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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Homo-culture, by Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homo-culture
+       or, The improvement of offspring through wiser generation
+
+Author: Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+Release Date: November 12, 2010 [EBook #34299]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMO-CULTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by
+_underscores_. Variations in spelling and hyphenation remain as in the
+original. Ellipses match the original. A complete list of typographical
+corrections as well as other notes follows the text.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE THEORETICAL BABY AT 18 MONTHS.]
+
+
+
+
+                            HOMO-CULTURE;
+
+                                 OR,
+
+                 THE IMPROVEMENT OF OFFSPRING THROUGH
+                          WISER GENERATION.
+
+
+                      BY M. L. HOLBROOK, M. D.,
+        EDITOR OF "THE JOURNAL OF HYGIENE," AUTHOR OF "HYGIENE
+            OF THE BRAIN," "HOW TO STRENGTHEN THE MEMORY,"
+                 "ADVANTAGES OF CHASTITY," ETC., ETC.
+
+
+       A New Edition of "Stirpiculture," Enlarged and Revised.
+
+
+                              NEW YORK:
+                         M. L. HOLBROOK & CO.
+
+                               LONDON:
+                          L. N. FOWLER & CO.
+
+                                1899.
+
+
+                            _Copyright by
+                           M. L. Holbrook._
+                               _1897._
+
+
+                    _Entered at Stationers' Hall._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+During all ages since man came to himself, there have been enlightened
+ones seeking to improve the race. The methods proposed have been
+various, and in accordance with the knowledge and development of the
+time in which they have appeared. Some have believed that education and
+environment were all-sufficient; others that abstinence from
+intoxicating drinks would suffice. A very considerable number have held
+the idea that by prenatal culture alone the mother can mould her unborn
+child into any desired form. The disciples of Darwin, many of them, have
+held that natural and sexual selection have been the chief factors
+employed by nature to bring about race improvement.
+
+No doubt all these factors have been more or less effectual, but the
+time has come for man to take special interest in his own evolution, to
+study and apply, so far as possible, all the factors that will in any
+way promote race improvement. In the past this has not been done. We are
+not yet able to do it perfectly, our knowledge is too deficient, lack of
+interest is too universal, but we can make a beginning; greater
+thoughtfulness may be given to suitable marriages; improved environment
+may be secured; better hygienic conditions taken advantage of; food may
+be improved; the knowledge we have gained in improving animals and
+plants, so far as applicable, may aid us; air, exercise, water,
+employment, social conditions, wealth and poverty, prenatal conditions,
+all have an influence on offspring, and man should be able, to some
+extent, to make them all tell to the advantage of future generations.
+
+Whatever the conditions of existence, man is able by his intellect to
+modify and improve them, and make them favorably serve unborn children.
+
+Herbert Spencer says: "On observing what energies are expended by father
+and mother to attain worldly successes and fulfil social ambition, we
+are reminded how relatively small is the space occupied by their
+ambition to make their descendants physically, morally and
+intellectually superior. Yet this is the ambition which will replace
+those they now so eagerly pursue, and which, instead of perpetual
+disappointments, will bring permanent satisfactions."
+
+If the chapters included in this volume should help to arouse in the
+minds of readers, and especially the younger portion of them, some
+healthy feelings relating to the improvement of offspring it will have
+fulfilled its aim.
+
+Two of them have been given as lectures before societies, the main
+object of which was the discussion of subjects bearing on evolution and
+human progress, and they are included in this volume because they have a
+close relation to the main subject, but the others were written
+especially for this work.
+
+While there may appear in a few cases a slight amount of repetition, the
+author trusts the reader will not consider it as unpardonable.
+
+With these few words I send the work on its mission hoping it will bear
+good fruit.
+
+                                                         M. L. H.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+STIRPICULTURE.
+                                                                 _Page._
+     Plato's Restrictions on Parentage; Lycurgan Laws; Plutarch
+     on the Training of Children; Infanticide Among the Greeks;
+     Group Marriage; Making Children the Property of the State;
+     Grecian Methods Not Suitable to Our Time; Sexual Selection;
+     Difficulties in the Way; An Experiment in Stirpiculture;
+     Intermarriage; Woman's Selective Action; Man's and Woman's
+     Co-operation; The Individual's Rights; Spiritual Sympathy in
+     Marriage;                                                         9
+
+
+PRENATAL CULTURE.
+
+     Jacob's Flocks; An Illustrative Case; Beliefs of Primitive
+     Peoples; Birthmarks Rare; Why Children Resemble Parents;
+     Life's Experiences Affecting Child; Germ-plasm; Congenital
+     Deformities; Psychical Diseases; Telegony; Power of Heredity;
+     Sobriety in the Father; Sacredness of Parentage; Self-control;   55
+
+
+HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.
+
+     Theories; Continuity of the Germ-plasm; A Rational View
+     of Heredity; Heredity and the Education of Children;
+     Intellectual Acquirements; Instinct; Knowledge or Heredity;
+     Individuality; Spectre of Heredity;                             100
+
+
+EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A HEALTHIER RACE.
+
+     Sexual Selection; Human Selection; Natural Selection;
+     Conflict between Evolutionary Theories and our Humane
+     Sentiments; Ideal of Health; Adaptation to Environment;
+     Knowledge; Effects of Living at High Pressure; Girls in
+     Manufacturing Districts; Co-operation: an Example; Hygiene;     130
+
+
+THE GERM-PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.
+
+     What is the Germ-plasm? The Primitive Egg; Fertilization of
+     the Mother-cell Necessary to Produce True Germ-plasm; What
+     Fertilization Does; Its Process; Helps to Explain Heredity;
+     Health of the Germ-plasm Necessary in Stirpiculture; Surplus
+     Vitality Necessary for Producing the Best Children; Duncan's
+     Statistics as to Ages of Parents of Finest Children; Effects
+     of Alcohol on Offspring; Food and the Germ-plasm; Effect
+     of Air and Water on Germ-plasm; Effect of Diseases on
+     Germ-plasm; Every Child Born an Experiment;                     162
+
+
+FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.
+
+     Darwin's Opinions; Race Modifications by Natural Selection;
+     Grant Allen's Views; Spencer's Views on Parental Duties;
+     Limiting Offspring Among the Natives of Uganda; The Fijians;
+     Children of Large Families often Superior to those in Small
+     Families; Some Reasons for this;                                179
+
+
+A THEORETICAL BABY.
+
+     Our First Baby; We had Theories; What Some of Them Were; My
+     Wife's Love for Me; My Sentiments; The Child's Easy Birth;
+     Mother's Rapid Convalescence; The Child's First Bath;
+     Forming Good Habits Early; No Crying at Night; Never Rocked
+     to Sleep; His Bed; Keeping the Stomach and Bowels Right;
+     Colic, Irritability and the Necessity for Diapers
+     Eliminated; Number of Meals Daily; The Infant's Clothing; At
+     One Year Old; Teething Gives Little Trouble; Requires
+     Considerable Water; Learning to Creep, Stand, Walk and Talk
+     by His Own Efforts; Invents His Own Amusements;
+     Companionship With Parents; Mothering; Learning
+     Self-control; Obedience; Playmates;                             184
+
+     Notes                                                           199
+
+
+
+
+STIRPICULTURE.
+
+
+Natural selection, which is the central doctrine of Darwinism, has been
+explained as the "survival of the fittest." On this process has depended
+the progress observable throughout organic nature to which the term
+evolution is applied; for, although there has been from time to time
+degradation, that is, a retrogression, this has had relation only to
+particular forms, organic life as a whole evidencing progress towards
+perfection. When man appeared as the culmination of evolution under
+terrestrial conditions, natural selection would seem almost to have
+finished its work, which was taken up, however, by man himself, who was
+able by "artificial" selection to secure results similar to those which
+Nature had attained. This is true especially in relation to animals, the
+domestication of which has always been practiced by man, even while in a
+state of nature. Domestication is primarily a psychical process, but it
+is attended with physical changes consequent on confinement and
+variation in food and habits. This alone would hardly account, however,
+for the great number of varieties among animals that have been long
+domesticated, and it is probable that actual "stirpiculture" has been
+practiced from very early times. This term is derived from the Latin
+_stirpis_, a stock or race, and _cultus_, culture or cultivation, and it
+means, therefore, the cultivation of a stock or race, although it has
+come to be used in the sense of the "breeding of offspring," and
+particularly of human offspring. It is evident, however, that in
+relation to man this is too restricted a sense, and it must be extended
+so as to embrace as well the rearing and training as the breeding of
+children, in fact, _cultivation_ in its widest sense, in which is always
+implied the idea of improvement.
+
+Stirpiculture in this extended sense was not unknown to the ancients,
+both in theory and in practice. As to the former, the most noted example
+is that of Plato, who, in his "Republic," proposed certain arrangements
+as to marriage and the bringing up of children which he thought would
+improve the race, and hence be beneficial to the State. The State was to
+Plato all in all, and he considered that it should form one great
+family. This idea could not be carried into effect, however, so long as
+independent families existed, and therefore those arrangements had for
+one of their chief aims the abolition of what we regard as family life.
+This Plato thought was the best for the State, and the advantage which
+was supposed to accrue to it by the absence of separate families is
+expressed in a marginal note, which says: "There will be no private
+interests among them, and therefore no lawsuits or trials for assault or
+violence to elders."
+
+
+PLATO'S RESTRICTIONS ON PARENTAGE.--The end would hardly seem to justify
+the means, in these days, at least, when violence to elders is an
+uncommon incident; but how was the community of wives and children by
+which it was sought to be attained to be brought about? It is said, "The
+best of either sex should be united with the best as often, and the
+inferior with the inferior as seldom, as possible." Thus the people were
+to be classified into "best" and "inferior," and while the former were
+to be brought together as often as possible, the latter were not to be
+united at all if it could be avoided. There was no question of marriage
+in either case. In the one, the union was for the purpose of obtaining
+children, and in the other for the simple gratification of the passions;
+for only the offspring of the union between the sexes in the "best"
+class were to be reared. The children of the inferior class were not to
+be reared, "if the flock is to be maintained in first-class condition."
+This infanticide would matter little to the parents, as they had no
+control over their coming together, nor concern with the rearing of
+their offspring. Lots were to be drawn by the "less worthy" on each
+occasion of their being brought together. This was that they might
+accuse their ill-luck and not the rulers, in case their partners were
+not to their liking. The State was to provide not only what men and
+women were to be sexually united, but the ages within which this was to
+be permitted for the purpose of obtaining offspring. For a woman, the
+beginning of childbearing for the State was fixed at twenty years of
+age, and it was to continue until forty. For men, the period of
+procreation is said to be between twenty-five and fifty-five years of
+age. After the specified ages men and women were to be allowed to "range
+at will," except within certain prescribed degrees, but on the
+understanding that no children born to such unions were to be reared. It
+is evident that under such a system the actual relationship between the
+members of the State family could be known only to its rulers; but to
+provide against the union of persons too nearly related by blood, all
+those who were "begotten at the time their fathers and mothers came
+together" were regarded as brothers and sisters. But even brothers and
+sisters might be united "if the lot favors them, and they receive the
+sanction of the Pythian oracle." Thus far for the breeding of children
+laid down in Plato's "Republic." As to the rearing of them, we need only
+say that the children allowed to live were to be placed in the custody
+of guardians, to be appointed by the State from among the most worthy
+of either sex, who were to bring them up in accordance with the
+principles of virtue.
+
+The idea which formed the basis of the regulations as to marriage in the
+"Republic" was carried into practice by Lycurgus in his government of
+Sparta. We are told by Plutarch in his "Lives," that Lycurgus considered
+children not so much the property of their parents as of the State, "and
+therefore he could not have them begotten by ordinary persons, but by
+the best men in it." But he did not attempt to break up the private
+family, as was proposed by Plato. He sought rather to enlarge its
+boundaries by allowing the introduction of a fresh paternal element when
+this could be done with advantage to the State. Thus, he approved of a
+man in years introducing to his young wife a "handsome and honest" young
+man, that she might bear a child by him. Moreover, if a man of character
+became impassioned of a married woman on account of her honesty and
+beautiful children, he might treat with her husband for the loan of her,
+"that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent
+children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents." The principles
+which influenced Lycurgus were the same as those sought to be applied by
+Plato, although in a different way. Plutarch says, "He observed the
+vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people study to have their
+horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure, either by
+interest or money, and yet keep their wives shut up, that they may have
+children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be doting,
+decrepid or infirm." Hence Lycurgus sought to drive away the passion of
+jealousy "by making it quite as reputable to have children in common
+with persons of merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own
+behaviour to their wives."
+
+
+LYCURGAN LAWS.--According to Plutarch, the regulations enforced by
+Lycurgus, so far from encouraging licentiousness of the women, such as
+afterwards prevailed in Sparta, did just the reverse, as adultery was
+not known among them. That the system was beneficial to the State by
+tending to secure healthy offspring is probable; but Lycurgus took other
+means of bringing about this result. His requiring girls to dance naked
+in public was intended to teach them modesty. But we are told further:
+"He ordered the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling and
+throwing quoits and darts, that their bodies being strong and vigorous,
+the children produced by them might be the same; and that, thus
+fortified by exercise, they might the better support the pangs of
+childbirth, and be delivered with safety." Moreover, he provided against
+the propagation of disease and deformation by directing that only such
+children should be reared as passed examination by the most ancient men
+of the tribe. If a child were strong and well-proportioned, they gave
+orders for its education and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares
+of land. Thus infanticide was a recognized part of the Spartan system,
+as it was in that of Plato. The elders of the tribe were very careful
+about the nurses to whom the children were assigned. When seven years
+old, the children were enrolled in companies, where they were all kept
+under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and
+recreations in common. The boy of best conduct and courage was made
+captain, and their whole education was one of obedience. As for
+learning, Plutarch says they had just what was absolutely necessary; and
+certainly it was not such as could be recommended for imitation in these
+days.
+
+Xenophon, in his essay on "The Lacedemonian Republic," adds little to
+what Plutarch tells us with reference to the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus. He remarks, however, that marriage was not allowed until the
+body was in full strength, as this was conducive "to the procreation of
+a robust and manly offspring." He affirms, also, that those who were
+allowed by arrangement to associate with other men's wives were men who
+had an aversion to living with a wife of their own!
+
+
+PLUTARCH ON THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN.--In his "Morals," Plutarch gives
+a dissertation on the training of children, the first portion of which
+deals with stirpiculture in the limited sense of the term, but is very
+inadequate. Indeed, the only advice he gives is that a man should not
+keep company with harlots or concubines, because children by them are
+"blemished in their birth" by their base extraction; and that no man
+should "keep company with his wife for issue's sake but when he is
+sober," lest he beget a drunkard. The main portion of Plutarch's
+treatise is concerned with the education of children, which is the
+second part of stirpiculture as a system of complete cultivation.
+Introductory to the subject of education he speaks of nursing, to which
+he attaches much importance. Plutarch insists on the necessity of
+mothers nursing their own children; nature, by providing them with two
+breasts, showing them that they can nurse even twins. But if they
+cannot, they are to choose the best nurses they can get, and such as are
+bred after the Greek fashion. For, "as it is needful that the members of
+children should be shaped aright as soon as they are born, that they may
+not afterwards prove crooked and distorted, so it is no less expedient
+that their manners be well fashioned from the very beginning; for
+childhood is a tender thing, and easily wrought into any shape."
+
+After referring to the importance of the choice of good companions for
+a child, Plutarch proceeds to consider the question of education, which
+he speaks of as the matter of most concern. As to education in general,
+he points out that a concurrence of three things is necessary to the
+"completing of virtue in practice," which is the aim of that process,
+that is: Nature, reason or learning, and use or exercise; For, "if
+nature be not improved by instruction, it is blind; if instruction be
+not assisted by nature, it is maimed; and if exercise fail of the
+assistance of both, it is imperfect as to the attainment of its end."
+There cannot be "instruction"--a term which is here used as equivalent
+to "education," although the latter has a wider signification than the
+former, and being equivalent to mental cultivation,--without a teacher,
+and Plutarch says well, "we are to look after such masters for our
+children as are blameless in their lives, not justly reprovable for
+their manners, and of the best experience in teaching. For the very
+spring and root of honesty and virtue lies in the felicity of lighting
+on good education." He is, indeed, so much impressed with its value that
+he affirms: "The one chief thing in this matter--which compriseth the
+beginning, middle and end of all--is good education and regular
+instruction." These two "afford great help and assistance towards the
+attainment of virtue and felicity." He adds: "Learning alone, of all
+things in our possession, is immortal and divine."
+
+Plutarch dwells on various other matters connected with education
+better fitted for his times than ours, but he refers to the importance
+of example in words that are deserving of careful consideration. He
+says: "The chiefest thing that fathers are to look to is, that they
+themselves become effectual examples to their children, by doing all
+those things which belong to them, and avoiding all vicious practices,
+that in their lives, as in a glass, their children may see enough to
+give them an aversion to all ill words and actions. For those that chide
+children for such faults as they themselves fall into unconsciously
+accuse themselves, under their children's names. And if they are
+altogether vicious in their own lives, they lose the right of
+reprehending their very servants, and much more do they forfeit it to
+their sons. . . . . Wherefore we are to apply our minds to all such
+practices as may conduce to the good breeding of our children."
+
+It is not improbable that the marriage regulations ascribed to Lycurgus
+were based on institutions already in existence among the Spartans. From
+the statement of Polybius, that the brothers of a house often had one
+wife between them, it has been inferred that in Sparta the Tibetan form
+of polyandry was practiced. According to Plutarch, another curious
+marriage custom prevailed, showing that the Spartans, who differed in
+various respects from other Greeks, had retained primitive habits.
+Thus, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence, and for some
+time after this "marriage by capture" he visited her "with great caution
+and apprehension" of being discovered by the rest of the family; the
+bride at the same time exerted all her art to contrive convenient
+opportunities for their private meetings. And this they did, not for a
+short time only, but some of them even had children before they had an
+interview with their wives in the daytime! This custom had much in
+common with the _sadica_ marriages of the early Arabs, who, as we are
+told by Professor Robertson Smith, allowed a woman, while she remained
+with her own tribe, to receive the clandestine visits of a lover. Her
+offspring were recognized as legitimate and became members of the tribe.
+The incident of "capture" could not occur, as it was a general custom in
+ancient Arabia for a husband to live among his wife's kinsfolk.
+
+
+INFANTICIDE AMONG THE GREEKS.--The practice of infanticide, which was
+the only mode by which Lycurgus, or even Plato in his imaginary
+republic, could really insure the existence of a healthy and vigorous
+population, was undoubtedly a survival from primitive times. The
+sacredness of infant life is the result of the high moral tone which has
+accompanied the spread of Christianity; and it may be said to be almost
+unknown outside of the Christian era. Various reasons are assigned by
+different peoples for the practice of infanticide; but one cause
+universally operative is the objection to rearing malformed or unhealthy
+offspring. Savages adopt various modes of improving, according to their
+ideas, the physical appearance of their children. Giving the proper form
+to the nose is considered a very important matter by the native
+Australian mother and by the Polynesian Islanders; as, indeed, it was by
+the ancient Persians, among whom the molding of the nose to the proper
+curve was essential, especially in the royal family. The flat head of
+the American Indian of the northwest coast was at one time considered a
+beauty, and was restricted to the members of the tribe, slaves not being
+allowed to undergo the necessary head compression. The small artificial
+foot of the Chinese lady is another case in point. But however much the
+physical appearance might be altered, no effect could thus be made in
+the general physique of the race. The most easy way of keeping this up
+to a proper standard is to destroy all the infants that possess physical
+defects; and such a course is adopted by many savages, although it is by
+no means the most influential cause of infanticide.
+
+
+GROUP MARRIAGE.--A remarkable system of relationships, with which is
+combined a series of regulations framed with the object of pointing out
+what persons are entitled to enter into the marital relation, is found
+to be prevalent in nearly all uncivilized peoples. The members of a
+tribe are divided into two or more groups, each of which consists of
+persons who are nearly related by blood, and who are forbidden,
+therefore, to intermarry. One of the tribes of Central Australia, the
+Dieyerie, has a legend which explains the marriage system common to them
+and to all the other tribes, as being intended to prevent the evil
+effects of intermarriage between persons very near of kin. The story is
+valuable as showing the opinion entertained by savages as to the effect
+on the race of breeding in and in--a subject to which we may have
+occasion to make further reference. Dr. J. F. McLennan and other writers
+on primitive marriage refer to the practice among certain _civilized_
+peoples of antiquity of what we regard as incestuous marriage, in
+support of the view that in the early history of mankind intercourse
+between the sexes was promiscuous.[21:A] Such an explanation is entirely
+uncalled for, however, as the custom was intended to secure purity of
+blood, that is, blood of a particular line of ancestors. Such marriages
+were known only to a few peoples, and they were evidently of
+comparatively late origin. Whether the purity of blood was attended with
+improvement of the stock may be doubted; as, whatever may have been the
+actual origin of the marriage regulations of the numerous peoples among
+whom the classificatory system of relationship is established, they are
+intended, without question, to prevent the intermarriage of persons who
+are regarded as near blood relations, the general disapproval of which
+must have had some sufficient reason, or, at all events, must have
+originated in ideas supposed to furnish good grounds for it.
+
+
+MAKING CHILDREN THE PROPERTY OF THE STATE.--The principles which were
+embodied in the scheme proposed by Plato, in his "Republic," to bring
+about an improvement in the race are mainly two: First, restriction on
+the formation of procreative unions; second, infanticide. The breaking
+up of private or separate families necessarily resulted from the
+operation of his "marriage" regulations, and was intended to emphasize
+the idea which Plato, like Lycurgus, insisted on, that the children
+belonged to the State. Lycurgus sought to enforce the same idea by
+allowing wives to have intercourse with other men than their husbands,
+thus making children "common" in some sense, while retaining the
+separate family intact. Thus he introduced, or rather it should be said,
+established a modified form of polyandrous marriage; Plato's system, on
+the other hand, being one of mere pairing, as in the breeding of
+animals. In either case the union of very near relations was not
+permitted, that is, between brother and sister, or parent and child. Yet
+Lycurgus allowed marriage between a half-brother and sister by the same
+mother. Curiously enough, this was forbidden by the Athenian law, which
+permitted a brother and sister by the same father only to intermarry.
+The Greek rule, as laid down in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities," was that "proximity of blood or consanguinity was not,
+with some few exceptions, a bar to marriage," although direct lineal
+descent was so. Moreover, there was no attempt to enforce consanguineous
+marriages, so as to ensure purity of blood, such as was customary among
+the Incas of Peru, the laws of which required that the oldest son and
+daughter of the sovereign should intermarry because the Incas were
+descended from the Sun, and the Sun had married his sister the Moon, and
+had united in marriage his two first children! A more practical reason
+was found in the rule that the kingdom should be inherited through both
+parents. Hence it was not permitted to mix the blood of the Sun, or
+rather of those who claimed solar descent, with that of men.
+
+
+GRECIAN METHODS NOT SUITABLE TO OUR TIME.--It is evident that the
+principles which governed the ancients in their endeavors to improve the
+race are not capable of application at the present day, under the
+conditions of modern civilization. Instead of placing further
+restrictions on marriage, the tendency now is to loosen those which have
+hitherto existed, although certain regulations, such as relate to age,
+consent, etc., are recognized as necessary for the interests of the
+State. Moreover, greater facilities are given than were formerly allowed
+for dissolving ill-assorted unions, thus getting rid of the excuse for
+the formation of irregular connections. Nevertheless, the interests of
+neither society at large nor of individuals will permit of the
+introduction of the temporary or occasional pairing system, which is a
+return to an animal state, and, therefore, not worthy of the dignity
+implied in the term, marriage, and which is inconsistent with true
+family life. It would be liable to all kinds of abuse, and would become,
+in most cases, a legalized system of prostitution, thus dragging society
+down to a lower level instead of raising it, and tending to the
+deterioration, instead of the improvement, of the race, if not to its
+extinction. As to infanticide, this certainly would not be tolerated by
+public opinion, although it is now largely resorted to under the guise
+of abortion. To legalize child-killing under any circumstances would be
+to offer a premium for murder, even if it were permitted only with the
+express sanction in every case of the officials of the State. There is
+now no justification for such a course, as the education of those who
+appear to be on a mental level with the animals has been carried so far
+that the term "idiot" may soon have to be dropped from our vocabulary.
+
+It must be affirmed, however, that the whole subject of the improvement
+of the race was dealt with by Plato, and, indeed, by the ancients
+generally, in a very crude and superficial manner. This has been well
+pointed out by Professor B. Jowett in the Introduction to his
+translation of Plato's "Republic." Professor Jowett objects generally
+that the great error in the speculations of Plato and others on the
+improvement of the race is, "that the difference between men and the
+animals is forgotten in them." The human being is regarded with the eye
+of a dog or bird fancier, or at best of a slave owner; the higher or
+human qualities are left out. The breeder of animals aims chiefly at
+size or speed or strength; in a few cases, at courage and temper; most
+often the fitness of the animal for food is the greatest desideratum.
+But mankind are not bred to be eaten, nor yet for their superiority in
+fighting or in running or in drawing carts. Nor does the improvement of
+the human race consist merely in the increase of the bones and flesh,
+but in the growth and enlightenment of the mind. Hence there must be a
+marriage of true minds as well as of bodies; of imagination and reason
+as well as of lusts and instincts. Men and women without feeling or
+imagination are justly called brutes; yet Plato takes away these
+qualities and puts nothing in their place, not even the desire of a
+noble offspring, since parents are not to know their own children. The
+most important transaction of social life he who is the idealist
+philosopher converts into the most brutal. For the pair are to have no
+relation to each other but at the hymeneal festival; their children are
+not theirs, but the State's; nor is any tie of affection to unite them.
+Yet the analogy of the animals might have saved Plato from a gigantic
+error if he had not lost sight of his own illustration! For the "nobler
+sort of birds and beasts" nourish and protect their offspring and are
+faithful to one another! It is certainly surprising, as Jowett says,
+that the greatest of ancient philosophers should, in his marriage
+regulations, have fallen into the error of separating body and mind. He
+did so probably through a false notion of the antagonism between the
+family and the State, and hence, as Lycurgus did not aim at destroying
+family life he escaped that error.
+
+And yet there is nothing to show that the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus had any real effect on the children of the State. That the
+early Spartans were a hardy and courageous people is undoubtedly true;
+but apart from the practice of infanticide, which would necessarily get
+rid of the weak, their character and conduct can be explained by
+reference merely to the system of training, both of youth and maidens,
+which Lycurgus rigidly enforced. Lacedemon was essentially a military
+republic, and its rulers aimed to breed soldiers, rather than men in the
+noble sense in which the term "man" is now used. Indeed, there is
+nothing to show that any compulsory attempt to improve the race has ever
+been successful, apart from the effect which the destruction of feeble
+and deformed offspring may have, and the influence of the severe
+training of those who are allowed to survive.
+
+Nevertheless, the human race has vastly improved since its first
+appearance on the earth, if the teachings of the doctrine of evolution
+are true and applicable to man as well as to the inferior animals. The
+passage from the native Australian to the European is a long one, and
+yet they are supposed to represent a common primitive stock. The steps
+by which the European has been gradually developed, with his special
+characteristics, cannot now be traced; but one of the chief agencies to
+which the result is due is that to which Darwin applied the term,
+"sexual selection." As natural selection has relation to _adaptation_,
+and its aim is "the survival of the fittest," so sexual selection has
+reference to _beauty_, and its object is the perpetuation of the most
+beautiful, according to the taste of the peoples practicing it. Darwin
+was the first to point out the importance of sexual selection for
+certain purposes which, as stated by Professor G. J. Romanes, in his
+"Darwin and after Darwin,"[28:A] "have no reference to utility or the
+preservation of life." The latter writer in treating of the subject
+affirms it is universally admitted that the higher animals do not pair
+indiscriminately, the members of either sex preferring "those
+individuals of the opposite sex which are to them most attractive." Many
+birds and certain mammals clearly display the esthetic sense, which is
+shown by the former particularly in the adorning of their nests with
+colored objects; and it is reflected in the personal appearance of the
+animals themselves. During the pairing season, birds take on their most
+brilliant plumage, and the males take great pains to exhibit their
+charms before the females, actively competing with one another in so
+doing. There is similar rivalry among song birds, who strive to see
+which can best please the females by their singing.
+
+
+SEXUAL SELECTION.--Professor Romanes, after referring to those facts,
+which are considered in detail by his great predecessor, states the
+theory of sexual selection as follows: "There can be no question that
+the courtship of birds is a highly elaborate business, in which the
+males do their best to surpass one another in charming the females.
+Obviously the inference is that the males do not take all this trouble
+for nothing; but that the females give their consent to pair with the
+males whose personal appearance, or whose voice, proves to be the most
+attractive. But, if so, the young of the male bird who is thus
+_selected_ will inherit his superior beauty; and thus, in successive
+generations, a continuous advance will be made in the beauty of plumage
+or of song, as the case may be,--both the origin and development of
+beauty in the animal world being thus supposed due to the esthetic taste
+of the animals themselves."
+
+It is not necessary to refer particularly to the evidence in support of
+the theory of sexual selection. There can be no doubt that it is a most
+important factor in the perpetuation and increase of certain characters,
+those which come within the category of "beautiful," the very existence
+of which proves them to be beneficial to the stock to which the animals
+exhibiting them belong. The fundamental fact is that they have "the
+effect of charming the females into a performance of the sexual act;" an
+opinion which is supported by the more general fact that "both among
+quadrupeds and birds, individuals of the one sex are capable of feeling
+a strong antipathy against, or a strong preference for, certain
+individuals of the opposite sex."
+
+These statements are applicable also to man, with whom the principle of
+sexual selection must have been influential to at least the same degree
+as among the lower animals. It may be expected, indeed, to be more
+influential, as the esthetic taste with which it is associated becomes
+more highly developed with man than with any member of the animal
+kingdom. Even here it is not a question of mere coloration. The theory
+of sexual selection as framed by Darwin is concerned, as Romanes points
+out, not so much with color itself as with the particular disposition of
+color in the form of ornamental patterns. These have a kind of
+_structural_ value, and certain birds, moreover, possess actual
+structural peculiarities, such as ornamental appendages to the beak, the
+only use of which would appear to be to charm the female during
+courtship. We may suppose, therefore, that sexual selection has affected
+not merely what may be termed the superficial characters of man, but to
+some extent, at least, those which have a structural value.
+
+The principle of sexual selection is applicable primarily to the
+characteristics of the male; but Darwin supposes them to have been
+transferred to the other sex, and through them transmitted to the race
+generally. In his "Descent of Man," he remarks of the actual influence
+over the race of that principle: "The nervous system not only regulates
+most of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly
+influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and
+of certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, size and
+strength of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and
+instrumental, bright colours and ornamental appendages have all been
+indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the exertion of
+choice, the influence of love and jealousy, and the appropriation of the
+beautiful in sound, colour or form; and these powers of the mind
+manifestly depend on the development of the brain."
+
+That sexual selection has actually resulted in modification of human
+physical structure, Darwin thinks can be shown by reference to the
+ancient Persians, whose type was greatly improved by intermarriage with
+the beautiful Georgian and Circassian women. He refers to several
+similar cases, and particularly to the Jollofs of West Africa, whose
+handsome appearance is said to be due to their retaining for wives only
+their most beautiful slaves, the others being sold.
+
+Sexual selection may be operative for the improvement of the race
+through the action of either man or woman, and the conditions of its
+activity are different in either case. As to the action of man, Darwin
+says in relation to primitive peoples: "The strongest and most vigorous
+men--those who could best defend and hunt for their families, who were
+provided with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as
+a large number of dogs or other animals--would succeed in rearing a
+greater average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members
+of the same tribe. There can, also, be no doubt that such men would
+generally be able to select the more attractive women. At present, the
+chiefs of nearly every tribe throughout the world succeed in obtaining
+more than one wife."
+
+With reference to selection by the women, Darwin shows that among
+savages they have much more to say in their marriages than is usually
+supposed. He remarks: "They can tempt the men they prefer, and can
+sometimes reject those whom they dislike, either before or after their
+marriage. Preference on the part of the women, steadily acting in any
+one direction, would ultimately affect the character of the tribe, for
+the women would generally choose, not merely the handsomest men,
+according to their standard of taste, but those who were at the same
+time best able to defend and support them. Such well-endowed pairs would
+commonly rear a larger number of offspring than the less favored."
+Darwin adds: "The same result would obviously follow in a still more
+marked manner if there were selection on both sides, that is, if the
+more attractive, and at the same time more powerful men were to prefer,
+and were preferred by, the more attractive women. And this double form
+of selection seems actually to have occurred, especially during the
+earlier periods of our long history."
+
+The investigations of Darwin as to the operation of sexual selection had
+reference chiefly to the modification of physical characters. He did not
+altogether lose sight, however, of its possible influence in affecting
+for the better the mental characteristics of the race. He concludes his
+enquiry by the remark that "Man might by selection do something, not
+only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for
+their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from
+marriage if they are in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but
+such hopes are Utopian, and will never be even partially realized until
+the laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. Every one does good
+service who aids towards this end."
+
+It is in the application of the principle of sexual selection to the
+mental characteristics of man, that any real improvement of the race,
+viewed as consisting of human beings and not of mere animals, must be
+brought about. Beauty of physical form and feature is of importance in
+human relations only so far as it is associated with beauty of mind and
+character, that is, with high intellectual and moral attainments. That
+these often go together is true, but it is not always the case. Grant
+Allen says: "To be sound in wind and limb; to be healthy of body and
+mind; to be educated; to be emancipated; to be free, to be
+beautiful--these things are ends towards which all should strive, and by
+attaining which all are happier in themselves, and more useful to
+others." But physical and intellectual perfection are not always found
+together, as was observed by Darwin, when he mentioned among the causes
+which interfere with the physical action of sexual selection the fact
+that men are largely attracted by the mental charms of women. Professor
+Jowett affirms truly that "Many of the noblest specimens of the human
+race have been among the weakest physically. Tyrtæns or Æsop, or our own
+Newton, would have been destroyed at Sparta, and some of the fairest and
+strongest men and women have been among the wickedest and worst." Hence,
+he properly infers that "Not by the Platonic device of uniting the
+strong and the fair with the strong and the fair, regardless of
+sentiment and morality, nor yet by his other device of combining
+dissimilar natures, have mankind gradually passed from the brutality and
+licentiousness of primitive marriage to marriage Christian and
+civilized."
+
+The truth of this inference cannot be denied, because to leave out of
+view considerations of sentiment and morality would fatally vitiate any
+scheme for the improvement of the human race. But Professor Jowett
+affirms that, "We do not know how by artificial means any improvement in
+the breed can be effected." The problem is no doubt a complex one. As he
+points out, a child has usually thirty progenitors only four steps back,
+and whatever truth there may be in the inheritance of special physical
+characters, "We have a difficulty in distinguishing what is a true
+inheritance of genius or other qualities, and what is mere imitation or
+the result of similar circumstances. _Great men and great women have
+rarely had great fathers and mothers._" Professor Jowett thinks, indeed,
+that too much importance may be ascribed to heredity. He says: "The
+doctrine of heredity may seem to take out of our hands the conduct of
+our lives, but it is the idea, not the fact, which is really terrible to
+us. For what we have received from our ancestors is only a fraction of
+what we are or may become. The knowledge that drunkenness or insanity
+has been prevalent in a family may be the best safeguard against their
+recurrence in a future generation. The parent will be most awake to the
+vices or diseases in his child of which he is most sensible within
+himself. The whole of life may be directed to their prevention or cure.
+The traces of corruption may become fainter, or be wholly effaced; the
+inherited tendency to vice and crime may be eradicated. And so heredity,
+from being a curse, may become a blessing. We acknowledge that in the
+matter of our birth, as in our nature generally, there are previous
+circumstances which affect us. But on this platform of circumstances, or
+within this wall of necessity, we have still the power of creating a
+life for availment by the reforming energy of the human will."
+
+There is much truth in these remarks of Professor Jowett, but they do
+not affect the argument in favor of the possibility of bringing about an
+improvement in the race if the proper means are adopted. It would not be
+any wiser for the strong and healthy to marry with the sick and weak,
+because the latter happen to be highly intellectual or moral, than to
+marry with the strong and healthy if these physical characters are
+united with mental weakness or immorality. There is a consensus of
+opinion at the present day, that what should be aimed at is the union of
+physical perfection with that of intellect and character, in the
+persuasion that steps towards this end will ultimately lead to the
+general improvement of the human race.
+
+
+DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY.--The difficulty is to devise and carry out some
+scheme for the purpose which shall be both feasible and agreeable to
+public sentiment. The latter consideration would prevent any attempt at
+active stirpiculture under State direction, although the State might
+indirectly affect the result by subsidiary regulations as to marriage
+and training of children. There is nothing, however, to prevent the
+systematic efforts of private individuals, and in such cases the causes
+which Darwin cites as interfering with the physical action of sexual
+selection would not operate. The most systematic experiment in
+stirpiculture of modern times was that originated by John Humphrey Noyes
+at the Oneida Community, in central New York, from 1868 to 1879. A paper
+on this experiment was read by Anita Newcomb McGee before the American
+Science Association in August, 1891, which was published in "The
+American Anthropologist," 1891, and the following facts are taken from
+that paper.
+
+
+AN EXPERIMENT IN STIRPICULTURE.--Noyes was the founder of a religious
+sect, the members of which, owing to their desire for freedom from sin,
+were called Perfectionists. Holiness was the first principle of their
+creed, and Noyes thought to transmit that condition from one generation
+to another by a process of stirpiculture. To overcome the "selfishness"
+of monogamic marriage he devised a "system of regulated promiscuity,
+beginning at earliest puberty, and by a method of his own invention he
+separated the amative from the propagative functions." Its first
+principle was that of a judicious in and in breeding, with occasional
+mingling of foreign blood, as in stock-raising. The second principle
+adopted was that of "careful selection of individuals for breeding
+purposes. Genealogies were studied and medical histories compiled." A
+committee, headed by Noyes, selected the holiest members who were free
+from physical defects, intellectual and other considerations being given
+less weight at first, although in later years they received more
+consideration. The parents were of all ages, but the father was always
+older than the mother. Some sympathy between the persons mated was
+always required; and if a proposition for union came from two
+individuals it was allowed if no objections were found. Noyes held that
+uncle and niece are as much related as father and daughter, because
+brothers have identical blood, and that cousins are in the same relation
+to each other as half brothers. In the Oneida Community uncles and
+nieces twice paired, and it is noticeable that a considerable proportion
+of the children had Noyes' blood on one or both sides. The founder
+himself had nine children in the Community, to which belonged also his
+brother, his two sisters and their children. As to the care of the
+children, this belonged exclusively to the mothers for the first nine
+months, after which for a further nine months they took charge of their
+offspring at night only. When eighteen months old, the children were
+transferred to a separate department which was managed by those who had
+shown themselves specially fitted for the work.
+
+Let us see what was the result of Noyes' experiment. Of the sixty[39:A]
+children born, five died at or near childbirth from unforeseen causes
+depending upon the mother. All the others were alive at the date of Mrs.
+McGee's communication, except a boy who was reared in spite of weakness,
+and died from a trifling malady when about sixteen years of age. All the
+children were strong and healthy, the boys being tall--several over six
+feet--broad-shouldered and finely proportioned; the girls robust and
+well-built. It is remarkable, that among the children between five and
+nine years of age, thirteen were boys and six only were girls. With
+reference to their intellectual ability, it is stated by Mrs. McGee
+that, of the oldest sixteen boys, ten were in business, chiefly employed
+as clerks, foremen, etc., in the manufactories of the joint stock
+company. The eleventh was a musician of repute; another a medical
+student; one passed through college and studied law; one was a college
+senior, and one entered college after winning State and local
+scholarships, and gave great mathematical promise. The sixteenth boy was
+a mechanic, and the only one employed in manual labor. Of the six girls
+between eighteen and twenty-two years, three are said by Mrs. McGee to
+be especially intellectual. The mothers of these children usually
+belonged to the classes employed in manual labor, while the fathers,
+with the exception of the Noyes family and half a dozen lawyers, doctors
+and clergymen, were all farmers and mechanics. It is noteworthy that, as
+a rule, the fathers were the intellectual superiors of their mates, "and
+enquiry develops the fact, known in the Community, that in these cases
+the children are markedly superior to the maternal stock."
+
+When this system of complex marriage had been in operation twenty years,
+the desire to return to the old system of monogamy arose, and it became
+so strong in the Community that its founder retired from it, and on
+August 26, 1879, complex marriage was renounced, although nominally "in
+deference to public sentiment." Twenty-five couples who had been married
+before entering the Community again became husband and wife, and twenty
+marriages between other individuals took place within four months after
+the abandonment of the stirpicultural experiment. There were then in the
+Community two hundred and sixteen adults and eighty-three children under
+twenty years of age.
+
+So far as the real object which the founder of the Oneida Community had
+in view in his marriage system, it was undoubtedly a failure, as of the
+offspring, in spite of their early doctrinal training, only a very few
+are church members, and but one is a Perfectionist. This is the son of
+an uncle and a niece, both of Noyes' blood. From a physical and
+intellectual standpoint the experiment would seem to have given promise
+of success, but it continued too short a time to be of much scientific
+value. The result may be stated in the words of Mrs. McGee, who says
+that the complete failure to perpetuate the church through stirpiculture
+"would seem to indicate that, while our race would doubtless be greatly
+benefited by more attention to laws of breeding, yet to attempt
+promulgation of a belief by this means alone is only to court defeat. In
+spite of the energy and magnetism of so remarkable a man as Noyes, in
+spite of his long-continued efforts, and just when success seemed within
+his grasp, his one misjudgment of human nature bore fruit, the neglected
+instinct of monogamy arose in its might and crushed to nothing the whole
+structure, and he, the builder, went last of all. With the close of his
+life, April 13, 1886, ended a unique and interesting history."
+
+
+INTERMARRIAGE.--We have seen that the founder of the Oneida Community
+permitted the intermarriage of uncle and niece, although he considered
+them related as nearly as father and daughter. This question of the
+intermarriage of near blood relations is an important one in its bearing
+on the question of stirpiculture, and as already mentioned, it has
+engaged the attention of nearly all the lower races of mankind. It has,
+indeed, been provided against by the marriage restrictions of most
+uncultured peoples, and their systems of relationship clearly point out
+what persons are within the permitted limits of marriage. It appears to
+be the general rule that the children of two brothers or of two sisters,
+whether own or tribal, cannot intermarry, but that the children of a
+brother and those of a sister may be thus united, although sometimes
+this is not allowed where own brother and sister are concerned.[42:A]
+
+The question of the effect on offspring of consanguineous marriages was
+some time ago particularly enquired into by Mr. A. H. Huth, who, after a
+consideration of all the information available, came, in his work, "The
+Marriage of Near Kin," to the following conclusions:
+
+"1--That any deterioration through the marriage of near kin, _per se_,
+even if there be such a thing in the lower animals, is impossible in
+man, owing to the slow propagation of the species.
+
+"2--That any deterioration through the chance accumulation of an
+idiosyncrasy, though more likely to occur in families where the marriage
+of blood relations was habitual, practically does not occur oftener than
+in other marriages, or it would be more easily demonstrated.
+
+"3--That, seeing the doubt, to say the least of it, which exists
+concerning the effect for harm of marriages between near kin, and on the
+other hand the certainty that whenever and wherever marriage is impeded
+a direct and proportionate impulse is given to the practice of
+immorality, it is advisable not to extend the prohibition against
+marriage beyond the third collateral degree, and to permit all marriages
+of affinity excepting those in the direct ascending or descending line."
+
+There appears to be no doubt that what are regarded among Christian
+peoples as incestuous marriages are not desirable. How far marriage
+unions between first cousins are advisable depends, as appears from Mr.
+Huth's remarks, on considerations which affect the question generally.
+If there are any serious physical, intellectual or moral defects on
+either side, no marriage should take place.
+
+
+WOMAN'S SELECTIVE ACTION.--Apart from the question of consanguinity, the
+principles which should govern all marriages is that of sexual
+selection, which should have reference, however, not merely to physical
+characters, but also to mental and moral characteristics. In applying
+this principle, it must be remembered that while man, like the male of
+all animals, does the courting, woman, like all females, makes the
+selection; at least this is the general rule among the most cultured
+peoples. Thus it is evident that woman possesses the power of largely
+influencing the improvement of the human race, and in this fact we may
+see the possibility of this being effected by the operation of general
+social causes, without having recourse to individual experiments, such
+as that undertaken by Noyes, which are necessarily limited in their
+action, and may, after all, have like practical result. _If all women
+could be induced to combine for that end they could probably bring about
+the desired improvement by their own efforts._
+
+On this subject the well-known naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, has some
+judicious remarks in an article on "Human Progress, Past and Future," in
+_The Arena_ for January, 1892. Mr. Wallace, who accepts the views of
+Weismann as to the non-inheritance of acquired characters, thinks that
+the physical and moral evils and degradation attendant on the conditions
+of modern city life will have no permanent effects, when a more rational
+and elevating system of social organization is brought about. The most
+important agency in this social regeneration will be the selective
+action of woman, under the influence of her newly acquired freedom and
+higher education. Says Mr. Wallace: "When such social changes have been
+effected that no woman will be compelled, either by hunger, isolation or
+social compulsion, to sell herself, whether in or out of wedlock, and
+when all women alike shall feel the refining influence of a true
+harmonizing education, of beautiful and elevating surroundings, and of a
+public opinion which shall be founded on the highest aspirations of
+their age and country, the result will be a form of human selection
+which will bring about a continuous advance in the average status of the
+race. Under such conditions, all who are deformed either in body or
+mind, though they may be able to lead happy and contented lives, will,
+as a rule, leave no children to inherit their deformity. Even now we
+find many women who do not marry because they have never found the man
+of their ideal. When no woman will be compelled to marry for a bare
+living or for a comfortable home, those who remain unmarried from their
+own free choice will certainly increase in number, while many others,
+having no inducement to an early marriage, will wait until they meet
+with a partner who is really congenial to them. In such a reformed
+society the vicious man, the man of degraded taste or of feeble
+intellect, will have little chance of finding a wife, and his bad
+qualities will die out with himself. The most perfect and beautiful in
+body and mind will, on the other hand, be most sought and therefore be
+most likely to marry early, the less highly endowed later, and the least
+gifted in any way the latest of all; and this will be the case with both
+sexes. From this varying age of marriage, as Mr. Galton has shown, there
+will result a more rapid increase of the former than of the latter, and
+this cause continuing at work for successive generations will at length
+bring the average man to be the equal of those who are now among the
+more advanced of the race."
+
+We have here the application of the principle of sexual selection in its
+highest sense, although limited in action to women, and it is
+undoubtedly the phase of stirpiculture which will become operative when
+the "emancipation of women" is completed. There is one feature of modern
+society which may retard its operation, and which was referred to by
+Darwin as interfering with the physical effect of sexual selection in
+the past. Wealth is now, more than ever before, an important factor in
+society, and not only man's but woman's choice in matrimony is often
+governed by money considerations. The possession of wealth may be
+evidence of mental astuteness, but not necessarily of high morality, and
+until it ceases to be sought after in marriage it will seriously
+interfere with the improvement of the race on its higher planes.
+
+The sexual selection which Mr. Wallace so ably advocates is to be
+exercised by woman, and hence its efficiency will depend on the fitness
+of woman, not only to choose proper partners in marriage, but to
+communicate the highest physical and mental characters to her offspring.
+She can transmit only what she herself possesses, and she will choose
+that which is in sympathy with her own feelings and desires, so that if
+she is to affect the race beneficially, she must seek first her own
+perfection. Hence the great importance of the woman's movement of the
+present day, the basis of which is the better development of her
+physical, mental and moral faculties, without which she cannot expect to
+have the increased social privileges to which she may aspire. The
+greatest social privilege women can have is to be the chief agent in the
+improvement of the race, and through it the regeneration of society
+itself. Lady May Jeune, in reply to those who think that the present
+relations between mothers and daughters threaten family disruption,
+observes, "That woman was created for the purpose of being the wife and
+mother of mankind no one can deny, and that none of the discoveries of
+science or any attempt to solve the mysteries of life have brought her
+one bit nearer the knowledge of how to unburden herself of these
+responsibilities, is also a fact." This must be true if the race is to
+be continued; for without wives there can be no mothers. Being possible
+mothers, therefore, it is necessary, if the race and society are to be
+improved, that women shall acquire the highest physical, intellectual
+and moral education they are capable of, and if they require the same
+qualities in their husbands, the problem we are considering will be
+solved.
+
+
+MAN'S AND WOMAN'S CO-OPERATION.--We have here the central idea of the
+New Hedonism advocated by Mr. Grant Allen, whose views necessitate the
+active agency of man as well as of woman. This is only reasonable,
+seeing that offspring depend on the co-operation of two factors, and
+that if either of them is defective the offspring must share in the
+defect. "Self-development is an aim of all," says Mr. Grant Allen, "an
+aim which will make all stronger and braver, and wiser, and better. It
+will make each in the end more helpful to humanity. To be sound in wind
+and limb; to be healthy of body and mind; to be educated, to be
+emancipated, to be free, to be beautiful--these things are ends towards
+which all should strive, and by attaining which all are happier in
+themselves, and more useful to others." Hence the New Hedonism teaches
+that "to prepare ourselves for the duties of paternity and maternity, by
+making ourselves as vigorous and healthful as we can be is a duty we owe
+to all our children unborn and to one another." This applies as well to
+"the body spiritual, intellectual and esthetic" as to the physical
+body. Mr. Grant Allen thinks the theory he advocates will introduce a
+new system, which "will not include the selling of self into loveless
+union for a night or for a lifetime; the bearing of children by a mother
+to a man she despises or loathes or shrinks from; the production by
+force, sanctified by law, of hereditary drunkards, hereditary
+epileptics, hereditary consumptives, hereditary criminals. We shall
+expect in the future a purer and truer relation between father and
+mother, parent and child. We shall expect some sanctity to attach to the
+idea of paternity, some thought and care to be given beforehand to the
+duties of motherhood. We will not admit that the chance union of two
+unfit persons, who ought never to have made themselves parents at all,
+or ought never to have made themselves parents with one another, can be
+rendered holy and harmless by the hands of a priest extended to bless a
+bought love, or a bargain of impure marriage. In one word, for the first
+time in the history of the race, we shall evolve the totally new idea of
+responsibility in parentage. _And as part of this responsibility we
+shall include the two antithetical, but correlative, doctrines of a
+moral abstinence from fatherhood and motherhood on the part of the
+unfit, and a moral obligation to fatherhood and motherhood on the part
+of the noblest, the purest, the sanest, the healthiest, the most able
+among us. We will not doom to forced celibacy half our finest mothers._"
+
+
+THE INDIVIDUAL'S RIGHTS.--From the racial standpoint these views are
+just and cannot be controverted, but something must be allowed to the
+individual. The relative position and rights of the race and the
+individual are in a dispute, which has become intensified since the
+development of the theory of evolution. _But the individual is the
+beginning of the race and he should be its end._ Therefore, in seeking
+to improve the race, violence must not be done to the highest sentiments
+of the individual. It is a fact that many highly cultured individuals
+have a repugnance to certain aspects of married life, and this
+repugnance appears to be justified by the further fact that a high state
+of refinement is often attended with loss of physical productiveness.
+One of the most curious results of Galton's enquiries into heredity was
+that wealthy families have a tendency to die out in heiresses, which is
+partly, but not wholly, dependent on the fact that childbearing is more
+often the accompaniment of poverty than of luxurious living.
+
+The personal disinclination to marry attendant on intellectual
+refinement is still more likely to be possessed by those of high
+spirituality. This is quite natural, notwithstanding the statement of
+Mr. Grant Allen, which is undoubtedly true, that the origin and basis
+of all that is best and highest within us is to be found in the
+sex-instinct. Love may have begotten "all higher arts and all higher
+customs," and yet love may in the process itself become sexless, as it
+is when it assumes the noblest form, that of divine charity for our
+fellowmen. As well might we continue to perpetuate in our highest
+actions the nature of the ape-man because we are descendants of this
+creature, as let the idea of sex always rule our thoughts. With the
+individual the physical influence of sex is weakened and finally ceases,
+although it ever remains constant in the race, and hence the influence
+of the idea of sex over the mind of the individual should be similarly
+affected. "In Heaven," said the founder of Christianity, "there is
+neither marrying nor giving in marriage," and in that highest mental
+condition, which is heaven on earth, the sense of sex has ceased to be
+operative, having given place to the spiritual sense which is the
+noblest attribute of man because the last to be developed.
+
+We have here, however, a question between the individual and the race,
+and it does not affect the main contention that the improvement of the
+race, which includes that of the individual, is to be found in the
+application of the principle of selection. This must necessarily be
+chiefly in the hands of women, although both men and women must
+co-operate to bring about the best results, by seeking first of all to
+improve their own natures by physical, intellectual and moral culture.
+The statement of the case according to that principle, and the aim to be
+attained, exhibit the dignity and importance of the subject of
+stirpiculture. Theoretically this is admitted on all hands, and as soon
+as the conditions of the subject are clearly understood there will be no
+practical difficulty in carrying the principle into effect, so that it
+may have its legitimate consequences.
+
+What parents have to realize is the necessity of so training and
+instructing their children that they may become capable of being the
+parents of perfect offspring. The good tree only can bear good fruit.
+But this is not the real starting point of stirpiculture. An essential
+factor, and one that is seldom thought of, is the spirit in which the
+inception of offspring is undertaken. Marriage was to the ancients a
+sacred state, because it was associated with the religion of the
+domestic altar, and because the perpetuation of the family, which was
+its aim, was required by the necessity of having a son to perform the
+sacred rites at that altar after the death of his father. The
+perpetuation of the family was thus a sacred duty, and the consummation
+of marriage partook of this character. According to the ancient Persian
+religion, the union of man and woman is the act most agreeable to God,
+and the act of consummation is directed to be sanctified, and a prayer
+directed to God that He would bless it. Marriage must be conducted in
+this spirit, rather than as a means of gratifying the passions, if the
+happiest results are to be obtained from the application of the
+principle of sexual selection.
+
+
+SPIRITUAL SYMPATHY IN MARRIAGE.--That supposes, however, the existence
+of spiritual sympathy between those who are united in marriage, and this
+sympathy must form the true basis of all improvements in the race. It
+was the neglect of this feature, the want of which must render any
+attempt to carry out Plato's ideas on the subject of marriage futile,
+that put a stop to the experiments undertaken by his latest imitator,
+Noyes. His adherents simply made a return to the monogamy which is the
+heritage of all the Aryan peoples, and which is based on the union of
+two hearts, and not merely of two persons. This is the first application
+of the principle of sexual selection above the animal plane, and it must
+be continued notwithstanding that the range of selection is extended so
+as to embrace also the intellectual and moral planes.
+
+How far the State may ultimately be called on to aid in the improvement
+of the race, in accordance with the ideas we have been considering, is
+doubtful. It can aid very materially in placing restraints on too early
+marriage, and by insisting on the attainment of a proper standard of
+physical training and of mental culture before marriage is entered on.
+There is no reason, moreover, why the State should not interfere to
+prevent the marriage of those who are too near of kin, or who by reason
+of physical or mental ailment, or by their moral defects are not fit
+subjects for the propagation of the race. The objection to this
+interference with personal liberty is so strong, however, that even so
+rational a procedure as preventing the spread, through marriage
+alliances, of disease and crime cannot yet obtain the sanction of public
+opinion. This will be educated with the general improvement of the race
+that must gradually take place through other agencies, and then the
+State will have merely to carry into effect the decrees of the people,
+which will be expressed in no uncertain language when woman has attained
+to the influence to which her own perfected condition will entitle her.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21:A] Mr. Darwin accepted this view at first; but in a note to the
+second edition of his "Descent of Man" he says: "C. Staniland Wake
+argues strongly against the views held by these three writers on the
+former prevalence of almost promiscuous intercourse." See "Development
+of Kinship and Marriage." Redway, London. 1888.
+
+[28:A] The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago. 1892.
+
+[39:A] It should be sixty-one.
+
+[42:A] See Lorimer Fison, in "The Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute," May, 1895, page 361. The whole subject is exhaustively
+treated by C. Staniland Wake, in his "Development of Kinship and
+Marriage."
+
+
+
+
+PRENATAL CULTURE.
+
+
+In the last preceding chapter we have considered the subject of the
+improvement of the race, especially through the action of sexual
+selection, or, as it may be expressed, selective action in the pairing
+of individuals, whether brought about compulsorily by the controlling
+influence of the State or some other external authority, or by the
+actual choice of one or both of the individuals immediately concerned.
+We have now to deal with the subject of the influence over offspring of
+affections of the individual organisms from whose union such offspring
+is derived.
+
+
+JACOB'S FLOCKS.--The story of Jacob dealing with the flocks of Laban,
+given in Genesis xxx, is usually alluded to in corroboration of the
+belief that offspring may be physically affected before birth, by
+anything which strongly influences the imagination of the mother. Jacob
+is represented as making an agreement with Laban, his father-in-law,
+that Jacob should receive as his hire all the ringstreaked and spotted
+he-goats and all the black she-goats, and also those that were speckled
+and spotted. When this arrangement had been made, Laban sought to
+benefit by it by removing from the flock all the goats that answered to
+that description, and giving them into the care of his sons, leaving the
+rest of the flock in Jacob's charge. This was undoubtedly an attempt on
+the part of Laban to cheat his son-in-law out of his wages, but the
+latter was not to be so cheated, and he adopted a plan which gave him
+the pick of the flock, leaving the feeble goats to his less wily parent.
+
+In describing this operation, the Bible story says: "And Jacob took him
+rods of fresh poplar [or storax tree] and of the almond and of the plane
+tree, and peeled white streaks in them, and made the white appear which
+was in the rods. And he set the rods which he had peeled over against
+the flocks in the gutters in the watering troughs where the flocks came
+to drink; and they conceived when they came to drink. And the flocks
+conceived before the rods, and the flocks brought forth ringstreaked,
+speckled and spotted. And Jacob separated the lambs, and set the faces
+of the flocks toward the ringstreaked and all the black in the flock of
+Laban; and he put his own droves apart, and put them not unto Laban's
+flock. And it came to pass, whensoever the stronger of the flock did
+conceive, that Jacob laid the rods before the eyes of the flock in the
+gutters, that they might conceive among the rods; but when the flock
+were feeble, he put them not in: so the feebler were Laban's, and the
+stronger Jacob's."
+
+Whether or not this incident actually occurred as stated we do not know.
+According to the subsequent part of the narrative, the effect of setting
+up the peeled rods was ascribed to God's interference in his behalf; but
+it is not improbable that we have in the story a reference to ancient
+shepherd lore, based on the superstitious notions still so common in the
+East. In the earlier part of the same chapter is a story relating to
+mandrakes, which were supposed to have influence on human generation.
+Jacob is said to have used three kinds of rods, those of the poplar or
+storax tree, the almond, and the plane tree, which produced
+ringstreaked, speckled and spotted lambs.
+
+The influence exerted by Jacob's rods was of a different character from
+that which is supposed to give rise to the marking of offspring before
+birth, which is not uncommon if we are to accept as true all the cases
+mentioned in books referring to the subject. What occurred took place
+_before_ conception, and not subsequent to it, as in these cases.
+Nevertheless, both classes of phenomena are recognized by so competent
+an authority as M. Th. Ribot, who, in his "Heredity,"[57:A] when
+criticising Dr. Lucas' explanation of the origin of the numerous
+exceptions to the law of heredity, as being due to the operation of the
+law of spontaneity, affirms that there is no law of spontaneity, but
+that all such exceptions may be explained by reference to certain causes
+of diversity. M. Ribot gives three causes of diversity, which are:
+1--Antagonistic heredities of two parents; 2--Accidental causes in
+action at the moment of generation; 3--External and internal influences
+subsequent to conception. He assigns but little importance to causes
+acting after birth, such as diet, climate, circumstances, education,
+physical and moral influences, because, though they may produce serious
+effects, these are not radical. Possibly, however, since the advance
+made in the education of those who are born with defects of the sensory
+apparatus, M. Ribot would somewhat modify his opinion on that point. As
+to the causes which operate at the period of conception, or subsequent
+thereto and before birth, he says, in relation to the latter class, they
+"are all the physical and moral disturbances of uterine existence--all
+those influences which can act through the mother upon the fetus during
+the period of gestation; impressions, emotions, defective nutrition,
+effects of imagination." He adds: "These causes are very real, despite
+the objections of Lucas, who attacks them in order to establish his law
+of spontaneity. We see from examples that between considerable causes
+and their effects there exists an amazing disproportion."
+
+The causes of diversity which operate at the instant of conception
+depend, says Ribot, "less upon the physical and moral natures of the
+parents than on the particular state in which they are at the moment of
+procreation." This fact is referred to by M. de Quatrefages as fully
+proving the universality of the law of heredity, and M. Ribot adds, "It
+enables us to understand that those transitory states which exist at the
+moment of conception may exert a decisive influence on the nature of the
+being procreated, so that often, where now we see only spontaneity, a
+more perfect knowledge of the causes at work would show us heredity."
+
+Professor E. D. Cope, the well-known author of "The Origin of the
+Fittest," would seem to doubt the truth of the stories of birthmarks on
+the ground that "the effect of temporary impressions on the mother is
+not strong enough to counterbalance the molecular structure established
+by impressions oftener repeated throughout much longer periods of
+time."[59:A] And yet there is no doubt that birthmarks do occasionally
+occur, although it is very difficult to obtain properly authenticated
+cases of them.
+
+
+AN ILLUSTRATIVE CASE.--How great is the influence on unborn offspring
+of the mother's mental condition, as well as the effect over them of
+pleasant surroundings, is shown by the following case. A young girl
+attracted attention by her beauty and by the superiority of the type she
+exhibited over that of either of her parents, and on her mother being
+spoken to on the subject she remarked:
+
+"In my early married life my husband and I learned how to live in holy
+relations, after God's ordinance. My husband lovingly consented to let
+me live apart from him during the time I carried this little daughter
+under my heart, and also while I was nursing her. Those were the
+happiest days of my life. Every day before my child was born, I could
+have hugged myself with delight at the prospect of becoming a mother. My
+husband and I were never so tenderly, so harmoniously, or so happily
+related to each other, and I never loved him more deeply than during
+those blessed months. I was surrounded by all beautiful things, and one
+picture of a lovely face was especially in my thought. My daughter looks
+more like that picture than she does like either of us. From the time
+she was born she was like an exquisite rosebud--the flower of pure,
+sanctified, happy love. She never cried at night, was never fretful or
+nervous, but was all smiles and winning baby ways, filling our hearts
+and home with perpetual gladness. To this day, and she is now fourteen
+years old, I have never had the slightest difficulty in bringing her up.
+She turns naturally to the right, and I never knew her to be cross or
+impatient or hard to manage. She has given me only comfort; and I
+realize from an experience of just the opposite nature that the reason
+of all this is because my little girl had her birthright."
+
+The future experience of this lady was, however, of a very different
+nature. She added:
+
+"A few years later I was again about to become a mother, but with what
+different feelings! My husband had become contaminated with the popular
+idea that even more and frequent relations were permissible during
+pregnancy. I was powerless against this wicked sophistry, and was
+obliged to yield to his constant desires. But how I suffered and cried;
+how wretched I was; how nervous and almost despairing! Worst of all, I
+felt my love and trusting faith turning to dread and repulsion.
+
+"My little boy, on whom my husband set high hopes, was born after nine
+of the most unhappy, distressing months of my life, a sickly, nervous,
+fretting child--myself in miniature, and after five years of life that
+was predestined by all the circumstances to be just what it was, after
+giving us only anxiety and care, he died, leaving us sadder and wiser.
+
+"I have demonstrated to my own abundant satisfaction that there is but
+one right, God-given way to beget and rear children, and I know that I
+am only one of many who can corroborate this testimony."
+
+The following case of prenatal culture appeared in _The Philosophical_
+for October 5, 1895, above the signature of "John Allyn," who says:
+
+"About forty years ago I was a neighbor of a young couple who had been
+recently married. They were of fair natural abilities, but not highly
+educated. The wife could play on the piano well and accompany it with
+her voice. The husband was a house-building contractor. Before their
+first child was born the wife was provided with instruments for drawing,
+and interested herself in their use and mathematical calculations
+connected with them. The child proved to be a boy, who took to
+architectural drawing as by instinct. With very little effort he became
+proficient, and is now employed at a high salary by the Southern Pacific
+Railroad as their architect.
+
+"Some years later, before the second child was born, the mother
+interested herself with music with reference to the effect it would have
+on the unborn child. This child proved to be a girl, who is now an
+expert singer, finding ready employment in opera companies. Though not a
+star, she has a superior talent for music which enabled her to take
+advantages of musical training easily."
+
+
+BELIEFS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES.--Whenever such cases happen, it is under
+the influence of some very strong emotion, during the period of
+gestation, arising from the action on the nervous system of the mother
+by an external object presented to the sight, the organ of which would
+seem to have an intimate association with the general muscular system.
+There is nothing to show that primitive peoples recognized the action of
+prenatal influence through the senses; but there is a very curious
+custom, which is so widespread at the present time that we may well
+suppose it to have been formerly almost universal, dependent upon the
+imagined effect of the eating of animal flesh. All primitive peoples
+believe that a man acquires physical or mental characteristics from
+animals of whose flesh he partakes. Cannibalism is closely connected
+with this notion, as the man who eats part of the body of a foe is
+thought to become endowed with the victim's courage, strength or other
+special quality. Probably the Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals,
+that is, animals unfit for food, was based on such an idea; and
+certainly the command to abstain from eating blood was thus connected;
+as we are told the blood is the life, and if so, then it must be the
+carrier of vital influences.
