the foliage of fruit-trees and elms.
+
+Such is Upper Rioja--one of the prettiest spots in Spain, the Touraine,
+one might almost say, of Iberia, a circular region of about twenty-five
+miles in radius, containing four cities, Logrono, Santo Domingo de la
+Calzada, Najera, and Calahorra.
+
+The Roman military road from Tarragon to Astorga passed through the
+Rioja, and Calahorra, a Celtiberian stronghold slightly to the south,
+was conquered by the invaders after as sturdy a resistance as that of
+Numantia itself. It was not totally destroyed by the conquering Romans
+as happened in the last named town; on the contrary, it grew to be the
+most important fortress between Leon and Saragosse.
+
+When the Christian religion dawned in the West, two youths, inseparable
+brothers, and soldiers in the seventh legion stationed in Leon, embraced
+the true religion and migrated to Calahorra. They were beheaded after
+being submitted to a series of the most frightful tortures, and their
+tunics, leaving the bodies from which life had escaped, soared skywards
+with the saintly souls, to the great astonishment of the Roman
+spectators. The names of these two martyr saints were Emeterio and
+Celedonio, who, as we have seen, are worshipped in Santander; besides,
+they are also the patron saints of Calahorra.
+
+The first Bishop of Calahorra took possession of his see toward the
+middle of the fifth century; his name was Silvano. Unluckily, he was the
+only one whose name is known to-day, and yet it has been proven that
+when the Moors invaded the country two or three hundred years later, the
+see was removed to Oviedo, later to Alava (near Vitoria, where no
+remains of a cathedral church are to be seen to-day), and in the tenth
+century to Najera. One hundred years later, when the King of Navarra,
+Don Garcia, conquered the Arab fortress at Calahorra, the wandering see
+was once more firmly chained down to the original spot of its creation
+(1030; the first bishop _de modernis_ being Don Sancho).
+
+Near by, and in a vale leading to the south from the Ebro, the Moors
+built a fortress and called it Najera. Conquered by the early kings of
+Navarra, it was raised to the dignity of one of the cathedral towns of
+the country; from 950 (first bishop, Theodomio) to 1030 ten bishops held
+their court here, that is, until the see was removed to Calahorra. Since
+then, and especially after the conquest of Rioja by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile, the city's significance died out completely, and to-day it is
+but a shadow of what it previously had been, or better still, it is an
+ignored village among ruins.
+
+Still further west, and likewise situated in a vale to the south of the
+Ebro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada ranks as the third city. Originally
+its parish was but a suffragan church of Calahorra, but in 1227 it was
+raised to an episcopal see. Quite recently, in the beginning of the
+nineteenth century, when church funds were no longer what they had been,
+only one bishop was appointed to both sees, with an alternative
+residence in either of the two, that is to say, one prelate resided in
+Calahorra, his successor in Santo Domingo, and so forth and so on. Since
+1850, however, both villages--for they are cities in name only--have
+lost all right to a bishop, the see having been definitely removed to
+Logrono, or it will be removed there as soon as the present bishop dies.
+But he has a long life, the present bishop!
+
+The origin of Santo Domingo is purely religious. In the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries a pious individual lived in the neighbourhood whose
+life-work and ambition it was to facilitate the travelling pilgrims to
+Santiago in Galicia. He served as guide, kept a road open in winter and
+summer, and even built bridges across the streams, one of which is still
+existing to-day, and leads into the town which bears his name.
+
+He had even gone so far as to establish a rustic sort of an inn where
+the pilgrims could pass the night and eat (without paying?). He also
+constructed a church beside his inn. Upon dying, he was canonized Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada (Domingo was his name, and _calzada_ is old
+Spanish for highroad). The Alfonsos of Castile were grateful to the
+humble saint for having saved them the expense and trouble of looking
+after their roads, and ordained that a handsome church should be erected
+on the spot where previously the humble inn and chapel had stood. Houses
+grew up around it rapidly and the dignity of the new temple was raised
+in consequence.
+
+Of the four cities of Upper Rioja, the only one worthy of the name of
+city is Logrono, with its historical bridge across the Ebro, a bridge
+that was held, according to the tradition, by the hero, Ruy Diaz Gaona,
+and three valiant companions against a whole army of invading Navarrese.
+
+The name Lucronio or Logrono is first mentioned in a document toward
+the middle of the eleventh century. The date of its foundation is
+absolutely unknown, and all that can be said is that, once it had fallen
+into the hands of the monarchs of Castile (1076), it grew rapidly in
+importance, out-shining the other three Rioja cities. It is seated on
+the southern banks of the Ebro in the most fertile part of the whole
+region, and enjoys a delightful climate. Since 1850 it has been raised
+to the dignity of an episcopal see.
+
+As regards the architectural remains of the four cities in the Upper
+Rioja valley, they are similar to those of Navarra, properly speaking,
+though not so pure in their general lines. In other words, they belong
+to the decadent period of Gothic art. Moreover, they have one and all
+been spoiled by ingenious, though dreadful mixtures of plateresque,
+Renaissance, and grotesque decorative details, and consequently the real
+remains of the old twelfth and thirteenth century Gothic and Romanesque
+constructions are difficult to trace.
+
+_Najera._--Absolutely nothing remains of the old Romanesque church built
+by the king Don Garcia. A new edifice of decadent Gothic, mixed with
+Renaissance details, and dating from the fifteenth century, stands
+to-day; it contains a magnificent series of choir stalls of excellent
+workmanship, and similar to those of Burgos. The cloister, in spite of
+the Arab-looking geometrical tracery of the ogival arches, is both light
+and elegant.
+
+This cathedral was at one time used as the pantheon of the kings of
+Navarra. About ten elaborate marble tombs still lie at the foot of the
+building.
+
+_Santo Domingo de la Calzada._--The primitive ground-plan of the
+cathedral has been preserved, a nave and two aisles showing Romanesque
+strength in the lower and ogival lightness in the upper tiers. But
+otherwise nothing reminds one of a twelfth or thirteenth century church.
+
+The cloister, of the sixteenth century, is a handsome
+plateresque-Renaissance edifice, rather small, severe, and cold. The
+great merit of this church lies in the sepulchral tombs in the different
+chapels, all of which were executed toward the end of the fifteenth and
+during the first years of the seventeenth centuries, and any one wishing
+to form for himself an idea of this particular branch of Spanish
+monumental art must not fail to examine such sepulchres as those of
+Carranza, Fernando Alfonso, etc.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF NAJERA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The effigy of the patron saint (Santo Domingo) is of painted wood
+clothed in rich silver robes, which form a striking antithesis to the
+saint's humble and modest life. The chapel where the latter lies is
+closed by a gilded iron _reja_ of plateresque workmanship. The saint's
+body lies in a simple marble sepulchre, said to have been carved by
+Santo Domingo himself, who was both an architect and a sculptor. The
+truth of this version is, however, doubtful.
+
+Of the square tower and the principal entrance no remarks need be made,
+for both are insignificant. The _retablo_ of the high altar has been
+attributed to Foment, who constructed those of Saragosse and Huesca. The
+attribution is, however, most doubtful, as shown by the completely
+different styles employed by the artist of each. Not that the _retablo_
+in the Church of Santo Domingo is inferior to Foment's masterworks in
+Aragon, but the decorative motives of the flanking columns and low
+reliefs would prove--in case they had been executed by the Aragonese
+Foment--a departure from the latter's classic style.
+
+In one of the niches of the cloister, in a simple urn, lies the heart of
+Don Enrique, second King of Castile of that name, the half-brother (one
+of the bastards mentioned in a previous chapter and from whom all later
+Spanish monarchs are descended) of Peter the Cruel. The latter was
+murdered by his fond relative, who usurped the throne.
+
+_Logrono._--In 1435 Santa Maria la Redonda was raised to a suffragan
+church of Santo Domingo de la Calzada; about this date the old building
+must have been almost entirely torn down, as the ogival arches of the
+nave are of the fifteenth century; so also are the lower windows which,
+on the west, flank the southern door.
+
+Excepting these few remains, nothing can bring to the tourist's mind the
+fifteenth-century edifice, and not a single stone can recall the
+twelfth-century church. For the remaining parts of the building are of
+the sixteenth, seventeenth, and successive centuries, and to-day the
+interior is being enlarged so as to make room for the see which is to be
+removed here from Santo Domingo and Calahorra.
+
+[Illustration: SANTA MARIA LA REDONDA, LOGRONO]
+
+The interior is Roman cruciform with a high and airy central nave, in
+which stands the choir, and on each hand a rather dark aisle of much
+smaller dimensions.
+
+The _trascoro_ is the only peculiarity possessed by this church. It is
+large and circular, closed by an immense vaulting which turns it into a
+chapel separated from the rest of the church (compare with the Church of
+the Pillar of Saragosse).
+
+True to the grotesque style to which it belongs, the whole surface of
+walls and vault is covered with paintings, the former apparently in oil,
+the latter frescoes. Vixes painted them in the theatrical style of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+From the outside, the regular features of the church please the eye in
+spite of the evident signs of artistic decadence. The two towers, high
+and slender, are among the best produced by the period of decadence in
+Spain which followed upon Herrero's severe style, if only the uppermost
+body lacked the circular linterna which makes the spire top-heavy.
+
+Between the two towers, which, when seen from a distance, gain in beauty
+and lend to the city a noble and picturesque aspect, the facade,
+properly speaking, reaches to their second body. It is a hollow, crowned
+by half a dome in the shape of a shell which in its turn is surmounted
+by a plateresque cornice in the shape of a long and narrow scroll.
+
+The hollow is a peculiar and daring medley of architectural elegance and
+sculptural bizarrerie and vice versa. From Madrazo it drew the
+exclamation that, since he had seen it, he was convinced that not all
+monuments belonging to the grotesque style were devoid of beauty.
+
+The date of the erection of the western front is doubtless the same as
+that of the _trascoro_; both are contemporaneous--the author is inclined
+to believe--with the erection of the Pillar in Saragosse; at least, they
+resemble each other in certain unmistakable details.
+
+_Calahorra._--The fourth of the cathedral churches of Upper Rioja is
+that of Calahorra. After the repopulation of the town by Alfonso VI. of
+Castile in the eleventh century, the bodies of the two martyr saints
+Emeterio and Celedonio were pulled up out of a well (to be seen to-day
+in the cloister) where they had been hidden by the Christians, when
+the Moors conquered the fortress, and a church was built near the same
+spot. Of this eleventh-century church nothing remains to-day.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF CALAHORRA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the twelfth century, a new building was begun, but the process of
+construction continued slowly, and it was not until two hundred years
+later that the apse was finally finished. The body of the church, from
+the western front (this latter hideously modern and uninteresting) to
+the transept, is the oldest part,--simple Gothic of the thirteenth
+century.
+
+The numerous chapels which form a ring around the church have all been
+decorated in the grotesque style of the eighteenth century, and with
+their lively colours, their polychrome statues, and overdone
+ornamentation, they offer but little interest to the visitor. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is one of the largest to be seen anywhere;
+but the Renaissance elegance of the lower body is completely drowned by
+the grotesque decoration of the upper half, which was constructed at a
+later date.
+
+The choir stalls are fine specimens of that style in which the artist
+preferred an intricate composition to simple beauty. Biblical scenes,
+surrounded and separated by allegorical personages and symbolical lines
+in great profusion, show the carver's talent rather than his artistic
+genius.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+SORIA
+
+
+The Duero River, upon leaving its source at the foot of the Pico de
+Urbion (near Vinuesa), flows eastward for about fifty miles, then
+southward for another fifty miles, when it turns abruptly westward on
+its lengthy journey across the Iberian peninsula.
+
+The circular region, limited on three sides by the river's course, is
+the historical field of Soria--part of the province of the same name,
+Numantia, Rome's great enemy and almost the cause of her ruin, lay
+somewhere in this part of the country, though where is not exactly
+known, as the great Scipio took care to destroy it so thoroughly that
+not even a stone remains to-day to indicate where the heroic fortress
+stood.
+
+In the present day, two cities and two cathedrals are seated on the
+banks of the Duero within this circle; the one is Soria, the other Osma.
+The latter was a Roman town, an early episcopal see, and later an Arab
+fortress; the former was founded by one of the Alfonsos toward the end
+of the eleventh century, as a frontier fortress against Aragon to the
+east, the Moors to the south, and Navarra to the north.
+
+The town grew apace, thanks to the remarkable _fueros_ granted to the
+citizens, who lived as in a republic of their own making--an almost
+unique case of self-government to be recorded in the middle ages.
+
+The principal parish church was raised to a suffragan of Osma in the
+twelfth century. Since then, there has been a continual spirit of
+rivalry between the two cities, for the former, more important as a town
+and as the capital of a province, could not bend its head to the
+ecclesiastical authority of a village like Osma. Throughout the middle
+ages the jealousy between the two was food for incessant strife. Pope
+Clement IV., at Alfonso VIII.'s instigation, raised the Collegiate at
+Soria to an episcopal see independent of Osma, but the hard-headed
+chapter of the last named city refused to acknowledge the Pope's order,
+and no bishop was elected or appointed.
+
+This bitter hatred between the two rivals was the origin of many an
+amusing incident. Upon one occasion the Bishop of Osma, visiting his
+suffragan church in Soria, had the house in which he was stopping for
+the night burnt about his ears. He moved off to another house, and on
+the second night this was also mysteriously set on fire. His lordship
+did not await the third night, afraid of what might happen, but bolted
+back to his episcopal palace at Osma.
+
+In 1520 the chapter of the Collegiate in Soria sent a petition to the
+country's sovereign asking him to order the erection of a new church in
+place of the old twelfth-century building, and in another part of the
+town. The request was not granted, however, so what did the wily chapter
+do? It ordered an architect to construct a chapel in the very centre of
+the church, and when it was completed, admired the work with great
+enthusiasm, excepting only the pillar in front of it which obstructed
+the uninterrupted view. This pillar was the real support of the church,
+and though the chapter was told as much (as though it did not know it!)
+the architect was ordered to pull it down. After hesitating to do so,
+the latter acceded: the pillar was pulled down, and with it the whole
+church tumbled down as well! But the chapter's game was discovered, and
+it was obliged to rebuild the cathedral on the same spot and with the
+same materials.
+
+Consequently, the church at Soria is a sixteenth-century building of
+little or no merit, excepting the western front, which is the only part
+of the old building that did not fall down, and is a fine specimen of
+Castilian Romanesque, as well as the cloister, one of the handsomest,
+besides being one of the few twelfth-century cloisters in Spain, with a
+double row of slender columns supporting the round-headed arches. This
+modification of the conventional type lends an aspect of peculiar
+lightness to the otherwise heavy Romanesque.
+
+As regards the settlement of the strife between Soria and Osma, the see
+is to-day a double one, like that of Madrid and Alcala. Upon the death
+of the present bishop, however, it will be transported definitely to
+Soria, and consequently the inhabitants of the last named city will at
+last be able to give thanks for the great mercies Allah or the True God
+has bestowed upon them.
+
+[Illustration: CLOISTER OF SORIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+_Osma._--From an historical and architectural point of view, Osma,
+the rival city on the Duero River, is much more important than Soria.
+
+According to the tradition, St. James preached the Holy Gospel, and
+after him St. Peter (or St. Paul?), who left his disciple St. Astorgio
+behind as bishop (91 A. D.). Twenty-two bishops succeeded him, the
+twenty-third on the list being John I., really the first of whose
+existence we have any positive proof, for he signed the third council in
+Toledo in the sixth century. In the eighth century, the Saracens drove
+the shepherd of the Christian flock northward to Asturias, and it was
+not until 1100 that the first bishop _de modernis_ was appointed by
+Archbishop Bernardo of Toledo. The latter's choice fell on Peter, a
+virtuous French monastic monk, who was canonized by the Pope after his
+death, and figures in the calendar as St. Peter of Osma.
+
+When the first bishop took possession of his see, he started to build
+his cathedral. Instead of choosing Osma itself as the seat, however, he
+selected the site of a convent on the opposite banks of the Duero (to
+the north), where the Virgin had appeared to a shepherd. Houses soon
+grew up around the temple and, to distinguish it from Osma, the new
+city was called Burgo de Osma, a name it still retains.
+
+In 1232, not a hundred years after the erection of the cathedral, it was
+totally destroyed, excepting one or two chapels still to be seen in the
+cloister, by Juan Dominguez, who was bishop at the time, and who wished
+to possess a see more important in appearance than that left to him by
+his predecessor, St. Peter.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is small, but highly interesting. The
+original plan was that of a Romanesque basilica with a three-lobed apse,
+but in 1781 the ambulatory walk behind the altar joined the two lateral
+aisles.
+
+Two of the best pieces of sculptural work in the cathedral are the
+_retablo_ of the high altar, and the relief imbedded in the wall of the
+_trascoro_--both of them carved in wood by Juan de Juni, one of the best
+Castilian sculptors of the sixteenth century. The plastic beauty of the
+figures and their lifelike postures harmonize well with the simple
+Renaissance columns ornamented here and there with finely wrought
+flowers and garlands.
+
+The chapel where St. Peter of Osma's body lies is an original rather
+than a beautiful annex of the church. For, given the small dimensions of
+the cathedral, it was difficult to find sufficient room for the chapels,
+sacristy, vestuary, etc. In the case of the above chapel, therefore, it
+was necessary to build it above the vestuary; it is reached by a flight
+of stairs, beneath which two three-lobed arches lead to the sombre room
+below. The result is highly original.
+
+The same remarks as regard lack of space can be made when speaking about
+the principal entrance. Previously the portal had been situated in the
+western front; the erection of the tower on one side, and of a chapel on
+the other, had rendered this entrance insignificant and half blinded by
+the prominent tower. So a new one had to be erected, considered by many
+art critics to be a beautiful addition to the cathedral properly
+speaking, but which strikes the author as excessively ugly, especially
+the upper half, with its balcony, and a hollow arch above it, in the
+shadows of which the rose window loses both its artistic and its useful
+object. So, being round, it is placed within a semicircular sort of
+_avant-porche_ or recess, the strong _contours_ of which deform the
+immense circle of the window.
+
+To conclude: in the cathedral of Osma, bad architecture is only too
+evident. The tower is perhaps the most elegant part, and yet the second
+body, which was to give it a gradually sloping elegance, was omitted,
+and the third placed directly upon the first. This is no improvement.
+
+Perhaps the real reason for these architectural mishaps is not so much
+the fault of the architects and artists as that of the chapter, and of
+the flock which could not help satisfactorily toward the erection of a
+worthy cathedral. Luckily, however, there are other cathedrals in Spain,
+where, in spite of reduced funds, a decent and homogeneous building was
+erected.
+
+The cloister, bare on the inner side, is nevertheless a modest Gothic
+structure with acceptable lobulated ogival windows.
+
+
+
+
+_PART IV_
+
+_Western Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+PALENCIA
+
+
+The history of Palencia can be divided into two distinct parts,
+separated from each other by a lapse of about five hundred years, during
+which the city was entirely blotted out from the map of Spain.
+
+The first period reaches from before the Roman Conquest to the
+Visigothic domination.
+
+Originally inhabited by the Vacceos, a Celtiberian tribe, it was one of
+the last fortresses to succumb to Roman arms, having joined Numantia in
+the terrible war waged by Spaniards and which has become both legendary
+and universal.
+
+Under Roman rule the broad belt of land, of which Palencia, a military
+town on the road from Astorga to Tarragon, was the capital, flourished
+as it had never done before. Consequently it is but natural that one of
+the first sees should have been established there as soon as
+Christianity invaded the peninsula. No records are, however, at hand as
+regards the names of the first bishops and of the martyr saints, as
+thick here as elsewhere and as numerous in Spain as in Rome itself. At
+any rate, contemporary documents mention a Bishop Toribio, not the first
+to occupy the see nor the same prelate who worked miracles in Orense and
+Astorga. The Palencian Toribio fought also against the Priscilian
+heresy, and was one of the impediments which stopped its spread further
+southward. Of this man it is said that, disgusted with the heresy
+practised at large in his Pallantia, he mounted on a hill, and,
+stretching his arms heavenwards, caused the waters of the river to leave
+their bed and inundate the city, a most efficacious means of bringing
+loitering sheep to the fold.
+
+Nowhere did the Visigoths wreak greater vengeance or harm on the
+Iberians who had hindered their entry into the peninsula than in
+Palencia. It was entirely wrecked and ruined, not one stone remaining to
+tell the tale of the city that had been. Slowly it emerged from the
+wreck, a village rather than a town; once in awhile its bishops are
+mentioned, living rather in Toledo than in their humble see.
+
+The Arab invasion devastated a second time the growing town; perhaps it
+was Alfonso I. himself who completely wrecked it, for the Moorish
+frontier was to the north of the city, and it was the sovereign's
+tactics to raze to the ground all cities he could not keep, when he made
+a risky incursion into hostile country.
+
+So Palencia was forgotten until the eleventh century, when Sancho el
+Mayor, King of Navarra, who had conquered this part of Castile,
+reestablished the long-ignored see. He was hunting among the weeds that
+covered the ruins of what had once been a Roman fortress, when a boar
+sprang out of cover in front of him and escaped. Being light of foot,
+the king followed the animal until it disappeared in a cave, or what
+appeared to be such, though it really was a subterranean chapel
+dedicated to the martyrs, or to the patron saint of old Pallantia,
+namely, San Antolin.
+
+The hunted beast cowered down in front of the altar; the king lifted his
+arm to spear it, when lo, his arm was detained in mid-air by an
+invisible hand! Immediately the monarch prostrated himself before the
+miraculous effigy of the saint; he acknowledged his sacrilegious sin,
+and prayed for forgiveness; the boar escaped, the monarch's arm fell to
+his side, and a few days later the see was reestablished, a church was
+erected above the subterranean chapel, and Bernardo was appointed the
+first bishop (1035). After Sancho's death, his son Ferdinand, who, as we
+have seen, managed to unite for the first time all Northern Spain
+beneath his sceptre, made it a point of honour to favour the see his
+father had erected a few months before his death, an example followed by
+all later monarchs until the times of Isabel the Catholic.
+
+A surprising number of houses were soon built around the cathedral, and
+the city's future was most promising. Its bishops were among the
+noble-blooded of the land, and enjoyed such exceptional privileges as
+gave them power and wealth rarely equalled in the history of the middle
+ages. But then, the city had been built for the church and not the
+church for the city, and it is not to be marvelled at that the prelates
+bore the title of "_hecho un rey y un papa_"--king and pope. The greater
+part of these princes, it is true, lived at court rather than in their
+episcopal see, which is, perhaps, one of the reasons why Palencia failed
+to emulate with Burgos and Valladolid, though at one time it was the
+residence of some of the kings of Castile.
+
+Moreover, being only second in importance to the two last named cities,
+Palencia was continually the seat of dissident noblemen and thwarted
+heirs to the throne; because these latter, being unable to conquer the
+capital, or Valladolid, invariably sought to establish themselves in
+Palencia, sometimes successfully, at others being obliged to retreat
+from the city walls. The story of the town is consequently one of the
+most adventurous and varied to be read in Spanish history, and it is due
+to the side it took in the rebellion against Charles-Quint, in the time
+of the Comuneros, that it was finally obliged to cede its place
+definitely to Valladolid, and lost its importance as one of the three
+cities of Castilla la Vieja.
+
+It remains to be mentioned that Palencia was the seat of the first
+Spanish university (Christian, not Moorish), previous to either that of
+Salamanca or Alcala. In 1208 this educational institution was founded by
+Alfonso VIII.; professors were procured from Italy and France, and a
+building was erected beside the cathedral and under its protecting wing.
+It did not survive the monarch's death, however, for the reign of the
+latter's son left but little spare time for science and letters, and in
+1248 it was closed, though twenty years later Pope Urbano IV. futilely
+endeavoured to reestablish it. According to a popular tradition, it owed
+its definite death to the inhabitants of the town, who, bent upon
+venging an outrage committed by one of the students upon a daughter of
+the city, fell upon them one night at a given signal and killed them to
+the last man.
+
+In the fourteenth century, the cathedral, which had suffered enormously
+from sieges and from the hands of enemies, was entirely pulled down and
+a new one built on the same spot (June, 1321). The subterranean chapel,
+which had been the cause of the city's resurrection, was still the
+central attraction and relic of the cathedral, and, according to another
+legend, no less marvellous than that of Toribio, its genuineness has
+been placed definitely (?) without the pale of skeptic doubts. It
+appears that one Pedro, Bishop of Osma (St. Peter of Osma?), was praying
+before the effigy of San Antolin when the lights went out. The pious
+yet doubting prelate prayed to God to give him a proof of the relic's
+authenticity by lighting the candles. To his surprise (?) and glee, the
+candles lit by themselves!
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Let us approach the city by rail. The train leaves Venta de Banos, a
+junction station with a village about two miles away possessing a
+seventh-century Visigothic church which offers the great peculiarity of
+horseshoe arches in its structure, dating from before the Arab invasion.
+
+Immediately upon emerging from the station, the train enters an immense
+rolling plain of a ruddy, sandy appearance, with here and there an
+isolated sand-hill crowned by the forgotten ruins of a mediaeval castle.
+
+The capital of this region is Palencia.
+
+The erection of the cathedral church of the town was begun in 1321; it
+was dedicated to the Mother and Child, and to San Antolin, whose chapel,
+devoid of all artistic merit, is still to be seen beneath the choir.
+
+This edifice was finished toward 1550. The same division as has been
+observed in the history of the city can be applied to the temple: at
+first it was intended to construct a modest Gothic church of red
+sandstone; the apse with its five chapels and traditional ambulatory was
+erected, as well as the transept and the high altar terminating the
+central nave. Then, after about a hundred years had passed away, the
+original plan was altered by lengthening the body of the building.
+Consequently the chapel of the high altar was too small in comparison
+with the enlarged proportions, and it was transformed into a parish
+chapel. Opposite it, and to the west of the old transept, another high
+altar was constructed in the central nave, and a second transept
+separated it from the choir which followed.
+
+In other words, and looking at this curious monument as it stands
+to-day, the central nave is surmounted by an ogival vaulting of a series
+of ten vaults. The first transept cuts the nave beneath the sixth, and
+the second beneath the ninth vault. (Vault No. 1 is at the western end
+of the church.) Both transepts protrude literally beyond the general
+width of the building. The choir stands beneath the fourth and fifth
+vaults, and the high altar between the two transepts, occupying the
+seventh and eighth space. Beneath the tenth stands the parish chapel or
+ex-high altar, behind which runs the ambulatory, on the off-side of
+which are situated the five apsidal chapels. Consequently the second
+transept separates the old from the new high altar.