+
+The custom above referred to, which is known to ethnologists as _la
+couvade_, or "hatching," supposes injurious action on the organism of
+the child of food eaten by its parents, as appears from the facts
+brought together by Dr. E. B. Tylor in his "Researches into the Early
+History of Mankind." The couvade usually has reference to the period
+immediately following the birth of a child; but among the native tribes
+of South America, where it is more extensively prevalent than elsewhere,
+it is observed while the child is still unborn. Thus, in Brazil,
+according to Von Martius, "A strict regimen is preserved before the
+birth; the man and the woman refrain for a time from the flesh of
+certain animals, and live chiefly on fish and fruits." The peculiarity
+of the couvade custom, and that which gives it its special interest, is
+the fact that it usually concerns the father and not the mother, as
+injury to the child is supposed to be due to the conduct of the former
+rather than of the latter. Thus, among the Land Dyaks of Borneo, "The
+husband, before the birth of his child, may do no work with a sharp
+instrument, except what is necessary for the farm; nor may he fire guns,
+nor strike animals, nor do any violent work, lest bad influences should
+affect the child; and after it is born the father is kept in seclusion
+indoors for several days, and dieted on rice and salt, to prevent not
+his own but his child's stomach from swelling."
+
+Here food abstinence takes place after the birth of the child, but,
+according to Brett, in Guinea "Some of the Acawois and Caribi nations,
+when they have reason to expect an increase of their families consider
+themselves bound to abstain from certain kinds of meat, lest the
+expected child should, in some mysterious way, be injured by the
+partaking of it. The acouri (or agouti) is thus tabooed, lest, like that
+little animal, the child should be meager; the haimara, also, lest it
+should be blind--the outer coating of the eye of the fish suggesting
+film or cataract; the labba, lest the infant's mouth should protrude
+like the labba's, or lest it be spotted like the labba, which spots
+would ultimately become sores."
+
+Another related case, of more recent observation, is that of the
+Motumotu of New Guinea, who say that after conception the _mother_ must
+not eat sweet potato or taro, lest the head of the child grow out of
+proportion, and the _father_ must not eat crocodile or several kinds of
+fish, lest the child's legs grow out of proportion. At Suan, a husband
+shuts himself up for some days after the birth of his first child, and
+will eat nothing.[65:A]
+
+Various explanations of the custom of couvade have been offered, and
+probably C. Staniland Wake is right when he states that it is connected
+with the idea that the father is the real source of the child's
+life.[66:A] As he points out, on the authority of M. Girard-Teulon,
+among the European Basques, even at the present day, a husband enters
+his wife's abode only "for the purpose of reproduction, and to work for
+the benefit of his wife." Mr. Wake remarks that, "With some of the
+Brazilian tribes, when a man becomes a father he goes to bed instead of
+his wife, and all the women of the village come to console him for the
+pain and suffering he has had in making this child." This agrees with
+the idea entertained by so many peoples that the child is derived from
+the father only, the mother being merely its nourisher. When such an
+idea is held, it is not surprising if, as among the Abipones, the belief
+is formed that "the father's carelessness influences the new-born
+offspring, from a natural bond and sympathy of both," or if the father
+abstains, either before or after the child's birth, from eating any
+food, or performing any actions which are thought capable of doing it
+harm. Still more so, if the child is regarded, as is sometimes the case,
+as the reincarnation of the father, a notion which is supported by the
+fact, pointed out by Mr. Gerald Massey, that in the couvade the parent
+identifies himself with the infant child, into which he has been
+typically transformed.
+
+That conclusion agrees with the opinion expressed by Mr. Tylor, that
+the couvade "implicitly denies that physical separation of 'individuals'
+which a civilized man would probably set down as a first principle
+common by nature to all mankind. . . . It shows us a number of distinct
+and distant tribes deliberately holding the opinion that the connection
+between father and child is not only, as we think, a mere relation of
+parentage, affection, duty, but that their very bodies are joined by a
+physical bond, so that what is done to the one acts directly upon the
+other."[67:A] The couvade custom is thus closely connected with the
+question of the special relationship of a child to one or other of its
+parents. Curious notions on this subject have been formed from time to
+time; but the ancients almost universally entertained the idea held by
+the Greeks that "the father, as endowed with creative power, was clothed
+with the divine character, but not the mother, who was only the bearer
+and nourisher of the child." Professor Hearn accepts this view in his
+work, "The Aryan Household," and suggests as the Aryan thought on the
+subject: "A male was the first founder of the house. His descendants
+have 'the nature of the same blood' as he. They, in common, possess the
+same mysterious principle of life. The life spark, so to speak, has
+been once kindled, and its identity, in all its transmissions, must be
+preserved. But the father is the life-giver. He alone transmits the life
+spark, which from his father he received. The daughter receives, indeed,
+the principle of life, but she cannot transmit it."
+
+M. Ribot, who, as we have seen, endorses the popular belief as to the
+possibility of the fetus being affected, during uterine existence,
+through the organism of the mother, reduces all the obscure causes of
+deviation from heredity to two classes. Of these, the first is the
+disproportion of effects to causes, already mentioned; and the second is
+the transformation of heredity. As to the first of these causes, he lays
+it down as a general truth that "the more complicated the mechanism, the
+greater the disproportion between accidental causes and their effects."
+He supports this conclusion by reference to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's
+researches on the production of monsters, and he affirms that the
+disproportion between cause and effect cannot be foreseen by measuring,
+but is known only by experience, as "psychological laws are analogous
+now to mechanical and now to chemical laws," so that it is impossible to
+proceed by deduction from causes to effects. (Page 207.)
+
+
+BIRTHMARKS RARE.--And yet the very fact that cases of birthmarks are
+comparatively rare, proves the greatly preponderating influence of
+heredity over the constitution of the offspring, modified by the
+disposition of the parents at the time of procreation. Professor Cope
+has some explanatory remarks on that subject which deserve quotation. He
+says--after referring to the hypothesis that growth-force may be,
+through the motive force of the animal, directed to any locality,
+whether the commencement of an executive organ has begun or not--that "A
+difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is the frequently unyielding
+character of the structure of adult animals, and the difficulty of
+bringing sufficient pressure to bear on them without destroying life.
+But, in fact, the modifications must, in most instances, take place
+during the period of growth. It is well known that the mental
+characteristics of the father are transmitted through the spermatozoid,
+and that, therefore, the molecular movements which produce the mechanism
+of such mental characters must exist in the spermatozoid. But the
+material of the spermatozoid is combined with that of the ovum, and the
+embryo is compounded of the animal contents of both bodies. In a
+wonderful way the embryo develops into a being which resembles one or
+both parents in minute details. This result is evidently determined by
+the molecular and dynamic character of the original reproductive cells
+which necessarily communicate their properties to the embryo which is
+produced by their subdivisions." Professor Cope goes on to say, "Richard
+Hering has identified this property of the original cells with the
+faculty of memory. This is a brilliant thought, and, under restriction,
+probably correct. The sensations of persons who have suffered amputation
+show that their sensorium maintained a picture or map of the body so far
+as regards the location of all its sensitive regions. This simulcrum is
+invested with consciousness whenever the proper stimulus is applied, and
+the character of the stimulus is fixed by it. This picture probably
+resides in many of the cells, both sensory and motor, and it probably
+does so in the few cells of simple and low forms of life. The
+spermatozoid is such a cell, and, how or why we know not, also contains
+such an arrangement of its contents, and contains and communicates such
+a type of force. It is probable that in the brain-cell this is the
+condition of memory of locality. If, now, an intense and long-continued
+pressure of stimulus produces an unconscious picture of some organ of
+the body in the mind, there is reason to suppose that the energies
+communicated to the embryo by the spermatozoid and ovum will partake of
+the memory thus created. The only reason why the oft-repeated stories of
+birthmarks are so often untrue, is because the effect of temporary
+impressions on the mother is not strong enough to counterbalance the
+molecular structure established by impressions often repeated
+throughout much larger periods of time."[71:A]
+
+
+WHY CHILDREN RESEMBLE PARENTS.--That children reproduce the general and
+physical and mental characteristics of their parents in combination is
+unquestionable truth, although the particular mode in which they are
+communicated is yet undetermined, notwithstanding the fact mentioned by
+Professor Cope that they are somehow conveyed by the microscopic sperm
+and germ in the union of which the new being has its beginning. Thus
+every individual must possess the general characteristics of the
+primitive human family from which through a vast number of ancestors he
+has descended. And yet at every stage of descent the organism may have
+obtained fresh characters, or at least have undergone some modification.
+As remarked by Dr. G. H. Th. Eimer, "Every character which must have
+been formed through the activity of the organism is an acquired
+character. All characters, therefore, which have been developed by
+exertion are acquired, and these characters are inherited from
+generation to generation. The same holds for all organs atrophied
+through disease--the degree of atrophy is acquired and inherited. In the
+first class we see especially the action of direct adaptation; in the
+second, the results of the cessation of the action. A third class of
+acquired characters is to be traced simply to the immediate action of
+the environment on the organism, and, originally, at the commencement of
+their appearance, all characters must have belonged to this
+class."[72:A] We have here a general argument in opposition to the
+theory propounded by Professor Weismann, that acquired characters are
+not transmissible. Elsewhere (page 382) Dr. Eimer observes: "Phyletic
+growth, or the evolution of the organic world ever into higher and more
+complex forms, or at least into forms of different structure, is, as I
+have said, merely the sum of the processes of growth of the
+ancestors--together with the result of external influences on the forms
+during their development and their existence. This additional
+modification which the individuals as such undergo is--together with the
+influence of crossing--the very cause of the constantly progressing
+evolution. All that the members of a series of individuals directly
+connected by descent acquire constitutes together the material for the
+formation of a new species."
+
+
+LIFE'S EXPERIENCES AFFECTING CHILD.--Unless characteristics acquired by
+an individual, that is, the modifications of the organism due to his
+own life experiences, are capable of being handed down to his offspring,
+it is difficult to see how any progress could be made in the development
+of the race. Weismann's declaration that acquired characters are not
+transmissible was a surprise to the scientific world when first made,
+but it has been accepted by many Darwinians. His conclusion is dependent
+on his doctrine of heredity, which differs from that propounded by
+Darwin, but is by no means new; as its leading ideas, as pointed out by
+Professor G. J. Romanes,[73:A] are largely a reproduction of those of
+Mr. Francis Galton, whose work on heredity attracted much attention when
+first published. The views of Darwin, Galton and Weismann on that
+subject have been compared by Professor Romanes, who explains the
+distinction between them. He says (page 133), after referring to the
+supposed continuity of the germ-plasm, common to the theories of Galton
+and Weismann, but not required by that of Darwin, "The three theories
+may be ranked thus--The particulate elements of heredity all proceed
+centripetally from somatic-cells to germ-cells (gemmules): the
+inheritance of acquired characters is therefore habitual.
+
+"These particulate elements proceed for the most part, though not
+exclusively, from germ-cells to somatic-cells (stirp): the inheritance
+of acquired characters is therefore but occasional.
+
+"The elements in question proceed exclusively in the centrifugal
+direction last mentioned (germ-plasm): the inheritance of acquired
+characters is therefore impossible."
+
+The first of these theories is that of Darwin, and the last that of
+Weismann, whose notion of the continuity of germ-plasm supposes that no
+part of an organism generates any of the formative material which goes
+to make up its offspring. This material is regarded in much the same
+light as the sperm which the male parent confides to the keeping of the
+female, according to the notion of the ancient world above referred to.
+For, as Romanes states (page 26): "In each generation a small portion of
+this substance [germ-plasm] is told off to develop a new body to lodge
+and nourish the ever-growing and never-dying germ-plasm--this new body,
+therefore, resembling its so-called parent body simply because it has
+been developed from one and the same mass of formative material; and,
+lastly, that this formative material, or germ-plasm, has been continuous
+through all generations of successively perishing bodies, which
+therefore stand to it in much the same relation as annual shoots to a
+perennial stem: the shoots resemble one another simply because they are
+all grown from one and the same stock."
+
+Although Professor Weismann denies that acquired characters, that is,
+individual peculiarities arising as the result of personal experience,
+are transmitted, he admits that congenital characters, that is,
+peculiarities with which an individual is born, are transmitted to
+offspring. As congenital characters must, originally, have been
+individual, it is not easy at first sight to perceive Weismann's real
+meaning. It is necessary, therefore, to enter more particularly into a
+consideration of his theory, which he regards as in general accord with
+Darwin's theory of pangenesis. Darwin supposes that all the cells of the
+body continually give off great numbers of _gemmules_, which are
+conveyed by the blood and deposited in the germ-cells of the organism.
+These cells are thus endowed with the power of developing a new organism
+of the same kind, each gemmule reproducing the cell from which it was
+derived. These ultimate vital units are called by Weismann _biophors_,
+but he supposes them not to be the ultimate "bearers of vitality." They
+are said to be arranged in groups to which the term _determinants_ is
+applied, and these groups are combined so as to form ancestral _ids_ or
+germ-plasms. Each determinant, which is made up of perfectly definite
+numbers and combinations of biophors, is the primary constituent of a
+particular cell, or of a group of cells, such as a blood corpuscle. The
+determinants thus "control the cell by breaking up into biophors, which
+migrate into the cell body through the nuclear membrane, multiply there,
+arrange themselves according to the forces within them, and determine
+the histological structure of the cell," impressing upon it its
+inherited specific character. The structure of the cell, and of every
+subsequent stage, exists therefore potentially in the inherited
+structure of the id, and the determination of its character "depends on
+the biophors which the corresponding determinant contains, and which it
+transmits to the cell."
+
+
+GERM-PLASM.--While Weismann regarded germ-plasm as absolutely stable,
+the only mode by which congenital variation could be brought about was
+that of _amphimixis_, or intermingling of individuals in the process of
+generation. As modified, however, by his latest work, "The Germ-plasm, a
+Theory of Heredity," published in 1892, his theory now allows the plasm
+to be capable of modification, and he ascribes that variation to the
+direct effects of external influences on the biophors and determinants
+of the germ-plasm. The instability of this substance is so slight,
+however, that congenital variations cannot be acted on and perpetuated
+by natural selection, and the influence of amphimixis is thus required
+for the purpose. Mr. Herbert Spencer, however, in criticising
+Weismann's theory, declares that "functionally produced modifications of
+structure are transmissible," and he refers in support of his contention
+to the remarkable effect of arrested nutrition on the structure and
+habits of wasps and bees. It especially affects the reproductive organs,
+and hence there is no occasion to call in the aid of amphimixis to
+perpetuate the variations produced, its office being the blending of the
+elements on which the characteristics of offspring depend.
+
+If it be asked how modifications are actually transmitted, we may say
+that it can be only by an affection of the germ-cell. This probably
+takes place by deviations in the structure of what Weismann calls
+determinants, or of groups of determinants, through rearrangement of
+their primary units. The modification would be preceded, however, by a
+corresponding change in the nerve centers concerned in the use or disuse
+of the organs affected. Mr. Spencer shows that under certain conditions
+changes take place in the conduct of certain insects, and that "the
+maternal activities and instincts undergo analogous changes,"[77:A]
+facts which point to a loss of nervous energy and to an intimate
+connection between the nervous system and the reproductive function. Use
+or disuse first increases or diminishes the activity of certain nerve
+centers, and this leads to a modification of the corresponding
+germ-cells. If so, the determinants, instead of being first affected, as
+proposed by Weismann, and thus determining the variations, are in
+reality modified as the result of the functional changes, and are thus
+capable of transmitting these changes to succeeding generations.
+
+In a subsequent article, published in _The Contemporary Review_ for
+October, 1894, Mr. Spencer recapitulates his argument in favor of the
+transmission of acquired characters, and refers to observations made by
+Professor Hertwig and others, which he regards as "showing, firstly,
+that all the multiplying cells of the developing embryo are alike; and,
+secondly, that the soma-cells of the adult severally retain, in a latent
+form, all the powers of the original embryo-cell," facts which he
+rightly considers disproves Weismann's hypothesis of _panmixia_. If this
+is surrendered, then, says Mr. Spencer, "all that evidence collected by
+Mr. Darwin and others, regarded by them as proof of the inheritance of
+acquired characters, which was cavalierly set aside on the strength of
+this alleged process of panmixia is reinstated. And this reinstated
+evidence, joined with much evidence since furnished, suffices to
+establish the repudiated interpretation."
+
+Great stress was laid by Professor Weismann, as evidence in support of
+his theory, on the supposed fact that the inheritance of injuries
+sustained during life has not been proved. Particular attention has been
+paid to this point by Dr. Eimer, in relation to which he remarks: "That
+injuries incurred during life are but seldom transmitted to the
+offspring does not appear to me wonderful: the inheritance of the
+complete form and complete activities of the organism, which took root
+such enormously long periods of time ago, and has been strengthened at
+each generation, will, as a rule, counterbalance in the offspring any
+such injuries incurred only once and not repeated."[79:A] This is the
+same argument as was used, as quoted above, by Professor Cope, to
+disprove the occurrence of birthmarks, and Dr. Eimer goes on to state
+that there are injuries which are not transmitted to offspring, although
+they are constantly repeated, as an instance of which he refers to the
+rupture of the hymen. He adds, however: "In such cases we must presume a
+specially effective power of correlative activity, directed to the part
+affected and residing in the whole organism--the same compensating power
+which leads in lower animals, during the life of the individual, to the
+regeneration of parts which have been lost or artificially removed. But
+these cases do not prove the general proposition that injuries are not
+inherited; they do not prove that even injuries which have been
+repeated during a considerable period are not inherited. Hitherto little
+importance has been attached to the demonstration of the inheritance of
+injuries. Yet single cases of the inheritance of injuries only once
+incurred seem to me to be thoroughly authentic."
+
+
+CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES.--Professor Weismann, in replying to the
+criticisms of Professor Virchow, admitted the existence of a number of
+congenital deformities, birthmarks and other individual peculiarities,
+which are inherited, but he affirms that we do not know from what causes
+they first appeared, and that a great proportion of them proceed from
+the germ itself, and are due, therefore, to alteration of the germinal
+substance. There is no proof of this, however, according to Dr.
+Eimer,[80:A] who appeals to various facts in support of his contention
+that injuries and diseases are inherited. He thinks the degeneration of
+the tail in the higher mammals is a case in point, although it has
+required great periods of time to complete. Among other instances of
+inherited injuries mentioned by Dr. Eimer is one in which a scar over
+the left ear and temple, caused to a girl by being thrown from a
+carriage, was transmitted to her son and grandson, the son of the latter
+also showing absence of hair on the injured spot, although the defect
+gradually disappeared with him, nearly a hundred years after the
+accident. The case of Dr. Nosseler, who inherited from his mother a
+crushed finger joint, caused by an accident which happened two years
+before his birth, would seem to be conclusive proof that injuries are
+transmissible. Dr. Eimer refers also to the breeding of short-tailed
+pointers from dogs whose tails had been artificially shortened; and also
+to Brown-Sequard's experiments with guinea pigs, in which epilepsy was
+inherited by their offspring, who showed also the loss of certain
+phalanges, or even whole toes of the hind feet, the parents having
+suffered a similar loss owing to the division of the sciatic nerve. He
+adds that numerous other instances of the inheritance of injuries have
+been recorded, as "inheritance of the artificially shortened tail of the
+bull, of artificially produced hornlessness in cattle, many cases of
+inheritance in man of curvature in a finger, caused by injury,
+inheritance of the absence of one eye which had been lost by the father
+during life or by disease, etc."
+
+The question of the inheritance of deformities and diseases, and the
+causes of the germ-variations on which it depends, have been considered
+by Zeigler, whose conclusions, as quoted by Dr. Eimer (page 186), are
+too important to be omitted. The causes which Zeigler assigns for the
+origin of such germ-variations are of three kinds. These are: 1--Union
+of sexual nuclei which are not adapted for copulation; 2--Disturbance of
+the copulatory process itself; 3--Injurious influences which affect the
+sexual nuclei or the fertilized ovum at a time when separation of the
+sexual cells from the body cells has not yet occurred. "If the embryo is
+injuriously affected at a later period," says Zeigler, "either a
+malformation or a constitutional anomaly arises, which is not inherited,
+or only the sexual cells are injured, in which case the body-cells
+develop normally, and a disturbance shows itself only in the development
+of the next generation." The union of sexual nuclei not adapted for
+copulation appears, however, to be "the most frequent and most important
+cause of hereditary local malformations as well as of hereditary morbid
+tendencies, or of a defect in any system of the whole organism." If the
+nuclei are altogether unadapted to each other, sterility occurs, as in
+the sexual nuclei of distinct species.
+
+
+PSYCHICAL DISEASES.--Zeigler's conclusions are supported by reference to
+the enquiries of the distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von Krafft-Ebings,
+who has considered the heredity of psychical diseases, and in connection
+therewith mentions three "essential facts" which it is necessary to keep
+in view when dealing with that subject. The first of these facts is
+Atavism, by which "the bodily and mental organization and character can
+be transmitted from the first to the third generation, without any
+necessity that the second and intermediate one should exhibit the
+peculiarities of the first--thus the condition of the life and health of
+the grandparents are of interest for us." Secondly, "Only in rare cases
+is the actual disease transmitted in procreation (congenital insanity,
+hereditary syphilis), as a rule only the disposition thereto. Actual
+disease only occurs when accessory injurious influences produce an
+effect based upon that disposition. . . . We must, therefore, consider
+also the state of health of the relatives (uncles, cousins, aunts), and
+since here also the law of atavism holds good, the possible diseases of
+great-uncles and great-aunts." Thirdly, Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings says,
+"Only exceptionally does the same disease develop in ascendant as
+in descendant lines, in consequence of the transmission of morbid
+dispositions. On the contrary, there exists a remarkable variability in
+the forms of disease which may almost claim the value of a law (the law
+of polymorphism or transmutation)."
+
+This law is referred to by M. Ribot as one of the causes of deviation
+from heredity, and he speaks of it as "transformation." As examples of
+transformation of heredity, Ribot refers to fixed ideas in the
+progenitor, which may become in the descendants "melancholy, taste for
+meditation, aptitude for the exact sciences, energy of will, etc.;" the
+mania of progenitors may be changed in the descendants into "aptitude
+for the arts, liveliness of imagination, quickness of mind,
+inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable will." "Just as real
+insanity," says Moreau of Tours, "may be hereditarily reproduced only
+under the form of eccentricity, may be transmitted from progenitors to
+descendants only in modified form, and in more or less mitigated
+character, so a state of simple eccentricity in the parent--a state
+which is no more than a peculiarity or a strangeness of character--may
+in the children be the origin of true insanity. Thus in transformations
+of heredity we sometimes have the germ attaining its maximum intensity;
+and again, a maximum of activity may revert to the minimum."[84:A]
+
+It should be borne in mind, as mentioned by Von Krafft-Ebings,[84:B]
+that everything which debilitates the nervous system and the generative
+powers of the parents, "be it immaturity or too advanced old age,
+previous debilitating diseases (typhus, syphilis), mercurial treatment,
+alcoholic and sexual excesses, overwork, etc., may give rise to
+neuropathic constitutions, and thereby indirectly to every possible
+nervous disease in the descendants."
+
+
+TELEGONY.--There is one remarkable phenomenon, spoken of by various
+writers as _telegony_, which has an important bearing on the subject of
+the transmission of acquired characters, and shows the action of
+prenatal influence in an unexpected form. It is referred to by Professor
+Romanes, when he says, "It has not unfrequently been observed, at any
+rate in mammals, that when a female has borne progeny to a male of one
+variety, and subsequently bears progeny to a male of another variety,
+the younger progeny presents a more or less unmistakable resemblance to
+the father of the older one."[85:A] This curious fact was considered, in
+relation to plants especially, by Darwin, who affirms, as quoted by
+Romanes, that it is of the highest theoretical importance, as "The male
+element not only affects, in accordance with its proper function, the
+germ, but at the same time various parts of the mother-plant, in the
+same manner as it affects the same parts in the seminal offspring from
+the same two parents. We thus learn that an ovule is not indispensable
+for the reception of the influence of the male element."
+
+The curious phenomenon of telegony is not limited, however, to plants.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer drew attention, in _The Contemporary Review_ for
+March, 1893, to a case which has long been known to horsebreeders, and
+which may be said to have become classic. The facts were brought, by the
+Earl of Morton, to the attention of the Royal Society of Great Britain,
+as long ago as the year 1820. The Earl, who possessed a male quagga,
+said, in a letter to the President: "I tried to breed from the male
+quagga and a young chestnut mare of seven-eighths Arabian blood, and
+which had never been bred from; the result was the production of a
+female hybrid, now five years old, and bearing, both in her form and in
+her colour, very decided indications of her mixed origin. I subsequently
+parted with the seven-eighths Arabian mare to Sir Gore Ouseley, who has
+bred from her by a very fine black Arabian horse. I yesterday morning
+examined the produce, namely, a two-year-old filly and a one-year-old
+colt. They have the character of the Arabian breed as decidedly as can
+be expected, where fifteen-sixteenths of the blood are Arabian; and they
+are fine specimens of that breed; but both in their colour and in the
+hair of their manes they have a striking resemblance to the quagga.
+Their colour is bay, marked more or less like the quagga in a darker
+tint. Both are distinguished by the dark line along the ridge of the
+back, the dark stripes across the forehead, and the dark bars across the
+back part of the legs." Mr. Spencer refers to an analogous case of the
+influence of a wild boar over the subsequent progeny of a domestic sow,
+and it now appears that such effects are not so uncommon as the
+scientific world has supposed.
+
+Professor Romanes made particular enquiries on this subject of
+professional and amateur breeders of animals, and he says most of his
+correspondents "are quite persuaded that it is of frequent occurrence,
+many of them regard it as a general rule, while some of them go so far
+as to make a point of always putting a mare, bitch, etc., to a good
+pedigree male in her first season, so that her subsequent progenies may
+be benefited by his influence, even though they be engendered by
+inferior sires."[87:A] His own more modest conclusion is that the
+evidence he obtained "is enough to prove the fact of a previous sire
+asserting his influence on a subsequent progeny, although this fact is
+one of comparatively rare occurrence."
+
+The English Darwinian met with only one case in which the offspring of a
+woman by a second husband, who was a white man, showed the influence of
+her first husband, who was a negro. Mr. Herbert Spencer would seem to
+have been more successful. In _The Contemporary Review_ for May, 1893,
+Mr. Spencer gives the result of his own enquiries as to the effect on a
+white woman's subsequent progeny of a previous union with a negro, and
+he quotes the opinion of a "distinguished correspondent," that
+information given to him many years ago was to the effect that "the
+children of white women by a white father had been _repeatedly_ observed
+to show traces of black blood, in cases where the woman had previous
+connexion with [i. e., a child by] a negro." Mr. Spencer refers also to
+Professor Marsh as authority for such a case, and to the opinion of
+several medical professors who assured him, through Dr. W. J. Youmans,
+that the alleged result "is generally accepted as a fact." He gives as
+authoritative testimony the following statement by Dr. Austin Flint,
+taken from his "Text-book of Human Physiology:" "A peculiar and, it
+seems to me, an inexplicable fact is, that previous pregnancies had an
+influence upon offspring. This is well known to breeders of animals. If
+pure blooded mares or bitches have been once covered by an inferior
+male, in subsequent fecundations the young are likely to partake of the
+character of the first male, even if they be bred with males of
+unimpeachable pedigree. What the mechanism of the influence of the first
+conception is, it is impossible to say; but the fact is incontestable.
+The same influence is observed in the human subject. A woman may have,
+by a second husband, children who resemble a former husband, and this is
+particularly well marked in certain instances by the color of the hair
+and eyes. A white woman who has had children by a negro may
+subsequently bear children to a white man, these children presenting
+some of the unmistakable peculiarities of the negro race."
+
+This phenomenon would alone seem to answer the question of the
+transmission of acquired characters in the affirmative, for its
+explanation is to be found in the facts brought out by Darwin, as to the
+action of foreign pollen on the structure of the mother plant; in
+relation to which Professor Romanes remarks: "When one variety
+fertilizes the ovules of another not unfrequently the influence extends
+beyond the ovules to the ovarium, and even to the calyx and
+flower-stalk, of the mother plant. This influence, which may affect the
+shape, size, colour, and texture of the somatic tissues of the mother,
+has been observed in a large number of plants belonging to many
+different orders."[89:A] May we not have here the explanation of the
+fact, which has frequently been pointed out, that husband and wife show
+a tendency to grow like each other, both physically and mentally, the
+resemblance after a long married life being sometimes very striking?
+
+
+POWER OF HEREDITY.--The most important fact brought out in the
+discussion of the possibility of the transmission of acquired characters
+is the power of heredity. If organisms did not reproduce their own
+special characteristics, there could be no fixity of form and no order
+in organic nature. Nevertheless, if there were no change by individual
+modification or divergence, in whatever way this may be rendered
+permanent in the race, there could be no evolution. Hence we can say,
+with Dr. Eimer, "Any one who thus completely renders allegiance to the
+supremacy of the principles of the unity of the organic world, who
+rejects everything which contradicts that principle, cannot help
+admitting that in truth, as I assert, the ultimate origin of the various
+kinships in the animal and vegetable kingdom is to be traced to
+individual differences, and that the difference between the former, like
+the latter, must be essentially determined by external conditions, by
+the modification of organic growth."
+
+The causes of diversity which interfere with the action of heredity may
+operate, as we have seen, at the moment of conception, or subsequent to
+conception. The former class of causes is of great importance, in
+accordance with the principle, laid down by M. Ribot, of the
+disproportion of effects to causes, and it is essential, therefore, if
+children are to be well-born, that their parents should be careful that
+at the moment of procreation they are fitted for the performance of so
+serious an act. Mr. J. F. Nisbet in his "Marriage and Heredity" (page
+126), well observes, "Twins usually bear a closer resemblance to each
+other than to their brothers and sisters born at a different period;
+and the reason generally assigned is that they are conceived under
+precisely similar conditions. If so, it follows that the difference
+existing between ordinary members of a family is due to their being born
+at considerable intervals of time and therefore under changed conditions
+on the part of their parents."
+
+
+SOBRIETY IN THE FATHER.--Especially does it concern the father, who is
+the most active agent in reproduction, to see that he is then in a fit
+condition. This is quite apart from the question of the diseased
+condition of the organism treated of by Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings, and
+refers to temporary rather than to continuing causes. Sobriety is in
+this connection of great importance, and, as appears from a passage,
+already quoted, in Xenophon, was insisted on at the time of procreation,
+by the ancients.
+
+Zeigler points out, as quoted by Dr. Eimer, that "substances taken up
+from without, as, for example, poisons, are brought by the blood to the
+sexual cells, and others produced in the body are conveyed to the sexual
+organs."[91:A] It is suggested that alcohol has such an effect, and
+there can be no doubt that a tendency to the drinking habit may be
+implanted in a child by a parent intoxicated at the time of
+procreation, with the possibility of its leading to other evils in
+succeeding generations, ending in the early extinction of the family.
+Nisbet refers to several cases of this character, and remarks (page 112)
+that, "There is a limit to the transmission of abnormal characters,
+either in an original or in a disguised form. Always striving after
+perfection, or rather uniformity of type, Nature either purifies a race
+of its physical and moral defects, or, if the type be too vicious,
+exterminates it, as in the case of the Cæsars, the Stuarts, and many
+other historical families." Doutrebente came to the conclusion, however,
+that insanity--and doubtless it is true of other conditions--may be
+worked out of a family by the infusion of healthy blood, except where
+both parents were insane, in which case their offspring will become
+extinct.
+
+The law of Leviticus (chap. x, verse 9) provides, under penalty of
+death, that the priests should not drink wine or strong drink before
+going into the tent of meeting. The more stringent regulations provided
+by this law in relation to intercourse between Jehovah and His people
+require physical and moral perfection in those who approach the deity,
+and they may be studied with advantage at the present day by those who
+wish to aid in the perfecting of the race. The man who had a blemish was
+not allowed to go near the altar of sacrifice, that the sanctuary might
+not be profaned; and the sanctuary of the human organism should no less
+be preserved from profanation.
+
+
+SACREDNESS OF PARENTAGE.--It would be well if the sacred act of
+procreation were performed more often in the spirit of the ancients, who
+regarded marriage as a sacred institution, designed not only for the
+perpetuation of the race, but also for the carrying on of the religion
+of the domestic hearth. The first-born child especially was considered
+to have been sent by the gods, and care was taken, therefore, that it
+should be well-born. Prayer and offerings were made to the spirits
+before the nuptial bed was approached, and everything was done to ensure
+the gift they were asked for should be in every respect worthy of them.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the first-born of "all that openeth the womb"
+was dedicated to Jehovah (Exodus xxxiv, 19), and hence the rights of the
+eldest son could not be defeated by his father: "for he is the beginning
+of his strength" (Deut. xxi, 17).
+
+The disturbance of uterine existence between conception and birth is
+that which has engaged most attention, and the fact that such
+disturbances can take place requires that the expectant mother should be
+protected from anything that can so act on her own organism as to
+prevent the due operation of the law of heredity. The precautions taken
+by primitive peoples in relation to food may have some foundation in
+fact, and any food should be avoided by the enceinte woman which will
+injuriously influence the system, or give rise to organic disturbances
+that may affect the blood by which the embryo is nourished. Emotional
+disturbances are to be no less avoided, as through the nervous system
+they act on the blood itself. How far the action of the emotions can
+influence the physical organism has become a moot question with
+psychologists, who now seem inclined to think that "movements are not
+caused by the emotions, but are aroused reflexly by the object." Thus,
+if the sight of a disagreeable object affects by reflex action the
+muscular system of the mother, it will arouse in her a concomitant
+emotion, which being transmitted to the embryo may act on its muscular
+system, leaving the impression as a birthmark, which may be regarded as
+a reflection from the cerebral nerve center of the mother, whether
+emotion is the cause or effect of muscular movement.
+
+If the unborn child can be affected injuriously by disturbances of the
+mother's environment, it is reasonable to suppose that the child can be
+influenced in the opposite direction by making that environment as
+conducive to the normal activity of the material organism as possible.
+The story of Jacob and Laban, referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter, affords an important lesson as to the surroundings with which
+the wife should be provided. The bedchamber itself may become a means
+of influencing offspring for good or evil, and hence it should contain
+only what is agreeable to the senses, and capable of giving rise to
+pleasant imaginings. Especially should this be the case where a woman is
+of a highly sensitive nature. Impressions received from without depend
+largely for their force and influence, however, on the condition of the
+receptive mind, and beautiful surroundings cannot make up for the want
+of inward harmony. A happy and contented mind is the best guarantee that
+the due action of the law of heredity will not be disturbed at the time
+of conception or afterwards. Thus, bickerings between husband and wife
+must have a disturbing effect, especially if carried into the
+bedchamber. The sage of old said: "Let not the sun go down upon thy
+wrath," and parents should make it a point of duty, for the sake of
+their future offspring, never to let the disputes of the daytime--if
+unfortunately they occur--be carried into the night. The bedchamber is
+the place for mental as well as physical repose.
+
+The surest guarantee against the occurrence of conditions which may
+injuriously affect the future offspring, either at the time of
+procreation, or during the subsequent period of gestation, is to be
+found in the general life of the parents. This will give the general
+impress which affects the disposition of the child as a whole, and it
+will show what are the conditions of the family life under the
+influence of which it was born. The nature of the "home" is thus an
+important factor in determining that of the offspring, and it will
+necessarily be a reflection of the general character of those on whom it
+depends. A noble life in the parent will bear fruit in the physical,
+intellectual and moral character of the child, and although this is true
+in relation to the father as well as to the mother, it is doubly true as
+to the latter, seeing that the mother alone is the bearer and nourisher
+of offspring during the period of gestation. During this period the
+child acquires probably many of the characters which it inherits from
+its mother, and the maternal influence may thus be extended to the
+period of lactation. The importance attached to fosterage, where this
+practice became an established custom, as with the early Irish and
+Arabs, would seem to prove that the characteristics of the nurse were to
+some extent transmitted to the child with the milk. The early Arabs
+regarded the milk-tie as constituting a real unity of flesh and blood
+between the foster mother and the foster child, and between foster
+children, so much so as to be a bar to marriage.
+
+
+SELF-CONTROL.--One very serious matter which should be kept in mind by
+an expectant mother is the duty of exercising self-control. The
+influence of this principle in relation to the general life and conduct
+has been repeatedly pointed out, and it is referred to by Jennie
+Chandler in _The Journal of Hygiene_ for August, 1895, where we are
+told: "The power of self-mastery is believed by scientists to be the
+last one acquired by the human race in the process of evolution, and the
+last powers acquired are not so firmly fixed in our natures as some
+which have been longer in our possession. The result is, it becomes
+deranged more readily than more fixed forces. In many cases,
+self-control has never been acquired at all, and so the person can only
+partly master himself. As a rule, children have little of this power.
+They are like animals. Little by little, as they grow older, it grows,
+and in some it becomes so well developed that it is almost perfect. In
+others, like music in those who never acquire it, or any other faculty,
+it never becomes a potent factor in life."
+
+Dr. Chandler adds, "Woman as well as man needs to learn self-mastery.
+With a large amount of feeling in her nature, it is very hard for her to
+do it, but she should try. Too many of us go through life never making
+any effort to be our own masters. We give way to caprices, whims,
+feelings, follies, far more than is good for our health. Hysteria gives
+us a good example of the loss of self-control. Any uncontrolled passion
+gives an equally vivid example. Men and women often say they can't
+govern themselves; that is admitting they have defects of character
+which are their masters. They ought to make effort and see if they are
+not mistaken. The worst effect of lack of self-control are on the
+health. It allows every kind of bad habit in eating, drinking, dressing,
+sleeping, to gain possession of the person, and the result is a weak
+instead of a strong character."
+
+Considering the effect which the organic disposition of the mother has
+on the future offspring, it is evident that whether a child shall have
+the power of self-control depends very largely on the mother herself,
+and it is all-important, therefore, that she should have and exercise
+that power herself. As Dr. Chandler remarks, "No matter how much you
+have been to school, how many college degrees you have, you are not
+educated till you have a reasonable control of your own nature, and can
+direct your own lives rather than have them directed for you by your
+feelings and emotions." This truth obtains fresh significance when we
+consider that a woman's conduct affects the direction not only of her
+own life, but the lives of her future children, and possibly of
+succeeding generations.
+
+Although much has yet to be done to prove the actual effects on
+offspring of the conduct of its parents, enough is known to establish
+the fact that both the general disposition and the particular conduct of
+father or mother may interfere with the orderly action of the law of
+heredity. This law ensures the inheritance of race and individual
+characters; but when these are good, a noble life will cause the
+tendencies towards good to be still further strengthened in offspring,
+and if they are evil, then the disposition will receive an inclination
+in the opposite direction, or, at least, the further development of evil
+will be arrested. On the other hand, a degrading life will produce bad
+effects on offspring, causing deterioration of the organic disposition
+and strengthening the tendency to evil it may have inherited, or
+weakening its tendencies towards the good.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[57:A] "Heredity." By Th. Ribot (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1875), p.
+201.
+
+[59:A] "The Origin of the Fittest." By E. D. Cope (D. Appleton & Co.,
+New York). Page 408.
+
+[65:A] "Pioneering in New Guinea." By James Chalmers. 1887. Page 165.
+
+[66:A] "Development of Kinship and Marriage." Page 264.
+
+[67:A] "Researches into the Early History of Mankind." Page 292.
+
+[71:A] Cope's "Origin of the Fittest." (Redway, London. 1889.) Page 407.
+
+[72:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A.
+(London, Macmillan & Co., 1890.) Page 86.
+
+[73:A] "Examination of Weismannism." The Open Court Publishing Co.,
+Chicago. 1893.
+
+[77:A] _The Contemporary Review_, September, 1893.
+
+[79:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A. Page
+13.
+
+[80:A] "Organic Evolution," page 176.
+
+[84:A] "Organic Evolution," page 211.
+
+[84:B] Op. cit., page 201.
+
+[85:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 77.
+
+[87:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 22.
+
+[89:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 79.
+
+[91:A] "Organic Evolution," page 187.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.
+
+_A Lecture delivered before the Brooklyn Ethical Association._
+
+
+In presenting the subject of heredity and its relation to education, it
+seems to me best to consider first what is meant by the term, and after
+this the views held on the subject by our leading evolutionists, when
+its relation to education will be easier and, I hope, more satisfactory.
+
+In common parlance, heredity is the transmission of any trait or
+peculiarity from the parent to the offspring, as the color of the hair,
+the form of the nose, the tones of the voice; or any disease, or any
+special character that may exist in either parent.
+
+If a horse has a star on its forehead like one of its ancestors, we say
+it is due to heredity. If an ox has color marks on its body like its
+parent, it is a case of heredity. If a human being has a disease which
+his ancestors had, very often he declares he inherited it from them,
+even if it be only a common catarrh. But this is a narrow view of the
+subject, and does not include all that a biologist means when he uses
+this word.
+
+By heredity he understands the production from a fertilized ovum of an
+individual, with all the general characteristics of structure and
+function of body and brain of the species to which it belongs. It means
+that the offspring, however much they may vary in general characters,
+will always be of the same species as the parents. The offspring of dogs
+will be dogs; of wolves, wolves; of negroes, negroes, and of white men,
+white men. Anything less is not heredity in its full sense.
+
+Darwin, whom we all love and honor, says: "The whole subject of
+inheritance is wonderful," and in this he but voices the universal
+sentiment of those who have given any serious consideration to it. Let
+me try to show you how wonderful it is by an illustration. From very
+ancient times the horse has been the constant companion of man. This
+animal, with his splendid muscular system, the most perfect, perhaps, of
+any creature, has for his food and shelter, and not always the best of
+these, rendered mankind almost infinite service. Now, every horse that
+has ever been born into the world began life as a minute ovum, which
+under the microscope presents no appearance of a horse, or any other
+animal, and, strange to say, this ovum is, to all appearance, like the
+ovum of other animals, and no amount of study, without knowing its
+origin, can decide whether it will develop as a dog, an ox, a horse or a
+man. After, however, it has gone through the process of gestation, this
+apparently simple egg becomes an animal of a very complex nature, with
+heart, lungs, brain, eyes, ears, mouth, stomach, and blood vessels, all
+where they should be and ready to perform their functions; with mental
+traits of a peculiar kind which adapt him to the service which man
+requires. Nay more: In the process of the evolution of the horse, little
+by little he has changed in various ways, and many, if not all of these
+changes in his bodily constitution and in his mental characteristics,
+which have been found useful or made him more serviceable to man, his
+greater docility, his increased size, his enormous strength and speed,
+his wonderful beauty, through a wise selection and the weeding out of
+the unfit on the part of the breeder, have been transmitted through
+heredity to his offspring, so that today only a paleontologist can tell
+us if he finds the remains of a primitive horse, that it belongs to the
+same class of animals as the horse of our time.
+
+
+THEORIES.--Our theories of heredity will depend on the extent of our
+knowledge, and especially our knowledge of embryology. In the last
+century knowledge on this subject was very meagre, especially that part
+of embryology which could only be studied with the microscope;
+consequently the views of scientists and others of that time were
+exceedingly crude. The most important was that of Malphigi and Bonnet,
+who maintained that the miniature animal existed in the egg; that
+fertilization by the male element simply furnished it with food for
+growth, and that this was added to and stored up in its interstices.
+Cuvier, Haller and Leibnitz adopted substantially these views. The
+latter found them to support his opinion that everything was the result
+of growth from monads, and that there was no such thing in all nature as
+generation.
+
+Such a theory was very simple, but it explained nothing except the bare
+production of offspring. It gave no clue to their endless variations,
+nor to the fact that they often resembled the father more than the
+mother. According to this theory the offspring should resemble the
+mother, as the complete individual is formed by her and should be in her
+image.
+
+Leeuwenhock, one of the early microscopists, by the aid of his lenses,
+opened a new world to mankind, and discovered the sperm cells to be
+active, living, moving elements, and he gave a death-blow to the belief
+that the perfect organism exists in the ovum; but he went to the
+opposite extreme, and maintained that it exists in the male cell and
+that it is only fed and developed by the female. Even today we find in a
+vague way both these theories held by educated persons.
+
+We are indebted to Harvey in the early part of the eighteenth century
+for advocating the view held by Aristotle, now known as _Epigenesis_,
+and combatting the view of growth from a miniature, but already
+perfectly formed animal, to a visible one. Epigenesis consists in the
+successive differentiation from the relatively homogeneous elements as
+found in the egg, to the complicated parts and structure as seen in the
+offspring.
+
+According to Huxley, this work of Harvey alone would have entitled him
+to recognition as one of the founders of biological science, had he not
+immortalized himself as the discoverer of the circulation of the blood.
+
+Not long after Harvey's publication, Casper Frederick Wolf established
+the theory of epigenesis upon a firm foundation, where it still remains.
+
+The doctrine of _epigenesis_ has very much complicated the whole
+question of heredity. No wonder even so great a mind as that of Darwin
+exclaimed, "The whole subject is wonderful." How can an egg, which in
+structure is comparatively simple, an aggregation of cells, not one of
+which bears the slightest resemblance to any organ in the body, develop
+into the perfect individual? How can this egg, formed in special organs,
+develop other organs than those like the ones in which it was formed?
+How can sexual cells develop brain cells, with their wonderful modes of
+action?
+
+We cannot explain the philosophy of heredity without being able to
+answer these questions; but difficult as is the problem, our biologists
+have made various attempts at an explanation. I cannot go over all the
+various speculations, but only those most intimately connected with the
+subject will be mentioned.
+
+The first is Darwin's own attempt at an explanation by the theory of
+_pangenesis_, or genesis from every part. He saw the necessity of having
+in the sexual cells some power or force to represent the other organs
+and functions of the body, else how could these organs be formed in the
+embryo? Pangenesis was supposed to be accomplished as follows: Every
+organ through its cells gives off _gemmules_. These are inconceivably
+small, too small for any microscopical vision; also inconceivably great
+in numbers, and with great power of growth and multiplication. They pass
+from the various organs in which they are formed to the special sex
+organs for generating the sexual cells; some of them are stored up as
+representatives of the various organs from which they have been given
+off. The consequence is that every egg has in it something from every
+organ in the body of both parents which is able, during gestation, to
+develop into that organ.
+
+According to this theory, for instance, if no gemmules are given off
+from the brain, then no brain can be developed from the egg, and so of
+other organs. As in a representative government, all parts of the
+country send representatives to the capitol to do the bidding of the
+people, so every organ of the body sends representatives to the sexual
+cells to form their respective organs; without them these organs would
+not be formed.
+
+There are many objections to pangenesis, but they need not be named
+here. It occurred to Galton, whose studies in heredity have been more
+prolific of good than those of any other man, to test it by practical
+experiment. If these gemmules are circulating in the blood of animals
+before being stored up in the sexual cells, by transfusing blood from
+one variety of any species to another it ought to affect the offspring
+of this other. For his test cases he chose eighteen silvergrey rabbits
+which breed true, and into their bodies he transfused the blood of other
+different varieties, in several cases replacing one-half of this fluid.
+There were eighty-six offspring bred at once from these silvergrey
+rabbits, and all true silvergreys. The theory did not work. But if it
+did not work in practice, it certainly worked on the intellects of
+biologists everywhere, exactly what Darwin wished; it set them to
+thinking. It acted as a ferment, so to say, and brought forth a rich
+harvest in speculation if not in actual knowledge.[106:A]
+
+
+CONTINUITY OF THE GERM-PLASM.--The only other theory which I shall
+mention is that of Weismann, which has been before the public for more
+than a decade, and it is safe to say it has produced a more profound
+impression upon biologists than all others. It has its basis in what he
+calls _continuity of the germ-plasm_. By the germ-plasm is meant that
+part of the germ cell containing all the chemical and physical
+properties, including the molecular structure, which enables it to
+become, under appropriate conditions, a new individual of the same
+species as the parents. In it lies hidden all the characteristics both
+of the species and of the future individual. In it lies all the
+phenomena of heredity. It is the product of the coalescence of the male
+and female elements requisite for reproduction. Only, however, in the
+nuclear substance is to be found the hereditary tendencies. Now, this
+germ-plasm is _continuous_, that is to say, it contains not only
+material from both parents, but from grandparents and greatgrandparents,
+and so on indefinitely. This germ-plasm is exceedingly minute in
+quantity, but has great power of growth. Not all is used up in the
+production of any individual, but some is left over and stored up for
+the next generation. The germ-plasm might be represented as a long
+creeping root, from which arise at intervals all the individuals of
+successive generations. The amount of ancestral germ-plasm in each
+fertilized ovum is calculated in the same way that stock breeders
+calculate the amount of blood of any ancestor running in any individual.
+For instance: The germ-plasm contributed by the father and mother is
+each one-half; each grandparent one fourth, and so on. Ten generations
+back each ancestor contributes only one part in one thousand and
+twenty-four parts. This continuity has by some been called the
+immortality of the germ-plasm. Theoretically, the original Adam and Eve
+have contributed an infinitesimal part. This probably explains why there
+is so much of the original Adam in most of us. By it we are able to
+explain that wonderful fact of _atavism_, or the appearance of
+characters from a remote ancestor in offspring. Some of the germ-plasm
+from this ancestor by some means has had an opportunity to grow rapidly
+and contribute more than its share in the production of the individual
+in which it appears.
+
+It also enables us to explain the fact that no two individuals are quite
+alike, but that there is constant variation. Each person is the product
+of a multitude of ancestors, and the germ-plasm which produced them is
+never mixed, in quite the same proportion, nor do the different parts
+grow with quite the same vigor.
+
+It was on this theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm that Weismann
+built his doctrine of the non-transmission of acquired characters. On
+this subject he says: "Hence it follows that the transmission of
+acquired characters is an impossibility, for if the germ-plasm is not
+formed anew in each individual, but is derived from that which preceded
+it, its structure, and above all, its molecular constitution, cannot
+depend upon the individual in which it happens to occur, but such an
+individual only forms, as it were, the nutritive soil at the expense of
+which it grows, while the latter possessed its character from the
+beginning, that is, before the commencement of growth." Of this,
+however, I will speak later.
+
+
+A RATIONAL VIEW OF HEREDITY.--I might continue giving other theories of
+heredity--Hæckel's, for instance--or the metaphysical theory, but it is
+hardly necessary. I do not accept in full any of them. Their authors, it
+seems to me, have not worked along the lines of evolution, but have gone
+further than was necessary into the fields of speculation. Darwin, in
+his theory of Pangenesis, admitted this frankly, and yet he clung to the
+idea with great tenacity. If we take the unicellular organisms which
+multiply by division, we may see that heredity is simple. One
+unicellular individual growing larger than is convenient, divides into
+two. Each is like the other. It could hardly be different. Reproduction
+by spores or buds is practically the same thing. The spores or buds are
+minute particles of the parent organism. When it comes to the
+coalescence of the germ and sperm elements from two organisms, the
+phenomena become more complicated, and it is still more so as the animal
+rises in the scale of creation; but I believe the processes of organic
+evolution have gone on so slowly that the sexual cells have acquired the
+power to transmit the whole organism without the necessity of the
+germ-plasm being continued from parent to offspring indefinitely, and
+also without the aid of pangenesis.
+
+The egg has acquired a tendency to develop in a certain direction. Just
+how we cannot tell, further than to say that it was probably the result
+of variation first and natural selection selecting out those variations
+most suitable. It is this tendency to vary that gives rise to many of
+the phenomena of heredity. The subject is, for the present, beyond our
+power to settle satisfactorily, and so hypotheses must be resorted to.
+The sexual cells, comparatively simple in anatomical structure, must be
+highly complex in their molecular structure; and the more highly evolved
+the organism, the more complex becomes this molecular structure. If it
+were possible to study this molecular structure we should be able to
+understand the whole subject far better than is possible now. But this
+is not possible, and there is little hope that we shall ever be able to
+accomplish it.
+
+
+HEREDITY AND THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN.--The next question which comes
+up for consideration is that of the education of children and its
+relation to heredity. This brings us at once to the problem as to
+whether acquired characters are transmitted to offspring or not. If
+acquired characters are transmitted, the relation of heredity to
+education must be very close and important. If acquired characters are
+not inherited, then heredity and education have a very different
+relation. That acquired characters are transmitted has long been
+believed. It was the belief of Lamarck. He tried to explain the
+structure of the organism by this principle. The illustration of the
+long neck of the giraffe is familiar to every one. It originated by the
+constant stretching of this part to obtain food from the trees. In times
+of scarcity, he had to exert himself in this way still more to reach the
+higher branches. The young of the giraffe had longer necks than their
+parents because of the efforts of the latter in this way. So the keen
+sight of birds, it was argued, was acquired in the same manner. The hawk
+had to exercise his eyes most vigorously to discern his prey at a
+distance, and his offspring inherited this keenness of sight acquired by
+the exercise of his ancestors.
+
+Darwin believed that the effects of the exercise of any part were
+transmitted. He says: "We may feel assured that the inherited effects of
+the use and disuse of parts will have done much in the same direction
+with natural selection in modifying man's structure of body."
+
+We may say that this belief has been held by the common people,
+uneducated in science. They not unfrequently get at truths in a rude way
+long before the scientists do. Many parents tell us their children are
+strongly influenced by some particular occupation of the mother during
+pregnancy. So strong is this belief, that many mothers are in our times
+trying to influence the character of their unborn children by special
+modes of life, by cultivating music or art, or science, in order to give
+the child a love for these pursuits.
+
+It is by Herbert Spencer that this has been most ably presented. Indeed,
+he holds that there is no explanation of evolution without the
+transmission of the effects of the use and disuse of parts. His words
+are: "If there has been no transmission of acquired character there has
+been no evolution."
+
+He also says: "If we go back to the genesis of the human type from some
+lower type of primates, we see that while the little toe has ceased to
+be of any use for climbing purposes, it has not come into any
+considerable use for walking or running. It is manifest that the great
+toes have been immensely developed since there took place the change
+from arboreal to terrestrial habits. A study of the mechanism of walking
+shows why this has happened. Stability requires that the line of
+direction--the vertical line, let fall from the center of gravity--shall
+fall within the base, and the walking shall be brought at each step
+within the area of support, or so near that any tendency to fall may be
+checked at the next step. A necessary result is that _if_ at each step
+the chief stress of support is thrown on the outer side of the foot, the
+body must be swayed so that the line of direction may fall within the
+outside of the foot, or close to it; and when the next step is taken it
+must be similarly swayed in an opposite direction, so that the outer
+side of the foot may bear the weight. That is to say, the body must
+oscillate from side to side, or waddle. The movement of the duck when
+walking shows what happens when the points of support are far apart.
+This kind of movement conflicts with efficient locomotion. There is a
+waste of muscular energy in making these lateral movements, and they are
+at variance with the forward movement. We may infer, then, that the
+developing man profited by throwing the stress as much as possible on
+the inner side of the feet, and was especially led to do this when going
+fast, which enabled him to abridge the oscillations, as indeed we see it
+now in the drunken man. Then there was thrown a continually increasing
+stress upon the inner digits as they progressively developed from the
+efforts of use, until now the inner digits, so large compared with the
+outer, bear the greater part of the weight, and being relatively near
+one another render needless any swaying of the body from side to side in
+walking. But what has meanwhile happened to the outer digits? Evidently
+as fast as the great toes have come more and more into play and the
+small ones have gone more and more out of play, dwindling for--how long
+shall we say?--perhaps 100,000 years." In other and simpler words, the
+great toe of man has wonderfully developed since he began to walk
+upright. This has been from greater use, and the transmission of the
+effects of this use to offspring. The small toe has decreased in size
+proportionately. This we can reasonably infer has been the result of
+disuse, the effects of which were also transmitted to offspring.
+
+A still more remarkable illustration of the effects of use and disuse is
+seen in the sense of touch in different parts of the body. Prof. Weber,
+in his laboratory for experimental psychology, has worked out this
+difference most minutely. He finds that by taking a pair of compasses,
+the points of which are less than one-twelfth of an inch apart, the end
+of the forefinger is not able to distinguish more than one point. Going
+to the middle of the back we have the least discriminating power in the
+skin, for the points must be separated two and one half inches before
+the nerves can decide that there are two. Any one may test this on
+himself. Between these extremes we have many differences. The end of
+the nose has four times as great power of discrimination as the
+forehead. When we come to the tip of the tongue, we find it far excels
+any part of the body in its power of tactual discrimination, it being
+twice that of the forefinger. In every case we find there is greatest
+delicacy of touch in those parts where this sense has been most
+exercised. The tongue is being constantly exercised on our food, on the
+roof of the mouth, the teeth, etc. It is rarely idle. There is in man no
+advantage for his survival, Mr. Spencer asserts, by having such a
+sensitive tongue. He could get on just as well without it. He regards it
+as a case where the exercise of a function has exalted it remarkably,
+and this exaltation has been transmitted to offspring. Natural
+selection, he thinks, is not sufficient to account for it. Natural
+selection only preserves those characters which will give their
+possessor some advantage in the struggle for existence.
+
+Still another argument is drawn from the whale. This monster once lived,
+it is believed, partly on land, probably on low land near water, and
+must have been smaller than now. It had hind legs; but since it has
+lived continuously in the water its tail has so developed as to make a
+far better organ of locomotion, and the legs have dwindled from disuse,
+so that now there is only a remnant left, and this is hidden beneath
+the skin. The tail has become more efficient from use, and this has been
+transmitted so that all whales are born with well developed tails. The
+legs have dwindled for want of use until they have almost disappeared;
+and this effect of disuse has also been transmitted to offspring.
+
+Another illustration is furnished by Havelock Charles, an English
+surgeon, who has spent much time among the Punjab tribes in India, and
+studied them anthropologically. His account is given in "The Journal of
+Anatomy," in a paper on the structure of the skeletons of these people.
+It appears they have facets on the bones, fitting them for the sitting
+posture. These do not develop after birth, but are seen in the fetus. It
+seems hardly possible that these facets could have any other origin
+except by transmission after being acquired by ages of use of sitting
+posture.
+
+Another argument is drawn from the coadaptation of parts. We know that
+the male sheep, likewise the goat, the stag, and the males of many other
+animals, have large horns. They are supposed to be useful in fighting
+with rivals in order to secure as large a number of females as possible.
+Now these large horns require at the same time a greater development of
+the bones of the head to hold them, also larger and stronger vertebræ of
+the neck and back, and larger muscles of these parts to maintain and
+use them effectively. In other words, there must be coadaptation of all
+the parts, otherwise these larger horns would be an incumbrance and
+useless. Now, if we accept the theory of the inheritance of acquired
+characters, this is all simple. The use of the head in butting against
+other males exercises all these parts simultaneously, and they develop
+equally and at the same time. If, however, inheritance has no part in
+the matter, then we must fall back on variation in the germ-plasm and
+natural selection for an explanation; but it is difficult or, as Spencer
+says, impossible to conceive of variation producing large and heavy
+horns on these animals and at the same time coadaptation of all the
+other parts to hold and use them. Sometimes coadaptation does not take
+place, as in the common brook crab, familiar to every country boy. Its
+foreclaws or fingers are out of all proportion to the rest of the leg,
+and its awkwardness is well known. The lobster is another case. Even in
+human beings we have instances of non-coadaptation, as where the head
+and brain are out of proportion to the size of the body, or the reverse.
+I need not multiply instances.
+
+Now, if acquired characters are transmitted, any system of training
+which exists for a considerable time must necessarily appear in the
+structure of the body and in the character. If the training is not in
+accord with the laws of evolution, it causes the race to deviate from
+the true line of progress, and by just so much hinder advancement. If,
+on the other hand, our systems of education conform to correct
+principles, progress is advanced by them.
+
+Quite recently an entirely new theory has grown up, opposed to
+Lamarckianism, and the theory of the transmission of acquired
+characters. It has been before the world little more than a decade and
+has made remarkable progress, though it is too soon to say it has been
+established beyond dispute. Prof. Weismann, its author, is well equipped
+as a biologist to maintain and defend it. I have already stated briefly
+his theory of heredity, namely, that the germ-plasm is continuous from
+parent to offspring. This necessitates a remodeling of commonly accepted
+views, an entire giving up of the Lamarckian belief that use and disuse
+have their effect on progeny. If the germ-plasm continues from one
+generation to another, then it must already have been formed, or at
+least provided for, even before the birth of the parents. They may
+modify it, through growth and nutrition, but not through exercise of any
+function. Prof. Weismann went at the demonstration of his views in a
+thoroughly scientific way by the making of experiments on living animals
+and the collection of facts. From his experiments it is now pretty well
+established that wounds and injuries, which he considers to be acquired
+characters, are not transmitted. No matter for how many generations you
+cut off the tails of dogs, cats, horses or sheep, the effects of this
+removal do not appear in the progeny. Most parents have some mark on the
+body, received in early life, some cut or bruise, some scratch, but
+their children do not inherit them. The famous experiment of cutting off
+the tails of mice, for generation after generation, and then breeding
+from them was one of Weismann's methods of substantiating the theory
+that acquired character is not inherited. The offspring of these
+mutilated mice had as long tails as if those of their parents had not
+been removed. The explanation is, the germ-plasm was not in any way
+affected by the bodily mutilation. The practice of the Flathead Indian
+is another case. The children of parents whose heads have been
+artificially flattened are not affected by it. The small feet of Chinese
+women, made so by binding them and preventing their growth, may also be
+mentioned.
+
+
+INTELLECTUAL ACQUIREMENTS.--Not to depend on such evidence, however, he
+adduces that of a very different character, namely, the non-transmission
+of intellectual acquirements. Language is an example. Although human
+beings have been communicating their thoughts to each other from very
+ancient times by speech, yet every child has to learn how to do this
+for itself. No matter how many languages the parents master, their
+children have to go over all the ground the parents did, make all the
+toil and effort to learn to speak. The children of the most gifted
+linguists, if brought up without coming in contact with those who can
+teach them to talk, will never learn a single word. There are, it is
+claimed, a few cases on record of children who never acquired their
+natural tongue because they had lived among animals and not among human
+beings. They learned to make the same vocal sounds the animals did, no
+more. The environment in this case was everything, the parental
+acquirements nothing.
+
+Music, like language, is also an acquired character, and it is probably
+not transmitted. Our musical geniuses are not the children of great
+musicians, but in most cases the reverse. They seem to spring into
+existence from lowly sources, or at least from parents whose advantages
+for a musical education have been very limited, though generally they
+have had good health, and a climatic environment of a favorable kind.
+Great musical talent usually dies out in any family in a few
+generations, no matter how much it is cultivated, or, if it does not die
+out entirely, it becomes mediocre; and yet the opportunities of the
+children of great musicians, and the ambition of their parents for its
+culture, are usually very favorable.
+
+
+INSTINCT.--In accepting the theory of the non-transmission of acquired
+characters, it becomes necessary to give up prevailing views of the
+origin of instinct. According to the old belief it was a gift of God,
+and not acquired by any effort on the part of its possessor. In speaking
+of the instinct of bees, Sidney Smith says: "_Providence has done it._
+There are the bees, there is the comb, and the honey, get rid of it or
+find some other explanation if you can."
+
+The early evolutionists changed all this, and made instinct the
+inheritance of an oft-repeated act. The young kitten, as soon as old
+enough, hunts for a mouse and catches it without any training. The sight
+of the mouse acts on its nervous system in such a way as to compel it to
+creep up softly, jump on it, toy and play with it, and finally kill and
+eat it. It would have required long practice on the part of its
+ancestors before so wonderful a character could have become fixed. The
+same is true of the setter dog.
+
+The new view is, that instincts arise from variations in the germ-plasm.
+The union of the germ elements of two individuals causes it to vary more
+or less from either parent. These variations will be favorable and
+unfavorable. The unfavorable ones will produce offspring handicapped in
+the struggle for life and they will disappear. The favorable variations
+will produce descendants possessing advantages for survival and leave
+numerous offspring.
+
+It is not easy to accept this view, but I think there are some facts
+that support it. I will advance a few. The hive of the honey-bee
+contains three kinds of insects: the queen, the drones or males, and the
+workers. The queen makes her nuptial flight but once in a life-time, and
+does it from instinct. How can an instinct like this have been acquired
+by being performed but once? The drones are derived from unfertilized
+eggs; yet their instincts are those of the male, not of the female. As
+they have no male ancestors, it seems probable there was in the
+germ-plasm of some queen bee, at a time far back, some change which
+allowed unfertilized eggs to produce males.
+
+The workers are all females, not fully developed sexually on account of
+a diet with too small a proportion of nitrogenous food and containing so
+large a proportion of the hydrocarbons. They inherit from the mother, or
+rather from the germ-plasm, the instinct to gather honey, yet neither
+their male nor female ancestors ever gathered any honey in their lives,
+nor have they for ages. Far back in antiquity the queen, no doubt, did
+gather honey, but the disuse of this instinct has not caused it to
+disappear in the working bee, as it should have done according to the
+Lamarckian theory of disuse causing decay of function. Is there any way
+to account for this, except on the theory that the germ-plasm produces
+working bees as well as the other kinds, irrespective of the habits of
+the queen? Her character in this respect is fixed and does not change.
+Is it unreasonable to think that some time in the past, in some queen
+bee, was formed a germ-plasm capable of producing three varieties, and
+that there was such an advantage in it for survival, that it has been
+continued ever since by natural selection? Queens not able to do this
+have not been selected, left no offspring, and thus the perfection of
+the stock has been assured.
+
+One more case. Some years ago, when interested in agricultural
+entomology, I made a study of the so-called seventeen-year locust.