+
+[Illustration: PALENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In spite of the low aisles and nave, and the absence of sculptural
+motives so pronounced in Burgos, the effect produced on the spectator by
+the double cross and the unusual length as compared with the width is
+agreeable. The evident lack of unity in the Gothic structure is
+recompensed by the original and pleasing plan.
+
+The final judgment that can be emitted concerning this cathedral church,
+when seen from the outside, is that it shows the typical Spanish-Gothic
+characteristic, namely, heaviness as contrasted to pure ogival
+lightness. There is poverty in the decorative details, and solemnity in
+the interior; the appearance from the outside is of a fortress rather
+than a temple, with slightly pointed Gothic windows, and a heavy and
+solid, rather than an elegant and light, general structure. Only the
+cathedral church of Palencia outgrew the original model and took the
+strange and exotic form it possesses to-day, without losing its
+fortress-like aspect.
+
+Though really built in stone (see the columns and pillars in the
+interior), brick has been largely used in the exterior; hence also the
+impossibility of erecting a pure Gothic building, and this is a remark
+that can be applied to most churches in Spain. The buttresses are heavy,
+the square tower (unfinished) is Romanesque or _Mudejar_ in form rather
+than Gothic, though the windows be ogival. There is no western facade or
+portal; the tower is situated on the southern side between the true
+transepts.
+
+Of the four doorways, two to the north and two to the south, which give
+access to the transepts, the largest and richest in sculptural
+decoration is the Bishop's Door (south). Observe the geometrical designs
+in the panels of the otherwise ogival and slightly pointed doorway. The
+other portal on the south is far simpler, and the arch which surmounts
+it is of a purer Gothic style; not so the geometrically decorated panels
+and the almost Arabian frieze which runs above the arches. This frieze
+is Moorish or Mudejar-Byzantine, and though really it does not belong in
+an ogival building, it harmonizes strangely with it.
+
+In the interior of the cathedral the nakedness of the columns is
+partially recompensed by the richness in sculptural design of some
+sepulchres, as well as by several sixteenth-century grilles. The huge
+_retablo_ of the high altar shows Gothic luxuriousness in its details,
+and at the same time (in the capitals of the flanking columns) nascent
+plateresque severity.
+
+Perhaps the most interesting corner of the interior is the _trascoro_,
+or the exterior side of the wall which closes the choir on the west.
+Here the patronizing genius of Bishop Fonseca, a scion of the celebrated
+Castilian family, excelled itself. The wall itself is richly sculptured,
+and possesses two fine lateral reliefs. In the centre there is a Flemish
+canvas of the sixteenth century, of excellent colour, and an elegantly
+carved pulpit.
+
+In the chapter-room are to be seen some well-preserved Flemish
+tapestries, and in an apsidal chapel is one of Zurbaran's mystic
+subjects: a praying nun. (This portrait, I believe, has been sold or
+donated by the chapter, for, if I am not mistaken, it is to be seen
+to-day in the art collection of the Spanish royal family.)
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+ZAMORA
+
+
+Whatever may have been the origin of Zamora, erroneously confounded with
+that of Numantia, it is not until the ninth century that the city, or
+frontier fortress, appears in history as an Arab stronghold, taken from
+the Moors and fortified anew by Alfonso I. or by his son Froila, and
+necessarily lost and regained by Christians and Moors a hundred times
+over in such terrible battles as the celebrated and much sung _dia de
+Zamora_ in 901. In 939 another famous siege of the town was undertaken
+by infidel hordes, but the strength of the citadel and the numerous
+moats, six it appears they were in number, separated by high walls
+surrounding the town, were invincible, and the Arab warriors had to
+retreat. Nevertheless, between 900 and 980 the fortress was lost five
+times by the Christians. The last Moor to take it was Almanzor, who
+razed it to the ground and then repopulated it with Arabs from
+Andalusia.
+
+Previously, in 905, the parish church had been raised to an episcopal
+see; the first to occupy it being one Atilano, canonized later by Pope
+Urbano II.
+
+Ten years after this bishop had taken possession of his spiritual
+throne, he was troubled by certain religious scruples, and, putting on a
+pilgrim's robe, he distributed his revenues among the parish poor and
+left the city. Crossing the bridge,--still standing to-day and leading
+from the town to Portugal,--he threw his pastoral ring into the river,
+swearing he would only reoccupy the lost see when the ring should have
+been given back into his hands; should this happen, it would prove that
+the Almighty had pardoned his sins.
+
+For two years he roamed about visiting shrines and succouring the poor;
+at last one day he dreamed that his Master ordered him to repair
+immediately to his see, where he was sorely needed. Returning to Zamora,
+he passed the night in a neighbouring hermitage, and while supping--it
+must have been Friday!--in the belly of the fish he was eating he
+discovered his pastoral ring.
+
+The following day the church-bells were rung by an invisible hand, and
+the pilgrim, entering the city, was hailed as a saint by the
+inhabitants; the same invisible hands took off his pilgrim's clothes and
+dressed him in rich episcopal garments. He took possession of his see,
+dying in the seventh year of his second reign.
+
+Almanzor _el terrible_, on the last powerful raid the Moors were to
+make, buried the Christian see beneath the ruins of the cathedral, and
+erected a mezquita to glorify Allah; fifteen years later the city fell
+into the hands of the Christians again, and saw no more an Arab army
+beneath its walls.
+
+It was not, however, until 125 years later that the ruined episcopal see
+was reestablished _de modernis_, the first bishop being Bernardo (1124).
+
+But previous to the above date, an event took place in and around Zamora
+that has given national fame to the city, and has made it the centre of
+a Spanish Iliad hardly less poetic or dramatic than the Homerian legend,
+and therefore well worth narrating as perhaps unique in the peninsula,
+not to say in the history of the middle ages.
+
+When Fernando I. of Castile died in 1065, he left his vast territories
+to his five children, bequeathing Castile to his eldest son Sancho,
+Galicia to Garcia, Leon to Alfonso, Toro to Elvira, and Zamora to
+Urraca, who was the eldest daughter, and, with Sancho, the bravest and
+most intrepid of the five children.
+
+According to the romance of Zamora, she, Dona Urraca, worried her
+father's last moments by trying to wheedle more than Zamora out of him;
+but the king was firm, adding only the following curse:
+
+     _"'Quien os la tomara, hija,_
+      _iLa mi maldicion le caiga!'--_
+      _Todos dicen amen, amen,_
+      _Sino Don Sancho que calla."_
+
+Which in other words means: "Let my curse fall on whomsoever endeavours
+to take Zamora from you.... Those who were present agreed by saying
+amen; only the eldest son, Don Sancho, remained silent."
+
+The latter, being ambitious, dethroned his brothers and sent them flying
+across the frontier to Andalusia, then Moorish territory. Toro also
+submitted to him, but not so Zamora, held by the dauntless Urraca and
+the governor of the citadel, Arias Gonzalo. So it was besieged by the
+royal troops and asked to surrender, the message being taken by the
+great Cid from Don Sancho to his sister. She, of course, refused to give
+up the town. Wherefore is not known, but the fact is that the Cid, the
+ablest warrior in the hostile army, after having carried the embassy to
+the Infanta, left the king's army; the many romances which treat of this
+siege accuse him of having fallen in love with Dona Urraca's lovely
+eyes,--a love that was perhaps reciprocated,--who knows?
+
+In short, the city was besieged during nine months. Hunger, starvation,
+and illness glared at the besieged. On the point of surrendering, they
+were beseeched by the Infanta to hold out nine days longer; in the
+meantime one Vellido Dolfo, famous in song, emerged by the city's
+postern gate and went to King Sancho's camp, saying that he was tired of
+serving Dona Urraca, with whom he had had a dispute, and that he would
+show the king how to enter the city by a secret path.
+
+According to the romances, it would appear that the king was warned by
+the inhabitants themselves against the traitorous intentions of Vellido.
+"Take care, King Sancho," they shouted from the walls, "and remember
+that we warn you; a traitor has left the city gates who has already
+committed treason four times, and is about to commit the fifth."
+
+The king did not hearken, as is generally the case, and went out walking
+with the knight who was to show him the secret gate; he never returned,
+being killed by a spear-thrust under almost similar circumstances to
+Siegfried's.
+
+The father's curse had thus been fulfilled.
+
+The traitor returned to the city, and, strange to say, was not punished,
+or only insufficiently so; consequently, it is to-day believed that the
+sister of the murdered monarch had a hand in the crime. Upon Vellido's
+return to the besieged town, the governor wished to imprison him--which
+in those days meant more than confinement--but the Infanta objected; it
+is even stated that the traitor spoke with his heartless mistress,
+saying: "It was time the promise should be fulfilled."
+
+In the meanwhile, from the besieging army a solitary knight, Diego
+Ordonez, rode up to the city walls, and accusing the inhabitants of
+felony and treason, both men and women, young and old, living and dead,
+born and to be born, he challenged them to a duel. It had to be
+accepted, and, according to the laws of chivalry, the challenger had to
+meet in single combat five champions, one after another, for he had
+insulted, not a single man, but a community.
+
+The gray-haired governor of the fortress reserved for himself and his
+four sons the duty of accepting the challenge; the Infanta beseeched him
+in vain to desist from his enterprise, but he was firm: his mistress's
+honour was at stake. At last, persuaded by royal tears, according to the
+romance, he agreed to let his sons precede him, and, only in case it
+should be necessary, would he take the last turn.
+
+The eldest son left the city gates, blessed by the weeping father; his
+helmet and head were cleft in twain by Diego Ordonez's terrible sword,
+and the latter's ironical shout was heard addressing the governor:
+
+"Don Arias, send me hither another of your charming sons, because this
+one cannot bear you the message."
+
+A second and third son went forth, meeting the same fate: but the
+latter's wounded horse, in throwing its rider, ran blindly into Ordonez
+and knocked him out of the ring; the duel was therefore judged to be a
+draw.
+
+Several days afterward Alfonso, the dead king's younger brother, hurried
+up from Toledo, and after swearing in Burgos that he had had nothing to
+do with the felonious murder, was anointed King of Castile, Leon, and
+Galicia. His brave sister Urraca lived with him at court, giving him
+useful advice, until she retired to a convent, and at her death left her
+palace and her fortune to the Collegiate Church at Leon.
+
+The remaining history of Zamora is one interminable list of revolts,
+sieges, massacres, and duels. As frontier fortress against Portugal in
+the west, its importance as the last garrison town on the Duero was
+exceptional, and consequently, though it never became important as a
+metropolis, as a stronghold it was one of Castile's most strategical
+points.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The best view of the city is obtained from the southern shore of the
+Duero; on a low hill opposite the spectator, the city walls run east and
+west; behind them, to the left, the castle towers loom up, square and
+Byzantine in appearance; immediately to the right the cathedral nave
+forms a horizontal line to where the _cimborio_ practically terminates
+the church. Thus from afar it seems as though the castle tower were part
+of the religious edifice, and the general appearance of the whole city
+surrounded by massive walls cannot be more warlike. The colour also of
+the ruddy sandstone and brick, brilliant beneath a bright blue sky, is
+characteristic of this part of Castile, and certainly constitutes one of
+its charms. What is more, the landscape is rendered more exotic or
+African by the Oriental appearance of the whole town, its castle, and
+its cathedral.
+
+The latter was begun and ended in the twelfth century; the first stone
+was laid in 1151, and the vaults were closed twenty-three years later,
+in 1174; consequently it is one of the unique twelfth-century churches
+in Spain completed before the year 1200. It is true that the original
+edifice has been deformed by posterior additions and changes dating from
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
+
+Excepting these abominable additions, the primitive building is
+Romanesque; not Romanesque as are the cathedrals we have seen in
+Galicia, but Byzantine, or military Romanesque, showing decided
+Oriental influences. Would to Heaven the cathedral of Zamora were to-day
+as it stood in the twelfth century!
+
+[Illustration: ZAMORA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The form of the church is that of a basilica. Like the cathedral of
+Palencia, it lacks a western front; the apse is semicircular,
+strengthened by heavy leaning buttresses; the upper, towerless rim of
+this same body is decorated with an ogival festoon set off by means of
+the primitive pinnacles of the top of the buttresses. The northern
+(Renaissance or plateresque) front is, though beautiful and severe in
+itself, a calamity when compared with the Romanesque edifice, as is also
+the new and horrid clock-tower.
+
+The view of the southern end of the transept, as seen from the left, is
+the most imposing to be obtained of the building. Two flights of steps
+lead up to the Romanesque portal, flanked by three simple pillars, which
+support three rounded arches deeply dentated(!). Blind windows, similar
+in structure to the portal, occupy the second body of the facade, and
+are surmounted in their turn by a simple row of inverted crenelated
+teeth, showing in their rounded edges the timid use of the horseshoe
+arc. The superior body is formed by two concentric and slightly ogival
+arches embedded in the wall.
+
+The greatest attraction, and that which above all gives a warlike aspect
+to the whole building, is the _cimborio_, or lantern of the _croisee_.
+Flanked by four circular turrets, which are pierced by round-topped
+windows and surmounted by Oriental domes that add a stunted, solid
+appearance to the whole, the principal cupola rises to the same height
+as the previously mentioned turrets. The whole is a marvel of simple
+architectural resource within the narrow limits of the round-arched
+style. What is more, though this cupola and that of Santiago belong to
+the same period, what a world of difference between the two! Seen as
+indicated above, the _factura_ of the whole is intensely Oriental
+(excepting the addition of the triangular cornices emerging from beneath
+the cupola), and, it may be said in parenthesis, exceptionally fine.
+Besides, the high walls of the aisles, as compared with the stunted
+growth of the _cimborio_, and with the compact and slightly angular form
+of the entire building, lend an unrivalled aspect of solidity, strength,
+and resistance to the twelfth-century cathedral church, so
+intrinsically different from that of Santiago.
+
+The interior is no less peculiar, and particularly so beneath the
+lantern of the _croisee_. The latter is composed of more than a dozen
+windows, slightly ogival in shape, though from the outside the pillars
+of the flanking turrets support round-headed arches; these windows are
+separated from each other by simple columns or shafts. Again, what a
+difference between this solid and simple _cimborio_ and the marvellous
+lantern of the cathedral at Burgos! Two ages, two generations, even two
+ideals, are represented in both; the earlier, the stronger, in Zamora;
+the later, the more aerial and elaborate, in Burgos.
+
+Another Romanesque characteristic is the approximate height of nave and
+aisles. This circumstance examined from within or from without is one of
+the causes of the solid appearance of the church; the windows of the
+aisles--unimportant, it is true, from an artistic point of view--are
+slightly ogival; those of the nave are far more primitive and
+round-headed.
+
+The transept, originally of the same length as the width of the church,
+was prolonged in the fifteenth century. (On the south side also?... It
+is extremely doubtful, as the southern facade previously described is
+hardly a fifteenth-century construction; on the other hand, that on the
+north side is easily classified as posterior to the general construction
+of the building.)
+
+Further, the western end, lacking a facade, is terminated by an apse,
+that is, each aisle and the central nave run into a chapel. The effect
+of this _double apse_ is highly peculiar, especially as seen from
+within, with chapels to the east and chapels to the west.
+
+The _retablo_ is of indifferent workmanship; the choir stalls, on the
+other hand, are among the most exquisitely wrought--simple, sober, and
+natural--to be seen in Spain, especially those of the lower row.
+
+The chapels are as usual in Spanish cathedrals, as different in style as
+they are in size; none of those in Zamora can be considered as artistic
+jewels. The best is doubtless that which terminates the southern aisles
+on the western end of the church, where the principal facade ought to
+have been placed. It is Gothic, rich in its decoration, but showing here
+and there the decadence of the northern style.
+
+The cloister--well, anywhere else it might have been praised for its
+plateresque simplicity and severity, but here!--it is out of date and
+place.
+
+To conclude, the general characteristics of the cathedral of Zamora are
+such as justify the opinion that the edifice, especially as its
+Byzantine-Oriental and severe primitive structure is concerned, is one
+of the great churches that can still be admired in Spain, in spite of
+the reduced size and of the additions which have been introduced.
+
+     NOTE.--To the traveller interested in church architecture, the
+     author wishes to draw attention to the parish church of La Magdalen
+     in Zamora. The northern portal of the same is one of the most
+     perfect--if not the most perfect--specimen of Byzantine-Romanesque
+     decoration to be met with in Spain. It is perhaps unique in the
+     world. At the same time, the severe Oriental appearance of the
+     church, both from the outside and as seen from within, cannot fail
+     to draw the attention of the most casual observer.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+TORO
+
+
+To the west of Valladolid, on the river Duero, Toro, the second of the
+two great fortress cities, uplifts its Alcazar to the blue sky; like
+Zamora, it owed its fame to its strategic position: first, as one of the
+Christian outposts to the north of the Duero against the Arab
+possessions to the south, and, secondly, as a link between Valladolid
+and Zamora, the latter being the bulwark of Christian opposition against
+the ever encroaching Portuguese.
+
+Twin cities the fortresses have been called, and no better expression is
+at hand to denote at once the similarity of their history, their
+necessary origin, and their necessary decadence.
+
+Nevertheless, Toro appears in history somewhat later than Zamora, having
+been erected either on virgin soil, or upon the ruins of a destroyed
+Arab fortress as late as in the tenth century, by Garcia, son of
+Alfonso III. At any rate, it was not until a century later, in 1065,
+that the city attained any importance, when Fernando I. bequeathed it to
+his daughter Elvira, who, seeing her elder brother's impetuous
+ambitions, handed over the town and the citadel to him.
+
+Throughout the middle ages the name of Toro is foremost among the
+important fortresses of Castile, and many an event--generally tragic and
+bloody--took place behind its walls. Here Alfonso XI. murdered his uncle
+in cold blood, and Don Pedro el Cruel, after besieging the town and the
+citadel held in opposition to him by his mother, allowed her a free exit
+with the gentlemen defenders of the place, but broke his word when they
+were on the bridge, and murdered all excepting his widowed mother!
+
+In the days of Isabel the Catholic, Toro was taken by the kings of
+Portugal, who upheld the claims of Enrique IV's illegitimate daughter,
+Juana la Beltranaja. In the vicinity of the town, the great battle of
+Pelea Gonzalo was fought, which gave the western part of Castile to the
+rightful sovereigns. This battle is famous for the many prelates and
+curates who, armed,--and wearing trousers and not frocks!--fought like
+Christians (!) in the ranks.
+
+In Toro, Cortes was assembled in 1505 to open Queen Isabel's testament,
+and to promulgate those laws which have gone down in Spanish history as
+the Leyes de Toro; this was the last spark of Toro's fame, for since
+then its fate has been identical with that of Zamora, forty miles away.
+
+Strictly speaking, it is doubtful if Toro ever was a city; at one time
+it seems to have possessed an ephemeral bishop,--at least such is the
+popular belief,--who must have reigned in his see but a short time, as
+at an early date the city was submitted to the ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction of Astorga. Later, when the see was reestablished in
+Zamora, the latter's twin sister, Toro, was definitely included in the
+new episcopal diocese.
+
+Be that as it may, the Catholic kings raised the church at Toro to a
+collegiate in the sixteenth century (1500?) because they were anxious to
+gain the good-will of the inhabitants after the Portuguese invasion.
+
+Built either toward the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, Santa Maria la Mayor, popularly called _la
+catedral_, closely resembles the cathedral church at Zamora. The style
+is the same (Byzantine-Romanesque), and the impression of strength and
+solidity produced by the warlike aspect of the building is even more
+pronounced than in the case of the sister church.
+
+The general plan is that of a basilica, rectangular in shape, with a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe being by far the largest in size, and
+a transept which protrudes slightly beyond the width of the church. This
+transept is situated immediately in front of the apse; the _croisee_ is
+surmounted by the handsome _cimborio_, larger than that at Zamora,
+pierced by twice as many round-topped windows, but lacking a cupola, as
+do also the flanking towers, which are flat-topped. Above and between
+these latter, the cone-shaped roof of the _cimborio_, properly speaking,
+is sloping and triangular in its cross-section.
+
+This body, less Oriental in appearance than the one in Zamora, impresses
+one with a feeling of greater awe, thanks to the great diameter as
+compared with the foreshortened height. Crowning as it does the apse
+(from the proximity of the transept to the head of the church), the
+_croisee_, and the two wings of the transept, the cupola in question
+produces a weird and incomprehensible effect on the spectator viewing it
+from the southeast. The more modern tower, which backs the _cimborio_,
+lends, it is true, a certain elegance to the edifice that the early
+builders were not willing to impart. The ensemble is, nevertheless,
+peculiarly Byzantine, and, with the mother-church in Zamora, which it
+resembles without copying, it stands almost unique in the history of
+art.
+
+The lateral doors, not situated in the transept, are located near the
+foot of the church. The southern portal is the larger, but the most
+simple; the arch which crowns it shows a decided ogival tendency, a
+circumstance which need not necessarily be attributed to Gothic
+influence, as in many churches prior to the introduction of the ogival
+arch the pointed top was known, and in isolated cases it was made use
+of, though purely by accident, and not as a constructive element.
+
+The northern door is smaller, but a hundred times richer in sculptural
+design. It shows Byzantine influence in the decoration, and as a
+Byzantine-Romanesque portal can figure among the best in Spain.
+
+[Illustration: TORO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It has been supposed that the western front of the building possessed at
+one time a narthex, like the cathedral Tuy, for instance. Nothing
+remains of it, however, as the portal which used to be here was done
+away with, and in its place a modern chapel with a fine Gothic _retablo_
+was consecrated.
+
+Seen from the interior, the almost similar height of the nave and
+aisles, leaves, as in Zamora, a somewhat stern and depressing impression
+on the visitor; the light which enters is also feeble, excepting beneath
+the _linterna_, where "the difficulty of placing a circular body on a
+square without the aid of supports (_pechinas_) has been so naturally
+and perfectly overcome that we are obliged to doubt of its ever having
+existed."
+
+Gothic elements, more so than in Zamora, mix with the Romanesque
+traditions in the decoration of the nave and aisles; nevertheless, the
+elements of construction are purely Romanesque, excepting the central
+apsidal chapel which contains the high altar. Restored by the Fonseca
+family in the sixteenth century, it is ogival in conception and
+execution, and contains some fine tombs of the above named aristocratic
+family. But the chapel passes unnoticed in this peculiarly exotic
+building, where solidity and not grace was the object sought and
+obtained.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+
+The very position of Salamanca, immediately to the north of the chain of
+mountains which served for many a century as a rough frontier wall
+between Christians and Moors, was bound to ensure the city's importance
+and fame. Its history is consequently unique, grander and more exciting
+than that of any other city; the universal name it acquired in the
+fourteenth century, thanks to its university, can only be compared with
+that of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.
+
+Consequently its fall from past renown to present insignificance was
+tremendous, and to-day, a heap of ruins, boasting of traditions like
+Toledo and Burgos, of two cathedrals and twenty-four parish churches, of
+twice as many convents and palaces, of a one-time glorious university
+and half a hundred colleges,--Salamanca sleeps away a useless existence
+from which it will never awaken.
+
+Its history has still to be penned. What an exciting and stirring
+account of middle age life in Spain it would be!
+
+The Romans knew Salamantia, and the first notice handed down to us of
+the city reads like a fairy story, as though predicting future events.
+
+According to Plutarch, the town was besieged by Hannibal, and had to
+surrender. The inhabitants were allowed to leave, unarmed, and taking
+away with them only their clothes; the men were searched as they passed
+out, but not so the women.
+
+Together men and women left the town. A mile away they halted, and the
+women drew forth from beneath their robes concealed weapons. Together
+the men and the women returned to their town and stealthily fell upon
+their foes, slaughtering them in considerable numbers. Hannibal was so
+"enchanted" (!) with the bravery displayed by the women, that he drew
+away his army from the town, leaving the patriotic inhabitants to settle
+again their beloved Salamanca.
+
+The Western Goths, upon their arrival in Spain, found Salamanca in a
+flourishing state, and respected its episcopal see, the origin of which
+is ignored. The first bishop we have any record of is Eleuterio, who
+signed the third Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+The Arabs treated the city more harshly; it was in turn taken and
+destroyed by infidels and Christians; the former sacking frontier towns,
+the latter destroying all fortresses they could not hold.
+
+In the eighth century no bishop seems to have existed in Salamanca; in
+the tenth, date of a partial reestablishment of the see, seven prelates
+are mentioned; these did not, however, risk their skins by taking
+possession of their chair, but lived quietly in the north, either in
+Santiago--farther north they could not go!--or else in Leon and Burgos.
+The eleventh century is again devoid of any ecclesiastical news
+connected with the see of Salamanca; what is more, the very name of the
+city is forgotten until Alfonso VI. crossed the Guaderrama and fixed his
+court in Toledo. This bold step, taken in a hostile country far from the
+centre of the kingdom and from his base of operations, obliged the
+monarch to erect with all speed a series of fortresses to the north; as
+a result, Salamanca, Segovia, and Avila, beyond the Guaderrama
+Mountains, and Madrid to the south, were quickly populated by
+Christians.
+
+This occurred in 1102; the first bishop _de modernis_ was Jeronimo, a
+French warrior-monk, who had accompanied his bosom friend el Cid to
+Valencia, had fought beside him, and had been appointed bishop of the
+conquered see. Not for any length of time, however, for as soon as el
+Cid died, the Moors drove the Christians out of the new kingdom, and the
+bishop came to Leon with the Cristo de las Batallas,--a miraculous cross
+of old Byzantine workmanship, supposed to have aided the Cid in many a
+battle,--as the only _souvenir_ of his stay in the Valencian see.
+
+The next four or five bishops fought among themselves. At one time the
+city had no fewer than two, a usurper, and another who was not much
+better; the Pope deprived one of his dignity, the king another, the
+influential Archbishop of Santiago chose a third, who was also
+deposed--the good old times!--until at last one Berengario was
+appointed, and the ignominious conflict was peacefully settled.
+
+The inhabitants of the city at the beginning were a strong, warlike
+medley of Jews (these were doubtless the least warlike!), Arabs,
+Aragonese, Castilian, French, and Leonese. Bands of these without a
+commander invaded Moorish territory, sacking and pillaging where they
+could. On one occasion they were pursued by an Arab army, whose general
+asked to speak with the captain of the Salamantinos. The answer was,
+"Each of us is his own captain!" words that can be considered typical of
+the anarchy which reigned in Spain until the advent of Isabel and
+Ferdinand in the fifteenth century.