+Noting the wonderful precision with which the female cuts into a soft
+twig of a tree and lays its eggs in two rows, the thought was suggested
+to me, how can an instinct, used only a few hours, once in seventeen
+years, be acquired by exercise and persist in the offspring seventeen
+years later? Weismann's theory of the origin of instinct from favorable
+variations in the germ-plasm offers, it seems to me, a rational
+explanation.
+
+I do not need to extend illustrations which abound in the insect world,
+especially among the ants, which furnish cases of coadaptation that
+cannot be transmitted, as they do not propagate, so I will not mention
+them here.
+
+Now, if acquired characters _are not_ transmitted to offspring, how
+should these facts affect our methods of educating children?
+
+One advantage will be evident, I think, to all. Erroneous systems of
+training, which do not injure the health, will not appear through
+heredity in the offspring of parents thus wrongly trained, except as a
+result of environment. That is to say, the injury does not become
+congenital--will not be in the blood--and, consequently, it will be less
+difficult to eradicate it and to introduce better systems. This may be
+considered an advantage. But it is not all. If heredity takes place only
+through the germ-plasm, then it seems to me that whatever promotes a
+knowledge of how to maintain it in a high degree of health, and how to
+favor more perfectly natural selection, are subjects with which our
+educators may busy themselves far more than they do. That is to say, the
+study of biology, of life--of the laws of human growth and development,
+and of evolution, will become, more and more, important factors in our
+school curriculum. We can hardly imagine how much our common every-day
+life has been aided by even the slight knowledge of mathematics gained
+by an acquaintance with addition, subtraction, multiplication and
+division. By it we are able to keep our little accounts correctly, and
+neither cheat our creditors nor be cheated by them. Could we not by a
+knowledge of the laws of evolution, and also the laws of growth and
+development, keep our larger account with nature in a far better
+condition? Could we not keep ourselves from being cheated out of our
+health and happiness, and also do something to put an end to physical,
+intellectual and moral deterioration which threatens so many families
+and even races? It seems to me that the time is not far distant when
+these studies will be quite as much attended to as the not unimportant
+ones of arithmetic and grammar.
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF HEREDITY.--Whatever doctrine of heredity prevails, however,
+one thing is certain, some knowledge of the subject will be very useful
+to those who have in care the training of children. To them, often more
+than to the parent, is entrusted the task of developing the character
+and the individuality of the child. Can he do this well if he knows
+nothing of what the bent of the child's genius from ancestral influence
+is? I doubt very much if any of us realize how important it is that this
+individuality should have its proper share of attention. As the
+evolution of society goes on, more and more must there be
+differentiation of our various activities. If every boy and every girl
+can be educated so that to a considerable extent they can follow the
+bent of their genius, _whenever that bent is a normal one_, will not the
+available intellectual and moral energy of society be considerably
+augmented? If you educate a boy which nature intended for a blacksmith
+for a preacher, has not the world lost something? Educate another for a
+blacksmith who should have been a preacher, is there not also a great
+loss? There are a few children who will come out all right, no matter
+how much they are schooled, or whether they have any schooling, so well
+have they been born, but with the majority this is not the case. Now it
+seems to me that the teacher who knows the natures of his pupils, and
+something of their ancestors', can direct their energies more
+satisfactorily than the one who does not. If there are hereditary
+defects of intellect or morals, he can more easily correct them. If
+there are ancestral tendencies to disease through imperfections of
+certain organs, for instance, the lungs or the brain, he can often put
+the child on such a course of physical culture or mental training as to
+lift it above danger, so that it may go through life a useful person
+instead of a feeble one or a lunatic. Even the tendency to crime might
+be averted.
+
+
+INDIVIDUALITY.--If we could educate the young so as to bring out more
+fully their normal individualities we should be able to cultivate in
+them more independence of character. On this subject Prof. Mills says:
+"With all its imperfections, I am bound to say that the individuality
+of the pupils in the old log school-house was often more developed than
+in the city public schools of today, where for a boy to be himself
+frequently brings with it the ridicule of his fellows--a condition of
+things that has its effect afterward on the lad at college. I find that
+this fear of being considered odd,--out of harmony with what others may
+think,--one of the greatest drawbacks to the development of independent
+investigating students at college. The case is still worse for girls.
+When women begin to be really independent in thought, in feeling, in
+action, I shall be more hopeful of the progress of mankind. Happily, the
+dawn of this day is already begun."
+
+We must not forget that there is also a spectre of heredity. It is seen
+under different forms. The physician is often reminded by his patients
+that they have inherited this or that disease from father or mother, or
+an ancestor farther back. Now, there are few diseases which come to us
+directly through inheritance. In a majority of cases they are not
+transmitted. Even consumption is not. If we accept the modern theory of
+its origin, as we must, this plague is the result of germs floating in
+the air being introduced into our bodies by respiration, or in food, or
+through contact with abraided Surfaces. Those with weakened
+constitutions are more liable to it than the strong, and a weakened
+constitution may be inherited, for in this case the germ-plasm will not
+be well nourished and will suffer; but those thus handicapped in the
+race of life will get on far better by endowing themselves with
+knowledge and obeying the laws of life than they can by living under the
+shadow of the great spectre of heredity, and casting anathemas at their
+ancestors for not having done more for them. No doubt most of them have
+done the best they could; and if life is worth living, as most of us
+believe, we owe them many thanks for having brought us into the world.
+
+
+THE SPECTRE OF HEREDITY.--There is a spectre of heredity of a more
+serious nature. It is the spirit of the dead past, with its mighty hand
+on society, on institutions, on modes of life. Wendell Phillips used to
+tell a story, in his anti-slavery addresses, which illustrates the evil
+effect of this inherited spectre. It ran in this wise. In an Eastern
+temple, an idol, in the image of a god, stood calmly on its pedestal. It
+was sacrilege to touch it with human hands; but rats having no such
+feelings of awe in the presence of a deity, began to gnaw about it in
+various places, yet no one was bold enough to remove it to a place of
+safety; and so the rats gnawed on and on, and built their nests within
+the sacred image. In time they loosened it from its firm foundation, and
+one morning, when the worshippers came in to pay their devotions, they
+found their god had fallen prostrate on the floor. So it is sometimes
+with our inherited beliefs. They hold us back from progress like a heavy
+weight. We fear to remove them, for they are sacred inheritances, idols,
+gods, and so our institutions decay, perish.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106:A] Darwin did not regard this experiment as settling this question.
+He had great affection, so to speak, for this poor, despised theory, and
+believed it would finally be established as in the main true.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A HEALTHIER RACE.
+
+_Given before the Greenacre Conference of Evolutionists._
+
+
+We have most of us in the past looked upon health as a matter of
+inheritance, or temperance and moderation in working, in eating and
+drinking; or as depending on climate; or exercise, or plenty of sleep,
+pure water and a morning bath, or some other secret, one or more of
+which is pretty sure to be in the possession of most persons who have
+lived long enough to have had some experience with those things that do
+them good or harm. All these agencies have great value; but I think few
+of us realize that nature, through the laws of evolution, has long been
+working to produce a brave and strong, healthy and hardy race of men and
+women by other methods than those health habits which most of us value
+so highly.
+
+Nature has been doing this chiefly by two methods, and it seems
+necessary that I should say something about them in order to present my
+subject as I wish to present it. The methods to which I refer are those
+of sexual and natural selection. It is to these two processes that we
+are largely indebted for race improvements--more perfect bodies, more
+active brains, and the high degree of health which a considerable
+portion of the race enjoys.
+
+
+SEXUAL SELECTION.--By sexual selection is meant that preference which
+the male or the female has for certain characteristics of the other sex.
+It also includes the advantages which the stronger and more capable male
+has over the weaker one in obtaining a choice, or, among polygamous
+animals, a larger number of females, thus allowing offspring to be
+generated by the most capable, and preventing the most incapable from
+procuring mates.
+
+The first principle of sexual selection, that of preference, would imply
+a considerable development of the intellect, and some taste, but I do
+not think it has had great influence on the lower forms of life. It is
+difficult to study the preferences of insects, for instance; but I have
+studied the moth of the silkworm, and could never observe that either
+male or female had a choice for any particular mate. They always appear
+to take the first one that comes along. I think this is the conclusion
+come to by those entomologists who have had opportunities for studying
+other insects. The spider might perhaps be studied in this relation to
+advantage, as the female is ferocious, often eating her male suitors
+while they are trying to woo her. Nor do I believe that it is a very
+important matter in many other animals. Certainly among the domestic
+ones--the sheep, the horse, the bull and the cow--a superior male and
+female will mate with inferior ones of the opposite sex, apparently
+without the slightest objection. I have sometimes thought I had observed
+in pigeons a preference, having occasionally seen a male leave his mate
+for a more attractive female; at least one that seemed more attractive
+to me.
+
+When it comes to sexual selection through struggle, no doubt there has
+been great advantage, and it has produced important effects. This occurs
+among polygamous and also among non-polygamous animals, and the strong
+males are certain to secure the largest number of females and,
+consequently, leave the largest number of offspring. This would, no
+doubt, through the laws of inheritance, be beneficial in producing
+animals of greater vigor and more perfect health. But even in this case,
+the males seem to have little preference for any particular female; and
+so while the least vigorous ones would leave few, and many no offspring,
+the least vigorous females would leave nearly as many as the more
+vigorous ones. Still, through pure-blooded males alone, stockbreeders
+tell us, herds of cattle can be brought up to a high degree of
+perfection in three or four generations, even if the females, at the
+beginning of the experiment, are inferior. The first generation would
+be half pure blood; the second three-fourths; the third, seven-eighths,
+and the fourth fifteen-sixteenths, or almost thoroughbred.
+
+When it comes to man, however, the case is different. With him sexual
+selection is more important, and the preference shown by both sexes is
+very marked. Many women have strong prejudices against marrying men with
+certain characteristics, and nothing will induce them to such a union.
+So strong are the desires many of them have for mates with particular
+qualities, that they prefer to remain single rather than marry one not
+possessing these qualities. Through this preference, on the whole, the
+better and those most adapted mate with those most suited to them, and a
+considerably larger class of physically and mentally inferior ones do
+not mate at all, or, if they do, leave few offspring. The idiot would
+stand no chance of securing a mate, although, if left free, he would
+unite with another idiot, like an animal. Such things have happened, and
+the offspring were not idiots, as might have been expected; but they
+were not superior beings. The most deformed in body would, in most
+cases, unless they had mental traits of a high order to counterbalance
+them, rarely find mates. Thus, through this agency, some of the poorest
+specimens of both sexes do not produce offspring, and this raises the
+standard of the health and ability of the race.
+
+There are many characters which have come into existence, it is
+believed, through sexual selection. One is beauty in women, greater
+beauty of form, of hair, of eyes, of grace, fidelity, chastity, power of
+love, etc. These all give pleasure to the opposite sex, and have an
+element of usefulness in them. Whenever these characters have appeared
+in women they have given the possessors a better chance to find a
+partner with superior characters. The same is true of men. Woman being
+debarred from the hardest labor through maternity has found it useful,
+even in early times, to choose men who were strong, brave, courageous
+and capable of defending and caring for her, so far as was possible, and
+thus by sexual selection she has indirectly promoted health and vigor in
+man, for these qualities are inseparable from it.
+
+But the results of sexual selection are by no means perfect. The sexes
+are nearly equally divided, and as polygamy is not to any great extent
+practiced among human beings, with the exception of those already named,
+most men and women can find mates if they wish, even though they may
+have many serious imperfections of body and mind, and from them many
+children will be born physically and mentally incompetent.
+
+There is no doubt that sexual selection is coming more and more into
+play, however. We have abundant evidence of this in the growing
+sentiment against the marriage of those with a tendency to any serious
+disease, as insanity, syphilis, etc. Only a little while ago was
+published an account of a suit for a breach of promise brought by a
+young woman in an English court against her suitor. He, having in view
+the value of a healthy wife, and also of children well endowed
+physically, asked her before the engagement if any of her near relatives
+had died of consumption, and she replied that none had, which he
+afterwards found was not true. On learning of it he refused to marry
+her. I am sorry to say that she won her suit. One of the questions asked
+in court was: "Is it possible that a lover would ask such questions of
+his sweetheart as would be asked of a candidate for life insurance?"
+
+Courtship is such a delightful occupation for the young, that it seems a
+pity to mar it by bringing in questions of health. Yet men and women are
+often such deceivers, and frequently so ignorant, that some way must be
+devised to prevent deception if sexual selection is ever expected to
+have its full influence on race improvement.
+
+
+HUMAN SELECTION.--Under the head of human selection Galton and Wallace
+have made some interesting and valuable suggestions for improving the
+health and quality of man. Mr. Galton proposed a system of marks for
+family health, intellect and morals, and those members of families
+having the highest number were to be encouraged to marry early by state
+endowments sufficient to enable them to make a good start in life, early
+marriages being favorable to large families. It was a bold suggestion,
+savoring too strongly of socialism or state control of marriage to suit
+many of us.
+
+Professor Wallace's plan is that women shall, so far as possible, be
+made independent, so that they will not feel the necessity of marrying
+for a home. Her time might be occupied either in public duties or
+self-culture, or any occupation she might prefer. She should be educated
+to believe it degrading to marry for a home, without love and
+adaptation, and equally wrong to marry her inferior. This would compel
+men to be more manly, to leave off their bad habits and many vices, in
+order to obtain wives; and the idle, selfish, sickly and deformed would
+not easily get them. One difficulty in the way of carrying out this plan
+is the greater number of women in society as it exists today, owing to
+the larger mortality among boys. But by a better hygiene which is likely
+to result from the evolution of the race, this greater mortality of the
+masculine sex is certain in the future to be prevented, and there will
+then be an excess of men instead of women. This will be a real
+advantage, for a scarcity of women would give her a greater influence
+in selection, and the result would be, the worst men would not be able
+to get wives.
+
+Being in a minority, women would be held in higher esteem, be more
+sought for, and have a real choice in marriage by being able to reject
+unsatisfactory suitors, which is certainly not the case now to any
+considerable extent.
+
+Mr. Wallace's plan would not require such early marriages as that of Mr.
+Galton's, and this would be a positive benefit to the physical vigor of
+the children, for we know that the progeny of too early marriages are
+more delicate, and reproduction before bodily maturity lowers the
+standard of health in parents as well as of their offspring. Marriage
+being delayed, and the culture of the mind being more attended to than
+is possible when it is early, would reduce the number of children in any
+family, and this would enable parents to bestow more care upon them. It
+would also prevent, to a limited extent, over-multiplication of the
+race, which is a real evil, for if every couple left three or four
+children the whole world would soon be full, and over-population would
+result in much disease.
+
+Mr. Wallace's scheme has in view the prevention of marriage by the weak
+and worthless. He believes that if this can be done little more will be
+required, for the superior would be the only ones to procreate, and this
+would be quite sufficient in a few generations to produce a strong and
+healthy race. He calls his plan that of "human selection," but it may
+be considered practically as a modification of sexual selection.
+
+
+NATURAL SELECTION.--Natural selection is another process which takes
+place on an enormous scale and constantly among all organisms, whether
+animal or vegetable. Natural selection is the result of the operation of
+certain laws in the natural world which brings about the survival of
+those best fitted for their environment. It is a weeding-out system by
+the destruction of a certain portion, at least, if not all, of the weak
+and the bad, and it occurs because there is such a rapid increase of
+most organisms. We speak of it as the survival of the fittest, but it is
+also, at the same time, the destruction of the unfit.
+
+Mr. Darwin says: "We have seen that man is variable in body and mind,
+and that the variations are induced either directly or indirectly by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws as with the lower
+animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the earth, and must have
+been exposed during his incessant migrations to the most diversified
+conditions. They must have passed through many climates and changed
+their habits many times before they reached their present homes. They
+must have been exposed to a struggle for existence and, consequently, to
+the rigid law of natural selection. Beneficial variations of all kinds
+have been preserved and injurious ones eliminated. If, then, the
+progenitors of man, inhabiting any district, especially one undergoing
+some changed conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the
+one-half including those with the best adapted powers for movement, for
+gaining a subsistence, for self-defence, would, on the average, have
+more offspring than the other and the less well endowed half."
+
+We may have a good object lesson in the elimination of the unfit going
+on about us constantly. In New York City, for 1891, the deaths of
+children under five years of age was 18,112; for 1892 it was 17,577, or
+slightly less. This is more than one-third, but not quite one-half, of
+the total deaths at all ages for these years. A very large proportion of
+these deaths occurred in the tenement house districts, and a very
+natural question arises in the mind: Are the children of those who live
+in tenement houses more unfit to survive than those who live in houses
+in which only one family dwells. No doubt in most cases the children of
+those are most fit who are most able to provide them with hygienic
+surroundings, the better food and most suitable care; such are usually
+the prudent and the capable. The love of children is usually stronger in
+them. The intelligent affection of parents for their young is one of the
+incentives to their best training. It certainly is not nearly so strong
+among the residents of the crowded quarters of a city as among the more
+prosperous. Any one may observe this by going with a company of mothers
+on the excursions of some fresh air society, which may be seen in most
+cities. It is hard to find one of these mothers who shows what we may
+call intelligent affection or intelligent care of her young. Some
+pathetic instances illustrating this might be mentioned.
+
+When it comes to the question of their physical or mental inferiority, a
+cursory inspection is all that is required to show they are far below
+the average. There is a great want of symmetry of body and
+mind--evidence of degeneration. In order to test the strength of
+constitution, which is a good way to get at one form of physical fitness
+for survival, it seems to me, I made a study of the blood of a
+considerable number of these children and found the amount of protoplasm
+in the colorless blood corpuscles deficient. This shows that their power
+to resist disease is slight. It must be borne in mind, however, that a
+strong constitution alone is not evidence of fitness for survival. A
+strong person may not have prudence, foresight, keenness of perception,
+judgment, and many other qualities equally important. The characters
+just mentioned may constitute fitness when there is only a moderately
+vigorous body. Mr. Darwin recognized this when he said: "We should bear
+in mind that an animal possessing great size, strength and ferocity, and
+which, like the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies would not,
+perhaps, have become sufficiently social, and this would effectually
+have checked the acquirement of the higher mental qualities, such as the
+sympathy and love of his fellows. Hence, _it might have been of immense
+advantage to men to have sprung from some comparatively weak but social
+creature_."
+
+Fitness is a complicated condition and not a simple one. It depends upon
+so many external conditions. Fitness in one place would be unfitness in
+another. Still, other things being equal, strength of constitution is a
+very important factor, and must not be left out of consideration. With
+it there is a surplus of material in the body beyond what is required
+for digestion, assimilation, circulation and other bodily functions, to
+enable the parents not only to do hard labor, but also to endow their
+offspring with vigor equal to their own, often greater vigor. The feeble
+individuals will have a small amount of stored up material in their
+bodies which we may designate as physiological capital to give
+continuous food, warmth and protection to their young; they will not be
+so well adjusted to their environment, and, consequently, natural
+selection will cause their non-survival--or their offspring, if not
+immediately, at no distant period.
+
+This doctrine of natural selection has been designated as cruel, harsh,
+inexorable, and under the influence of the human feeling every effort is
+in our time being made to prevent this wholesome check upon the
+processes of nature from having its due influence upon evolution and
+race progress. Modern hygiene undertakes to put an end to disease, to
+save all who are born, to surround them with every influence which can
+favor their health and development. It would stamp out diphtheria,
+scarlet fever, summer complaint, consumption and a host of other
+diseases which now decimate the ranks of the unfit, and often, no doubt,
+of the comparatively fit. This would perpetuate a type of feeble,
+unhealthy persons. There would not be much hope of more perfect health
+for the race if our hygienists could carry out this daring scheme along
+the lines now working. There seems an antagonism between nature's
+methods of bettering the physical condition of the race and the efforts
+of man himself, acting under the guidance of his moral feelings, to
+prevent the action of natural law. Mr. Darwin recognized this, and
+referred to it in his great work, "The Descent of Man," where he says:
+"With savages, the weak in body and mind are soon eliminated, and those
+that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilized
+men, on the other hand, do our utmost to check the process of
+elimination. We build asylums for the imbeciles, the maimed and the
+sick; we institute poor laws; and our medical men exert their utmost
+skill to save the life of every one to the last moment."
+
+"There is," says he, "reason to believe that vaccination has preserved
+thousands who from a weak constitution would have succumbed to smallpox.
+Thus the weak members of civilized communities propagate their kind. No
+one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt but
+this must be highly injurious to the human race. Excepting in the case
+of man himself hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his worst
+animals to breed."
+
+Other evolutionists, in more recent times, have taken a still more
+somber view of this danger of race deterioration through the prevention
+of the full action of the law of natural selection.
+
+Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in a recent work entitled "Darwinism and Race
+Progress," has sounded the alarm in no uncertain tones. He says: "Races,
+therefore, subject to epidemics of a particular fever, suffer selections
+in the hands of the microbes of that fever, and those living are
+survivals, cast in the most resisting mould. It may not be flattering to
+our national vanity to look upon ourselves as the product of the
+selection of the micro-organism of measles, scarlet fever, smallpox,
+etc.; but the reasonableness of the conclusion seems to be forced upon
+us when we consider his immunity from these diseases as compared with
+the natives of the interior of Africa, or the wilds of America, whose
+races have never been so selected, and who, when attacked for the first
+time by these diseases, are ravaged almost to extinction. By
+exterminating these diseases we shall no doubt preserve countless lives
+to the community who will, in their turn, become race producers; but in
+as much as the individuals thus preserved will, in most cases, belong to
+the feebler and less resisting of the community, _the race will not
+become more robust_."
+
+The same author concludes in these words: "In the meantime we may view,
+and not without inquietude, the probability that our statistics, as far
+as they go, indicate that race deterioration has already begun as a
+consequence of that care for the individual which has characterized the
+efforts of modern society. The biologist, from quite another group of
+facts, has independently arrived at conclusions which render this view
+in the highest degree probable."
+
+"Thus, the great English race, once so hardy, so powerful," says this
+modern writer, "by hygiene and better physical conditions, is becoming
+weaker and weaker."
+
+This view of the case is growing largely in England and, perhaps, other
+European countries. There is already some evidence of its truthfulness
+in statistics. The death rate for those in middle life is rather
+increasing than diminishing. This arises from the fact that the great
+number of children who formerly died in infancy have lived, but being of
+more feeble constitutions, they swell the death rate later on. It is
+felt, also, in many educational institutions in the larger number of
+youths who cannot stand the strain and stress of student life. They are,
+high medical authority says, the youth saved from early death by modern
+hygienic and medical care. Formerly, natural selection would have chosen
+them as unfit to survive, and there would have remained alive few
+besides the hardy ones with good constitutions, capable of great strain,
+with great powers of endurance.
+
+It is also shown in the stress of modern competition, in which there are
+multitudes who cannot stand this strain. It is from these, in some
+degree, that we hear the cry for governmental aid. "We must make the
+conditions of life easier for them," say our social reformers, "or they
+will become 'a submerged class.'"
+
+
+CONFLICT BETWEEN EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES AND OUR HUMANE SENTIMENTS.--And
+now I wish to consider another phase of my subject. Those who have
+followed closely what was said concerning natural selection will have
+seen that there appears to be a conflict between evolutionary theories
+and the humane sentiment of the age--a want of correspondence between
+what is being done by natural law and what man is trying to do under the
+inspiration of his loving heart. Can we reconcile this want of
+correspondence? To some extent no doubt we can.
+
+In the first place, the growth of the moral nature has always been held
+in high esteem by every nation and every race. Our moral giants stand
+higher in the scale of being than our great generals or statesmen, even
+in an age when moral culture is at a low ebb. We draw our moral
+inspiration from Buddha, Socrates and Christ rather than from Aristotle;
+their science may be, yes, is, faulty, but their spirit is lofty.
+
+And the moral nature is cultivated in laboring for the good of others,
+in trying to save for a better life the poor, the weak, the distressed.
+All that is required is that we do this work wisely, not unwisely, under
+the guidance of reason, not feelings. We want to prevent these
+calamities rather than cure them.
+
+Another satisfaction arises from the fact that in learning how to
+perfect the lives of the feeble so that they may live longer, we also
+learn how to perfect, in a still higher degree, the lives of the strong,
+or those we call the fit, so that they also will not only live longer,
+but be able to live with much greater satisfaction the complex lives of
+our times.
+
+The knowledge which helps the first may help the second even more than
+the first, for they have better opportunities and can take advantage of
+it. We may also comfort ourselves with the fact that a majority of those
+with feeble constitutions, whose lives have been for a time snatched
+from the operation of the laws of natural selection, will not, after
+all, contribute very extensively to the increase of the population.
+Great powers of generation and numerous offspring rarely go with
+physical weakness. If there are exceptions they are explainable. It is,
+I think, pretty certain that a great majority of such leave few, often
+no offspring. They find their way into places where work is light and
+the pay small, and they cannot afford to marry and care for families,
+and do not do it.
+
+The law of natural selection will continue to work on them so long as
+its action is required, with little regard to the efforts of man to
+abrogate it. Nature works continuously for ages, and she works on every
+part of man, every organ, every function. We may almost say she is
+omnipotent; that she watches for every slight improvement; that she
+knows what to do under every circumstance. Foiled in one direction, she
+has other means, infinite means, for gaining her ends. Man can no more
+put a stop to the operation of natural law than he can put a stop to the
+flow of Niagara. He may turn off a trifle of its water to whirl wheels
+and spindles, but the mighty river flows on until nature makes some
+changes in the watersheds, that make its flow impossible. Man, on the
+other hand, acts on his own body in a finite way. He works mainly for
+immediate, not remote, ends. He changes his methods as his needs change,
+or his knowledge increases. Today he works with limited knowledge of
+hygiene, inspired by old ideas of philanthropy. Tomorrow he may have a
+vastly extended knowledge of this subject and an entirely new social
+science which will enable him to do more good and less harm.
+
+
+IDEAL OF HEALTH.--Let me now consider some of the things necessary to
+give us a greater hope for the future of human health, of ourselves and
+for our children.
+
+The first thing necessary is to get a higher ideal of bodily or physical
+perfection than we have today. Sir James Paget, in a lecture on National
+Health, in 1884, put this in the following words:
+
+"We want," says he, "more ambition for health. _I should like to see a
+personal ambition for health as keen as that for bravery, for beauty, or
+for success in our athletic games or field sports. I wish there was such
+an ambition for the most perfect national health as there is for
+national renown in war, in art or in commerce._" Sir James then gives
+his own ideal. It is for man or woman to be so full of health as to be
+comparatively indifferent to the external conditions of life, and to
+make a ready self-adjustment to all its changes. He should not be deemed
+thoroughly healthy who is made better or worse, more fit or less fit, by
+every change of weather or food, or who is bound to observe exact rules
+of living. It is good to observe rules, and to some they are absolutely
+necessary; but it is better to need none but those of moderation, and,
+observing these, to be willing to live and work hard in the widest
+variations of food, air, climate, bathing and all other sustenances of
+life.
+
+
+ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT.--This sounds very much like saying that to be
+healthy one must be adjusted to his environment; and this is practically
+what Herbert Spencer long before said in his "Principles of Biology."
+Here are his words:
+
+"As affording the simplest and most conclusive proof that the degree of
+life varies as the degree of correspondence, it remains to point out
+that perfect correspondence would be perfect life. Were there no changes
+in our environment but such as the organism had adapted changes to meet,
+and were it never to fail in the efficiency with which it met them,
+there would be eternal existence and universal knowledge. Death by
+natural decay occurs because in old age the relations between
+assimilation, oxidation, and the genesis of force going on in the body
+gradually fall out of correspondence with the relations between oxygen
+and the food and absorption of heat by the environment. Death from
+disease arises either when the organism is congenitally defective in its
+power to balance ordinary internal actions, or when there has taken
+place some unusual external action to which there was no answering
+internal action. Death by accident implies some neighboring mechanical
+changes of which the causes are either unobserved from inattention, or
+are so intricate their results cannot be foreseen, and, consequently,
+certain relations in the organism are not adjusted to the relations in
+the environment. Manifestly, if, to every outer co-existence and
+sequence by which it was ever in any degree affected, the organism
+presented an answering process or act, the simultaneous changes would be
+indefinitely numerous and complex, and the successive ones endless, the
+correspondence would be the greatest conceivable and the life the
+highest conceivable, both in degree and length."
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE.--Another requirement to promote human health is a better
+knowledge of how the constitution of the body may be strengthened, and
+more certitude as to whether such improvements as it may receive by
+hygienic training will be transmitted to offspring. That human health
+may be improved by right training of the body, a better supply of fresh
+air, greater moderation in living, there is not a shadow of doubt; but
+is the constitution itself thus strengthened, or only its original vigor
+conserved and made effective? I have been working on the problem for
+some time by a series of studies on the blood, and especially the amount
+of living matter in the colorless corpuscles, and have satisfied myself,
+from some observations on individual cases, that the original
+constitution of feeble persons can be strengthened in early life, but
+the extent of this strengthening seems somewhat limited. Much original
+research is still required to get at important facts in this direction.
+If some of the study now given to micro-organisms could be devoted to
+this subject it would be most useful. The work might be done in
+connection with our numerous schools of physical culture, now happily
+multiplying, and also in our physiological laboratories.
+
+That any gain to the vigor of the constitution can be transmitted to the
+offspring is very probable. While education and training do not seem to
+affect the germ cells in any marked degree, nutrition does affect them.
+Whether acquired characters in the form of skill, music, language or
+other like things are transmitted or not may still be an open question.
+
+Strengthening the constitution seems to be best accomplished by
+increasing the resources of the body beyond its outgo, so that there
+shall be some gain; and this brings up a very important subject, that of
+the importance of living within the bodily income.
+
+In our fast age we are likely to use up the physiological resources in
+excessive work or dissipation, and so rob our children of their just
+inheritance.
+
+
+EFFECTS OF LIVING AT HIGH PRESSURE.--One generation may, by living at
+high pressure and under specially unfavorable conditions, use up more
+than its share of the living matter of its bodies and draw a bill on
+posterity which the next generation cannot pay. Many of us now have the
+benefit of the calm, unexciting lives of our forefathers. They stored up
+physiological wealth for us; we are using it. The question is, Can we,
+working at high pressure, keep this up during our lives (which, in that
+case, will be on an average rather short), and transmit to the coming
+generation a large supply of living matter for their needs?
+
+How often has it happened in the history of the world that people who
+for generations have exhibited no special genius, have blazed out in
+bursts of national greatness for a time, and then almost died out! We
+ought to take care that this does not happen to us. How often we see a
+quiet country family, whose members have for generations led calm,
+temperate lives, suddenly produce one or two great men and then relapse
+into obscurity. They had by their quiet, inexpensive living stored up
+energy for this purpose. On the other hand, how often have we seen the
+reverse--families whose energies have been used up in overwork or
+sensuality producing offspring below themselves in ability. The true
+rule, however, is neither to waste the bodily energy nor to keep too
+much of it lying idle and producing nothing.
+
+
+GIRLS IN MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS.--We need also a new departure in our
+manufacturing centers. Manufacturing as now conducted is a far less
+healthy occupation than agriculture and horticulture. The reason for
+this is that workmen and workwomen and even children in most mills and
+factories are exposed for hours at a time to an atmosphere which is
+loaded with dust and the debris of cotton, of wool, and often to that
+worst of all dust which comes from shoddy and rags. They are also, in
+many cases, kept away from light, and in cramped positions, and this,
+continued for years, slowly deteriorates the constitution; and if, in
+case of a war, we were obliged to enlist a large army, we should find a
+far less number of able bodied men among the factory workers than among
+the farmers. Let me give you a picture, perhaps one of the very worst
+to be seen anywhere, of a visit to a New England paper mill.
+
+"We left, with a company of ladies and gentlemen, the light of a mellow
+afternoon to climb some steep and dusty stairs under the courteous
+guidance of a superintendent. We had hoped to 'see it all,' 'but that
+was quite impossible,' said our guide, 'since the room where the rags
+are sorted is so dusty that the gowns of the ladies would be ruined.' So
+we contented ourselves with less dangerous rooms. But even about the
+stairway the dust cloud hung heavily, obscuring the sight and choking
+the breath. From the narrow landing the room, into which it was
+impossible to venture, was in full view. It was long and large. From end
+to end were ranged huge boxes, waist high. Fastened to each were two
+inverted swords on whose sharp blades the workers cut the piled-up
+masses of rags, shredding them for the bleaching boiler. All the floor
+was covered with rags, billows upon billows of soiled white pieces, in
+which the toilers stood, their feet buried deep beneath the dirty,
+tattered material.
+
+"Not a word was spoken. Even where we stood speech was difficult, so
+completely did the thick dust fill eyes, mouth and nostrils, choking,
+blinding and exasperating. The effect of this perfect silence was
+oppressive. A certain solemnity hung over the place. Through the fog of
+dust the figures loomed unnaturally large. All the workers were white
+and hollow-cheeked, with great sunken eyes, emphasized by the circles
+underneath. Each woman had bound upon her head some rag, larger or finer
+than the rest, to protect her hair, and the gray-white bands folded
+straight across the forehead showed weirdly in the dim half-light.
+
+"As they stood there in long, silent rows, cutting, _cutting_, CUTTING,
+they looked like the priestesses of some ancient and frightful
+ceremonial. We were glad to escape, to exchange the dust, the grime, the
+wan faces, and the burning eyes for the breath of cool wind, the full
+glow of the sunlight, and the face of nature herself, so many of whose
+human children have no time to know or learn her ways.
+
+"It gave a tragic significance to the memory of those silent workers to
+know that they have but a few years to live."
+
+The same unfortunate condition of things is complained of in Manchester,
+England, one of the greatest manufacturing centers in the world. "The
+heated air of the mills, the dust, lack of light, the employment of
+children," says the London _Lancet_, "are causing vast deterioration and
+a most disastrous effect on the morals of the people. Football is
+popular, but all the players are imported from Scotland. The natives
+simply look on and shout. If they want men for policemen or constables,
+they go to Scotland or Ireland for them. The women and girls are
+equally stunted and feeble." In the manufacturing towns the prospect for
+a strong, healthy race from such material is poor indeed.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION: AN EXAMPLE.--It is difficult to see the remedy for this
+state of things. Probably the evolution of a higher standard of ethics,
+a higher sense of justice, and a more thorough belief that health is a
+duty, may do something. Meantime it is important that the working man
+should do all he can for himself; and perhaps I can do no better than to
+give here a picture of what some of them have done under the inspiration
+of co-operation, not only for their health but for their pockets.
+
+It is a picture of a great manufacturing establishment of the Scottish
+Co-operative Wholesale Society, at Shieldhall, near Glasgow, on the
+Clyde. This society is a federation of all the retail societies of
+Scotland, 238 in number, with a membership of over 150,000 persons. The
+society began on a moderate scale many years ago, but its development
+has been marvelous. In 1887 it started out on a career which has since
+continued, owing to the indomitable energy of one of its members,
+himself a working man. The buildings stand in a very healthy locality,
+the health of the working force being considered of the first
+importance. They seem to have learned that sickness is loss--loss of
+time, of productive energy--and that it is a costly matter. As Mr.
+Beecher once said, "it is the one burden that bends, almost breaks, the
+back of society."
+
+These Scotchmen are realizing, just as far as is possible, the condition
+of a sound mind in a sound body. They recognize the rights of the
+laborer to health, and place him in a position while working, so that
+his body may not deteriorate any more than is natural for it to do as
+age advances. The living machine must not be harmed more than the dead
+machinery. The land consists of 12 acres, and cost $2,500 an acre;
+nearly all of it is covered with fine buildings, in which 19 different
+industries are carried on, many of them on a large scale. Every one of
+these buildings is constructed after modern methods, with every
+requirement, not only for convenience but for health. The workrooms are
+cosy and spacious, well ventilated, warmed in cold weather by steam, and
+lighted by electricity. The best sanitary arrangements known have been
+introduced, and the excellent health of the workmen and workwomen, of
+whom there are over 1,000 of each, tells the story of sanitation.
+
+Two large dining-rooms, one for men and one for women, are provided;
+also two large reading-rooms with all necessary papers, periodicals,
+books and means of amusement. Its only lack is a gymnasium and a field
+for athletic sports, but these may in time be added. Food of the best
+quality is supplied for all who desire it at cost. A dish of oatmeal
+and milk costs three cents; a large scone with tea or coffee, the same;
+Scotch broth or soup, two cents; stewed meat and potatoes, eight cents;
+roast beef or mutton, with potatoes, ten cents; a good and sufficient
+meal need not cost over twelve cents. Standard wages are paid, and two
+and one-half hours less time demanded than in private shops.
+
+Men work fifty-three hours weekly, women forty-four. Most of the latter
+work in the shirt factory, but they do not need to sing Hood's _Song of
+the Shirt_. Sweating is unknown; every worker, from the youngest to the
+oldest, receives his or her share of the profits, which amount to about
+$15,000 yearly.
+
+Here we have an almost ideal manufacturing establishment, and if all
+were such we should have higher hopes for human health in the immediate
+future for our workers in factories. It was the outgrowth, the effort of
+the Scotch, a highly intellectual race, to adjust itself to its
+environment. Necessity and competition acting on them forced them to new
+and better adjustments. Such a result could hardly have been achieved by
+a less hard-headed and practical people, a race on which evolution has
+for ages produced some of its best effects.
+
+
+HYGIENE.--But I fancy you ask me, Is there any hope that in the future
+evolution, and with it adjustment to environment, will carry man so far
+that an ideal state of health will be the lot of all? This is what
+hygiene promises. Is it a vain hope? If we look at what older sciences
+have done for man we find much to encourage us. In astronomy, by the aid
+of mathematics, we can calculate with certitude the date of future
+eclipses. In many other sciences we can make accurate predictions and
+accomplish results of the greatest importance. Indeed, science has
+become almost our only authority. Imperfect as it yet is, we trust it,
+perhaps, too implicitly. The science of hygiene is the youngest of all
+the sciences. Not that the Greeks, the Hebrews, the Hindoos and Chinese
+did not have some practical knowledge on the subject, but it was rude
+and empirical. With the discoveries of micro-organisms as the cause of a
+series of the worst diseases, we have begun to place hygiene alongside
+mathematics and chemistry.
+
+We now know the origin of many diseases which formerly were enveloped in
+mystery. Can we remove them? That is the next task. Hygiene will in the
+future busy itself with this great question. It has, it is believed,
+already made many cities proof, or almost proof, against cholera and
+yellow fever. It will try to make them proof against other contagious
+diseases also, and it will without doubt succeed. But its work will not
+then have been accomplished. We may avoid the causes of disease and
+still be puny creatures. Our great task will be the building up of
+bodies equal to the needs of our environment. This we have, in a small
+way, already begun to do--imitating the ancient Greeks--in our schools
+of physical culture, where the body can be trained up to its best, and
+also in our laboratories for psychological research, in which the
+relation of mind and body are being carefully investigated, where every
+subject connected with every function is being studied, even weariness,
+anger, hope, despair, drink, food, sleep, the weather, and their effects
+on function. The results of such knowledge will prove beyond a doubt
+that the health of the body, as well as of the mind, is of the highest
+importance for success in life, for happiness and usefulness, and that
+we can do much to secure both.
+
+My own personal hope for the future of human health lies in the
+evolution and spread of this gospel of hygiene.
+
+Hygiene interests itself in all that relates to human well-being. It may
+be defined as _the ethics of the body--the science of true living_. It
+promises health to all who obey its laws. It makes no such promise to
+those who disregard them. In the future, no doubt, a higher average of
+health will be the result of our ever-increasing knowledge; and whenever
+we are able and willing to apply this knowledge to our own bodily and
+mental conduct we shall be amply rewarded. This much we can safely
+promise, but no more. On the contrary, the violators of hygienic laws
+will, with their offspring, suffer in the future as in the past, and
+that suffering will be in the form of pain, disease, degeneration,
+premature death.
+
+This may seem hard to many who are sensitive to the pains and sorrows of
+the world, and some have gone so far as to attribute to the author of
+nature, the unknown cause of all things, a character anything but good.
+But this is a very erroneous way of looking at the subject. To discuss
+it fully we should have to consider the question of the mystery of evil,
+which cannot be done here. Suffice it to say, the creation, the
+evolution of the race, is by law. Causes produce their legitimate
+results. If it were not so, our sufferings might be far greater, and no
+progress would result. Let us be thankful that nature is as it is, and
+let us do our best to put our lives in harmony with it. By so doing, we
+may in the end attain all that we strive for.
+
+
+
+
+THE GERM PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.
+
+
+The germ plasm is a most interesting and remarkable substance. It must
+be interesting, for everything which relates to life and reproduction is
+interesting. It must be remarkable, for out of it, under proper
+conditions, remarkable results are produced. Although our knowledge of
+its nature is very imperfect, yet let us not on this account refuse to
+try to understand what little is known.
+
+In the first place, the germ plasm of animals which reproduce sexually
+is composed of two germ plasms--that of the male, and that of the
+female. That of the male is called the _spermatozoon_ (pronounced
+sper´ma-to-zoön). It is sometimes called spermatozoid; the plural is
+spermatozoa. It is exceedingly small, the smallest of any cell in the
+body, and has the power to move from place to place. These cells are
+produced in enormous numbers, and so far as they have been observed
+under the microscope they differ considerably in power of movement and
+in perfection of development. Considering their small size, they must
+make a very long journey to find the ovum; and if they were only few in
+number, they would rarely succeed; but existing in large numbers, for
+there are millions of them produced in each sexual act of the male, some
+of them are pretty sure to do so, and, probably in most cases, it would
+be those most vigorous and capable of making the journey most direct and
+in the least time.
+
+That of the female is called the _ovum_, or egg; plural, _ova_. Only a
+small number are produced, when compared with the number of the male
+spermatozoa, but there are quite enough for the ends they are to serve.
+They have not the same power of movement, though they do move somewhat
+as the amæba does. They are also very much larger than the male cells.
+
+The eggs of all mammals look alike as they come from the ovaries, but
+take on some changes afterward. Hæckel says: "Every primitive egg being
+an entirely simple, somewhat round, moving, naked cell, possesses no
+membrane, and consists only of a nucleus and protoplasm. These two parts
+have long borne distinctive names: the protoplasm being called the
+_vitellus_, or yelk, and the nucleus the _germinal vesicle_ (_vesicula
+germinativa_)." The same author also says: "The human egg cannot be
+distinguished from that of most other mammals, either in its immature or
+in its more complete condition. Its form, its size, its composition, are
+approximately the same in all. In its fully developed condition it has
+an average diameter of one-tenth of a line--about the one hundred and
+twentieth part of an inch. If the mammalian egg is properly isolated,
+and held on a plate of glass towards the light, it appears to the eye as
+a very fine point. The normal eggs of most of the higher mammals are of
+almost exactly the same size. They have the same spherical form; always
+the same characteristic covering; always the same clear, round germinal
+vesicle with its dark germinal spot. Even under the highest power of our
+best microscopes there _appears_ to be no essential difference between
+the eggs of a human being and that of the ape, the dog, the cat or other
+animal." This similarity is one of appearance only. There is a
+difference, and of this I shall speak later. It may be asked if the egg
+of a bird is the same as the egg of a mammal. The mature bird's egg, as
+it is laid in the nest, differs materially from that of any mammal; but
+in its miniature form, as found in the hen's ovary, it is also the same.
+The egg of a bird after it leaves the ovary, and as it passes along the
+oviduct, takes on secretions in its passage which it converts into yelk,
+and afterwards a shell is added to give it protection in the external
+world, where it must undergo incubation before it can become a bird; but
+before it takes on its shell it has been fertilized, and this also
+causes other changes. Hæckel says: "After the ripe egg of the bird has
+left the ovary, and has been fertilized in the oviduct, it surrounds
+itself with various coverings which are secreted from the inner surface
+of the oviduct. The thick layer of transparent albumen first forms round
+the yellow yelk; this is followed by the formation of the outer
+calcareous shell, within which is another envelope, or skin. All these
+coverings and additions which are gradually formed round the egg are of
+no importance to the development of the embryo; they are parts which
+have nothing to do with the simple egg cell. Even in the case of other
+animals we often find large eggs with thick coverings. For example, the
+shark's; but even in this case the egg is originally exactly similar to
+those of mammals when in its primitive condition as it comes from the
+ovary. In the case of the bird these additions serve only as food for
+the growing embryo, which, in the case of mammals, is furnished by a
+stream of the mother's blood, making 'stored-up' nutriment unnecessary."
+
+Before, however, we can have _true germ plasm_ the mother cell must be
+fertilized by the male cell. This is true of all the higher plants and
+animals. There are some low plants and animals in which fertilization by
+the male cell is not required. This has been called virginal generation.
+In no mammal is this possible.
+
+How fertilization takes place and what it signifies are both important
+questions which have not been entirely settled, and it almost seems as
+if they could not be settled in some of their details, except in the
+lower forms of life. Nature has so protected the process from
+observation in the higher animals that it cannot be studied in detail;
+but in plants and the lowest animals it has been observed with some
+success, and we may infer that the process is very much the same in the
+higher animals.
+
+Hæckel, in his great work on the Evolution of Man, tells us that "The
+process of fertilization in sexual generation depends essentially on the
+fact that two dissimilar cells meet and blend. In former times the
+strangest views prevailed with regard to this act. Men have always been
+disposed to regard it as thoroughly mystical, and the most widely
+different hypotheses have been framed to account for it. It is only
+within a few years that closer study has shown that the whole process of
+fertilization is extremely simple, and entirely without special mystery.
+Essentially, it consists merely in the fact that the male sperm-cell
+coalesces with the female egg-cell. Owing to its sinuous movements, the
+very mobile sperm-cell finds its way to the female egg-cell, penetrates
+the membrane of the latter by a perforating motion, and coalesces with
+its cell material.
+
+"A poet might find in this circumstance a capital opportunity for
+painting in glowing colors the wonderful mystery of fertilization; he
+might describe the struggles of the 'seed animalcules' eagerly dancing
+round the egg-cell shut up in its many coverings, disputing the passage
+through the minute pore-canals of the chorion, and then of purpose
+burying themselves in the protoplasm of the yelk mass, where, in a
+spirit of self-sacrifice, they completely efface themselves in the
+better 'ego.' But the critical naturalist very prosaically conceives
+this poetical incident, this 'crown of love,' as the mere coalescence of
+two cells! The result of this is, that in the first place the egg-cell
+is rendered capable of further evolution, and, secondly, that the
+hereditary qualities of _both_ parents can be transmitted to the child."
+
+By coalescence is understood, growing together, not mingling as water
+and milk might when mixed. More recent observations indicate that during
+coalescence both the male and female cells throw off some portions of
+their substance. It is also considered that the important part of each
+cell is its nucleus. In it all hereditary characteristics are stored up.
+If the nucleus be absent in either cell these cells cannot reproduce. In
+unicellular, or one-celled, organisms, it has been found in
+multiplication by division, a part of the nucleus must go with each
+half, otherwise the half without a part of it does not grow. In
+experiments in laboratories, artificial division of simple organisms may
+be made, and each fragment will become a perfect creature if only a very
+small piece of the nucleus goes with the separated portion; but if a
+part is cut off without any of the nucleus, then, while it may live on
+for a short time, it can not grow or propagate.
+
+Possibly we have here an explanation of some hereditary phenomena in
+human beings. If there is an unequal division, and more of the male than
+of the female nucleus, the child might, as a result, inherit more of the
+father's than of the mother's characteristics, or the reverse.
+
+What has been so far said about the germ plasm has been to enable the
+reader to possess a degree of intelligence on the nature of
+fertilization, so far as it is known; but from a practical standpoint
+the most important knowledge for those prospective parents who wish to
+practice intelligent stirpiculture is to understand that the health of
+the germ plasm or fertilized ovum depends on the health of the parents.
+By health, I mean the possession of a good constitution, to which will
+be added a strong hold on life, power to do and to endure, and quickly
+to recover from weariness. Disease will be easily warded off in such
+persons, so that there will be generally good health. Such a condition
+of body is usually inherited. It depends on the possession of a large
+supply in the body of living matter--firm muscles, a good heart, lungs
+and digestive organs. Those who are feeble cannot endure much; whose
+heart, lungs and digestive organs are weak; whose hold on life is
+slight, can rarely endow their offspring with these high qualities.
+Their children may live if no great strain comes upon them; but if they
+must take an active part in the struggle and competition going on in the
+world they cannot endure it. Mr. Spencer puts the case very aptly in his
+work on Ethics where he says: "It results that where maternal vigor is
+great, and the surplus vitality consequently large, a long series of
+children may be borne before any deterioration in their quality becomes
+marked; while, on the other hand, a mother with but a small surplus may
+soon cease altogether to reproduce. Further, it results that variations
+in the state of health of parents which involves variations in the
+surplus vitality have their effects on the constitutions of offspring to
+the extent that offspring borne during greatly deranged maternal health
+are decidedly feebler. And then, lastly and chiefly, it results that
+after the constitutional vigor has culminated, and there has commenced
+that gradual decline which in some twenty years or so brings absolute
+infertility, there goes on a gradual decrease in that surplus vitality
+on which the production of offspring depends, and a consequent
+deterioration in the quality of such offspring. This which is _a
+priori_ conclusion is verified _a posteriori_.
+
+"Mr. J. Mathews Duncan, in his work on Fecundity, Fertility, Sterility
+and allied topics, has given results of statistics which show that
+mothers of twenty-five bear the finest infants, and that from mothers
+whose ages at marriage range from twenty to twenty-five years there come
+infants which have a lower rate of mortality than those resulting from
+marriages consummated when the mothers' ages are smaller or greater. The
+apparent slight incongruity between these two statements being due to
+the fact that whereas marriages commenced before twenty and twenty-five
+cover the whole of the period of highest vigor, marriages commenced at
+five and twenty cover a period which lacks the years during which vigor
+is rising to its climax and includes only the years of decline from the
+climax."
+
+This quotation from Mr. Spencer needs a qualifying remark. Mr. Galton,
+in his work on Hereditary Genius, found that the average age of mothers
+of men of the greatest ability was about thirty, and of their fathers
+thirty-five. In such cases, the physical and intellectual strength must
+have been above the average, and, consequently, it continued to a more
+advanced age. Besides, those of great ability mature later.
+
+It may also be added that Duncan's statistics, quoted by Spencer, are
+average statistics gathered from tables of mortality, and include every
+class of persons. Now, average statistics do not apply to individual
+cases, and they would not apply to those highly endowed physically and
+intellectually.
+
+Further, those who are well endowed at birth and whose lives are in
+accordance with hygienic law, that is, those who do not squander their
+physiological resources by sensuality, by intemperance, or by excesses
+of any sort retain their health to a greater age than those whose lives
+are the reverse. Such are of a youthful physiological age, which is not
+altogether determined by the actual number of years they have lived, but
+by very high physiological conditions.
+
+From all this we conclude that a very important rule in the production
+of offspring, if we would have those offspring superior, is to maintain
+a high degree of health--a condition in which there is a surplus of
+physiological capital to produce children with endowments equal to, if
+not superior to, their parents.
+
+Another subject requires treatment here. It is the effect of alcohol on
+offspring. We are yet lacking in statistics giving the facts we need to
+know on this subject; but the general observation of competent persons
+who have had good opportunities to study it may teach us something.
+Alcohol, in its circulation in the blood, penetrates every part; not
+even the germ plasm escapes. Demme studied ten families of drinkers and
+ten families of temperate persons. The direct posterity of the ten
+families of drinkers included fifty-seven children. Of these,
+twenty-five died in the first weeks and months of their lives; six were
+idiots; in five a striking backwardness of their longitudinal growth was
+observed; five were affected with epilepsy, and five with inborn
+diseases. Thus, of the fifty-seven children of drinkers only ten, or
+17.5 per cent., had normal constitutions and healthful growth. The ten
+sober families had sixty-one children, five only dying in the first
+weeks; four were affected with curable diseases of the nervous system;
+two only had inborn defects. The remaining fifty, 81.9 per cent., were
+normal in their constitutions and development.
+
+In this statement we have a graphic object lesson of the evil effects of
+alcohol on the germ plasm. Natural selection had far more to do in
+removing those unfit to survive in the intemperate than in the temperate
+families.
+
+A knowledge of the evil effects of alcohol on the unborn child was known
+to the ancients. The mother of Sampson was warned "not to drink any wine
+or strong drink nor to eat any unclean thing" because she was to
+conceive and bear a son who was to deliver Israel out of the hands of
+the Philistines. Manoah was so interested in what the angel of the Lord
+had said to his wife that he sought an interview with him for further
+confirmation, and asked: "How shall we order the child, and how shall we
+do unto him?" evidently meaning, "How shall we train and educate him?"
+and the same advice was given as before. Whatever view the reader may
+hold as to the inspiration or non-inspiration of the Bible, certainly
+this advice was good. Other examples similar to it are to be found, not
+only in the same book, but in numerous historical works, and also
+abundant evidence in our own time of the evil effects of alcoholic
+drinks on unborn children giving them a tendency to insanity, idiocy and
+other nervous diseases. A whole book might be written on this branch of
+our subject.
+
+To what extent food affects the germ plasm we remain somewhat in
+ignorance. We know that it is from it that the body is nourished, and
+from it also the stored up or surplus matter in our systems is obtained.
+The larger the surplus the more highly will the offspring be endowed
+with energy is a fact clearly set forth by Mr. Spencer. A surplus of
+fatty food stored up in the body, however, cannot be of much service and
+may prove injurious. A deficiency of nitrogenous food would also, it
+seems to me, be an evil. The germ plasm, or its most important part, is
+a highly nitrogenous substance, like all protoplasm, or living matter.
+The highest form of germ plasm, that with a most complex molecular
+structure, would hardly be formed if there was a deficiency of
+nitrogenous matter in the blood.
+
+Air is also food the same as bread is. The activities, the chemical
+changes in the body, are mainly, though not entirely, between the oxygen
+of the air and the carbon and hydrogen of our food. The body is quite as
+much injured by a deficiency of air inhaled into the lungs by exercise
+as by a deficiency of food, though the injury may be of a different
+nature. Physicians and others have long ago observed that the offspring
+of parents living much in the open air and sunlight are healthier and
+stronger than those of parents living in confined spaces, where air and
+light are deficient. Air which is impure, which is loaded with poisonous
+matter, if inhaled for a long time by the mother, lowers the standard of
+her health. In malarious regions, the vigor of the offspring is less,
+and the number who die in infancy greater, than in regions where the air
+and water are pure. Many years ago I remember reading in one of the
+journals devoted to sanitary science published in London, an account of
+a rural town where both air and water were of extraordinary purity, and
+in this town a very large percentage of the children born lived to grow
+to maturity. There is also an isolated region in France, bordering on
+the sea, where both air, water and climate are unusually salubrious,
+and though intermarriage has been practiced for a long time among the
+several thousand inhabitants, the people are remarkably well formed and
+healthy. Similar facts have been observed in other places. They indicate
+to us that a healthful climate, with good air and water, are important
+factors in all true stirpiculture.
+
+While all diseases which exhaust the physiological resources of the
+system are detrimental to the offspring, there are certain ones which
+are peculiarly so. Specific diseases or those resulting from a sensual
+life are the first to be mentioned. If the bodies of either father or
+mother become saturated with the poison, which is probably a germ, then
+the child born of such parents will certainly be infected and either die
+at birth or live only a short and feeble life. It is one of the
+penalties of an impure life--a very severe one, no doubt, but perhaps
+not too severe, that the offspring of the sensualist must suffer the
+penalties for its parent's physiological sins. Medical men have long
+been trying to discover a remedy which will make it safe for a man
+infected with specific disease to marry and become a father, but so far
+they have not had much success. It is doubtful if they ever will.
+
+Epilepsy is another disease which is so often transmitted to children
+that any one of either sex suffering from it had better abstain from
+parentage. If one parent is remarkably healthy, the children may escape
+the severest form of penalty; but even then they may suffer from
+nervousness and other diseases, and rarely enjoy robust health.
+
+The question whether persons who have a consumptive tendency should
+become parents or not has frequently been discussed by sanitarians, but
+never settled. Such persons are frequently intellectual, and often of an
+unusually cheerful and hopeful disposition. They are, in most cases,
+quite prolific. In the female they generally make excellent wives and
+mothers; in the case of the male, they are not uncommonly good providers
+for their families, and also good fathers. Except in the worst cases,
+does the welfare of the race demand that they shall not marry and become
+parents. Probably not. But we must advise them to take the very best
+care of their imperfect bodies; to develop their chests by wise but not
+excessive physical training; to husband their physiological resources
+carefully; not to marry young, nor rear too many children. Excessive
+childbearing is a prolific cause in women of consumption, and excessive
+sexual indulgence is a frequent cause of it in both sexes.
+
+These remarks should not be construed to mean that those who are already
+in the early stages of this disease, or whose families on both sides
+have been deeply affected by it, may become parents. They should not.
+But in the present state of society, we cannot hold men and women up to
+an ideal standard. Some slight risks may be taken, but not too great
+ones. As the race progresses in knowledge, however, we may raise our
+standards, and finally make them so high that no one with a tendency to
+any serious disease which is likely to affect the offspring unfavorably
+shall have any right to contribute to the world's population.
+
+I have mentioned only a few of the many diseases which affect the germ
+plasm unfavorably. It is hardly necessary to extend the list.
+
+One other subject deserves consideration, when I will bring this chapter
+to a close. Every child born into the world is, to a certain extent, an
+experiment. That is to say, the parents cannot predict its sex, nor what
+its chief characteristics will be. These depend on what potentialities
+are stored up in the germ plasm. If this be formed by parents in good
+health, with a surplus of vital force, and a long line of ancestors with
+normal lives, we may believe that if the environment be favorable, the
+child will develop so as to show the same characteristics, perhaps in an
+even higher degree. Whatever variations there are will not be much below
+or above the average line of its ancestors. The congenital characters
+will tend to be transmitted. They are in the germ plasm, even in great
+detail. Whether the acquired ones are transmitted may still be
+uncertain; but whether they are or not, normal right living will be sure
+to have good effects. Obey the laws of life and far better results will
+follow than if they are disobeyed.
+
+
+
+
+FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.
+
+
+In the present age suggestions on this subject may seem superfluous. The
+more highly educated and wealthy classes have already sufficiently
+reduced the number of children which they bring into the world. But are
+these offspring any better than they would have been had their parents
+given birth to a larger number?
+
+Mr. Darwin did not think much could be done to improve the race by
+parents limiting the number of their offspring. He would trust to
+natural selection to weed out the unfit, and to sexual selection as an
+aid. He thus describes the probable manner of action of sexual selection
+among primeval men: "The strongest and most vigorous men--those who
+could best defend and hunt for their families; those who were provided
+with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as a large
+number of dogs or other animals--would succeed in rearing a greater
+average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members of the
+same tribes. Such men would doubtless generally be able to select the
+more attractive women. . . . If, then, this be admitted, it would be an
+unexplainable circumstance if the selection of the more attractive women
+by the more powerful men of the tribes, who would rear on the average a
+greater number of children, did not, after the lapse of generations,
+_modify the character of the tribes_."
+
+The way in which the tribe would be modified would be by its producing
+better children. Of course among primitive men the richer and more
+powerful had several wives, but it is not likely that the number of
+children by each one was large.
+
+Natural selection is, however, a painful process, necessary, no doubt,
+where ignorance prevails; but if the number of children of each pair
+could be limited and of a superior character, so far as vigor and
+adaptation to environment are concerned, would there not be less need
+for natural selection with all its evils? It seems to us that this would
+be so.
+
+We have already quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence from
+parenthood on the part of the unfit and the duty on the part of the fit
+to become parents, and, theoretically, Mr. Allen is right; but except as
+both of these classes are swayed by duty we would make little progress
+in this way. A majority of mankind think they are the fit. Why should
+they crucify their desires for the benefit of the race? As mankind
+becomes more moral Mr. Allen's views may have a larger influence on
+thought than now; but before that time little can be expected from
+them.
+
+Mr. Spencer says: "We have fallen upon evil times, in which it has come
+to be an accepted doctrine that part of the responsibilities [of
+parenthood] are to be discharged, not by parents, but by the public--a
+part which is gradually becoming a larger part, and threatens to become
+the whole. Agitators and legislators have united in spreading a theory
+which, logically followed out, ends in the monstrous conclusion that it
+is for parents to beget children and for society to take care of them.
+The political ethics now in fashion makes the unhesitating assumption
+that while each man, as parent, is not responsible for the mental
+culture of his offspring he is, as a citizen along with other citizens,
+responsible for the mental culture of all other men's offspring! And
+this absurd doctrine has now become so well established that people
+raise their eyes in astonishment if you deny. But this ignoring of the
+truth, that only by due discharge of parental responsibilities has all
+life on the earth arisen, and that only through the better discharge of
+them have there gradually been made possible better types of life, is,
+in the long run, fatal. Breach of natural law will, in this case, as in
+all cases, be followed in due time by nature's revenge--a revenge which
+will be terrible in proportion as the breach has been great. A system
+under which parental duties are performed wholesale by those who are
+not parents, under the plea that many parents cannot or will not perform
+their duties--a system which fosters the inferior children of inferior
+parents at the cost of superior parents and consequent injury of
+superior children--a system which thus helps incapables to multiply and
+hinders the multiplication of capables or diminishes their capability
+must bring decay and ultimate extinction. A society which persists in
+such a system must--other things equal--go to the wall in the
+competition with a society which does not commit this folly of
+nourishing its worst at the expense of its best."
+
+We have evidence among primitive people that they understand the
+necessity of limiting offspring, and practice it in a perfectly
+healthful way. The natives of Uganda, a region in Central Africa, offers
+an illustration: "The women rarely have more than two or three children;
+the practice is that when a woman has borne a child she is to live apart
+from her husband for two years, at which age children are weaned."
+
+Seaman, speaking of the Fijians, says: "After childbirth husband and
+wife keep apart three and even four years, so that no other baby may
+interfere with the time considered necessary for suckling children."
+
+Some fifty years ago there lived in New York a young couple, strong,
+healthy, ambitious to be rich, and both saving and industrious enough to
+become so under ordinary conditions. The husband was in a business which
+required constant attention; and in order to promote it and save the
+expense of help which he thought he could not afford, he labored nights,
+often up to the hours of twelve and sometimes one o'clock, and then
+arose early and went at it again. His wife sympathized with him in all
+his undertakings, helped him in every way possible, even to the sharing
+of his midnight toils. In no way did either of them spare themselves.
+They knew something of the evils of poverty, and were determined that it
+should not always be their lot. Fortune favored them, and their bank
+account grew larger and larger until they could count the value of their
+possessions as amounting to several million dollars. They lived in a
+fine country seat, and could gratify every wish, so far as food,
+clothing, books and travel were concerned. During their early married
+life, when the strain of work was the greatest, two children were born
+unto them, both boys, and they are alive today; but are they a comfort
+to their parents, and a help in their declining years? Instead of this
+they are both deformed and cripples, unable to help themselves or do any
+labor. Their family physician has told me that the overwork and
+privation of the parents at the time of their birth and before, was
+undoubtedly the cause of the children's inferiority. A younger son born
+after the wife had ceased to toil like a slave, gives some promise of
+being a man of character.
+
+We have here a typical case of strong, healthy parents, with a limited
+number of offspring, yet they were not superior. On the other hand, it
+would be easy to collect a large number of instances where the children
+in large families have had superior endowments. Take Benjamin Franklin
+as an example. He was the fifteenth child of his father, Josiah
+Franklin, and the eighth of the ten children of his mother.
+
+It seems that superiority is a result of great vigor and perfection of
+body and mind and of abundant reproductive power. Where this is absent
+the children will hardly be superior. Yet in both cases a certain degree
+of limitation ought to be advantageous.
+
+In conclusion, let me say what I have indirectly said already. Let the
+strong, the capable and the good rear as many children as they can
+without overburdening themselves in any way, and let the weak, the
+imperfect and the bad rear few or none, but devote their lives to
+perfecting their own characters. In this way the future race will be
+modified for good and not for evil.
+
+
+
+
+A THEORETICAL BABY.
+
+_Reported by request of Dr. Holbrook._
+
+
+It was our first baby. I was making a living as a doctor by writing
+articles on the general care of the health; and my wife before her
+marriage had been a kindergartner, a trainer of kindergartners, and a
+lecturer to mothers on the scientific and expert methods of rearing
+children aright. We believed in the theories we had taught, and our baby
+got nothing else from the start. According to the first applied theory,
+we made our temporary home before the boy began to be, in the Rocky
+Mountains of Colorado; and were a large part of the time either in our
+garden or on horseback, in this perfect outdoor climate. My wife was
+entirely in love with me, and I made each day count for nothing more
+certainly than to deserve and return that sentiment of hers. We lived
+simply but freely, and had next to no anxieties. My wife had practiced
+general gymnastics for years; but for months prior to the birth of her
+boy, she every day went through with a series of special maternal
+gymnastics, by which the muscles that aid in parturition can be made
+strong and entirely to be relied upon. We were rewarded for this outlay
+of time in a delivery that was rapid and easy, without more than an
+ounce of hæmorrhage, and everything so perfectly controlled that--except
+for the inconvenience of it--the presence and aid of the physician
+(myself) might have been dispensed with. Recovery was rapid also. My
+wife made no haste to get up, keeping quiet most of the time for two
+weeks, to ensure good milk. But she did a family washing without effort
+after three weeks, and was on horseback again by the sixth week. The
+baby was not severed from his mother till ten minutes after birth
+(ensuring a better blood supply). Then he got no bath, no food, no
+dressing process; but was simply swathed in cotton batting and laid
+aside for six hours in a padded box-bed, surrounded by bottles of hot
+water, and covered with plenty of soft blankets, to sleep and get used
+to his new environment. On the second day we began rubbing him daily
+from head to foot with vaseline. His first bath, with a flannel cloth
+dipped in warm milk diluted with soft water and without soap, came when
+he was a week old, and was followed by the thorough rub with vaseline.