+
+If the bishops fought among themselves, and if the low class people
+lived in a state of utter anarchy, the same spirit spread to--or
+emanated from--the nobility, of whom Salamanca had more than its share,
+especially as soon as the university was founded. The annals of no other
+city are so replete with family traditions and feuds, which were not
+only restricted to the original disputers, to their families and
+acquaintances, but became generalized among the inhabitants themselves,
+who took part in the feud. Thus it often happened that the city was
+divided into two camps, separated by an imaginary line, and woe betide
+the daring or careless individual who crossed it!
+
+One of the most dramatic of these feuds--a savage species of
+vendetta--was the following:
+
+Dona Maria Perez, a Plasencian dame of noble birth, had married one of
+the most powerful noblemen in Salamanca, Monroy by name, and upon the
+latter's death remained a widowed mother of two sons. One of them asked
+and obtained in marriage the hand of a noble lady who had refused a
+similar proposition made by one Enriquez, son of a Sevillan aristocrat.
+The youth's jealousy and anger was therefore bitterly aroused, and he
+and his brother waited for a suitable opportunity in which to avenge
+themselves. It soon came: they were playing Spanish ball, _pelota_, one
+day with the accepted suitor, when a dispute arose as to who was the
+better player; the two brothers fell upon their victim and foully
+murdered him. But afraid lest his brother should venge the latter's
+death, they lay in wait for him behind a street corner, and as he came
+along they rapidly killed him as they had his brother. Then they fled
+across the frontier to Portugal.
+
+The two corpses had in the meantime been carried on a bier by the crowds
+and laid down in front of Dona Maria's house; the latter stepped out on
+the balcony, with dishevelled hair; an angry murmur went from one end of
+the crowd to the other, and a universal clamour arose: vengeance was on
+every one's lips. But Dona Maria commanded silence.
+
+"Be calm," she said, "and take these bodies to the cathedral. Vengeance?
+Fear not, I shall venge myself."
+
+An hour later she left the town with an escort, apparently with a view
+to retire to her estates near Plasencia. Once well away from the city,
+she divulged her plan to the escort and asked if they were willing to
+follow her. Receiving an affirmative reply, she tore off her woman's
+clothes and appeared dressed in full armour; placing a helmet on her
+head, she took the lead of her troops again, and set out for the
+Portuguese frontier.
+
+The strange company arrived on the third day at a Portuguese frontier
+town, where they were told that two foreigners had arrived the night
+before. By the description of the two Spaniards, Dona Maria felt sure
+they were her sons' murderers, and consequently she and her escort
+approached the house where the fugitives were passing the night. Placing
+the escort beneath the window, she stealthily entered the house and
+stole to the brothers' room; then she slew them whilst they were
+sleeping, and, rushing to the window, threw it open, and, spearing the
+heads of her enemies on her lance, she showed them to her retinue, with
+the words:
+
+"I'm venged! Back to Salamanca."
+
+Silently, at the head of her troops, and bearing the two heads on her
+lance, Dona Maria returned to Salamanca. Entering the cathedral, she
+threw them on the newly raised slabs which covered her sons' remains.
+
+Ever after she was known as Dona Maria _la brava_, and is as celebrated
+to-day as she was in the fifteenth century, during the abominable reign
+of Henry IV. And so great was the feud which divided the city into two
+camps, that it lasted many years, and many were the victims of the
+gigantic vendetta.
+
+The city's greatest fame lay in its university, founded toward 1215, by
+Alfonso IX. of Leon, who was jealous of his cousin Alfonso VIII. of
+Castile, the founder of the luckless university of Palencia.
+
+The fate of the last named university has been duly mentioned elsewhere;
+that of Salamanca was far different. In 1255 the Pope called it one of
+the four lamps of the world; strangers--students from all corners of
+Europe--flocked to the city to study. Perhaps its greatest merit was the
+study of Arabic and Arabian letters, and it has been said that the study
+of the Orient penetrated into Europe through Salamanca alone.
+
+What a glorious life must have been the university city's during the
+apogee of her fame! Students from all European lands, dressed in the
+picturesque costume worn by those who attended the university, wended
+their way through the streets, singing and playing the guitar or the
+mandolin; they mingled with dusky noblemen, richly dressed in satins and
+silks, and wearing the rapier hanging by their sides; they flirted with
+the beautiful daughters of Spain, and gravely saluted the bishop when he
+was carried along in his chair, or rode a quiet palfrey. At one time the
+court was established in the university city, lending a still more
+brilliant lustre to the every-day life of the inhabitants, and to the
+sombre streets lined with palaces, churches, colleges, convents, and
+monasteries.
+
+Gone! To-day the city lies beneath an immense weight of ruins of all
+kinds, that chain her down to the past which was her glory, and impede
+her from looking ahead into her future with ambitions and hopes.
+
+The cathedrals Salamanca can boast of to-day are two, an old one and a
+comparatively new one; the latter was built beside the former, a
+praiseworthy and exceptional proceeding, for, instead of pulling down
+the old to make room for the new, as happens throughout the world, the
+cathedral chapter convocated an assembly of architects, and was
+intelligent enough--another wonder!--to accept the verdict that the old
+building, a Romanesque-Byzantine edifice of exceptional value, should
+not be demolished. The new temple was therefore erected beside the
+former, and, obeying the art impulses of the centuries which witnessed
+its construction, is an ogival church spoilt--or bettered--by
+Renaissance, plateresque, and grotesque decorative elements.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The Old Cathedral._--The exact date of the erection of the old see is
+not known; toward 1152 it was already in construction, and 150 years
+later, in 1299, it was not concluded. Consequently, and more than in the
+case of Zamora and Toro, the upper part of the building shows decided
+ogival tendencies; yet in spite of these evident signs of transition,
+the ensemble, the spirit of the building, is, beyond a doubt,
+Romanesque-Byzantine, and not Gothic.
+
+[Illustration: OLD SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The plan of the church is the same as those of Zamora, Toro, and Coria:
+a nave and two aisles cut short at the transept, which is slightly
+prolonged beyond the width of the body of the church; there is no
+ambulatory walk, but to the east of the transept are three chapels in a
+three-lobed apse, the central lobe larger than the others and containing
+the high altar; the choir was placed (originally) in the centre of the
+nave, and a _cimborio_ crowns the _croisee_, this latter being a
+peculiarity of the three cathedral churches of Zamora, Toro, and
+Salamanca.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new building as an annex of the old one
+required (as in Plasencia, though from different reasons) the demolition
+of certain parts of the latter; as, for instance, the two towers of the
+western front, the northern portal as well as the northern half of the
+apse, and the corresponding part of the transept. Parts of these have
+either been surrounded or replaced by the new building.
+
+The narthex and the western end are still preserved. They are of the
+same width as the nave, for, beneath the towers, of which one seems to
+have been far higher than the other, each of the aisles terminates in a
+chapel. Byzantine in appearance, the two western doors are,
+nevertheless, crowned by an ogival arch, and flanked by statuettes of
+the same style. The facade, repaired and spoilt, is of Renaissance
+severity.
+
+The interior of the building is more impressive than that of either
+Zamora or Toro; this is due to the absence of the choir,--removed to the
+new cathedral,--which permits an uninterrupted view of the whole church,
+which does not occur in any other temple throughout Spain. Romanesque
+strength and gloominess is clearly discernible, whereas the height of
+the central nave (sixty feet) is rendered stumpy in appearance by the
+almost equal height of the aisles. The strength and solidity of the
+pillars and columns, supporting capitals and friezes of a peculiar and
+decided Byzantine taste (animals, dragons, etc.), show more keenly than
+in Galicia the Oriental influence which helped so thoroughly to shape
+Central Spanish Romanesque.
+
+Of the chapels, but one deserves special mention, both as seen from
+without and from within, namely, the high altar, or central apsidal
+chapel. Seen from without, it is of perfect Romanesque construction,
+excepting the upper row of rose windows, which are ogival in their
+traceries; inside, it contains a mural painting of an exceedingly
+primitive design, and a _retablo_ in low reliefs enchased in ogival
+arches; it is of Italian workmanship.
+
+Of the remaining chapels, that of San Bartolome contains an alabaster
+sepulchre of the Bishop Diego de Anaya--one of the many prelates of
+those times who was the possessor of illegitimate sons; the bodies of
+most of the latter lie within this chapel, which can be regarded not
+only as a family pantheon, but as a symbol of ecclesiastical greatness
+and human weakness.
+
+The windows which light up the nave are round-headed, and yet they are
+delicately decorated, as is rarely to be seen in the Romanesque type.
+The aisles, on the contrary, are not lit up by any windows.
+
+Like the churches of Zamora and Toro, the whole cathedral resembles a
+fortress rather than a place of worship. The simplicity of the general
+structure, the rounded turrets buried in the walls, serving as leaning
+buttresses, the narrow slits in the walls instead of windows, lend an
+indisputable aspect of strength. The beautiful, the really beautiful
+lantern, situated above the _croisee_, with its turrets, its niches, its
+thirty odd windows, and its elegant cupola, is an architectural body
+that wins the admiration of all who behold it, either from within the
+church or from without, and which, strictly Byzantine in conception
+(though rendered peculiarly Spanish by the addition of certain elements
+which pertain rather to Gothic military art than to church
+architecture), is unique--to the author's knowledge--in all Europe. Less
+pure in style, and less Oriental in appearance than that of Zamora, it
+was nevertheless, created more perfect by the artistic conception of the
+architect, and consequently more finished or developed than those of
+Toro and Zamora. Without hesitation, it can claim to be one of
+Salamanca's chief attractions.
+
+The thickness of the walls (ten feet!), the admirable simpleness of the
+vaulting, and the general aspect from the exterior, have won for the
+church the name of _fortis Salamantini_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_The New Cathedral._--It was begun in 1513, the old temple having been
+judged too small, and above all too narrow for a city of the importance
+of Salamanca.
+
+Over two hundred years did the building of the present edifice last; at
+times all work was stopped for years, no funds being at hand to pay
+either artists or masons.
+
+The primitive plan of the church, as proposed by the congress of
+architects, was Gothic of the second period, with an octagonal apse; the
+lower part of the church, from the foot to the transept, was the first
+to be constructed.
+
+The upper part of the apse was not begun until the year 1588, and the
+artist, imbued with the beauty of Herrero's Escorial, squared the apse
+with the evident intention of constructing turrets on the exterior
+angles, which would have rendered the building symmetrical: two towers
+on the western front, a cupola on the _croisee_, and two smaller turrets
+on the eastern end.
+
+The building as it stands to-day is a perfect rectangle cut in its
+length by a nave (containing the choir and the high altar), and by two
+aisles, lower than the nave and continued in an ambulatory walk behind
+the high altar.
+
+The same symmetry is visible in the lateral chapels: eight square
+_huecos_ on the exterior walls of the aisles, five to the west, and
+three to the east of the transept, and three in the extreme eastern wall
+of the apse.
+
+Magnificence rather than beauty is the characteristic note of the new
+cathedral. The primitive part--pure ogival with but little
+mixture--contrasts with the eastern end, which is covered over with the
+most glaring grotesque decoration; most of the chapels are spoiled by
+the same shocking profusion of super-ornamentation; the otherwise
+majestic cupola, the high altar, and the choir--all suffer from the same
+defect.
+
+The double triforium--one higher than the other--in the clerestory
+produces a most favourable impression; this is heightened by the wealth
+of light, which, entering by two rows of windows and by the _cimborio_,
+falls upon the rich decoration of friezes and capitals. The general view
+of the whole building is also freer than in most Spanish cathedrals,
+and this harmony existing in the proportions of the different parts
+strikes the visitor more favourably, perhaps, than in the severer
+cathedral at Burgos.
+
+[Illustration: NEW SALAMANCA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The exterior of the building reflects more truthfully than the interior
+the different art waves which spread over Spain during the centuries of
+the temple's erection. In the western front, the rich Gothic portal of
+the third period, the richest perhaps in sculptural variety of any on
+the peninsula, contrasts with the high mongrel tower, a true example of
+the composite towers so frequently met with in certain Spanish regions.
+The second body of the same facade (western) is highly interesting, not
+on account of its ornamentation, which is simple, but because of the
+solid, frank structure, and the curious fortress-like turrets embedded
+in the angles.
+
+The flank of the building, seen from the north--for on the south side
+stand the ruins of the old cathedral--is none too homogeneous, thanks to
+the different styles in which the three piers of windows--of chapels,
+aisles, and clerestory--have been constructed. The ensemble is
+picturesque, nevertheless: the three rows of windows, surmounted by the
+huge cupola and half-lost among the buttresses, certainly contribute
+toward the general elegance of the granite structure.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+
+In the times of the Romans, the country to the west of Salamanca seems
+to have been thickly populated. Calabria, situated between the Agueda
+and Coa Rivers, was an episcopal see; in its vicinity Augustabriga and
+Mirobriga were two other important towns.
+
+Of these three Roman fortresses, and perhaps native towns, before the
+invasion, not as much as a stone or a legend remains to relate the tale
+of their existence and death.
+
+Toward 1150, Fernando II. of Castile, obeying the military requirements
+of the Reconquest, and at the same time wishing to erect a
+fortress-town, which, together with Zamora to the north, Salamanca to
+the west, and Coria to the south, could resist the invasion of Spain by
+Portuguese armies, founded Ciudad Rodrigo, and twenty years later raised
+the church to an episcopal see, a practical means of attracting
+God-fearing settlers. Consequently, the twelfth-century town, inheriting
+the ecclesiastical dignity of Calabria, if the latter ever possessed it,
+besides being situated in the same region as the three Roman cities
+previously mentioned, can claim to have been born a city.
+
+One of the early bishops (the first was a certain Domingo) was the
+famous Pedro Diaz, about whom a legend has been handed down to us. This
+legend has also been graphically illustrated by an artist of the
+sixteenth century; his painting is to be seen to the right of the
+northern transept door in the cathedral.
+
+Pedro Diaz seems to have been a worldly priest, "fond of the sins of the
+flesh and of good eating," who fell ill in the third year of his reign.
+His secretary, a pious servant of the Lord, dreamt he saw his master's
+soul devoured by demons, and persuaded him to confess his sins. It was
+too late, for a few days later he died; his death was, however, kept a
+secret by his menials, who wished to have plenty of time to make a
+generous division of his fortune. When all had been settled to their
+liking, the funeral procession moved through the streets of the city,
+and, to the surprise of all, the dead bishop, resurrected by St.
+Francis of Assisi, at the time in Ciudad Rodrigo, opened the coffin and
+stood upon the hearse. He accused his servants of their greed, and at
+the same time made certain revelations concerning the life hereafter.
+His experiences must have been rather pessimistic, to judge by the
+bishop's later deeds, for, having been granted a respite of twenty days
+upon this earth, he "fasted and made penitence," doubtless eager to
+escape a second time the tortures of the other world.
+
+Other traditions concerning the lives and doings of the noblemen who
+disputed the feudal right or _senorio_ over the town, are as numerous as
+in Plasencia, with which city Ciudad Rodrigo has certain historical
+affinities. The story of the Virgen Coronada, who, though poor, did not
+hesitate in killing a powerful and wealthy libertine nobleman whom she
+was serving; the no less stirring account of Dona Maria Adan's vow that
+she would give her fair daughter's hand to whomsoever venged her wrongs
+on the five sons of her husband's murderer, are among the most tragic
+and thrilling. There are many other traditions beside, which constitute
+the past's legacy to the solitary city near the Portuguese frontier.
+
+It was in the nineteenth century that Ciudad Rodrigo earned fame as a
+brave city. The Spanish war for independence had broken out against the
+French, who overran the country, and passed from Bayonne in the Gascogne
+to Lisbon in Portugal. Ciudad Rodrigo lay on the shortest route for the
+French army, and had to suffer two sieges, one in 1810 and the second in
+1812. In the latter, Wellington was the commander of the English forces
+who had come to help the Spanish chase the French out of the peninsula;
+the siege of the town and the battle which ensued were long and
+terrible, but at last the allied English and Spanish won, with the loss
+of two English generals. The Iron Duke was rewarded by Spanish Cortes,
+with the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, together with the honours of
+grandee of Spain, which are still retained by Wellington's descendants.
+
+[Illustration: CUIDAD RODRIGO CATHEDRAL]
+
+The cathedral church of Ciudad Rodrigo is a twelfth-century building, in
+which the Romanesque style, similar to those of Zamora and Toro, fights
+with the nascent ogival style. Notwithstanding these remarks,
+however, the building does not pertain to the Transition period, but
+rather to the second or last period of Spanish Romanesque. This is
+easily seen by the basilica form of the church, the three-lobed apse,
+the lack of an ambulatory walk, and the apparently similar height of
+nave and aisles.
+
+The square tower, surmounted by a cupola, at the foot of the church, as
+well as the entire western front, dates from the eighteenth century; it
+is cold, anti-artistic, utterly unable to appeal to the poetic instincts
+of the spectator.
+
+Behind the western front, and leading directly into the body of the
+church, is a delightful Romanesque narthex which doubtlessly served as
+the western facade prior to the eighteenth-century additions. It is
+separated from the principal nave by a door divided into two by a solid
+pediment, upon which is encrusted a statue of the Virgin with Child in
+her arms. The semicircular arches which surmount the door are finely
+executed, and the columns which support them are decorated with handsome
+twelfth-century statuettes. There is a great similarity between this
+portal and the principal one (del Obispo) in Toro: it almost seems as
+though the same hand had chiselled both, or at least traced the plan of
+their decoration.
+
+Of the two doors which lead, one on the south and the other on the
+north, into the transept, the former is perhaps the more perfect
+specimen of the primitive style. Both are richly decorated; unluckily,
+in both portals, the rounded arches have been crowned in more recent
+times by an ogival arch, which certainly mars the pureness of the style,
+though not the harmony of the ensemble.
+
+To the left of these doors, a niche has been carved into the wall to
+contain a full-length statue of the Virgin; this is an unusual
+arrangement in Spanish churches.
+
+The exterior of the apse retains its primitive _cachet_; the central
+chapel, where the high altar is placed, was, however, rebuilt in the
+sixteenth century by Tavera, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Toledo, who had
+at one time occupied the see of Ciudad Rodrigo. It is a peculiar mixture
+of Gothic and Romanesque, of pointed windows and heavy buttresses; the
+flat roof is decorated by means of a low stone railing or balustrade
+composed of elegantly carved pinnacles.
+
+To conclude: excepting the western front and the central lobe of the
+apse, the tower and the ogival arch surmounting the northern and
+southern portals, the cathedral of Ciudad Rodrigo is one of the most
+perfectly preserved Romanesque buildings to the south of Zamora and
+Toro. It is less grim and warlike than the two last-named edifices, and
+yet it is also a fair example of severe and gloomy (though not less
+artistic!) Castilian Romanesque. Its _croisee_ is not surmounted by the
+heavy cupola as in Salamanca and elsewhere, and it is perhaps just this
+suppression or omission which gives the whole building a far less
+Oriental appearance than the others mentioned heretofore.
+
+In the inside, the choir occupies its usual place. Its stalls, it is
+believed, were carved by Aleman, the same who probably wrought those
+superb seats at Plasencia. It is doubtful if the same master carved
+both, however, but were it so, the stalls at Ciudad Rodrigo would have
+to be classified as older, executed before those we shall examine in a
+future chapter.
+
+The nave and two aisles, pierced by ogival windows in the clerestory and
+round-headed windows in the aisles, constitute the church; the
+_croisee_ is covered by means of a simple ogival vaulting; the arches
+separating the nave from the aisles are Romanesque, as is the vaulting
+of the former. It was originally the intention of the chapter to
+beautify the solemn appearance of the interior by means of a triforium
+or running gallery. Unluckily, perhaps because of lack of funds, the
+triforium was never begun excepting that here and there are seen
+remnants of the primitive tracing.
+
+With the lady-chapel profusely and lavishly ornamented, and quite out of
+place in this solemn building, there are five chapels, one at the foot
+of each aisle and two in the apse, to the right and left of the
+lady-chapel. They all lack art interest, however, as does the actual
+_retablo_, which replaces the one destroyed by the French; remnants of
+the latter are to be seen patched up on the cloister walls.
+
+This cloister to the north of the church is a historical monument, for
+each of the four sides of the square edifice is an architectural page
+differing from its companions. Studying first the western, then the
+southern, and lastly the two remaining sides, the student can obtain an
+idea of how Romanesque principles struggled with Gothic before dying
+completely out, and how the latter, having reached its apogee,
+deteriorated into the most lamentable superdecoration before fading away
+into the naked, straight-lined features of the Renaissance so little
+compatible with Christian ideals.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CORIA
+
+
+To the west of Toledo and to the south of the Sierra de Gata, which,
+with the mountains of Gredo and the Guaderrama, formed in the middle
+ages a natural frontier between Christians and Moors, lies, in a
+picturesque and fertile vale about twenty miles distant from the nearest
+railway station, the little known cathedral town of Coria. It is
+situated on the northern shores of the Alagon, a river flowing about ten
+miles farther west into the Tago, near where the latter leaves Spanish
+territory and enters that of Portugal.
+
+Caurium, or Curia Vetona, was its name when the Romans held Extremadura,
+and it was in this town, or in its vicinity, that Viriato, the Spanish
+hero, destroyed four Roman armies sent to conquer his wild hordes. He
+never lost a single battle or skirmish, and might possibly have dealt a
+death-blow to Roman plans of domination in the peninsula, had not the
+traitor's knife ended his noble career.
+
+Their enemy dead, the Romans entered the city of Coria, which they
+immediately surrounded by a circular wall half a mile in length, and
+twenty-six feet thick (!). This Roman wall, considered by many to be the
+most perfectly preserved in Europe, is severely simple in structure, and
+flanked by square towers; it constitutes the city's one great
+attraction.
+
+The episcopal see was erected in 338. The names of the first bishops
+have long been forgotten, the first mentioned being one Laquinto, who
+signed the third Toledo Council in 589.
+
+Two centuries later the Moors raised Al-Karica to one of their capitals;
+in 854 Zeth, an ambitious Saracen warrior, freed it from the yoke of
+Cordoba, and reigned in the city as an independent sovereign.
+
+Like Zamora and Toro, Coria was continually being lost and won by
+Christians and Moors, with this difference, that whereas the first two
+can be looked upon as the last Christian outposts to the north of the
+Duero, Coria was the last Arab stronghold to the north of the Tago.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century, the strong fortress on
+the Alagon was definitely torn from the hands of its independent
+sovereign by Alfonso VIII., after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. A
+bishop was immediately reinstated in the see, and after five centuries
+of Mussulman domination, Coria saw the standard of Castile waving from
+its citadel.
+
+As happened with so many other provincial towns in Spain, the
+centralization of power to the north of Toledo shoved Coria into the
+background; to-day it is a cathedral village forgotten or completely
+ignored by the rest of Spain. Really, it might perhaps have been better
+for the Arabs to have preserved it, for under their rule it flourished.
+
+It is picturesque, this village on the banks of the Alagon: a heap or
+bundle of red bricks surrounded by grim stone walls, over-topped by a
+cathedral tower and citadel,--the whole picture emerging from a prairie
+and thrown against a background formed by the mountains to the north and
+the bright blue sky in the distance.
+
+Arab influence is only too evident in the buildings and houses, in the
+Alcazar, and in the streets; unluckily, these remembrances of a happy
+past depress the dreamy visitor obliged to recognize the infinite
+sadness which accompanied the expulsion of the Moors by intolerant
+tyrants from the land they had inhabited, formed, and moulded to their
+taste. Nowhere is this so evident as in Coria, a forgotten bit of
+mediaeval Moor-land. The poet's exclamation is full of bitterness and
+resignation when he exclaims:
+
+"Is it possible that this heap of ruins should have been in other times
+the splendid court of Zeth and Mondhir!"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As an architectural building, the cathedral of Coria is a parish church,
+which, removed to any other town, would be devoid of any and all beauty.
+In other words, the impressions it produces are entirely dependent upon
+its local surroundings; eliminate these, and the temple is worthless
+from an artistic or poetical point of view.
+
+It was begun in 1120, most likely by Arab workmen; it was finished
+toward the beginning of the sixteenth century. Honestly speaking, it is
+a puzzle what the artisans did in all those long years; doubtless they
+slept at their task, or else decades passed away without work of any
+kind being done, or again, perhaps only one mason was employed at a
+time.
+
+The interior is that of a simple Gothic church of one aisle, 150 feet
+long by fifty-two wide and eighty-four high; the high altar is situated
+in the rounded apse; in the centre of the church the choir stalls of the
+fifteenth century obstruct the view of the walls, decorated only by
+means of pilasters which pretend to support the Gothic vaulting.
+
+To the right, in the altar chapel, is a fine marble sepulchre of the
+sixteenth century, in which the chasuble of the kneeling bishop
+portrayed is among the best pieces of imitative sculpture to be seen in
+Spain.
+
+To the right of the high altar, and buried in the cathedral wall, a door
+leads out into the _paseo_,--a walk on the broad walls of the city, with
+a delightful view southwards across the river to the prairie in the
+distance. Where can a prettier and more natural cloister be found?
+
+The western facade is never used, and is surrounded by the old
+cemetery,--a rather peculiar place for a cemetery in a cathedral church;
+the northern facade is anti-artistic, but the tower to the right has
+one great virtue, that of comparative height. Though evidently intended
+to be Gothic, the Arab taste, so pronounced throughout this region, got
+the better of the architect, and he erected a square steeple crowned by
+a cupola.
+
+Yet, and in spite of criticism which can hardly find an element worthy
+of praise in the whole cathedral building, the tourist should not
+hesitate in visiting the city. Besides, the whole region of Northern
+Extremadura, in which Coria and Plasencia lie, is historically most
+interesting: Yuste, where Charles-Quint spent the last years of his
+life, is not far off; neither is the Convent of Guadalupe, famous for
+its pictures by the great Zurbaran.
+
+As for Coria itself, it is a forgotten corner of Moor-land.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+
+The foundation of Plasencia by King Alfonso VIII. in 1178, and the
+erection of a new episcopal see twelve years later, can be regarded as
+the _coup de grace_ given to the importance of Coria, the twin sister
+forty miles away. Nevertheless, the Royal City, as Plasencia was called,
+which ended by burying its older rival in the most shocking oblivion,
+was not able to acquire a name in history. Founded by a king, and handed
+over to a bishop and to favourite courtiers, who ruled it indifferently
+well, not to say badly, it grew up to be an aristocratic town without a
+_bourgeoisie_. Its history in the middle ages is consequently one long
+series of family feuds, duels, and tragedies, the record of bloody
+happenings, and acts of heroic brutality and bravery.