+This bath he has had nearly every day up to date. He has often cried, or
+crowed and begged for this bath; but never cried during its performance,
+except when his clothes were being replaced. On the contrary, he enjoys
+every moment of it.
+
+Feeding began with a meal every hour of the twenty-four, for the first
+week. Then night feeding was reduced to two meals, and he was fed every
+two hours, from four or five o'clock in the morning till nine at night,
+till two months old. About then he began sleeping right through the
+nights; and until three months old was fed every three hours of the day
+time; then for a month he went four hours between his meals. At his
+fourth month began the present regime of four meals _per diem_. Now and
+then he has cried in the night from thirst, and a few spoonsful of cold
+water have sufficed to send him off to sleep again. All in all, I think
+I could count on my fingers the times that he has wakened us out of
+hours, and not once has anyone walked the floor with him. In fact, no
+diversions of this sort have ever been practiced on him. He has never
+been rocked to sleep; whenever cross or fretful in the day, we have
+known that sleep was all he needed, and into his little bed he has been
+promptly plumped, and covered with a loosely knit afghan, tented on a
+light framework, which we call "the extinguisher." Here shut away and
+entirely unnoticed he soon learned to give himself up to his own
+reflections, and then presently to sleep. Thus we have kept down the
+first great nuisance of ordinary infancy, namely, egoism and a habit of
+howling for attention when no attention is really needed. But social
+relations, and those of the gayest, he has constantly with both his
+parents. We take up and make into play with him each idea of his own. We
+have shown him some finger-plays. In the main we leave him to originate
+his own amusements.
+
+From the keeping of stomach and bowels absolutely healthy, by a regular
+and reasonable exercise of their all-important functions, not only has
+the boy been free from irritability, and spontaneously happy and
+self-amused, sometimes quiet, and sometimes jolly to overflowing. But
+the second great nuisance of those ordinarily attending baby-raising,
+namely, sour stomach followed by colic, was eliminated. A secondary
+result of this entire regularity of functioning at the upper end of the
+alimentary canal was that a like regularity set in at the other end.
+That is, at the thirteenth week he began to have but one daily passage
+of fæcal matter, and that soon after breakfast. Of the approach of this
+act he notified his mother without fail, and thereafter we had no soiled
+diapers. Movements were received on pieces of old cloth, and cloth and
+all tossed into a pan of ashes, or the fire, when we had one. When, at
+six months, we put him onto cow's milk, mixed with thin graham porridge,
+to supply the extra nourishment demanded by rapid growth, he went up to
+two movements per diem--morning and evening. Thus, the third great
+nuisance of of diaper washing was eliminated, in its more disagreeable
+feature. Eructation of curds, rashes, colic, diarrhoea--these common
+ailments of ordinary babyhood, we have never had a sight of. We believe
+it due solely to strict adherence to the four-meals-a-day plan. These
+consist of an early breakfast, a later breakfast, a dinner about one
+o'clock and a supper between six and seven. The bath comes at any
+convenient time. On pleasant days, even in winter, he is outdoors, well
+wrapped, in a chair, for hours, and often has a long nap there. He was
+provided, by my own needle and penknife, with an ample fur sleeping
+sack, into which he is securely buttoned every evening and laid in his
+box-bed, on a trunk. He never sleeps with his parents. According to the
+coolness or coldness of the nights, additional covering, in the shape of
+soft blankets and shawls, is laid in on the box, their weight supported
+by the edges of the box. He cannot uncover himself, but he can kick
+freely, and use his arms. We dressed him, from the first, in the
+"_Gertrude_" system of baby clothes, introduced by Dr. Grosvenor, of
+Chicago--all woolen princess garments, with shirring strings at the
+lower hems, by which they are made closed bags, ending just below the
+feet; warm, but allowing of kicking _ad libitum_. At five months--it
+being winter time--he went into short clothes, including solid suits of
+warm flannel underwear, shirts, drawers and long snug-fitting stockings.
+He has never had a cold. His muscles, from the first (due to his
+mother's gymnastics), were firm and active, like those of an adult. At
+the fourth week he surprised us by suspending his entire weight from his
+hands and arms one morning. Legs, neck, back and hands particularly have
+developed steadily in power and quickness. There was never any fat
+deposited--that _avant courier_ of so much infant mortality--yet he is,
+and has been all along, a rosy, plump, dimpled baby, or boy, rather, for
+babyhood very early lost its hold on him. Too often children seem
+finally to emerge from the miseries and ailments of a tedious infancy
+and to take on, at last, individuality and distinct character at the
+second or third year. This child, _per contra_, having never had a
+sensation of illness, or of pain, save honest hunger, has seemed to be a
+happy little boy almost from the first, alert or thoughtful, shouting or
+cooing, laughing and crowing, especially after his meals and movements,
+studying the world of things about him by the hour, keenly appreciative
+of colors and of music, and preferring some sorts to others, his face
+crossed by vivid changes of expression, wonder, merriment, surprise,
+reverie--all as perfect at six months as ordinarily seen at three years.
+He has good color from head to foot, is pale when hungry, but the moment
+a bit of food is down expands to his most genial flow of spirits.
+Immediately after his day-time naps his cheeks are regularly flushed and
+rosy. His spirits become more pronounced toward each evening, reaching
+their high-point of talking, laughing, crowing and squealing at just
+about bed-time. He keeps it up for some time after being tucked away for
+the night, till sleep masters him; and begins where he left off early
+next morning. All this is good physiology. So happy day succeeds happy
+day, and we trust and hope that many good tendencies are getting a fair
+start in a harmonious and spontaneous beginning of this great work of
+growing up that we are fostering but not forcing.
+
+
+AT ONE YEAR OLD.--Everything continues as begun. Teething at times
+causes slight transient fretfulness, and more cold water is drunk. The
+bowels remain absolutely regular. The all-night sleep (never "put to
+sleep,") and two day-time naps are unchanged, in all thirteen or
+fourteen hours of sleep _per diem_. On warm days he needs _and gets_
+plenty of cool water to drink, often two-thirds of a pint at a time.
+Talking, standing and creeping he has attained by his own unaided
+initiative (this on principle). As for amusements, he invents his own
+always, except when engaged in social exchange with his father and
+mother, and in these, too, we are careful that he makes at least half
+the advances.
+
+On particular occasions he comes in need of mothering--and gets it. On
+all others he simply lives with two big but highly sympathetic
+playfellows; and he has developed separate lines of play and talk for
+each. Often he chooses to alternate as between two poles of attraction,
+turning his face to his mother's for her sympathy between shouts to his
+father, or _vice versa_. From week to week we notice that the older
+plays are mostly dropped one by one, and fresh ones invented. All,
+however, are real and vivid to him.
+
+In early prospect we have but two more points to compass. Perfect health
+in all respects he has intact. Self-control and self-sufficiency, both
+in amusing himself and in enduring lesser ills, such as bumps and mild
+degrees of hunger, he is getting as fast as growth permits. But
+obedience and responsibility will soon be needed in his repertoire.
+Negative obedience his mother is obtaining already in response to "No,
+no," and shakes of the head. Positive obedience will be the far more
+vital thing to secure--just as soon as he can help in little ways. Here
+we hope to make him responsible as far as can be for the welfare, safety
+and amusement of younger playfellows, whether brother or sister it is
+now too soon to say.
+
+
+AT EIGHTEEN MONTHS.--A cold douche has, for three months past, ended his
+morning bath, regularly given by his father after his sister arrived,
+and his weight became considerable. This douche, poured slowly from a
+dipper until redness set in, has added markedly to his spirits,
+muscular activity and digestive capacity. It causes screaming at the
+moment, but an instant later, as three Turkish towels are wrapped
+closely about him, his exuberance is delightful to see. Coincidently he
+has taken up a selected diet of solid food, including chocolate and
+cooked fruits, and will have but one nap, though often that is a long
+one.
+
+As the child is working out of babyhood, every day counting (as no day
+of half illness in childhood can count), and well into boyhood, the
+single principle already outlined, of leaving the little individuality
+to establish its own activities and socialities, seems sufficient, as
+the illustrations appended, I believe, prove. Doubtless a child that is
+not, day after day, enjoying, and often thrilled by health and life, as
+this little boy is, a child not brought up in an unbroken _camaraderie_
+with both parents, such as he has had, and particularly a child not
+having the send-off of trust and amiable impulse which he received
+before his birth, could not be left to blossom in such wild-flower
+style. Ugly, sulky or "streaky" conduct, jumping perversely out in place
+of good cheer, we have never had to deal with. In fact, we have never
+been able to detect the slightest resentment immediately after punishing
+him for taking forbidden articles, or for raising an outcry over being
+denied sundry things he wanted. His crying when punished is that of pure
+grief, and he is ready at once to nestle down under the hand that had
+spatted disapproval, to be comforted, resuming good spirits two or three
+minutes later on. In the main, simply "No, no!" from either parent, has
+sufficed to stop him in the beginnings of mischief, sometimes resulting
+in cheerful desisting, and sometimes in a little of what we call the
+"grieved cry." But this, too, if it becomes loud or insistent, can be
+hushed by another "No, no," and enable him to regain control of himself.
+With this regained self-control has always come gratefulness for aid in
+the matter, as evinced by extra sweetness and brightness immediately
+after, and eager resumption of some one or other of his plays or calls
+with one or both of us. This may be what is known as discipline. It
+always brings a smile to our faces, however.
+
+Without a break of more than a day or two at a time, we have been able
+to be equally near him all the while, and divide up about equally the
+matters of bathing, feeding, dressing and undressing him. The
+conventional estimate of those standing nearest to a child of,
+
+     1--Mother,
+     2--Nurse,
+     3--Teacher,
+     4--Servants and playmates,
+     5--Older brother or sister,
+     6--Father--the man behind the newspaper,
+
+certainly does not apply here. When I am absent for from three to six
+hours his uneasiness sets in, and grows stronger and stronger, ending in
+repeated expeditions to a short distance along the road, where he stands
+and calls "Vager," "Vager," (Father, Father,) at first hopefully, then
+protestingly, and sometimes at last with indignation or tears. When I
+return--and he listens and catches the first distant sound of hoofs, or
+wheels, or whinny of the left-at-home colts, or voice, or opening
+gate--an eager, beaming face welcomes me from gate or doorway, or even
+several rods down the beaten snow on the road. Once back, things are all
+right in his little domain again, and he goes on, without special
+attention to me, in his series of occupations and plays.
+
+I say "occupations." They are nothing else to him; serious matters that
+he goes about accomplishing. He is at his best when he can help his
+mother at her work--blowing the fire, bringing her kindling, handing her
+clothespins one by one as she needs them, shutting or opening doors on
+request, picking up articles from the floor. But there are many hours
+continuously when he is left to his own devices, which are numerous,
+though many of them he goes through daily, such as feeding the cat,
+visiting his little sister, emptying and refilling the wall-pockets,
+collecting his blocks, and fishing articles off the table with a long
+stick. He has learned, untaught, to get a cloth to open the stove door
+with and save burned fingers; to get and bring clean diapers to his
+mother when he wishes a change; to stoop and lap water out of the pail;
+to stand by his bed and point up at it when wishing his mid-day nap; to
+retreat to a dark corner and drape his handkerchief over his head for a
+brief period towards the close of a day, in lieu of the discarded second
+nap; to scoop bread or biscuit out of a pail hung above his reach, with
+an iron spoon; to lasso peaches toward him with a cord, said peaches
+being in pan on the floor just beyond where he could reach from a little
+gate separating the kitchen and sitting-room. None of these things has
+been taught him. Nothing whatever has been taught him, and especially no
+words and no "tricks." He invents or does without, in all non-essential
+matters, in regular Spartan style. So, in pursuit of his own
+undertakings, he rarely asks for what he would have; just tries and
+tries, day after day, until he succeeds or is beaten. But as he is at
+some new act or plan much of the time when left to himself, he has, we
+are satisfied, independently attained to more of childish accomplishment
+than the most incessant teaching processes could have effected. In doing
+what he does do, for instance, in certain climbing feats, he has slowly
+worked up to, he is both cautious and sure; he rarely tumbles and never
+loses his confidence. Thus for the past two days he has achieved the
+feat of climbing up and standing erect on a little box fourteen inches
+high, where he calls and shouts and roars to us his ecstacy over the
+matter for ten minutes at a time. Today only he has found out how to get
+down alone. Contrast is taken here with the frequent falls and wailings
+of children who are first persuaded into attempts of various sorts, but
+have not worked out a real personal mastery of given acts for
+themselves.
+
+He has quite a vocabulary now of his own invention. The meanings of
+these terms we have learned mostly, and use them to him. Of our
+vocabulary he understands the meanings of a large number of the words
+for things in which he is interested, forty or fifty nouns, and a dozen
+verbs, perhaps. He sings to his mother, and now and then to me, rude
+imitations of the songs he has heard us sing, and his mother he roughly
+accompanies. His inflections of voice have developed to the point of
+entirely expressing many of his emotions; while his expressions of face
+are as much beyond these as the inflections are beyond his stock of
+English--about seven words, and those requiring some exigency to bring
+out.
+
+All this pleases us, because we truly want him to become rich in his own
+life, to subsist and grow in his own home-made lines of feeling and
+thought; and not to learn words, parrot-like, before he has the thought
+formed, and searching, even struggling, for a means by which to convey
+itself. It is dearth of internal life, emotion and unaided thought that
+is in need of replenishment in the average young person, not lack of
+English dictionary terms for things that can be _talked about_, but are
+evidently not intrinsic and personal.
+
+                                               C. W. LYMAN, M. D.
+
+_New Castle, Col._
+
+
+
+
+_NOTES._
+
+
+_War and Parentage._
+
+In the interests of unborn children we should, so far as possible,
+remove from the world those causes which, acting on the mother, either
+directly or indirectly, may injure them by lowering the standard of
+their health, or by altering and debasing their moral and intellectual
+natures. One of the most potent of the causes for harm is war. War has
+generally been regarded as one of the ennobling professions. If we look
+upon it in its most favorable light, all that we can say in its favor is
+that among primitive and barbarous races it has perhaps resulted in the
+preservation and spread of the most capable ones, and that it has at the
+same time welded them together into larger groups, and finally into
+nations, and habituated them to those restraints which are necessary to
+social existence; but we no longer require it for this purpose, and the
+industrial pursuits and the evolution of civilization are so disturbed
+by them that they should cease, and especially should they cease in the
+interest of our children, both born and unborn.
+
+How can war injure children? We have already shown in the chapter on
+Prenatal Culture that when the mother is under the influence of any
+powerful mental emotion, such as fear, depression, anger and similar
+passions during the months in which the child is being developed in her
+womb, there is very great danger of permanent injury to it. Only the
+strongest mothers, those with the most robust health, or who have the
+most stable nerves, those who are rarely thrown off their balance, are
+capable of resisting the intense excitements to which they are subject
+during some of the phases of war.
+
+As I mentioned in my early work on Marriage and Parentage, Esquirol, a
+French historian, gives details of a considerable number of cases of
+children born soon after some of the sieges of the French Revolution,
+which were weakly, nervous and idiotic, on account of the terrible
+strain to which their mothers had been subjected. In every war where a
+city is besieged, even if its women and children are sent away, they
+cannot be altogether free from anxieties and mental strains of a most
+unwholesome nature, and if some of them are soon to become mothers, the
+offspring not yet born must suffer. No one can estimate the vast number
+of children injured under such conditions in the ages past. They have
+been only incidentally referred to in history. The fame and glory of
+conquerors must not be dimmed by the relation of such occurrences.
+
+Joseph A. Allen, in _The Christian Register_, gives the results of some
+of his observations which bear on this subject. He says:
+
+"So much is being said about war and its effects, that I am prompted to
+send you the result of my observations.
+
+"I was in charge of the Massachusetts State Reform School for several
+years, when every inmate (there were between three and four hundred) was
+born before the Civil War--during the time of the great anti-slavery
+agitation, which did so much to educate the moral sense of the people.
+
+"I was again in charge of the same institution _when every inmate was
+born during, or soon after the war, when the mothers were reading,
+talking and dreaming of battles, and of husbands, fathers or brothers
+who had gone to the war_.
+
+"_I found as great a difference in the character of those inmates born
+before and after the Civil War as exists between a civilized and a
+savage nation._
+
+"_Those under my care the second time were much more difficult to
+control, more quarrelsome and defiant, less willing to work or study.
+The crimes for which they were sentenced were as different as their
+characters._
+
+"It was not uncommon for them to be sentenced for breaking and entering
+with deadly weapons.
+
+"This difference was not confined to inmates of reform schools, but it
+was manifest throughout all classes.
+
+"After the war crimes increased rapidly. In Boston garroting was common,
+and was only checked by Judge Russell sentencing all such subjects to
+the full extent of the law.
+
+"Before the close of the Civil War the State Prison at Charlestown,
+under Mr. Gideon Haynes, was, according to Dr. D. C. Wines, D. D., the
+model prison of the United States. Since that time it has been almost
+impossible to maintain proper discipline, owing, no doubt, to the more
+desperate character of the inmates.
+
+"Let us try to trace these effects back to their causes, and prove, if
+possible, that whatsoever a man (or nation) soweth, that shall it also
+reap."
+
+But there are other ways in which war militates against the noblest
+motherhood. Camp life is a school for vice and prostitution. In Camp
+Chickamauga, which is a sample of them all, during the war with Spain on
+account of Cuba, the amount and baseness of the prostitution by the
+soldiers, with both black and white women, exceeded description. In a
+single day forty-one cases of specific disease applied to the physicians
+at the hospitals for treatment. These things were not reported in the
+daily papers; they were too vile. The place was a hot-bed of vice,
+rather than a school of virtue and patriotism. In all European armies it
+is the same. In times of peace, soldiers from the highest to the lowest
+in rank, insist that facility shall be allowed them for the
+gratification of their passional natures. The officers, not being
+permitted to marry unless they or their wives have a certain income,
+keep their mistresses, and not a female servant near a camp is safe. The
+immoral influences here generated spread throughout society, lower the
+standard of morals among both men and women in private life, and
+jeopardize the interests of children born or unborn, morally and
+intellectually, as well as physically.
+
+But there is another view. "Great standing armies," says the Czar of
+Russia, in his note to the Powers, "_are transforming the armed power of
+our day into a crushing burden which the people have more and more
+difficulty in bearing_."
+
+That is to say, the tax imposed upon the individuals of any nation to
+support its army pauperizes or keeps on the verge of poverty a large
+portion of the race. It is war, far more than any other cause, which has
+created the burden of taxation. In some European countries almost every
+man carries a soldier or sailor on his back, that is, he must labor not
+only to support himself and family, but a soldier or sailor who devotes
+his life to a murderous profession. Is this not a grievous burden which
+cripples or paralyzes his life and reacts on his offspring?
+
+Now, the poverty caused by this burden is a serious obstacle to the
+production and training of the young, and especially is this the case in
+the more populous countries--France, Spain and Italy are examples. These
+lands were once the most powerful in Europe; they are so no longer. They
+gloried in war, and spent immense sums of money upon their armies and
+burdened the people with taxes which should have been reserved for the
+use of fathers and mothers in educating and providing for the needs of
+their offspring. War has crushed out the best life of these countries,
+and other nations which follow in the same path will in the end come to
+a similar fate. They may hold out a long time, but not forever. "The
+mills of Gods grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small."
+
+It is because war is an enemy to the highest motherhood that women
+should array themselves against it. It is one of the greatest foes to
+the development and welfare of the children they love so well. Women
+should insist that all governments should settle their differences by
+peaceful rather than by warlike means. The industrial age may have its
+difficulties, but they are not insurmountable. In it the fathers and
+mothers may have the time and the means to study and learn how to
+improve the race through a wiser parentage. I believe that thoughtful
+women, when they come to see the evils of war in their true light, as
+they have seen the evils of prostitution and intemperance, will be its
+greatest foes.
+
+
+_Cases of Prenatal Influences._
+
+Alfred Russell Wallace gives in _Nature_ a few cases of prenatal
+influences sent him by his correspondents. The first experience is from
+a mother residing in Australia. She writes:
+
+"I can trace in the character of my first child, a girl now twenty-two
+years of age, a special aptitude for sewing, economical contriving and
+cutting out, which came to me as a new experience when living in the
+country among new surroundings, and strict economy being necessary, I
+began to try to sew for the coming baby and myself. I also trace her
+great love of history to my study of Froude during that period. Her
+other tastes for art and literature are distinctly hereditary.
+
+"In the case of my second child, also a daughter, I having interested
+myself prior to her birth in literary pursuits, the result has been a
+much acuter form of intelligence, which at six years old enabled her to
+read and enjoy the ballads which Tennyson was then giving to the world,
+and which at the age of barely twenty years allowed her to take her
+degree as B. A. of the Sydney University.
+
+"Before the third child, a boy, was born, the current of our lives had
+changed a little. Visits to my own family and a change of residence to a
+distant colony, which involved a long journey, as well as the work
+incidental to such changes, together with the care of my two older
+children, absorbed all my time and thoughts, and left little or no
+leisure for studious pursuits. My occupations were more mechanical than
+at any other time previous. This boy does not inherit the studious
+tastes of his sisters at all. He is intelligent and possesses most of
+the qualifications which will probably conduce to success in life, but
+he prefers any kind of out-door work or handicraft to study. Had I been
+as alive then as I am now to the importance of these theories, I should
+have endeavored to guard against this possibility; as it is, I always
+feel that it is, perhaps, my fault that one of the greatest pleasures of
+life has been debarred to him.
+
+"But I must not weary you by so many personal details, and I trust you
+will not suspect me of vanity in thus bringing my own children under
+your notice. Suffice it to say that in every instance I can, and do,
+constantly trace what others might term coincidences, but which appear
+to me nothing but cause and effect in their several developments."
+
+Mr. Wallace then gives extracts from other correspondents as follows:
+
+Mrs. B---- says: "I can trace, nay, have traced (in secret amusement
+often), something in every child of mine. Before the birth of my eldest
+girl I took to ornithology, for work and amusement, and did a great deal
+in taxidermy, too. At the age of three years I found this youngster
+taking such insects and little animals as she could find, and puzzling
+me with hard questions as to what was inside of them. Later on she used
+to be seen with a small knife, working and dissecting cleverly and with
+much care and skill at their _insides_. One day she brought me the
+tiniest heart of the tiniest lizard you can imagine, so small that I had
+to examine it through a glass, though she saw it without any artificial
+aid. By some means she got a young wallaby, and made an apron with a
+pocket inside which she used to call her 'pouch.' This study of natural
+history is still of interest to her, though she lacks time and
+opportunities. Still, she always does a little dissecting if she gets a
+chance."
+
+ANOTHER CASE.--"I never noticed anything about P---- for some years.
+Three months before he was born a friend, whom I will call Smith, was
+badly hurt, and was brought to my house to be nursed. I turned out the
+nursery and he lay there for three months. I nursed him until I could do
+so no longer, and then took lodgings in town for my confinement. Now
+after all these years I have discovered how this surgical nursing has
+left its mark. The boy is in his element when he can be of use in cases
+of accident, etc. He said to me quite lately: 'How I wish you had made a
+surgeon of me!' Then all at once it flashed in upon me, but, alas! it
+was too late to remedy the mistake.
+
+"Before the birth of the third child I passed ten of the happiest months
+of my life. We had a nice house, one side of which was covered with
+cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea, a garden with plenty of flowers,
+and a vineyard. Here we lived an idyllic life, and did nothing but fish,
+catch butterflies and paint them. At least my husband painted them after
+I had caught them and mixed his colors. At the end of this time L----
+was born. This child excels in artistic talent of many kinds; nothing
+comes amiss to her, and she draws remarkably well. She is of a bright
+gay disposition, finding much happiness in life, even though not always
+placed in the most fortunate surroundings.
+
+"Before the birth of my next child, N----, a daughter, I had a bad time.
+My husband fell ill of fever, and I had to nurse him without help or
+assistance of any kind. We had also losses by floods. I don't know how I
+got through that year, but I had no time for reading. N---- is the most
+prudent, economical girl I know. She is a splendid housekeeper and a
+good cook, and will work till she drops; has no taste for reading, but
+seems to gain knowledge by suction." Such cases are so numerous that
+they should be collected and scientifically studied.
+
+
+_Luxury and Parentage._
+
+In all ages of luxury, fine ladies try to avoid maternity. They detest
+it in theory only, for women are controlled by the instinct of the race.
+In the circles of which we are speaking, the instincts of the race for
+children have vanished. Life has lost its serious meaning.
+Responsibility of any kind is a mere nuisance, and the idea of bringing
+up a new life, with all its bonds and its charm, is as repellant as the
+idea of a new bonnet is enticing. For such women the world has no use.
+Beautiful, in the great sense, they are not. Incapable, in any great
+way, of either loving or being loved, they are at best the painted
+bubbles on the stream of life. Such women will always be far inferior as
+mothers, and less capable of bringing into the world noble offspring
+than those women in the humble walks of life who live naturally, who
+love the family ties and are fond of the young.
+
+Great mothers must have a certain sort of hardihood which comes from a
+wise physical culture, not necessarily an artificial one,--a life in the
+open air, and the avoidance of all social dissipation.
+
+
+_Degeneracy of the Breasts and Motherhood._
+
+A sign of degeneracy is pointed out by Hegar, who appeals to young men
+on behalf of posterity to choose for wives women with well-developed
+breasts; he quotes statistics to prove inability to nurse a child a sign
+of degeneracy which produces degeneracy in the offspring. Among other
+facts he points out that in a district of his knowledge, which supplies
+a large number of wet nurses to the city, the percentage of men
+incapable of military service amounts to 30 per cent., while in the
+neighboring districts, where the mothers remain at home with their
+families, it is only 18 per cent. He remarks upon the surprising number
+of deformed nipples encountered in the hospitals. Fehling mentions
+"hollow nipples" as occurring in 6.7 of his obstetric cases. He warns
+mothers not to allow the clothing to constrict the growing breasts of
+their daughters, and urges general hygiene as the best method to develop
+them.
+
+In this connection the question may be asked, Is it possible for women
+with defective breasts to become mothers of a virile race of men and
+strong women. In most cases it is not. A defect in this part of their
+nature is evidence of a weakened constitution. It may be said, that the
+breasts do not always develop before marriage and parentage. This is
+true, and if the health is robust, and the constitution and ancestry
+good, the mother will, in most cases, be able to nurse her child. If it
+is known in advance that such cannot be the case, and it may generally
+be known, then the responsibilities of motherhood should be undertaken
+with the greater precaution. In modern times we have far better means of
+bringing up children by hand than formerly. Still, a mother able to
+nurse her own children should always be preferred.
+
+
+_Location of Birth._
+
+In Manchester, England, in 1892, 37,674 boys out of every 100,000 died
+before they reached their fifth year. In healthy districts only 17,314
+out of 100,000 died. About the same condition prevails in other places.
+The lesson it teaches us is, that we should choose a healthy region in
+which to live if we would rear the healthiest offspring.
+
+
+_Evolution._
+
+This word means progress and progress implies improvement, without which
+there could be no evolution; but improvement of the human race will not
+be further possible unless the marriage relation is regarded from a
+higher stand-point than that of sexual indulgence.
+
+The practical superiority of man over animals consists in his knowledge
+of the _aim_ of his conduct. Animals exercise the reproductive function
+instinctively at particular seasons, but man knowingly always; and thus,
+unless the latter subordinates his passion to reason he is worse than a
+brute, as he knows himself to be such.
+
+The difference between the chaste marriage of affection and the unchaste
+marriage of passion, is analogous to that between education and
+instruction, as explained by Elder Evans of the Shaker Community.
+Instruction imparts knowledge, such as is associated in Eastern lore
+with the sexual passion, but education embraces the whole disposition,
+which is rendered more beautiful and spiritual through a marriage of
+chastity, and as thus affected is transmitted to the offspring, who
+exhibit the disposition of their parents at the time of conception.
+Sexual excess not only tends to produce offspring of a weakly
+constitution, but it interferes with the organic growth of the parents.
+It is as wasteful as burning a candle at both ends at the same time.
+
+Parents should bear in mind that the mental plan on which their children
+shall begin life, depends on the desire by which they are governed when
+they beget their offspring; and as desire depends on disposition, they
+should aim at requiring harmony of character and conduct.
+
+If we think less of ourselves and more of the race to which we belong,
+we shall have a better chance of improving both ourselves and the race
+as represented in our offspring.
+
+We are all members of a great organism, which is constituted by the
+whole of human kind, past, present and future, and it is our duty to act
+in such a manner that the whole shall be benefited by our conduct; which
+it cannot be if we are careless as to our own disposition or as to the
+character of our offspring.
+
+Our Aryan ancestors were conscious of their duty towards the race, and
+probably to this fact was largely due the high physical development the
+white race attained. Only by acting in their spirit can we hope to
+maintain the race at its high level or prevent its deterioration and
+decay.
+
+The important influence which the gratification of the sexual impulse
+has had over the development of the aesthetic side of Nature has been
+often insisted on; and there is no reason why its gratification should
+not be attended also with the development of the highest mental
+qualities, if these are made use of in the formation and exercise of the
+marriage relations between the sexes.--C. STANILAND WAKE.
+
+
+_Too Little Fatherhood._
+
+The modern child is threatened not with too much mother but with too
+little father, and this danger is heightened by the sudden release of
+womanhood from the ban of conventionality and of the domineering power
+of physical force. Let her not too readily accept as complimentary to
+herself the church's adoration of Mary. Woman is made of no purer stuff
+than man, her companion, man her father. She cannot transmit from her
+own veins or her companion's veins any purer life stuff, any finer
+impulse to her daughter than she does to her son. We need more fathers
+in the home, more men teachers in our public schools; and if our homes
+and schools are not organized so as to evoke and direct this masculine
+investment, then let them be reorganized. It is not true that mothers
+are peculiarly the divinely appointed teachers of children, that to them
+is especially entrusted the intellectual or spiritual destinies of the
+young. That argument is based upon the analogies of the past; it is a
+reversion to primitive conditions, an illustration of the law of
+atavism, like the return to six fingers and toes in some people, or the
+restoration in others of the muscle that can move the ear. The highest
+reaches of evolution point to a double responsibility and a double
+potency. In the interest of the child, then, let us lift him out of a
+mother rule into a father and mother rule. Let the home be girdled with
+masculine order and justice as well as with feminine love and
+tenderness. Let there be strength as well as tenderness. Let there be in
+it mind as well as heart, vigor as well as sympathy. All these are
+spiritual children which cannot be born except in the bi-sexual
+realm.--REV. JENKIN LLOYD JONES.
+
+
+_The Flat-Head Indians and Heredity._
+
+Amongst the round-head tribes woman holds a higher position, whereas
+amongst the flat-heads she is a mere drudge. In by-gone days it was
+common to see a tired-looking woman walking behind her husband carrying
+a heavy load, while he walked on before with nothing.
+
+Again, the round-heads have a remarkable mythology, while the others
+have a poor affair.
+
+Mr. Dean has informed me that the flat-head, which would be an acquired
+character, is never transmitted to offspring--another argument against
+the Lamarchian theory, that acquired characters are transmitted.
+
+That whatever injures the physical or intellectual health of parents
+tends to degrade their offspring has long been evident. I think we have
+a good race illustration of this in the effects of flattening and
+deforming the skulls of children among the Flat-Head Indians, who for
+centuries followed this precedent. Information has been furnished me by
+special request by Mr. James Dean, of Victoria, B. C., bearing on this
+point. He writes:
+
+"Among the children the mortality seems to be greater with the tribes
+which flatten the heads of their children than in those who do not. I
+have long noticed that there is a very marked intellectual difference
+between them."
+
+The Hidery tribes of Northern British Columbia and Southern Alaska, who
+never flattened their heads, have long been famous for their works of
+art, such as elaborate carvings in wood and stone.
+
+
+_Suggestion as an Aid in the Training of Children._
+
+Within a few years an old subject, that of hypnotism, formerly called
+mesmerism, has received new attention under the name of suggestion, or,
+in medical language, "suggestive therapeutics." It was used in a rude
+way by Mesmer in the cure of disease. Later it was employed much more
+effectively by Braid and others for the same purpose, and especially for
+the prevention of pain in surgical operations. Want of space forbids our
+going into any extended historical detail as to its application for
+these purposes, but a few points will be considered, which bear on the
+subject.
+
+It was found that when a person had contracted a bad habit, as, for
+instance, smoking or drinking, it could often be broken up by placing
+him in the mesmeric sleep, and telling him he would no longer desire to
+continue the habit, but would even loathe them. The habit of sucking the
+thumb, a bad temper, lying, stealing, dullness and lack of ambition,
+etc., were amenable to this treatment. To illustrate: A boy fifteen
+years old, always at the foot of his class, was put into the hypnotic
+sleep, and told that he would be able to study harder and learn his
+lessons better, so as to go to the head. This was continued daily for
+several weeks, and, sure enough, he accepted the suggestion, and
+outstripped every scholar in his class, and kept at the head so long as
+these means were used; but, unfortunately, when they were discontinued
+he relapsed into his first state. The suggestions had not been
+sufficiently thorough to take deep root, and become a part of his
+nature, as might have been the case with a better knowledge as to how to
+use them. So long ago as in 1892 Dr. Bérillon, Editor of _The Revue de
+l' Hypnotism_, read a paper before the Second International Congress of
+Experimental Psychology, in which he stated that he had observed the
+beneficial effects of hypnotism in education in some 250 cases,
+including nervous insomnia, night terror, sleepwalking, kleptomania,
+stammering, idleness, filthy habits, cowardice and moral delinquency. He
+also stated that other observers had similar experience. My friend, Dr.
+B. Osgood Mason, of New York, working on the same lines, has had similar
+experiences. I will quote a few illustrative cases furnished by him. The
+first is of a school-girl fifteen years of age, a pupil in one of the
+grammar-schools of New York--intelligent in many ways; a good reader of
+such books as interested her--history, biography, and the better class
+of novels; but for the routine of school studies she had no aptitude,
+and she was constantly being left behind in her classes. She could not
+concentrate her mind upon details which did not specially interest her.
+If she succeeded in learning a lesson she could not remember it, or if
+she remembered it until she arrived at the classroom, when she arose to
+recite, it was instantly gone; her mind became a perfect blank; she had
+not a word to say, and was obliged to sit down in disgrace. She could
+write a good composition, but could never stand up and read it before
+the class. Teachers had been engaged to give her special lessons, so as
+to enable her to pass her preliminary examination, which would allow her
+to come up for entrance to the Normal College. After months of effort
+they reported to the mother that it was utterly useless to go on; it was
+impossible for her to pass her preliminary examination, and they did not
+think it right to take her money without any such expectation. She was
+then brought to me to inquire if anything could be done to help her. I
+proposed hypnotic suggestion. It was then March 30; the first
+examination was in May. I commenced treatment at once. The patient went
+into a quiet, subjective condition, with closed eyes, but did not lose
+consciousness. I suggested that she would be able to concentrate her
+mind upon her studies; that her memory would be improved; that she would
+lose her excessive self-consciousness and timidity, and in their place
+she would have full confidence in herself and be able to stand up
+before the class and recite. She was kept in the hypnotic condition
+one-half hour at each treatment, and the same or similar suggestions
+were quietly but very positively made and repeated at intervals during
+that time. She at once reported improvement in her ability both to study
+and recite. She had six treatments, and on May 25 she reported that,
+greatly to the surprise of her teachers, she had passed her preliminary
+examination with a percentage of 79, which entitled her to come up for
+the college examination. In June she passed her examination for entrance
+to the Normal College with a percentage of 88; entered the College and
+is at present doing well, though the suggestions have not been repeated
+since May.
+
+Another case from the same author was that of a boy "so bad as to be
+perfectly unmanageable, and his temper so outrageous, that his mother
+begged me to come to the house and see if I could do anything with him.
+
+"Having secured _carte blanche_ for whatever course I chose to pursue, I
+went. He was in the back room, his grandmother urging him forward, he
+kicking and resisting. Without speaking, I went directly to him, seized
+him firmly by one wrist, and brought him topsy turvy through two
+intervening rooms, gave him a thorough shaking, and set him down
+violently in a chair. He smoothed down his bang, whimpered a little, and
+gruffly remarked that I had rumpled his hair. I told him I had not
+intended to disturb his hair, but that as he had never obeyed anybody I
+had come to the house for the express purpose of making him obey me, and
+I should most certainly do it. After a few moments I said, quietly, 'Now
+go and lie down on the bed in the next room.' He started, walking toward
+the bed, but when near it he set off on a full run past it and into the
+back room. I brought him back and again ordered him to lie down on the
+bed. He went toward it as if to obey, but suddenly sprang under it, and
+clung to the slats underneath with hands and feet, and hung there like a
+monkey. I dislodged him, pulled him out, gave him a spanking, and
+surprised him by tossing him vigorously upon the bed, with the command
+to lie there quietly until I gave him permission to move. He obeyed.
+Presently I ordered him to go into the front room and sit down again in
+the chair he had before occupied. Again he quietly obeyed, I said: 'All
+right; now you understand you will obey me. I don't want to hurt you. I
+want to be a good friend to you, only you must obey me.'
+
+"I then in a pleasant way gave him a short lesson, picturing to him very
+plainly the course of a boy such as he was, and where it would be likely
+to end; and also showing what he might be if he would change his course.
+I told him I should be at the house again in a day or two, and I should
+expect him to meet me pleasantly, shake hands with me, and do whatever I
+directed him.
+
+"Next day there came a telephone message begging me to come up; M. was
+outrageous again. I went. He was backward in greeting me, but at length
+came and shook hands. I afterward learned that there had not been the
+slightest improvement in his behavior; and the cause of his mother's
+sending for me was his outrageous conduct at the table, when, in a fit
+of anger, he had thrown a plate at his grandmother. I talked to him
+pleasantly a moment, and then said very quietly, 'Now go and lie down on
+the bed.' He did so at once. I sat down beside him, and taking his two
+thumbs firmly in my hands, I said: 'Now, M., I want you to look steadily
+at that little stud in my shirt-front; keep your eyes very steadily
+fixed upon it.' He did so, and I never secured better or more
+concentrated attention from any patient.
+
+"In five or six minutes his eyelids quivered and soon dropped. I closed
+them, suggesting sleep; and directly he was in the sound hypnotic sleep.
+I then presented the two pictures again--the bad and the good
+course--and suggested that they would always be present, distinct in in
+his mind, that he would dislike the _wrong_ course and desire to avoid
+it, and choose the _good_ one. I suggested definitely that he would be
+kind and considerate to his mother, and obey her as well as me. I
+repeated these suggestions very positively, let him sleep ten minutes,
+and repeated them again, and then awoke him by counting.
+
+"The effect of this treatment was very marked; his whole manner at home
+was changed, and he became comparatively docile and manageable.
+
+"He came to my office for his next treatment, which was perfectly
+successful. I have given him in all six treatments, and the improvement
+has been maintained and increased. He is not yet by any means perfect,
+but his general behavior is changed, and I am suggesting such definite
+improvements in his conduct, and impressing such pictures upon his mind,
+as I think will help to develop his better nature and qualities. He is a
+lover of flowers, and on two occasions has brought some of his own
+choosing to me. He has lost none of his boyishness; he is full of life;
+is mischievous, playing tricks even upon his mother; but he is
+affectionate and generally obedient. His will is not broken, but he has
+self-control, and he is far more considerate of others than formerly. In
+short, he is a fair example of one of the educational uses of hypnotism
+and suggestion."
+
+The only other case I will quote is one of night terrors.
+
+"A little girl, five years of age, went soundly to sleep when first put
+to bed, but after two or three hours she awoke screaming and trembling
+with terror, on account of the hideous black man whom she saw in her
+dream. The impression of the dream was vivid and persistent, and her
+screams kept the household aroused and alarmed for hours every night,
+and this state of things had already continued for months. One day, when
+she was perfectly bright and happy, I placed her in her high chair in
+front of me; put my hands gently upon her shoulders, and asked her to
+look steadily at a trinket easily in her view, and quieted her with
+passes and soothing touches until her drooping eyelids denoted the
+subjective condition. I then commenced in a gentle, sing-song manner to
+suggest that she would go easily to sleep as usual at night, but that
+she would have no frightful dreams; that she would see the dreadful
+black man no more, but would sleep quietly on the whole night through.
+It was repeated over and over in the same gentle manner.
+
+"That was a year ago; she has not seen the black man since, and her
+sleep and health have been perfect. There was no repetition of the
+treatment."
+
+From these few cases, and many not quoted, it appears evident that we
+have in hypnotism, or suggestion, an agent which, when fully understood,
+will be of great usefulness to parents in the early training of
+children. That it should be used wisely no one will deny.
+
+The question will naturally arise, How is it that a suggestion to a
+child while passive or in the hypnotic sleep is more effective than when
+awake. The answer is not so easy to give; but it is possible that in
+this state the subliminal self, the higher self, or, perhaps, the
+spiritual nature is appealed to; and as the active, every-day nature,
+the conscious self, is now dormant, it receives this appeal more
+seriously. Perhaps a quotation from Prof. Frederic W. H. Myer, who has
+given the subject profound attention, will help to make the subject
+clearer. He says: "In waking consciousness I am like the proprietor of a
+factory whose machinery I do not understand. My foreman, my subliminal
+self, weaves for me so many yards of broadcloth per diem (my ordinary
+vital processes), as a matter of course. If I want any pattern more
+complex, I have to shout my orders in the din of the factory, where only
+two or three inferior workmen hear me, and they shift their looms in a
+small and scattered way. Such are the confined and capricious results of
+the first, the more familiar stages of hypnotic suggestion.
+
+"At certain intervals, indeed, the foreman stops most of the looms, and
+uses the freed power to stoke the engine and oil the machinery. This, in
+my metaphor, is sleep; and it will be effective hypnotic trance if I can
+get the foreman to stop still more of the looms, come out of his private
+room, and attend to my orders--my-self suggestions--for their repair and
+re-arrangment."
+
+To make this a little plainer. The subliminal self, the foreman, is the
+one who manages the machinery of the nervous system, and turns out this
+or that sort of conduct or behavior in the child, or the man or woman,
+as he is told to turn out by the conscious self. But in the hypnotic
+trance this subliminal self can take orders, or suggestions, for other
+kinds of conduct or behavior; alter the action of the brain, so as to
+make another sort of creature; for he is not so occupied then but that
+he can receive these orders. As in the kaleidescope, the pictures
+presented depend entirely on the arrangement of the pieces of glass. So
+in daily conduct, character depends on the combination and activity of
+the brain cells. By suggestion in the hypnotic state we are able, to
+some extent at least, to alter this combination so that new conduct is
+presented.
+
+The question now arises, How can the parent make use of this agent in
+altering the nature of a child from one that is not desirable to one
+that is? Probably the best way to proceed would be to take it while
+sleeping, and make the suggestion then; for ordinary sleep is not
+different from hypnotic sleep, except in degree. As the child is in the
+act of going to sleep, let the mother, or whoever is to make the
+suggestion, sit by its side, take it by the hand and gently soothe it
+with pleasant words or music, in a firm but agreeable voice. Let her say
+slowly: Now you are going to sleep, sleep, sleep. You will soon be
+sleeping sweetly. How nice it is to sleep and rest our bodies so that we
+can feel well and strong on the coming day. This sleep is going to do
+you a great deal of good. You will not have bad dreams. You will not see
+ugly faces or wake up with a fright. Tomorrow you will wake up
+good-natured, full of life, and will be good boy (or girl, as the case
+may be), and do your best to make mother happy and proud of you. You
+will want to play and enjoy the fresh air and sunshine; relish your
+food; not eat too much, etc., etc., according to the needs of the child.
+If it is timid and fearful of thunder, or dogs, or horses, or other
+harmless things, you can say to it, Now, you will not be afraid any more
+of thunder but like to hear it. This, like all other suggestions, must
+be repeated several times, so as to make an impression. If afraid of
+strangers, say, now, you will not fear men, or persons you don't know;
+repeating it slowly over and over again. If the child uses bad language,
+say, Now you will not want to use bad words any more, and will be
+careful how you speak. If it has a cold, put the hand over the chest and
+say, Now your cold will get well quickly, and not grow worse. If it has
+the unfortunate habit of wetting the bed at night, even this can be
+broken up, often by one suggestion, and surely by several repeated so as
+to take deep root in the mind. This latter is necessary to produce any
+effect. In case of disease, even serious disease, when a physician is
+necessary, suggestion may be used by the nurse or parents, or the
+physician, if he has learned the art, to advantage; but if the parents
+are anxious or weary, they had better leave it for those who are not
+weary or anxious; otherwise they may transfer their own condition
+instead of one of health. The state of mind and body of the operator
+should be a stable, equable and wholesome one.
+
+The age at which suggestion may be of use is hardly yet known. Certainly
+so soon as the understanding has become developed it may be employed,
+though the language should be simplified for the childish understanding.
+Before this it is of doubtful utility; but some experiments which have
+been made intimate that good health may sometimes be transmitted from a
+healthy person to a very young sick child by thought transference.
+
+Thought transference is the transference from one to another person of
+some feeling, sensation or idea. The person from whom the thought is
+transferred is the _active_ agent, and the one who receives it is the
+_passive_ one. Often this phenomenon takes place spontaneously, as when
+one is in trouble, or at the point of dying, a knowledge of it may
+sometimes be transferred to an intimate friend who is in sympathy. In
+the hypnotic state, thought transference can sometimes be induced
+artificially; and the point here to be considered is the transference
+to the child of healthy normal sensations to replace the abnormal ones
+which may have taken possession of consciousness and caused trouble.
+
+The important thing always to have in mind in using psychic forces on
+children is to instil natural, or normal, conditions, not unnatural or
+abnormal ones. To this end to produce the best results, the active agent
+should be a normally healthy person, having good common sense, and
+living a normal, natural life. Those with sickly, sentimental or
+fanciful notions, if they try to use suggestion may transfer these
+states to the child, which would do harm rather than good.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Acquired characters, inheritance of, 71, 73, 77 _et seq._, 79, 90,
+      109, 111, _et seq._
+
+  Acquired characters not transmitted, 213
+
+  Adaptation to environment necessary for health, 149
+
+  Aesthetic sense displayed by animals, 28
+
+  Aesthetic surroundings during gestation, 95
+
+  Air, regarded as food, 174
+
+  Alcohol, as a poison, 91
+
+  Alcohol, effect of, on offspring, 171
+
+  Allen, Joseph A., observations of, as to effects of war on children,
+      200
+
+  _Allen, Grant_, 34, 48, 51, 180
+
+  Amphimixis, theory of, 76
+
+  Ancestral _ids_, 75
+
+  Ancestral tendencies, correction of, 126
+
+  Animals, practical superiority of man over, what?, 210
+
+  Animal flesh, supposed effect of eating, 63
+
+  Atavism in relation to disease, 83
+
+
+  Baby, a theoretical, 185 _et seq._
+
+  Bad habits, broken up by suggestion during mesmeric sleep, 214
+
+  Bad temper cured by hypnotic suggestion, 217 _et seq._
+
+  Beauty, reference of sexual selection to, 28
+
+  Bees, instincts of, 122
+
+  Bérillon, Dr., on beneficial effect of hypnotism over bad habits,
+      etc., 215
+
+  Birthmarks, 59, 68, 94
+
+  Blood, healthy, purifying influence of, 92
+
+  Blood, study of the, 140, 151
+
+  Bones, modification of certain, through sitting, 116
+
+  Boys, mortality among larger than with girls, 136
+
+  Breasts, best methods of developing, 209
+
+  Breasts, defective, women having, incapable of becoming mothers of a
+      virile race, 209
+
+  Breasts, development of, after marriage and parentage, 209
+
+  Breasts, degeneracy of the, and motherhood, 208
+
+  Breeding in and in, Noyes' first principle for race improvement, 38
+
+
+  Camp life, evils of, 202
+
+  Cases of prenatal influences, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Cells, sexual, 110, 162
+
+  _Chandler, Jennie_, 97
+
+  Character, dependence of, on arrangement of nerve cells, 222
+
+  Character, improvement by suggestion, method to be employed by parents
+      for, 223
+
+  Character of children affected by war, 201
+
+  Characteristics, origin of, through sexual selection, 134
+
+  _Charles, Havelock_, 116
+
+  Chickamauga Camp, prostitution at, 202
+
+  Children acquire special aptitudes from mothers, 205
+
+  Child bearing, best age for, 170
+
+  Children, breeding of, in Plato's Republic, 11, 12
+
+  Children considered as belonging to the State, 10 _et seq._, 22
+
+  Children, deaths of, in New York city, 139
+
+  Children, healthy, essentials for having, 168
+
+  Children, interests of unborn, 199
+
+  Children, characteristics of, in the Oneida Community, 39
+
+  Children in the Oneida Community, care of, 38
+
+  Children, mortality among, 136
+
+  Children, obstacle of war to production and training of, 203
+
+  Child training aided by suggestion, 214 _et seq._
+
+  Children, training of, 16 _et seq._, 52
+
+  Civil War and how it affected the character of children, 201
+
+  Co-adaptation of parts as evidence of transmission of acquired
+      characters, 116
+
+  Coalescence of sperm and germ cells, 166
+
+  Concentrative power, want of, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Conduct, knowledge of its object, not possessed by animals, 210
+
+  Congenital characters, transmission of, 177
+
+  Congenital deformities, 80
+
+  Consanguineous marriages among the Greeks, 23
+
+  Consanguineous marriages, regulations as to, among uncultured peoples,
+      21, 42
+
+  Consanguineous marriages, effect on offspring, 42
+
+  Constitution, bodily, improvement of the, 150
+
+  Consumption, causes of, 176
+
+  Consumption, tendency to, whether a bar to marriage, 176
+
+  Contentment, value of, 95
+
+  Continuity of germ-plasm, 107, 118
+
+  Co-operation, hygienic value of, 156 _et seq._
+
+  _Cope, Prof. E. D._, 59, 69
+
+  Cousins, marriage between, 43
+
+  Couvade, custom of the, 63 _et seq._
+
+  Crimes, increase of, caused by war, 201
+
+
+  _Darwin, Charles_, 28, 30 _et seq._, 73, 75, 85, 100, 105, 106, 109,
+      141, 179, 184
+
+  Death, causes of, 150
+
+  Deformities, congenital, 80
+
+  Degeneracy of the breasts and motherhood, 208
+
+  Degeneracy in offspring due to maternal degeneracy evidenced by
+      inability to nurse a child, 208
+
+  Degeneration, evidence of, 140
+
+  Development of breasts after marriage and parentage, 209
+
+  Diseases, influence of hygiene over, 159
+
+  Diseases, inheritance of, 80
+
+  Diseases which affect offspring, 175
+
+  Disposition spiritualized through marriage of chastity, 210
+
+  Disproportion between accidental causes and effects, 68, 90
+
+  Diversity between offspring and parents, causes of, 58
+
+  Domestication of animals, 9
+
+  _Doutrebente, Prof._, 92
+
+  Drink, influence of, over offspring, 16
+
+  _Duncan, J. C. Mathews_, 170
+
+
+  Education, beneficial effects of hypnotism in, 215
+
+  Education and heredity, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Education and non-transmission of acquired characters, 124
+
+  Education of Spartan children, 15
+
+  Education, Plutarch on, 17
+
+  Education, study of laws of evolution, as part of, 125
+
+  Educational uses of hypnotism and suggestion, 220
+
+  Egg. See _Ovum_.
+
+  _Eimer, Dr. G. H._, 71, 79 _et seq._, 90
+
+  Embryo, how parental properties communicated to, 69
+
+  Embryology, importance of, 103
+
+  Energy, bodily, use and abuse of, 153
+
+  Environment, adaptation to, necessary for health, 149
+
+  Epigenesis, theory of, 104
+
+  Esquirol on the effects of the French Revolution over children, 200
+
+  Ethics of the body, hygiene as the, 160
+
+  Evolution, a superior race produced by, 130 _et seq._
+
+  Evolution, meaning of the term, 210
+
+  Evolution of the horse, 102
+
+  Evolution, study of laws of, as part of education, 125
+
+  Evolutionary theories, conflict of, with humane sentiments, 145 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Example, influence of, over children, 18
+
+  Exercise, transmission of effects of, 111
+
+  Experiment in race improvement by Noyes, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Explanation of the action of hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+
+  Family life, abolition of, in Plato's Republic, 10
+
+  Father rule should be combined with mother rule, 213
+
+  Fatherhood, too little importance assigned to, 212
+
+  Feeble constitutions prevent numerous offspring, 147
+
+  Fertilization essential to true germ plasm, 165
+
+  Fertilization, nature of, 166
+
+  _Fison, Lorimer_, 42
+
+  Fitness for survival, characteristics of, 140
+
+  Flat head Indians and heredity, 213
+
+  Flat head and round head tribes, comparison between, 213
+
+  Flat head not transmitted to offspring, 213
+
+  Flattening the skull, injurious effect of on health, 214
+
+  _Flint, Dr. Austin_, 88
+
+  Food, how it affects germ plasm, 173
+
+  Food (certain) injurious influence of, 94
+
+  Foot, compression of, by Chinese ladies, 20
+
+  Fosterage, 96
+
+  French Revolution, evil effects of over children, 200
+
+
+  _Galton, Francis_, 46, 50, 73, 106, 135, 170
+
+  Gemmules, essential to pangenesis, 105, 106
+
+  Generation, influences over, at time of conception, 57, 58
+
+  Generation, influences over, subsequent to conception, 58
+
+  Generative powers, debilitation of the, 84
+
+  Germ plasm and heredity, 107, 162
+
+  Germ plasm, continuity of the, 73, 74 _et seq._, 107, 118
+
+  Germ plasm, how affected by food, 173
+
+  Germ plasm, modification of the, 76, 80
+
+  Germ variations, causes of, 81
+
+  Gestation (period of) importance of pleasant surroundings during, 93
+
+  Gestation, maternal influence during, 96
+
+  Gestation, strong emotion during, effect of, 63, 94
+
+  Gestation, uterine disturbances during, 93
+
+  Girls, physical training of, among Spartans, 14
+
+  Girls, mortality among, smaller than with boys, 136
+
+  Great mothers, how constituted, 208
+
+  Group marriage of Australian natives, 21
+
+
+  _Hæckel, Ernst_, 109
+
+  _Harvey_, 103
+
+  _Haycraft, John Berry_, 143
+
+  Head flattening, 20
+
+  Health, action of nature in relation to, 130
+
+  Health, transmission of, by thought transference, to young sick child,
+      224
+
+  Healthy localities enable the healthiest offspring to be reared, 210
+
+  Health, adaptation to environment necessary for, 149
+
+  Health, ideal of, 148
+
+  Health, importance of, in relation to marriage, 135, 168, 171
+
+  _Hearn, Professor_, 67
+
+  Hedonism, New, 48
+
+  Hereditary tastes of children, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Heredities, antagonistic, of two parents, 58
+
+  Heredity among Flat-head Indians, 213
+
+  Heredity, definition of, 100
+
+  Heredity and education, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, evils arising from, may be cured, 35
+
+  Heredity, exceptions to law of, 58
+
+  Heredity and germ plasm, 107
+
+  Heredity, importance of knowledge of, by teachers, 125
+
+  Heredity, modification of law of, 99
+
+  Heredity, preponderating influence of, 69, 89
+
+  Heredity, rational view of, 109
+
+  Heredity, spectre of, 127 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, theories of, 73 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, transformation of, 83
+
+  _Hering, Richard_, 70
+
+  Hidery tribes of British Columbia, 214
+
+  High-pressure, effects of living at, 152
+
+  Hypnotic sleep, differs from ordinary sleep only in degree, 223
+
+  Hypnotic suggestion, value of, as aid to education, 216
+
+  Hypnotism as suggestive therapeutics, 214
+
+  Horse, evolution of the, 102
+
+  Human selection, plans for, 135 _et seq._
+
+  Human kind, regarded as a whole, should be benefited by our conduct,
+      211
+
+  Human race, further improvement of impossible, if marriage relation be
+      regarded only from standpoint of sexual indulgence, 210
+
+  Humane sentiments, conflict of, with theories of evolution, 145 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Husband and wife, tendency to resemble each other, 89
+
+  _Huth, A. H._, 42
+
+  Hygiene, modern, as opposed to natural selection, 142 _et seq._
+
+  Hygiene, as the ethics of the body, 160
+
+  Hygiene, promises of, 158 _et seq._
+
+  Hygienic laws, punishment for infraction of, 161
+
+  Hygienic surroundings, importance of, 139
+
+  Hygienic training, value of, 151
+
+
+  Ideal of Health, 148
+
+  Idiots, education of, 25
+
+  Illustrative cases of prenatal influence, 60 _et seq._
+
+  Imagination, effect of, on unborn offspring, 55 _et seq._
+
+  Improvement of race. See _race improvement_.
+
+  Incas of Peru, consanguineous marriages among the, 23
+
+  Income, bodily, importance of living within, 152
+
+  Individual, the, as the beginning and end of the race, 50
+
+  Individuality, development of the, 126
+
+  Infanticide among Spartans, 15
+
+  Infanticide, former general prevalence of, 19
+
+  Infanticide in Plato's Republic, 11
+
+  Infanticide not morally permissible, 24
+
+  Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to the, 71, 73, 77,
+      79, 90, 109, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Inheritance, organic, wonders of, 101
+
+  Injuries during life, transmission of, 79 _et seq._
+
+  Injury to health through flattening the skull, 214
+
+  Instinct, explanations of origin of, 121
+
+  Instincts of the race for children, loss of, 208
+
+  Instruction and education, difference between, 210
+
+  Intelligence affected by head flattening, 214
+
+
+  Jacob, rods of, 56
+
+  _Jeune, Lady Mary_, 47
+
+  _Jowett, Professor B._, 25 _et seq._, 34
+
+
+  _Krafft, D. Von Ebing_, 82, 84, 91
+
+
+  _Lamarck_, 111
+
+  Lamarchian theory of transmission, 213
+
+  Language, not transmitted to offspring, 119
+
+  _Leeuwenhock_, 103
+
+  Limitation of offspring, 179 _et seq._
+
+  Locust, egg-laying instinct of, 123
+
+  Luxury and parentage, 208
+
+  _Lycurgus_, marriage regulations of, 13 _et seq._, 22, 27
+
+  _Lyman, Dr. C. W._, on treatment of a baby, 185 _et seq._
+
+
+  Man, variations undergone by, 138
+
+  Man, practical superiority of, over animals, what, 210
+
+  Manufacturing life, unhealthiness of, 152
+
+  Manufacturing mills, deterioration caused by, 158
+
+  Marriage, consanguineous, ideas as to, 21, 42
+
+  Marriage customs among Spartans, 18, 19
+
+  Marriage, early, disadvantages of, 137
+
+  Marriage, importance of health in relation to, 135
+
+  Marriage, regulations as to, in Plato's Republic, 22, 25
+
+  Marriage of weak and worthless, 137
+
+  Marriage, a sacred state, 52
+
+  Marriage of chastity, disposition spiritualized by, 210
+
+  Marriages of affection and passion, difference between, analogous to
+      that between education and instruction, 210
+
+  _Mason, Dr. R. Osgood_, on beneficial effect of hypnotism in
+      education, 215
+
+  Maternity, avoidance of, 208
+
+  _McGee, Dr. Anita Newcomb_, 37
+
+  Memory, endowment of reproductive cells with, 70
+
+  Memory, improvement of, by hypnotic suggestion, 210
+
+  Mental dullness, curable by suggestion during hypnotic sleep, 215
+
+  Mental emotion of mother, injury to unborn child through, 200
+
+  Mesmeric sleep, effect of suggestion during, 214
+
+  Mesmerism, now known as hypnotism, 214
+
+  Method to be employed by parents for using suggestion in child
+      training, 223
+
+  Microbes, selective action of, 143
+
+  Mind of operator, state of, necessary to successful suggestion, 224-5
+
+  Modification of certain bones through sitting, 116
+
+  Modification of the organism during descent from first ancestors, 71
+
+  Modification of sense of touch, 114
+
+  Modification of toes, 112
+
+  Modification of the whale, 115
+
+  Molecular structure of sexual cells, 110
+
+  Monogamy, return to, by the Oneida Community, 40, 41, 53
+
+  Moral nature, growth of the, 146
+
+  Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals, 63
+
+  Motherhood, highest, war an enemy to, 204
+
+  Motherhood and degeneracy of the breasts, 208
+
+  Mothers, not peculiarily the divinely appointed teachers of children,
+      212
+
+  Musical talent, not transmitted to offspring, 120
+
+  Mutilations, not transmissible, 119
+
+  _Meyer, Prof. Frederic W. H._, on hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+
+  Natural selection, 9, 115, 138, 142
+
+  Natural selection, always operative, 147
+
+  Nature, action of, in relation to health, 130
+
+  Nerve cells, constitution of, alterable by hypnotic suggestion, 222
+
+  Nervous system, debilitation of the, 84
+
+  Night terrors cured by hypnotic suggestion, 220
+
+  Nipples, deformed, common occurrence of, 209
+
+  _Nisbet, J. F._, 90, 92
+
+  Non-nursing of children a sign of degeneracy, 208
+
+  Normal conditions only should be transferred by hypnotic suggestion,
+      225
+
+  Nose molding, 20
+
+  Notes, 199 _et seq._
+
+  _Noyes, John Humphrey_, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Nucleus of cell, essential to reproduction, 167
+
+  Nutrition, action of, on germ cells, 151
+
+  Nutrition (arrested) organic effect of, 77
+
+
+  Obedience the basis of education among the Spartans, 15
+
+  Offspring, effect of alcohol on, 171
+
+  Offspring, effect of consanguineous marriage on, 42
+
+  Offspring, influence of locality on health of, 210
+
+  Offspring, injuriously affected by sexual excess of parents, 211
+
+  Offspring, inception of, the starting point of stirpiculture, 52
+
+  Offspring, limitation of, 179 _et seq._
+
+  Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Ovum, 163 _et seq._
+
+  Ovum, the beginning of animal life, 101, 163
+
+  Ovum, developmental tendency of the, 110
+
+  Ovum, effect of gestation on the, 102
+
+  Ovum of different animals, apparent similarity of the, 163
+
+
+  _Paget, Sir James_, 148
+
+  Pain, prevention of, in surgical operations, 214
+
+  Pangenesis, experiments in, 106
+
+  Pangenesis, theory of, 75, 105, 109
+
+  Panmixia, theory of, 78
+
+  Paper mill (New England), 154
+
+  Parentage and luxury, 208
+
+  Parentage and war, 199
+
+  Parentage, responsibility in, 49, 181
+
+  Parentage, Plato's restrictions on, 11
+
+  Parentage, sacredness of, 93
+
+  Parents, how to make use of suggestion in the training of children,
+      222
+
+  Parents, organic growth of, injuriously affected by sexual excess, 211
+
+  Parental life, influence of, over offspring, 95
+
+  Perfectionists of the Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  _Phillips, Wendell_, 128
+
+  Physical culture, 160
+
+  Physical training of girls among Spartans, 14
+
+  Physical weakness may be associated with mental greatness, 34
+
+  Plato, Republic of, 10 _et seq._, 25
+
+  Plutarch, 13, 16 _et seq._
+
+  Poisons, actions of, on the sexual cells, 91
+
+  Poverty, obstacle of, to production and training of the young, 203
+
+  Preference, as exhibited among animals, 131
+
+  Preference, as exhibited among men, 133
+
+  Preference, first principle of sexual selection, 131
+
+  Prenatal culture, 55 _et seq._
+
+  Prenatal culture, illustrative cases of, 60 _et seq._
+
+  Prenatal influence, 112
+
+  Prenatal influence in telegony, 85
+
+  Prenatal influences, cases of, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Principles on which sexual selection is based, 38, 131
+
+  Progress in organic life, 9
+
+  Promiscuity regulated in Oneida Community, 37
+
+  Promiscuity regulated in Plato's Republic, 11
+
+  Prostitution, camp life a school for, 202
+
+  Psychical diseases, heredity of, 82 _et seq._
+
+  Psychological laws, uncertain effect of, 68
+
+  Psychological research, laboratories for, 160
+
+
+  _Quatrefages, M. de_, 59
+
+
+  Race (human) deterioration of the, through hygienic action, 143 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Race, improvement of the, aim of, 36
+
+  Race, improvement of the, based on spiritual sympathy, 58
+
+  Race improvement, experiment in, of the Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Race improvement, failure of compulsory attempts at, 27
+
+  Race improvement, Grecian methods for, 10 _et seq._
+
+  Race improvement, Grecian methods not suited for modern times, 24
+
+  Race improvement, natural factors in, 1
+
+  Race improvement, State aid to, 37, 53
+
+  Race should be thought of before ourselves, 211
+
+  Reproductive function, difference in exercise of, by animals and man,
+      210
+
+  Responsibility in parentage, 49, 181
+
+  _Ribot, Th._, 57, 68, 83
+
+  _Romanes, G. J._, 28, 73, 85, 87
+
+  Ruin of countries by the burdens of war, 203
+
+
+  Sacredness of parentage, 93
+
+  _Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy_, 68
+
+  Sampson, mother of, 172
+
+  Science of true living, hygiene as the, 160
+
+  Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society's manufacturing mill, 156 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Selection, artificial, by man, 9
+
+  Selection, individual, by Noyes, 38
+
+  Selection, natural, _see_ "Natural selection."
+
+  Selection, sexual, _see_ "Sexual selection."