+
+In 1233 a Moorish army conquered it, shortly after the battle of Alarcos
+was lost to Alfonso VIII., at that time blindly in love with his
+beautiful Jewish mistress, Rachel of Toledo. But the infidels did not
+remain master of the situation, far less of the city, for any length of
+time, as within the next year or so it fell again into the hands of its
+founder, who strengthened the walls still standing to-day, and completed
+the citadel.
+
+The population of the city, like that of Toledo, was mixed. Christians,
+Jews, and Moors lived together, each in their quarter, and together they
+used the fertile _vegas_, which surround the town. The Jews and Moors
+were, in the fifteenth century, about ten thousand in number; in 1492
+the former were expelled by the Catholic kings, and in 1609 Philip III.
+signed a decree expelling the Moors. Since then Plasencia has lost its
+municipal wealth and importance, and the see, from being one of the
+richest in Spain, rapidly sank until to-day it drags along a weary life,
+impoverished and unimportant.
+
+The Jewish cemetery is still to be seen in the outskirts of the town;
+Arab remains, both architectural and irrigatory, are everywhere present,
+and the quarter inhabited by them, the most picturesque in Plasencia,
+is a Moorish village.
+
+The city itself, crowning a hill beside the rushing Ierte, is a small
+Toledo; its streets are narrow and winding; its church towers are
+numerous, and the red brick houses warmly reflect the brilliancy of the
+southern atmosphere. The same death, however, the same inactivity and
+lack of movement, which characterize Toledo and other cities, hover in
+the alleys and in the public squares, in the fertile _vegas_ and silent
+_patios_ of Plasencia.
+
+The history of the feuds between the great Castilian families who lived
+here is tragically interesting: Hernan Perez killed by Diego Alvarez,
+the son of one of the former's victims; the family of Monroye pitched
+against the Zunigas and other noblemen,--these and many other traditions
+are among the most stirring of the events that happened in Spain in the
+middle ages.
+
+Even the bishops called upon to occupy the see seem to have been slaves
+to the warlike spirit that hovered, as it were, in the very atmosphere
+of the town. The first prelate, Don Domingo, won the battle of Navas de
+Tolosa for his protector, Alfonso VIII. When the Christian army was
+wavering, he rushed to the front (with his naked sword, the cross having
+been left at home), at the head of his soldiers, and drove the already
+triumphant Moors back until they broke their ranks and fled. The same
+bishop carried the Christian sword to the very heart of the Moorish
+dominions, to Granada, and conquered neighbouring Loja. The next
+prelate, Don Adan, was one of the leaders of the army that conquered
+Cordoba in 1236, and, entering the celebrated _mezquita_, sanctified its
+use as a Christian church.
+
+The history of the cathedral church is no less interesting. The
+primitive see was temporarily placed in a church on a hill near the
+fortress; this building was pulled down in the fifteenth century, and
+replaced by a Jesuit college.
+
+Toward the beginning of the fourteenth century a cathedral church was
+inaugurated. Its life was short, however, for in 1498 it was partially
+pulled down to make way for a newer and larger edifice, which is to-day
+the unfinished Renaissance cathedral visited by the tourist.
+
+Parts of the old cathedral are, however, still standing. Between the
+tower of the new temple and the episcopal palace, but unluckily
+weighted down by modern superstructures, stands the old facade, almost
+intact. The grossness of the structural work, the timid use of the
+ogival arch, the primitive rose window, and the general heaviness of the
+structure, show it to belong to the decadent period of the Romanesque
+style, when the artists were attempting something new and forgetting the
+lessons of the past.
+
+The new cathedral is a complicated Gothic-Renaissance building of a nave
+and two aisles, with an ambulatory behind the high altar. Not a square
+inch but what has been hollowed out into a niche or covered over with
+sculptural designs; the Gothic plan is anything but pure Gothic, and the
+Renaissance style has been so overwrought that it is anything but
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+The facade of the building is imposing, if not artistic; it is composed
+of four bodies, each supported laterally by pillars and columns of
+different shapes and orders, and possessing a _hueco_ or hollow in the
+centre, the lowest being the door, the highest a stained glass window,
+and the two central ones blind windows, which spoil the whole. The
+floral and Byzantine (Arab?) decoration of pillars and friezes is of
+a great wealth of varied designs; statuettes are missing in the niches,
+proving the unfinished state of the church.
+
+[Illustration: FACADE OF PLASENCIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+Three arches and four pillars, sumptuously decorated, uphold each of the
+clerestory walls, which are pierced at the top by a handsome triforium
+running completely around the church. The _retablo_ of the high altar is
+richly decorated, perhaps too richly; the _reja_, which closes off the
+sacred area, is of fine seventeenth-century workmanship.
+
+The choir stalls are of a surprising richness, carved scenes covering
+the backs and seats. They are famous throughout the country, and the
+genius, above all the imagination, of the artist who executed them (his
+name is unluckily not known, though it is believed to be Aleman) must
+have been notable. Pious when carving the upper and visible seats, he
+seems to have been exceedingly ironical and profane when sculpturing the
+inside of the same, where the reverse or the caustic observation
+produced in the carver's mind has been artfully drawn, though sometimes
+with an undignified grain of indecency and obscenity not quite in
+harmony with our Puritanic spirit of to-day.
+
+
+
+
+_PART V_
+
+_Eastern Castile_
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+
+The origin of Valladolid is lost in the shadows of the distant past. As
+it was the capital of a vast kingdom, it was thought necessary, as in
+the case of Madrid, to place its foundation prior to the Roman invasion;
+the attempt failed, however, and though Roman ruins have been found in
+the vicinity, nothing is positively known about the city's history prior
+to the eleventh century.
+
+When Sancho II. fought against his sister locked up in Zamora, he
+offered her Vallisoletum in exchange for the powerful fortress she had
+inherited from her father. In vain, and the town seated on the Pisuerga
+is not mentioned again in historical documents until 1074, when Alfonso
+VI. handed it over, with several other villages, to Pedro Ansurez, who
+made it his capital, raised the church (Santa Maria la Mayor) to a
+suffragan of Palencia, and laid the first foundations of its future
+greatness. In 1208 the family of Ansurez died out, and the _villa_
+reverted to the crown; from then until the reign of Philip IV.
+Valladolid was doubtless one of the most important cities in Castile,
+and the capital of all the Spains, from the reign of Ferdinand and
+Isabel to that of Philip III.
+
+Consequently, the history of Valladolid from the thirteenth to the
+sixteenth century is that of Spain.
+
+In Valladolid, Peter the Cruel, after three days' marriage, forsook his
+bride, Dona Blanca de Bourbon, and returned to the arms of his mistress
+Maria; several years later he committed most of his terrible crimes
+within the limits of the town. Here Maria de Molina upheld her son's
+right to the throne during his minority, and in Valladolid also, after
+her son's death, the same widow fought for her grandson against the
+intrigues of uncles and cousins.
+
+Isabel and Alfonso fought in Valladolid against the proclamation of
+their niece, Juana, the illegitimate daughter of Henry IV., as heiress
+to the throne; the citizens upheld the Catholic princess's claims, and
+it is not surprising that when the princess became queen--the greatest
+Spain ever had--she made Valladolid her capital, in gratitude to the
+loyalty of its inhabitants.
+
+In Valladolid, Columbus obtained the royal permission to sail westwards
+in 1492, and, upon his last return from America, he died in the selfsame
+city in 1506; here also Berruguete, the sculptor, created many of his
+_chefs-d'oeuvres_ and the immortal Cervantes appeared before the law
+courts and wrote the second part of his "Quixote."
+
+Unlucky Juana _la Loca_ (Jane the Mad) and her husband Felipe _el
+Hermoso_ (Philip the Handsome) reigned here after the death of Isabel
+the Catholic, and fifty years later, when Philip II. returned from
+England to ascend the Spanish throne, he settled in Valladolid, until
+his religious fanaticism or craze obliged him to move to a city nearer
+the Escorial. Then he fixed upon Madrid as his court. Being a religious
+man, nevertheless, and conscious of a certain love for Valladolid, his
+natal town, he had the suffragan church erected to a cathedral in 1595,
+appointing Don Bartolome de la Plaza to be its first bishop. At the same
+time, he ordered Juan de Herrero, the severe architect of the Escorial,
+to draw the plans and commence the building of the new edifice.
+
+The growing importance of Madrid, and the final establishment in the
+last named city of all the honours which belonged to Valladolid, threw
+the city seated on the Pisuerga into the shade, and its star of fortune
+slowly waned. But not to such a degree as that of Salamanca or Burgos,
+for to-day, of all the old cities of Castile, the only one which has a
+life of its own, and a commercial and industrial personality, is
+Valladolid, the one-time capital of all the Spains, and now the seat of
+an archbishopric. It began by usurping the dignity of Burgos; then it
+rose to greater heights of fame than its rival, thanks to the discovery
+of America, and finally it lost its _prestige_ when Madrid was crowned
+the _unica villa_.
+
+The general appearance of the city is peculiarly Spanish, especially as
+regards the prolific use of brick in the construction of churches and
+edifices in general. It is presumable that the Arabs were possessors of
+the town before the Christian conquest, though no documental proofs are
+at hand. The etymology of the city's name, Medinat-el-Walid, is purely
+Arabic, Walid being the name of a Moorish general.
+
+If the cathedral church was erected as late as the sixteenth century, it
+must not be supposed that the town lacked parish churches. On the
+contrary, there is barely a city in Spain with more religious edifices
+of all kinds, and the greater part of them of far more architectural
+merit than the cathedral itself. The astonishing number of convents is
+remarkable; many of them date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,
+and are, consequently, Romanesque with a good deal of Byzantine taste
+about them, or else they belong to the period of Transition. Taken all
+in all, they are really the only architectural attractions to be
+discovered in the city to-day. The traditions which explain the
+foundation of some of these are among the most characteristic in
+Valladolid, and a thread of Oriental romance is more predominant among
+them than elsewhere. A good example of one of these explains the
+foundation of the large convent of the Mercedes.
+
+Dona Leonor was the wife of one Acuna, a fearless (?) knight. The King
+of Portugal unluckily fell in love with Dona Leonor, and, wishing to
+marry her, had her previous marriage annulled and placed her on his
+throne. Acuna fled from Portugal and came to Valladolid, where, with
+unparalleled sarcasm, he wore a badge on his hat proclaiming his
+dishonour.
+
+Both Acuna and the King of Portugal died, and Dona Leonor, whose morals
+were none too edifying, fell in love with a certain Zuniguez; the
+daughter of these two was handed over to the care of a knight, Fernan by
+name, and Dona Leonor ordered him to found a convent, upon her death,
+and lock up her daughter within its walls; the mother was doubtless only
+too anxious to have her daughter escape the ills of this life. Unluckily
+she counted without the person principally concerned, namely, the
+daughter, for the latter fell secretly in love with her keeper's nephew.
+She thought he was her cousin, however, for it appears she was passed
+off as Fernan's daughter. Upon her mother's death she learnt her real
+origin, and wedded her lover. In gratitude for her non-relationship with
+her husband, she founded the convent her mother had ordered, but she
+herself remained without its walls!
+
+The least that can be said about the cathedral of Valladolid, the
+better. Doubtless there are many people who consider the building a
+marvel of beauty. As a specimen of Juan de Herrero's severe and majestic
+style, it is second to no other building excepting only that great
+masterwork, the Escorial, and perhaps parts of the Pillar at Saragosse.
+But as an art monument, where beauty and not Greco-Roman effects are
+sought, it is a failure.
+
+The original plan of the building was a rectangle, 411 feet long by 204
+wide, divided in its length by a nave and two aisles, and in its width
+by a broad transept situated exactly half-way between the apse and the
+foot of the church. The form was thus that of a Greek cross; each angle
+of the building was to be surmounted by a tower, and the _croisee_ by an
+immense cupola or dome. (Compare with the new cathedral in Salamanca.)
+The lateral walls of the aisles were to contain symmetrical chapels, as
+was also the apse.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that symmetry and the Greco-Roman
+straight horizontal line were to replace the ogival arch and the
+generally vertical, soaring effect of Gothic buildings.
+
+The architect died before his monument was completed, and Churriguera,
+the most anti-artistic artist that ever breathed,--according to the
+author's personal opinion,--was called upon to finish the edifice: his
+trade-mark covers almost the entire western front, where the second body
+shows the defects into which Herrero's severe style degenerated soon
+after his death.
+
+Of the four towers and the cupola which were to render the capitol of
+Valladolid "second in grandeur to none excepting St. Peter's at Rome,"
+only one tower was erected: it fell down in 1841, and is being reerected
+at the present time.
+
+In the interior the same disparity is everywhere visible, as well as in
+the unfinished state of the temple. Greek columns are prevalent, and,
+contrasting with their simplicity, the high altar, as grotesque a body
+as ever was placed in a holy cathedral, attracts the eye of the vulgar
+with something of the same feeling as a blood-and-thunder melodrama.
+Needless to say, the art connoisseur flees therefrom.
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT OF VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL]
+
+To the rear of the building the remains of the Romanesque Church of
+Santa Maria la Mayor are still to be seen; what a difference between
+the rigid, anti-artistic conception of Herrero, ridiculized by
+Churriguera, and left but half-completed by successive generations of
+moneyless believers, and the simple but elegant features of the old
+collegiate church, with its tower still standing, a Byzantine _recuerdo_
+of the thirteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+AVILA
+
+
+To the west of Madrid, in the very heart of the Sierra de Gredos, lies
+Avila, another of the interesting cities of Castile, whose time-old
+mansions and palaces, built of a gray granite, lend a solemn and almost
+repulsively melancholic air to the city.
+
+Perhaps more than any other town, Avila is characteristic of the middle
+ages, of the continual strife between the noblemen, the Church, and the
+common people. The houses of the aristocrats are castles rather than
+palaces, with no artistic decoration to hide their bare nakedness; the
+cathedral is really a fortress, and not only apparently so, as in
+Salamanca and Toro, for its very apse is embedded in the city walls, of
+which it forms a part, a battlemented, turreted, and warlike projection,
+sure of having to bear the brunt of an attack in case of a siege.
+
+Like the general aspect of the city is also the character of the
+inhabitant, and it is but drawing it mildly to state that Avila's sons
+were ever foremost in battle and strife. Kings in their minority were
+brought hither by prudent mothers who relied more upon the city's walls
+than upon the promises of noblemen in Valladolid and Burgos; this trust
+was never misplaced. In the conquest of Extremadura and of Andalusia,
+also, the Avilese troops, headed by daring warrior-prelates, played a
+most important part, and, as a frontier fortress, together with Segovia,
+against Aragon to the east, it managed to keep away from Castilian
+territory the ambitions of the monarchs of the rival kingdom.
+
+Avela of the Romans was a garrison town, the walls of which were partly
+thrown down by the Western Goths upon their arrival in the peninsula.
+Previously, San Segundo, one of the disciples of the Apostles who had
+visited Betica (Andalusia), preached the True Word in Avila, and was
+created its first bishop--in the first century. During the terrible
+persecution of the Christians under the reign of Trajanus, one San
+Vicente and his two sisters, Sabina and Cristeta, escaped from Portugal
+and came to Avila, hoping to be hospitably received. All in vain; their
+heads were smashed between stones, and their bodies left to rot in the
+streets. An immense serpent emerged from the city walls and kept guard
+over the three saintly corpses. The first to approach was a Jew, drawn
+hither by curiosity; he was immediately enveloped by the reptile's body.
+On the point of being strangled, he pronounced the word, "Jesus"--and
+the serpent released him. So grateful was the Jew at being delivered
+from death that he turned Christian and erected a church in honour of
+San Vicente, Sabina, and Cristeta, and had them buried within its walls.
+
+This church subsisted throughout the dark ages of the Moorish invasion
+until at last Fernando I. removed the saintly remains to Leon in the
+eleventh century. The church was then destroyed, and, it is believed,
+the present cathedral was built on the same spot.
+
+The Moors, calling the city Abila, used it as one of the fortresses
+defending Toledo on the north against the continual Christian raids;
+with varying success they held it until the end of the eleventh century,
+when it finally fell into the hands of the Christians, and was
+repopulated a short time before Salamanca toward the end of the same
+century.
+
+During the centuries of Moorish dominion the see had fallen into the
+completest oblivion, no mention being made of any bishops of Avila; the
+ecclesiastical dignity was reestablished immediately after the final
+conquest of the region to the north of the Sierra of Guaderrama, and
+though documents are lacking as to who was the first prelate _de
+modernis_, it is generally believed to have been one Jeronimo, toward
+the end of the eleventh century.
+
+The city grew rapidly in strength; settlers came from the north--from
+Castile and Leon--and from the east, from Aragon; they travelled to
+their new home in bullock-carts containing household furniture,
+agricultural and war implements, wives, and children.
+
+In the subsequent history of Spain Avila played an important part, and
+many a stirring event took place within its walls. It was besieged by
+the Aragonese Alfonso el Batallador, whose army advanced to the attack
+behind its prisoners, sons of Avila. Brothers, fathers, and relatives
+were thus obliged to fire upon their own kin if they wished to save
+their city. The same king, it is said, killed his hostages by having
+their heads cut off and boiled in oil, as though severed heads were
+capable of feeling the delightful sensation of seething oil!
+
+Of all the traditions as numerous here as elsewhere, the prettiest and
+most improbable is doubtless that of Nalvillos, a typical chevalier of
+romance, who fell desperately in love with a beautiful Moorish princess
+and wedded her. She pined, however, for a lover whom in her youth she
+had promised to wed, and though her husband erected palaces and bought
+slaves for her, she escaped with her sweetheart. Nalvillos followed the
+couple to where they lay retired in a castle, and it was surrounded by
+him and his trusty followers. The hero himself, disguised as a seller of
+curative herbs, entered the apartment where his wife was waiting for her
+lover's return, and made himself known. The former's return, however,
+cut matters short, and Nalvillos was obliged to hide himself. The
+Moorish girl was true to her love, and told her sweetheart where the
+Christian was hiding; brought out of his retreat, he was on the point of
+being killed when he asked permission to blow a last blast on his
+bugle--a wish that was readily conceded by the magnanimous lover. The
+result? The princess and her sweetheart were burnt to death by the
+flames ignited by Nalvillos's soldiers. The Christian warrior was, of
+course, able to escape.
+
+In 1455 the effigy of Henry IV. was dethroned in Avila by the prelates
+of Toledo and other cities, and by an assembly of noblemen who felt that
+feudalism was dying out, and were anxious to strike a last blow at the
+weak king whom they considered was their enemy.
+
+The effigy was placed on a throne; the Archbishop of Toledo harangued
+the multitude which, silent and scowling, was kept away from the throne
+by a goodly number of obedient mercenary soldiers. Then the prelate tore
+off the mock crown, another of the conspirators the sceptre, another the
+royal garments, and so on, each accompanying his act by an ignominious
+curse. At last the effigy was torn from the throne and trampled under
+the feet of the soldiers. Alfonso, a boy of eleven, stepped on the dais
+and was proclaimed king. His hand was kissed by the humble (!) prelates
+and noblemen, who swore allegiance, an oath they had not the slightest
+intention of keeping, and did not keep, either.
+
+Philip III.'s decree expelling Moors from Spain, was, as in the case of
+Plasencia, the _coup de grace_ given to the city's importance; half the
+population was obliged to leave, and Avila never recovered her lost
+importance and influence. To-day, with only about ten thousand
+inhabitants, thrown in the background by Madrid, it manages to keep
+alive and nothing more.
+
+The date when the erection of the cathedral church of Avila was begun is
+utterly unknown. According to a pious legend, it was founded by the
+third bishop, Don Pedro, who, being anxious to erect a temple worthy of
+his dignity, undertook a long pilgrimage to foreign countries in search
+of arms, and returned to his see in 1091. Sixteen years later, according
+to the same tradition, the present cathedral was essentially completed,
+a bold statement that cannot be accepted because in manifest
+contradiction with the build of the church.
+
+According to Senor Quadrado, the oldest part of the building, the apse,
+was probably erected toward the end of the twelfth century. It is a
+massive, almost windowless, semicircular body, its bare walls
+unsupported by buttresses, and every inch of it like the corner-tower of
+a castle wall, crenelated and flat-topped.
+
+The same author opines that the transept, a handsome, broad, and airy
+ogival nave, dates from the fourteenth century, whereas the western
+front of the church is of a much more recent date.
+
+Be that as it may, the fact is that the cathedral of Avila, seen from
+the east, west, or north, is a fortress building, a huge, unwieldy and
+anti-artistic composition of Romanesque, Gothic, and other elements. The
+western front, with its heavy tower to the north, and the lack of such
+to the south, appears more gloomy than ever on account of the obscure
+colour of the stone; the facade above the portal is of one of the most
+peculiar of artistic conceptions ever imagined; above the first body or
+the pointed arch which crowns the portal comes the second body, divided
+from the former by a straight line, which supports eight columns
+flanking seven niches; on the top of this unlucky part comes an ogival
+window. The whole facade is narrow--one door--and high. The effect is
+disastrous: an unnecessary contortion or misplacement of vertical,
+horizontal, slanting, and circular lines.
+
+The tower is flanked at the angles by two rims of stone, the edges of
+which are cut into _bolas_ (balls). If this shows certain _Mudejar_
+taste, so, also, do the geometrical designs carved in relief against a
+background, as seen in the arabesques above the upper windows.
+
+The northern portal, excepting the upper arch, which is but slightly
+curved and almost horizontal, and weighs down the ogival arches, is far
+better as regards the artist's conception of beauty; the stone carving
+is also of a better class.
+
+Returning to the interior of the building, preferably by the transept,
+the handsomest part of the church, the spectator perceives a double
+ambulatory behind the high altar; the latter, as well as the choir, is
+low, and a fine view is obtained of the ensemble. The central nave,
+almost twice as high and little broader than the aisles, is crowned by a
+double triforium of Gothic elegance.
+
+Seen from the transept, it would appear as though there were four aisles
+on the west side instead of two, a peculiar deception produced by the
+lateral opening of the last chapels, exactly similar in construction
+to the arch which crowns the intersection of the aisles and transept.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF AVILA CATHEDRAL]
+
+In the northern and southern extremity of the transept two handsome
+rosaces, above a row of lancet windows, let in the outside light through
+stained panes.
+
+The impression produced by the interior of the cathedral is greatly
+superior to that received from without. In the latter case curiosity is
+about the only sentiment felt by the spectator, whereas within the
+temple does not lack a simple beauty and mystery.
+
+As regards sculptural details, the best are doubtless the low reliefs to
+be seen to the rear of the choir, as well as several sepulchres, of
+which the best--and one of the best Renaissance monuments of its kind in
+Spain--is that of the Bishop Alfonso Tostado in the ambulatory. The
+_retablo_ of the high altar is also a magnificent piece of work of the
+second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the
+sixteenth.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+
+Avila's twin sister, Segovia, retains its old Celtiberian name; it
+retains, also, the undeniable proofs of Roman domination in its
+far-famed aqueduct and in its amphitheatre.
+
+According to the popular tradition, San Hierateo, the disciple of St.
+Paul, was the first bishop in the first century, but probably the see
+was not erected until about 527, when it is first mentioned in a
+Tolesian document; the name of the first bishop (historical) is Peter,
+who was present at the third Council in Toledo (589).
+
+The local saint is one San Fruto, who, upon the approach of the Saracen
+hosts, gathered together a handful of fugitives and retired to the
+mountains; his brother Valentine and his sister Engracia (of Aragonese
+fame?) died martyrs to their belief. San Fruto, on the other hand, lived
+the life of a hermit in the mountains and wrought many miracles, such
+as splitting open a rock with his jack-knife, etc. The most miraculous
+of his deeds was the proof he gave to the Moors of the genuineness of
+the Catholic religion: on a tray of oats he placed the host and offered
+it to a mule, which, instead of munching oats and host, fell on its
+knees, and perhaps even crossed itself!
+
+Disputed by Arabs and Christians, like all Castilian towns, Segovia
+lagged along until it fell definitely into the hands of the latter. A
+Christian colony seems, nevertheless, to have lived in the town during
+the Arab dominion, because the documents of the time speak of a Bishop
+Ilderedo in 940.
+
+The exact year of the repopulation of Segovia is not known, but
+doubtless it was a decade or so prior to either that of Salamanca or
+Avila.
+
+Neither was the warlike spirit of the inhabitants inferior to that of
+their brethren in the last named cities. It was due to their bravery
+that Madrid fell into the hands of the Christians toward 1110, for,
+arriving late at the besieging camp, the king, who was present, told
+them that if they wished to pass the night comfortably, there was but
+one place, namely, the city itself. Without a moment's hesitation the
+daring warriors dashed at the walls of Madrid, and, scaling them, took a
+tower, where they passed the night at their ease, and to their monarch's
+great astonishment.
+
+In 1115, the first bishop _de modernis_, Don Pedro, was consecrated, and
+the cathedral was begun at about the same time. Several of the
+successive prelates were battling warriors rather than spiritual
+shepherds, and fought with energy and success against the infidel in
+Andalusia. One, Don Gutierre Giron, even found his death in the terrible
+defeat of the Christian arms at Alarcon.
+
+The event which brought the greatest fame to Segovia was the erection of
+its celebrated Alcazar, or castle, the finest specimen of military
+architecture in Spain. Every city had its citadel, it is true, but none
+were so strong and invulnerable as that of Segovia, and in the stormy
+days of Castilian history the monarchs found a safe retreat from the
+attacks of unscrupulous noblemen behind its walls.
+
+Until 1530 the old cathedral stood at the back of the Alcazar, but in a
+revolution of the Comuneros against Charles-Quint, the infuriated mob,
+anxious to seize the castle, tore down the temple and used its stones,
+beams, stalls, and railings as a means to scale the high walls of the
+fortress. Their efforts were in vain, for an army came to the relief of
+the castle from Valladolid; a general pardon was, nevertheless, granted
+to the population by the monarch, who was too far off to care much what
+his Spanish subjects did. After the storm was over, the hot-headed
+citizens found themselves with a bishop and a chapter, but without a
+church or means wherewith to erect a new one.
+
+The struggles between city and fortress were numerous, and were the
+cause, in a great measure, of the town's decadence. Upon one occasion,
+Isabel the Catholic infringed upon the citizens' rights by making a gift
+of some of the feudal villages to a court favourite. The day after the
+news of this infringement reached the city, by a common accord the
+citizens "dressed in black, did not amuse themselves, nor put on clean
+linen; neither did they sweep the house steps, nor light the lamps at
+night; neither did they buy nor sell, and what is more, they boxed their
+children's ears so that they should for ever remember the day." So great
+were the public signs of grief that it has been said that "never did a
+republic wear deeper mourning for the loss of its liberties."
+
+The end of the matter was that the queen in her famous testament revoked
+her gift and returned the villages to the city.
+
+The old cathedral was torn down in November, 1520, and it was not until
+June, 1525, that the bishop, who had made a patriotic appeal to all
+Spaniards in behalf of the church funds, laid the first stone of the new
+edifice. Thirty years later the building was consecrated.
+
+Nowhere else can a church be found which is a more thorough expression
+of a city's fervour and enthusiasm. It was as though the sacrilegious
+act of the enraged mob reacted on the penitent minds of the calmed
+citizens, for rich and poor alike gave their alms to the cathedral
+chapter. Jewels were sold, donations came from abroad, feudal lords gave
+whole villages to the church, and the poor men, the workmen, and the
+peasants gave their pennies. Daily processions arrived at Santa Clara,
+then used as cathedral church, from all parts of the diocese. To-day
+they were composed of tradesmen, of _Zuenfte_, who gave their offerings
+of a few pounds; to-morrow a village would bring in a cartload of
+stone, of mortar, of wood, etc. On holidays and Sundays the repentant
+citizens, instead of amusing themselves at the dance or bull-fight,
+carted materials for their new cathedral's erection, and all this they
+did of their own free will.
+
+[Illustration: SEGOVIA CATHEDRAL]
+
+The act of consecrating the finished building constituted a grand
+holiday. The long aqueduct was illuminated from top to bottom, as was
+also the cathedral tower, and every house in the city. During a week the
+holiday-making lasted with open-air amusements for the poor and banquets
+for the rich.
+
+The date of the construction of the new building was contemporaneous
+with that of Salamanca, and the architect was, to a certain extent, the
+same. It is not strange, therefore, that both should resemble each other
+in their general disposition. What is more, the construction in both
+churches was begun at the foot (west), and not in the east, as is
+generally the case. The oldest part of the building is consequently the
+western front, classic in its outline, but showing among its ogival
+details both the symmetry and triangular pediment of Renaissance art.
+The tower, higher than that of Sevilla, and broader than that of Toledo,
+is simple in its structure; it is Byzantine, and does not lack a
+certain _cachet_ of elegance; the first body is surmounted by a dome,
+upon which rises the second,--smaller, and also crowned by a cupola. The
+tower was twice struck by lightning and partly ruined in 1620; it was
+rebuilt in 1825, and a lightning conductor replaced the cross of the
+spire.
+
+Though consecrated, as has been said, in 1558, the new temple was by no
+means finished: the transept and the eastern end were still to be built.
+The latter was finished prior to 1580, and in 1615 the Renaissance dome
+which surmounts the _croisee_ was erected by an artist-architect, who
+evidently was incapable of giving it a true Gothic appearance.
+
+The apse, with its three harmonizing _etages_ corresponding to the
+chapels, aisles, and nave, and flanked by leaning buttresses ornamented
+with delicate pinnacles, is Gothic in its details; the ensemble is,
+nevertheless, Renaissance, thanks to a perfect symmetry painfully
+pronounced by naked horizontal lines--so contradictory to the spirit of
+true ogival. Less regularity and a greater profusion of buttresses, and
+above all of flying buttresses, would have been more agreeable, but the
+times had changed and new tastes had entered the country.
+
+Neither does the broad transept, its facade,--either southern or
+northern,--and the cupola join, as it were, the eastern and the western
+half of the building; on the contrary, it distinctly separates them, not
+to the building's advantage.
+
+The interior is gay rather than solemn: the general disposition of the
+parts is as customary in a Gothic church of the Transition
+(Renaissance). The nave and transept are of the same width; the lateral
+chapels, running along the exterior walls of the aisles, are
+symmetrical, as in Salamanca; the ambulatory separates the high altar
+from the apse and its seven chapels.
+
+The pavement of the church is of black and white marble slabs, like that
+of Toledo, for instance; as for the stained windows, they are numerous,
+and those in the older part of the building of good (Flemish?)
+workmanship and of a rich colour, which heightens the happy expression
+of the whole building.
+
+The cloister is the oldest part of the building, having pertained to the
+previous cathedral. After the latter's destruction, and the successful
+erection of the new temple, the cloister was transported stone by stone
+from its old emplacement to where it now stands. It is a handsome and
+richly decorated Gothic building, containing many tombs, among them
+those of the architects of the cathedral and of Maria del Salto. This
+Mary was a certain Jewess, who, condemned to death, and thrown over the
+Pena Grajera, invoked the aid of the Virgin, and was saved.
+
+Another tomb is that of Prince Don Pedro, son of Enrique II., who fell
+out of a window of the Alcazar. His nurse, according to the tradition,
+threw herself out of the window after her charge, and together they were
+picked up, one locked in the arms of the other.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+MADRID-ALCALA
+
+
+Though Madrid was proclaimed the capital of Spain in the sixteenth
+century, it was not until 1850 that its collegiate church of San Isidro
+was raised to an episcopal see.
+
+The appointment met with a storm of disapproval in the neighbouring town
+of Alcala de Henares, the citizens claiming the erection of the
+ecclesiastical throne in their own collegiate, instead of in Madrid.
+Their reasons were purely historical, as will be seen later on, whereas
+the capital lacked both history and ecclesiastical significance.
+
+To pacify the inhabitants of Alcala, and at the same time to raise
+Madrid to the rank of a city, the following arrangement was made: the
+newly created see was to be called Madrid-Alcala; the bishop was to
+possess two cathedral churches, and both towns were to be cities.
+
+Such is the state of affairs at present. The recent governmental
+closure of the old cathedral in Alcala has deprived the partisans of the
+double see of one of their chief arguments, namely, the possession of a
+worthy temple, unique in the world as regards its organization.
+Consequently, it is generally stated that the title of Madrid-Alcala
+will die out with the present bishop, and that the next will simply be
+the Bishop of Madrid.
+
+
+_Madrid_
+
+The city of Madrid is new and uninteresting; it is an overgrown village,
+with no buildings worthy of the capital of a kingdom. From an
+architectural point of view, the royal palace, majestic and imposing,
+though decidedly poor in style, is about the only edifice that can be
+admired.
+
+In history, Madrid plays a most unimportant part until the times of
+Philip II., the black-browed monarch who, intent upon erecting his
+mausoleum in the Escorial, proclaimed Madrid to be the only capital.
+That was in 1560; previously Magerit had been an Arab fortress to the
+north of Toledo, and the first in the region now called Castilla la
+Nueva (New Castile), to distinguish it from Old Castile, which lies to
+the north of the mountain chain.
+
+Most likely Magerit had been founded by the Moors, though, as soon as it
+had become the capital of Spain, its inhabitants, who were only too
+eager to lend their town a history it did not possess, invented a series
+of traditions and legends more ridiculous than veracious.
+
+On the slopes of the last hill, descending to the Manzanares, and beside
+the present royal palace, the Christian conquerors of the Arab fortress
+in the twelfth century discovered an effigy of the Virgin, in an
+_almudena_ or storehouse. This was the starting-point for the traditions
+of the twelfth-century monks who discovered (?) that this effigy had
+been placed where it was found by St. James, according to some, and by
+the Virgin herself, according to others; what is more, they even
+established a series of bishops in Magerit previous to the Arab
+invasion.
+
+No foundations are of course at hand for such fabulous inventions, and
+if the effigy really were found in the _almudena_, it must have been
+placed there by the Moors themselves, who most likely had taken it as
+their booty when sacking a church or convent to the north.
+
+The patron saint of Madrid is one Isidro, not to be confounded with San
+Isidoro of Leon. The former was a farmer or labourer, who, with his
+wife, lived a quiet and unpretentious life in the vicinity of Madrid, on
+the opposite banks of the Manzanares, where a chapel was erected to his
+memory sometime in the seventeenth century. Of the many miracles this
+saint is supposed to have wrought, not one differs from the usual deeds
+attributed to holy individuals. Being a farmer, his voice called forth
+water from the parched land, and angels helped his oxen to plough the
+fields.
+
+Save the effigy of the Virgin de la Almudena, and the life of San
+Isidro, Madrid has no ecclesiastical history,--the Virgin de la Atocha
+has been forgotten, but she is only a duplicate of her sister virgin.
+Convents and monasteries are of course as numerous as elsewhere in
+Spain; brick parish churches of a decided Spanish-Oriental appearance
+rear their cupolas skyward in almost every street, the largest among
+them being San Francisco el Grande, which, with San Antonio de la
+Florida (containing several handsome paintings by Goya), is the only
+temple worth visiting.
+
+As regards a cathedral building, there is, in the lower part of the
+city, a large stone church dedicated to San Isidro; it serves the stead
+of a cathedral church until a new building, begun about 1885, will have
+been completed.
+
+This new building, the cathedral properly speaking, is to be a tenth
+wonder; it is to be constructed in granite, and its foundations stand
+beside the royal palace in the very spot where the Virgin de la Almudena
+was found, and where, until 1869, a church enclosed the sacred effigy;
+the new building is to be dedicated to the same deity.
+
+Unluckily, the erection of the new cathedral proceeds but slowly; so far
+only the basement stones have been laid and the crypt finished. The
+funds for its erection are entirely dependent upon alms, but, as the
+religious fervour which incited the inhabitants of Segovia in the
+sixteenth century is almost dead to-day, it is an open question whether
+the cathedral of Madrid will ever be finished.
+
+The temporary cathedral of San Isidro was erected in the seventeenth
+century; its two clumsy towers are unfinished, its western front,
+between the towers, is severe; four columns support the balcony, behind
+which the cupola, which crowns the _croisee_, peeps forth.
+
+Inside there is nothing worthy of interest to be admired except some
+pictures, one of them painted by the Divino Morales. The nave is light,
+but the chapels are so dark that almost nothing can be seen in their
+interior.
+
+This church, until the expulsion of the Jesuits, was the temple of their
+order, dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul; adjoining it a Jesuit school
+was erected, which has been incorporated in the government colleges.
+
+
+_Alcala de Henares_
+
+About twenty miles to the east of Madrid lies the one-time glorious
+university city of Alcala, famous above all things for having been the
+cradle of Cervantes, and the hearth, if not the home, of Cardinal
+Cisneros.
+
+Its history and its decadence are of the saddest; the latter serves in
+many respects as an adequate symbol of Spain's own tremendous downfall.
+
+[Illustration: SAN ISIDRO, MADRID]
+
+The Romans founded Alcala; it was their Complutum, of which some few
+remains have been discovered in the vicinity of the modern city. Yet,
+notwithstanding this lack of substantial evidence, the inhabitants of
+the region still proudly call themselves Complutenses.
+
+When the West Goths were rulers of the peninsula, the Roman monuments
+must have been completely destroyed, for all traces of the strategic
+stronghold were effaced from the map of Spain. The invading Arabs,
+possessing to a certain degree both Roman military instinct and
+foresight, built a fortress on the spot where the State Archives
+Building stands to-day. This castle was used by them as one of Toledo's
+northern defences against the warlike Christian kings.
+
+In the twelfth century the fortress fell into the hands of the
+Christians; in the succeeding centuries it was strongly rebuilt by the
+cardinal-archbishops of Toledo, who used it both as their palace and as
+their stronghold.
+
+Outside the bastioned and turreted walls of the castle, the new-born
+city grew up under its protecting shadows. Known by the Arabic name of
+its fortress (Al-Kala), it was successively baptized Alcala de San
+Justo, Alcala de Fenares, and since the sixteenth century, Alcala de
+Henares (_heno_, old Spanish _feno_, meaning hay). Protected by such
+powerful arms as those of the princes of the Church, it grew up to be a
+second Toledo, a city of church spires and convent walls, but of which
+only a reduced number stand to-day to point back to the religious
+fervour of the middle ages.
+
+The world-spread fame acquired by Alcala in the fifteenth century was
+due to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros, who built the university, at
+one time one of the most celebrated in Europe, and to-day a mere
+skeleton of architectural beauty.
+
+The same prelate raised San Justo to a suffragan church; its chapter was
+composed only of learned professors of the university, as were also its
+canons; Leon X. gave it the enviable title of La Magistral, the Learned,
+which points it out as unique in the Christian world. The Polyglot
+Bible, published in the sixteenth century, and famous in all Europe, was
+worked out by these scholars under Cisneros's direction, and the
+favoured city outshone the newly built Madrid twenty miles away, and
+rivalled Salamanca in learning, and Toledo in worldly and religious
+splendour.
+
+Madrid grew greater and greater as years went by, and consequently
+Alcala de Henares dwindled away to the shadow of a name. The university,
+the just pride of the Complutenses, was removed to the capital; the
+cathedral, for lack of proper care, became an untimely ruin; the
+episcopal palace was confiscated by the state, which, besides repairing
+it, filled its seventy odd halls with rows upon rows of dusty documents
+and governmental papers.
+
+To-day the city drags along a weary, inactive existence: soldiers from
+the barracks and long-robed priests from the church fill the streets,
+and are as numerous as the civil inhabitants, if not more so; convents
+and cloisters of nuns, either grass-grown ruins or else sombre grated
+and barred edifices, are to be met with at every step.
+
+Strangers visit the place hurriedly in the morning and return to Madrid
+in the afternoon; they buy a tin box of sugar almonds (the city's
+specialty), carelessly examine the university and the archiepiscopal
+palace, gaze unmoved at some Cervantes relics, and at the facade of the
+cathedral. Besides, they are told that in such and such a house the
+immortal author of Don Quixote was born, which is a base, though
+comprehensible, invention, because no such house exists to-day.
+
+That is all; perchance in crossing the city's only square, the traveller
+notices that it can boast of no fewer than three names, doubtless with a
+view to hide its glaring nakedness. These three names are Plaza de
+Cervantes, Plaza Mayor, and Plaza de la Constitucion, of which the
+latter is spread out boldly across the town hall and seems to invoke the
+remembrance of the ephemeral efforts of the republic in 1869.
+
+In the third century after the birth of Christ, two infants, Justo and
+Pastor, preached the True Word to the unbelieving Roman rulers of
+Complutum. The result was not in the least surprising: the two infants
+lost their baby heads for the trouble they had taken in trying to
+trouble warriors.
+
+But the Vatican remembered them, and canonized Pastor and Justo.
+Hundreds of churches, sown by the blood of martyrs, grew up in all
+corners of the peninsula to commemorate pagan cruelty, and to induce all
+men to follow the examples set by the two babes.
+
+No one knew, however, where the mortal remains of Justo and Pastor were
+lying. In the fourth century their resting-place was miraculously
+revealed to one Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, who had them removed to
+his cathedral. They did not stay long in the primate city, for the
+invasion of the Moors obliged all True Believers to hide Church relics.
+Thus, Justo and Pastor wandered forth again from village to village,
+running away from the infidels until they reposed temporarily in the
+cathedral of Huesca in the north of Aragon.
+
+In Alcala their memory was kept alive in the parish church dedicated to
+them. But as the city grew, it was deemed preferable to build a solid
+temple worthy of the saintly pair, and Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo,
+had the old church pulled down and began the erection of a larger
+edifice. This took place in the middle of the fifteenth century, when
+Ximenez de Cisneros, who ruled the fate of Spain and its church, gave it
+the ecclesiastical constitution previously mentioned.
+
+Fifty years later the weary bodies of the two infants were brought back
+in triumph to their native town amid the rejoicings and admiration of
+the people, and were placed in the cathedral of San Justo, then a
+collegiate church of Toledo.
+
+A few years ago the cathedral church of San Justo was denounced by the
+state architect and closed. To-day it is a dreary ruin, with tufts of
+grass growing among the battlements. The chapter, depriving the hoary
+building of its high altar, its precious relics and paintings, its
+stalls and other accessories, installed the cathedral in the Jesuit
+temple, an insignificant building in the other extremity of the town.
+Recently the abandoned ruin has been declared a national monument, which
+means that the state is obliged to undertake its restoration.
+
+La Magistral is a brick building of imposing simplicity and severity in
+its general outlines. Its decorative elements are ogival, but of true
+Spanish nakedness and lack of elegance. Though Renaissance principles
+have not entered into the composition, as might have been supposed,
+considering the date of the erection, nevertheless, the lack of flying
+buttresses, the scarcity of windows, the undecorated angles of the
+western front, the barren walls, and flat-topped, though slightly
+sloping, roofs prove that the "simple and severe style" is latent in the
+minds of artists.
+
+[Illustration: ALCALA DE HENARES CATHEDRAL]
+
+The apse is well developed, and the _croisee_ surmounted by a cupola;
+the tower which flanks the western front is massive; it is decorated
+with blind arches and ogival arabesques.
+
+The ground plan of the building is Latin Cruciform; the aisles are but
+slightly lower than the nave and join in the apse behind the high altar
+in an ambulatory walk. The crypt, reached by two Renaissance doors in
+the _trasaltar_, is spacious, and contains the bodies of San Justo and
+San Pastor.
+
+The general impression produced on the mind of the tourist is sadness.
+The severity of the structure is heightened by the absence of any
+distracting decorative elements, excepting the fine _Mudejar_ ceiling to
+the left upon entering.
+
+In the reigning shadows of this deserted temple, two magnificent tombs
+stand in solitude and silence. They are those of Carillo and Cardinal
+Cisneros, the latter one of the greatest sons of Spain and one of her
+most contradictory geniuses. His sepulchre is a gorgeous marble monument
+of Renaissance style, surrounded by a massive bronze grille of excellent
+workmanship, a marvel of Spanish metal art of the sixteenth century.
+The other sepulchre is simple in its ogival decorations, and the
+prostrate effigy of Carillo is among the best to be admired by the
+tourist in Iberia.
+
+Carillo's life was that of a restless, ambitious, and worldly man. When
+he died, he was buried in the Convent of San Juan de Dios, where his
+illegitimate son had been buried before him, "for," said the
+archbishop-father, "if in life my robes separated me from my son, in
+death we shall be united."
+
+But he reckoned without his host, or rather his successor, the man whose
+remains now lie beside his own in the shadows of the great ruin. "For,"
+said Cisneros, "the Church must separate man from his sin even in
+death." So he ordered the son to be left in the convent, and the father
+to be brought to the temple he had begun to erect.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+SIGUeENZA
+
+
+The origin of the fortress admirably situated to the north of
+Guadalajara was doubtless Moorish, though in the vicinity is Villavieja,
+where the Romans had established a town on the transverse road from
+Cadiz to Tarragon, and called by them Seguncia, or Segoncia.
+
+When the Christian religion first appeared in Spain, it is believed that
+Sigueenza, or Segoncia, possessed an episcopal see; nothing is positively
+known, however, of the early bishops, until Protogenes signed the third
+Council of Toledo in 589.
+
+It is believed that in the reign of Alfonso VI., he who conquered Toledo
+and the region to the south of Valladolid and as far east as Aragon,
+Sigueenza was repopulated, though no mention is made of the place in the
+earlier chronicles of the time. All that is known is that a bishop was
+immediately appointed by Alfonso VII. to the vacancy which had lasted
+for over two hundred years, during which Sigueenza had been one of the
+provincial capitals of the Kingdom of Toledo. The first known bishop was
+Don Bernardo.
+
+The history of the town was never of the most brilliant. In the times of
+Alfonso VII. and his immediate successors it gained certain importance
+as a frontier stronghold, as a check to the growing ambitions of the
+royal house of Aragon. But after the union of Castile and Aragon, its
+importance gradually dwindled; to-day, if it were not for the bishopric,
+it would be one historic village more on the map of Spain.
+
+In the reign of Peter the Cruel, its castle--considered with that of
+Segovia to be the strongest in Castile--was used for some time as the
+prison palace for that most unhappy princess, Dona Blanca, who, married
+to his Catholic Majesty, had been deposed on the third day of the
+wedding by the heartless and passionate lover of the Padilla. She was at
+first shut up in Toledo, but the king did not consider the Alcazar
+strong enough. So she was sent off to Sigueenza, where it is popularly
+believed, though documents deny it, that she died, or was put to death.
+
+The city belonged to the bishop; it was his feudal property, and passed
+down to his successors in the see. Of the doings of these
+prelate-warriors, the first, Don Bernardo, was doubtless the most
+striking personality, lord of a thousand armed vassals and of three
+hundred horse, who fought with the emperor in almost all the great
+battles in Andalusia. It is even believed he died wielding the naked
+sword, and that his remains were brought back to the town of which he
+had been the first and undisputed lord.
+
+The strong castle which crowns the city did not possess, as was
+generally the case, an _alcalde_, or governor; it was the episcopal
+palace or residence, a circumstance which proves beyond a doubt the
+double significance of the bishop: a spiritual leader and military
+personage, more influential and wealthy than any prelate in Spain,
+excepting the Archbishops of Toledo and Santiago.
+
+During the French invasion in the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+Sigueenza had already lost its political significance. The invaders
+occupied the castle, and, as was their custom, threw documents and
+archives into the fire, to make room for themselves, and to spend the
+winter comfortably.
+
+Consequently, the notices we have of the cathedral church are but
+scarce. The fourth bishop was Jocelyn, an Englishman who had come over
+with Eleanor, Henry II.'s daughter, and married to the King of Castile.
+He (the bishop) was not a whit less warlike than his predecessors had
+been; he helped the king to win the town of Cuenca, and when he died on
+the battle-field, only his right arm was carried back to the see, to the
+chapel of St. Thomas of Canterbury, which the dead prelate had founded
+in the new cathedral, and it was buried beneath a stone which bears the
+following inscription:
+
+    "_Hic est inclusa Jocelini praesulis ulna._"
+
+From the above we can conclude that the cathedral must have been begun
+previous to the Englishman's coming to Spain, that is, in the beginning
+of the twelfth century. Doubtless the vaulting was not closed until at
+least one hundred years later; nevertheless, it is one of the unique and
+at the same time one of the handsomest Spanish monuments of the
+Transition period.
+
+The city of Sigueenza, situated on the slopes of a hill crowned by the
+castle, is a village rather than a town; there are, however, fewer spots
+in Spain that are more picturesque in their old age, and there is a
+certain uniformity in the architecture that reminds one of German towns;
+this is not at all characteristic of Spain, where so many styles mix and
+mingle until hardly distinguishable from each other.
+
+The Transition style--between the strong Romanesque and the airy
+ogival--is the city's _cachet_, printed with particular care on the
+handsome cathedral which stands on the slope of the hill to the north of
+the castle.
+
+Two massive square towers, crenelated at the top and pierced by a few
+round-headed windows, flank the western front. The three portals are
+massive Romanesque without floral or sculptural decoration of any kind;
+the central door is larger and surmounted by a large though primitive
+rosace. The height of the aisles and nave is indicated by three ogival
+arches cut in relief on the facade; here already the mixture of both
+styles, of the round-arched Romanesque and the pointed Gothic, is
+clearly visible--as it is also in the windows of the aisles, which are
+Romanesque, and of the nave, which are ogival--in the buttresses, which
+are leaning on the lower body, and flying in the upper story, uniting
+the exterior of the clerestory with that of the aisles. (Compare with
+apse of the cathedral of Lugo.)
+
+The portal of the southern arm of the transept is an ugly addition, more
+modern and completely out of harmony with the rest. The rosace above the
+door is one of the handsomest of the Transition period in Spain, and the
+stained glass is both rich and mellow.
+
+The interior shows the same harmonious mixture of the stronger and more
+solemn old style, and the graceful lightness of the newer. But the
+hesitancy in the mind of the architect is also evident, especially in
+the vaulting, which is timidly arched.
+
+The original plan of the church was, doubtless, purely Romanesque: Roman
+cruciform with a three-lobed apse, the central one much longer so as to
+contain the high altar.
+
+In the sixteenth century, however, an ambulatory was constructed behind
+the high altar, joining the two aisles, and the high altar was removed
+to the east of the transept.
+
+What a pity that the huge choir, placed in the centre of the church,
+should so completely obstruct the view of the ensemble of the nave and
+aisles, separated by massive Byzantine arches between the solid pillars,
+which, in their turn, support the nascent ogival vaulting of the high
+nave! Were it, as well as the grotesque _trascoro_--of the unhappiest
+artistic taste--anywhere but in the centre of the church, what a
+splendid view would be obtained of the long, narrow, and high aisles and
+nave in which the old and the new were moulded together in perfect
+harmony, instead of fighting each other and clashing together, as
+happened in so many Spanish cathedral churches!
+
+One of the most richly decorated parts of the church is the sacristy, a
+small room entirely covered with medallions and sculptural designs of
+the greatest variety of subjects. Though of Arabian taste (_Mudejar_),
+no Moorish elements have entered into the composition, and consequently
+it is one of the very finest, if not the very best specimen, of
+Christian Arab decoration.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+CUENCA
+
+
+To the east of Toledo, and to the north of the plains of La Mancha,
+Cuenca sits on its steep hill surrounded by mountains; a high stone
+bridge, spanning a green valley and the rushing river, joined the city
+to a mountain plateau; to-day the mediaeval bridge has been replaced by
+an iron one, which contrasts harshly with the somnolent aspect of the
+landscape.
+
+Never was a city founded in a more picturesque spot. It almost resembles
+Goeschenen in Switzerland, with the difference that whereas in the last
+named village a white-washed church rears its spire skyward, in Cuenca a
+large cathedral, rich in decorative accessories, and yet sombre and
+severe in its wealth, occupies the most prominent place in the town.
+
+Of the origin of the city nothing is known. In the tenth and the
+eleventh centuries Conca was an impregnable Arab fortress. In 1176 the
+united armies of Castile and Aragon, commanded by two sovereigns,
+Alfonso VIII. of Castile and Alfonso II. of Aragon, laid siege to the
+fortress, and after nine months' patience, the Alcazar surrendered.
+According to the popular tradition, it was won by treachery: one Martin
+Alhaxa, a captive and a shepherd by trade, introduced the Christians
+disguised with sheepskins into the city through a postern gate.
+
+As the conquest of Cuenca had cost the King of Castile such trouble (his
+Aragonese partner had not waited to see the end of the siege), and as he
+was fully conscious of its importance as a strategical outpost against
+Aragon to the north and against the Moors to the south and east, he laid
+special stress on the city's being strongly fortified; he also gave
+special privileges to such Christians as would repopulate, or rather
+populate, the nascent town. A few years later Pone Lucio III. raised the
+church to an episcopal see, appointing Juan Yanez, a Tolesian Muzarab,
+to be its first bishop (1183).