+
+  Selective action of female animals, 28 _et seq._
+
+  Selective action of woman in marriage, 43 _et seq._
+
+  Self-control, importance of, 96
+
+  Self-consciousness, excessive, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Self-development, 48
+
+  Sense of touch, modification of, through use, 114
+
+  Sex-instinct, 51
+
+  Sexual cells, 162
+
+  Sexual cells, acquired powers of, 110
+
+  Sexual excess injuriously affects both parents and offspring, 211
+
+  Sexual impulse, gratification of the, consistent with the development
+     of the highest mental qualities, 212
+
+  Sexual selection, 27 _et seq._, 131 _et seq._
+
+  Sexual selection, action of, among primeval men, 179
+
+  Sexual selection applicable primarily to male characteristics, 30
+
+  Sexual selection by women, effect of, 44 _et seq._
+
+  Sexual selection, influence of, 31, 33
+
+  Sick child, transmission of health to, by thought transference, 224
+
+  Sire, previous, influence of, on subsequent progeny, 86 _et seq._
+
+  Sleep, ordinary, differs from hypnotic sleep only in degree, 223
+
+  _Smith, Sidney_, 121
+
+  Sobriety, importance of, in relation to offspring, 91 _See_ "Alcohol."
+
+  Soldiers demand gratification of their passional natures, 202
+
+  Spartans, marriage relations among, 13 _et seq._
+
+  Special aptitudes of child determined by prenatal influences, 204
+
+  Spectre of heredity, 127 _et seq._
+
+  _Spencer, Herbert_, 4, 77, 78, 85, 87, 112, 115, 149, 169, 181
+
+  Spermatozoon, 162
+
+  Spiritual nature, appeal to, in hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+  Spontaneous thought transference, 224
+
+  Standing armies, crushing burden of, 203
+
+  State, aid of the, to race improvement, 53
+
+  State, children regarded as belonging to the, 10 _et seq._, 22
+
+  Stirpiculture. _See_ "Race, improvement of the."
+
+  Stirpiculture, meaning of, 10
+
+  Stirpiculture, good air and water as factors in, 175
+
+  Stirpiculture, Noyes' experiment in, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Stirpiculture, starting point of, 52
+
+  Strength as necessary as tenderness to bringing up of children, 213
+
+  Struggle, sexual selection through, 132
+
+  Studious habits transmitted to children, 205
+
+  Subliminal self, orders conveyed to, by hypnotic suggestion, 222
+
+  Suggestion as an aid to child training, 214, 221
+
+  Suggestion by parents to children for educational purposes, 223
+
+  Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, bad habits cured by, 214
+
+  Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, beneficial effect of, over mental
+      dullness, 215
+
+  Suggestion, hypnotic, influence of, in developing self-control, 219
+
+  Suggestion, hypnotic, method of, employed by Dr. R. Osgood Mason for
+      educational purposes, 215 _et seq._
+
+  Suggestive therapeutics, 214
+
+  Superiority of offspring, where limited, 184
+
+  Surgical operations, prevention of pain in, by mesmerism, 214
+
+  Survival of the fittest, 9
+
+  Survival, what constitutes fitness for, 141
+
+  Sympathy, spiritual, as the basis of race improvement, 53
+
+
+  Taxation, burden of, created by war, 203
+
+  Telegony, 85 _et seq._
+
+  Temper, bad, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 217
+
+  Tenderness to be combined with strength in bringing up children, 213
+
+  Theoretical baby, 185 _et seq._
+
+  Thought transference induced artificially in hypnotic state, 224
+
+  Thought transference, nature of, 224
+
+  Thought transference, transmission of health by, to a young sick
+      child, 224
+
+  Timidity cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Toes, modification of the, in man, 112
+
+  Touch, modification of the sense of, 114
+
+  Training of children aided by hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+  Training of children, Plutarch on the, 16 _et seq._
+
+  Transformation of heredity, 83
+
+  Transitory states of parents, effect of on offspring, 59
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of aptitude for hard work, 207
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of artistic and literary tastes, 204
+      _et seq._, 207
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of taste for study of natural history,
+      206
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of taste for surgical nursing, 207
+
+  Transmission of acquired characters. _See_ "Acquired characters."
+
+  Transmission of effects of exercise, 111
+
+  _Tylor, E. B._, 64, 67
+
+  Twins, resemblance of, 90
+
+
+  Unborn children injured by war, 199
+
+  Unborn children, interests of, 199
+
+  Unfit, elimination of the, 139
+
+  Unicellular organisms, 109
+
+  Uterine existence, disturbances of, 58, 68
+
+
+  Vaccination as a preserver of weak constitutions, 143
+
+  Vitality, surplus, production of offspring depends on, 169
+
+
+  _Wake, C. Staniland_, 21, 42, 66
+
+  _Wallace, A. R._, 44, 136
+
+  Wallace, Alfred Russell, on prenatal influences, 204
+
+  War and parentage, 199
+
+  War, effects of, on civilization, 199
+
+  War, effects of, on unborn children, 199 _et seq._
+
+  War, enemy to the highest motherhood, 204
+
+  _Weber, Professor_, 114
+
+  _Weismann, Professor_, 72, 74 _et seq._, 78, 107, 118
+
+  Wet nurses, use of, accompanied by physical weakness, 208
+
+  Whale, modification of structure of the, 115
+
+  White race, superiority of the, due to consciousness of duty towards
+      the race, 211
+
+  _Wolf, Caspar Frederick_, 104
+
+  Woman, condition of, among Flat head Indians, 213
+
+  Woman, first duty of, 47
+
+  Woman not superior to man, 212
+
+  Woman, selective action of, in marriage, 32, 43 _et seq._
+
+  Women incapable of love inferior as mothers, 208
+
+  Women more numerous than men, 136
+
+  Women, preference for certain characteristics in men, 133
+
+
+  _Xenophon_, 15
+
+
+  _Zeigler, Professor_, 81, 91
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+The word "diarrhoea" uses an oe ligature in the original.
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     Page 19: visited her "with great caution and
+     apprehension"[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 25: "that the difference between men and the animals is
+     forgotten in them."[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 62: _The Philosophical[original has Philosphical] Journal_
+     for October 5, 1895
+
+     Page 66: come to console him [original has extraneous quotation
+     mark]for the pain
+
+     Page 82: distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von
+     Krafft-Ebings[original has Kraft-Ebings]
+
+     Page 84: inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable
+     will."[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 104: develop[original has devolop] other organs than those
+     like the ones in which it was formed
+
+     Page 109: theories of heredity--Hæckel's[original has
+     Heckel's], for instance
+
+     Page 112: without the transmission[original has transmision] of
+     the effects of the use
+
+     Page 141: to give continuous[original has continous] food,
+     warmth and protection
+
+     Page 164: the ape, the dog, the cat or other animal."[quotation
+     mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 164: clear, round germinal vesicle[original has vescicle]
+
+     Page 167: they completely[original has competely] efface
+     themselves
+
+     Page 176: often of an unusually[original has unsually] cheerful
+     and hopeful disposition
+
+     Page 180: quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence[original
+     has abstainence]
+
+     Page 182: must bring decay and ultimate extinction.[original
+     has comma]
+
+     Page 199: children, both born and unborn.[period missing in
+     original]
+
+     Page 200: capable of resisting the intense excitements[original
+     has excitments]
+
+     Page 200: dimmed by the relation of such occurrences[original
+     has occurrencies]
+
+     Page 203: Is this not a grievous[original has grevious] burden
+
+     Page 206: [original has extraneous quotation mark]Mrs. B----
+     says: "I can trace
+
+     Page 207: cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea[original has
+     bougianvillea]
+
+     Page 210: only 17,314 out of 100,000 died.[original has comma]
+
+     Page 213: mind as well as heart,[comma missing in original]
+     vigor as well as sympathy
+
+     Page 217: gruffly[original has grufly] remarked that I had
+     rumpled his hair
+
+     Page 217: suggestions have not been repeated since
+     May."[original has extraneous quotation mark]
+
+     Page 226: number "200" is below the entry for "Air" in the
+     original, but it belongs to the entry for "Allen, Joseph A.",
+     and has been moved accordingly
+
+     Page 228: page numbers for the entry on Darwin have been put in
+     numerical order
+
+     Page 228: Eimer,[original has period] Dr. G. H., 71, 79 _et
+     seq._, 90
+
+     Page 230: Hæckel[original has Haeckel], Ernst, 109
+
+     Page 232: Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to
+     the, 71, 73, 77,[comma missing in original] 79
+
+     Page 232: Krafft[original has Kraft], D. Von Ebing, 82, 84, 91
+
+     Page 232: Leeuwenhock[original has Leeukwenhock], 103
+
+     Page 233: Jowett[original has Jewett], Professor B., 25 _et
+     seq._,[comma missing in original] 34
+
+     Page 233: Mason, Dr. R. Osgood, on beneficial effect of
+     hypnotism[original has hynotism]
+
+     Page 235: Quatrefages[original has Quartrefages], M. de, 59
+
+     Page 235: Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy[original has Geoffory], 68
+
+     Page 238: Transmission[original has Tranmission] of acquired
+     characters
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homo-culture, by Martin Luther Holbrook
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Homo-culture, by Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homo-culture
+       or, The improvement of offspring through wiser generation
+
+Author: Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+Release Date: November 12, 2010 [EBook #34299]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMO-CULTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="notebox"><p>Transcriber's Notes:</p>
+
+<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation remain as in the original.
+Ellipses match the original. A complete list of typographical
+corrections <a href="#TN">follows</a> the text.</p>
+
+<p>Click on the page number to see an image of the original page.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="./images/frontispiece_small.png" width="250" height="362" alt="The theoretical baby at 18 months." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE THEORETICAL BABY AT 18 MONTHS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="gap"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[<a href="./images/1.png">1</a>]</span></p>
+<h1>HOMO-CULTURE;</h1>
+
+<p class="p3">OR,</p>
+
+<h2>THE IMPROVEMENT OF OFFSPRING THROUGH<br />
+WISER GENERATION.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="gap">&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>BY M. L. HOLBROOK, M. D.,</h3>
+<p class="p4">EDITOR OF "THE JOURNAL OF HYGIENE," AUTHOR OF "HYGIENE<br />
+OF THE BRAIN," "HOW TO STRENGTHEN THE MEMORY,"<br />
+"ADVANTAGES OF CHASTITY," ETC., ETC.</p>
+
+
+<p class="gap">&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="p3">A New Edition of "Stirpiculture," Enlarged and Revised.</p>
+
+
+<p class="gap">&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">New York:</span><br />
+M. L. HOLBROOK &amp; CO.</h4>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">London:</span><br />
+L. N. FOWLER &amp; CO.</h4>
+
+<h4>1899.</h4>
+<p class="gap">&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="gap"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[<a href="./images/2.png">2</a>]</span></p>
+<h4><i>Copyright by<br />
+M. L. Holbrook.<br />
+1897.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="p4"><i>Entered at Stationers' Hall.</i></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[<a href="./images/3.png">3</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>During all ages since man came to himself, there have been enlightened
+ones seeking to improve the race. The methods proposed have been
+various, and in accordance with the knowledge and development of the
+time in which they have appeared. Some have believed that education and
+environment were all-sufficient; others that abstinence from
+intoxicating drinks would suffice. A very considerable number have held
+the idea that by prenatal culture alone the mother can mould her unborn
+child into any desired form. The disciples of Darwin, many of them, have
+held that natural and sexual selection have been the chief factors
+employed by nature to bring about race improvement.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt all these factors have been more or less effectual, but the
+time has come for man to take special interest in his own evolution, to
+study and apply, so far as possible, all the factors that will in any
+way promote race improvement. In the past this has not been done. We are
+not yet able to do it perfectly, our knowledge is too deficient, lack of
+interest is too universal, but we can make a beginning; greater
+thoughtfulness may be given to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[<a href="./images/4.png">4</a>]</span>suitable marriages; improved environment
+may be secured; better hygienic conditions taken advantage of; food may
+be improved; the knowledge we have gained in improving animals and
+plants, so far as applicable, may aid us; air, exercise, water,
+employment, social conditions, wealth and poverty, prenatal conditions,
+all have an influence on offspring, and man should be able, to some
+extent, to make them all tell to the advantage of future generations.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the conditions of existence, man is able by his intellect to
+modify and improve them, and make them favorably serve unborn children.</p>
+
+<p>Herbert Spencer says: "On observing what energies are expended by father
+and mother to attain worldly successes and fulfil social ambition, we
+are reminded how relatively small is the space occupied by their
+ambition to make their descendants physically, morally and
+intellectually superior. Yet this is the ambition which will replace
+those they now so eagerly pursue, and which, instead of perpetual
+disappointments, will bring permanent satisfactions."</p>
+
+<p>If the chapters included in this volume should help to arouse in the
+minds of readers, and especially the younger portion of them, some
+healthy feelings relating to the improvement of offspring it will have
+fulfilled its aim.</p>
+
+<p>Two of them have been given as lectures before societies, the main
+object of which was the discussion of subjects bearing on evolution and
+human progress, and they are included in this volume because they have a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[<a href="./images/5.png">5</a>]</span>close relation to the main subject, but the others were written
+especially for this work.</p>
+
+<p>While there may appear in a few cases a slight amount of repetition, the
+author trusts the reader will not consider it as unpardonable.</p>
+
+<p>With these few words I send the work on its mission hoping it will bear
+good fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="author">M. L. H.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[<a href="./images/6.png">6</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<table summary="Table of Contents"cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" border="0">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">STIRPICULTURE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdright" style="font-size: 70%;" colspan="2"><i>Page.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Plato's Restrictions on Parentage; Lycurgan Laws;
+Plutarch on the Training of Children; Infanticide
+Among the Greeks; Group Marriage; Making
+Children the Property of the State; Grecian
+Methods Not Suitable to Our Time; Sexual
+Selection; Difficulties in the Way; An Experiment
+in Stirpiculture; Intermarriage; Woman's
+Selective Action; Man's and Woman's Co-operation;
+The Individual's Rights; Spiritual Sympathy
+in Marriage;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">PRENATAL CULTURE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Jacob's Flocks; An Illustrative Case; Beliefs of
+Primitive Peoples; Birthmarks Rare; Why Children
+Resemble Parents; Life's Experiences Affecting
+Child; Germ-plasm; Congenital Deformities;
+Psychical Diseases; Telegony; Power of
+Heredity; Sobriety in the Father; Sacredness of
+Parentage; Self-control;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[<a href="./images/7.png">7</a>]</span>HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Theories; Continuity of the Germ-plasm; A Rational
+View of Heredity; Heredity and the Education
+of Children; Intellectual Acquirements; Instinct;
+Knowledge or Heredity; Individuality; Spectre
+of Heredity;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A
+HEALTHIER RACE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Sexual Selection; Human Selection; Natural Selection;
+Conflict between Evolutionary Theories
+and our Humane Sentiments; Ideal of Health;
+Adaptation to Environment; Knowledge; Effects
+of Living at High Pressure; Girls in Manufacturing
+Districts; Co-operation: an Example;
+Hygiene;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">THE GERM-PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">What is the Germ-plasm? The Primitive Egg; Fertilization
+of the Mother-cell Necessary to Produce
+True Germ-plasm; What Fertilization Does;
+Its Process; Helps to Explain Heredity; Health
+of the Germ-plasm Necessary in Stirpiculture;
+Surplus Vitality Necessary for Producing the
+Best Children; Duncan's Statistics as to Ages of
+Parents of Finest Children; Effects of Alcohol
+on Offspring; Food and the Germ-plasm; Effect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[<a href="./images/8.png">8</a>]</span>of Air and Water on Germ-plasm; Effect of Diseases
+on Germ-plasm; Every Child Born an Experiment;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Darwin's Opinions; Race Modifications by Natural
+Selection; Grant Allen's Views; Spencer's Views
+on Parental Duties; Limiting Offspring Among
+the Natives of Uganda; The Fijians; Children
+of Large Families often Superior to those in
+Small Families; Some Reasons for this;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdcenter" colspan="2">A THEORETICAL BABY.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdlefthang">Our First Baby; We had Theories; What Some of
+Them Were; My Wife's Love for Me; My Sentiments;
+The Child's Easy Birth; Mother's Rapid
+Convalescence; The Child's First Bath; Forming
+Good Habits Early; No Crying at Night;
+Never Rocked to Sleep; His Bed; Keeping the
+Stomach and Bowels Right; Colic, Irritability
+and the Necessity for Diapers Eliminated; Number
+of Meals Daily; The Infant's Clothing; At
+One Year Old; Teething Gives Little Trouble;
+Requires Considerable Water; Learning to Creep,
+Stand, Walk and Talk by His Own Efforts; Invents
+His Own Amusements; Companionship
+With Parents; Mothering; Learning Self-control;
+Obedience; Playmates;</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdleft">Notes</td>
+  <td class="tdrightbot"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[<a href="./images/9.png">9</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>STIRPICULTURE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Natural selection, which is the central doctrine of Darwinism, has been
+explained as the "survival of the fittest." On this process has depended
+the progress observable throughout organic nature to which the term
+evolution is applied; for, although there has been from time to time
+degradation, that is, a retrogression, this has had relation only to
+particular forms, organic life as a whole evidencing progress towards
+perfection. When man appeared as the culmination of evolution under
+terrestrial conditions, natural selection would seem almost to have
+finished its work, which was taken up, however, by man himself, who was
+able by "artificial" selection to secure results similar to those which
+Nature had attained. This is true especially in relation to animals, the
+domestication of which has always been practiced by man, even while in a
+state of nature. Domestication is primarily a psychical process, but it
+is attended with physical changes consequent on confinement and
+variation in food and habits. This alone would hardly account, however,
+for the great number of varieties among <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[<a href="./images/10.png">10</a>]</span>animals that have been long
+domesticated, and it is probable that actual "stirpiculture" has been
+practiced from very early times. This term is derived from the Latin
+<i>stirpis</i>, a stock or race, and <i>cultus</i>, culture or cultivation, and it
+means, therefore, the cultivation of a stock or race, although it has
+come to be used in the sense of the "breeding of offspring," and
+particularly of human offspring. It is evident, however, that in
+relation to man this is too restricted a sense, and it must be extended
+so as to embrace as well the rearing and training as the breeding of
+children, in fact, <i>cultivation</i> in its widest sense, in which is always
+implied the idea of improvement.</p>
+
+<p>Stirpiculture in this extended sense was not unknown to the ancients,
+both in theory and in practice. As to the former, the most noted example
+is that of Plato, who, in his "Republic," proposed certain arrangements
+as to marriage and the bringing up of children which he thought would
+improve the race, and hence be beneficial to the State. The State was to
+Plato all in all, and he considered that it should form one great
+family. This idea could not be carried into effect, however, so long as
+independent families existed, and therefore those arrangements had for
+one of their chief aims the abolition of what we regard as family life.
+This Plato thought was the best for the State, and the advantage which
+was supposed to accrue to it by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[<a href="./images/11.png">11</a>]</span>the absence of separate families is
+expressed in a marginal note, which says: "There will be no private
+interests among them, and therefore no lawsuits or trials for assault or
+violence to elders."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Plato's Restrictions on Parentage.</span>&mdash;The end would hardly seem to justify
+the means, in these days, at least, when violence to elders is an
+uncommon incident; but how was the community of wives and children by
+which it was sought to be attained to be brought about? It is said, "The
+best of either sex should be united with the best as often, and the
+inferior with the inferior as seldom, as possible." Thus the people were
+to be classified into "best" and "inferior," and while the former were
+to be brought together as often as possible, the latter were not to be
+united at all if it could be avoided. There was no question of marriage
+in either case. In the one, the union was for the purpose of obtaining
+children, and in the other for the simple gratification of the passions;
+for only the offspring of the union between the sexes in the "best"
+class were to be reared. The children of the inferior class were not to
+be reared, "if the flock is to be maintained in first-class condition."
+This infanticide would matter little to the parents, as they had no
+control over their coming together, nor concern with the rearing of
+their offspring. Lots were to be drawn by the "less worthy" on each
+occasion <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[<a href="./images/12.png">12</a>]</span>of their being brought together. This was that they might
+accuse their ill-luck and not the rulers, in case their partners were
+not to their liking. The State was to provide not only what men and
+women were to be sexually united, but the ages within which this was to
+be permitted for the purpose of obtaining offspring. For a woman, the
+beginning of childbearing for the State was fixed at twenty years of
+age, and it was to continue until forty. For men, the period of
+procreation is said to be between twenty-five and fifty-five years of
+age. After the specified ages men and women were to be allowed to "range
+at will," except within certain prescribed degrees, but on the
+understanding that no children born to such unions were to be reared. It
+is evident that under such a system the actual relationship between the
+members of the State family could be known only to its rulers; but to
+provide against the union of persons too nearly related by blood, all
+those who were "begotten at the time their fathers and mothers came
+together" were regarded as brothers and sisters. But even brothers and
+sisters might be united "if the lot favors them, and they receive the
+sanction of the Pythian oracle." Thus far for the breeding of children
+laid down in Plato's "Republic." As to the rearing of them, we need only
+say that the children allowed to live were to be placed in the custody
+of guardians, to be appointed by the State from among the most worthy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[<a href="./images/13.png">13</a>]</span>of either sex, who were to bring them up in accordance with the
+principles of virtue.</p>
+
+<p>The idea which formed the basis of the regulations as to marriage in the
+"Republic" was carried into practice by Lycurgus in his government of
+Sparta. We are told by Plutarch in his "Lives," that Lycurgus considered
+children not so much the property of their parents as of the State, "and
+therefore he could not have them begotten by ordinary persons, but by
+the best men in it." But he did not attempt to break up the private
+family, as was proposed by Plato. He sought rather to enlarge its
+boundaries by allowing the introduction of a fresh paternal element when
+this could be done with advantage to the State. Thus, he approved of a
+man in years introducing to his young wife a "handsome and honest" young
+man, that she might bear a child by him. Moreover, if a man of character
+became impassioned of a married woman on account of her honesty and
+beautiful children, he might treat with her husband for the loan of her,
+"that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent
+children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents." The principles
+which influenced Lycurgus were the same as those sought to be applied by
+Plato, although in a different way. Plutarch says, "He observed the
+vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people study to have their
+horses and dogs of the finest breed they can <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[<a href="./images/14.png">14</a>]</span>procure, either by
+interest or money, and yet keep their wives shut up, that they may have
+children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be doting,
+decrepid or infirm." Hence Lycurgus sought to drive away the passion of
+jealousy "by making it quite as reputable to have children in common
+with persons of merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own
+behaviour to their wives."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Lycurgan Laws.</span>&mdash;According to Plutarch, the regulations enforced by
+Lycurgus, so far from encouraging licentiousness of the women, such as
+afterwards prevailed in Sparta, did just the reverse, as adultery was
+not known among them. That the system was beneficial to the State by
+tending to secure healthy offspring is probable; but Lycurgus took other
+means of bringing about this result. His requiring girls to dance naked
+in public was intended to teach them modesty. But we are told further:
+"He ordered the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling and
+throwing quoits and darts, that their bodies being strong and vigorous,
+the children produced by them might be the same; and that, thus
+fortified by exercise, they might the better support the pangs of
+childbirth, and be delivered with safety." Moreover, he provided against
+the propagation of disease and deformation by directing that only such
+children <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[<a href="./images/15.png">15</a>]</span>should be reared as passed examination by the most ancient men
+of the tribe. If a child were strong and well-proportioned, they gave
+orders for its education and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares
+of land. Thus infanticide was a recognized part of the Spartan system,
+as it was in that of Plato. The elders of the tribe were very careful
+about the nurses to whom the children were assigned. When seven years
+old, the children were enrolled in companies, where they were all kept
+under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and
+recreations in common. The boy of best conduct and courage was made
+captain, and their whole education was one of obedience. As for
+learning, Plutarch says they had just what was absolutely necessary; and
+certainly it was not such as could be recommended for imitation in these
+days.</p>
+
+<p>Xenophon, in his essay on "The Lacedemonian Republic," adds little to
+what Plutarch tells us with reference to the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus. He remarks, however, that marriage was not allowed until the
+body was in full strength, as this was conducive "to the procreation of
+a robust and manly offspring." He affirms, also, that those who were
+allowed by arrangement to associate with other men's wives were men who
+had an aversion to living with a wife of their own!</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[<a href="./images/16.png">16</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Plutarch on the Training of Children.</span>&mdash;In his "Morals," Plutarch gives
+a dissertation on the training of children, the first portion of which
+deals with stirpiculture in the limited sense of the term, but is very
+inadequate. Indeed, the only advice he gives is that a man should not
+keep company with harlots or concubines, because children by them are
+"blemished in their birth" by their base extraction; and that no man
+should "keep company with his wife for issue's sake but when he is
+sober," lest he beget a drunkard. The main portion of Plutarch's
+treatise is concerned with the education of children, which is the
+second part of stirpiculture as a system of complete cultivation.
+Introductory to the subject of education he speaks of nursing, to which
+he attaches much importance. Plutarch insists on the necessity of
+mothers nursing their own children; nature, by providing them with two
+breasts, showing them that they can nurse even twins. But if they
+cannot, they are to choose the best nurses they can get, and such as are
+bred after the Greek fashion. For, "as it is needful that the members of
+children should be shaped aright as soon as they are born, that they may
+not afterwards prove crooked and distorted, so it is no less expedient
+that their manners be well fashioned from the very beginning; for
+childhood is a tender thing, and easily wrought into any shape."</p>
+
+<p>After referring to the importance of the choice of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[<a href="./images/17.png">17</a>]</span>good companions for
+a child, Plutarch proceeds to consider the question of education, which
+he speaks of as the matter of most concern. As to education in general,
+he points out that a concurrence of three things is necessary to the
+"completing of virtue in practice," which is the aim of that process,
+that is: Nature, reason or learning, and use or exercise; For, "if
+nature be not improved by instruction, it is blind; if instruction be
+not assisted by nature, it is maimed; and if exercise fail of the
+assistance of both, it is imperfect as to the attainment of its end."
+There cannot be "instruction"&mdash;a term which is here used as equivalent
+to "education," although the latter has a wider signification than the
+former, and being equivalent to mental cultivation,&mdash;without a teacher,
+and Plutarch says well, "we are to look after such masters for our
+children as are blameless in their lives, not justly reprovable for
+their manners, and of the best experience in teaching. For the very
+spring and root of honesty and virtue lies in the felicity of lighting
+on good education." He is, indeed, so much impressed with its value that
+he affirms: "The one chief thing in this matter&mdash;which compriseth the
+beginning, middle and end of all&mdash;is good education and regular
+instruction." These two "afford great help and assistance towards the
+attainment of virtue and felicity." He adds: "Learning alone, of all
+things in our possession, is immortal and divine."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[<a href="./images/18.png">18</a>]</span>
+Plutarch dwells on various other matters connected with education
+better fitted for his times than ours, but he refers to the importance
+of example in words that are deserving of careful consideration. He
+says: "The chiefest thing that fathers are to look to is, that they
+themselves become effectual examples to their children, by doing all
+those things which belong to them, and avoiding all vicious practices,
+that in their lives, as in a glass, their children may see enough to
+give them an aversion to all ill words and actions. For those that chide
+children for such faults as they themselves fall into unconsciously
+accuse themselves, under their children's names. And if they are
+altogether vicious in their own lives, they lose the right of
+reprehending their very servants, and much more do they forfeit it to
+their sons.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Wherefore we are to apply our minds to all such practices
+as may conduce to the good breeding of our children."</p>
+
+<p>It is not improbable that the marriage regulations ascribed to Lycurgus
+were based on institutions already in existence among the Spartans. From
+the statement of Polybius, that the brothers of a house often had one
+wife between them, it has been inferred that in Sparta the Tibetan form
+of polyandry was practiced. According to Plutarch, another curious
+marriage custom prevailed, showing that the Spartans, who differed in
+various <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[<a href="./images/19.png">19</a>]</span>respects from other Greeks, had retained primitive habits.
+Thus, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence, and for some
+time after this "marriage by capture" he visited her "with great caution
+and apprehension" of being discovered by the rest of the family; the
+bride at the same time exerted all her art to contrive convenient
+opportunities for their private meetings. And this they did, not for a
+short time only, but some of them even had children before they had an
+interview with their wives in the daytime! This custom had much in
+common with the <i>sadica</i> marriages of the early Arabs, who, as we are
+told by Professor Robertson Smith, allowed a woman, while she remained
+with her own tribe, to receive the clandestine visits of a lover. Her
+offspring were recognized as legitimate and became members of the tribe.
+The incident of "capture" could not occur, as it was a general custom in
+ancient Arabia for a husband to live among his wife's kinsfolk.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Infanticide Among the Greeks.</span>&mdash;The practice of infanticide, which was
+the only mode by which Lycurgus, or even Plato in his imaginary
+republic, could really insure the existence of a healthy and vigorous
+population, was undoubtedly a survival from primitive times. The
+sacredness of infant life is the result of the high moral tone which has
+accompanied the spread of Christianity; and it may <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[<a href="./images/20.png">20</a>]</span>be said to be almost
+unknown outside of the Christian era. Various reasons are assigned by
+different peoples for the practice of infanticide; but one cause
+universally operative is the objection to rearing malformed or unhealthy
+offspring. Savages adopt various modes of improving, according to their
+ideas, the physical appearance of their children. Giving the proper form
+to the nose is considered a very important matter by the native
+Australian mother and by the Polynesian Islanders; as, indeed, it was by
+the ancient Persians, among whom the molding of the nose to the proper
+curve was essential, especially in the royal family. The flat head of
+the American Indian of the northwest coast was at one time considered a
+beauty, and was restricted to the members of the tribe, slaves not being
+allowed to undergo the necessary head compression. The small artificial
+foot of the Chinese lady is another case in point. But however much the
+physical appearance might be altered, no effect could thus be made in
+the general physique of the race. The most easy way of keeping this up
+to a proper standard is to destroy all the infants that possess physical
+defects; and such a course is adopted by many savages, although it is by
+no means the most influential cause of infanticide.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Group Marriage.</span>&mdash;A remarkable system of relationships, with which is
+combined a series of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[<a href="./images/21.png">21</a>]</span>regulations framed with the object of pointing out
+what persons are entitled to enter into the marital relation, is found
+to be prevalent in nearly all uncivilized peoples. The members of a
+tribe are divided into two or more groups, each of which consists of
+persons who are nearly related by blood, and who are forbidden,
+therefore, to intermarry. One of the tribes of Central Australia, the
+Dieyerie, has a legend which explains the marriage system common to them
+and to all the other tribes, as being intended to prevent the evil
+effects of intermarriage between persons very near of kin. The story is
+valuable as showing the opinion entertained by savages as to the effect
+on the race of breeding in and in&mdash;a subject to which we may have
+occasion to make further reference. Dr. J. F. McLennan and other writers
+on primitive marriage refer to the practice among certain <i>civilized</i>
+peoples of antiquity of what we regard as incestuous marriage, in
+support of the view that in the early history of mankind intercourse
+between the sexes was promiscuous.<a name="FNanchor_21:A_1" id="FNanchor_21:A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_21:A_1" class="fnanchor">[21:A]</a> Such an explanation is entirely
+uncalled for, however, as the custom was intended to secure purity of
+blood, that is, blood of a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[<a href="./images/22.png">22</a>]</span>particular line of ancestors. Such marriages
+were known only to a few peoples, and they were evidently of
+comparatively late origin. Whether the purity of blood was attended with
+improvement of the stock may be doubted; as, whatever may have been the
+actual origin of the marriage regulations of the numerous peoples among
+whom the classificatory system of relationship is established, they are
+intended, without question, to prevent the intermarriage of persons who
+are regarded as near blood relations, the general disapproval of which
+must have had some sufficient reason, or, at all events, must have
+originated in ideas supposed to furnish good grounds for it.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Making Children the Property of the State.</span>&mdash;The principles which were
+embodied in the scheme proposed by Plato, in his "Republic," to bring
+about an improvement in the race are mainly two: First, restriction on
+the formation of procreative unions; second, infanticide. The breaking
+up of private or separate families necessarily resulted from the
+operation of his "marriage" regulations, and was intended to emphasize
+the idea which Plato, like Lycurgus, insisted on, that the children
+belonged to the State. Lycurgus sought to enforce the same idea by
+allowing wives to have intercourse with other men than their husbands,
+thus making children "common" in some sense, while retaining <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[<a href="./images/23.png">23</a>]</span>the
+separate family intact. Thus he introduced, or rather it should be said,
+established a modified form of polyandrous marriage; Plato's system, on
+the other hand, being one of mere pairing, as in the breeding of
+animals. In either case the union of very near relations was not
+permitted, that is, between brother and sister, or parent and child. Yet
+Lycurgus allowed marriage between a half-brother and sister by the same
+mother. Curiously enough, this was forbidden by the Athenian law, which
+permitted a brother and sister by the same father only to intermarry.
+The Greek rule, as laid down in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities," was that "proximity of blood or consanguinity was not,
+with some few exceptions, a bar to marriage," although direct lineal
+descent was so. Moreover, there was no attempt to enforce consanguineous
+marriages, so as to ensure purity of blood, such as was customary among
+the Incas of Peru, the laws of which required that the oldest son and
+daughter of the sovereign should intermarry because the Incas were
+descended from the Sun, and the Sun had married his sister the Moon, and
+had united in marriage his two first children! A more practical reason
+was found in the rule that the kingdom should be inherited through both
+parents. Hence it was not permitted to mix the blood of the Sun, or
+rather of those who claimed solar descent, with that of men.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[<a href="./images/24.png">24</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Grecian Methods Not Suitable To Our Time.</span>&mdash;It is evident that the
+principles which governed the ancients in their endeavors to improve the
+race are not capable of application at the present day, under the
+conditions of modern civilization. Instead of placing further
+restrictions on marriage, the tendency now is to loosen those which have
+hitherto existed, although certain regulations, such as relate to age,
+consent, etc., are recognized as necessary for the interests of the
+State. Moreover, greater facilities are given than were formerly allowed
+for dissolving ill-assorted unions, thus getting rid of the excuse for
+the formation of irregular connections. Nevertheless, the interests of
+neither society at large nor of individuals will permit of the
+introduction of the temporary or occasional pairing system, which is a
+return to an animal state, and, therefore, not worthy of the dignity
+implied in the term, marriage, and which is inconsistent with true
+family life. It would be liable to all kinds of abuse, and would become,
+in most cases, a legalized system of prostitution, thus dragging society
+down to a lower level instead of raising it, and tending to the
+deterioration, instead of the improvement, of the race, if not to its
+extinction. As to infanticide, this certainly would not be tolerated by
+public opinion, although it is now largely resorted to under the guise
+of abortion. To legalize child-killing under any circumstances <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[<a href="./images/25.png">25</a>]</span>would be
+to offer a premium for murder, even if it were permitted only with the
+express sanction in every case of the officials of the State. There is
+now no justification for such a course, as the education of those who
+appear to be on a mental level with the animals has been carried so far
+that the term "idiot" may soon have to be dropped from our vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p>It must be affirmed, however, that the whole subject of the improvement
+of the race was dealt with by Plato, and, indeed, by the ancients
+generally, in a very crude and superficial manner. This has been well
+pointed out by Professor B. Jowett in the Introduction to his
+translation of Plato's "Republic." Professor Jowett objects generally
+that the great error in the speculations of Plato and others on the
+improvement of the race is, "that the difference between men and the
+animals is forgotten in them." The human being is regarded with the eye
+of a dog or bird fancier, or at best of a slave owner; the higher or
+human qualities are left out. The breeder of animals aims chiefly at
+size or speed or strength; in a few cases, at courage and temper; most
+often the fitness of the animal for food is the greatest desideratum.
+But mankind are not bred to be eaten, nor yet for their superiority in
+fighting or in running or in drawing carts. Nor does the improvement of
+the human race consist merely in the increase of the bones and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[<a href="./images/26.png">26</a>]</span>flesh,
+but in the growth and enlightenment of the mind. Hence there must be a
+marriage of true minds as well as of bodies; of imagination and reason
+as well as of lusts and instincts. Men and women without feeling or
+imagination are justly called brutes; yet Plato takes away these
+qualities and puts nothing in their place, not even the desire of a
+noble offspring, since parents are not to know their own children. The
+most important transaction of social life he who is the idealist
+philosopher converts into the most brutal. For the pair are to have no
+relation to each other but at the hymeneal festival; their children are
+not theirs, but the State's; nor is any tie of affection to unite them.
+Yet the analogy of the animals might have saved Plato from a gigantic
+error if he had not lost sight of his own illustration! For the "nobler
+sort of birds and beasts" nourish and protect their offspring and are
+faithful to one another! It is certainly surprising, as Jowett says,
+that the greatest of ancient philosophers should, in his marriage
+regulations, have fallen into the error of separating body and mind. He
+did so probably through a false notion of the antagonism between the
+family and the State, and hence, as Lycurgus did not aim at destroying
+family life he escaped that error.</p>
+
+<p>And yet there is nothing to show that the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus had any real effect on the children of the State. That the
+early Spartans <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[<a href="./images/27.png">27</a>]</span>were a hardy and courageous people is undoubtedly true;
+but apart from the practice of infanticide, which would necessarily get
+rid of the weak, their character and conduct can be explained by
+reference merely to the system of training, both of youth and maidens,
+which Lycurgus rigidly enforced. Lacedemon was essentially a military
+republic, and its rulers aimed to breed soldiers, rather than men in the
+noble sense in which the term "man" is now used. Indeed, there is
+nothing to show that any compulsory attempt to improve the race has ever
+been successful, apart from the effect which the destruction of feeble
+and deformed offspring may have, and the influence of the severe
+training of those who are allowed to survive.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the human race has vastly improved since its first
+appearance on the earth, if the teachings of the doctrine of evolution
+are true and applicable to man as well as to the inferior animals. The
+passage from the native Australian to the European is a long one, and
+yet they are supposed to represent a common primitive stock. The steps
+by which the European has been gradually developed, with his special
+characteristics, cannot now be traced; but one of the chief agencies to
+which the result is due is that to which Darwin applied the term,
+"sexual selection." As natural selection has relation to <i>adaptation</i>,
+and its aim is "the survival of the fittest," so sexual selection <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[<a href="./images/28.png">28</a>]</span>has
+reference to <i>beauty</i>, and its object is the perpetuation of the most
+beautiful, according to the taste of the peoples practicing it. Darwin
+was the first to point out the importance of sexual selection for
+certain purposes which, as stated by Professor G. J. Romanes, in his
+"Darwin and after Darwin,"<a name="FNanchor_28:A_2" id="FNanchor_28:A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_28:A_2" class="fnanchor">[28:A]</a> "have no reference to utility or the
+preservation of life." The latter writer in treating of the subject
+affirms it is universally admitted that the higher animals do not pair
+indiscriminately, the members of either sex preferring "those
+individuals of the opposite sex which are to them most attractive." Many
+birds and certain mammals clearly display the esthetic sense, which is
+shown by the former particularly in the adorning of their nests with
+colored objects; and it is reflected in the personal appearance of the
+animals themselves. During the pairing season, birds take on their most
+brilliant plumage, and the males take great pains to exhibit their
+charms before the females, actively competing with one another in so
+doing. There is similar rivalry among song birds, who strive to see
+which can best please the females by their singing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Sexual Selection.</span>&mdash;Professor Romanes, after referring to those facts,
+which are considered in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[<a href="./images/29.png">29</a>]</span>detail by his great predecessor, states the
+theory of sexual selection as follows: "There can be no question that
+the courtship of birds is a highly elaborate business, in which the
+males do their best to surpass one another in charming the females.
+Obviously the inference is that the males do not take all this trouble
+for nothing; but that the females give their consent to pair with the
+males whose personal appearance, or whose voice, proves to be the most
+attractive. But, if so, the young of the male bird who is thus
+<i>selected</i> will inherit his superior beauty; and thus, in successive
+generations, a continuous advance will be made in the beauty of plumage
+or of song, as the case may be,&mdash;both the origin and development of
+beauty in the animal world being thus supposed due to the esthetic taste
+of the animals themselves."</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to refer particularly to the evidence in support of
+the theory of sexual selection. There can be no doubt that it is a most
+important factor in the perpetuation and increase of certain characters,
+those which come within the category of "beautiful," the very existence
+of which proves them to be beneficial to the stock to which the animals
+exhibiting them belong. The fundamental fact is that they have "the
+effect of charming the females into a performance of the sexual act;" an
+opinion which is supported by the more general fact that "both among
+quadrupeds <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[<a href="./images/30.png">30</a>]</span>and birds, individuals of the one sex are capable of feeling
+a strong antipathy against, or a strong preference for, certain
+individuals of the opposite sex."</p>
+
+<p>These statements are applicable also to man, with whom the principle of
+sexual selection must have been influential to at least the same degree
+as among the lower animals. It may be expected, indeed, to be more
+influential, as the esthetic taste with which it is associated becomes
+more highly developed with man than with any member of the animal
+kingdom. Even here it is not a question of mere coloration. The theory
+of sexual selection as framed by Darwin is concerned, as Romanes points
+out, not so much with color itself as with the particular disposition of
+color in the form of ornamental patterns. These have a kind of
+<i>structural</i> value, and certain birds, moreover, possess actual
+structural peculiarities, such as ornamental appendages to the beak, the
+only use of which would appear to be to charm the female during
+courtship. We may suppose, therefore, that sexual selection has affected
+not merely what may be termed the superficial characters of man, but to
+some extent, at least, those which have a structural value.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of sexual selection is applicable primarily to the
+characteristics of the male; but Darwin supposes them to have been
+transferred to the other sex, and through them transmitted to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[<a href="./images/31.png">31</a>]</span>race
+generally. In his "Descent of Man," he remarks of the actual influence
+over the race of that principle: "The nervous system not only regulates
+most of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly
+influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and
+of certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, size and
+strength of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and
+instrumental, bright colours and ornamental appendages have all been
+indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the exertion of
+choice, the influence of love and jealousy, and the appropriation of the
+beautiful in sound, colour or form; and these powers of the mind
+manifestly depend on the development of the brain."</p>
+
+<p>That sexual selection has actually resulted in modification of human
+physical structure, Darwin thinks can be shown by reference to the
+ancient Persians, whose type was greatly improved by intermarriage with
+the beautiful Georgian and Circassian women. He refers to several
+similar cases, and particularly to the Jollofs of West Africa, whose
+handsome appearance is said to be due to their retaining for wives only
+their most beautiful slaves, the others being sold.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual selection may be operative for the improvement of the race
+through the action of either man or woman, and the conditions of its
+activity <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[<a href="./images/32.png">32</a>]</span>are different in either case. As to the action of man, Darwin
+says in relation to primitive peoples: "The strongest and most vigorous
+men&mdash;those who could best defend and hunt for their families, who were
+provided with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as
+a large number of dogs or other animals&mdash;would succeed in rearing a
+greater average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members
+of the same tribe. There can, also, be no doubt that such men would
+generally be able to select the more attractive women. At present, the
+chiefs of nearly every tribe throughout the world succeed in obtaining
+more than one wife."</p>
+
+<p>With reference to selection by the women, Darwin shows that among
+savages they have much more to say in their marriages than is usually
+supposed. He remarks: "They can tempt the men they prefer, and can
+sometimes reject those whom they dislike, either before or after their
+marriage. Preference on the part of the women, steadily acting in any
+one direction, would ultimately affect the character of the tribe, for
+the women would generally choose, not merely the handsomest men,
+according to their standard of taste, but those who were at the same
+time best able to defend and support them. Such well-endowed pairs would
+commonly rear a larger number of offspring than the less favored."
+Darwin adds: "The same result would obviously follow in a still more
+marked manner <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[<a href="./images/33.png">33</a>]</span>if there were selection on both sides, that is, if the
+more attractive, and at the same time more powerful men were to prefer,
+and were preferred by, the more attractive women. And this double form
+of selection seems actually to have occurred, especially during the
+earlier periods of our long history."</p>
+
+<p>The investigations of Darwin as to the operation of sexual selection had
+reference chiefly to the modification of physical characters. He did not
+altogether lose sight, however, of its possible influence in affecting
+for the better the mental characteristics of the race. He concludes his
+enquiry by the remark that "Man might by selection do something, not
+only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for
+their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from
+marriage if they are in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but
+such hopes are Utopian, and will never be even partially realized until
+the laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. Every one does good
+service who aids towards this end."</p>
+
+<p>It is in the application of the principle of sexual selection to the
+mental characteristics of man, that any real improvement of the race,
+viewed as consisting of human beings and not of mere animals, must be
+brought about. Beauty of physical form and feature is of importance in
+human relations only so far as it is associated with beauty of mind <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[<a href="./images/34.png">34</a>]</span>and
+character, that is, with high intellectual and moral attainments. That
+these often go together is true, but it is not always the case. Grant
+Allen says: "To be sound in wind and limb; to be healthy of body and
+mind; to be educated; to be emancipated; to be free, to be
+beautiful&mdash;these things are ends towards which all should strive, and by
+attaining which all are happier in themselves, and more useful to
+others." But physical and intellectual perfection are not always found
+together, as was observed by Darwin, when he mentioned among the causes
+which interfere with the physical action of sexual selection the fact
+that men are largely attracted by the mental charms of women. Professor
+Jowett affirms truly that "Many of the noblest specimens of the human
+race have been among the weakest physically. Tyrtæns or Æsop, or our own
+Newton, would have been destroyed at Sparta, and some of the fairest and
+strongest men and women have been among the wickedest and worst." Hence,
+he properly infers that "Not by the Platonic device of uniting the
+strong and the fair with the strong and the fair, regardless of
+sentiment and morality, nor yet by his other device of combining
+dissimilar natures, have mankind gradually passed from the brutality and
+licentiousness of primitive marriage to marriage Christian and
+civilized."</p>
+
+<p>The truth of this inference cannot be denied, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[<a href="./images/35.png">35</a>]</span>because to leave out of
+view considerations of sentiment and morality would fatally vitiate any
+scheme for the improvement of the human race. But Professor Jowett
+affirms that, "We do not know how by artificial means any improvement in
+the breed can be effected." The problem is no doubt a complex one. As he
+points out, a child has usually thirty progenitors only four steps back,
+and whatever truth there may be in the inheritance of special physical
+characters, "We have a difficulty in distinguishing what is a true
+inheritance of genius or other qualities, and what is mere imitation or
+the result of similar circumstances. <i>Great men and great women have
+rarely had great fathers and mothers.</i>" Professor Jowett thinks, indeed,
+that too much importance may be ascribed to heredity. He says: "The
+doctrine of heredity may seem to take out of our hands the conduct of
+our lives, but it is the idea, not the fact, which is really terrible to
+us. For what we have received from our ancestors is only a fraction of
+what we are or may become. The knowledge that drunkenness or insanity
+has been prevalent in a family may be the best safeguard against their
+recurrence in a future generation. The parent will be most awake to the
+vices or diseases in his child of which he is most sensible within
+himself. The whole of life may be directed to their prevention or cure.
+The traces of corruption may become fainter, or be wholly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[<a href="./images/36.png">36</a>]</span>effaced; the
+inherited tendency to vice and crime may be eradicated. And so heredity,
+from being a curse, may become a blessing. We acknowledge that in the
+matter of our birth, as in our nature generally, there are previous
+circumstances which affect us. But on this platform of circumstances, or
+within this wall of necessity, we have still the power of creating a
+life for availment by the reforming energy of the human will."</p>
+
+<p>There is much truth in these remarks of Professor Jowett, but they do
+not affect the argument in favor of the possibility of bringing about an
+improvement in the race if the proper means are adopted. It would not be
+any wiser for the strong and healthy to marry with the sick and weak,
+because the latter happen to be highly intellectual or moral, than to
+marry with the strong and healthy if these physical characters are
+united with mental weakness or immorality. There is a consensus of
+opinion at the present day, that what should be aimed at is the union of
+physical perfection with that of intellect and character, in the
+persuasion that steps towards this end will ultimately lead to the
+general improvement of the human race.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Difficulties in the Way.</span>&mdash;The difficulty is to devise and carry out some
+scheme for the purpose which shall be both feasible and agreeable to
+public sentiment. The latter consideration would <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[<a href="./images/37.png">37</a>]</span>prevent any attempt at
+active stirpiculture under State direction, although the State might
+indirectly affect the result by subsidiary regulations as to marriage
+and training of children. There is nothing, however, to prevent the
+systematic efforts of private individuals, and in such cases the causes
+which Darwin cites as interfering with the physical action of sexual
+selection would not operate. The most systematic experiment in
+stirpiculture of modern times was that originated by John Humphrey Noyes
+at the Oneida Community, in central New York, from 1868 to 1879. A paper
+on this experiment was read by Anita Newcomb McGee before the American
+Science Association in August, 1891, which was published in "The
+American Anthropologist," 1891, and the following facts are taken from
+that paper.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">An Experiment in Stirpiculture.</span>&mdash;Noyes was the founder of a religious
+sect, the members of which, owing to their desire for freedom from sin,
+were called Perfectionists. Holiness was the first principle of their
+creed, and Noyes thought to transmit that condition from one generation
+to another by a process of stirpiculture. To overcome the "selfishness"
+of monogamic marriage he devised a "system of regulated promiscuity,
+beginning at earliest puberty, and by a method of his own invention he
+separated the amative from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[<a href="./images/38.png">38</a>]</span>propagative functions." Its first
+principle was that of a judicious in and in breeding, with occasional
+mingling of foreign blood, as in stock-raising. The second principle
+adopted was that of "careful selection of individuals for breeding
+purposes. Genealogies were studied and medical histories compiled." A
+committee, headed by Noyes, selected the holiest members who were free
+from physical defects, intellectual and other considerations being given
+less weight at first, although in later years they received more
+consideration. The parents were of all ages, but the father was always
+older than the mother. Some sympathy between the persons mated was
+always required; and if a proposition for union came from two
+individuals it was allowed if no objections were found. Noyes held that
+uncle and niece are as much related as father and daughter, because
+brothers have identical blood, and that cousins are in the same relation
+to each other as half brothers. In the Oneida Community uncles and
+nieces twice paired, and it is noticeable that a considerable proportion
+of the children had Noyes' blood on one or both sides. The founder
+himself had nine children in the Community, to which belonged also his
+brother, his two sisters and their children. As to the care of the
+children, this belonged exclusively to the mothers for the first nine
+months, after which for a further nine months they took charge of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[<a href="./images/39.png">39</a>]</span>offspring at night only. When eighteen months old, the children were
+transferred to a separate department which was managed by those who had
+shown themselves specially fitted for the work.</p>
+
+<p>Let us see what was the result of Noyes' experiment. Of the sixty<a name="FNanchor_39:A_3" id="FNanchor_39:A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_39:A_3" class="fnanchor">[39:A]</a>
+children born, five died at or near childbirth from unforeseen causes
+depending upon the mother. All the others were alive at the date of Mrs.
+McGee's communication, except a boy who was reared in spite of weakness,
+and died from a trifling malady when about sixteen years of age. All the
+children were strong and healthy, the boys being tall&mdash;several over six
+feet&mdash;broad-shouldered and finely proportioned; the girls robust and
+well-built. It is remarkable, that among the children between five and
+nine years of age, thirteen were boys and six only were girls. With
+reference to their intellectual ability, it is stated by Mrs. McGee
+that, of the oldest sixteen boys, ten were in business, chiefly employed
+as clerks, foremen, etc., in the manufactories of the joint stock
+company. The eleventh was a musician of repute; another a medical
+student; one passed through college and studied law; one was a college
+senior, and one entered college after winning State and local
+scholarships, and gave great mathematical promise. The sixteenth boy was
+a mechanic, and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[<a href="./images/40.png">40</a>]</span>only one employed in manual labor. Of the six girls
+between eighteen and twenty-two years, three are said by Mrs. McGee to
+be especially intellectual. The mothers of these children usually
+belonged to the classes employed in manual labor, while the fathers,
+with the exception of the Noyes family and half a dozen lawyers, doctors
+and clergymen, were all farmers and mechanics. It is noteworthy that, as
+a rule, the fathers were the intellectual superiors of their mates, "and
+enquiry develops the fact, known in the Community, that in these cases
+the children are markedly superior to the maternal stock."</p>
+
+<p>When this system of complex marriage had been in operation twenty years,
+the desire to return to the old system of monogamy arose, and it became
+so strong in the Community that its founder retired from it, and on
+August 26, 1879, complex marriage was renounced, although nominally "in
+deference to public sentiment." Twenty-five couples who had been married
+before entering the Community again became husband and wife, and twenty
+marriages between other individuals took place within four months after
+the abandonment of the stirpicultural experiment. There were then in the
+Community two hundred and sixteen adults and eighty-three children under
+twenty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>So far as the real object which the founder of the Oneida Community had
+in view in his marriage <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[<a href="./images/41.png">41</a>]</span>system, it was undoubtedly a failure, as of the
+offspring, in spite of their early doctrinal training, only a very few
+are church members, and but one is a Perfectionist. This is the son of
+an uncle and a niece, both of Noyes' blood. From a physical and
+intellectual standpoint the experiment would seem to have given promise
+of success, but it continued too short a time to be of much scientific
+value. The result may be stated in the words of Mrs. McGee, who says
+that the complete failure to perpetuate the church through stirpiculture
+"would seem to indicate that, while our race would doubtless be greatly
+benefited by more attention to laws of breeding, yet to attempt
+promulgation of a belief by this means alone is only to court defeat. In
+spite of the energy and magnetism of so remarkable a man as Noyes, in
+spite of his long-continued efforts, and just when success seemed within
+his grasp, his one misjudgment of human nature bore fruit, the neglected
+instinct of monogamy arose in its might and crushed to nothing the whole
+structure, and he, the builder, went last of all. With the close of his
+life, April 13, 1886, ended a unique and interesting history."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Intermarriage.</span>&mdash;We have seen that the founder of the Oneida Community
+permitted the intermarriage of uncle and niece, although he considered
+them related as nearly as father and daughter. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[<a href="./images/42.png">42</a>]</span>This question of the
+intermarriage of near blood relations is an important one in its bearing
+on the question of stirpiculture, and as already mentioned, it has
+engaged the attention of nearly all the lower races of mankind. It has,
+indeed, been provided against by the marriage restrictions of most
+uncultured peoples, and their systems of relationship clearly point out
+what persons are within the permitted limits of marriage. It appears to
+be the general rule that the children of two brothers or of two sisters,
+whether own or tribal, cannot intermarry, but that the children of a
+brother and those of a sister may be thus united, although sometimes
+this is not allowed where own brother and sister are concerned.<a name="FNanchor_42:A_4" id="FNanchor_42:A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_42:A_4" class="fnanchor">[42:A]</a></p>
+
+<p>The question of the effect on offspring of consanguineous marriages was
+some time ago particularly enquired into by Mr. A. H. Huth, who, after a
+consideration of all the information available, came, in his work, "The
+Marriage of Near Kin," to the following conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>"1&mdash;That any deterioration through the marriage of near kin, <i>per se</i>,
+even if there be such a thing in the lower animals, is impossible in
+man, owing to the slow propagation of the species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[<a href="./images/43.png">43</a>]</span>
+"2&mdash;That any deterioration through the chance accumulation of an
+idiosyncrasy, though more likely to occur in families where the marriage
+of blood relations was habitual, practically does not occur oftener than
+in other marriages, or it would be more easily demonstrated.</p>
+
+<p>"3&mdash;That, seeing the doubt, to say the least of it, which exists
+concerning the effect for harm of marriages between near kin, and on the
+other hand the certainty that whenever and wherever marriage is impeded
+a direct and proportionate impulse is given to the practice of
+immorality, it is advisable not to extend the prohibition against
+marriage beyond the third collateral degree, and to permit all marriages
+of affinity excepting those in the direct ascending or descending line."</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no doubt that what are regarded among Christian
+peoples as incestuous marriages are not desirable. How far marriage
+unions between first cousins are advisable depends, as appears from Mr.
+Huth's remarks, on considerations which affect the question generally.
+If there are any serious physical, intellectual or moral defects on
+either side, no marriage should take place.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Woman's Selective Action.</span>&mdash;Apart from the question of consanguinity, the
+principles which should govern all marriages is that of sexual
+selection, which should have reference, however, not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[<a href="./images/44.png">44</a>]</span>merely to physical
+characters, but also to mental and moral characteristics. In applying
+this principle, it must be remembered that while man, like the male of
+all animals, does the courting, woman, like all females, makes the
+selection; at least this is the general rule among the most cultured
+peoples. Thus it is evident that woman possesses the power of largely
+influencing the improvement of the human race, and in this fact we may
+see the possibility of this being effected by the operation of general
+social causes, without having recourse to individual experiments, such
+as that undertaken by Noyes, which are necessarily limited in their
+action, and may, after all, have like practical result. <i>If all women
+could be induced to combine for that end they could probably bring about
+the desired improvement by their own efforts.</i></p>
+
+<p>On this subject the well-known naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, has some
+judicious remarks in an article on "Human Progress, Past and Future," in
+<i>The Arena</i> for January, 1892. Mr. Wallace, who accepts the views of
+Weismann as to the non-inheritance of acquired characters, thinks that
+the physical and moral evils and degradation attendant on the conditions
+of modern city life will have no permanent effects, when a more rational
+and elevating system of social organization is brought about. The most
+important agency in this social regeneration will be the selective
+action of woman, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[<a href="./images/45.png">45</a>]</span>under the influence of her newly acquired freedom and
+higher education. Says Mr. Wallace: "When such social changes have been
+effected that no woman will be compelled, either by hunger, isolation or
+social compulsion, to sell herself, whether in or out of wedlock, and
+when all women alike shall feel the refining influence of a true
+harmonizing education, of beautiful and elevating surroundings, and of a
+public opinion which shall be founded on the highest aspirations of
+their age and country, the result will be a form of human selection
+which will bring about a continuous advance in the average status of the
+race. Under such conditions, all who are deformed either in body or
+mind, though they may be able to lead happy and contented lives, will,
+as a rule, leave no children to inherit their deformity. Even now we
+find many women who do not marry because they have never found the man
+of their ideal. When no woman will be compelled to marry for a bare
+living or for a comfortable home, those who remain unmarried from their
+own free choice will certainly increase in number, while many others,
+having no inducement to an early marriage, will wait until they meet
+with a partner who is really congenial to them. In such a reformed
+society the vicious man, the man of degraded taste or of feeble
+intellect, will have little chance of finding a wife, and his bad
+qualities will die out with himself. The most perfect and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[<a href="./images/46.png">46</a>]</span>beautiful in
+body and mind will, on the other hand, be most sought and therefore be
+most likely to marry early, the less highly endowed later, and the least
+gifted in any way the latest of all; and this will be the case with both
+sexes. From this varying age of marriage, as Mr. Galton has shown, there
+will result a more rapid increase of the former than of the latter, and
+this cause continuing at work for successive generations will at length
+bring the average man to be the equal of those who are now among the
+more advanced of the race."</p>
+
+<p>We have here the application of the principle of sexual selection in its
+highest sense, although limited in action to women, and it is
+undoubtedly the phase of stirpiculture which will become operative when
+the "emancipation of women" is completed. There is one feature of modern
+society which may retard its operation, and which was referred to by
+Darwin as interfering with the physical effect of sexual selection in
+the past. Wealth is now, more than ever before, an important factor in
+society, and not only man's but woman's choice in matrimony is often
+governed by money considerations. The possession of wealth may be
+evidence of mental astuteness, but not necessarily of high morality, and
+until it ceases to be sought after in marriage it will seriously
+interfere with the improvement of the race on its higher planes.</p>
+
+<p>The sexual selection which Mr. Wallace so ably <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[<a href="./images/47.png">47</a>]</span>advocates is to be
+exercised by woman, and hence its efficiency will depend on the fitness
+of woman, not only to choose proper partners in marriage, but to
+communicate the highest physical and mental characters to her offspring.
+She can transmit only what she herself possesses, and she will choose
+that which is in sympathy with her own feelings and desires, so that if
+she is to affect the race beneficially, she must seek first her own
+perfection. Hence the great importance of the woman's movement of the
+present day, the basis of which is the better development of her
+physical, mental and moral faculties, without which she cannot expect to
+have the increased social privileges to which she may aspire. The
+greatest social privilege women can have is to be the chief agent in the
+improvement of the race, and through it the regeneration of society
+itself. Lady May Jeune, in reply to those who think that the present
+relations between mothers and daughters threaten family disruption,
+observes, "That woman was created for the purpose of being the wife and
+mother of mankind no one can deny, and that none of the discoveries of
+science or any attempt to solve the mysteries of life have brought her
+one bit nearer the knowledge of how to unburden herself of these
+responsibilities, is also a fact." This must be true if the race is to
+be continued; for without wives there can be no mothers. Being possible
+mothers, therefore, it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[<a href="./images/48.png">48</a>]</span>necessary, if the race and society are to be
+improved, that women shall acquire the highest physical, intellectual
+and moral education they are capable of, and if they require the same
+qualities in their husbands, the problem we are considering will be
+solved.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Man's and Woman's Co-operation.</span>&mdash;We have here the central idea of the
+New Hedonism advocated by Mr. Grant Allen, whose views necessitate the
+active agency of man as well as of woman. This is only reasonable,
+seeing that offspring depend on the co-operation of two factors, and
+that if either of them is defective the offspring must share in the
+defect. "Self-development is an aim of all," says Mr. Grant Allen, "an
+aim which will make all stronger and braver, and wiser, and better. It
+will make each in the end more helpful to humanity. To be sound in wind
+and limb; to be healthy of body and mind; to be educated, to be
+emancipated, to be free, to be beautiful&mdash;these things are ends towards
+which all should strive, and by attaining which all are happier in
+themselves, and more useful to others." Hence the New Hedonism teaches
+that "to prepare ourselves for the duties of paternity and maternity, by
+making ourselves as vigorous and healthful as we can be is a duty we owe
+to all our children unborn and to one another." This applies as well to
+"the body <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[<a href="./images/49.png">49</a>]</span>spiritual, intellectual and esthetic" as to the physical
+body. Mr. Grant Allen thinks the theory he advocates will introduce a
+new system, which "will not include the selling of self into loveless
+union for a night or for a lifetime; the bearing of children by a mother
+to a man she despises or loathes or shrinks from; the production by
+force, sanctified by law, of hereditary drunkards, hereditary
+epileptics, hereditary consumptives, hereditary criminals. We shall
+expect in the future a purer and truer relation between father and
+mother, parent and child. We shall expect some sanctity to attach to the
+idea of paternity, some thought and care to be given beforehand to the
+duties of motherhood. We will not admit that the chance union of two
+unfit persons, who ought never to have made themselves parents at all,
+or ought never to have made themselves parents with one another, can be
+rendered holy and harmless by the hands of a priest extended to bless a
+bought love, or a bargain of impure marriage. In one word, for the first
+time in the history of the race, we shall evolve the totally new idea of
+responsibility in parentage. <i>And as part of this responsibility we
+shall include the two antithetical, but correlative, doctrines of a
+moral abstinence from fatherhood and motherhood on the part of the
+unfit, and a moral obligation to fatherhood and motherhood on the part
+of the noblest, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[<a href="./images/50.png">50</a>]</span>the purest, the sanest, the healthiest, the most able
+among us. We will not doom to forced celibacy half our finest mothers.</i>"</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">The Individual's Rights.</span>&mdash;From the racial standpoint these views are
+just and cannot be controverted, but something must be allowed to the
+individual. The relative position and rights of the race and the
+individual are in a dispute, which has become intensified since the
+development of the theory of evolution. <i>But the individual is the
+beginning of the race and he should be its end.</i> Therefore, in seeking
+to improve the race, violence must not be done to the highest sentiments
+of the individual. It is a fact that many highly cultured individuals
+have a repugnance to certain aspects of married life, and this
+repugnance appears to be justified by the further fact that a high state
+of refinement is often attended with loss of physical productiveness.
+One of the most curious results of Galton's enquiries into heredity was
+that wealthy families have a tendency to die out in heiresses, which is
+partly, but not wholly, dependent on the fact that childbearing is more
+often the accompaniment of poverty than of luxurious living.</p>
+
+<p>The personal disinclination to marry attendant on intellectual
+refinement is still more likely to be possessed by those of high
+spirituality. This is quite natural, notwithstanding the statement of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[<a href="./images/51.png">51</a>]</span>Mr. Grant Allen, which is undoubtedly true, that the origin and basis
+of all that is best and highest within us is to be found in the
+sex-instinct. Love may have begotten "all higher arts and all higher
+customs," and yet love may in the process itself become sexless, as it
+is when it assumes the noblest form, that of divine charity for our
+fellowmen. As well might we continue to perpetuate in our highest
+actions the nature of the ape-man because we are descendants of this
+creature, as let the idea of sex always rule our thoughts. With the
+individual the physical influence of sex is weakened and finally ceases,
+although it ever remains constant in the race, and hence the influence
+of the idea of sex over the mind of the individual should be similarly
+affected. "In Heaven," said the founder of Christianity, "there is
+neither marrying nor giving in marriage," and in that highest mental
+condition, which is heaven on earth, the sense of sex has ceased to be
+operative, having given place to the spiritual sense which is the
+noblest attribute of man because the last to be developed.</p>
+
+<p>We have here, however, a question between the individual and the race,
+and it does not affect the main contention that the improvement of the
+race, which includes that of the individual, is to be found in the
+application of the principle of selection. This must necessarily be
+chiefly in the hands of women, although both men and women must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[<a href="./images/52.png">52</a>]</span>co-operate to bring about the best results, by seeking first of all to
+improve their own natures by physical, intellectual and moral culture.
+The statement of the case according to that principle, and the aim to be
+attained, exhibit the dignity and importance of the subject of
+stirpiculture. Theoretically this is admitted on all hands, and as soon
+as the conditions of the subject are clearly understood there will be no
+practical difficulty in carrying the principle into effect, so that it
+may have its legitimate consequences.</p>
+
+<p>What parents have to realize is the necessity of so training and
+instructing their children that they may become capable of being the
+parents of perfect offspring. The good tree only can bear good fruit.