+
+Unlike Sigueenza, a feudal possession of the bishop, Cuenca belonged
+exclusively to the monarch of Castile; the castle was consequently held
+in the sovereign's name by a governor,--at one time there were even four
+who governed simultaneously. Between these governors and the inhabitants
+of the city, fights were numerous, especially during the first half of
+the fifteenth century, the darkest and most ignoble period of Castilian
+history.
+
+The story is told of one Dona Inez de Barrientos, granddaughter of a
+bishop on her mother's side, and of a governor on that of her father. It
+appears that her husband had been murdered by some of the wealthiest
+citizens of the town. Feigning joy at her spouse's death, the widow
+invited the murderers to her house to a banquet, when, "_despues de
+opipara cena_ (after an excellent dinner), they passed from the lethargy
+of drunkenness to the sleep of eternity, assassinated by hidden
+servants." The following morning their bodies hung from the windows of
+the palace, and provoked not anger but silent dread and shivers among
+the terror-stricken inhabitants.
+
+With the Inquisition, the siege by the English in 1706, the invasion of
+the French in 1808, Cuenca rapidly lost all importance and even
+political significance. To-day it is one of the many picturesque ruins
+that offer but little interest to the art traveller, for even its old
+age is degenerated, and the monuments of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
+fifteenth centuries have one and all been spoilt by the hand of time,
+and by the less grasping hand of _restauradores_--or
+architect-repairers.
+
+The Byzantine character, the Arab taste of the primitive inhabitants,
+has also been lost. Who would think, upon examining the cathedral, that
+it had served once upon a time as the principal Arab mosque? Entirely
+rebuilt, as were most of the primitive Arab houses, it has lost all
+traces of the early founders, more so than in other cities where the
+Arabs remained but a few years.
+
+The patron saint of Cuenca is San Julian, one of the cathedral's first
+bishops, who led a saintly life, giving all he had and taking nothing
+that was not his, and who retired from his see to live the humble life
+of a basket-maker, seated with willow branches beneath the arches of the
+high bridge, and preaching saintly words to teamsters and mule-drivers
+as they approached the city, until his death in 1207.
+
+In the same century the Arab mosque was torn down and the new cathedral
+begun. It is a primitive ogival (Spanish) temple of the thirteenth
+century, with smatterings of Romanesque-Byzantine. Unlike the cathedral
+of Sigueenza, it is neither elegant, harmonious, nor of great
+architectural value; its wealth lies chiefly in the chapels, in the
+doors which lead to the cloister, in the sacristy, and in the elegant
+high altar.
+
+The cloister door is perhaps one of the finest details of the cathedral
+church: decorated in the plateresque style general in Spain in the
+sixteenth century, it offers one of the finest examples of said style to
+be found anywhere, and though utterly different in ornamentation to the
+sacristy of Sigueenza, it nevertheless resembles it in the general
+composition.
+
+The nave, exceedingly high, is decorated by a blind triforium of ogival
+arches; the aisles are sombre and lower than the nave. On the other
+hand, the transept, broad and simple, is similar to the nave and as long
+as the width of the church, including the lateral chapels. The _croisee_
+is surmounted by a _cimborio_, insignificant in comparison to those of
+Salamanca, Zamora, and Toro.
+
+The northern and southern extremities of the transept differ from each
+other as regard style. The southern has an ogival portal surmounted by a
+rosace; the northern, one that is plateresque, the rounded arch,
+delicately decorated, reposing on Corinthian columns.
+
+The eastern end of the church has been greatly modified--as is clearly
+seen by the mixture of fifteenth-century styles, and not to the
+advantage of the ensemble. Byzantine pillars, and even horseshoe arches,
+mingle with Gothic elements.
+
+Of the chapels, the greater number are richly decorated, not only with
+sepulchres and sepulchral works, but with paintings, some of them by
+well-known masters.
+
+Taken all in all, the cathedral of Cuenca does not inspire any of the
+sentiments peculiar to religious temples. Not the worst cathedral in
+Spain, by any means, neither as regards size nor majesty, it
+nevertheless lacks conviction, as though the artist who traced the
+primitive plan miscalculated its final appearance. The additions, due to
+necessity or to the ruinous state of some of the parts, were luckless,
+as are generally all those undertaken at a posterior date.
+
+The decorative wealth of the chapels, which is really astonishing in so
+small a town, the luxurious display of grotesque elements, the presence
+of a fairly good _transparente_, as well as the rich leaf-decoration of
+Byzantine pillars and plateresque arches, give a peculiar _cachet_ to
+this church which is not to be found elsewhere.
+
+The same can be said of the city and of the inhabitant. In the words of
+an authority, "Cuenca is national, it is Spanish, it is a typical rural
+town." Yet, it is so typical, that no other city resembles it.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+TOLEDO
+
+
+A forest of spires and _alminar_ towers rising from a roof-covered hill
+to pierce the distant azure sky; a ruined cemetery surrounded on three
+sides by the rushing Tago as it cuts out a foaming path through
+foothills, and stretching away on the fourth toward the snow-capped
+Sierra de Gredo in the distance, beyond the fruitful prairies and the
+intervening plains of New Castile.
+
+Such is Toledo, the famous, the wonderful, the legend-spun primate city
+of all the Spains, the former wealthy capital of the Spanish Empire!
+
+Madrid usurped all her civic honours under the reign of Philip II., he
+who lost the Armada and built the Escorial. Since then Toledo, like
+Alcala de Henares, Segovia, and Burgos, has dragged along a forlorn
+existence, frozen in winter and scorched in summer, and visited at all
+times of the year by gaping tourists of all nationalities.
+
+Even the approach to the city from the mile distant station is
+peculiarly characteristic. Seated in an old and shaky omnibus, pulled by
+four thrashed mules, and followed along the dusty road by racing
+beggars, who whine their would-be French, "_Un p'it sou, mouchieur_,"
+with surprising alacrity and a melancholy smile in their big black eyes,
+the visitor is driven sharply around a bluff, when suddenly Toledo, the
+mysterious, comes into sight, crowning the opposite hill.
+
+At a canter the mules cross the bridge of Alcantara and pass beneath the
+gateway of the same name, a ponderous structure still guarding the
+time-rusty city as it did centuries ago when Toledo was the Gothic
+metropolis. Up the winding road, beneath the solemn and fire-devastated
+walls of the Alcazar, the visitor is hurriedly driven along; he
+disappears from the burning sunlight into a gloomy labyrinth of
+ill-paved streets to emerge a few minutes later in the principal square.
+
+A shoal of yelling, gesticulating interpreters literally grab at the
+tourist, and in ten seconds exhaust their vocabulary of foreign words.
+At last one walks triumphantly off beside the newcomer, while the
+others, with a depreciative shrug of the shoulders and extinguishing
+their volcanic outburst of energy, loiter around the square smoking
+cigarettes.
+
+It does not take the visitor long to notice that he is in a great
+archaeological museum. The streets are crooked and narrow, so narrow that
+the tiny patch of sky above seems more brilliant than ever and farther
+away, while on each side are gloomy houses with but few windows, and
+monstrous, nail-studded doors. At every turn a church rears its head,
+and the cheerless spirit of a palace glares with a sadly vacant stare
+from behind wrought-iron _rejas_ and a complicated stone-carved blazon.
+Rarely is the door opened; when it is, the passer catches a glimpse of a
+sun-bathed courtyard, gorgeously alive with light and many flowers. The
+effect produced by the sudden contrast between the joyless street and
+the sunny garden, whose existence was never dreamt of, is delightful and
+never to be forgotten; from Theophile Gautier, who had been in Northern
+Africa, land of Mohammedan harems, it wrung the piquant exclamation:
+"The Moors have been here!"
+
+Every stick, stone, mound, house, lantern, and what not has its legend.
+In this humble _posada_, Cervantes, whose ancestral castle is on yonder
+bluff overlooking the Tago, wrote his "_Ilustre Fregona_." The family
+history of yonder fortress-palace inspired Zorilla's romantic pen, and a
+thousand and one other objects recall the past,--the past that is
+Toledo's present and doubtless will have to be her future.
+
+Gone are the days when Tolaitola was a peerless jewel, for which Moors
+and Christians fought, until at last the Believers of the True Faith
+drove back the Arabs who fled southward from whence they had emerged.
+Long closed are also the famous smithies, where swords--Tolesian blades
+they were then called--were hammered so supple that they could bend like
+a watchspring, so strong they could cleave an anvil, and so sharp they
+could cut an eiderdown pillow in twain without displacing a feather.
+
+Distant, moreover, are the nights of _capa y espada_ and of miracles
+wrought by the Virgin; dwindled away to a meagre shadow is the princely
+magnificence of the primate prelates of all the Spains, of those
+spiritual princes who neither asked the Pope's advice nor received
+orders from St. Peter at Rome. Besides, of the two hundred thousand
+souls proud to be called sons of Toledo in the days of Charles-Quint,
+but seventeen thousand inhabitants remain to-day to guard the nation's
+great city-museum, unsullied as yet by progress and modern civilization,
+by immense advertisements and those other necessities of daily life in
+other climes.
+
+The city's history explains the mixture of architectural styles and the
+bizarre modifications introduced in Gothic, Byzantine, or Arab
+structures.
+
+Legends accuse Toledo of having been mysteriously founded long before
+the birth of Rome on her seven hills. To us, however, it first appears
+in history as a Roman stronghold, capital of one of Hispania's
+provinces.
+
+St. James, as has been seen, roamed across this peninsula; he came to
+Toledo. So delighted was he with the site and the people--saith the
+tradition--that he ordained that the city on the Tago should contain the
+primate church of all the Spains.
+
+The vanquished Romans withdrew, leaving to posterity but feeble ruins to
+the north of the city; the West Goths built the threatening city walls
+which still are standing, and, having turned Christians, their King
+Recaredo was baptized in the river's waters, and Toledo became the
+flourishing capital of the Visigothic kingdom (512 A.D.).
+
+The Moors, in their northward march, conquered both the Church and the
+state. Legends hover around the sudden apparition of Berber hordes in
+Andalusia, and accuse Rodrigo, the last King of the Goths, of having
+outraged Florinda, a beautiful girl whom he saw, from his palace window,
+bathing herself in a marble bath near the Tago,--the bath is still shown
+to this day,--and with whom he fell in love. The father, Count Julian,
+Governor of Ceuta, called in the Moors to aid him in his righteous work
+of vengeance, and, as often happens in similar cases, the allies lost no
+time in becoming the masters and the conquerors.
+
+Nearly four hundred years did the Arabs remain in their beloved
+Tolaitola; the traces of their occupancy are everywhere visible: in the
+streets and in the _patios_, in fanciful arabesques, and above all in
+Santa Maria la Blanca.
+
+The Spaniards returned and brought Christianity back with them. They
+erected an immense cathedral and turned mosques into chapels without
+altering the Oriental form.
+
+Jews, Arabs, and Christians lived peacefully together during the four
+following centuries. Together they created the _Mudejar_ style tower of
+San Tomas and the Puerta de Sol. Pure Gothic was transformed, rendered
+even more insubstantial and lighter, thanks to Oriental decorative
+motives. In San Juan de los Reyes, the _Mudejar_ style left a unique
+specimen of what it might have developed into had it not been murdered
+by the Renaissance fresh from Italy, where Aragonese troops had
+conquered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
+
+With the first Philips--and even earlier--foreign workmen came over to
+Toledo in shoals from Germany, France, Flanders, and Italy. They also
+had their way, more so than in any other Spanish city, and their tastes
+helped to weld together that incongruous mass of architectural styles
+which is Toledo's alone of all cities. Granada may have its Alhambra,
+and Cordoba its mosque; Leon its cathedral and Segovia its Alcazar, but
+none of them is so luxuriously rich in complex grandeur and in the
+excellent--and yet frequently grotesque--confusion of all those art
+waves which flooded Spain. In this respect Toledo is unique in Spain,
+unique in the world. Can we wonder at her being called a museum?
+
+The Alcazar, which overlooks the rushing Tago, is a symbol of Toledo's
+past. It was successively burnt and rebuilt; its four facades, here
+stern and forbidding, there grotesque and worthless, differ from each
+other as much as the centuries in which they were built. The eastern
+facade dates from the eleventh, the western from the fifteenth, and the
+other two from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
+
+But other arts than those purely architectural are richly represented in
+Toledo. For Spain's capital in the days following upon the fall of
+Granada was a centre of industrial arts, where both foreign and national
+workmen, heathen, Jews, and Christians mixed, wrought such wonders as
+have forced their way into museums the world over; besides, Tolesian
+sculptors are among Spain's most famous.
+
+As regards painting, one artist's life is wrapped up in that of the
+wonderful city on the Tago; many of his masterworks are to be seen in
+Toledo's churches and in the provincial museum. I refer to Domenico
+Theotocopuli, he who was considered a madman because he was a genius,
+and who has been called _el Greco_ when really he ought to have been
+called _el Toledano_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+If Toledo is the nation's architectural museum, the city's cathedral,
+the huge imposing Gothic structure, is, beyond a doubt, an incomparable
+art museum. Centuries of sculptors carved marble and _berroquena_;
+armies of artisans wrought marvels in cloths, metals, precious stones,
+glass, and wood, and a host of painters, both foreign and national, from
+Goya and Ribera to the Greco and Rubens, painted religious compositions
+for the sacristy and chapels.
+
+Consequently, and besides the architectural beauty of the primate church
+of Spain, what interests perhaps more keenly than the study of the
+cathedral's skeleton, is the study of the ensemble, of that wealth of
+decorative designs and of priceless art objects for which the temple is
+above all renowned.
+
+Previous to the coming of the Moors in the eighth century, a humble
+cathedral stood where the magnificent church now lifts its
+three-hundred-foot tower in the summer sky. It had been built in the
+sixth century and dedicated to the Virgin, who had appeared in the
+selfsame spot to San Ildefonso, when the latter, ardent and vehement,
+had defended her Immaculate Honour before a body of skeptics.
+
+The Moors tore down or modified the cathedral, and erected their
+principal mosque in its stead. When, three hundred years later, they
+surrendered their Tolaitola to Alfonso VI. (1085), they stipulated for
+the retention of their _mezquita_, a clause the king, who had but little
+time to lose squabbling, was only too glad to allow.
+
+The following year, however, King Alfonso went off on a campaign,
+leaving his wife Dona Constanza and the Archbishop Don Bernardo to look
+after the city in his absence. No sooner was his back turned, when, one
+fine morning, Don Bernardo arrived with a motley crowd of goodly
+Christians in front of the mosque. He knocked in the principal door,
+and, entering, threw out into the street the sacred objects of the Islam
+cult. Then the Christians proceeded to set up an altar, a crucifix, and
+an image of the Virgin; the archbishop hallowed his work, and in an hour
+was the smiling possessor of his see. Strange to say, Don Bernardo was
+no Spaniard, but a worthy Frenchman.
+
+The news of this outrage upon his honour brought Alfonso rushing back to
+Toledo, vowing to revenge himself upon those who had seemingly made him
+break his royal word; on the way he was met by a committee of the Arab
+inhabitants, who, clever enough to understand that the sovereign would
+reinstate the mosque, but would ever after look upon them as the cause
+of his rupture with his wife and his friend the prelate, asked the king
+to pardon the evil-doers, stating that they renounced voluntarily their
+mosque, knowing as they did that the other conditions of the surrender
+would be sacredly adhered to by his Majesty.
+
+Thanks to this noble (cunning) attitude on the part of the outraged
+Moors, the latter were able to live at peace within the walls of Toledo
+well into the seventeenth century.
+
+Toward the beginning of the thirteenth century Fernando el Santo was
+King of Castile, and his capital was the city on the Tago. The growing
+nation was strong and full of ambition, while the coming of the Cluny
+monks and Flemish and German artisans had brought Northern Gothic
+across the frontiers. So it occurred to the sovereign and his people to
+erect a primate cathedral of Christian Spain worthy of its name. In 1227
+the first stone was laid by the pious warrior-king. The cathedral's
+outline was traced: a Roman cruciform Gothic structure of five aisles
+and a bold transept; two flanking towers,--of which only the northern
+has been constructed, the other having been substituted by a cupola of
+decided Byzantine or Oriental taste,--and a noble western facade of
+three immense doors surmounted by a circular rosace thirty feet wide.
+
+The size of the building was in itself a guarantee that it would be one
+of the largest in the world, being four hundred feet long by two hundred
+broad, and one hundred feet high at the intersection of transept and
+nave.
+
+[Illustration: TOLEDO CATHEDRAL]
+
+It took 250 years for the cathedral to be built, and even then it was
+not really completed until toward the middle of the eighteenth century.
+In the meantime the nation had risen to its climax of power and wealth,
+and showered riches and jewels upon its great cathedral. Columbus
+returned from America, and the first gold he brought was handed over to
+the archbishop; foreign artisans--especially Flemish and
+German--arrived by hundreds, and were employed by Talavera, Cisneros,
+and Mendoza, in the decoration of the church. Unluckily, additions were
+made: the pointed arches of the facade were surmounted by a rectangular
+body which had nothing in common with the principle set down when the
+cathedral was to have been purely ogival.
+
+The interior of the church was also enlarged, especially the high altar,
+the base of which was doubled in size. The _retablo_ of painted wood was
+erected toward the end of the fifteenth century, as well as many of the
+chapels, which are built into the walls of the building, and are as
+different in style as the saints to whom they are dedicated.
+
+As time went on, and the rich continued sending their jewels and relics
+to the cathedral, the Treasury Room, with its pictures by Rubens, Duerer,
+Titian, etc., and with its _sagrario_,--a carved image of Our Lady,
+crowning an admirably chiselled cone of silver and jewels, and covered
+over with the richest cloths woven in gold, silver, silk, and precious
+stones,--was gradually filled with hoarded wealth. Even to-day, when
+Spain has apparently reached the very low ebb of her glory, the
+cathedral of Toledo remains almost intact as the only living
+representative of the grandeur of the Church and of the arts it fostered
+in the sixteenth century.
+
+Almost up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the building was
+continually being enlarged, modified, and repaired. Six hundred years
+since the first stone had been laid! What vicissitudes had not the
+country seen--and how many art waves had swept over the peninsula!
+
+Gothic is traceable throughout the building: here it is flamboyant,
+there rayonnant. Here the gold and red of _Mudejar_ ceilings are
+exquisitely represented, as in the chapter-room; there Moorish influence
+in _azulejos_ (multicoloured glazed tiles) and in decorative designs is
+to be seen, such as in the horseshoe arches of the triforium in the
+chapel of the high altar. Renaissance details are not lacking, nor the
+severe plateresque taste (in the grilles of the choir and high altar),
+and neither did the grotesque style avoid Spain's great cathedral, for
+there is the double ambulatory behind the high altar, that is to say,
+the _transparente_, a circular chapel of the most gorgeous
+ultra-decoration to be found anywhere in Spain.
+
+Signs of decadence are unluckily to be observed in the cathedral to-day.
+The same care is no longer taken to repair fallen bits of carved stone;
+pigeon-lamps that burn little oil replace the huge bronze lamps of other
+days, and no new additions are being made. The cathedral's apogee has
+been reached; from now on it will either remain intact for centuries, or
+else it will gradually crumble away.
+
+Seen from the exterior, the cathedral does not impress to such an extent
+as it might. Houses are built up around it, and the small square to the
+south and west is too insignificant to permit a good view of the
+ensemble.
+
+Nevertheless, the spectator who is standing near the western facade,
+either craning his neck skyward or else examining the seventy odd
+statues which compose the huge portal of the principal entrance, is
+overawed at the immensity of the edifice in front of him, as well as
+amazed at the amount of work necessary for the decorating of the portal.
+
+The Puerta de los Leones, or the southern entrance giving access to the
+transept, is perhaps of a more careful workmanship as regards the
+sculptural decoration. The door itself, studded on the outside with
+nails and covered over with a sheet of bronze of the most exquisite
+workmanship in relief, is a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of metal-stamping of the
+sixteenth century, whilst the wood-carving on the interior is among the
+finest in the cathedral.
+
+The effect produced on the spectator within the building is totally
+different. The height and length of the aisles, which are buried in
+shadows,--for the light which enters illuminates rather the chapels
+which are built into the walls between the flying
+buttresses,--astonishes; the _factura_ is severe and beautiful in its
+grand simplicity.
+
+Not so the chapels, which are decorated in all manner of styles, and
+ornamented in all degrees of lavishness. The largest is the Muzarab
+chapel beneath the dome which substitutes the missing tower; except the
+dome, this chapel, where the old Gothic Rite (as opposed to the
+Gregorian Rite) is sung every day in the year, is constructed in pure
+Gothic; it contains a beautiful Italian mosaic of the Virgin as well as
+frescoes illustrating Cardinal Cisneros's African wars, when the
+battling prelate thought it was his duty to bear the crucifix and
+Spanish rights into Morocco as his royal masters had carried them into
+Granada.
+
+The remaining chapels, some of them of impressive though generally
+complex structure, will have to be omitted here. So also the sacristy
+with its wonderful picture by the Greco, and the chapter-room with the
+portraits of all the archbishops, the elegant carved door, and the
+well-preserved _Mudejar_ ceiling, etc. And we pass on to the central
+nave, and stand beneath the _croisee_. To the east the high altar, to
+the west the choir, claim the greater part of our attention. For it is
+here that the people centred their gifts.
+
+The objects used on the altar-table are of gold, silver, jasper, and
+agate; the _monstrance_ in the central niche of the altar-piece is also
+of silver, and the garments worn by the effigy are woven in gold, silk,
+and precious stones. The two immense grilles which close off the high
+altar and the eastern end of the choir are of iron, tin, and copper,
+gilded and silvered, having been covered over with black paint in the
+nineteenth century so as to escape the greedy eyes--and hands!--of the
+French soldiery. The workmanship of these two _rejas_ is of the most
+sober Spanish classic or plateresque period, and though the black has
+not as yet been taken off, the silver and gold peep forth here and
+there, and show what a brilliancy must have radiated from these
+elegantly decorated bars and cross-bars in the eighteenth century.
+
+The three tiers of choir stalls, carved in walnut, are among the very
+finest in Spain, both as regards the accomplished craftsmanship and the
+astonishing variety in the composition. The two organs, opposite each
+other and attaining the very height of the nave, are the best in the
+peninsula, whilst the designs of the marble pavement, red and white in
+the high altar, and black and white in the choir, only add to the
+luxurious effect produced by statues, pulpits, and other accessories,
+either brilliantly coloured, or else wrought in polished metal or stone.
+
+The altar-piece itself, slightly concave in shape, is the largest, if
+not the best, of its kind. It is composed of pyramidically superimposed
+niches flanked by gilded columns and occupied by statues of painted and
+gilded wood. The effect from a distance is dazzling,--the reds, blues,
+and gold mingle together and produce a multicoloured mass reaching to
+the height of the nave; on closer examination, the workmanship is seen
+to be both coarse and naive,--primitive as compared to the more finished
+_retablos_ of Burgos, Astorga, etc.
+
+To conclude: The visitor who, standing between the choir and the high
+altar of the cathedral, looks at both, stands, as it were, in the
+presence of an immense riddle. He cannot classify: there is no purity of
+one style, but a medley of hundreds of styles, pure in themselves, it is
+true, but not in the ensemble. Besides, the personality of each has been
+lost or drowned, either by ultra-decoration or by juxtaposition. A
+collective value is thus obtained which cannot be pulled to pieces, for
+then it would lose all its significance as an art unity--a complex art
+unity, in this case peculiar to Spain.
+
+Neither is repose, meditation, or frank admiration to be gleaned from
+such a gigantic _potpourri_ of art wonders, but rather a feeling--as far
+as we Northerners are concerned--of amazement, of stupor, and of an
+utter impossibility to understand such a luxurious display of idolatry
+rather than of faith, of scenic effect rather than of discreet prayer.
+
+But then, it may just be this idolatry and love of scenic effect which
+produces in the Spaniard what we have called _religious awe_. We feel it
+in a long-aisled Gothic temple; the Spaniard feels it when standing
+beneath the _croisee_ of his cathedral churches.
+
+The whole matter is a question of race.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+_Appendices_
+
+
+I
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Archbishoprics and Bishoprics of Northern Spain_
+
+
+II
+
+_Dimensions and Chronology_
+
+ASTORGA
+
+See dedicated to Saviour and San Toribio.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see, 1st century (oldest in peninsula).
+
+First historical bishop, Dominiciano, 347 A. D.
+
+During Arab invasion see was being continually destroyed and rebuilt.
+
+1069, first cathedral (on record) was erected.
+
+1120, second cathedral was erected.
+
+XIIIth century, third cathedral was erected.
+
+1471, fourth (present) cathedral was begun; terminated XVIth century.
+
+XVth and XVIth century ogival; imitation of that of Leon.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Northern front, plateresque retablo.
+
+
+AVILA
+
+Dedicated to San Salvador.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Segundo, in Ist century.
+
+See destroyed during Arab invasion.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Jeronimo in XIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of foundation and erection unknown.
+
+Legendary foundation, 1091; finished in 1105 (?).
+
+Late XIIth century Spanish Gothic fortress church.
+
+Apse XIIth century; transept XIVth century.
+
+Western front XVth century; tower late XIVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Width of transept and of nave, 30 feet.
+
+Width of aisles, 25 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Exterior of apse, nave and transept with rose
+windows, tomb of Bishop Tostada.
+
+
+BURGOS
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Mary and Son.
+
+Bishopric erected, 1075; archbishopric, 1085.
+
+First bishop, Don Simon; first archbishop, Gomez II.
+
+* * *
+
+Present cathedral begun, 1221.
+
+First holy mass celebrated in altar-chapel, 1230.
+
+Building terminated 300 years later (1521).
+
+XIIIth-XIVth century Spanish ogival.
+
+* * *
+
+Length (excluding Chapel of Condestable), 273 feet.
+
+Length of transept, 195 feet; width, 32 feet.
+
+Height of lantern crowning croisee, 162 feet.
+
+Height of western front, 47 feet.
+
+Height of towers, 273 feet; width at base, 19 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 31 feet; of aisles, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, interior decoration, lantern on
+croisee, the Chapel of the Condestable, choir, high altar, etc. (With
+that of Toledo, the richest cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+CALAHORRA
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio and San Celedonio, martyrs.