+But this is not the real starting point of stirpiculture. An essential
+factor, and one that is seldom thought of, is the spirit in which the
+inception of offspring is undertaken. Marriage was to the ancients a
+sacred state, because it was associated with the religion of the
+domestic altar, and because the perpetuation of the family, which was
+its aim, was required by the necessity of having a son to perform the
+sacred rites at that altar after the death of his father. The
+perpetuation of the family was thus a sacred duty, and the consummation
+of marriage partook of this character. According to the ancient Persian
+religion, the union of man and woman is the act most agreeable to God,
+and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[<a href="./images/53.png">53</a>]</span>act of consummation is directed to be sanctified, and a prayer
+directed to God that He would bless it. Marriage must be conducted in
+this spirit, rather than as a means of gratifying the passions, if the
+happiest results are to be obtained from the application of the
+principle of sexual selection.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Spiritual Sympathy in Marriage.</span>&mdash;That supposes, however, the existence
+of spiritual sympathy between those who are united in marriage, and this
+sympathy must form the true basis of all improvements in the race. It
+was the neglect of this feature, the want of which must render any
+attempt to carry out Plato's ideas on the subject of marriage futile,
+that put a stop to the experiments undertaken by his latest imitator,
+Noyes. His adherents simply made a return to the monogamy which is the
+heritage of all the Aryan peoples, and which is based on the union of
+two hearts, and not merely of two persons. This is the first application
+of the principle of sexual selection above the animal plane, and it must
+be continued notwithstanding that the range of selection is extended so
+as to embrace also the intellectual and moral planes.</p>
+
+<p>How far the State may ultimately be called on to aid in the improvement
+of the race, in accordance with the ideas we have been considering, is
+doubtful. It can aid very materially in placing restraints on too early
+marriage, and by insisting on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[<a href="./images/54.png">54</a>]</span>the attainment of a proper standard of
+physical training and of mental culture before marriage is entered on.
+There is no reason, moreover, why the State should not interfere to
+prevent the marriage of those who are too near of kin, or who by reason
+of physical or mental ailment, or by their moral defects are not fit
+subjects for the propagation of the race. The objection to this
+interference with personal liberty is so strong, however, that even so
+rational a procedure as preventing the spread, through marriage
+alliances, of disease and crime cannot yet obtain the sanction of public
+opinion. This will be educated with the general improvement of the race
+that must gradually take place through other agencies, and then the
+State will have merely to carry into effect the decrees of the people,
+which will be expressed in no uncertain language when woman has attained
+to the influence to which her own perfected condition will entitle her.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21:A_1" id="Footnote_21:A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21:A_1"><span class="label">[21:A]</span></a> Mr. Darwin accepted this view at first; but in a note to
+the second edition of his "Descent of Man" he says: "C. Staniland Wake
+argues strongly against the views held by these three writers on the
+former prevalence of almost promiscuous intercourse." See "Development
+of Kinship and Marriage." Redway, London. 1888.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28:A_2" id="Footnote_28:A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28:A_2"><span class="label">[28:A]</span></a> The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago. 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39:A_3" id="Footnote_39:A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39:A_3"><span class="label">[39:A]</span></a> It should be sixty-one.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42:A_4" id="Footnote_42:A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42:A_4"><span class="label">[42:A]</span></a> See Lorimer Fison, in "The Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute," May, 1895, page 361. The whole subject is
+exhaustively treated by C. Staniland Wake, in his "Development of
+Kinship and Marriage."</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[<a href="./images/55.png">55</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>PRENATAL CULTURE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the last preceding chapter we have considered the subject of the
+improvement of the race, especially through the action of sexual
+selection, or, as it may be expressed, selective action in the pairing
+of individuals, whether brought about compulsorily by the controlling
+influence of the State or some other external authority, or by the
+actual choice of one or both of the individuals immediately concerned.
+We have now to deal with the subject of the influence over offspring of
+affections of the individual organisms from whose union such offspring
+is derived.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Jacob's Flocks.</span>&mdash;The story of Jacob dealing with the flocks of Laban,
+given in Genesis xxx, is usually alluded to in corroboration of the
+belief that offspring may be physically affected before birth, by
+anything which strongly influences the imagination of the mother. Jacob
+is represented as making an agreement with Laban, his father-in-law,
+that Jacob should receive as his hire all the ringstreaked and spotted
+he-goats and all the black she-goats, and also those that were speckled
+and spotted. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[<a href="./images/56.png">56</a>]</span>When this arrangement had been made, Laban sought to
+benefit by it by removing from the flock all the goats that answered to
+that description, and giving them into the care of his sons, leaving the
+rest of the flock in Jacob's charge. This was undoubtedly an attempt on
+the part of Laban to cheat his son-in-law out of his wages, but the
+latter was not to be so cheated, and he adopted a plan which gave him
+the pick of the flock, leaving the feeble goats to his less wily parent.</p>
+
+<p>In describing this operation, the Bible story says: "And Jacob took him
+rods of fresh poplar [or storax tree] and of the almond and of the plane
+tree, and peeled white streaks in them, and made the white appear which
+was in the rods. And he set the rods which he had peeled over against
+the flocks in the gutters in the watering troughs where the flocks came
+to drink; and they conceived when they came to drink. And the flocks
+conceived before the rods, and the flocks brought forth ringstreaked,
+speckled and spotted. And Jacob separated the lambs, and set the faces
+of the flocks toward the ringstreaked and all the black in the flock of
+Laban; and he put his own droves apart, and put them not unto Laban's
+flock. And it came to pass, whensoever the stronger of the flock did
+conceive, that Jacob laid the rods before the eyes of the flock in the
+gutters, that they might <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[<a href="./images/57.png">57</a>]</span>conceive among the rods; but when the flock
+were feeble, he put them not in: so the feebler were Laban's, and the
+stronger Jacob's."</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not this incident actually occurred as stated we do not know.
+According to the subsequent part of the narrative, the effect of setting
+up the peeled rods was ascribed to God's interference in his behalf; but
+it is not improbable that we have in the story a reference to ancient
+shepherd lore, based on the superstitious notions still so common in the
+East. In the earlier part of the same chapter is a story relating to
+mandrakes, which were supposed to have influence on human generation.
+Jacob is said to have used three kinds of rods, those of the poplar or
+storax tree, the almond, and the plane tree, which produced
+ringstreaked, speckled and spotted lambs.</p>
+
+<p>The influence exerted by Jacob's rods was of a different character from
+that which is supposed to give rise to the marking of offspring before
+birth, which is not uncommon if we are to accept as true all the cases
+mentioned in books referring to the subject. What occurred took place
+<i>before</i> conception, and not subsequent to it, as in these cases.
+Nevertheless, both classes of phenomena are recognized by so competent
+an authority as M. Th. Ribot, who, in his "Heredity,"<a name="FNanchor_57:A_5" id="FNanchor_57:A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_57:A_5" class="fnanchor">[57:A]</a> when
+criticising Dr. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[<a href="./images/58.png">58</a>]</span>Lucas' explanation of the origin of the numerous
+exceptions to the law of heredity, as being due to the operation of the
+law of spontaneity, affirms that there is no law of spontaneity, but
+that all such exceptions may be explained by reference to certain causes
+of diversity. M. Ribot gives three causes of diversity, which are:
+1&mdash;Antagonistic heredities of two parents; 2&mdash;Accidental causes in
+action at the moment of generation; 3&mdash;External and internal influences
+subsequent to conception. He assigns but little importance to causes
+acting after birth, such as diet, climate, circumstances, education,
+physical and moral influences, because, though they may produce serious
+effects, these are not radical. Possibly, however, since the advance
+made in the education of those who are born with defects of the sensory
+apparatus, M. Ribot would somewhat modify his opinion on that point. As
+to the causes which operate at the period of conception, or subsequent
+thereto and before birth, he says, in relation to the latter class, they
+"are all the physical and moral disturbances of uterine existence&mdash;all
+those influences which can act through the mother upon the fetus during
+the period of gestation; impressions, emotions, defective nutrition,
+effects of imagination." He adds: "These causes are very real, despite
+the objections of Lucas, who attacks them in order to establish his law
+of spontaneity. We see from examples that between <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[<a href="./images/59.png">59</a>]</span>considerable causes
+and their effects there exists an amazing disproportion."</p>
+
+<p>The causes of diversity which operate at the instant of conception
+depend, says Ribot, "less upon the physical and moral natures of the
+parents than on the particular state in which they are at the moment of
+procreation." This fact is referred to by M. de Quatrefages as fully
+proving the universality of the law of heredity, and M. Ribot adds, "It
+enables us to understand that those transitory states which exist at the
+moment of conception may exert a decisive influence on the nature of the
+being procreated, so that often, where now we see only spontaneity, a
+more perfect knowledge of the causes at work would show us heredity."</p>
+
+<p>Professor E. D. Cope, the well-known author of "The Origin of the
+Fittest," would seem to doubt the truth of the stories of birthmarks on
+the ground that "the effect of temporary impressions on the mother is
+not strong enough to counterbalance the molecular structure established
+by impressions oftener repeated throughout much longer periods of
+time."<a name="FNanchor_59:A_6" id="FNanchor_59:A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_59:A_6" class="fnanchor">[59:A]</a> And yet there is no doubt that birthmarks do occasionally
+occur, although it is very difficult to obtain properly authenticated
+cases of them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[<a href="./images/60.png">60</a>]</span><span class="smcap">An Illustrative Case.</span>&mdash;How great is the influence on unborn offspring
+of the mother's mental condition, as well as the effect over them of
+pleasant surroundings, is shown by the following case. A young girl
+attracted attention by her beauty and by the superiority of the type she
+exhibited over that of either of her parents, and on her mother being
+spoken to on the subject she remarked:</p>
+
+<p>"In my early married life my husband and I learned how to live in holy
+relations, after God's ordinance. My husband lovingly consented to let
+me live apart from him during the time I carried this little daughter
+under my heart, and also while I was nursing her. Those were the
+happiest days of my life. Every day before my child was born, I could
+have hugged myself with delight at the prospect of becoming a mother. My
+husband and I were never so tenderly, so harmoniously, or so happily
+related to each other, and I never loved him more deeply than during
+those blessed months. I was surrounded by all beautiful things, and one
+picture of a lovely face was especially in my thought. My daughter looks
+more like that picture than she does like either of us. From the time
+she was born she was like an exquisite rosebud&mdash;the flower of pure,
+sanctified, happy love. She never cried at night, was never fretful or
+nervous, but was all smiles and winning baby ways, filling our hearts
+and home with perpetual gladness. To this day, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[<a href="./images/61.png">61</a>]</span>she is now fourteen
+years old, I have never had the slightest difficulty in bringing her up.
+She turns naturally to the right, and I never knew her to be cross or
+impatient or hard to manage. She has given me only comfort; and I
+realize from an experience of just the opposite nature that the reason
+of all this is because my little girl had her birthright."</p>
+
+<p>The future experience of this lady was, however, of a very different
+nature. She added:</p>
+
+<p>"A few years later I was again about to become a mother, but with what
+different feelings! My husband had become contaminated with the popular
+idea that even more and frequent relations were permissible during
+pregnancy. I was powerless against this wicked sophistry, and was
+obliged to yield to his constant desires. But how I suffered and cried;
+how wretched I was; how nervous and almost despairing! Worst of all, I
+felt my love and trusting faith turning to dread and repulsion.</p>
+
+<p>"My little boy, on whom my husband set high hopes, was born after nine
+of the most unhappy, distressing months of my life, a sickly, nervous,
+fretting child&mdash;myself in miniature, and after five years of life that
+was predestined by all the circumstances to be just what it was, after
+giving us only anxiety and care, he died, leaving us sadder and wiser.</p>
+
+<p>"I have demonstrated to my own abundant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[<a href="./images/62.png">62</a>]</span>satisfaction that there is but
+one right, God-given way to beget and rear children, and I know that I
+am only one of many who can corroborate this testimony."</p>
+
+<p>The following case of prenatal culture appeared in <i>The Philosophical</i>
+for October 5, 1895, above the signature of "John Allyn," who says:</p>
+
+<p>"About forty years ago I was a neighbor of a young couple who had been
+recently married. They were of fair natural abilities, but not highly
+educated. The wife could play on the piano well and accompany it with
+her voice. The husband was a house-building contractor. Before their
+first child was born the wife was provided with instruments for drawing,
+and interested herself in their use and mathematical calculations
+connected with them. The child proved to be a boy, who took to
+architectural drawing as by instinct. With very little effort he became
+proficient, and is now employed at a high salary by the Southern Pacific
+Railroad as their architect.</p>
+
+<p>"Some years later, before the second child was born, the mother
+interested herself with music with reference to the effect it would have
+on the unborn child. This child proved to be a girl, who is now an
+expert singer, finding ready employment in opera companies. Though not a
+star, she has a superior talent for music which enabled her to take
+advantages of musical training easily."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[<a href="./images/63.png">63</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Beliefs of Primitive Peoples.</span>&mdash;Whenever such cases happen, it is under
+the influence of some very strong emotion, during the period of
+gestation, arising from the action on the nervous system of the mother
+by an external object presented to the sight, the organ of which would
+seem to have an intimate association with the general muscular system.
+There is nothing to show that primitive peoples recognized the action of
+prenatal influence through the senses; but there is a very curious
+custom, which is so widespread at the present time that we may well
+suppose it to have been formerly almost universal, dependent upon the
+imagined effect of the eating of animal flesh. All primitive peoples
+believe that a man acquires physical or mental characteristics from
+animals of whose flesh he partakes. Cannibalism is closely connected
+with this notion, as the man who eats part of the body of a foe is
+thought to become endowed with the victim's courage, strength or other
+special quality. Probably the Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals,
+that is, animals unfit for food, was based on such an idea; and
+certainly the command to abstain from eating blood was thus connected;
+as we are told the blood is the life, and if so, then it must be the
+carrier of vital influences.</p>
+
+<p>The custom above referred to, which is known to ethnologists as <i>la
+couvade</i>, or "hatching," supposes injurious action on the organism of
+the child <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[<a href="./images/64.png">64</a>]</span>of food eaten by its parents, as appears from the facts
+brought together by Dr. E. B. Tylor in his "Researches into the Early
+History of Mankind." The couvade usually has reference to the period
+immediately following the birth of a child; but among the native tribes
+of South America, where it is more extensively prevalent than elsewhere,
+it is observed while the child is still unborn. Thus, in Brazil,
+according to Von Martius, "A strict regimen is preserved before the
+birth; the man and the woman refrain for a time from the flesh of
+certain animals, and live chiefly on fish and fruits." The peculiarity
+of the couvade custom, and that which gives it its special interest, is
+the fact that it usually concerns the father and not the mother, as
+injury to the child is supposed to be due to the conduct of the former
+rather than of the latter. Thus, among the Land Dyaks of Borneo, "The
+husband, before the birth of his child, may do no work with a sharp
+instrument, except what is necessary for the farm; nor may he fire guns,
+nor strike animals, nor do any violent work, lest bad influences should
+affect the child; and after it is born the father is kept in seclusion
+indoors for several days, and dieted on rice and salt, to prevent not
+his own but his child's stomach from swelling."</p>
+
+<p>Here food abstinence takes place after the birth of the child, but,
+according to Brett, in Guinea <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[<a href="./images/65.png">65</a>]</span>"Some of the Acawois and Caribi nations,
+when they have reason to expect an increase of their families consider
+themselves bound to abstain from certain kinds of meat, lest the
+expected child should, in some mysterious way, be injured by the
+partaking of it. The acouri (or agouti) is thus tabooed, lest, like that
+little animal, the child should be meager; the haimara, also, lest it
+should be blind&mdash;the outer coating of the eye of the fish suggesting
+film or cataract; the labba, lest the infant's mouth should protrude
+like the labba's, or lest it be spotted like the labba, which spots
+would ultimately become sores."</p>
+
+<p>Another related case, of more recent observation, is that of the
+Motumotu of New Guinea, who say that after conception the <i>mother</i> must
+not eat sweet potato or taro, lest the head of the child grow out of
+proportion, and the <i>father</i> must not eat crocodile or several kinds of
+fish, lest the child's legs grow out of proportion. At Suan, a husband
+shuts himself up for some days after the birth of his first child, and
+will eat nothing.<a name="FNanchor_65:A_7" id="FNanchor_65:A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_65:A_7" class="fnanchor">[65:A]</a></p>
+
+<p>Various explanations of the custom of couvade have been offered, and
+probably C. Staniland Wake is right when he states that it is connected
+with the idea that the father is the real source of the child's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[<a href="./images/66.png">66</a>]</span>life.<a name="FNanchor_66:A_8" id="FNanchor_66:A_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_66:A_8" class="fnanchor">[66:A]</a> As he points out, on the authority of M. Girard-Teulon,
+among the European Basques, even at the present day, a husband enters
+his wife's abode only "for the purpose of reproduction, and to work for
+the benefit of his wife." Mr. Wake remarks that, "With some of the
+Brazilian tribes, when a man becomes a father he goes to bed instead of
+his wife, and all the women of the village come to console him for the
+pain and suffering he has had in making this child." This agrees with
+the idea entertained by so many peoples that the child is derived from
+the father only, the mother being merely its nourisher. When such an
+idea is held, it is not surprising if, as among the Abipones, the belief
+is formed that "the father's carelessness influences the new-born
+offspring, from a natural bond and sympathy of both," or if the father
+abstains, either before or after the child's birth, from eating any
+food, or performing any actions which are thought capable of doing it
+harm. Still more so, if the child is regarded, as is sometimes the case,
+as the reincarnation of the father, a notion which is supported by the
+fact, pointed out by Mr. Gerald Massey, that in the couvade the parent
+identifies himself with the infant child, into which he has been
+typically transformed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[<a href="./images/67.png">67</a>]</span>
+That conclusion agrees with the opinion expressed by Mr. Tylor, that
+the couvade "implicitly denies that physical separation of 'individuals'
+which a civilized man would probably set down as a first principle
+common by nature to all mankind.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. It shows us a number of distinct and
+distant tribes deliberately holding the opinion that the connection
+between father and child is not only, as we think, a mere relation of
+parentage, affection, duty, but that their very bodies are joined by a
+physical bond, so that what is done to the one acts directly upon the
+other."<a name="FNanchor_67:A_9" id="FNanchor_67:A_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_67:A_9" class="fnanchor">[67:A]</a> The couvade custom is thus closely connected with the
+question of the special relationship of a child to one or other of its
+parents. Curious notions on this subject have been formed from time to
+time; but the ancients almost universally entertained the idea held by
+the Greeks that "the father, as endowed with creative power, was clothed
+with the divine character, but not the mother, who was only the bearer
+and nourisher of the child." Professor Hearn accepts this view in his
+work, "The Aryan Household," and suggests as the Aryan thought on the
+subject: "A male was the first founder of the house. His descendants
+have 'the nature of the same blood' as he. They, in common, possess the
+same mysterious <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[<a href="./images/68.png">68</a>]</span>principle of life. The life spark, so to speak, has
+been once kindled, and its identity, in all its transmissions, must be
+preserved. But the father is the life-giver. He alone transmits the life
+spark, which from his father he received. The daughter receives, indeed,
+the principle of life, but she cannot transmit it."</p>
+
+<p>M. Ribot, who, as we have seen, endorses the popular belief as to the
+possibility of the fetus being affected, during uterine existence,
+through the organism of the mother, reduces all the obscure causes of
+deviation from heredity to two classes. Of these, the first is the
+disproportion of effects to causes, already mentioned; and the second is
+the transformation of heredity. As to the first of these causes, he lays
+it down as a general truth that "the more complicated the mechanism, the
+greater the disproportion between accidental causes and their effects."
+He supports this conclusion by reference to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's
+researches on the production of monsters, and he affirms that the
+disproportion between cause and effect cannot be foreseen by measuring,
+but is known only by experience, as "psychological laws are analogous
+now to mechanical and now to chemical laws," so that it is impossible to
+proceed by deduction from causes to effects. (Page 207.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Birthmarks Rare.</span>&mdash;And yet the very fact that cases of birthmarks are
+comparatively rare, proves <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[<a href="./images/69.png">69</a>]</span>the greatly preponderating influence of
+heredity over the constitution of the offspring, modified by the
+disposition of the parents at the time of procreation. Professor Cope
+has some explanatory remarks on that subject which deserve quotation. He
+says&mdash;after referring to the hypothesis that growth-force may be,
+through the motive force of the animal, directed to any locality,
+whether the commencement of an executive organ has begun or not&mdash;that "A
+difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is the frequently unyielding
+character of the structure of adult animals, and the difficulty of
+bringing sufficient pressure to bear on them without destroying life.
+But, in fact, the modifications must, in most instances, take place
+during the period of growth. It is well known that the mental
+characteristics of the father are transmitted through the spermatozoid,
+and that, therefore, the molecular movements which produce the mechanism
+of such mental characters must exist in the spermatozoid. But the
+material of the spermatozoid is combined with that of the ovum, and the
+embryo is compounded of the animal contents of both bodies. In a
+wonderful way the embryo develops into a being which resembles one or
+both parents in minute details. This result is evidently determined by
+the molecular and dynamic character of the original reproductive cells
+which necessarily communicate their properties to the embryo <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[<a href="./images/70.png">70</a>]</span>which is
+produced by their subdivisions." Professor Cope goes on to say, "Richard
+Hering has identified this property of the original cells with the
+faculty of memory. This is a brilliant thought, and, under restriction,
+probably correct. The sensations of persons who have suffered amputation
+show that their sensorium maintained a picture or map of the body so far
+as regards the location of all its sensitive regions. This simulcrum is
+invested with consciousness whenever the proper stimulus is applied, and
+the character of the stimulus is fixed by it. This picture probably
+resides in many of the cells, both sensory and motor, and it probably
+does so in the few cells of simple and low forms of life. The
+spermatozoid is such a cell, and, how or why we know not, also contains
+such an arrangement of its contents, and contains and communicates such
+a type of force. It is probable that in the brain-cell this is the
+condition of memory of locality. If, now, an intense and long-continued
+pressure of stimulus produces an unconscious picture of some organ of
+the body in the mind, there is reason to suppose that the energies
+communicated to the embryo by the spermatozoid and ovum will partake of
+the memory thus created. The only reason why the oft-repeated stories of
+birthmarks are so often untrue, is because the effect of temporary
+impressions on the mother is not strong enough to counterbalance the
+molecular structure <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[<a href="./images/71.png">71</a>]</span>established by impressions often repeated
+throughout much larger periods of time."<a name="FNanchor_71:A_10" id="FNanchor_71:A_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_71:A_10" class="fnanchor">[71:A]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Why Children Resemble Parents.</span>&mdash;That children reproduce the general and
+physical and mental characteristics of their parents in combination is
+unquestionable truth, although the particular mode in which they are
+communicated is yet undetermined, notwithstanding the fact mentioned by
+Professor Cope that they are somehow conveyed by the microscopic sperm
+and germ in the union of which the new being has its beginning. Thus
+every individual must possess the general characteristics of the
+primitive human family from which through a vast number of ancestors he
+has descended. And yet at every stage of descent the organism may have
+obtained fresh characters, or at least have undergone some modification.
+As remarked by Dr. G. H. Th. Eimer, "Every character which must have
+been formed through the activity of the organism is an acquired
+character. All characters, therefore, which have been developed by
+exertion are acquired, and these characters are inherited from
+generation to generation. The same holds for all organs atrophied
+through disease&mdash;the degree of atrophy is acquired and inherited. In the
+first class we see especially the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[<a href="./images/72.png">72</a>]</span>action of direct adaptation; in the
+second, the results of the cessation of the action. A third class of
+acquired characters is to be traced simply to the immediate action of
+the environment on the organism, and, originally, at the commencement of
+their appearance, all characters must have belonged to this
+class."<a name="FNanchor_72:A_11" id="FNanchor_72:A_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_72:A_11" class="fnanchor">[72:A]</a> We have here a general argument in opposition to the
+theory propounded by Professor Weismann, that acquired characters are
+not transmissible. Elsewhere (page 382) Dr. Eimer observes: "Phyletic
+growth, or the evolution of the organic world ever into higher and more
+complex forms, or at least into forms of different structure, is, as I
+have said, merely the sum of the processes of growth of the
+ancestors&mdash;together with the result of external influences on the forms
+during their development and their existence. This additional
+modification which the individuals as such undergo is&mdash;together with the
+influence of crossing&mdash;the very cause of the constantly progressing
+evolution. All that the members of a series of individuals directly
+connected by descent acquire constitutes together the material for the
+formation of a new species."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Life's Experiences Affecting Child.</span>&mdash;Unless characteristics acquired by
+an individual, that is, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[<a href="./images/73.png">73</a>]</span>the modifications of the organism due to his
+own life experiences, are capable of being handed down to his offspring,
+it is difficult to see how any progress could be made in the development
+of the race. Weismann's declaration that acquired characters are not
+transmissible was a surprise to the scientific world when first made,
+but it has been accepted by many Darwinians. His conclusion is dependent
+on his doctrine of heredity, which differs from that propounded by
+Darwin, but is by no means new; as its leading ideas, as pointed out by
+Professor G. J. Romanes,<a name="FNanchor_73:A_12" id="FNanchor_73:A_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_73:A_12" class="fnanchor">[73:A]</a> are largely a reproduction of those of
+Mr. Francis Galton, whose work on heredity attracted much attention when
+first published. The views of Darwin, Galton and Weismann on that
+subject have been compared by Professor Romanes, who explains the
+distinction between them. He says (page 133), after referring to the
+supposed continuity of the germ-plasm, common to the theories of Galton
+and Weismann, but not required by that of Darwin, "The three theories
+may be ranked thus&mdash;The particulate elements of heredity all proceed
+centripetally from somatic-cells to germ-cells (gemmules): the
+inheritance of acquired characters is therefore habitual.</p>
+
+<p>"These particulate elements proceed for the most <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[<a href="./images/74.png">74</a>]</span>part, though not
+exclusively, from germ-cells to somatic-cells (stirp): the inheritance
+of acquired characters is therefore but occasional.</p>
+
+<p>"The elements in question proceed exclusively in the centrifugal
+direction last mentioned (germ-plasm): the inheritance of acquired
+characters is therefore impossible."</p>
+
+<p>The first of these theories is that of Darwin, and the last that of
+Weismann, whose notion of the continuity of germ-plasm supposes that no
+part of an organism generates any of the formative material which goes
+to make up its offspring. This material is regarded in much the same
+light as the sperm which the male parent confides to the keeping of the
+female, according to the notion of the ancient world above referred to.
+For, as Romanes states (page 26): "In each generation a small portion of
+this substance [germ-plasm] is told off to develop a new body to lodge
+and nourish the ever-growing and never-dying germ-plasm&mdash;this new body,
+therefore, resembling its so-called parent body simply because it has
+been developed from one and the same mass of formative material; and,
+lastly, that this formative material, or germ-plasm, has been continuous
+through all generations of successively perishing bodies, which
+therefore stand to it in much the same relation as annual shoots to a
+perennial stem: the shoots resemble one another <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[<a href="./images/75.png">75</a>]</span>simply because they are
+all grown from one and the same stock."</p>
+
+<p>Although Professor Weismann denies that acquired characters, that is,
+individual peculiarities arising as the result of personal experience,
+are transmitted, he admits that congenital characters, that is,
+peculiarities with which an individual is born, are transmitted to
+offspring. As congenital characters must, originally, have been
+individual, it is not easy at first sight to perceive Weismann's real
+meaning. It is necessary, therefore, to enter more particularly into a
+consideration of his theory, which he regards as in general accord with
+Darwin's theory of pangenesis. Darwin supposes that all the cells of the
+body continually give off great numbers of <i>gemmules</i>, which are
+conveyed by the blood and deposited in the germ-cells of the organism.
+These cells are thus endowed with the power of developing a new organism
+of the same kind, each gemmule reproducing the cell from which it was
+derived. These ultimate vital units are called by Weismann <i>biophors</i>,
+but he supposes them not to be the ultimate "bearers of vitality." They
+are said to be arranged in groups to which the term <i>determinants</i> is
+applied, and these groups are combined so as to form ancestral <i>ids</i> or
+germ-plasms. Each determinant, which is made up of perfectly definite
+numbers and combinations of biophors, is the primary constituent of a
+particular cell, or of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[<a href="./images/76.png">76</a>]</span>a group of cells, such as a blood corpuscle. The
+determinants thus "control the cell by breaking up into biophors, which
+migrate into the cell body through the nuclear membrane, multiply there,
+arrange themselves according to the forces within them, and determine
+the histological structure of the cell," impressing upon it its
+inherited specific character. The structure of the cell, and of every
+subsequent stage, exists therefore potentially in the inherited
+structure of the id, and the determination of its character "depends on
+the biophors which the corresponding determinant contains, and which it
+transmits to the cell."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Germ-plasm.</span>&mdash;While Weismann regarded germ-plasm as absolutely stable,
+the only mode by which congenital variation could be brought about was
+that of <i>amphimixis</i>, or intermingling of individuals in the process of
+generation. As modified, however, by his latest work, "The Germ-plasm, a
+Theory of Heredity," published in 1892, his theory now allows the plasm
+to be capable of modification, and he ascribes that variation to the
+direct effects of external influences on the biophors and determinants
+of the germ-plasm. The instability of this substance is so slight,
+however, that congenital variations cannot be acted on and perpetuated
+by natural selection, and the influence of amphimixis is thus required
+for the purpose. Mr. Herbert <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[<a href="./images/77.png">77</a>]</span>Spencer, however, in criticising
+Weismann's theory, declares that "functionally produced modifications of
+structure are transmissible," and he refers in support of his contention
+to the remarkable effect of arrested nutrition on the structure and
+habits of wasps and bees. It especially affects the reproductive organs,
+and hence there is no occasion to call in the aid of amphimixis to
+perpetuate the variations produced, its office being the blending of the
+elements on which the characteristics of offspring depend.</p>
+
+<p>If it be asked how modifications are actually transmitted, we may say
+that it can be only by an affection of the germ-cell. This probably
+takes place by deviations in the structure of what Weismann calls
+determinants, or of groups of determinants, through rearrangement of
+their primary units. The modification would be preceded, however, by a
+corresponding change in the nerve centers concerned in the use or disuse
+of the organs affected. Mr. Spencer shows that under certain conditions
+changes take place in the conduct of certain insects, and that "the
+maternal activities and instincts undergo analogous changes,"<a name="FNanchor_77:A_13" id="FNanchor_77:A_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_77:A_13" class="fnanchor">[77:A]</a>
+facts which point to a loss of nervous energy and to an intimate
+connection between the nervous system and the reproductive function. Use
+or disuse first increases or diminishes the activity of certain nerve
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[<a href="./images/78.png">78</a>]</span>centers, and this leads to a modification of the corresponding
+germ-cells. If so, the determinants, instead of being first affected, as
+proposed by Weismann, and thus determining the variations, are in
+reality modified as the result of the functional changes, and are thus
+capable of transmitting these changes to succeeding generations.</p>
+
+<p>In a subsequent article, published in <i>The Contemporary Review</i> for
+October, 1894, Mr. Spencer recapitulates his argument in favor of the
+transmission of acquired characters, and refers to observations made by
+Professor Hertwig and others, which he regards as "showing, firstly,
+that all the multiplying cells of the developing embryo are alike; and,
+secondly, that the soma-cells of the adult severally retain, in a latent
+form, all the powers of the original embryo-cell," facts which he
+rightly considers disproves Weismann's hypothesis of <i>panmixia</i>. If this
+is surrendered, then, says Mr. Spencer, "all that evidence collected by
+Mr. Darwin and others, regarded by them as proof of the inheritance of
+acquired characters, which was cavalierly set aside on the strength of
+this alleged process of panmixia is reinstated. And this reinstated
+evidence, joined with much evidence since furnished, suffices to
+establish the repudiated interpretation."</p>
+
+<p>Great stress was laid by Professor Weismann, as evidence in support of
+his theory, on the supposed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[<a href="./images/79.png">79</a>]</span>fact that the inheritance of injuries
+sustained during life has not been proved. Particular attention has been
+paid to this point by Dr. Eimer, in relation to which he remarks: "That
+injuries incurred during life are but seldom transmitted to the
+offspring does not appear to me wonderful: the inheritance of the
+complete form and complete activities of the organism, which took root
+such enormously long periods of time ago, and has been strengthened at
+each generation, will, as a rule, counterbalance in the offspring any
+such injuries incurred only once and not repeated."<a name="FNanchor_79:A_14" id="FNanchor_79:A_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_79:A_14" class="fnanchor">[79:A]</a> This is the
+same argument as was used, as quoted above, by Professor Cope, to
+disprove the occurrence of birthmarks, and Dr. Eimer goes on to state
+that there are injuries which are not transmitted to offspring, although
+they are constantly repeated, as an instance of which he refers to the
+rupture of the hymen. He adds, however: "In such cases we must presume a
+specially effective power of correlative activity, directed to the part
+affected and residing in the whole organism&mdash;the same compensating power
+which leads in lower animals, during the life of the individual, to the
+regeneration of parts which have been lost or artificially removed. But
+these cases do not prove the general proposition that injuries are not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[<a href="./images/80.png">80</a>]</span>inherited; they do not prove that even injuries which have been
+repeated during a considerable period are not inherited. Hitherto little
+importance has been attached to the demonstration of the inheritance of
+injuries. Yet single cases of the inheritance of injuries only once
+incurred seem to me to be thoroughly authentic."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Congenital Deformities.</span>&mdash;Professor Weismann, in replying to the
+criticisms of Professor Virchow, admitted the existence of a number of
+congenital deformities, birthmarks and other individual peculiarities,
+which are inherited, but he affirms that we do not know from what causes
+they first appeared, and that a great proportion of them proceed from
+the germ itself, and are due, therefore, to alteration of the germinal
+substance. There is no proof of this, however, according to Dr.
+Eimer,<a name="FNanchor_80:A_15" id="FNanchor_80:A_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_80:A_15" class="fnanchor">[80:A]</a> who appeals to various facts in support of his contention
+that injuries and diseases are inherited. He thinks the degeneration of
+the tail in the higher mammals is a case in point, although it has
+required great periods of time to complete. Among other instances of
+inherited injuries mentioned by Dr. Eimer is one in which a scar over
+the left ear and temple, caused to a girl by being thrown from a
+carriage, was transmitted to her son and grandson, the son of the latter
+also showing absence of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[<a href="./images/81.png">81</a>]</span>hair on the injured spot, although the defect
+gradually disappeared with him, nearly a hundred years after the
+accident. The case of Dr. Nosseler, who inherited from his mother a
+crushed finger joint, caused by an accident which happened two years
+before his birth, would seem to be conclusive proof that injuries are
+transmissible. Dr. Eimer refers also to the breeding of short-tailed
+pointers from dogs whose tails had been artificially shortened; and also
+to Brown-Sequard's experiments with guinea pigs, in which epilepsy was
+inherited by their offspring, who showed also the loss of certain
+phalanges, or even whole toes of the hind feet, the parents having
+suffered a similar loss owing to the division of the sciatic nerve. He
+adds that numerous other instances of the inheritance of injuries have
+been recorded, as "inheritance of the artificially shortened tail of the
+bull, of artificially produced hornlessness in cattle, many cases of
+inheritance in man of curvature in a finger, caused by injury,
+inheritance of the absence of one eye which had been lost by the father
+during life or by disease, etc."</p>
+
+<p>The question of the inheritance of deformities and diseases, and the
+causes of the germ-variations on which it depends, have been considered
+by Zeigler, whose conclusions, as quoted by Dr. Eimer (page 186), are
+too important to be omitted. The causes which Zeigler assigns for the
+origin of such <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[<a href="./images/82.png">82</a>]</span>germ-variations are of three kinds. These are: 1&mdash;Union
+of sexual nuclei which are not adapted for copulation; 2&mdash;Disturbance of
+the copulatory process itself; 3&mdash;Injurious influences which affect the
+sexual nuclei or the fertilized ovum at a time when separation of the
+sexual cells from the body cells has not yet occurred. "If the embryo is
+injuriously affected at a later period," says Zeigler, "either a
+malformation or a constitutional anomaly arises, which is not inherited,
+or only the sexual cells are injured, in which case the body-cells
+develop normally, and a disturbance shows itself only in the development
+of the next generation." The union of sexual nuclei not adapted for
+copulation appears, however, to be "the most frequent and most important
+cause of hereditary local malformations as well as of hereditary morbid
+tendencies, or of a defect in any system of the whole organism." If the
+nuclei are altogether unadapted to each other, sterility occurs, as in
+the sexual nuclei of distinct species.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Psychical Diseases.</span>&mdash;Zeigler's conclusions are supported by reference to
+the enquiries of the distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von Krafft-Ebings,
+who has considered the heredity of psychical diseases, and in connection
+therewith mentions three "essential facts" which it is necessary to keep
+in view when dealing with that subject. The first of these facts <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[<a href="./images/83.png">83</a>]</span>is
+Atavism, by which "the bodily and mental organization and character can
+be transmitted from the first to the third generation, without any
+necessity that the second and intermediate one should exhibit the
+peculiarities of the first&mdash;thus the condition of the life and health of
+the grandparents are of interest for us." Secondly, "Only in rare cases
+is the actual disease transmitted in procreation (congenital insanity,
+hereditary syphilis), as a rule only the disposition thereto. Actual
+disease only occurs when accessory injurious influences produce an
+effect based upon that disposition.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. We must, therefore, consider also
+the state of health of the relatives (uncles, cousins, aunts), and since
+here also the law of atavism holds good, the possible diseases of
+great-uncles and great-aunts." Thirdly, Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings says,
+"Only exceptionally does the same disease develop in ascendant as in
+descendant lines, in consequence of the transmission of morbid
+dispositions. On the contrary, there exists a remarkable variability in
+the forms of disease which may almost claim the value of a law (the law
+of polymorphism or transmutation)."</p>
+
+<p>This law is referred to by M. Ribot as one of the causes of deviation
+from heredity, and he speaks of it as "transformation." As examples of
+transformation of heredity, Ribot refers to fixed ideas in the
+progenitor, which may become in the descendants "melancholy, taste for
+meditation, aptitude <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[<a href="./images/84.png">84</a>]</span>for the exact sciences, energy of will, etc.;" the
+mania of progenitors may be changed in the descendants into "aptitude
+for the arts, liveliness of imagination, quickness of mind,
+inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable will." "Just as real
+insanity," says Moreau of Tours, "may be hereditarily reproduced only
+under the form of eccentricity, may be transmitted from progenitors to
+descendants only in modified form, and in more or less mitigated
+character, so a state of simple eccentricity in the parent&mdash;a state
+which is no more than a peculiarity or a strangeness of character&mdash;may
+in the children be the origin of true insanity. Thus in transformations
+of heredity we sometimes have the germ attaining its maximum intensity;
+and again, a maximum of activity may revert to the minimum."<a name="FNanchor_84:A_16" id="FNanchor_84:A_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_84:A_16" class="fnanchor">[84:A]</a></p>
+
+<p>It should be borne in mind, as mentioned by Von Krafft-Ebings,<a name="FNanchor_84:B_17" id="FNanchor_84:B_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_84:B_17" class="fnanchor">[84:B]</a>
+that everything which debilitates the nervous system and the generative
+powers of the parents, "be it immaturity or too advanced old age,
+previous debilitating diseases (typhus, syphilis), mercurial treatment,
+alcoholic and sexual excesses, overwork, etc., may give rise to
+neuropathic constitutions, and thereby indirectly to every possible
+nervous disease in the descendants."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[<a href="./images/85.png">85</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Telegony.</span>&mdash;There is one remarkable phenomenon, spoken of by various
+writers as <i>telegony</i>, which has an important bearing on the subject of
+the transmission of acquired characters, and shows the action of
+prenatal influence in an unexpected form. It is referred to by Professor
+Romanes, when he says, "It has not unfrequently been observed, at any
+rate in mammals, that when a female has borne progeny to a male of one
+variety, and subsequently bears progeny to a male of another variety,
+the younger progeny presents a more or less unmistakable resemblance to
+the father of the older one."<a name="FNanchor_85:A_18" id="FNanchor_85:A_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_85:A_18" class="fnanchor">[85:A]</a> This curious fact was considered, in
+relation to plants especially, by Darwin, who affirms, as quoted by
+Romanes, that it is of the highest theoretical importance, as "The male
+element not only affects, in accordance with its proper function, the
+germ, but at the same time various parts of the mother-plant, in the
+same manner as it affects the same parts in the seminal offspring from
+the same two parents. We thus learn that an ovule is not indispensable
+for the reception of the influence of the male element."</p>
+
+<p>The curious phenomenon of telegony is not limited, however, to plants.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer drew attention, in <i>The Contemporary Review</i> for
+March, 1893, to a case which has long been known to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[<a href="./images/86.png">86</a>]</span>horsebreeders, and
+which may be said to have become classic. The facts were brought, by the
+Earl of Morton, to the attention of the Royal Society of Great Britain,
+as long ago as the year 1820. The Earl, who possessed a male quagga,
+said, in a letter to the President: "I tried to breed from the male
+quagga and a young chestnut mare of seven-eighths Arabian blood, and
+which had never been bred from; the result was the production of a
+female hybrid, now five years old, and bearing, both in her form and in
+her colour, very decided indications of her mixed origin. I subsequently
+parted with the seven-eighths Arabian mare to Sir Gore Ouseley, who has
+bred from her by a very fine black Arabian horse. I yesterday morning
+examined the produce, namely, a two-year-old filly and a one-year-old
+colt. They have the character of the Arabian breed as decidedly as can
+be expected, where fifteen-sixteenths of the blood are Arabian; and they
+are fine specimens of that breed; but both in their colour and in the
+hair of their manes they have a striking resemblance to the quagga.
+Their colour is bay, marked more or less like the quagga in a darker
+tint. Both are distinguished by the dark line along the ridge of the
+back, the dark stripes across the forehead, and the dark bars across the
+back part of the legs." Mr. Spencer refers to an analogous case of the
+influence of a wild boar over the subsequent progeny of a domestic <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[<a href="./images/87.png">87</a>]</span>sow,
+and it now appears that such effects are not so uncommon as the
+scientific world has supposed.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Romanes made particular enquiries on this subject of
+professional and amateur breeders of animals, and he says most of his
+correspondents "are quite persuaded that it is of frequent occurrence,
+many of them regard it as a general rule, while some of them go so far
+as to make a point of always putting a mare, bitch, etc., to a good
+pedigree male in her first season, so that her subsequent progenies may
+be benefited by his influence, even though they be engendered by
+inferior sires."<a name="FNanchor_87:A_19" id="FNanchor_87:A_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_87:A_19" class="fnanchor">[87:A]</a> His own more modest conclusion is that the
+evidence he obtained "is enough to prove the fact of a previous sire
+asserting his influence on a subsequent progeny, although this fact is
+one of comparatively rare occurrence."</p>
+
+<p>The English Darwinian met with only one case in which the offspring of a
+woman by a second husband, who was a white man, showed the influence of
+her first husband, who was a negro. Mr. Herbert Spencer would seem to
+have been more successful. In <i>The Contemporary Review</i> for May, 1893,
+Mr. Spencer gives the result of his own enquiries as to the effect on a
+white woman's subsequent progeny of a previous union with a negro, and
+he quotes the opinion of a "distinguished <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[<a href="./images/88.png">88</a>]</span>correspondent," that
+information given to him many years ago was to the effect that "the
+children of white women by a white father had been <i>repeatedly</i> observed
+to show traces of black blood, in cases where the woman had previous
+connexion with [i. e., a child by] a negro." Mr. Spencer refers also to
+Professor Marsh as authority for such a case, and to the opinion of
+several medical professors who assured him, through Dr. W. J. Youmans,
+that the alleged result "is generally accepted as a fact." He gives as
+authoritative testimony the following statement by Dr. Austin Flint,
+taken from his "Text-book of Human Physiology:" "A peculiar and, it
+seems to me, an inexplicable fact is, that previous pregnancies had an
+influence upon offspring. This is well known to breeders of animals. If
+pure blooded mares or bitches have been once covered by an inferior
+male, in subsequent fecundations the young are likely to partake of the
+character of the first male, even if they be bred with males of
+unimpeachable pedigree. What the mechanism of the influence of the first
+conception is, it is impossible to say; but the fact is incontestable.
+The same influence is observed in the human subject. A woman may have,
+by a second husband, children who resemble a former husband, and this is
+particularly well marked in certain instances by the color of the hair
+and eyes. A white woman who has had children by a negro may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[<a href="./images/89.png">89</a>]</span>subsequently bear children to a white man, these children presenting
+some of the unmistakable peculiarities of the negro race."</p>
+
+<p>This phenomenon would alone seem to answer the question of the
+transmission of acquired characters in the affirmative, for its
+explanation is to be found in the facts brought out by Darwin, as to the
+action of foreign pollen on the structure of the mother plant; in
+relation to which Professor Romanes remarks: "When one variety
+fertilizes the ovules of another not unfrequently the influence extends
+beyond the ovules to the ovarium, and even to the calyx and
+flower-stalk, of the mother plant. This influence, which may affect the
+shape, size, colour, and texture of the somatic tissues of the mother,
+has been observed in a large number of plants belonging to many
+different orders."<a name="FNanchor_89:A_20" id="FNanchor_89:A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_89:A_20" class="fnanchor">[89:A]</a> May we not have here the explanation of the
+fact, which has frequently been pointed out, that husband and wife show
+a tendency to grow like each other, both physically and mentally, the
+resemblance after a long married life being sometimes very striking?</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Power of Heredity.</span>&mdash;The most important fact brought out in the
+discussion of the possibility of the transmission of acquired characters
+is the power of heredity. If organisms did not reproduce their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[<a href="./images/90.png">90</a>]</span>own
+special characteristics, there could be no fixity of form and no order
+in organic nature. Nevertheless, if there were no change by individual
+modification or divergence, in whatever way this may be rendered
+permanent in the race, there could be no evolution. Hence we can say,
+with Dr. Eimer, "Any one who thus completely renders allegiance to the
+supremacy of the principles of the unity of the organic world, who
+rejects everything which contradicts that principle, cannot help
+admitting that in truth, as I assert, the ultimate origin of the various
+kinships in the animal and vegetable kingdom is to be traced to
+individual differences, and that the difference between the former, like
+the latter, must be essentially determined by external conditions, by
+the modification of organic growth."</p>
+
+<p>The causes of diversity which interfere with the action of heredity may
+operate, as we have seen, at the moment of conception, or subsequent to
+conception. The former class of causes is of great importance, in
+accordance with the principle, laid down by M. Ribot, of the
+disproportion of effects to causes, and it is essential, therefore, if
+children are to be well-born, that their parents should be careful that
+at the moment of procreation they are fitted for the performance of so
+serious an act. Mr. J. F. Nisbet in his "Marriage and Heredity" (page
+126), well observes, "Twins usually bear a closer resemblance to each
+other than to their brothers <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[<a href="./images/91.png">91</a>]</span>and sisters born at a different period;
+and the reason generally assigned is that they are conceived under
+precisely similar conditions. If so, it follows that the difference
+existing between ordinary members of a family is due to their being born
+at considerable intervals of time and therefore under changed conditions
+on the part of their parents."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Sobriety in the Father.</span>&mdash;Especially does it concern the father, who is
+the most active agent in reproduction, to see that he is then in a fit
+condition. This is quite apart from the question of the diseased
+condition of the organism treated of by Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings, and
+refers to temporary rather than to continuing causes. Sobriety is in
+this connection of great importance, and, as appears from a passage,
+already quoted, in Xenophon, was insisted on at the time of procreation,
+by the ancients.</p>
+
+<p>Zeigler points out, as quoted by Dr. Eimer, that "substances taken up
+from without, as, for example, poisons, are brought by the blood to the
+sexual cells, and others produced in the body are conveyed to the sexual
+organs."<a name="FNanchor_91:A_21" id="FNanchor_91:A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_91:A_21" class="fnanchor">[91:A]</a> It is suggested that alcohol has such an effect, and
+there can be no doubt that a tendency to the drinking habit may be
+implanted in a child by a parent intoxicated at the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[<a href="./images/92.png">92</a>]</span>time of
+procreation, with the possibility of its leading to other evils in
+succeeding generations, ending in the early extinction of the family.
+Nisbet refers to several cases of this character, and remarks (page 112)
+that, "There is a limit to the transmission of abnormal characters,
+either in an original or in a disguised form. Always striving after
+perfection, or rather uniformity of type, Nature either purifies a race
+of its physical and moral defects, or, if the type be too vicious,
+exterminates it, as in the case of the Cæsars, the Stuarts, and many
+other historical families." Doutrebente came to the conclusion, however,
+that insanity&mdash;and doubtless it is true of other conditions&mdash;may be
+worked out of a family by the infusion of healthy blood, except where
+both parents were insane, in which case their offspring will become
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>The law of Leviticus (chap. x, verse 9) provides, under penalty of
+death, that the priests should not drink wine or strong drink before
+going into the tent of meeting. The more stringent regulations provided
+by this law in relation to intercourse between Jehovah and His people
+require physical and moral perfection in those who approach the deity,
+and they may be studied with advantage at the present day by those who
+wish to aid in the perfecting of the race. The man who had a blemish was
+not allowed to go near the altar of sacrifice, that the sanctuary might
+not be profaned; and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[<a href="./images/93.png">93</a>]</span>sanctuary of the human organism should no less
+be preserved from profanation.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Sacredness of Parentage.</span>&mdash;It would be well if the sacred act of
+procreation were performed more often in the spirit of the ancients, who
+regarded marriage as a sacred institution, designed not only for the
+perpetuation of the race, but also for the carrying on of the religion
+of the domestic hearth. The first-born child especially was considered
+to have been sent by the gods, and care was taken, therefore, that it
+should be well-born. Prayer and offerings were made to the spirits
+before the nuptial bed was approached, and everything was done to ensure
+the gift they were asked for should be in every respect worthy of them.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the first-born of "all that openeth the womb"
+was dedicated to Jehovah (Exodus xxxiv, 19), and hence the rights of the
+eldest son could not be defeated by his father: "for he is the beginning
+of his strength" (Deut. xxi, 17).</p>
+
+<p>The disturbance of uterine existence between conception and birth is
+that which has engaged most attention, and the fact that such
+disturbances can take place requires that the expectant mother should be
+protected from anything that can so act on her own organism as to
+prevent the due operation of the law of heredity. The precautions taken
+by primitive peoples in relation to food may have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[<a href="./images/94.png">94</a>]</span>some foundation in
+fact, and any food should be avoided by the enceinte woman which will
+injuriously influence the system, or give rise to organic disturbances
+that may affect the blood by which the embryo is nourished. Emotional
+disturbances are to be no less avoided, as through the nervous system
+they act on the blood itself. How far the action of the emotions can
+influence the physical organism has become a moot question with
+psychologists, who now seem inclined to think that "movements are not
+caused by the emotions, but are aroused reflexly by the object." Thus,
+if the sight of a disagreeable object affects by reflex action the
+muscular system of the mother, it will arouse in her a concomitant
+emotion, which being transmitted to the embryo may act on its muscular
+system, leaving the impression as a birthmark, which may be regarded as
+a reflection from the cerebral nerve center of the mother, whether
+emotion is the cause or effect of muscular movement.</p>
+
+<p>If the unborn child can be affected injuriously by disturbances of the
+mother's environment, it is reasonable to suppose that the child can be
+influenced in the opposite direction by making that environment as
+conducive to the normal activity of the material organism as possible.
+The story of Jacob and Laban, referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter, affords an important lesson as to the surroundings with which
+the wife should be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[<a href="./images/95.png">95</a>]</span>provided. The bedchamber itself may become a means
+of influencing offspring for good or evil, and hence it should contain
+only what is agreeable to the senses, and capable of giving rise to
+pleasant imaginings. Especially should this be the case where a woman is
+of a highly sensitive nature. Impressions received from without depend
+largely for their force and influence, however, on the condition of the
+receptive mind, and beautiful surroundings cannot make up for the want
+of inward harmony. A happy and contented mind is the best guarantee that
+the due action of the law of heredity will not be disturbed at the time
+of conception or afterwards. Thus, bickerings between husband and wife
+must have a disturbing effect, especially if carried into the
+bedchamber. The sage of old said: "Let not the sun go down upon thy
+wrath," and parents should make it a point of duty, for the sake of
+their future offspring, never to let the disputes of the daytime&mdash;if
+unfortunately they occur&mdash;be carried into the night. The bedchamber is
+the place for mental as well as physical repose.</p>
+
+<p>The surest guarantee against the occurrence of conditions which may
+injuriously affect the future offspring, either at the time of
+procreation, or during the subsequent period of gestation, is to be
+found in the general life of the parents. This will give the general
+impress which affects the disposition of the child as a whole, and it
+will show <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[<a href="./images/96.png">96</a>]</span>what are the conditions of the family life under the
+influence of which it was born. The nature of the "home" is thus an
+important factor in determining that of the offspring, and it will
+necessarily be a reflection of the general character of those on whom it
+depends. A noble life in the parent will bear fruit in the physical,
+intellectual and moral character of the child, and although this is true
+in relation to the father as well as to the mother, it is doubly true as
+to the latter, seeing that the mother alone is the bearer and nourisher
+of offspring during the period of gestation. During this period the
+child acquires probably many of the characters which it inherits from
+its mother, and the maternal influence may thus be extended to the
+period of lactation. The importance attached to fosterage, where this
+practice became an established custom, as with the early Irish and
+Arabs, would seem to prove that the characteristics of the nurse were to
+some extent transmitted to the child with the milk. The early Arabs
+regarded the milk-tie as constituting a real unity of flesh and blood
+between the foster mother and the foster child, and between foster
+children, so much so as to be a bar to marriage.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Self-control.</span>&mdash;One very serious matter which should be kept in mind by
+an expectant mother is the duty of exercising self-control. The
+influence <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[<a href="./images/97.png">97</a>]</span>of this principle in relation to the general life and conduct
+has been repeatedly pointed out, and it is referred to by Jennie
+Chandler in <i>The Journal of Hygiene</i> for August, 1895, where we are
+told: "The power of self-mastery is believed by scientists to be the
+last one acquired by the human race in the process of evolution, and the
+last powers acquired are not so firmly fixed in our natures as some
+which have been longer in our possession. The result is, it becomes
+deranged more readily than more fixed forces. In many cases,
+self-control has never been acquired at all, and so the person can only
+partly master himself. As a rule, children have little of this power.
+They are like animals. Little by little, as they grow older, it grows,
+and in some it becomes so well developed that it is almost perfect. In
+others, like music in those who never acquire it, or any other faculty,
+it never becomes a potent factor in life."</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Chandler adds, "Woman as well as man needs to learn self-mastery.
+With a large amount of feeling in her nature, it is very hard for her to
+do it, but she should try. Too many of us go through life never making
+any effort to be our own masters. We give way to caprices, whims,
+feelings, follies, far more than is good for our health. Hysteria gives
+us a good example of the loss of self-control. Any uncontrolled passion
+gives an equally vivid example. Men and women often say <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[<a href="./images/98.png">98</a>]</span>they can't
+govern themselves; that is admitting they have defects of character
+which are their masters. They ought to make effort and see if they are
+not mistaken. The worst effect of lack of self-control are on the
+health. It allows every kind of bad habit in eating, drinking, dressing,
+sleeping, to gain possession of the person, and the result is a weak
+instead of a strong character."</p>
+
+<p>Considering the effect which the organic disposition of the mother has
+on the future offspring, it is evident that whether a child shall have
+the power of self-control depends very largely on the mother herself,
+and it is all-important, therefore, that she should have and exercise
+that power herself. As Dr. Chandler remarks, "No matter how much you
+have been to school, how many college degrees you have, you are not
+educated till you have a reasonable control of your own nature, and can
+direct your own lives rather than have them directed for you by your
+feelings and emotions." This truth obtains fresh significance when we
+consider that a woman's conduct affects the direction not only of her
+own life, but the lives of her future children, and possibly of
+succeeding generations.</p>
+
+<p>Although much has yet to be done to prove the actual effects on
+offspring of the conduct of its parents, enough is known to establish
+the fact that both the general disposition and the particular conduct of
+father or mother may interfere with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[<a href="./images/99.png">99</a>]</span>orderly action of the law of
+heredity. This law ensures the inheritance of race and individual
+characters; but when these are good, a noble life will cause the
+tendencies towards good to be still further strengthened in offspring,
+and if they are evil, then the disposition will receive an inclination
+in the opposite direction, or, at least, the further development of evil
+will be arrested. On the other hand, a degrading life will produce bad
+effects on offspring, causing deterioration of the organic disposition
+and strengthening the tendency to evil it may have inherited, or
+weakening its tendencies towards the good.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57:A_5" id="Footnote_57:A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57:A_5"><span class="label">[57:A]</span></a> "Heredity." By Th. Ribot (New York: D. Appleton &amp; Co.,
+1875), p. 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59:A_6" id="Footnote_59:A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59:A_6"><span class="label">[59:A]</span></a> "The Origin of the Fittest." By E. D. Cope (D. Appleton
+&amp; Co., New York). Page 408.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65:A_7" id="Footnote_65:A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65:A_7"><span class="label">[65:A]</span></a> "Pioneering in New Guinea." By James Chalmers. 1887.
+Page 165.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66:A_8" id="Footnote_66:A_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66:A_8"><span class="label">[66:A]</span></a> "Development of Kinship and Marriage." Page 264.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67:A_9" id="Footnote_67:A_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67:A_9"><span class="label">[67:A]</span></a> "Researches into the Early History of Mankind." Page
+292.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71:A_10" id="Footnote_71:A_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71:A_10"><span class="label">[71:A]</span></a> Cope's "Origin of the Fittest." (Redway, London. 1889.)
+Page 407.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72:A_11" id="Footnote_72:A_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72:A_11"><span class="label">[72:A]</span></a> "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M.
+A. (London, Macmillan &amp; Co., 1890.) Page 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73:A_12" id="Footnote_73:A_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73:A_12"><span class="label">[73:A]</span></a> "Examination of Weismannism." The Open Court Publishing
+Co., Chicago. 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77:A_13" id="Footnote_77:A_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77:A_13"><span class="label">[77:A]</span></a> <i>The Contemporary Review</i>, September, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79:A_14" id="Footnote_79:A_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79:A_14"><span class="label">[79:A]</span></a> "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M.
+A. Page 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80:A_15" id="Footnote_80:A_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80:A_15"><span class="label">[80:A]</span></a> "Organic Evolution," page 176.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84:A_16" id="Footnote_84:A_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84:A_16"><span class="label">[84:A]</span></a> "Organic Evolution," page 211.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84:B_17" id="Footnote_84:B_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84:B_17"><span class="label">[84:B]</span></a> Op. cit., page 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85:A_18" id="Footnote_85:A_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85:A_18"><span class="label">[85:A]</span></a> "Examination of Weismannism," page 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87:A_19" id="Footnote_87:A_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87:A_19"><span class="label">[87:A]</span></a> "Examination of Weismannism," page 22.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89:A_20" id="Footnote_89:A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89:A_20"><span class="label">[89:A]</span></a> "Examination of Weismannism," page 79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91:A_21" id="Footnote_91:A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91:A_21"><span class="label">[91:A]</span></a> "Organic Evolution," page 187.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[<a href="./images/100.png">100</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>A Lecture delivered before the Brooklyn Ethical Association.</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>In presenting the subject of heredity and its relation to education, it
+seems to me best to consider first what is meant by the term, and after
+this the views held on the subject by our leading evolutionists, when
+its relation to education will be easier and, I hope, more satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>In common parlance, heredity is the transmission of any trait or
+peculiarity from the parent to the offspring, as the color of the hair,
+the form of the nose, the tones of the voice; or any disease, or any
+special character that may exist in either parent.</p>
+
+<p>If a horse has a star on its forehead like one of its ancestors, we say
+it is due to heredity. If an ox has color marks on its body like its
+parent, it is a case of heredity. If a human being has a disease which
+his ancestors had, very often he declares he inherited it from them,
+even if it be only a common catarrh. But this is a narrow view of the
+subject, and does not include all that a biologist means when he uses
+this word.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[<a href="./images/101.png">101</a>]</span>
+By heredity he understands the production from a fertilized ovum of an
+individual, with all the general characteristics of structure and
+function of body and brain of the species to which it belongs. It means
+that the offspring, however much they may vary in general characters,
+will always be of the same species as the parents. The offspring of dogs
+will be dogs; of wolves, wolves; of negroes, negroes, and of white men,
+white men. Anything less is not heredity in its full sense.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin, whom we all love and honor, says: "The whole subject of
+inheritance is wonderful," and in this he but voices the universal
+sentiment of those who have given any serious consideration to it. Let
+me try to show you how wonderful it is by an illustration. From very
+ancient times the horse has been the constant companion of man. This
+animal, with his splendid muscular system, the most perfect, perhaps, of
+any creature, has for his food and shelter, and not always the best of
+these, rendered mankind almost infinite service. Now, every horse that
+has ever been born into the world began life as a minute ovum, which
+under the microscope presents no appearance of a horse, or any other
+animal, and, strange to say, this ovum is, to all appearance, like the
+ovum of other animals, and no amount of study, without knowing its
+origin, can decide whether it will develop as a dog, an ox, a horse or a
+man. After, however, it has <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[<a href="./images/102.png">102</a>]</span>gone through the process of gestation, this
+apparently simple egg becomes an animal of a very complex nature, with
+heart, lungs, brain, eyes, ears, mouth, stomach, and blood vessels, all
+where they should be and ready to perform their functions; with mental
+traits of a peculiar kind which adapt him to the service which man
+requires. Nay more: In the process of the evolution of the horse, little
+by little he has changed in various ways, and many, if not all of these
+changes in his bodily constitution and in his mental characteristics,
+which have been found useful or made him more serviceable to man, his
+greater docility, his increased size, his enormous strength and speed,
+his wonderful beauty, through a wise selection and the weeding out of
+the unfit on the part of the breeder, have been transmitted through
+heredity to his offspring, so that today only a paleontologist can tell
+us if he finds the remains of a primitive horse, that it belongs to the
+same class of animals as the horse of our time.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Theories.</span>&mdash;Our theories of heredity will depend on the extent of our
+knowledge, and especially our knowledge of embryology. In the last
+century knowledge on this subject was very meagre, especially that part
+of embryology which could only be studied with the microscope;
+consequently the views of scientists and others of that time were
+exceedingly crude. The most important was that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[<a href="./images/103.png">103</a>]</span>of Malphigi and Bonnet,
+who maintained that the miniature animal existed in the egg; that
+fertilization by the male element simply furnished it with food for
+growth, and that this was added to and stored up in its interstices.
+Cuvier, Haller and Leibnitz adopted substantially these views. The
+latter found them to support his opinion that everything was the result
+of growth from monads, and that there was no such thing in all nature as
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>Such a theory was very simple, but it explained nothing except the bare
+production of offspring. It gave no clue to their endless variations,
+nor to the fact that they often resembled the father more than the
+mother. According to this theory the offspring should resemble the
+mother, as the complete individual is formed by her and should be in her
+image.</p>
+
+<p>Leeuwenhock, one of the early microscopists, by the aid of his lenses,
+opened a new world to mankind, and discovered the sperm cells to be
+active, living, moving elements, and he gave a death-blow to the belief
+that the perfect organism exists in the ovum; but he went to the
+opposite extreme, and maintained that it exists in the male cell and
+that it is only fed and developed by the female. Even today we find in a
+vague way both these theories held by educated persons.</p>
+
+<p>We are indebted to Harvey in the early part of the eighteenth century
+for advocating the view held <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[<a href="./images/104.png">104</a>]</span>by Aristotle, now known as <i>Epigenesis</i>,
+and combatting the view of growth from a miniature, but already
+perfectly formed animal, to a visible one. Epigenesis consists in the
+successive differentiation from the relatively homogeneous elements as
+found in the egg, to the complicated parts and structure as seen in the
+offspring.</p>
+
+<p>According to Huxley, this work of Harvey alone would have entitled him
+to recognition as one of the founders of biological science, had he not
+immortalized himself as the discoverer of the circulation of the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Not long after Harvey's publication, Casper Frederick Wolf established
+the theory of epigenesis upon a firm foundation, where it still remains.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of <i>epigenesis</i> has very much complicated the whole
+question of heredity. No wonder even so great a mind as that of Darwin
+exclaimed, "The whole subject is wonderful." How can an egg, which in
+structure is comparatively simple, an aggregation of cells, not one of
+which bears the slightest resemblance to any organ in the body, develop
+into the perfect individual? How can this egg, formed in special organs,
+develop other organs than those like the ones in which it was formed?
+How can sexual cells develop brain cells, with their wonderful modes of
+action?</p>
+
+<p>We cannot explain the philosophy of heredity without being able to
+answer these questions; but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[<a href="./images/105.png">105</a>]</span>difficult as is the problem, our biologists
+have made various attempts at an explanation. I cannot go over all the
+various speculations, but only those most intimately connected with the
+subject will be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The first is Darwin's own attempt at an explanation by the theory of
+<i>pangenesis</i>, or genesis from every part. He saw the necessity of having
+in the sexual cells some power or force to represent the other organs
+and functions of the body, else how could these organs be formed in the
+embryo? Pangenesis was supposed to be accomplished as follows: Every
+organ through its cells gives off <i>gemmules</i>. These are inconceivably
+small, too small for any microscopical vision; also inconceivably great
+in numbers, and with great power of growth and multiplication. They pass
+from the various organs in which they are formed to the special sex
+organs for generating the sexual cells; some of them are stored up as
+representatives of the various organs from which they have been given
+off. The consequence is that every egg has in it something from every
+organ in the body of both parents which is able, during gestation, to
+develop into that organ.</p>
+
+<p>According to this theory, for instance, if no gemmules are given off
+from the brain, then no brain can be developed from the egg, and so of
+other organs. As in a representative government, all parts of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[<a href="./images/106.png">106</a>]</span>country send representatives to the capitol to do the bidding of the
+people, so every organ of the body sends representatives to the sexual
+cells to form their respective organs; without them these organs would
+not be formed.</p>
+
+<p>There are many objections to pangenesis, but they need not be named
+here. It occurred to Galton, whose studies in heredity have been more
+prolific of good than those of any other man, to test it by practical
+experiment. If these gemmules are circulating in the blood of animals
+before being stored up in the sexual cells, by transfusing blood from
+one variety of any species to another it ought to affect the offspring
+of this other. For his test cases he chose eighteen silvergrey rabbits
+which breed true, and into their bodies he transfused the blood of other
+different varieties, in several cases replacing one-half of this fluid.
+There were eighty-six offspring bred at once from these silvergrey
+rabbits, and all true silvergreys. The theory did not work. But if it
+did not work in practice, it certainly worked on the intellects of
+biologists everywhere, exactly what Darwin wished; it set them to
+thinking. It acted as a ferment, so to say, and brought forth a rich
+harvest in speculation if not in actual knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_106:A_22" id="FNanchor_106:A_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_106:A_22" class="fnanchor">[106:A]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[<a href="./images/107.png">107</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Continuity of the Germ-plasm.</span>&mdash;The only other theory which I shall
+mention is that of Weismann, which has been before the public for more
+than a decade, and it is safe to say it has produced a more profound
+impression upon biologists than all others. It has its basis in what he
+calls <i>continuity of the germ-plasm</i>. By the germ-plasm is meant that
+part of the germ cell containing all the chemical and physical
+properties, including the molecular structure, which enables it to
+become, under appropriate conditions, a new individual of the same
+species as the parents. In it lies hidden all the characteristics both
+of the species and of the future individual. In it lies all the
+phenomena of heredity. It is the product of the coalescence of the male
+and female elements requisite for reproduction. Only, however, in the
+nuclear substance is to be found the hereditary tendencies. Now, this
+germ-plasm is <i>continuous</i>, that is to say, it contains not only
+material from both parents, but from grandparents and greatgrandparents,
+and so on indefinitely. This germ-plasm is exceedingly minute in
+quantity, but has great power of growth. Not all is used up in the
+production of any individual, but some is left over and stored up for
+the next generation. The germ-plasm might be represented as a long
+creeping root, from which arise at intervals all the individuals of
+successive generations. The amount of ancestral germ-plasm in each
+fertilized ovum is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[<a href="./images/108.png">108</a>]</span>calculated in the same way that stock breeders
+calculate the amount of blood of any ancestor running in any individual.
+For instance: The germ-plasm contributed by the father and mother is
+each one-half; each grandparent one fourth, and so on. Ten generations
+back each ancestor contributes only one part in one thousand and
+twenty-four parts. This continuity has by some been called the
+immortality of the germ-plasm. Theoretically, the original Adam and Eve
+have contributed an infinitesimal part. This probably explains why there
+is so much of the original Adam in most of us. By it we are able to
+explain that wonderful fact of <i>atavism</i>, or the appearance of
+characters from a remote ancestor in offspring. Some of the germ-plasm
+from this ancestor by some means has had an opportunity to grow rapidly
+and contribute more than its share in the production of the individual
+in which it appears.</p>
+
+<p>It also enables us to explain the fact that no two individuals are quite
+alike, but that there is constant variation. Each person is the product
+of a multitude of ancestors, and the germ-plasm which produced them is
+never mixed, in quite the same proportion, nor do the different parts
+grow with quite the same vigor.</p>
+
+<p>It was on this theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm that Weismann
+built his doctrine of the non-transmission of acquired characters. On
+this <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[<a href="./images/109.png">109</a>]</span>subject he says: "Hence it follows that the transmission of
+acquired characters is an impossibility, for if the germ-plasm is not
+formed anew in each individual, but is derived from that which preceded
+it, its structure, and above all, its molecular constitution, cannot
+depend upon the individual in which it happens to occur, but such an
+individual only forms, as it were, the nutritive soil at the expense of
+which it grows, while the latter possessed its character from the
+beginning, that is, before the commencement of growth." Of this,
+however, I will speak later.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">A Rational View of Heredity.</span>&mdash;I might continue giving other theories of
+heredity&mdash;Hæckel's, for instance&mdash;or the metaphysical theory, but it is
+hardly necessary. I do not accept in full any of them. Their authors, it
+seems to me, have not worked along the lines of evolution, but have gone
+further than was necessary into the fields of speculation. Darwin, in
+his theory of Pangenesis, admitted this frankly, and yet he clung to the
+idea with great tenacity. If we take the unicellular organisms which
+multiply by division, we may see that heredity is simple. One
+unicellular individual growing larger than is convenient, divides into
+two. Each is like the other. It could hardly be different. Reproduction
+by spores or buds is practically the same thing. The spores or buds are
+minute particles <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[<a href="./images/110.png">110</a>]</span>of the parent organism. When it comes to the
+coalescence of the germ and sperm elements from two organisms, the
+phenomena become more complicated, and it is still more so as the animal
+rises in the scale of creation; but I believe the processes of organic
+evolution have gone on so slowly that the sexual cells have acquired the
+power to transmit the whole organism without the necessity of the
+germ-plasm being continued from parent to offspring indefinitely, and
+also without the aid of pangenesis.</p>
+
+<p>The egg has acquired a tendency to develop in a certain direction. Just
+how we cannot tell, further than to say that it was probably the result
+of variation first and natural selection selecting out those variations
+most suitable. It is this tendency to vary that gives rise to many of
+the phenomena of heredity. The subject is, for the present, beyond our
+power to settle satisfactorily, and so hypotheses must be resorted to.
+The sexual cells, comparatively simple in anatomical structure, must be
+highly complex in their molecular structure; and the more highly evolved
+the organism, the more complex becomes this molecular structure. If it
+were possible to study this molecular structure we should be able to
+understand the whole subject far better than is possible now. But this
+is not possible, and there is little hope that we shall ever be able to
+accomplish it.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[<a href="./images/111.png">111</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Heredity and the Education of Children.</span>&mdash;The next question which comes
+up for consideration is that of the education of children and its
+relation to heredity. This brings us at once to the problem as to
+whether acquired characters are transmitted to offspring or not. If
+acquired characters are transmitted, the relation of heredity to
+education must be very close and important. If acquired characters are
+not inherited, then heredity and education have a very different
+relation. That acquired characters are transmitted has long been
+believed. It was the belief of Lamarck. He tried to explain the
+structure of the organism by this principle. The illustration of the
+long neck of the giraffe is familiar to every one. It originated by the
+constant stretching of this part to obtain food from the trees. In times
+of scarcity, he had to exert himself in this way still more to reach the
+higher branches. The young of the giraffe had longer necks than their
+parents because of the efforts of the latter in this way. So the keen
+sight of birds, it was argued, was acquired in the same manner. The hawk
+had to exercise his eyes most vigorously to discern his prey at a
+distance, and his offspring inherited this keenness of sight acquired by
+the exercise of his ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin believed that the effects of the exercise of any part were
+transmitted. He says: "We may feel assured that the inherited effects of
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[<a href="./images/112.png">112</a>]</span>use and disuse of parts will have done much in the same direction
+with natural selection in modifying man's structure of body."</p>
+
+<p>We may say that this belief has been held by the common people,
+uneducated in science. They not unfrequently get at truths in a rude way
+long before the scientists do. Many parents tell us their children are
+strongly influenced by some particular occupation of the mother during
+pregnancy. So strong is this belief, that many mothers are in our times
+trying to influence the character of their unborn children by special
+modes of life, by cultivating music or art, or science, in order to give
+the child a love for these pursuits.</p>
+
+<p>It is by Herbert Spencer that this has been most ably presented. Indeed,
+he holds that there is no explanation of evolution without the
+transmission of the effects of the use and disuse of parts. His words
+are: "If there has been no transmission of acquired character there has
+been no evolution."</p>
+
+<p>He also says: "If we go back to the genesis of the human type from some
+lower type of primates, we see that while the little toe has ceased to
+be of any use for climbing purposes, it has not come into any
+considerable use for walking or running. It is manifest that the great
+toes have been immensely developed since there took place the change
+from arboreal to terrestrial habits. A study of the mechanism of walking
+shows why this has <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[<a href="./images/113.png">113</a>]</span>happened. Stability requires that the line of
+direction&mdash;the vertical line, let fall from the center of gravity&mdash;shall
+fall within the base, and the walking shall be brought at each step
+within the area of support, or so near that any tendency to fall may be
+checked at the next step. A necessary result is that <i>if</i> at each step
+the chief stress of support is thrown on the outer side of the foot, the
+body must be swayed so that the line of direction may fall within the
+outside of the foot, or close to it; and when the next step is taken it
+must be similarly swayed in an opposite direction, so that the outer
+side of the foot may bear the weight. That is to say, the body must
+oscillate from side to side, or waddle. The movement of the duck when
+walking shows what happens when the points of support are far apart.
+This kind of movement conflicts with efficient locomotion. There is a
+waste of muscular energy in making these lateral movements, and they are
+at variance with the forward movement. We may infer, then, that the
+developing man profited by throwing the stress as much as possible on
+the inner side of the feet, and was especially led to do this when going
+fast, which enabled him to abridge the oscillations, as indeed we see it
+now in the drunken man. Then there was thrown a continually increasing
+stress upon the inner digits as they progressively developed from the
+efforts of use, until now the inner digits, so large compared with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[<a href="./images/114.png">114</a>]</span>the
+outer, bear the greater part of the weight, and being relatively near
+one another render needless any swaying of the body from side to side in
+walking. But what has meanwhile happened to the outer digits? Evidently
+as fast as the great toes have come more and more into play and the
+small ones have gone more and more out of play, dwindling for&mdash;how long
+shall we say?&mdash;perhaps 100,000 years." In other and simpler words, the
+great toe of man has wonderfully developed since he began to walk
+upright. This has been from greater use, and the transmission of the
+effects of this use to offspring. The small toe has decreased in size
+proportionately. This we can reasonably infer has been the result of
+disuse, the effects of which were also transmitted to offspring.</p>
+
+<p>A still more remarkable illustration of the effects of use and disuse is
+seen in the sense of touch in different parts of the body. Prof. Weber,
+in his laboratory for experimental psychology, has worked out this
+difference most minutely. He finds that by taking a pair of compasses,
+the points of which are less than one-twelfth of an inch apart, the end
+of the forefinger is not able to distinguish more than one point. Going
+to the middle of the back we have the least discriminating power in the
+skin, for the points must be separated two and one half inches before
+the nerves can decide that there are two. Any one may test this on
+himself. Between <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[<a href="./images/115.png">115</a>]</span>these extremes we have many differences. The end of
+the nose has four times as great power of discrimination as the
+forehead. When we come to the tip of the tongue, we find it far excels
+any part of the body in its power of tactual discrimination, it being
+twice that of the forefinger. In every case we find there is greatest
+delicacy of touch in those parts where this sense has been most
+exercised. The tongue is being constantly exercised on our food, on the
+roof of the mouth, the teeth, etc. It is rarely idle. There is in man no
+advantage for his survival, Mr. Spencer asserts, by having such a
+sensitive tongue. He could get on just as well without it. He regards it
+as a case where the exercise of a function has exalted it remarkably,
+and this exaltation has been transmitted to offspring. Natural
+selection, he thinks, is not sufficient to account for it. Natural
+selection only preserves those characters which will give their
+possessor some advantage in the struggle for existence.</p>
+
+<p>Still another argument is drawn from the whale. This monster once lived,
+it is believed, partly on land, probably on low land near water, and
+must have been smaller than now. It had hind legs; but since it has
+lived continuously in the water its tail has so developed as to make a
+far better organ of locomotion, and the legs have dwindled from disuse,
+so that now there is only a remnant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[<a href="./images/116.png">116</a>]</span>left, and this is hidden beneath
+the skin. The tail has become more efficient from use, and this has been
+transmitted so that all whales are born with well developed tails. The
+legs have dwindled for want of use until they have almost disappeared;
+and this effect of disuse has also been transmitted to offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Another illustration is furnished by Havelock Charles, an English
+surgeon, who has spent much time among the Punjab tribes in India, and
+studied them anthropologically. His account is given in "The Journal of
+Anatomy," in a paper on the structure of the skeletons of these people.
+It appears they have facets on the bones, fitting them for the sitting
+posture. These do not develop after birth, but are seen in the fetus. It
+seems hardly possible that these facets could have any other origin
+except by transmission after being acquired by ages of use of sitting
+posture.</p>
+
+<p>Another argument is drawn from the coadaptation of parts. We know that
+the male sheep, likewise the goat, the stag, and the males of many other
+animals, have large horns. They are supposed to be useful in fighting
+with rivals in order to secure as large a number of females as possible.
+Now these large horns require at the same time a greater development of
+the bones of the head to hold them, also larger and stronger vertebræ of
+the neck and back, and larger muscles of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[<a href="./images/117.png">117</a>]</span>these parts to maintain and
+use them effectively. In other words, there must be coadaptation of all
+the parts, otherwise these larger horns would be an incumbrance and
+useless. Now, if we accept the theory of the inheritance of acquired
+characters, this is all simple. The use of the head in butting against
+other males exercises all these parts simultaneously, and they develop
+equally and at the same time. If, however, inheritance has no part in
+the matter, then we must fall back on variation in the germ-plasm and
+natural selection for an explanation; but it is difficult or, as Spencer
+says, impossible to conceive of variation producing large and heavy
+horns on these animals and at the same time coadaptation of all the
+other parts to hold and use them. Sometimes coadaptation does not take
+place, as in the common brook crab, familiar to every country boy. Its
+foreclaws or fingers are out of all proportion to the rest of the leg,
+and its awkwardness is well known. The lobster is another case. Even in
+human beings we have instances of non-coadaptation, as where the head
+and brain are out of proportion to the size of the body, or the reverse.
+I need not multiply instances.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if acquired characters are transmitted, any system of training
+which exists for a considerable time must necessarily appear in the
+structure of the body and in the character. If the training is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[<a href="./images/118.png">118</a>]</span>not in
+accord with the laws of evolution, it causes the race to deviate from
+the true line of progress, and by just so much hinder advancement. If,
+on the other hand, our systems of education conform to correct
+principles, progress is advanced by them.</p>
+
+<p>Quite recently an entirely new theory has grown up, opposed to
+Lamarckianism, and the theory of the transmission of acquired
+characters. It has been before the world little more than a decade and
+has made remarkable progress, though it is too soon to say it has been
+established beyond dispute. Prof. Weismann, its author, is well equipped
+as a biologist to maintain and defend it. I have already stated briefly
+his theory of heredity, namely, that the germ-plasm is continuous from
+parent to offspring. This necessitates a remodeling of commonly accepted
+views, an entire giving up of the Lamarckian belief that use and disuse
+have their effect on progeny. If the germ-plasm continues from one
+generation to another, then it must already have been formed, or at
+least provided for, even before the birth of the parents. They may
+modify it, through growth and nutrition, but not through exercise of any
+function. Prof. Weismann went at the demonstration of his views in a
+thoroughly scientific way by the making of experiments on living animals
+and the collection of facts. From his experiments it is now pretty well
+established that wounds and injuries, which he <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[<a href="./images/119.png">119</a>]</span>considers to be acquired
+characters, are not transmitted. No matter for how many generations you
+cut off the tails of dogs, cats, horses or sheep, the effects of this
+removal do not appear in the progeny. Most parents have some mark on the
+body, received in early life, some cut or bruise, some scratch, but
+their children do not inherit them. The famous experiment of cutting off
+the tails of mice, for generation after generation, and then breeding
+from them was one of Weismann's methods of substantiating the theory
+that acquired character is not inherited. The offspring of these
+mutilated mice had as long tails as if those of their parents had not
+been removed. The explanation is, the germ-plasm was not in any way
+affected by the bodily mutilation. The practice of the Flathead Indian
+is another case. The children of parents whose heads have been
+artificially flattened are not affected by it. The small feet of Chinese
+women, made so by binding them and preventing their growth, may also be
+mentioned.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Intellectual Acquirements.</span>&mdash;Not to depend on such evidence, however, he
+adduces that of a very different character, namely, the non-transmission
+of intellectual acquirements. Language is an example. Although human
+beings have been communicating their thoughts to each other from very
+ancient times by speech, yet every child has to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[<a href="./images/120.png">120</a>]</span>learn how to do this
+for itself. No matter how many languages the parents master, their
+children have to go over all the ground the parents did, make all the
+toil and effort to learn to speak. The children of the most gifted
+linguists, if brought up without coming in contact with those who can
+teach them to talk, will never learn a single word. There are, it is
+claimed, a few cases on record of children who never acquired their
+natural tongue because they had lived among animals and not among human
+beings. They learned to make the same vocal sounds the animals did, no
+more. The environment in this case was everything, the parental
+acquirements nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Music, like language, is also an acquired character, and it is probably
+not transmitted. Our musical geniuses are not the children of great
+musicians, but in most cases the reverse. They seem to spring into
+existence from lowly sources, or at least from parents whose advantages
+for a musical education have been very limited, though generally they
+have had good health, and a climatic environment of a favorable kind.
+Great musical talent usually dies out in any family in a few
+generations, no matter how much it is cultivated, or, if it does not die
+out entirely, it becomes mediocre; and yet the opportunities of the
+children of great musicians, and the ambition of their parents for its
+culture, are usually very favorable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[<a href="./images/121.png">121</a>]</span><span class="smcap">Instinct.</span>&mdash;In accepting the theory of the non-transmission of acquired
+characters, it becomes necessary to give up prevailing views of the
+origin of instinct. According to the old belief it was a gift of God,
+and not acquired by any effort on the part of its possessor. In speaking
+of the instinct of bees, Sidney Smith says: "<i>Providence has done it.</i>
+There are the bees, there is the comb, and the honey, get rid of it or
+find some other explanation if you can."</p>
+
+<p>The early evolutionists changed all this, and made instinct the
+inheritance of an oft-repeated act. The young kitten, as soon as old
+enough, hunts for a mouse and catches it without any training. The sight
+of the mouse acts on its nervous system in such a way as to compel it to
+creep up softly, jump on it, toy and play with it, and finally kill and
+eat it. It would have required long practice on the part of its
+ancestors before so wonderful a character could have become fixed. The
+same is true of the setter dog.</p>
+
+<p>The new view is, that instincts arise from variations in the germ-plasm.
+The union of the germ elements of two individuals causes it to vary more
+or less from either parent. These variations will be favorable and
+unfavorable. The unfavorable ones will produce offspring handicapped in
+the struggle for life and they will disappear. The favorable variations
+will produce descendants possessing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[<a href="./images/122.png">122</a>]</span>advantages for survival and leave
+numerous offspring.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to accept this view, but I think there are some facts
+that support it. I will advance a few. The hive of the honey-bee
+contains three kinds of insects: the queen, the drones or males, and the
+workers. The queen makes her nuptial flight but once in a life-time, and
+does it from instinct. How can an instinct like this have been acquired
+by being performed but once? The drones are derived from unfertilized
+eggs; yet their instincts are those of the male, not of the female. As
+they have no male ancestors, it seems probable there was in the
+germ-plasm of some queen bee, at a time far back, some change which
+allowed unfertilized eggs to produce males.</p>
+
+<p>The workers are all females, not fully developed sexually on account of
+a diet with too small a proportion of nitrogenous food and containing so
+large a proportion of the hydrocarbons. They inherit from the mother, or
+rather from the germ-plasm, the instinct to gather honey, yet neither
+their male nor female ancestors ever gathered any honey in their lives,
+nor have they for ages. Far back in antiquity the queen, no doubt, did
+gather honey, but the disuse of this instinct has not caused it to
+disappear in the working bee, as it should have done according to the
+Lamarckian theory of disuse causing decay of function. Is there any way
+to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[<a href="./images/123.png">123</a>]</span>account for this, except on the theory that the germ-plasm produces
+working bees as well as the other kinds, irrespective of the habits of
+the queen? Her character in this respect is fixed and does not change.
+Is it unreasonable to think that some time in the past, in some queen
+bee, was formed a germ-plasm capable of producing three varieties, and
+that there was such an advantage in it for survival, that it has been
+continued ever since by natural selection? Queens not able to do this
+have not been selected, left no offspring, and thus the perfection of
+the stock has been assured.</p>
+
+<p>One more case. Some years ago, when interested in agricultural
+entomology, I made a study of the so-called seventeen-year locust.
+Noting the wonderful precision with which the female cuts into a soft
+twig of a tree and lays its eggs in two rows, the thought was suggested
+to me, how can an instinct, used only a few hours, once in seventeen
+years, be acquired by exercise and persist in the offspring seventeen
+years later? Weismann's theory of the origin of instinct from favorable
+variations in the germ-plasm offers, it seems to me, a rational
+explanation.</p>
+
+<p>I do not need to extend illustrations which abound in the insect world,
+especially among the ants, which furnish cases of coadaptation that
+cannot be transmitted, as they do not propagate, so I will not mention
+them here.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[<a href="./images/124.png">124</a>]</span>
+Now, if acquired characters <i>are not</i> transmitted to offspring, how
+should these facts affect our methods of educating children?</p>
+
+<p>One advantage will be evident, I think, to all. Erroneous systems of
+training, which do not injure the health, will not appear through
+heredity in the offspring of parents thus wrongly trained, except as a
+result of environment. That is to say, the injury does not become
+congenital&mdash;will not be in the blood&mdash;and, consequently, it will be less
+difficult to eradicate it and to introduce better systems. This may be
+considered an advantage. But it is not all. If heredity takes place only
+through the germ-plasm, then it seems to me that whatever promotes a
+knowledge of how to maintain it in a high degree of health, and how to
+favor more perfectly natural selection, are subjects with which our
+educators may busy themselves far more than they do. That is to say, the
+study of biology, of life&mdash;of the laws of human growth and development,
+and of evolution, will become, more and more, important factors in our
+school curriculum. We can hardly imagine how much our common every-day
+life has been aided by even the slight knowledge of mathematics gained
+by an acquaintance with addition, subtraction, multiplication and
+division. By it we are able to keep our little accounts correctly, and
+neither cheat our creditors nor be cheated by them. Could we not by a
+knowledge <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[<a href="./images/125.png">125</a>]</span>of the laws of evolution, and also the laws of growth and
+development, keep our larger account with nature in a far better
+condition? Could we not keep ourselves from being cheated out of our
+health and happiness, and also do something to put an end to physical,
+intellectual and moral deterioration which threatens so many families
+and even races? It seems to me that the time is not far distant when
+these studies will be quite as much attended to as the not unimportant
+ones of arithmetic and grammar.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Knowledge of Heredity.</span>&mdash;Whatever doctrine of heredity prevails, however,
+one thing is certain, some knowledge of the subject will be very useful
+to those who have in care the training of children. To them, often more
+than to the parent, is entrusted the task of developing the character
+and the individuality of the child. Can he do this well if he knows
+nothing of what the bent of the child's genius from ancestral influence
+is? I doubt very much if any of us realize how important it is that this
+individuality should have its proper share of attention. As the
+evolution of society goes on, more and more must there be
+differentiation of our various activities. If every boy and every girl
+can be educated so that to a considerable extent they can follow the
+bent of their genius, <i>whenever that bent is a normal one</i>, will not the
+available <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[<a href="./images/126.png">126</a>]</span>intellectual and moral energy of society be considerably
+augmented? If you educate a boy which nature intended for a blacksmith
+for a preacher, has not the world lost something? Educate another for a
+blacksmith who should have been a preacher, is there not also a great
+loss? There are a few children who will come out all right, no matter
+how much they are schooled, or whether they have any schooling, so well
+have they been born, but with the majority this is not the case. Now it
+seems to me that the teacher who knows the natures of his pupils, and
+something of their ancestors', can direct their energies more
+satisfactorily than the one who does not. If there are hereditary
+defects of intellect or morals, he can more easily correct them. If
+there are ancestral tendencies to disease through imperfections of
+certain organs, for instance, the lungs or the brain, he can often put
+the child on such a course of physical culture or mental training as to
+lift it above danger, so that it may go through life a useful person
+instead of a feeble one or a lunatic. Even the tendency to crime might
+be averted.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Individuality.</span>&mdash;If we could educate the young so as to bring out more
+fully their normal individualities we should be able to cultivate in
+them more independence of character. On this subject Prof. Mills says:
+"With all its imperfections, I am <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[<a href="./images/127.png">127</a>]</span>bound to say that the individuality
+of the pupils in the old log school-house was often more developed than
+in the city public schools of today, where for a boy to be himself
+frequently brings with it the ridicule of his fellows&mdash;a condition of
+things that has its effect afterward on the lad at college. I find that
+this fear of being considered odd,&mdash;out of harmony with what others may
+think,&mdash;one of the greatest drawbacks to the development of independent
+investigating students at college. The case is still worse for girls.
+When women begin to be really independent in thought, in feeling, in
+action, I shall be more hopeful of the progress of mankind. Happily, the
+dawn of this day is already begun."</p>
+
+<p>We must not forget that there is also a spectre of heredity. It is seen
+under different forms. The physician is often reminded by his patients
+that they have inherited this or that disease from father or mother, or
+an ancestor farther back. Now, there are few diseases which come to us
+directly through inheritance. In a majority of cases they are not
+transmitted. Even consumption is not. If we accept the modern theory of
+its origin, as we must, this plague is the result of germs floating in
+the air being introduced into our bodies by respiration, or in food, or
+through contact with abraided Surfaces. Those with weakened
+constitutions are more liable to it than the strong, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[<a href="./images/128.png">128</a>]</span>and a weakened
+constitution may be inherited, for in this case the germ-plasm will not
+be well nourished and will suffer; but those thus handicapped in the
+race of life will get on far better by endowing themselves with
+knowledge and obeying the laws of life than they can by living under the
+shadow of the great spectre of heredity, and casting anathemas at their
+ancestors for not having done more for them. No doubt most of them have
+done the best they could; and if life is worth living, as most of us
+believe, we owe them many thanks for having brought us into the world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">The Spectre of Heredity.</span>&mdash;There is a spectre of heredity of a more
+serious nature. It is the spirit of the dead past, with its mighty hand
+on society, on institutions, on modes of life. Wendell Phillips used to
+tell a story, in his anti-slavery addresses, which illustrates the evil
+effect of this inherited spectre. It ran in this wise. In an Eastern
+temple, an idol, in the image of a god, stood calmly on its pedestal. It
+was sacrilege to touch it with human hands; but rats having no such
+feelings of awe in the presence of a deity, began to gnaw about it in
+various places, yet no one was bold enough to remove it to a place of
+safety; and so the rats gnawed on and on, and built their nests within
+the sacred image. In time they loosened it from its firm foundation, and
+one morning, when <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[<a href="./images/129.png">129</a>]</span>the worshippers came in to pay their devotions, they
+found their god had fallen prostrate on the floor. So it is sometimes
+with our inherited beliefs. They hold us back from progress like a heavy
+weight. We fear to remove them, for they are sacred inheritances, idols,
+gods, and so our institutions decay, perish.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 90%;" />
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106:A_22" id="Footnote_106:A_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106:A_22"><span class="label">[106:A]</span></a> Darwin did not regard this experiment as settling this
+question. He had great affection, so to speak, for this poor, despised
+theory, and believed it would finally be established as in the main
+true.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[<a href="./images/130.png">130</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A HEALTHIER RACE.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Given before the Greenacre Conference of Evolutionists.</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>We have most of us in the past looked upon health as a matter of
+inheritance, or temperance and moderation in working, in eating and
+drinking; or as depending on climate; or exercise, or plenty of sleep,
+pure water and a morning bath, or some other secret, one or more of
+which is pretty sure to be in the possession of most persons who have
+lived long enough to have had some experience with those things that do
+them good or harm. All these agencies have great value; but I think few
+of us realize that nature, through the laws of evolution, has long been
+working to produce a brave and strong, healthy and hardy race of men and
+women by other methods than those health habits which most of us value
+so highly.</p>
+
+<p>Nature has been doing this chiefly by two methods, and it seems
+necessary that I should say something about them in order to present my
+subject as I wish to present it. The methods to which I refer are those
+of sexual and natural selection. It is to these two processes that we
+are largely <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[<a href="./images/131.png">131</a>]</span>indebted for race improvements&mdash;more perfect bodies, more
+active brains, and the high degree of health which a considerable
+portion of the race enjoys.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Sexual Selection.</span>&mdash;By sexual selection is meant that preference which
+the male or the female has for certain characteristics of the other sex.
+It also includes the advantages which the stronger and more capable male
+has over the weaker one in obtaining a choice, or, among polygamous
+animals, a larger number of females, thus allowing offspring to be
+generated by the most capable, and preventing the most incapable from
+procuring mates.</p>
+
+<p>The first principle of sexual selection, that of preference, would imply
+a considerable development of the intellect, and some taste, but I do
+not think it has had great influence on the lower forms of life. It is
+difficult to study the preferences of insects, for instance; but I have
+studied the moth of the silkworm, and could never observe that either
+male or female had a choice for any particular mate. They always appear
+to take the first one that comes along. I think this is the conclusion
+come to by those entomologists who have had opportunities for studying
+other insects. The spider might perhaps be studied in this relation to
+advantage, as the female is ferocious, often eating her male suitors
+while they are trying to woo her. Nor do I believe that it is a very
+important matter <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[<a href="./images/132.png">132</a>]</span>in many other animals. Certainly among the domestic
+ones&mdash;the sheep, the horse, the bull and the cow&mdash;a superior male and
+female will mate with inferior ones of the opposite sex, apparently
+without the slightest objection. I have sometimes thought I had observed
+in pigeons a preference, having occasionally seen a male leave his mate
+for a more attractive female; at least one that seemed more attractive
+to me.</p>
+
+<p>When it comes to sexual selection through struggle, no doubt there has
+been great advantage, and it has produced important effects. This occurs
+among polygamous and also among non-polygamous animals, and the strong
+males are certain to secure the largest number of females and,
+consequently, leave the largest number of offspring. This would, no
+doubt, through the laws of inheritance, be beneficial in producing
+animals of greater vigor and more perfect health. But even in this case,
+the males seem to have little preference for any particular female; and
+so while the least vigorous ones would leave few, and many no offspring,
+the least vigorous females would leave nearly as many as the more
+vigorous ones. Still, through pure-blooded males alone, stockbreeders
+tell us, herds of cattle can be brought up to a high degree of
+perfection in three or four generations, even if the females, at the
+beginning of the experiment, are inferior. The first generation would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[<a href="./images/133.png">133</a>]</span>be half pure blood; the second three-fourths; the third, seven-eighths,
+and the fourth fifteen-sixteenths, or almost thoroughbred.</p>
+
+<p>When it comes to man, however, the case is different. With him sexual
+selection is more important, and the preference shown by both sexes is
+very marked. Many women have strong prejudices against marrying men with
+certain characteristics, and nothing will induce them to such a union.
+So strong are the desires many of them have for mates with particular
+qualities, that they prefer to remain single rather than marry one not
+possessing these qualities. Through this preference, on the whole, the
+better and those most adapted mate with those most suited to them, and a
+considerably larger class of physically and mentally inferior ones do
+not mate at all, or, if they do, leave few offspring. The idiot would
+stand no chance of securing a mate, although, if left free, he would
+unite with another idiot, like an animal. Such things have happened, and
+the offspring were not idiots, as might have been expected; but they
+were not superior beings. The most deformed in body would, in most
+cases, unless they had mental traits of a high order to counterbalance
+them, rarely find mates. Thus, through this agency, some of the poorest
+specimens of both sexes do not produce offspring, and this raises the
+standard of the health and ability of the race.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[<a href="./images/134.png">134</a>]</span>
+There are many characters which have come into existence, it is
+believed, through sexual selection. One is beauty in women, greater
+beauty of form, of hair, of eyes, of grace, fidelity, chastity, power of
+love, etc. These all give pleasure to the opposite sex, and have an
+element of usefulness in them. Whenever these characters have appeared
+in women they have given the possessors a better chance to find a
+partner with superior characters. The same is true of men. Woman being
+debarred from the hardest labor through maternity has found it useful,
+even in early times, to choose men who were strong, brave, courageous
+and capable of defending and caring for her, so far as was possible, and
+thus by sexual selection she has indirectly promoted health and vigor in
+man, for these qualities are inseparable from it.</p>
+
+<p>But the results of sexual selection are by no means perfect. The sexes
+are nearly equally divided, and as polygamy is not to any great extent
+practiced among human beings, with the exception of those already named,
+most men and women can find mates if they wish, even though they may
+have many serious imperfections of body and mind, and from them many
+children will be born physically and mentally incompetent.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that sexual selection is coming more and more into
+play, however. We have abundant evidence of this in the growing
+sentiment <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[<a href="./images/135.png">135</a>]</span>against the marriage of those with a tendency to any serious
+disease, as insanity, syphilis, etc. Only a little while ago was
+published an account of a suit for a breach of promise brought by a
+young woman in an English court against her suitor. He, having in view
+the value of a healthy wife, and also of children well endowed
+physically, asked her before the engagement if any of her near relatives
+had died of consumption, and she replied that none had, which he
+afterwards found was not true. On learning of it he refused to marry
+her. I am sorry to say that she won her suit. One of the questions asked
+in court was: "Is it possible that a lover would ask such questions of
+his sweetheart as would be asked of a candidate for life insurance?"</p>
+
+<p>Courtship is such a delightful occupation for the young, that it seems a
+pity to mar it by bringing in questions of health. Yet men and women are
+often such deceivers, and frequently so ignorant, that some way must be
+devised to prevent deception if sexual selection is ever expected to
+have its full influence on race improvement.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Human Selection.</span>&mdash;Under the head of human selection Galton and Wallace
+have made some interesting and valuable suggestions for improving the
+health and quality of man. Mr. Galton proposed a system of marks for
+family health, intellect <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[<a href="./images/136.png">136</a>]</span>and morals, and those members of families
+having the highest number were to be encouraged to marry early by state
+endowments sufficient to enable them to make a good start in life, early
+marriages being favorable to large families. It was a bold suggestion,
+savoring too strongly of socialism or state control of marriage to suit
+many of us.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Wallace's plan is that women shall, so far as possible, be
+made independent, so that they will not feel the necessity of marrying
+for a home. Her time might be occupied either in public duties or
+self-culture, or any occupation she might prefer. She should be educated
+to believe it degrading to marry for a home, without love and
+adaptation, and equally wrong to marry her inferior. This would compel
+men to be more manly, to leave off their bad habits and many vices, in
+order to obtain wives; and the idle, selfish, sickly and deformed would
+not easily get them. One difficulty in the way of carrying out this plan
+is the greater number of women in society as it exists today, owing to
+the larger mortality among boys. But by a better hygiene which is likely
+to result from the evolution of the race, this greater mortality of the
+masculine sex is certain in the future to be prevented, and there will
+then be an excess of men instead of women. This will be a real
+advantage, for a scarcity of women would give her a greater <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[<a href="./images/137.png">137</a>]</span>influence
+in selection, and the result would be, the worst men would not be able
+to get wives.</p>
+
+<p>Being in a minority, women would be held in higher esteem, be more
+sought for, and have a real choice in marriage by being able to reject
+unsatisfactory suitors, which is certainly not the case now to any
+considerable extent.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wallace's plan would not require such early marriages as that of Mr.
+Galton's, and this would be a positive benefit to the physical vigor of
+the children, for we know that the progeny of too early marriages are
+more delicate, and reproduction before bodily maturity lowers the
+standard of health in parents as well as of their offspring. Marriage
+being delayed, and the culture of the mind being more attended to than
+is possible when it is early, would reduce the number of children in any
+family, and this would enable parents to bestow more care upon them. It
+would also prevent, to a limited extent, over-multiplication of the
+race, which is a real evil, for if every couple left three or four
+children the whole world would soon be full, and over-population would
+result in much disease.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wallace's scheme has in view the prevention of marriage by the weak
+and worthless. He believes that if this can be done little more will be
+required, for the superior would be the only ones to procreate, and this
+would be quite sufficient in a few generations to produce a strong and
+healthy <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[<a href="./images/138.png">138</a>]</span>race. He calls his plan that of "human selection," but it may
+be considered practically as a modification of sexual selection.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Natural Selection.</span>&mdash;Natural selection is another process which takes
+place on an enormous scale and constantly among all organisms, whether
+animal or vegetable. Natural selection is the result of the operation of
+certain laws in the natural world which brings about the survival of
+those best fitted for their environment. It is a weeding-out system by
+the destruction of a certain portion, at least, if not all, of the weak
+and the bad, and it occurs because there is such a rapid increase of
+most organisms. We speak of it as the survival of the fittest, but it is
+also, at the same time, the destruction of the unfit.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Darwin says: "We have seen that man is variable in body and mind,
+and that the variations are induced either directly or indirectly by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws as with the lower
+animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the earth, and must have
+been exposed during his incessant migrations to the most diversified
+conditions. They must have passed through many climates and changed
+their habits many times before they reached their present homes. They
+must have been exposed to a struggle for existence and, consequently, to
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[<a href="./images/139.png">139</a>]</span>rigid law of natural selection. Beneficial variations of all kinds
+have been preserved and injurious ones eliminated. If, then, the
+progenitors of man, inhabiting any district, especially one undergoing
+some changed conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the
+one-half including those with the best adapted powers for movement, for
+gaining a subsistence, for self-defence, would, on the average, have
+more offspring than the other and the less well endowed half."</p>
+
+<p>We may have a good object lesson in the elimination of the unfit going
+on about us constantly. In New York City, for 1891, the deaths of
+children under five years of age was 18,112; for 1892 it was 17,577, or
+slightly less. This is more than one-third, but not quite one-half, of
+the total deaths at all ages for these years. A very large proportion of
+these deaths occurred in the tenement house districts, and a very
+natural question arises in the mind: Are the children of those who live
+in tenement houses more unfit to survive than those who live in houses
+in which only one family dwells. No doubt in most cases the children of
+those are most fit who are most able to provide them with hygienic
+surroundings, the better food and most suitable care; such are usually
+the prudent and the capable. The love of children is usually stronger in
+them. The intelligent affection of parents for their young is one of the
+incentives to their best <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[<a href="./images/140.png">140</a>]</span>training. It certainly is not nearly so strong
+among the residents of the crowded quarters of a city as among the more
+prosperous. Any one may observe this by going with a company of mothers
+on the excursions of some fresh air society, which may be seen in most
+cities. It is hard to find one of these mothers who shows what we may
+call intelligent affection or intelligent care of her young. Some
+pathetic instances illustrating this might be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>When it comes to the question of their physical or mental inferiority, a
+cursory inspection is all that is required to show they are far below
+the average. There is a great want of symmetry of body and
+mind&mdash;evidence of degeneration. In order to test the strength of
+constitution, which is a good way to get at one form of physical fitness
+for survival, it seems to me, I made a study of the blood of a
+considerable number of these children and found the amount of protoplasm
+in the colorless blood corpuscles deficient. This shows that their power
+to resist disease is slight. It must be borne in mind, however, that a
+strong constitution alone is not evidence of fitness for survival. A
+strong person may not have prudence, foresight, keenness of perception,
+judgment, and many other qualities equally important. The characters
+just mentioned may constitute fitness when there is only a moderately
+vigorous body. Mr. Darwin <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[<a href="./images/141.png">141</a>]</span>recognized this when he said: "We should bear
+in mind that an animal possessing great size, strength and ferocity, and
+which, like the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies would not,
+perhaps, have become sufficiently social, and this would effectually
+have checked the acquirement of the higher mental qualities, such as the
+sympathy and love of his fellows. Hence, <i>it might have been of immense
+advantage to men to have sprung from some comparatively weak but social
+creature</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Fitness is a complicated condition and not a simple one. It depends upon
+so many external conditions. Fitness in one place would be unfitness in
+another. Still, other things being equal, strength of constitution is a
+very important factor, and must not be left out of consideration. With
+it there is a surplus of material in the body beyond what is required
+for digestion, assimilation, circulation and other bodily functions, to
+enable the parents not only to do hard labor, but also to endow their
+offspring with vigor equal to their own, often greater vigor. The feeble
+individuals will have a small amount of stored up material in their
+bodies which we may designate as physiological capital to give
+continuous food, warmth and protection to their young; they will not be
+so well adjusted to their environment, and, consequently, natural
+selection will cause their non-survival&mdash;or their offspring, if not
+immediately, at no distant period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[<a href="./images/142.png">142</a>]</span>
+This doctrine of natural selection has been designated as cruel, harsh,
+inexorable, and under the influence of the human feeling every effort is
+in our time being made to prevent this wholesome check upon the
+processes of nature from having its due influence upon evolution and
+race progress. Modern hygiene undertakes to put an end to disease, to
+save all who are born, to surround them with every influence which can
+favor their health and development. It would stamp out diphtheria,
+scarlet fever, summer complaint, consumption and a host of other
+diseases which now decimate the ranks of the unfit, and often, no doubt,
+of the comparatively fit. This would perpetuate a type of feeble,
+unhealthy persons. There would not be much hope of more perfect health
+for the race if our hygienists could carry out this daring scheme along
+the lines now working. There seems an antagonism between nature's
+methods of bettering the physical condition of the race and the efforts
+of man himself, acting under the guidance of his moral feelings, to
+prevent the action of natural law. Mr. Darwin recognized this, and
+referred to it in his great work, "The Descent of Man," where he says:
+"With savages, the weak in body and mind are soon eliminated, and those
+that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilized
+men, on the other hand, do our utmost to check the process of
+elimination. We build <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[<a href="./images/143.png">143</a>]</span>asylums for the imbeciles, the maimed and the
+sick; we institute poor laws; and our medical men exert their utmost
+skill to save the life of every one to the last moment."</p>
+
+<p>"There is," says he, "reason to believe that vaccination has preserved
+thousands who from a weak constitution would have succumbed to smallpox.
+Thus the weak members of civilized communities propagate their kind. No
+one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt but
+this must be highly injurious to the human race. Excepting in the case
+of man himself hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his worst
+animals to breed."</p>
+
+<p>Other evolutionists, in more recent times, have taken a still more
+somber view of this danger of race deterioration through the prevention
+of the full action of the law of natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in a recent work entitled "Darwinism and Race
+Progress," has sounded the alarm in no uncertain tones. He says: "Races,
+therefore, subject to epidemics of a particular fever, suffer selections
+in the hands of the microbes of that fever, and those living are
+survivals, cast in the most resisting mould. It may not be flattering to
+our national vanity to look upon ourselves as the product of the
+selection of the micro-organism of measles, scarlet fever, smallpox,
+etc.; but the reasonableness of the conclusion seems <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[<a href="./images/144.png">144</a>]</span>to be forced upon
+us when we consider his immunity from these diseases as compared with
+the natives of the interior of Africa, or the wilds of America, whose
+races have never been so selected, and who, when attacked for the first
+time by these diseases, are ravaged almost to extinction. By
+exterminating these diseases we shall no doubt preserve countless lives
+to the community who will, in their turn, become race producers; but in
+as much as the individuals thus preserved will, in most cases, belong to
+the feebler and less resisting of the community, <i>the race will not
+become more robust</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The same author concludes in these words: "In the meantime we may view,
+and not without inquietude, the probability that our statistics, as far
+as they go, indicate that race deterioration has already begun as a
+consequence of that care for the individual which has characterized the
+efforts of modern society. The biologist, from quite another group of
+facts, has independently arrived at conclusions which render this view
+in the highest degree probable."</p>
+
+<p>"Thus, the great English race, once so hardy, so powerful," says this
+modern writer, "by hygiene and better physical conditions, is becoming
+weaker and weaker."</p>
+
+<p>This view of the case is growing largely in England and, perhaps, other
+European countries. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[<a href="./images/145.png">145</a>]</span>There is already some evidence of its truthfulness
+in statistics. The death rate for those in middle life is rather
+increasing than diminishing. This arises from the fact that the great
+number of children who formerly died in infancy have lived, but being of
+more feeble constitutions, they swell the death rate later on. It is
+felt, also, in many educational institutions in the larger number of
+youths who cannot stand the strain and stress of student life. They are,
+high medical authority says, the youth saved from early death by modern
+hygienic and medical care. Formerly, natural selection would have chosen
+them as unfit to survive, and there would have remained alive few
+besides the hardy ones with good constitutions, capable of great strain,
+with great powers of endurance.</p>
+
+<p>It is also shown in the stress of modern competition, in which there are
+multitudes who cannot stand this strain. It is from these, in some
+degree, that we hear the cry for governmental aid. "We must make the
+conditions of life easier for them," say our social reformers, "or they
+will become 'a submerged class.'"</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Conflict between Evolutionary Theories and our Humane Sentiments.</span>&mdash;And
+now I wish to consider another phase of my subject. Those who have
+followed closely what was said concerning natural selection will have
+seen that there appears <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[<a href="./images/146.png">146</a>]</span>to be a conflict between evolutionary theories
+and the humane sentiment of the age&mdash;a want of correspondence between
+what is being done by natural law and what man is trying to do under the
+inspiration of his loving heart. Can we reconcile this want of
+correspondence? To some extent no doubt we can.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the growth of the moral nature has always been held
+in high esteem by every nation and every race. Our moral giants stand
+higher in the scale of being than our great generals or statesmen, even
+in an age when moral culture is at a low ebb. We draw our moral
+inspiration from Buddha, Socrates and Christ rather than from Aristotle;
+their science may be, yes, is, faulty, but their spirit is lofty.</p>
+
+<p>And the moral nature is cultivated in laboring for the good of others,
+in trying to save for a better life the poor, the weak, the distressed.
+All that is required is that we do this work wisely, not unwisely, under
+the guidance of reason, not feelings. We want to prevent these
+calamities rather than cure them.</p>
+
+<p>Another satisfaction arises from the fact that in learning how to
+perfect the lives of the feeble so that they may live longer, we also
+learn how to perfect, in a still higher degree, the lives of the strong,
+or those we call the fit, so that they also will not only live longer,
+but be able to live with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[<a href="./images/147.png">147</a>]</span>much greater satisfaction the complex lives of
+our times.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge which helps the first may help the second even more than
+the first, for they have better opportunities and can take advantage of
+it. We may also comfort ourselves with the fact that a majority of those
+with feeble constitutions, whose lives have been for a time snatched
+from the operation of the laws of natural selection, will not, after
+all, contribute very extensively to the increase of the population.
+Great powers of generation and numerous offspring rarely go with
+physical weakness. If there are exceptions they are explainable. It is,
+I think, pretty certain that a great majority of such leave few, often
+no offspring. They find their way into places where work is light and
+the pay small, and they cannot afford to marry and care for families,
+and do not do it.</p>
+
+<p>The law of natural selection will continue to work on them so long as
+its action is required, with little regard to the efforts of man to
+abrogate it. Nature works continuously for ages, and she works on every
+part of man, every organ, every function. We may almost say she is
+omnipotent; that she watches for every slight improvement; that she
+knows what to do under every circumstance. Foiled in one direction, she
+has other means, infinite means, for gaining her ends. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[<a href="./images/148.png">148</a>]</span>Man can no more
+put a stop to the operation of natural law than he can put a stop to the
+flow of Niagara. He may turn off a trifle of its water to whirl wheels
+and spindles, but the mighty river flows on until nature makes some
+changes in the watersheds, that make its flow impossible. Man, on the
+other hand, acts on his own body in a finite way. He works mainly for
+immediate, not remote, ends. He changes his methods as his needs change,
+or his knowledge increases. Today he works with limited knowledge of
+hygiene, inspired by old ideas of philanthropy. Tomorrow he may have a
+vastly extended knowledge of this subject and an entirely new social
+science which will enable him to do more good and less harm.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Ideal of Health.</span>&mdash;Let me now consider some of the things necessary to
+give us a greater hope for the future of human health, of ourselves and
+for our children.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing necessary is to get a higher ideal of bodily or physical
+perfection than we have today. Sir James Paget, in a lecture on National
+Health, in 1884, put this in the following words:</p>
+
+<p>"We want," says he, "more ambition for health. <i>I should like to see a
+personal ambition for health as keen as that for bravery, for beauty, or
+for success in our athletic games or field sports. I wish there was such
+an ambition for the most perfect <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[<a href="./images/149.png">149</a>]</span>national health as there is for
+national renown in war, in art or in commerce.</i>" Sir James then gives
+his own ideal. It is for man or woman to be so full of health as to be
+comparatively indifferent to the external conditions of life, and to
+make a ready self-adjustment to all its changes. He should not be deemed
+thoroughly healthy who is made better or worse, more fit or less fit, by
+every change of weather or food, or who is bound to observe exact rules
+of living. It is good to observe rules, and to some they are absolutely
+necessary; but it is better to need none but those of moderation, and,
+observing these, to be willing to live and work hard in the widest
+variations of food, air, climate, bathing and all other sustenances of
+life.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Adaptation to Environment.</span>&mdash;This sounds very much like saying that to be
+healthy one must be adjusted to his environment; and this is practically
+what Herbert Spencer long before said in his "Principles of Biology."
+Here are his words:</p>
+
+<p>"As affording the simplest and most conclusive proof that the degree of
+life varies as the degree of correspondence, it remains to point out
+that perfect correspondence would be perfect life. Were there no changes
+in our environment but such as the organism had adapted changes to meet,
+and were it never to fail in the efficiency with which it met them,
+there would be eternal existence and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[<a href="./images/150.png">150</a>]</span>universal knowledge. Death by
+natural decay occurs because in old age the relations between
+assimilation, oxidation, and the genesis of force going on in the body
+gradually fall out of correspondence with the relations between oxygen
+and the food and absorption of heat by the environment. Death from
+disease arises either when the organism is congenitally defective in its
+power to balance ordinary internal actions, or when there has taken
+place some unusual external action to which there was no answering
+internal action. Death by accident implies some neighboring mechanical
+changes of which the causes are either unobserved from inattention, or
+are so intricate their results cannot be foreseen, and, consequently,
+certain relations in the organism are not adjusted to the relations in
+the environment. Manifestly, if, to every outer co-existence and
+sequence by which it was ever in any degree affected, the organism
+presented an answering process or act, the simultaneous changes would be
+indefinitely numerous and complex, and the successive ones endless, the
+correspondence would be the greatest conceivable and the life the
+highest conceivable, both in degree and length."</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Knowledge.</span>&mdash;Another requirement to promote human health is a better
+knowledge of how the constitution of the body may be strengthened, and
+more certitude as to whether such improvements as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[<a href="./images/151.png">151</a>]</span>it may receive by
+hygienic training will be transmitted to offspring. That human health
+may be improved by right training of the body, a better supply of fresh
+air, greater moderation in living, there is not a shadow of doubt; but
+is the constitution itself thus strengthened, or only its original vigor
+conserved and made effective? I have been working on the problem for
+some time by a series of studies on the blood, and especially the amount
+of living matter in the colorless corpuscles, and have satisfied myself,
+from some observations on individual cases, that the original
+constitution of feeble persons can be strengthened in early life, but
+the extent of this strengthening seems somewhat limited. Much original
+research is still required to get at important facts in this direction.
+If some of the study now given to micro-organisms could be devoted to
+this subject it would be most useful. The work might be done in
+connection with our numerous schools of physical culture, now happily
+multiplying, and also in our physiological laboratories.</p>
+
+<p>That any gain to the vigor of the constitution can be transmitted to the
+offspring is very probable. While education and training do not seem to
+affect the germ cells in any marked degree, nutrition does affect them.
+Whether acquired characters in the form of skill, music, language or
+other like things are transmitted or not may still be an open question.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[<a href="./images/152.png">152</a>]</span>
+Strengthening the constitution seems to be best accomplished by
+increasing the resources of the body beyond its outgo, so that there
+shall be some gain; and this brings up a very important subject, that of
+the importance of living within the bodily income.</p>
+
+<p>In our fast age we are likely to use up the physiological resources in
+excessive work or dissipation, and so rob our children of their just
+inheritance.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Effects of Living at High Pressure.</span>&mdash;One generation may, by living at
+high pressure and under specially unfavorable conditions, use up more
+than its share of the living matter of its bodies and draw a bill on
+posterity which the next generation cannot pay. Many of us now have the
+benefit of the calm, unexciting lives of our forefathers. They stored up
+physiological wealth for us; we are using it. The question is, Can we,
+working at high pressure, keep this up during our lives (which, in that
+case, will be on an average rather short), and transmit to the coming
+generation a large supply of living matter for their needs?</p>
+
+<p>How often has it happened in the history of the world that people who
+for generations have exhibited no special genius, have blazed out in
+bursts of national greatness for a time, and then almost died out! We
+ought to take care that this does not happen to us. How often we see a
+quiet country <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[<a href="./images/153.png">153</a>]</span>family, whose members have for generations led calm,
+temperate lives, suddenly produce one or two great men and then relapse
+into obscurity. They had by their quiet, inexpensive living stored up
+energy for this purpose. On the other hand, how often have we seen the
+reverse&mdash;families whose energies have been used up in overwork or
+sensuality producing offspring below themselves in ability. The true
+rule, however, is neither to waste the bodily energy nor to keep too
+much of it lying idle and producing nothing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Girls in Manufacturing Districts.</span>&mdash;We need also a new departure in our
+manufacturing centers. Manufacturing as now conducted is a far less
+healthy occupation than agriculture and horticulture. The reason for
+this is that workmen and workwomen and even children in most mills and
+factories are exposed for hours at a time to an atmosphere which is
+loaded with dust and the debris of cotton, of wool, and often to that
+worst of all dust which comes from shoddy and rags. They are also, in
+many cases, kept away from light, and in cramped positions, and this,
+continued for years, slowly deteriorates the constitution; and if, in
+case of a war, we were obliged to enlist a large army, we should find a
+far less number of able bodied men among the factory workers than among
+the farmers. Let me give you a picture, perhaps one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[<a href="./images/154.png">154</a>]</span>of the very worst
+to be seen anywhere, of a visit to a New England paper mill.</p>
+
+<p>"We left, with a company of ladies and gentlemen, the light of a mellow
+afternoon to climb some steep and dusty stairs under the courteous
+guidance of a superintendent. We had hoped to 'see it all,' 'but that
+was quite impossible,' said our guide, 'since the room where the rags
+are sorted is so dusty that the gowns of the ladies would be ruined.' So
+we contented ourselves with less dangerous rooms. But even about the
+stairway the dust cloud hung heavily, obscuring the sight and choking
+the breath. From the narrow landing the room, into which it was
+impossible to venture, was in full view. It was long and large. From end
+to end were ranged huge boxes, waist high. Fastened to each were two
+inverted swords on whose sharp blades the workers cut the piled-up
+masses of rags, shredding them for the bleaching boiler. All the floor
+was covered with rags, billows upon billows of soiled white pieces, in
+which the toilers stood, their feet buried deep beneath the dirty,
+tattered material.</p>
+
+<p>"Not a word was spoken. Even where we stood speech was difficult, so
+completely did the thick dust fill eyes, mouth and nostrils, choking,
+blinding and exasperating. The effect of this perfect silence was
+oppressive. A certain solemnity hung over the place. Through the fog of
+dust the figures <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[<a href="./images/155.png">155</a>]</span>loomed unnaturally large. All the workers were white
+and hollow-cheeked, with great sunken eyes, emphasized by the circles
+underneath. Each woman had bound upon her head some rag, larger or finer
+than the rest, to protect her hair, and the gray-white bands folded
+straight across the forehead showed weirdly in the dim half-light.</p>
+
+<p>"As they stood there in long, silent rows, cutting, <i>cutting</i>, <span class="allcapsc">CUTTING</span>,
+they looked like the priestesses of some ancient and frightful
+ceremonial. We were glad to escape, to exchange the dust, the grime, the
+wan faces, and the burning eyes for the breath of cool wind, the full
+glow of the sunlight, and the face of nature herself, so many of whose
+human children have no time to know or learn her ways.</p>
+
+<p>"It gave a tragic significance to the memory of those silent workers to
+know that they have but a few years to live."</p>
+
+<p>The same unfortunate condition of things is complained of in Manchester,
+England, one of the greatest manufacturing centers in the world. "The
+heated air of the mills, the dust, lack of light, the employment of
+children," says the London <i>Lancet</i>, "are causing vast deterioration and
+a most disastrous effect on the morals of the people. Football is
+popular, but all the players are imported from Scotland. The natives
+simply look on and shout. If they want men for policemen or constables,
+they go to Scotland or Ireland for them. The women and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[<a href="./images/156.png">156</a>]</span>girls are
+equally stunted and feeble." In the manufacturing towns the prospect for
+a strong, healthy race from such material is poor indeed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Co-operation: an Example.</span>&mdash;It is difficult to see the remedy for this
+state of things. Probably the evolution of a higher standard of ethics,
+a higher sense of justice, and a more thorough belief that health is a
+duty, may do something. Meantime it is important that the working man
+should do all he can for himself; and perhaps I can do no better than to
+give here a picture of what some of them have done under the inspiration
+of co-operation, not only for their health but for their pockets.</p>
+
+<p>It is a picture of a great manufacturing establishment of the Scottish
+Co-operative Wholesale Society, at Shieldhall, near Glasgow, on the
+Clyde. This society is a federation of all the retail societies of
+Scotland, 238 in number, with a membership of over 150,000 persons. The
+society began on a moderate scale many years ago, but its development
+has been marvelous. In 1887 it started out on a career which has since
+continued, owing to the indomitable energy of one of its members,
+himself a working man. The buildings stand in a very healthy locality,
+the health of the working force being considered of the first
+importance. They seem to have learned that sickness is loss&mdash;loss of
+time, of productive energy&mdash;and that it is a costly matter. As Mr.
+Beecher once <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[<a href="./images/157.png">157</a>]</span>said, "it is the one burden that bends, almost breaks, the
+back of society."</p>
+
+<p>These Scotchmen are realizing, just as far as is possible, the condition
+of a sound mind in a sound body. They recognize the rights of the
+laborer to health, and place him in a position while working, so that
+his body may not deteriorate any more than is natural for it to do as
+age advances. The living machine must not be harmed more than the dead
+machinery. The land consists of 12 acres, and cost $2,500 an acre;
+nearly all of it is covered with fine buildings, in which 19 different
+industries are carried on, many of them on a large scale. Every one of
+these buildings is constructed after modern methods, with every
+requirement, not only for convenience but for health. The workrooms are
+cosy and spacious, well ventilated, warmed in cold weather by steam, and
+lighted by electricity. The best sanitary arrangements known have been
+introduced, and the excellent health of the workmen and workwomen, of
+whom there are over 1,000 of each, tells the story of sanitation.</p>
+
+<p>Two large dining-rooms, one for men and one for women, are provided;
+also two large reading-rooms with all necessary papers, periodicals,
+books and means of amusement. Its only lack is a gymnasium and a field
+for athletic sports, but these may in time be added. Food of the best
+quality is supplied for all who desire it at cost. A dish of oatmeal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[<a href="./images/158.png">158</a>]</span>and milk costs three cents; a large scone with tea or coffee, the same;
+Scotch broth or soup, two cents; stewed meat and potatoes, eight cents;
+roast beef or mutton, with potatoes, ten cents; a good and sufficient
+meal need not cost over twelve cents. Standard wages are paid, and two
+and one-half hours less time demanded than in private shops.</p>
+
+<p>Men work fifty-three hours weekly, women forty-four. Most of the latter
+work in the shirt factory, but they do not need to sing Hood's <i>Song of
+the Shirt</i>. Sweating is unknown; every worker, from the youngest to the
+oldest, receives his or her share of the profits, which amount to about
+$15,000 yearly.</p>
+
+<p>Here we have an almost ideal manufacturing establishment, and if all
+were such we should have higher hopes for human health in the immediate
+future for our workers in factories. It was the outgrowth, the effort of
+the Scotch, a highly intellectual race, to adjust itself to its
+environment. Necessity and competition acting on them forced them to new
+and better adjustments. Such a result could hardly have been achieved by
+a less hard-headed and practical people, a race on which evolution has
+for ages produced some of its best effects.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Hygiene.</span>&mdash;But I fancy you ask me, Is there any hope that in the future
+evolution, and with it adjustment to environment, will carry man so far
+that an ideal state of health will be the lot of all? <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[<a href="./images/159.png">159</a>]</span>This is what
+hygiene promises. Is it a vain hope? If we look at what older sciences
+have done for man we find much to encourage us. In astronomy, by the aid
+of mathematics, we can calculate with certitude the date of future
+eclipses. In many other sciences we can make accurate predictions and
+accomplish results of the greatest importance. Indeed, science has
+become almost our only authority. Imperfect as it yet is, we trust it,
+perhaps, too implicitly. The science of hygiene is the youngest of all
+the sciences. Not that the Greeks, the Hebrews, the Hindoos and Chinese
+did not have some practical knowledge on the subject, but it was rude
+and empirical. With the discoveries of micro-organisms as the cause of a
+series of the worst diseases, we have begun to place hygiene alongside
+mathematics and chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>We now know the origin of many diseases which formerly were enveloped in
+mystery. Can we remove them? That is the next task. Hygiene will in the
+future busy itself with this great question. It has, it is believed,
+already made many cities proof, or almost proof, against cholera and
+yellow fever. It will try to make them proof against other contagious
+diseases also, and it will without doubt succeed. But its work will not
+then have been accomplished. We may avoid the causes of disease and
+still be puny creatures. Our great task will be the building up of
+bodies equal to the needs <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[<a href="./images/160.png">160</a>]</span>of our environment. This we have, in a small
+way, already begun to do&mdash;imitating the ancient Greeks&mdash;in our schools
+of physical culture, where the body can be trained up to its best, and
+also in our laboratories for psychological research, in which the
+relation of mind and body are being carefully investigated, where every
+subject connected with every function is being studied, even weariness,
+anger, hope, despair, drink, food, sleep, the weather, and their effects
+on function. The results of such knowledge will prove beyond a doubt
+that the health of the body, as well as of the mind, is of the highest
+importance for success in life, for happiness and usefulness, and that
+we can do much to secure both.</p>
+
+<p>My own personal hope for the future of human health lies in the
+evolution and spread of this gospel of hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>Hygiene interests itself in all that relates to human well-being. It may
+be defined as <i>the ethics of the body&mdash;the science of true living</i>. It
+promises health to all who obey its laws. It makes no such promise to
+those who disregard them. In the future, no doubt, a higher average of
+health will be the result of our ever-increasing knowledge; and whenever
+we are able and willing to apply this knowledge to our own bodily and
+mental conduct we shall be amply rewarded. This much we can safely
+promise, but no more. On the contrary, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[<a href="./images/161.png">161</a>]</span>violators of hygienic laws
+will, with their offspring, suffer in the future as in the past, and
+that suffering will be in the form of pain, disease, degeneration,
+premature death.</p>
+
+<p>This may seem hard to many who are sensitive to the pains and sorrows of
+the world, and some have gone so far as to attribute to the author of
+nature, the unknown cause of all things, a character anything but good.
+But this is a very erroneous way of looking at the subject. To discuss
+it fully we should have to consider the question of the mystery of evil,
+which cannot be done here. Suffice it to say, the creation, the
+evolution of the race, is by law. Causes produce their legitimate
+results. If it were not so, our sufferings might be far greater, and no
+progress would result. Let us be thankful that nature is as it is, and
+let us do our best to put our lives in harmony with it. By so doing, we
+may in the end attain all that we strive for.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[<a href="./images/162.png">162</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>THE GERM PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The germ plasm is a most interesting and remarkable substance. It must
+be interesting, for everything which relates to life and reproduction is
+interesting. It must be remarkable, for out of it, under proper
+conditions, remarkable results are produced. Although our knowledge of
+its nature is very imperfect, yet let us not on this account refuse to
+try to understand what little is known.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the germ plasm of animals which reproduce sexually
+is composed of two germ plasms&mdash;that of the male, and that of the
+female. That of the male is called the <i>spermatozoon</i> (pronounced
+sper´ma-to-zoön). It is sometimes called spermatozoid; the plural is
+spermatozoa. It is exceedingly small, the smallest of any cell in the
+body, and has the power to move from place to place. These cells are
+produced in enormous numbers, and so far as they have been observed
+under the microscope they differ considerably in power of movement and
+in perfection of development. Considering their small size, they must
+make a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[<a href="./images/163.png">163</a>]</span>very long journey to find the ovum; and if they were only few in
+number, they would rarely succeed; but existing in large numbers, for
+there are millions of them produced in each sexual act of the male, some
+of them are pretty sure to do so, and, probably in most cases, it would
+be those most vigorous and capable of making the journey most direct and
+in the least time.</p>
+
+<p>That of the female is called the <i>ovum</i>, or egg; plural, <i>ova</i>. Only a
+small number are produced, when compared with the number of the male
+spermatozoa, but there are quite enough for the ends they are to serve.