+
+Bishopric erected Vth century; first bishop, Silvano.
+
+Daring Arab invasion see removed to Oviedo (750).
+
+Removed to Alava in IXth century; in Xth century, to Najera.
+
+In 1030, moved again to Calahorra; first bishop, Don Sancho.
+
+Since XIXth century, one bishop appointed to double see Calahorra-Santo
+Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+This double see to be removed to Logrono.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in XIIth century; terminated in XIVth century.
+
+XIIIth century Gothic (body of church only).
+
+Western front of a much later date.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Choir-stalls.
+
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin and Child.
+
+Origin of bishopric in Calabria under Romans (legendary?).
+
+Foundation of city in 1150; erection of see, 1170.
+
+First bishop, Domingo, 1170.
+
+See nominally suppressed in 1870; in reality the suppression has not
+taken place as yet.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1160.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Tower and western front date from XVIIIth century.
+
+Lady-chapel from XVIth century.
+
+Building suffered considerably from French in 1808.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Romanesque narthex, cloister, choir-stalls,
+Romanesque doors leading into transept.
+
+
+CORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+Date of erection, 338.
+
+First known bishop, Laquinto, in 589.
+
+During Moorish domination the bishopric entirely destroyed.
+
+See reestablished toward beginning XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun in 1120.
+
+Terminated in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Is an unimportant village church rather than a cathedral.
+
+One aisle, 150 feet long, 52 feet wide, 84 feet high.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Paseo, or cloister walk; in lady-chapel, sepulchre of
+XVIth century.
+
+
+CUENCA
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Erected in 1183.
+
+First bishop, Juan Yanez.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIIth century ogival church greatly deteriorated, in a ruinous state.
+
+Tower which stood on western end fell down recently.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 312 feet; width, 140 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cloister door, chapels.
+
+
+LEON
+
+See dedicated to San Froilan and Santa Maria de la Blanca.
+
+Date of erection not known.
+
+First known bishop, Basilides, 252 A.D.
+
+During Arab invasion, see existed on and off.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid in 1199.
+
+The building did not begin until 1250; terminated end of XIVth century.
+
+XIIth century French ogival.
+
+Vaulting above croisee fell down in 1631.
+
+Southern front rebuilt in 1694.
+
+Whole cathedral partly ruined in 1743.
+
+Closed to public by government in 1850.
+
+Reopened in 1901.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 300 feet; width, 130 feet; height of nave, 100 feet.
+
+Height of northern tower, 211 feet; of southern, 221 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 97 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, windows, choir-stalls, cloister.
+
+
+LOGRONO
+
+See dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Santa Maria raised to collegiate church in 1435.
+
+Old building torn down in same year, excepting some few remains.
+
+Present church begun in 1435; not terminated yet.
+
+Enlargements being introduced at the present date.
+
+Belongs to Spanish-Grotesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, trascoro, towers.
+
+
+LUGO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected in Vth century; first bishop, Agrestio, in 433.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral began in 1129; completed in 1177.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Building greatly reformed in XVIth to XVIIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), western portal, exterior of
+apse.
+
+
+MADRID-ALCALA
+
+See erected in 1850.
+
+MADRID
+
+Temporary cathedral dedicated to San Isidro.
+
+Seventeenth century building of no art merit.
+
+New cathedral dedicated to the Virgen de la Almudena.
+
+In course of construction; begun in 1885.
+
+ALCALA
+
+Dedicated to Santos Justo and Pastor; called la Magistral.
+
+In a ruinous state; closed, and see temporarily removed to Jesuit
+temple.
+
+Constructed in XVth century, and raised to suffragan in same century.
+
+Severe and naked (gloomy) Spanish-Gothic.
+
+Interior of building cannot be visited.
+
+
+MONDONEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin.
+
+Bishopric removed here from Ribadeo, late XIIth century.
+
+First (or second) bishop, Don Martin, about 1219.
+
+* * *
+
+Foundation of cathedral dates probably from XIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century Galician Romanesque structure.
+
+Greatly spoilt by posterior additions.
+
+Ambulatory dates from XVth or XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in form; 120 feet long by 71 wide.
+
+Height of nave, 45 feet; of aisles, 28 feet.
+
+
+ORENSE
+
+See dedicated to St. Martin of Tours and St. Mary Mother.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to IVth century (?).
+
+* * *
+
+Erection of present building begun late XIIth century.
+
+Probably terminated late XIIIth century.
+
+XIIIth century, Galician Romanesque with pronounced ogival mixture.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Portico del Paraiso, western portal, decoration of
+the interior.
+
+
+OSMA
+
+See dedicated to San Pedro de Osma.
+
+Legendary (?) erection of see in 91 A. D.
+
+First bishop, San Astorgio.
+
+First historical bishop, Juan I, in 589.
+
+Destruction of see during Arab invasion.
+
+See restored, 1100; first bishop, San Pedro de Osma.
+
+* * *
+
+XIIth century cathedral destroyed in XIIIth century, excepting a few
+chapels.
+
+Erection of new cathedral begun in 1232; terminated, beginning XIVth
+century.
+
+XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic (not pure).
+
+Ambulatory introduced in XVIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Retablo, reliefs of trasaltar.
+
+
+OVIEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Mother and Child.
+
+Bishopric erected, 812; first bishop, Adulfo.
+
+* * *
+
+Until XIIth century cathedral was a basilica; destroyed.
+
+Romanesque edifice erected in XIIth century; destroyed 1380.
+
+Present edifice begun 1380; completed 1550.
+
+XVth century ogival (French?).
+
+Decoration of the interior terminated XVIIth century.
+
+Tower and spire, XVIth century.
+
+Camara Santa dates from XIIth century; a remnant of the early Romanesque
+edifice.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 218 feet; width, 72 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 65 feet; of aisles, 33 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 267 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Fleche, decoration of the interior, rosaces in apse,
+Gothic retablo, cloister, Camara Santa.
+
+
+PALENCIA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child and San Antolin, martyr.
+
+Date of erection unknown; IId or IIId century.
+
+One of the earliest bishops, San Toribio.
+
+During the Arab invasion city and see completely destroyed.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo, in 1035.
+
+* * *
+
+XVth century florid Gothic building.
+
+Erection begun in 1321.
+
+Eastern end finished prior to 1400.
+
+Century later western end begun on larger scale.
+
+Temple completed in 1550.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 405 feet.
+
+Width (at transept), 160 feet.
+
+Height (of nave), 95 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior and exterior), Bishop's Door,
+choir-stalls, trascoro.
+
+
+PLASENCIA
+
+Dedicated to the Holy Virgin.
+
+Erection of see 12 years after foundation city (1190).
+
+First bishop, Domingo; second, Adam; both were warrior prelates.
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral (few remains left) commenced in beginning XIVth century.
+
+Partially destroyed to make room for--
+
+New cathedral, commenced in 1498.
+
+XVIth century Renaissance-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ultra-decorated and ornamented in later centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Choir-stalls, western entrance, decorative motives,
+sepulchres.
+
+
+SALAMANCA
+
+Bishopric existed in Vth century. First known bishop, Eleuterio (589).
+
+VIIIth century, devoid of notices concerning see.
+
+Xth century, 7 bishops mentioned--living in Leon or Oviedo.
+
+XIth century, no news, even name of city forgotten.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Jeronimo of Valencia (1102).
+
+* * *
+
+Old cathedral still standing; city possesses therefore two cathedrals.
+
+OLD CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to St. Mary (Santa Maria de la Sede).
+
+In 1152 already in construction; not finished in 1299.
+
+XIIth or XIIIth century, Castilian Romanesque with ogival mixture.
+
+Nave, 33 feet wide, 190 feet long, 60 feet high.
+
+Aisles, 20 feet wide, 180 feet long, 40 feet high.
+
+Thickness of walls, 10 feet.
+
+Part of cathedral demolished to make room for new in 1513.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Cimborio, central apsidal chapel, and retablo.
+
+
+NEW CATHEDRAL
+
+Dedicated to the Mother and Saviour.
+
+Begun in 1513; not completed until XVIIIth century.
+
+Originally Late Gothic building. Plateresque, Herrera and grotesque
+additions.
+
+Compare churches of Valladolid and Segovia.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; 378 feet long, 181 feet wide.
+
+Height of nave, 130 feet; that of aisles, 88 feet.
+
+Width of nave, 50 feet; of aisles, 37 feet.
+
+Length (and width) of chapels, 28 feet; height, 54 feet.
+
+Height of tower, 320 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western facade, decorative wealth, ensemble.
+
+
+SANTANDER
+
+See dedicated to San Emeterio, martyr, and to the Virgin.
+
+Monastical church of San Emeterio raised to collegiate in XIIIth
+century.
+
+Bishopric erected in 1775.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church built in XIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: Crypt, fount.
+
+
+SANTIAGO
+
+See dedicated to St. James, patron saint of Spain.
+
+Bishopric erected previous to 842; first bishop, Sisnando.
+
+Archbishopric erected XIIth century; first archbishop, Diego Galmirez.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun, 1078; terminated, 1211.
+
+XIIth century Romanesque building.
+
+Exterior suffered grotesque and plateresque repairs, XVIIth century.
+
+Cloister dates from 1530.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 305 feet; width (at transept), 204 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 78 feet; of aisles, 23 feet; of cupola, 107 feet; of
+tower (de la Trinidad), 260 feet; of western towers, 227 feet.
+
+Length of each side of cloister, 114 feet; width, 19 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble (interior), Portico de la Gloria, crypt,
+cloister, southern portal.
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO DE LA CALZADA
+
+See dedicated to Santo Domingo de la Calzada.
+
+Bishopric dates from 1227.
+
+Compare Calahorra.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church begun toward 1150.
+
+Terminated, 1250.
+
+XIIth-XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic structure.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: The retablo, XVth and XVIth sepulchres.
+
+
+SEGOVIA
+
+See dedicated to San Fruto and the Virgin.
+
+First bishop (legendary?), San Hierateo, in Ist century.
+
+See known to have existed in 527.
+
+First historical bishop, Peter (589).
+
+During Arab invasion only one bishop mentioned, Ilderedo, 940.
+
+First bishop after the Reconquest, Don Pedro, in 1115.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present cathedral laid, 1525.
+
+Cathedral consecrated, 1558; finished in 1580.
+
+Cupola erected in 1615.
+
+Gothic-Renaissance building.
+
+Tower struck by lightning and partly ruined, 1620.
+
+Rebuilt (tower) in 1825.
+
+* * *
+
+Total length, 341 feet; width, 156 feet.
+
+Height of dome, 218 feet.
+
+Width of nave and transept, 44 feet; aisles, 33 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Old cloister, apse, tower.
+
+
+SIGUeENZA
+
+See dedicated to Mother and Child.
+
+First known bishop, Protogenes, in VIth century.
+
+During Arab invasion no mention is made of see.
+
+First bishop after Reconquest, Bernardo (1195).
+
+Fourth bishop an Englishman, Jocelyn.
+
+* * *
+
+Date of erection of the cathedral unknown.
+
+Probably XIIth or XIIIth century Romanesque-Gothic edifice.
+
+Ambulatory added in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length of building, 313 feet; width, 112 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 68 feet; of aisles, 63 feet.
+
+Circumference of central pillar, 50 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, sacristy, rose window in southern
+transept arm.
+
+
+SORIA
+
+See to be moved here from Osma.
+
+Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+Raised to suffragan of Osma in XIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+XVIth century, Gothic-plateresque building.
+
+XIIth century, western front; Castilian Romanesque.
+
+XIIth century, Romanesque cloister.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, cloister.
+
+
+TOLEDO
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mother and her Apparition to San Ildefonso.
+
+Bishopric erected prior to 513 A. D.
+
+One of first bishops is San Ildefonso.
+
+During Arab domination see remains vacant.
+
+First archbishop, Don Bernardo (1085).
+
+Primate cathedral of all the Spains since XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+First stone of present building laid in 1227.
+
+Church completed in 1493.
+
+Additions, repairs, etc., dating from XVIth-XVIIIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Length, 404 feet; width, 204 feet; height of tower, 298 feet.
+
+Height of nave, 98 feet.
+
+Height of principal door, 20 feet; width, 7 feet.
+
+Diameter of rose window in western front, 30 feet.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The ensemble, decorative and industrial accessories,
+chapter-room, sacristy, paintings, bell-tower, etc. (The richest
+cathedral in Spain.)
+
+
+TORO
+
+Collegiate Church dedicated to St. Mary.
+
+* * *
+
+Existence of bishopric cannot be proven, though believed to have been
+erected during first decade of Reconquest in Xth century.
+
+Is definitely made a suffragan of Zamora in XVIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral--or collegiate--erected end of XIIth or beginning of XIIIth
+century.
+
+Castilian Romanesque building.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Military aspect of building, height of walls, massive
+cimborio.
+
+
+TUY
+
+See dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
+
+Bishopric erected in VIth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral erected in first half XIIth century.
+
+Suffered greatly from earthquakes, especially in 1755.
+
+XIIth century Galician Romanesque in spoilt conditions.
+
+Western porch or narthex dates from XVth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: Western front, northern portal, cloister.
+
+
+VALLADOLID
+
+Santa Maria la Antigua raised to suffragan of Palencia, 1074.
+
+Church built in XIIth century, Castilian Romanesque.
+
+Ruins still to be seen to rear of--
+
+Santa Maria la Mayor. Seat of archbishopric since 1850.
+
+Bishopric established, 1595; first bishop, Don Bartolome.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral begun in 1585 by Juan de Herrera.
+
+Continued XVIIth century by Churriguera.
+
+Escorial style spoilt by grotesque decoration.
+
+Tower falls down in 1841; new one being erected.
+
+* * *
+
+Rectangular in shape; length, 411 feet; width, 204 feet.
+
+Transept half-way between apse and western front.
+
+Croisee surmounted by cupola.
+
+Only one of four towers was constructed.
+
+
+VITORIA
+
+See dedicated to Santa Maria.
+
+St. Mary erected to collegiate, XVth century.
+
+Bishopric erected in XIXth century.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral church erected in XIVth century.
+
+XIVth century Late Gothic structure of no art interest.
+
+Tower of XVIth and XVIIth centuries.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attraction: In sacristy a canvas called Piety.
+
+
+ZAMORA
+
+See dedicated to San Atilano and the Holy Mother.
+
+Bishopric established 905; first bishop, San Atilano.
+
+Destroyed by Moors in 998; vacancy not filled until 1124.
+
+First bishop _de modernis_, Bernardo.
+
+* * *
+
+Cathedral commenced 1151; vaulting terminated 1174.
+
+XIIth century Castilian Romanesque.
+
+* * *
+
+Chief attractions: The cimborio, southern entrance.
+
+
+III
+
+_A List of the Provinces of Spain and of the Middle Age States or
+Kingdoms from which they have evolved._
+
+   _Principal Kingdoms_ _Conquered States_ _Present-day Provinces_
+
+    Castile              Galicia            La Coruna*
+                                            Lugo*
+                                            Orense*
+                                            Pontevedra*
+                         Asturias*          Oviedo*
+                         Leon               Leon*
+                                            Palencia*
+                                            Zamora*
+                         Basque Provinces   Guipuzcua*
+                                            Vizcaya*
+                                            Alava*
+                         Rioja              Logrono*
+                         Old Castile        Santander*
+                                            Burgos*
+                                            Soria*
+                                            Valladolid*
+                                            Avila*
+                                            Segovia*
+                                            Salamanca*
+                         New Castile        Madrid*
+                                            Guadalajara*
+                                            Toledo*
+                                            Cuenca*
+                                            Ciudad Real*
+                         Extremadura        Caceres*
+                                            Badajoz
+                         Andalusia          Sevilla
+                                            Huelva
+                                            Cadiz
+                                            Cordoba
+                                            Jaen
+                         Granada            Granada
+                                            Malaga
+                                            Almeria
+                         Murcia             Murcia
+                                            Albacete
+    Aragon               Aragon             Zaragoza
+                                            Huesca
+                                            Teruel
+                         Cataluna           Barcelona
+                                            Gerona
+                                            Lerida
+                                            Tarragona
+                         Valencia           Valencia
+                                            Alicante
+                                            Castellon
+                         Navarra            Navarra (Pamplona)
+
+     NOTES
+
+     The star (*) indicates the provinces treated of in this volume; the
+     remainder will be treated of in Volume II.
+
+     Two provinces have not been mentioned: that of the Balearic Isles
+     (belonged to the old kingdom of Aragon), and that of the Canary
+     Isles (belonged to the old kingdom of Castile).
+
+     Dates have not been indicated. For so complicated was the evolution
+     of the different states (regions) throughout the Middle Ages, that
+     a series of tables would be necessary, as well as a series of
+     geographical maps.
+
+     The above list, however, shows Spain (minus Portugal) at the death
+     of Fernando (the husband of Isabel) in 1516, as well as the
+     component parts of Castile and Aragon. The division of Spain into
+     provinces dates from 1833.
+
+     A bishopric does not necessarily coincide with a province. Thus,
+     the Province of Lugo has two sees (Lugo and Mondonedo); on the
+     other hand, three Basque Provinces have but one see (Vitoria).
+
+     Excepting in the case of Navarra, whose capital is Pamplona, the
+     different provinces of Spain bear the name of the capital. Thus the
+     capital of the Province of Madrid is Madrid, and Jaen is the
+     capital of the province of the same name.
+
+
+
+
+_Bibliography_
+
+
+Espana, sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza e Historia:
+
+  Burgos, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Santander, by R. Amador de los Rios.
+
+  Navarra y Logrono, Vol. III., by P. de Madrazo.
+
+  Soria, by N. Rabal.
+
+  Galicia, by M. Murguia.
+
+  Alava, etc., by A. Pirala.
+
+  Extremadura, by N. Diaz y Perez.
+
+Recuerdos y Bellezas de Espana:
+
+  Castilla La Nueva, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Asturias y Leon, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Valladolid, etc., by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+  Salamanca, by J. M. Quadrado.
+
+Espagne et Portugal, by Baedeker.
+
+Historia del Pueblo Espanol (Spanish translation), by Major M. Hume.
+
+Historia de Espana, by R. Altamira.
+
+Toledo en la Mano, by S. Parro.
+
+Estudios Historico-Artisticos relativos a Valladolid, by Marti y Monso.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Acuna, Don, 297, 298.
+
+Adan, Maria, 271;
+  Don, Bishop of Plasencia, 287, 376.
+
+Adulfo, Bishop of Oviedo, 138, 375.
+
+African Wars, 364.
+
+Agrestio, Bishop of Lugo, 373.
+
+Agricolanus, 151.
+
+Agueda River, 269.
+
+Alagon River, 278, 280.
+
+Alarcos, Battle of, 284, 314.
+
+Alava, 198, 371.
+
+Alcala (_See_ Alcala de Henares).
+
+Alcala de Fenares (_See_ Alcala de Henares).
+
+Alcala de Henares, 61, 64, 212, 223, 321, 322, 326-334, 349;
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches); University of, 328.
+
+Alcala de San Justo (_See_ Alcala de Henares).
+
+Alcantara, Bridge of, 350.
+
+Alcazar (Cuenca), 343,   (Segovia) 314, 320, 355, (Toledo) 336, 350, 356.
+
+Aleman, 275, 289.
+
+Alfonso, 307.
+
+Alfonso I., 221, 230.
+
+Alfonso II., 343.
+
+Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Alfonso IV., 153.
+
+Alfonso V., 139, 294.
+
+Alfonso VI., 198, 206, 233, 237, 253, 293, 335, 358, 359.
+
+Alfonso VII., 153, 154, 161, 162, 336.
+
+Alfonso VIII., 188, 192, 193, 210, 223, 258, 280, 284, 286, 338, 343.
+
+Alfonso IX., 258.
+
+Alfonso XI., 179, 245.
+
+Alfonso the Chaste, 102, 104, 137, 138, 139, 141.
+
+Alfonsos, Dynasty of, 103, 200.
+
+Alfonso el Batallador, 305.
+
+Al-Kala (_See_ Alcala de Henares).
+
+Alhambra, The, 22, 41, 355.
+
+Alhaxa, Martin, 343.
+
+Al-Karica (_See_ Coria).
+
+Almanzor, 79, 150, 152, 171, 176, 177, 230, 232.
+
+Alps, The, 58.
+
+Altamira, Rafael, 14.
+
+Alvarez, Diego, 286.
+
+America, 29, 32, 90, 295, 296, 360.
+
+Anaya, Diego de, Tomb of, 263.
+
+Andalusia, 16, 22, 66, 67, 76, 81, 161, 191, 303, 314, 337, 354.
+
+Ansurez, Pedro, 293;
+  Family of, 294.
+
+Aquitania, 167.
+
+Arabs and Arab Invasions, 23, 38, 71, 79, 80, 111, 112, 114, 123, 124,
+147, 148, 152, 170, 177, 221, 225, 253, 254, 280, 296, 313, 323, 327,
+354, 370, 371, 372, 375, 378, 379.
+
+Aragon, 23, 25, 58, 66, 67, 68, 71, 203, 210, 303, 305, 331, 335, 336,
+342, 343.
+
+Arco de Santa Marta (Burgos), 180.
+
+Armada, The, 31, 90, 132, 189, 349.
+
+Arriago, 193.
+
+Arrianism, 153.
+
+Astorga, 70, 71, 120, 167-173, 174, 176, 197, 219, 220, 246, 369;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Asturias, 57, 66, 70, 79, 103, 104, 123, 138, 139, 146, 147, 148, 150,
+153, 162, 167, 175, 176, 177, 213.
+
+Asturica Augusta (_See_ Astorga).
+
+Augustabriga, 269.
+
+Auria (_See_ Orense).
+
+Austurio, Archbishop of Toledo, 331.
+
+Avila, 70, 71, 253, 302-311, 312, 313, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishop);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+Baeza, 161.
+
+Baedeker, 115.
+
+Barcelona, 66.
+
+Barrientos, Inez de, 344.
+
+Bartolome, Bishop of Valladolid, 381.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Astorga, 168.
+
+Basilides, Bishop of Leon, 151, 372.
+
+Basque Provinces, 33, 192.
+
+Bay of Biscay, 189.
+
+Bayona, 131, 132;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Bayonne in Gascogne, 272.
+
+Becerra, 172.
+
+Berengario, 254.
+
+Bermudo II., 162.
+
+Bermudo III., 171, 176.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Palencia, 222, 375.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Sigueenza, 336, 337, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Archbishop of Toledo, 213, 358, 359, 379.
+
+Bernardo, Bishop of Zamora, 232.
+
+Berruguete, 50, 295.
+
+Betica (_See_ Andalusia).
+
+Bishops and Archbishops (Basilides), 168;
+  Astorga (Dominiciano), 167, 369;
+  Avila (Jeronimo), 370, (Pedro) 308, (San Segundo) 370, (Tostada) 370;
+  Burgos (Don Simon), 370, (Gomez II.) 370;
+  Calahorra (Don Sancho), 198, 371, (Silvano) 371;
+  Cuidad Rodrigo (Domingo), 270, 371, (Pedro Diaz) 270;
+  Coria (Laquinto), 279, 372;
+  Cuenca (Juan Yanez), 343, 372;
+  Iria (Theodosio), 76, 77, 78;
+  Leon (Basilides), 151, 272;
+  Lugo (Agrestio), 373, (Odoario) 104;
+  Mondonedo (Martin), 97, 374;
+  Osma, 211, (Juan I.) 214, 375, (Pedro) 224, 375, (San Astorgio) 375;
+  Orense (Diego), 116;
+  Oviedo (Adulfo), 138, (Gutierre) 139;
+  Palencia (Bernardo), 222, 375, (San Toribio) 375;
+  Plasencia (Adan), 287, 376, (Domingo) 286, 376;
+  Salamanca (Eleuterio), 253, 376, (Jeronimo) 254, 305, 376;
+  Santiago, 254, 337, (Diego Galmirez) 80, 116, 377, (Sisnando), 377;
+  Segovia (Don Pedro), 312, 314, 378, (Ilderedo) 313, 378, (San Hierateo),
+    312, 378;
+  Sigueenza (Austurio), 331, (Bernardo) 336, 337, 379, (Jocelyn) 338, 379,
+    (Protogenes) 335, 379;
+  Toledo, 307, 331, 337, (Bernardo) 213, 358, 359, 379, (Carillo) 331, 334,
+    (Ildefonso) 358, 379, (Tavera) 274; Tuy, 132;
+  Valladolid (Bartolome), 381, (Bernardo) 232;
+  Zamora (San Atilano), 231, 381.
+
+"Bishop's Door" (Palencia Cathedral), 228, 376.
+
+Blanca de Bourbon, 294, 336.
+
+Boabdil el Chico, 22.
+
+Bologna, 251.
+
+Bourbon, Blanca de, 294, 336.
+
+Bourbon Dynasty, 30.
+
+Braga, 112, 120, 167.
+
+Brigandtia (_See_ Corunna).
+
+Brunetiere, 75.
+
+Burgos, 39, 43, 67, 69, 70, 71, 154, 174-180, 186, 189, 196, 223, 237, 251,
+   253, 296, 303, 349, 370;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Burgo de Osma, 214.
+
+
+Cadiz 335.
+
+Calabria, 269, 270, 371.
+
+Calahorra, 188, 197, 198, 199, 204, 206, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Calle de Puente, 190.
+
+Camara Sagrada, 69.
+
+Camara Santa (Oviedo), 144, 375.
+
+Cangas, 137, 138, 147.
+
+Cantabric Mountains, 190.
+
+Cantabric Sea, 189.
+
+Carillo, Archbishop of Toledo, 331, 334;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Carlist Wars, 33.
+
+Carranza, 203.
+
+Carrarick, King of the Suevos, 114.
+
+Castellum Tude (_See_ Tuy).
+
+Castile, 16, 23, 25, 59, 66-77, 81, 103, 154, 174-177, 189, 192, 198,
+200, 201, 206, 221, 233, 245, 280, 294, 296, 302, 305, 336, 343.
+
+Castile, Counts of, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Cathedrals, Astorga, 167-173, 367, 369;
+  Avila, 302-311, 370;
+  Burgos, 62, 141, 156, 161, 174-187, 202, 227-241, 267, 367-370;
+  Calahorra, 206-208, 373, 378;
+  Canterbury (St. Thomas), 338;
+  Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Coria, 261, 278, 283, 372;
+  Huesca, 203, 331;
+  Leon, 62, 141, 150-166, 171, 372;
+  Lugo, 99, 102-109, 113, 115, 117, 340, 373;
+  Madrid, San Isidro and Virgen de la Almudena, 321, 326, 373;
+  Mondonedo, 95-101, 374;
+  Najera, 201-202;
+  Orense, Santa Maria la Madre, 110-119, 126, 374;
+  Osma, 212-216, 374, 375;
+  Nuestra Senora de la Blanca (_See_ Leon);
+  Oviedo, 137-144, 156, 172, 182, 375;
+  Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Leon);
+  Palencia, 219-229, 239, 375;
+  Plasencia, 275, 284-289, 376;
+  Rome (St. Peter's), 300;
+  Salamanca, Old and New Cathedrals, 251-268, 275, 299, 317, 346, 376, 377;
+  Santiago, Santiago de Campostela, 75-88, 92, 99, 100, 106, 107, 113, 116,
+    118, 127, 240, 241, 377;
+  Santander, 188-191, 377;
+  Segovia, 312-320, 377, 378;
+  Sevilla, 187;
+  Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Sigueenza, 335-341, 346, 379;
+  Tours, St. Martin, 374;
+  Tuy, Santa Maria la Madre, 113, 120-130, 249, 380;
+  Valladolid, 293-301, 377, 380;
+  Vitoria, 192-195, 381;
+  Zamora, 230-243, 247, 248, 249, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 275, 346, 381;
+  Toledo, 16, 64, 143, 159, 161, 184, 317, 319, 332, 349-368, 371, 379;
+  Toulouse, St. Saturnin, 82;
+  Toro, Santa Maria la Mayor, 244-250, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 273,
+    275, 346, 380.
+
+Celedonio, 188, 197, 206.
+
+Celts, The, 84, 102.
+
+Cervantes, 295, 326, 352.
+
+Charles-Quinte, 223, 283, 314, 353.
+
+Choir Stalls, 48, 49.
+
+Churches: Alcala de Henares, La Magistral, 328, 332, 374;
+  San Justo, 328, 332;
+  Burgos, Chapel of the Condestable, 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Bayona and Vigo, 131-133;
+  Corunna (Colegiata), 91, 93, Church of Santiago, 93, 94,
+    Santa Maria del Campo, 92;
+  Cordoba, The Mosque, 41, 68;
+  Cuenca, 342-348, 372;
+  Leon, San Isidoro, 153, 163, 191, Chapel of St. James, 159,
+    Santa Maria la Blanca, 372, Santa Maria la Redonda, San Froilan, 372;
+  Logrono, 204, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 204;
+  Madrid, San Antonio de la Florida, 324, San Francisco el Grande, 324,
+    San Isidro, 321, 325, 373;
+  Oviedo, Salvador, 139;
+  Palencia, San Antolin, 375;
+  Rioja, Santa Maria la Redonda, 204-206, San Juan de Banos, 165;
+  Santander, San Emeterio, 189, 377;
+  Saragosse, Church of the Pillar, 205, 206, 299,
+    Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 202-204, 378;
+  Soria, 209-212, 379;
+  Segovia, Santa Clara, 316;
+  Toledo, San Juan de las Reyes, 355, Santa Maria la Blanca, 354,
+    San Tomas, 355, Puerta de Sol, 355;
+  Valladolid, Santa Maria la Mayor, 293, 300, 381,
+    Santa Maria la Antiqua, 380, Venta de Banos, 57;
+  Zamora, La Magdalen, 243.
+
+Churriguera, 63, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Cid, The Great, 234, 254.
+
+Cid Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar), 179.
+
+Cisneros, Cardinal, 326, 328, 331, 334, 361, 364;
+  Tomb of, 333, 334.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 269-277, 371;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Clement IV., 210.
+
+Cluny Monks, The, 24, 30, 60, 359.
+
+Coa River, 269.
+
+Columbus, Christopher, 28, 31, 32, 295, 360.
+
+Complutum (Alcala), 327, 330.
+
+Complutenses, 327-329.
+
+Comuneros, The, 314.
+
+Conca (_See_ Cuenca).
+
+Conde, Manuel, 154.
+
+Condestable, Chapel of the (Burgos), 39, 185, 370, 371;
+  Tomb of (Burgos), 186.
+
+Constanza, Dona, 358.
+
+Convent of Guadalupe, 283.
+
+Convent of the Mercedes (Valladolid), 297.
+
+Convent of San Juan de Dios, 334.
+
+Cordoba, 147, 152, 191, 279, 286;
+  Mosque of, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Coria, 68, 71, 269, 278-283, 284, 372;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Roman Wall of, 279.
+
+Coronada, 271.
+
+Cortez, 246, 272.
+
+Corunna, 89, 90, 91, 113;
+
+Churches of, 89-94.
+
+Council of Toledo, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Counts of Castile, 153, 162, 163, 174, 175, 180.
+
+Covadonga, 145, 146, 149;
+  Battle of, 145.
+
+Cristeta, 303.
+
+"Cristo de las Batallas" (Salamanca), 254.
+
+Cuenca, 68, 70, 71, 342-348, 372;
+  Alcazar, 343; Battle of, 338;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Cunninghame-Graham, Mr., 21.
+
+Curia Vetona, or Caurium (_See_ Coria).
+
+
+Del Obispo (Portal in Toro Cathedral), 273.
+
+Del Salto, Maria, Tomb of, 320.
+
+Diana, Temple to, 102, 103.
+
+Diaz, Pedro, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270.
+
+Dolfo, Vellido, 234, 235.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, 270, 371.
+
+Domingo, Bishop of Plasencia, 286, 376.
+
+Dominguez, Juan, Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Dominiciano, Bishop of Astorga, 167, 369.
+
+Drake, Sir Francis, 132.
+
+Duero River, 209, 213, 237, 244, 279.
+
+Duke of Lancaster, 112.
+
+Duerer, 361.
+
+
+Eleanor (Daughter of Henry II.), 338.
+
+Early Christian Art, 54.
+
+Eastern Castile, 70.
+
+Ebro River, 193, 196, 198, 199, 200.
+
+Eleuterio, Bishop of Salamanca, 253, 376.
+
+Elvira, 233, 245.
+
+England, 29, 31, 78, 90, 189, 295.
+
+Engracia (of Aragon), 312.
+
+Enrique II., King of Castile, 204, 320.
+
+Enrique IV., 245.
+
+Enriquez, Don, 256.
+
+Escorial (Madrid), 31, 62, 165, 265, 295, 299, 322, 349.
+
+Extremadura, 16, 69, 278, 303.
+
+
+Favila, Duke, 122, 146.
+
+Felipe el Hermoso (Philip the Handsome), 295.
+
+Ferdinand, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Fernan, Knight, 298.
+
+Fernando I., 161, 176-178, 222, 232, 245, 304.
+
+Fernando II., 269.
+
+Fernando Alfonso, 203.
+
+Fernando el Santo, 359.
+
+Florinda, 354.
+
+Flanders, 355.
+
+Foment, 50, 203, 204.
+
+Fonseca, Bishop, 229;
+  Family, 249.
+
+France, 24, 53, 57, 58, 78, 168, 224, 355.
+
+Froila (or Froela), 137, 141, 230.
+
+Froissart, 112.
+
+
+Galicia, 23, 40, 60, 66, 68, 75, 76, 79, 80, 88, 90, 96, 97, 98, 100,
+102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122,
+123, 125, 128, 130, 131, 132, 137, 138, 169, 177, 199, 233, 238.
+
+Galician Romanesque Art, 59.
+
+Galmirez, Diego, Archbishop of Santiago, 80, 377.
+
+Garcia, Count of Castile, 162, 163, 176, 233.
+
+Garcia, Don, King of Navarra, 198, 201.
+
+Garcia, Son of Alfonso III., 245.
+
+Gasteiz (_See_ Vitoria).
+
+Gautier, Theophile, 351.
+
+Germany, 78, 355.
+
+Gibraltar, 22;
+  Straits of, 21, 28.
+
+Gijon, 147.
+
+Giron, Don Gutierre, 314.
+
+Gold and Silversmiths, 50-51.
+
+Gomez II., Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Gonzalez, Fernan, 175, 176, 177, 179.
+
+Gonzalo, Arias, 233.
+
+Goeschenen in Switzerland, 342.
+
+Goya, 325, 357.
+
+Granada, 22, 67, 287, 355, 356, 365.
+
+Greco, 357, 365.
+
+Gredo Mountains, 278.
+
+Greeks, The, 89, 132.
+
+Guadalajara, 335.
+
+Guadalete, Battle of, 147.
+
+Guadalquivir, 189.
+
+Guaderrama Mountains, 253, 278.
+
+Guardia, 121.
+
+Gudroed, 123.
+
+Gutierre, Bishop of Oviedo, 139.
+
+
+Hannibal, 252.
+
+Harbour of Victory, 188.
+
+Henry IV., 258, 294, 307.
+
+Hermesinda, 147.
+
+Herrero, 62, 205, 265, 295, 299, 300, 301, 381.
+
+Huesca, Cathedral of, 203, 331.
+
+Hume, Martin, 14.
+
+
+Ierte River, 286.
+
+Ilderedo, Bishop of Segovia, 313, 378.
+
+Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 379.
+
+Inquisition, The, 26, 27, 344.
+
+Ireland, 89.
+
+Iria, 76, 77.
+
+Ironcraft, 51, 52.
+
+Irun, 192.
+
+Isabella, 25, 32, 255.
+
+Isabel the Catholic, 193, 222, 245, 246, 294, 295, 315.
+
+Italy, 24, 37, 57, 58, 62, 78, 224, 355.
+
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Avila, 370.
+
+Jeronimo, Bishop of Salamanca, 254, 305, 376.
+
+Jesuit School (Madrid), 326.
+
+Jocelyn, Bishop of Sigueenza, 338, 379.
+
+John I., 213.
+
+Juan I., Bishop of Osma, 214, 375.
+
+Juana, 294.
+
+Juana la Beltranaja, 245.
+
+Juana la Loca, 295.
+
+Julian, Count, 354.
+
+Juni, Juan de, 50, 214.
+
+Jura, The, 97, 196.
+
+
+La Magistral, Church of (Alcala de Henares), 328, 332, 374.
+
+La Mancha, 16, 342.
+
+Lancaster, Duke of, 112.
+
+Laquinto, Bishop of Coria, 279, 372.
+
+Las Navas de Tolosa, 280.
+
+Leon, 23, 25, 43, 66, 69, 70, 79, 80, 103, 139, 150-166, 167, 171, 174,
+175, 176, 177, 197, 233, 253, 254, 304, 305, 355, 372, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  King of, 161.
+
+Leon X., 328.
+
+Leonese, The, 254.
+
+Leonor, Dona, 179, 297, 298.
+
+"Leyes de Toro," 246.
+
+Libelatism, 167, 168.
+
+Lisbon, 126, 272.
+
+Locus Augusti (_See_ Lugo).
+
+Logrono, 71, 197, 199, 200, 204, 371, 373;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Loja, 287.
+
+Lucio III., 343.
+
+Lugo, 90, 91, 93, 95, 102-109, 110, 112, 120, 137, 154, 373;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Lupa, 75, 76, 102, 103.
+
+Luz, Dona, 122, 146.
+
+
+Madrazo, 206.
+
+Madrid, 66, 68, 71, 178, 212, 253, 293, 295, 296, 313, 314, 321-326,
+328, 329, 349, 373;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Churches of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Maestro Mateo, 87.
+
+Maestro Raimundo, 106, 126.
+
+Magerit, 322, 323.
+
+Munuza, 147, 148.
+
+Manzanares River, 323, 324.
+
+Marcelo, 151.
+
+Martin, Bishop of Mondonedo, 97, 374.
+
+Martel, Charles, 22.
+
+Medinat-el-Walid, 296.
+
+Mendoza, 361.
+
+Mindunietum, 96.
+
+Mino River, 70, 102, 110, 111, 112, 120, 121, 124, 125.
+
+Miranda, 196.
+
+Mirobriga, 269.
+
+Molina, Maria de, 294.
+
+Mondonedo, 93, 95-101, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Monroy Family, 256, 286.
+
+Monforte, 110.
+
+Moore, General, 90.
+
+Moorish Art, 55, 56.
+
+Moors, The, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 55, 56, 59, 71, 76, 79, 104,
+137, 153, 154, 161, 171, 175, 198, 207, 210, 230, 232, 251, 254, 279,
+281, 285, 287, 304, 305, 308, 313, 323, 331, 343, 352, 354, 357, 358,
+359, 381.
+
+Morales, Divino, 326.
+
+Morgarten, 145.
+
+Morocco, 364.
+
+Mosque of Cordoba, 41, 68, 355.
+
+Mount of Joys, 81.
+
+Mudejar Art, 63-65.
+
+Muguira, 81.
+
+Murillo, 195.
+
+
+Najera, 197, 198, 201, 202, 371;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Nalvillos, 306, 307.
+
+Napoleon, 90, 164.
+
+Navarra, 23, 33, 58, 66, 68, 70, 80, 174, 176, 192, 196, 198, 201, 202, 210.
+
+Navas de Tolosa, Battle of, 286.
+
+Neustra Senora de la Blanca (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+New World, The (_See_ America).
+
+Norman Vikings, 79, 96, 112, 123, 124.
+
+North, The, 69.
+
+Numantia, 197, 209, 219, 230.
+
+
+Odoario, Bishop of Lugo, 104.
+
+Ogival Art, 61.
+
+Olaf, 123.
+
+Old Castile, Plain of, 69.
+
+Ordonez, Diego, 235, 236.
+
+Ordono I., 152, 153, 154.
+
+Ordono II., 153, 159.
+
+Orduno III., 175.
+
+Orense, 70, 71, 110-119, 120, 168, 170, 220, 374;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Portico del Paraiso, 116, 374.
+
+Osma, 209, 210, 212-216, 374-379;
+  Bishops of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Oviedo, 23, 43, 69, 70, 80, 102, 103, 137-144, 145, 150, 154, 198, 371, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Oxford, 251.
+
+
+Padilla, Maria de, 294, 336.
+
+Palencia, 71, 168, 219-229, 258, 293, 375;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  "Bishop's Door," 228, 376;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 223-224, 258.
+
+Pallantia, 220, 221.
+
+Palos Harbour, 32.
+
+Pamplona, 174.
+
+Paris, 251;
+  Treaty of, 32.
+
+Pedro, Prince Don, 320.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Avila, 308.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Osma, 224, 375.
+
+Pedro, Bishop of Segovia, 378.
+
+Pelayo, 146, 147, 148, 149.
+
+Pelea Gonzalo, Battle of, 245.
+
+Pena Grajera, 320.
+
+Perez, Dona Maria, 256, 257, 258.
+
+Perez, Hernan, 286.
+
+Peter, Bishop of Segovia, 312, 314, 378.
+
+Peter the Cruel, 179, 204, 245, 294, 336.
+
+Philip II., 31, 62, 189, 295, 322, 349.
+
+Philip III., 285, 308.
+
+Philip IV., 294.
+
+Philip the Handsome, 295.
+
+Phoenicians, The, 89, 132.
+
+Picos de Europa, 145.
+
+Pico de Urbion, 209.
+
+"Piedad" (Pity), 195.
+
+Pillar at Saragosse, 299.
+
+Pisuerga, 293, 296.
+
+Plasencia, 71, 257, 261, 271, 283, 284-289, 308, 376;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Plaza, Bartolome de la (Bishop of Valladolid), 295.
+
+Plaza de Cervantes (Alcala), 330.
+
+Plaza de la Constitucion (Alcala), 330.
+
+Plaza Mayor (Alcala), 330.
+
+Plutarch, 252.
+
+Poitiers, 22.
+
+Polyglot Bible, The, 328.
+
+Portico de la Gloria (Santiago), 85-88, 92, 378.
+
+Portico del Paraiso (Orense), 116, 374.
+
+Portugal, 120, 122, 125, 231, 256, 278;
+  King of, 297, 298.
+
+Portuguese, The, 112, 123, 124, 244, 246.
+
+Priscilianism, 167, 168, 169, 170, 220.
+
+Prisciliano, 169.
+
+Protogenes, Bishop of Sigueenza, 335, 379.
+
+Puerta de la Plateria (Santiago), 83, 107, 183.
+
+Puerta de la Sol (Toledo), 355.
+
+Puerta de los Leones (Toledo), 363.
+
+Pulchra Leonina (_See_ Cathedral of Leon).
+
+Pyrenees, 53, 58, 59, 168.
+
+
+Quadrado, Senor, 308.
+
+Quixote, Don, 330.
+
+
+Rachel of Toledo, 285.
+
+Ramiro, 153.
+
+Recaredo, 152, 354.
+
+Reconquest, The, 269, 370, 375, 379, 380.
+
+Redondela, 131.
+
+Reformation, The, 26.
+
+Renaissance, 54, 62;
+  Italian, 63.
+
+Retablo, 49-50.
+
+Rhine, The, 120.
+
+Ribadeo, 96, 374.
+
+Ribera, 357.
+
+Rioja, The Upper, 70, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 206.
+
+Rodrigo, 146.
+
+Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar (Cid Campeador), 179.
+
+Rodrigo, King of Visigoths, 21, 354.
+
+Romanesque Art, 57-58, 59.
+
+Romans, The, 18, 19, 24, 75, 89, 96, 102, 112, 113, 120, 121, 132, 150,
+174, 188, 252, 293, 303, 326, 335, 353, 371.
+
+Rome, 29, 220, 353.
+
+Rubens, 357, 361.
+
+Ruy Diaz Gaona, 200.
+
+
+Sabina, 303.
+
+Salamanca, 71, 178, 223, 251, 268, 269, 296, 302, 305, 313, 376;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  University of, 258, 259.
+
+San Antolin, 221, 224, 225, 375.
+
+San Antonio de la Florida, 324.
+
+San Astorgio, Bishop of Osma, 375.
+
+San Atilano, Bishop of Zamora, 231, 381.
+
+San Bartolome (Salamanca), Chapel of, 263.
+
+San Celedonio, 371.
+
+Sancha, 162, 163, 176.
+
+Sancho, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Sancho, Count of Castile, 162, 233, 234, 293.
+
+Sancho, Don, of Navarra, 192.
+
+Sancho el Mayor, King of Navarra, 221, 222.
+
+Sancti Emetrii, 188.
+
+San Emeterio, 188, 197, 206, 371, 377.
+
+San Emeterio, Church of (Santander), 189.
+
+San Fernando, 25, 177-178.
+
+San Francisco, Convent of, 113.
+
+San Francisco el Grande (Madrid), 324.
+
+San Froilan, 158, 372.
+
+San Fruto, 312, 378.
+
+San Hierateo, 312, 378.
+
+San Ildefonso, Bishop of Toledo, 358, 379.
+
+San Isidro (of Madrid), 324.
+
+San Isidro, Church of (Madrid), 321, 325.
+
+San Isidoro, Church of (Leon), 153, 162, 163, 164, 191, 324.
+
+San Isidoro, 161, 162, 164.
+
+San Juan de Banos, 165.
+
+San Juan de Dios, Convent of, 334.
+
+San Juan de los Reyes (Toledo), 355.
+
+San Julian, 345.
+
+San Justo, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Justo, Church of (Alcala de Henares), 328.
+
+San Pastor, 330, 331, 333, 374.
+
+San Salvador, 370.
+
+San Segundo, 303.
+
+Santa Clara (Segovia), 316.
+
+Santa Maria de la Blanca (Leon), 372.
+
+Santa Maria la Blanca (Toledo), 354.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Orense), 114.
+
+Santa Maria la Madre (Tuy), 120-130.
+
+Santa Maria la Redonda, 204.
+
+Santander, 69, 188-191, 197, 277;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Santiago, 75-88, 91, 92, 97, 102, 103, 104, 116, 131, 167, 176, 199, 377;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+San Tomas (Toledo), 355.
+
+Santo Domingo, 203.
+
+Santo Domingo de la Calzada, 197, 199, 200, 202-204, 371. 378;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+San Toribio (Astorga), 369;
+  (Palencia), 375.
+
+San Vicente, 152, 303.
+
+Saracens, The, 213, 312.
+
+Saragosse, 67, 167, 196, 197, 203;
+  Church (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Sardinero, 190.
+
+Scipio, 209.
+
+Segovia, 71, 253, 303, 312, 313, 325, 349, 378;
+  Bishop (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Seguncia (or Segoncia), _See_ Sigueenza.
+
+Sempach, 145.
+
+Sevilla, 67, 91, 161, 189, 317;
+  Cathedral of, 187.
+
+Sierra de Guaderrama, 66, 68, 174, 305.
+
+Sierra de Gredos, 66, 302, 349.
+
+Sierra de Gata, 66, 69, 278.
+
+Sigueenza, 70, 71, 335-341, 343, 379;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Silvano, Bishop of Calahorra, 198, 371.
+
+Simon, Bishop of Burgos, 370.
+
+Sinfosio, 170.
+
+Sisnando, Bishop of Santiago, 377.
+
+Sohail, 21-22.
+
+Soria, 71, 209-212, 213, 379;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+State Archives Building (Alcala), 327.
+
+Street, 87, 107.
+
+St. Astorgio, 213.
+
+St. Francis of Assisi, 271.
+
+St. James, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 88, 138, 213, 323, 353;
+  Chapel of (Leon), 159.
+
+St. Martin, 111, 114.
+
+St. Martin of Tours (Cathedral), 374.
+
+St. Paul, 312.
+
+St. Peter, 213, 352.
+
+St. Peter's at Rome, 300.
+
+St. Thomas of Canterbury, Chapel of, 338.
+
+St. Saturnin (Toulouse), 82.
+
+Suevos, 111, 122;
+  King of, 114, 170.
+
+
+Tago River, 278, 280, 349, 352, 353, 354, 356, 359.
+
+Talavera, 361.
+
+Tarik, 22.
+
+Tarragon, 67, 167, 197, 219, 335.
+
+Tavera, Bishop of Toledo, 274.
+
+Theodomio, 198.
+
+Theodosio, Bishop of Iria, 76, 77, 78.
+
+Theotocopuli, Domenico, 357.
+
+Titian, 361.
+
+Tolaitola (_See_ Toledo).
+
+Toledo, 67, 68, 70, 71, 91, 123, 146, 150, 167, 171, 178, 237, 251, 278,
+280, 285, 286, 304, 307, 322, 327, 328, 329, 335, 342, 349-368, 379;
+  Alcazar, 336, 350, 356;
+  Archbishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral (_See_ under Cathedrals);
+  Council of, 213, 253, 279, 312, 335.
+
+Tomb, Bishop Tostado, 311, 370;
+  Carillo (Alcala), 333, 334;
+  Cisneros (Alcala), 333, 334;
+  Condestable, 186;
+  Diego de Anaya (Salamanca), 263;
+  Maria del Salto, 320;
+  Prince Don Pedro, 320.
+
+Toribio, 170, 220, 224.
+
+Toro, 71, 233, 244-250, 279, 302, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Torquemada, 27.
+
+Tostado, Bishop, Tomb of, 311, 370.
+
+Tours, 22, 114.
+
+Tower de la Trinidad (Santiago), 83, 378.
+
+Tower of Hercules, 89, 90.
+
+Trajanus, 151, 303.
+
+Transition Art, 60.
+
+Tuy, 70, 71, 91, 110, 111, 120-130, 131, 146, 167, 168, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+University of Alcala de Henares, 328.
+
+University of Palencia, 223, 224, 258.
+
+University of Salamanca, 258, 259.
+
+Urbano II., 231.
+
+Urbano IV., 224.
+
+Urraca, Dona, 162, 233, 234, 235, 236.
+
+
+Vacceos, 219.
+
+Valdejunquera, Battle of, 175.
+
+Valencia, 66, 67, 254.
+
+Valencia Cupola, 118.
+
+Valenca do Minho, 120.
+
+Valentine, 312.
+
+Valladolid, 67, 70, 71, 72, 178, 189, 223, 244, 293-301, 303, 314, 335, 380;
+  Bishop of (_See_ under Bishops);
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Vallisoletum, 293.
+
+Van Dyck, 195.
+
+Vela, Count of, 163.
+
+Venta de Banos, 57, 225.
+
+Veremundo, 171.
+
+Vigo, 110, 113, 131-133;
+  Church of (_See_ under Churches).
+
+Villamayor, 96.
+
+Villavieja, 335.
+
+Vinuesa, 209.
+
+Virgin de la Atocha, 324.
+
+Virgin de la Almudena, 324, 325, 374.
+
+Viriato, 278.
+
+Visigoths, The, 20, 24, 122, 152, 220, 327, 353.
+
+Vitoria, 69, 192-195, 381;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+
+War for Independence, 164.
+
+Wellington, Duke of, 272.
+
+Western Castile, 69; Art of, 59.
+
+Witiza, 122, 123, 146, 167.
+
+
+Yanez, Juan, Bishop of Cuenca, 343, 372.
+
+Yuste, 283.
+
+
+Zadorria River, 193.
+
+Zamora, 71, 230-243, 244, 246, 269, 279, 293, 380;
+  Cathedral of (_See_ under Cathedrals).
+
+Zaragoza (_See_ Saragosse).
+
+Zeth, 279.
+
+Zorilla, 352.
+
+Zurbaran, 229, 283.
+
+Zunigas, 286.
+
+Zuniguez, 298.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+[Note of Transcriber of the ebook]
+
+Changes made:
+
+SIGUENZA => SIGUeENZA {2}
+
+Al-Karica => Al-Karica {1}
+
+Alargon => Alagon
+
+Bartolome => Bartolome
+
+Guadalquiver => Guadalquivir
+
+Isidore => Isidoro {2 page 163}
+
+Protogones => Protogenes {2}
+
+Theodosia => Theodosio {1 index}
+
+dia de Zamora => dia de Zamora {1}
+
+despues de opipera cena => despues de opipara cena {1}
+
+Neustra Senora => Nuestra Senora {1 index}
+
+Del Obisco => Del Obispo {1 index}
+
+Maria Del Sarto => Maria Del Salto {2}
+
+Manuza => Munuza {1 index}
+
+Constitution => Constitucion {1 index}
+
+Talaitola => Tolaitola {1 index}
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Cathedrals of Northern Spain, by Charles Rudy
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CATHEDRALS OF NORTHERN SPAIN ***
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #31965 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31965)
author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:56:47 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:56:47 -0700
commit	825e2d3e65d8597e18713ea4eb70b09bf19e33cb (patch)
tree	b3390c98d631f122b7a5ef1fd950ec9fc903486c