+They have not the same power of movement, though they do move somewhat
+as the amæba does. They are also very much larger than the male cells.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of all mammals look alike as they come from the ovaries, but
+take on some changes afterward. Hæckel says: "Every primitive egg being
+an entirely simple, somewhat round, moving, naked cell, possesses no
+membrane, and consists only of a nucleus and protoplasm. These two parts
+have long borne distinctive names: the protoplasm being called the
+<i>vitellus</i>, or yelk, and the nucleus the <i>germinal vesicle</i> (<i>vesicula
+germinativa</i>)." The same author also says: "The human egg cannot be
+distinguished from that of most other mammals, either in its immature or
+in its more complete condition. Its form, its size, its composition, are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[<a href="./images/164.png">164</a>]</span>approximately the same in all. In its fully developed condition it has
+an average diameter of one-tenth of a line&mdash;about the one hundred and
+twentieth part of an inch. If the mammalian egg is properly isolated,
+and held on a plate of glass towards the light, it appears to the eye as
+a very fine point. The normal eggs of most of the higher mammals are of
+almost exactly the same size. They have the same spherical form; always
+the same characteristic covering; always the same clear, round germinal
+vesicle with its dark germinal spot. Even under the highest power of our
+best microscopes there <i>appears</i> to be no essential difference between
+the eggs of a human being and that of the ape, the dog, the cat or other
+animal." This similarity is one of appearance only. There is a
+difference, and of this I shall speak later. It may be asked if the egg
+of a bird is the same as the egg of a mammal. The mature bird's egg, as
+it is laid in the nest, differs materially from that of any mammal; but
+in its miniature form, as found in the hen's ovary, it is also the same.
+The egg of a bird after it leaves the ovary, and as it passes along the
+oviduct, takes on secretions in its passage which it converts into yelk,
+and afterwards a shell is added to give it protection in the external
+world, where it must undergo incubation before it can become a bird; but
+before it takes on its shell it has been fertilized, and this <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[<a href="./images/165.png">165</a>]</span>also
+causes other changes. Hæckel says: "After the ripe egg of the bird has
+left the ovary, and has been fertilized in the oviduct, it surrounds
+itself with various coverings which are secreted from the inner surface
+of the oviduct. The thick layer of transparent albumen first forms round
+the yellow yelk; this is followed by the formation of the outer
+calcareous shell, within which is another envelope, or skin. All these
+coverings and additions which are gradually formed round the egg are of
+no importance to the development of the embryo; they are parts which
+have nothing to do with the simple egg cell. Even in the case of other
+animals we often find large eggs with thick coverings. For example, the
+shark's; but even in this case the egg is originally exactly similar to
+those of mammals when in its primitive condition as it comes from the
+ovary. In the case of the bird these additions serve only as food for
+the growing embryo, which, in the case of mammals, is furnished by a
+stream of the mother's blood, making 'stored-up' nutriment unnecessary."</p>
+
+<p>Before, however, we can have <i>true germ plasm</i> the mother cell must be
+fertilized by the male cell. This is true of all the higher plants and
+animals. There are some low plants and animals in which fertilization by
+the male cell is not required. This has been called virginal generation.
+In no mammal is this possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[<a href="./images/166.png">166</a>]</span>
+How fertilization takes place and what it signifies are both important
+questions which have not been entirely settled, and it almost seems as
+if they could not be settled in some of their details, except in the
+lower forms of life. Nature has so protected the process from
+observation in the higher animals that it cannot be studied in detail;
+but in plants and the lowest animals it has been observed with some
+success, and we may infer that the process is very much the same in the
+higher animals.</p>
+
+<p>Hæckel, in his great work on the Evolution of Man, tells us that "The
+process of fertilization in sexual generation depends essentially on the
+fact that two dissimilar cells meet and blend. In former times the
+strangest views prevailed with regard to this act. Men have always been
+disposed to regard it as thoroughly mystical, and the most widely
+different hypotheses have been framed to account for it. It is only
+within a few years that closer study has shown that the whole process of
+fertilization is extremely simple, and entirely without special mystery.
+Essentially, it consists merely in the fact that the male sperm-cell
+coalesces with the female egg-cell. Owing to its sinuous movements, the
+very mobile sperm-cell finds its way to the female egg-cell, penetrates
+the membrane of the latter by a perforating motion, and coalesces with
+its cell material.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[<a href="./images/167.png">167</a>]</span></p><p>"A poet might find in this circumstance a capital opportunity for
+painting in glowing colors the wonderful mystery of fertilization; he
+might describe the struggles of the 'seed animalcules' eagerly dancing
+round the egg-cell shut up in its many coverings, disputing the passage
+through the minute pore-canals of the chorion, and then of purpose
+burying themselves in the protoplasm of the yelk mass, where, in a
+spirit of self-sacrifice, they completely efface themselves in the
+better 'ego.' But the critical naturalist very prosaically conceives
+this poetical incident, this 'crown of love,' as the mere coalescence of
+two cells! The result of this is, that in the first place the egg-cell
+is rendered capable of further evolution, and, secondly, that the
+hereditary qualities of <i>both</i> parents can be transmitted to the child."</p>
+
+<p>By coalescence is understood, growing together, not mingling as water
+and milk might when mixed. More recent observations indicate that during
+coalescence both the male and female cells throw off some portions of
+their substance. It is also considered that the important part of each
+cell is its nucleus. In it all hereditary characteristics are stored up.
+If the nucleus be absent in either cell these cells cannot reproduce. In
+unicellular, or one-celled, organisms, it has been found in
+multiplication by division, a part of the nucleus must go with each
+half, otherwise the half without a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[<a href="./images/168.png">168</a>]</span>part of it does not grow. In
+experiments in laboratories, artificial division of simple organisms may
+be made, and each fragment will become a perfect creature if only a very
+small piece of the nucleus goes with the separated portion; but if a
+part is cut off without any of the nucleus, then, while it may live on
+for a short time, it can not grow or propagate.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly we have here an explanation of some hereditary phenomena in
+human beings. If there is an unequal division, and more of the male than
+of the female nucleus, the child might, as a result, inherit more of the
+father's than of the mother's characteristics, or the reverse.</p>
+
+<p>What has been so far said about the germ plasm has been to enable the
+reader to possess a degree of intelligence on the nature of
+fertilization, so far as it is known; but from a practical standpoint
+the most important knowledge for those prospective parents who wish to
+practice intelligent stirpiculture is to understand that the health of
+the germ plasm or fertilized ovum depends on the health of the parents.
+By health, I mean the possession of a good constitution, to which will
+be added a strong hold on life, power to do and to endure, and quickly
+to recover from weariness. Disease will be easily warded off in such
+persons, so that there will be generally good health. Such a condition
+of body is usually inherited. It depends on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[<a href="./images/169.png">169</a>]</span>the possession of a large
+supply in the body of living matter&mdash;firm muscles, a good heart, lungs
+and digestive organs. Those who are feeble cannot endure much; whose
+heart, lungs and digestive organs are weak; whose hold on life is
+slight, can rarely endow their offspring with these high qualities.
+Their children may live if no great strain comes upon them; but if they
+must take an active part in the struggle and competition going on in the
+world they cannot endure it. Mr. Spencer puts the case very aptly in his
+work on Ethics where he says: "It results that where maternal vigor is
+great, and the surplus vitality consequently large, a long series of
+children may be borne before any deterioration in their quality becomes
+marked; while, on the other hand, a mother with but a small surplus may
+soon cease altogether to reproduce. Further, it results that variations
+in the state of health of parents which involves variations in the
+surplus vitality have their effects on the constitutions of offspring to
+the extent that offspring borne during greatly deranged maternal health
+are decidedly feebler. And then, lastly and chiefly, it results that
+after the constitutional vigor has culminated, and there has commenced
+that gradual decline which in some twenty years or so brings absolute
+infertility, there goes on a gradual decrease in that surplus vitality
+on which the production of offspring depends, and a consequent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[<a href="./images/170.png">170</a>]</span>deterioration in the quality of such offspring. This which is <i>a
+priori</i> conclusion is verified <i>a posteriori</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. J. Mathews Duncan, in his work on Fecundity, Fertility, Sterility
+and allied topics, has given results of statistics which show that
+mothers of twenty-five bear the finest infants, and that from mothers
+whose ages at marriage range from twenty to twenty-five years there come
+infants which have a lower rate of mortality than those resulting from
+marriages consummated when the mothers' ages are smaller or greater. The
+apparent slight incongruity between these two statements being due to
+the fact that whereas marriages commenced before twenty and twenty-five
+cover the whole of the period of highest vigor, marriages commenced at
+five and twenty cover a period which lacks the years during which vigor
+is rising to its climax and includes only the years of decline from the
+climax."</p>
+
+<p>This quotation from Mr. Spencer needs a qualifying remark. Mr. Galton,
+in his work on Hereditary Genius, found that the average age of mothers
+of men of the greatest ability was about thirty, and of their fathers
+thirty-five. In such cases, the physical and intellectual strength must
+have been above the average, and, consequently, it continued to a more
+advanced age. Besides, those of great ability mature later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[<a href="./images/171.png">171</a>]</span>
+It may also be added that Duncan's statistics, quoted by Spencer, are
+average statistics gathered from tables of mortality, and include every
+class of persons. Now, average statistics do not apply to individual
+cases, and they would not apply to those highly endowed physically and
+intellectually.</p>
+
+<p>Further, those who are well endowed at birth and whose lives are in
+accordance with hygienic law, that is, those who do not squander their
+physiological resources by sensuality, by intemperance, or by excesses
+of any sort retain their health to a greater age than those whose lives
+are the reverse. Such are of a youthful physiological age, which is not
+altogether determined by the actual number of years they have lived, but
+by very high physiological conditions.</p>
+
+<p>From all this we conclude that a very important rule in the production
+of offspring, if we would have those offspring superior, is to maintain
+a high degree of health&mdash;a condition in which there is a surplus of
+physiological capital to produce children with endowments equal to, if
+not superior to, their parents.</p>
+
+<p>Another subject requires treatment here. It is the effect of alcohol on
+offspring. We are yet lacking in statistics giving the facts we need to
+know on this subject; but the general observation of competent persons
+who have had good opportunities to study it may teach us something.
+Alcohol, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[<a href="./images/172.png">172</a>]</span>in its circulation in the blood, penetrates every part; not
+even the germ plasm escapes. Demme studied ten families of drinkers and
+ten families of temperate persons. The direct posterity of the ten
+families of drinkers included fifty-seven children. Of these,
+twenty-five died in the first weeks and months of their lives; six were
+idiots; in five a striking backwardness of their longitudinal growth was
+observed; five were affected with epilepsy, and five with inborn
+diseases. Thus, of the fifty-seven children of drinkers only ten, or
+17.5 per cent., had normal constitutions and healthful growth. The ten
+sober families had sixty-one children, five only dying in the first
+weeks; four were affected with curable diseases of the nervous system;
+two only had inborn defects. The remaining fifty, 81.9 per cent., were
+normal in their constitutions and development.</p>
+
+<p>In this statement we have a graphic object lesson of the evil effects of
+alcohol on the germ plasm. Natural selection had far more to do in
+removing those unfit to survive in the intemperate than in the temperate
+families.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the evil effects of alcohol on the unborn child was known
+to the ancients. The mother of Sampson was warned "not to drink any wine
+or strong drink nor to eat any unclean thing" because she was to
+conceive and bear a son who was to deliver Israel out of the hands of
+the Philistines. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[<a href="./images/173.png">173</a>]</span>Manoah was so interested in what the angel of the Lord
+had said to his wife that he sought an interview with him for further
+confirmation, and asked: "How shall we order the child, and how shall we
+do unto him?" evidently meaning, "How shall we train and educate him?"
+and the same advice was given as before. Whatever view the reader may
+hold as to the inspiration or non-inspiration of the Bible, certainly
+this advice was good. Other examples similar to it are to be found, not
+only in the same book, but in numerous historical works, and also
+abundant evidence in our own time of the evil effects of alcoholic
+drinks on unborn children giving them a tendency to insanity, idiocy and
+other nervous diseases. A whole book might be written on this branch of
+our subject.</p>
+
+<p>To what extent food affects the germ plasm we remain somewhat in
+ignorance. We know that it is from it that the body is nourished, and
+from it also the stored up or surplus matter in our systems is obtained.
+The larger the surplus the more highly will the offspring be endowed
+with energy is a fact clearly set forth by Mr. Spencer. A surplus of
+fatty food stored up in the body, however, cannot be of much service and
+may prove injurious. A deficiency of nitrogenous food would also, it
+seems to me, be an evil. The germ plasm, or its most important part, is
+a highly nitrogenous substance, like all protoplasm, or living matter.
+The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[<a href="./images/174.png">174</a>]</span>highest form of germ plasm, that with a most complex molecular
+structure, would hardly be formed if there was a deficiency of
+nitrogenous matter in the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Air is also food the same as bread is. The activities, the chemical
+changes in the body, are mainly, though not entirely, between the oxygen
+of the air and the carbon and hydrogen of our food. The body is quite as
+much injured by a deficiency of air inhaled into the lungs by exercise
+as by a deficiency of food, though the injury may be of a different
+nature. Physicians and others have long ago observed that the offspring
+of parents living much in the open air and sunlight are healthier and
+stronger than those of parents living in confined spaces, where air and
+light are deficient. Air which is impure, which is loaded with poisonous
+matter, if inhaled for a long time by the mother, lowers the standard of
+her health. In malarious regions, the vigor of the offspring is less,
+and the number who die in infancy greater, than in regions where the air
+and water are pure. Many years ago I remember reading in one of the
+journals devoted to sanitary science published in London, an account of
+a rural town where both air and water were of extraordinary purity, and
+in this town a very large percentage of the children born lived to grow
+to maturity. There is also an isolated region in France, bordering on
+the sea, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[<a href="./images/175.png">175</a>]</span>where both air, water and climate are unusually salubrious,
+and though intermarriage has been practiced for a long time among the
+several thousand inhabitants, the people are remarkably well formed and
+healthy. Similar facts have been observed in other places. They indicate
+to us that a healthful climate, with good air and water, are important
+factors in all true stirpiculture.</p>
+
+<p>While all diseases which exhaust the physiological resources of the
+system are detrimental to the offspring, there are certain ones which
+are peculiarly so. Specific diseases or those resulting from a sensual
+life are the first to be mentioned. If the bodies of either father or
+mother become saturated with the poison, which is probably a germ, then
+the child born of such parents will certainly be infected and either die
+at birth or live only a short and feeble life. It is one of the
+penalties of an impure life&mdash;a very severe one, no doubt, but perhaps
+not too severe, that the offspring of the sensualist must suffer the
+penalties for its parent's physiological sins. Medical men have long
+been trying to discover a remedy which will make it safe for a man
+infected with specific disease to marry and become a father, but so far
+they have not had much success. It is doubtful if they ever will.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy is another disease which is so often transmitted to children
+that any one of either sex <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[<a href="./images/176.png">176</a>]</span>suffering from it had better abstain from
+parentage. If one parent is remarkably healthy, the children may escape
+the severest form of penalty; but even then they may suffer from
+nervousness and other diseases, and rarely enjoy robust health.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether persons who have a consumptive tendency should
+become parents or not has frequently been discussed by sanitarians, but
+never settled. Such persons are frequently intellectual, and often of an
+unusually cheerful and hopeful disposition. They are, in most cases,
+quite prolific. In the female they generally make excellent wives and
+mothers; in the case of the male, they are not uncommonly good providers
+for their families, and also good fathers. Except in the worst cases,
+does the welfare of the race demand that they shall not marry and become
+parents. Probably not. But we must advise them to take the very best
+care of their imperfect bodies; to develop their chests by wise but not
+excessive physical training; to husband their physiological resources
+carefully; not to marry young, nor rear too many children. Excessive
+childbearing is a prolific cause in women of consumption, and excessive
+sexual indulgence is a frequent cause of it in both sexes.</p>
+
+<p>These remarks should not be construed to mean that those who are already
+in the early stages of this disease, or whose families on both sides
+have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[<a href="./images/177.png">177</a>]</span>been deeply affected by it, may become parents. They should not.
+But in the present state of society, we cannot hold men and women up to
+an ideal standard. Some slight risks may be taken, but not too great
+ones. As the race progresses in knowledge, however, we may raise our
+standards, and finally make them so high that no one with a tendency to
+any serious disease which is likely to affect the offspring unfavorably
+shall have any right to contribute to the world's population.</p>
+
+<p>I have mentioned only a few of the many diseases which affect the germ
+plasm unfavorably. It is hardly necessary to extend the list.</p>
+
+<p>One other subject deserves consideration, when I will bring this chapter
+to a close. Every child born into the world is, to a certain extent, an
+experiment. That is to say, the parents cannot predict its sex, nor what
+its chief characteristics will be. These depend on what potentialities
+are stored up in the germ plasm. If this be formed by parents in good
+health, with a surplus of vital force, and a long line of ancestors with
+normal lives, we may believe that if the environment be favorable, the
+child will develop so as to show the same characteristics, perhaps in an
+even higher degree. Whatever variations there are will not be much below
+or above the average line of its ancestors. The congenital characters
+will tend to be transmitted. They are in the germ plasm, even in great
+detail. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[<a href="./images/178.png">178</a>]</span>Whether the acquired ones are transmitted may still be
+uncertain; but whether they are or not, normal right living will be sure
+to have good effects. Obey the laws of life and far better results will
+follow than if they are disobeyed.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[<a href="./images/179.png">179</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the present age suggestions on this subject may seem superfluous. The
+more highly educated and wealthy classes have already sufficiently
+reduced the number of children which they bring into the world. But are
+these offspring any better than they would have been had their parents
+given birth to a larger number?</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Darwin did not think much could be done to improve the race by
+parents limiting the number of their offspring. He would trust to
+natural selection to weed out the unfit, and to sexual selection as an
+aid. He thus describes the probable manner of action of sexual selection
+among primeval men: "The strongest and most vigorous men&mdash;those who
+could best defend and hunt for their families; those who were provided
+with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as a large
+number of dogs or other animals&mdash;would succeed in rearing a greater
+average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members of the
+same tribes. Such men would doubtless generally be able to select the
+more attractive women.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[<a href="./images/180.png">180</a>]</span>If, then, this be admitted, it would be an
+unexplainable circumstance if the selection of the more attractive women
+by the more powerful men of the tribes, who would rear on the average a
+greater number of children, did not, after the lapse of generations,
+<i>modify the character of the tribes</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The way in which the tribe would be modified would be by its producing
+better children. Of course among primitive men the richer and more
+powerful had several wives, but it is not likely that the number of
+children by each one was large.</p>
+
+<p>Natural selection is, however, a painful process, necessary, no doubt,
+where ignorance prevails; but if the number of children of each pair
+could be limited and of a superior character, so far as vigor and
+adaptation to environment are concerned, would there not be less need
+for natural selection with all its evils? It seems to us that this would
+be so.</p>
+
+<p>We have already quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence from
+parenthood on the part of the unfit and the duty on the part of the fit
+to become parents, and, theoretically, Mr. Allen is right; but except as
+both of these classes are swayed by duty we would make little progress
+in this way. A majority of mankind think they are the fit. Why should
+they crucify their desires for the benefit of the race? As mankind
+becomes more moral Mr. Allen's views may have a larger influence on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[<a href="./images/181.png">181</a>]</span>thought than now; but before that time little can be expected from
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Spencer says: "We have fallen upon evil times, in which it has come
+to be an accepted doctrine that part of the responsibilities [of
+parenthood] are to be discharged, not by parents, but by the public&mdash;a
+part which is gradually becoming a larger part, and threatens to become
+the whole. Agitators and legislators have united in spreading a theory
+which, logically followed out, ends in the monstrous conclusion that it
+is for parents to beget children and for society to take care of them.
+The political ethics now in fashion makes the unhesitating assumption
+that while each man, as parent, is not responsible for the mental
+culture of his offspring he is, as a citizen along with other citizens,
+responsible for the mental culture of all other men's offspring! And
+this absurd doctrine has now become so well established that people
+raise their eyes in astonishment if you deny. But this ignoring of the
+truth, that only by due discharge of parental responsibilities has all
+life on the earth arisen, and that only through the better discharge of
+them have there gradually been made possible better types of life, is,
+in the long run, fatal. Breach of natural law will, in this case, as in
+all cases, be followed in due time by nature's revenge&mdash;a revenge which
+will be terrible in proportion as the breach has been great. A system
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[<a href="./images/182.png">182</a>]</span>under which parental duties are performed wholesale by those who are
+not parents, under the plea that many parents cannot or will not perform
+their duties&mdash;a system which fosters the inferior children of inferior
+parents at the cost of superior parents and consequent injury of
+superior children&mdash;a system which thus helps incapables to multiply and
+hinders the multiplication of capables or diminishes their capability
+must bring decay and ultimate extinction. A society which persists in
+such a system must&mdash;other things equal&mdash;go to the wall in the
+competition with a society which does not commit this folly of
+nourishing its worst at the expense of its best."</p>
+
+<p>We have evidence among primitive people that they understand the
+necessity of limiting offspring, and practice it in a perfectly
+healthful way. The natives of Uganda, a region in Central Africa, offers
+an illustration: "The women rarely have more than two or three children;
+the practice is that when a woman has borne a child she is to live apart
+from her husband for two years, at which age children are weaned."</p>
+
+<p>Seaman, speaking of the Fijians, says: "After childbirth husband and
+wife keep apart three and even four years, so that no other baby may
+interfere with the time considered necessary for suckling children."</p>
+
+<p>Some fifty years ago there lived in New York a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[<a href="./images/183.png">183</a>]</span>young couple, strong,
+healthy, ambitious to be rich, and both saving and industrious enough to
+become so under ordinary conditions. The husband was in a business which
+required constant attention; and in order to promote it and save the
+expense of help which he thought he could not afford, he labored nights,
+often up to the hours of twelve and sometimes one o'clock, and then
+arose early and went at it again. His wife sympathized with him in all
+his undertakings, helped him in every way possible, even to the sharing
+of his midnight toils. In no way did either of them spare themselves.
+They knew something of the evils of poverty, and were determined that it
+should not always be their lot. Fortune favored them, and their bank
+account grew larger and larger until they could count the value of their
+possessions as amounting to several million dollars. They lived in a
+fine country seat, and could gratify every wish, so far as food,
+clothing, books and travel were concerned. During their early married
+life, when the strain of work was the greatest, two children were born
+unto them, both boys, and they are alive today; but are they a comfort
+to their parents, and a help in their declining years? Instead of this
+they are both deformed and cripples, unable to help themselves or do any
+labor. Their family physician has told me that the overwork and
+privation of the parents at the time of their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[<a href="./images/184.png">184</a>]</span>birth and before, was
+undoubtedly the cause of the children's inferiority. A younger son born
+after the wife had ceased to toil like a slave, gives some promise of
+being a man of character.</p>
+
+<p>We have here a typical case of strong, healthy parents, with a limited
+number of offspring, yet they were not superior. On the other hand, it
+would be easy to collect a large number of instances where the children
+in large families have had superior endowments. Take Benjamin Franklin
+as an example. He was the fifteenth child of his father, Josiah
+Franklin, and the eighth of the ten children of his mother.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that superiority is a result of great vigor and perfection of
+body and mind and of abundant reproductive power. Where this is absent
+the children will hardly be superior. Yet in both cases a certain degree
+of limitation ought to be advantageous.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, let me say what I have indirectly said already. Let the
+strong, the capable and the good rear as many children as they can
+without overburdening themselves in any way, and let the weak, the
+imperfect and the bad rear few or none, but devote their lives to
+perfecting their own characters. In this way the future race will be
+modified for good and not for evil.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[<a href="./images/185.png">185</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>A THEORETICAL BABY.</h2>
+
+<h3><i>Reported by request of Dr. Holbrook.</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>It was our first baby. I was making a living as a doctor by writing
+articles on the general care of the health; and my wife before her
+marriage had been a kindergartner, a trainer of kindergartners, and a
+lecturer to mothers on the scientific and expert methods of rearing
+children aright. We believed in the theories we had taught, and our baby
+got nothing else from the start. According to the first applied theory,
+we made our temporary home before the boy began to be, in the Rocky
+Mountains of Colorado; and were a large part of the time either in our
+garden or on horseback, in this perfect outdoor climate. My wife was
+entirely in love with me, and I made each day count for nothing more
+certainly than to deserve and return that sentiment of hers. We lived
+simply but freely, and had next to no anxieties. My wife had practiced
+general gymnastics for years; but for months prior to the birth of her
+boy, she every day went through with a series of special maternal
+gymnastics, by which the muscles that aid in parturition can be made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[<a href="./images/186.png">186</a>]</span>strong and entirely to be relied upon. We were rewarded for this outlay
+of time in a delivery that was rapid and easy, without more than an
+ounce of hæmorrhage, and everything so perfectly controlled that&mdash;except
+for the inconvenience of it&mdash;the presence and aid of the physician
+(myself) might have been dispensed with. Recovery was rapid also. My
+wife made no haste to get up, keeping quiet most of the time for two
+weeks, to ensure good milk. But she did a family washing without effort
+after three weeks, and was on horseback again by the sixth week. The
+baby was not severed from his mother till ten minutes after birth
+(ensuring a better blood supply). Then he got no bath, no food, no
+dressing process; but was simply swathed in cotton batting and laid
+aside for six hours in a padded box-bed, surrounded by bottles of hot
+water, and covered with plenty of soft blankets, to sleep and get used
+to his new environment. On the second day we began rubbing him daily
+from head to foot with vaseline. His first bath, with a flannel cloth
+dipped in warm milk diluted with soft water and without soap, came when
+he was a week old, and was followed by the thorough rub with vaseline.
+This bath he has had nearly every day up to date. He has often cried, or
+crowed and begged for this bath; but never cried during its performance,
+except when his clothes were being replaced. On the contrary, he enjoys
+every moment of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>[<a href="./images/187.png">187</a>]</span>
+Feeding began with a meal every hour of the twenty-four, for the first
+week. Then night feeding was reduced to two meals, and he was fed every
+two hours, from four or five o'clock in the morning till nine at night,
+till two months old. About then he began sleeping right through the
+nights; and until three months old was fed every three hours of the day
+time; then for a month he went four hours between his meals. At his
+fourth month began the present regime of four meals <i>per diem</i>. Now and
+then he has cried in the night from thirst, and a few spoonsful of cold
+water have sufficed to send him off to sleep again. All in all, I think
+I could count on my fingers the times that he has wakened us out of
+hours, and not once has anyone walked the floor with him. In fact, no
+diversions of this sort have ever been practiced on him. He has never
+been rocked to sleep; whenever cross or fretful in the day, we have
+known that sleep was all he needed, and into his little bed he has been
+promptly plumped, and covered with a loosely knit afghan, tented on a
+light framework, which we call "the extinguisher." Here shut away and
+entirely unnoticed he soon learned to give himself up to his own
+reflections, and then presently to sleep. Thus we have kept down the
+first great nuisance of ordinary infancy, namely, egoism and a habit of
+howling for attention when no attention is really needed. But social
+relations, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>[<a href="./images/188.png">188</a>]</span>and those of the gayest, he has constantly with both his
+parents. We take up and make into play with him each idea of his own. We
+have shown him some finger-plays. In the main we leave him to originate
+his own amusements.</p>
+
+<p>From the keeping of stomach and bowels absolutely healthy, by a regular
+and reasonable exercise of their all-important functions, not only has
+the boy been free from irritability, and spontaneously happy and
+self-amused, sometimes quiet, and sometimes jolly to overflowing. But
+the second great nuisance of those ordinarily attending baby-raising,
+namely, sour stomach followed by colic, was eliminated. A secondary
+result of this entire regularity of functioning at the upper end of the
+alimentary canal was that a like regularity set in at the other end.
+That is, at the thirteenth week he began to have but one daily passage
+of fæcal matter, and that soon after breakfast. Of the approach of this
+act he notified his mother without fail, and thereafter we had no soiled
+diapers. Movements were received on pieces of old cloth, and cloth and
+all tossed into a pan of ashes, or the fire, when we had one. When, at
+six months, we put him onto cow's milk, mixed with thin graham porridge,
+to supply the extra nourishment demanded by rapid growth, he went up to
+two movements per diem&mdash;morning and evening. Thus, the third great
+nuisance of of diaper washing was eliminated, in its more <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a>[<a href="./images/189.png">189</a>]</span>disagreeable
+feature. Eructation of curds, rashes, colic, diarrh&oelig;a&mdash;these common
+ailments of ordinary babyhood, we have never had a sight of. We believe
+it due solely to strict adherence to the four-meals-a-day plan. These
+consist of an early breakfast, a later breakfast, a dinner about one
+o'clock and a supper between six and seven. The bath comes at any
+convenient time. On pleasant days, even in winter, he is outdoors, well
+wrapped, in a chair, for hours, and often has a long nap there. He was
+provided, by my own needle and penknife, with an ample fur sleeping
+sack, into which he is securely buttoned every evening and laid in his
+box-bed, on a trunk. He never sleeps with his parents. According to the
+coolness or coldness of the nights, additional covering, in the shape of
+soft blankets and shawls, is laid in on the box, their weight supported
+by the edges of the box. He cannot uncover himself, but he can kick
+freely, and use his arms. We dressed him, from the first, in the
+"<i>Gertrude</i>" system of baby clothes, introduced by Dr. Grosvenor, of
+Chicago&mdash;all woolen princess garments, with shirring strings at the
+lower hems, by which they are made closed bags, ending just below the
+feet; warm, but allowing of kicking <i>ad libitum</i>. At five months&mdash;it
+being winter time&mdash;he went into short clothes, including solid suits of
+warm flannel underwear, shirts, drawers and long snug-fitting stockings.
+He has never had a cold. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>[<a href="./images/190.png">190</a>]</span>His muscles, from the first (due to his
+mother's gymnastics), were firm and active, like those of an adult. At
+the fourth week he surprised us by suspending his entire weight from his
+hands and arms one morning. Legs, neck, back and hands particularly have
+developed steadily in power and quickness. There was never any fat
+deposited&mdash;that <i>avant courier</i> of so much infant mortality&mdash;yet he is,
+and has been all along, a rosy, plump, dimpled baby, or boy, rather, for
+babyhood very early lost its hold on him. Too often children seem
+finally to emerge from the miseries and ailments of a tedious infancy
+and to take on, at last, individuality and distinct character at the
+second or third year. This child, <i>per contra</i>, having never had a
+sensation of illness, or of pain, save honest hunger, has seemed to be a
+happy little boy almost from the first, alert or thoughtful, shouting or
+cooing, laughing and crowing, especially after his meals and movements,
+studying the world of things about him by the hour, keenly appreciative
+of colors and of music, and preferring some sorts to others, his face
+crossed by vivid changes of expression, wonder, merriment, surprise,
+reverie&mdash;all as perfect at six months as ordinarily seen at three years.
+He has good color from head to foot, is pale when hungry, but the moment
+a bit of food is down expands to his most genial flow of spirits.
+Immediately after his day-time naps his cheeks are regularly flushed and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a>[<a href="./images/191.png">191</a>]</span>rosy. His spirits become more pronounced toward each evening, reaching
+their high-point of talking, laughing, crowing and squealing at just
+about bed-time. He keeps it up for some time after being tucked away for
+the night, till sleep masters him; and begins where he left off early
+next morning. All this is good physiology. So happy day succeeds happy
+day, and we trust and hope that many good tendencies are getting a fair
+start in a harmonious and spontaneous beginning of this great work of
+growing up that we are fostering but not forcing.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">At One Year Old.</span>&mdash;Everything continues as begun. Teething at times
+causes slight transient fretfulness, and more cold water is drunk. The
+bowels remain absolutely regular. The all-night sleep (never "put to
+sleep,") and two day-time naps are unchanged, in all thirteen or
+fourteen hours of sleep <i>per diem</i>. On warm days he needs <i>and gets</i>
+plenty of cool water to drink, often two-thirds of a pint at a time.
+Talking, standing and creeping he has attained by his own unaided
+initiative (this on principle). As for amusements, he invents his own
+always, except when engaged in social exchange with his father and
+mother, and in these, too, we are careful that he makes at least half
+the advances.</p>
+
+<p>On particular occasions he comes in need of mothering&mdash;and gets it. On
+all others he simply <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>[<a href="./images/192.png">192</a>]</span>lives with two big but highly sympathetic
+playfellows; and he has developed separate lines of play and talk for
+each. Often he chooses to alternate as between two poles of attraction,
+turning his face to his mother's for her sympathy between shouts to his
+father, or <i>vice versa</i>. From week to week we notice that the older
+plays are mostly dropped one by one, and fresh ones invented. All,
+however, are real and vivid to him.</p>
+
+<p>In early prospect we have but two more points to compass. Perfect health
+in all respects he has intact. Self-control and self-sufficiency, both
+in amusing himself and in enduring lesser ills, such as bumps and mild
+degrees of hunger, he is getting as fast as growth permits. But
+obedience and responsibility will soon be needed in his repertoire.
+Negative obedience his mother is obtaining already in response to "No,
+no," and shakes of the head. Positive obedience will be the far more
+vital thing to secure&mdash;just as soon as he can help in little ways. Here
+we hope to make him responsible as far as can be for the welfare, safety
+and amusement of younger playfellows, whether brother or sister it is
+now too soon to say.</p>
+
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">At Eighteen Months.</span>&mdash;A cold douche has, for three months past, ended his
+morning bath, regularly given by his father after his sister arrived,
+and his weight became considerable. This douche, poured slowly from a
+dipper until redness set in, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a>[<a href="./images/193.png">193</a>]</span>has added markedly to his spirits,
+muscular activity and digestive capacity. It causes screaming at the
+moment, but an instant later, as three Turkish towels are wrapped
+closely about him, his exuberance is delightful to see. Coincidently he
+has taken up a selected diet of solid food, including chocolate and
+cooked fruits, and will have but one nap, though often that is a long
+one.</p>
+
+<p>As the child is working out of babyhood, every day counting (as no day
+of half illness in childhood can count), and well into boyhood, the
+single principle already outlined, of leaving the little individuality
+to establish its own activities and socialities, seems sufficient, as
+the illustrations appended, I believe, prove. Doubtless a child that is
+not, day after day, enjoying, and often thrilled by health and life, as
+this little boy is, a child not brought up in an unbroken <i>camaraderie</i>
+with both parents, such as he has had, and particularly a child not
+having the send-off of trust and amiable impulse which he received
+before his birth, could not be left to blossom in such wild-flower
+style. Ugly, sulky or "streaky" conduct, jumping perversely out in place
+of good cheer, we have never had to deal with. In fact, we have never
+been able to detect the slightest resentment immediately after punishing
+him for taking forbidden articles, or for raising an outcry over being
+denied sundry things he wanted. His crying when punished is that of pure
+grief, and he <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>[<a href="./images/194.png">194</a>]</span>is ready at once to nestle down under the hand that had
+spatted disapproval, to be comforted, resuming good spirits two or three
+minutes later on. In the main, simply "No, no!" from either parent, has
+sufficed to stop him in the beginnings of mischief, sometimes resulting
+in cheerful desisting, and sometimes in a little of what we call the
+"grieved cry." But this, too, if it becomes loud or insistent, can be
+hushed by another "No, no," and enable him to regain control of himself.
+With this regained self-control has always come gratefulness for aid in
+the matter, as evinced by extra sweetness and brightness immediately
+after, and eager resumption of some one or other of his plays or calls
+with one or both of us. This may be what is known as discipline. It
+always brings a smile to our faces, however.</p>
+
+<p>Without a break of more than a day or two at a time, we have been able
+to be equally near him all the while, and divide up about equally the
+matters of bathing, feeding, dressing and undressing him. The
+conventional estimate of those standing nearest to a child of,</p>
+
+<ul class="list">
+<li>1&mdash;Mother,</li>
+<li>2&mdash;Nurse,</li>
+<li>3&mdash;Teacher,</li>
+<li>4&mdash;Servants and playmates,</li>
+<li>5&mdash;Older brother or sister,</li>
+<li>6&mdash;Father&mdash;the man behind the newspaper,</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>[<a href="./images/195.png">195</a>]</span>
+certainly does not apply here. When I am absent for from three to six
+hours his uneasiness sets in, and grows stronger and stronger, ending in
+repeated expeditions to a short distance along the road, where he stands
+and calls "Vager," "Vager," (Father, Father,) at first hopefully, then
+protestingly, and sometimes at last with indignation or tears. When I
+return&mdash;and he listens and catches the first distant sound of hoofs, or
+wheels, or whinny of the left-at-home colts, or voice, or opening
+gate&mdash;an eager, beaming face welcomes me from gate or doorway, or even
+several rods down the beaten snow on the road. Once back, things are all
+right in his little domain again, and he goes on, without special
+attention to me, in his series of occupations and plays.</p>
+
+<p>I say "occupations." They are nothing else to him; serious matters that
+he goes about accomplishing. He is at his best when he can help his
+mother at her work&mdash;blowing the fire, bringing her kindling, handing her
+clothespins one by one as she needs them, shutting or opening doors on
+request, picking up articles from the floor. But there are many hours
+continuously when he is left to his own devices, which are numerous,
+though many of them he goes through daily, such as feeding the cat,
+visiting his little sister, emptying and refilling the wall-pockets,
+collecting his blocks, and fishing articles off the table with a long
+stick. He has learned, untaught, to get a cloth to open the stove door
+with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>[<a href="./images/196.png">196</a>]</span>and save burned fingers; to get and bring clean diapers to his
+mother when he wishes a change; to stoop and lap water out of the pail;
+to stand by his bed and point up at it when wishing his mid-day nap; to
+retreat to a dark corner and drape his handkerchief over his head for a
+brief period towards the close of a day, in lieu of the discarded second
+nap; to scoop bread or biscuit out of a pail hung above his reach, with
+an iron spoon; to lasso peaches toward him with a cord, said peaches
+being in pan on the floor just beyond where he could reach from a little
+gate separating the kitchen and sitting-room. None of these things has
+been taught him. Nothing whatever has been taught him, and especially no
+words and no "tricks." He invents or does without, in all non-essential
+matters, in regular Spartan style. So, in pursuit of his own
+undertakings, he rarely asks for what he would have; just tries and
+tries, day after day, until he succeeds or is beaten. But as he is at
+some new act or plan much of the time when left to himself, he has, we
+are satisfied, independently attained to more of childish accomplishment
+than the most incessant teaching processes could have effected. In doing
+what he does do, for instance, in certain climbing feats, he has slowly
+worked up to, he is both cautious and sure; he rarely tumbles and never
+loses his confidence. Thus for the past two days he has achieved the
+feat of climbing up and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a>[<a href="./images/197.png">197</a>]</span>standing erect on a little box fourteen inches
+high, where he calls and shouts and roars to us his ecstacy over the
+matter for ten minutes at a time. Today only he has found out how to get
+down alone. Contrast is taken here with the frequent falls and wailings
+of children who are first persuaded into attempts of various sorts, but
+have not worked out a real personal mastery of given acts for
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>He has quite a vocabulary now of his own invention. The meanings of
+these terms we have learned mostly, and use them to him. Of our
+vocabulary he understands the meanings of a large number of the words
+for things in which he is interested, forty or fifty nouns, and a dozen
+verbs, perhaps. He sings to his mother, and now and then to me, rude
+imitations of the songs he has heard us sing, and his mother he roughly
+accompanies. His inflections of voice have developed to the point of
+entirely expressing many of his emotions; while his expressions of face
+are as much beyond these as the inflections are beyond his stock of
+English&mdash;about seven words, and those requiring some exigency to bring
+out.</p>
+
+<p>All this pleases us, because we truly want him to become rich in his own
+life, to subsist and grow in his own home-made lines of feeling and
+thought; and not to learn words, parrot-like, before he has the thought
+formed, and searching, even struggling, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>[<a href="./images/198.png">198</a>]</span>for a means by which to convey
+itself. It is dearth of internal life, emotion and unaided thought that
+is in need of replenishment in the average young person, not lack of
+English dictionary terms for things that can be <i>talked about</i>, but are
+evidently not intrinsic and personal.</p>
+
+<p class="authorsc">C. W. Lyman, M. D.</p>
+
+<p><i>New Castle, Col.</i></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a>[<a href="./images/199.png">199</a>]</span></p>
+<h2><i>NOTES.</i></h2>
+
+
+<h3><i>War and Parentage.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the interests of unborn children we should, so far as possible,
+remove from the world those causes which, acting on the mother, either
+directly or indirectly, may injure them by lowering the standard of
+their health, or by altering and debasing their moral and intellectual
+natures. One of the most potent of the causes for harm is war. War has
+generally been regarded as one of the ennobling professions. If we look
+upon it in its most favorable light, all that we can say in its favor is
+that among primitive and barbarous races it has perhaps resulted in the
+preservation and spread of the most capable ones, and that it has at the
+same time welded them together into larger groups, and finally into
+nations, and habituated them to those restraints which are necessary to
+social existence; but we no longer require it for this purpose, and the
+industrial pursuits and the evolution of civilization are so disturbed
+by them that they should cease, and especially should they cease in the
+interest of our children, both born and unborn.</p>
+
+<p>How can war injure children? We have already shown in the chapter on
+<a href="#Page_55">Prenatal Culture</a> that when the mother <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>[<a href="./images/200.png">200</a>]</span>is under the influence of any
+powerful mental emotion, such as fear, depression, anger and similar
+passions during the months in which the child is being developed in her
+womb, there is very great danger of permanent injury to it. Only the
+strongest mothers, those with the most robust health, or who have the
+most stable nerves, those who are rarely thrown off their balance, are
+capable of resisting the intense excitements to which they are subject
+during some of the phases of war.</p>
+
+<p>As I mentioned in my early work on Marriage and Parentage, Esquirol, a
+French historian, gives details of a considerable number of cases of
+children born soon after some of the sieges of the French Revolution,
+which were weakly, nervous and idiotic, on account of the terrible
+strain to which their mothers had been subjected. In every war where a
+city is besieged, even if its women and children are sent away, they
+cannot be altogether free from anxieties and mental strains of a most
+unwholesome nature, and if some of them are soon to become mothers, the
+offspring not yet born must suffer. No one can estimate the vast number
+of children injured under such conditions in the ages past. They have
+been only incidentally referred to in history. The fame and glory of
+conquerors must not be dimmed by the relation of such occurrences.</p>
+
+<p>Joseph A. Allen, in <i>The Christian Register</i>, gives the results of some
+of his observations which bear on this subject. He says:</p>
+
+<p>"So much is being said about war and its effects, that I am prompted to
+send you the result of my observations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a>[<a href="./images/201.png">201</a>]</span>
+"I was in charge of the Massachusetts State Reform School for several
+years, when every inmate (there were between three and four hundred) was
+born before the Civil War&mdash;during the time of the great anti-slavery
+agitation, which did so much to educate the moral sense of the people.</p>
+
+<p>"I was again in charge of the same institution <i>when every inmate was
+born during, or soon after the war, when the mothers were reading,
+talking and dreaming of battles, and of husbands, fathers or brothers
+who had gone to the war</i>.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>I found as great a difference in the character of those inmates born
+before and after the Civil War as exists between a civilized and a
+savage nation.</i></p>
+
+<p>"<i>Those under my care the second time were much more difficult to
+control, more quarrelsome and defiant, less willing to work or study.
+The crimes for which they were sentenced were as different as their
+characters.</i></p>
+
+<p>"It was not uncommon for them to be sentenced for breaking and entering
+with deadly weapons.</p>
+
+<p>"This difference was not confined to inmates of reform schools, but it
+was manifest throughout all classes.</p>
+
+<p>"After the war crimes increased rapidly. In Boston garroting was common,
+and was only checked by Judge Russell sentencing all such subjects to
+the full extent of the law.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the close of the Civil War the State Prison at Charlestown,
+under Mr. Gideon Haynes, was, according to Dr. D. C. Wines, D. D., the
+model prison of the United <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a>[<a href="./images/202.png">202</a>]</span>States. Since that time it has been almost
+impossible to maintain proper discipline, owing, no doubt, to the more
+desperate character of the inmates.</p>
+
+<p>"Let us try to trace these effects back to their causes, and prove, if
+possible, that whatsoever a man (or nation) soweth, that shall it also
+reap."</p>
+
+<p>But there are other ways in which war militates against the noblest
+motherhood. Camp life is a school for vice and prostitution. In Camp
+Chickamauga, which is a sample of them all, during the war with Spain on
+account of Cuba, the amount and baseness of the prostitution by the
+soldiers, with both black and white women, exceeded description. In a
+single day forty-one cases of specific disease applied to the physicians
+at the hospitals for treatment. These things were not reported in the
+daily papers; they were too vile. The place was a hot-bed of vice,
+rather than a school of virtue and patriotism. In all European armies it
+is the same. In times of peace, soldiers from the highest to the lowest
+in rank, insist that facility shall be allowed them for the
+gratification of their passional natures. The officers, not being
+permitted to marry unless they or their wives have a certain income,
+keep their mistresses, and not a female servant near a camp is safe. The
+immoral influences here generated spread throughout society, lower the
+standard of morals among both men and women in private life, and
+jeopardize the interests of children born or unborn, morally and
+intellectually, as well as physically.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another view. "Great standing armies," <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a>[<a href="./images/203.png">203</a>]</span>says the Czar of
+Russia, in his note to the Powers, "<i>are transforming the armed power of
+our day into a crushing burden which the people have more and more
+difficulty in bearing</i>."</p>
+
+<p>That is to say, the tax imposed upon the individuals of any nation to
+support its army pauperizes or keeps on the verge of poverty a large
+portion of the race. It is war, far more than any other cause, which has
+created the burden of taxation. In some European countries almost every
+man carries a soldier or sailor on his back, that is, he must labor not
+only to support himself and family, but a soldier or sailor who devotes
+his life to a murderous profession. Is this not a grievous burden which
+cripples or paralyzes his life and reacts on his offspring?</p>
+
+<p>Now, the poverty caused by this burden is a serious obstacle to the
+production and training of the young, and especially is this the case in
+the more populous countries&mdash;France, Spain and Italy are examples. These
+lands were once the most powerful in Europe; they are so no longer. They
+gloried in war, and spent immense sums of money upon their armies and
+burdened the people with taxes which should have been reserved for the
+use of fathers and mothers in educating and providing for the needs of
+their offspring. War has crushed out the best life of these countries,
+and other nations which follow in the same path will in the end come to
+a similar fate. They may hold out a long time, but not forever. "The
+mills of Gods grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small."</p>
+
+<p>It is because war is an enemy to the highest motherhood <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a>[<a href="./images/204.png">204</a>]</span>that women
+should array themselves against it. It is one of the greatest foes to
+the development and welfare of the children they love so well. Women
+should insist that all governments should settle their differences by
+peaceful rather than by warlike means. The industrial age may have its
+difficulties, but they are not insurmountable. In it the fathers and
+mothers may have the time and the means to study and learn how to
+improve the race through a wiser parentage. I believe that thoughtful
+women, when they come to see the evils of war in their true light, as
+they have seen the evils of prostitution and intemperance, will be its
+greatest foes.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Cases of Prenatal Influences.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Alfred Russell Wallace gives in <i>Nature</i> a few cases of prenatal
+influences sent him by his correspondents. The first experience is from
+a mother residing in Australia. She writes:</p>
+
+<p>"I can trace in the character of my first child, a girl now twenty-two
+years of age, a special aptitude for sewing, economical contriving and
+cutting out, which came to me as a new experience when living in the
+country among new surroundings, and strict economy being necessary, I
+began to try to sew for the coming baby and myself. I also trace her
+great love of history to my study of Froude during that period. Her
+other tastes for art and literature are distinctly hereditary.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>[<a href="./images/205.png">205</a>]</span>
+"In the case of my second child, also a daughter, I having interested
+myself prior to her birth in literary pursuits, the result has been a
+much acuter form of intelligence, which at six years old enabled her to
+read and enjoy the ballads which Tennyson was then giving to the world,
+and which at the age of barely twenty years allowed her to take her
+degree as B. A. of the Sydney University.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the third child, a boy, was born, the current of our lives had
+changed a little. Visits to my own family and a change of residence to a
+distant colony, which involved a long journey, as well as the work
+incidental to such changes, together with the care of my two older
+children, absorbed all my time and thoughts, and left little or no
+leisure for studious pursuits. My occupations were more mechanical than
+at any other time previous. This boy does not inherit the studious
+tastes of his sisters at all. He is intelligent and possesses most of
+the qualifications which will probably conduce to success in life, but
+he prefers any kind of out-door work or handicraft to study. Had I been
+as alive then as I am now to the importance of these theories, I should
+have endeavored to guard against this possibility; as it is, I always
+feel that it is, perhaps, my fault that one of the greatest pleasures of
+life has been debarred to him.</p>
+
+<p>"But I must not weary you by so many personal details, and I trust you
+will not suspect me of vanity in thus bringing my own children under
+your notice. Suffice it to say that in every instance I can, and do,
+constantly trace what others might term coincidences, but which appear
+to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>[<a href="./images/206.png">206</a>]</span>me nothing but cause and effect in their several developments."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wallace then gives extracts from other correspondents as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. B&mdash;&mdash; says: "I can trace, nay, have traced (in secret amusement
+often), something in every child of mine. Before the birth of my eldest
+girl I took to ornithology, for work and amusement, and did a great deal
+in taxidermy, too. At the age of three years I found this youngster
+taking such insects and little animals as she could find, and puzzling
+me with hard questions as to what was inside of them. Later on she used
+to be seen with a small knife, working and dissecting cleverly and with
+much care and skill at their <i>insides</i>. One day she brought me the
+tiniest heart of the tiniest lizard you can imagine, so small that I had
+to examine it through a glass, though she saw it without any artificial
+aid. By some means she got a young wallaby, and made an apron with a
+pocket inside which she used to call her 'pouch.' This study of natural
+history is still of interest to her, though she lacks time and
+opportunities. Still, she always does a little dissecting if she gets a
+chance."</p>
+
+<p class="section"><span class="smcap">Another Case.</span>&mdash;"I never noticed anything about P&mdash;&mdash; for some years.
+Three months before he was born a friend, whom I will call Smith, was
+badly hurt, and was brought to my house to be nursed. I turned out the
+nursery and he lay there for three months. I nursed him until I could do
+so no longer, and then took lodgings in town for my confinement. Now
+after all these years <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a>[<a href="./images/207.png">207</a>]</span>I have discovered how this surgical nursing has
+left its mark. The boy is in his element when he can be of use in cases
+of accident, etc. He said to me quite lately: 'How I wish you had made a
+surgeon of me!' Then all at once it flashed in upon me, but, alas! it
+was too late to remedy the mistake.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the birth of the third child I passed ten of the happiest months
+of my life. We had a nice house, one side of which was covered with
+cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea, a garden with plenty of flowers,
+and a vineyard. Here we lived an idyllic life, and did nothing but fish,
+catch butterflies and paint them. At least my husband painted them after
+I had caught them and mixed his colors. At the end of this time L&mdash;&mdash;
+was born. This child excels in artistic talent of many kinds; nothing
+comes amiss to her, and she draws remarkably well. She is of a bright
+gay disposition, finding much happiness in life, even though not always
+placed in the most fortunate surroundings.</p>
+
+<p>"Before the birth of my next child, N&mdash;&mdash;, a daughter, I had a bad time.
+My husband fell ill of fever, and I had to nurse him without help or
+assistance of any kind. We had also losses by floods. I don't know how I
+got through that year, but I had no time for reading. N&mdash;&mdash; is the most
+prudent, economical girl I know. She is a splendid housekeeper and a
+good cook, and will work till she drops; has no taste for reading, but
+seems to gain knowledge by suction." Such cases are so numerous that
+they should be collected and scientifically studied.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a>[<a href="./images/208.png">208</a>]</span></p>
+<h3><i>Luxury and Parentage.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In all ages of luxury, fine ladies try to avoid maternity. They detest
+it in theory only, for women are controlled by the instinct of the race.
+In the circles of which we are speaking, the instincts of the race for
+children have vanished. Life has lost its serious meaning.
+Responsibility of any kind is a mere nuisance, and the idea of bringing
+up a new life, with all its bonds and its charm, is as repellant as the
+idea of a new bonnet is enticing. For such women the world has no use.
+Beautiful, in the great sense, they are not. Incapable, in any great
+way, of either loving or being loved, they are at best the painted
+bubbles on the stream of life. Such women will always be far inferior as
+mothers, and less capable of bringing into the world noble offspring
+than those women in the humble walks of life who live naturally, who
+love the family ties and are fond of the young.</p>
+
+<p>Great mothers must have a certain sort of hardihood which comes from a
+wise physical culture, not necessarily an artificial one,&mdash;a life in the
+open air, and the avoidance of all social dissipation.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Degeneracy of the Breasts and Motherhood.</i></h3>
+
+<p>A sign of degeneracy is pointed out by Hegar, who appeals to young men
+on behalf of posterity to choose for wives women with well-developed
+breasts; he quotes statistics to prove inability to nurse a child a sign
+of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>[<a href="./images/209.png">209</a>]</span>degeneracy which produces degeneracy in the offspring. Among other
+facts he points out that in a district of his knowledge, which supplies
+a large number of wet nurses to the city, the percentage of men
+incapable of military service amounts to 30 per cent., while in the
+neighboring districts, where the mothers remain at home with their
+families, it is only 18 per cent. He remarks upon the surprising number
+of deformed nipples encountered in the hospitals. Fehling mentions
+"hollow nipples" as occurring in 6.7 of his obstetric cases. He warns
+mothers not to allow the clothing to constrict the growing breasts of
+their daughters, and urges general hygiene as the best method to develop
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection the question may be asked, Is it possible for women
+with defective breasts to become mothers of a virile race of men and
+strong women. In most cases it is not. A defect in this part of their
+nature is evidence of a weakened constitution. It may be said, that the
+breasts do not always develop before marriage and parentage. This is
+true, and if the health is robust, and the constitution and ancestry
+good, the mother will, in most cases, be able to nurse her child. If it
+is known in advance that such cannot be the case, and it may generally
+be known, then the responsibilities of motherhood should be undertaken
+with the greater precaution. In modern times we have far better means of
+bringing up children by hand than formerly. Still, a mother able to
+nurse her own children should always be preferred.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>[<a href="./images/210.png">210</a>]</span></p>
+<h3><i>Location of Birth.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In Manchester, England, in 1892, 37,674 boys out of every 100,000 died
+before they reached their fifth year. In healthy districts only 17,314
+out of 100,000 died. About the same condition prevails in other places.
+The lesson it teaches us is, that we should choose a healthy region in
+which to live if we would rear the healthiest offspring.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Evolution.</i></h3>
+
+<p>This word means progress and progress implies improvement, without which
+there could be no evolution; but improvement of the human race will not
+be further possible unless the marriage relation is regarded from a
+higher stand-point than that of sexual indulgence.</p>
+
+<p>The practical superiority of man over animals consists in his knowledge
+of the <i>aim</i> of his conduct. Animals exercise the reproductive function
+instinctively at particular seasons, but man knowingly always; and thus,
+unless the latter subordinates his passion to reason he is worse than a
+brute, as he knows himself to be such.</p>
+
+<p>The difference between the chaste marriage of affection and the unchaste
+marriage of passion, is analogous to that between education and
+instruction, as explained by Elder Evans of the Shaker Community.
+Instruction imparts knowledge, such as is associated in Eastern lore
+with the sexual passion, but education embraces the whole disposition,
+which is rendered more beautiful and spiritual <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a>[<a href="./images/211.png">211</a>]</span>through a marriage of
+chastity, and as thus affected is transmitted to the offspring, who
+exhibit the disposition of their parents at the time of conception.
+Sexual excess not only tends to produce offspring of a weakly
+constitution, but it interferes with the organic growth of the parents.
+It is as wasteful as burning a candle at both ends at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>Parents should bear in mind that the mental plan on which their children
+shall begin life, depends on the desire by which they are governed when
+they beget their offspring; and as desire depends on disposition, they
+should aim at requiring harmony of character and conduct.</p>
+
+<p>If we think less of ourselves and more of the race to which we belong,
+we shall have a better chance of improving both ourselves and the race
+as represented in our offspring.</p>
+
+<p>We are all members of a great organism, which is constituted by the
+whole of human kind, past, present and future, and it is our duty to act
+in such a manner that the whole shall be benefited by our conduct; which
+it cannot be if we are careless as to our own disposition or as to the
+character of our offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Our Aryan ancestors were conscious of their duty towards the race, and
+probably to this fact was largely due the high physical development the
+white race attained. Only by acting in their spirit can we hope to
+maintain the race at its high level or prevent its deterioration and
+decay.</p>
+
+<p>The important influence which the gratification of the sexual impulse
+has had over the development of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a>[<a href="./images/212.png">212</a>]</span>aesthetic side of Nature has been
+often insisted on; and there is no reason why its gratification should
+not be attended also with the development of the highest mental
+qualities, if these are made use of in the formation and exercise of the
+marriage relations between the sexes.&mdash;<span class="smcap">C. Staniland Wake.</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Too Little Fatherhood.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The modern child is threatened not with too much mother but with too
+little father, and this danger is heightened by the sudden release of
+womanhood from the ban of conventionality and of the domineering power
+of physical force. Let her not too readily accept as complimentary to
+herself the church's adoration of Mary. Woman is made of no purer stuff
+than man, her companion, man her father. She cannot transmit from her
+own veins or her companion's veins any purer life stuff, any finer
+impulse to her daughter than she does to her son. We need more fathers
+in the home, more men teachers in our public schools; and if our homes
+and schools are not organized so as to evoke and direct this masculine
+investment, then let them be reorganized. It is not true that mothers
+are peculiarly the divinely appointed teachers of children, that to them
+is especially entrusted the intellectual or spiritual destinies of the
+young. That argument is based upon the analogies of the past; it is a
+reversion to primitive conditions, an illustration of the law of
+atavism, like the return to six fingers and toes in some people, or the
+restoration in others of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a>[<a href="./images/213.png">213</a>]</span>muscle that can move the ear. The highest
+reaches of evolution point to a double responsibility and a double
+potency. In the interest of the child, then, let us lift him out of a
+mother rule into a father and mother rule. Let the home be girdled with
+masculine order and justice as well as with feminine love and
+tenderness. Let there be strength as well as tenderness. Let there be in
+it mind as well as heart, vigor as well as sympathy. All these are
+spiritual children which cannot be born except in the bi-sexual
+realm.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Rev. Jenkin Lloyd Jones.</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Flat-Head Indians and Heredity.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Amongst the round-head tribes woman holds a higher position, whereas
+amongst the flat-heads she is a mere drudge. In by-gone days it was
+common to see a tired-looking woman walking behind her husband carrying
+a heavy load, while he walked on before with nothing.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the round-heads have a remarkable mythology, while the others
+have a poor affair.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dean has informed me that the flat-head, which would be an acquired
+character, is never transmitted to offspring&mdash;another argument against
+the Lamarchian theory, that acquired characters are transmitted.</p>
+
+<p>That whatever injures the physical or intellectual health of parents
+tends to degrade their offspring has long been evident. I think we have
+a good race illustration of this in the effects of flattening and
+deforming the skulls of children among the Flat-Head Indians, who for
+centuries <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>[<a href="./images/214.png">214</a>]</span>followed this precedent. Information has been furnished me by
+special request by Mr. James Dean, of Victoria, B. C., bearing on this
+point. He writes:</p>
+
+<p>"Among the children the mortality seems to be greater with the tribes
+which flatten the heads of their children than in those who do not. I
+have long noticed that there is a very marked intellectual difference
+between them."</p>
+
+<p>The Hidery tribes of Northern British Columbia and Southern Alaska, who
+never flattened their heads, have long been famous for their works of
+art, such as elaborate carvings in wood and stone.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Suggestion as an Aid in the Training of Children.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Within a few years an old subject, that of hypnotism, formerly called
+mesmerism, has received new attention under the name of suggestion, or,
+in medical language, "suggestive therapeutics." It was used in a rude
+way by Mesmer in the cure of disease. Later it was employed much more
+effectively by Braid and others for the same purpose, and especially for
+the prevention of pain in surgical operations. Want of space forbids our
+going into any extended historical detail as to its application for
+these purposes, but a few points will be considered, which bear on the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that when a person had contracted a bad habit, as, for
+instance, smoking or drinking, it could often be broken up by placing
+him in the mesmeric sleep, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>[<a href="./images/215.png">215</a>]</span>telling him he would no longer desire to
+continue the habit, but would even loathe them. The habit of sucking the
+thumb, a bad temper, lying, stealing, dullness and lack of ambition,
+etc., were amenable to this treatment. To illustrate: A boy fifteen
+years old, always at the foot of his class, was put into the hypnotic
+sleep, and told that he would be able to study harder and learn his
+lessons better, so as to go to the head. This was continued daily for
+several weeks, and, sure enough, he accepted the suggestion, and
+outstripped every scholar in his class, and kept at the head so long as
+these means were used; but, unfortunately, when they were discontinued
+he relapsed into his first state. The suggestions had not been
+sufficiently thorough to take deep root, and become a part of his
+nature, as might have been the case with a better knowledge as to how to
+use them. So long ago as in 1892 Dr. Bérillon, Editor of <i>The Revue de
+l' Hypnotism</i>, read a paper before the Second International Congress of
+Experimental Psychology, in which he stated that he had observed the
+beneficial effects of hypnotism in education in some 250 cases,
+including nervous insomnia, night terror, sleepwalking, kleptomania,
+stammering, idleness, filthy habits, cowardice and moral delinquency. He
+also stated that other observers had similar experience. My friend, Dr.
+B. Osgood Mason, of New York, working on the same lines, has had similar
+experiences. I will quote a few illustrative cases furnished by him. The
+first is of a school-girl fifteen years of age, a pupil in one of the
+grammar-schools <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>[<a href="./images/216.png">216</a>]</span>of New York&mdash;intelligent in many ways; a good reader of
+such books as interested her&mdash;history, biography, and the better class
+of novels; but for the routine of school studies she had no aptitude,
+and she was constantly being left behind in her classes. She could not
+concentrate her mind upon details which did not specially interest her.
+If she succeeded in learning a lesson she could not remember it, or if
+she remembered it until she arrived at the classroom, when she arose to
+recite, it was instantly gone; her mind became a perfect blank; she had
+not a word to say, and was obliged to sit down in disgrace. She could
+write a good composition, but could never stand up and read it before
+the class. Teachers had been engaged to give her special lessons, so as
+to enable her to pass her preliminary examination, which would allow her
+to come up for entrance to the Normal College. After months of effort
+they reported to the mother that it was utterly useless to go on; it was
+impossible for her to pass her preliminary examination, and they did not
+think it right to take her money without any such expectation. She was
+then brought to me to inquire if anything could be done to help her. I
+proposed hypnotic suggestion. It was then March 30; the first
+examination was in May. I commenced treatment at once. The patient went
+into a quiet, subjective condition, with closed eyes, but did not lose
+consciousness. I suggested that she would be able to concentrate her
+mind upon her studies; that her memory would be improved; that she would
+lose her excessive self-consciousness and timidity, and in their place
+she <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>[<a href="./images/217.png">217</a>]</span>would have full confidence in herself and be able to stand up
+before the class and recite. She was kept in the hypnotic condition
+one-half hour at each treatment, and the same or similar suggestions
+were quietly but very positively made and repeated at intervals during
+that time. She at once reported improvement in her ability both to study
+and recite. She had six treatments, and on May 25 she reported that,
+greatly to the surprise of her teachers, she had passed her preliminary
+examination with a percentage of 79, which entitled her to come up for
+the college examination. In June she passed her examination for entrance
+to the Normal College with a percentage of 88; entered the College and
+is at present doing well, though the suggestions have not been repeated
+since May.</p>
+
+<p>Another case from the same author was that of a boy "so bad as to be
+perfectly unmanageable, and his temper so outrageous, that his mother
+begged me to come to the house and see if I could do anything with him.</p>
+
+<p>"Having secured <i>carte blanche</i> for whatever course I chose to pursue, I
+went. He was in the back room, his grandmother urging him forward, he
+kicking and resisting. Without speaking, I went directly to him, seized
+him firmly by one wrist, and brought him topsy turvy through two
+intervening rooms, gave him a thorough shaking, and set him down
+violently in a chair. He smoothed down his bang, whimpered a little, and
+gruffly remarked that I had rumpled his hair. I told him I had not
+intended to disturb his hair, but that as he had never <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>[<a href="./images/218.png">218</a>]</span>obeyed anybody I
+had come to the house for the express purpose of making him obey me, and
+I should most certainly do it. After a few moments I said, quietly, 'Now
+go and lie down on the bed in the next room.' He started, walking toward
+the bed, but when near it he set off on a full run past it and into the
+back room. I brought him back and again ordered him to lie down on the
+bed. He went toward it as if to obey, but suddenly sprang under it, and
+clung to the slats underneath with hands and feet, and hung there like a
+monkey. I dislodged him, pulled him out, gave him a spanking, and
+surprised him by tossing him vigorously upon the bed, with the command
+to lie there quietly until I gave him permission to move. He obeyed.
+Presently I ordered him to go into the front room and sit down again in
+the chair he had before occupied. Again he quietly obeyed, I said: 'All
+right; now you understand you will obey me. I don't want to hurt you. I
+want to be a good friend to you, only you must obey me.'</p>
+
+<p>"I then in a pleasant way gave him a short lesson, picturing to him very
+plainly the course of a boy such as he was, and where it would be likely
+to end; and also showing what he might be if he would change his course.
+I told him I should be at the house again in a day or two, and I should
+expect him to meet me pleasantly, shake hands with me, and do whatever I
+directed him.</p>
+
+<p>"Next day there came a telephone message begging me to come up; M. was
+outrageous again. I went. He was backward in greeting me, but at length
+came and shook <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>[<a href="./images/219.png">219</a>]</span>hands. I afterward learned that there had not been the
+slightest improvement in his behavior; and the cause of his mother's
+sending for me was his outrageous conduct at the table, when, in a fit
+of anger, he had thrown a plate at his grandmother. I talked to him
+pleasantly a moment, and then said very quietly, 'Now go and lie down on
+the bed.' He did so at once. I sat down beside him, and taking his two
+thumbs firmly in my hands, I said: 'Now, M., I want you to look steadily
+at that little stud in my shirt-front; keep your eyes very steadily
+fixed upon it.' He did so, and I never secured better or more
+concentrated attention from any patient.</p>
+
+<p>"In five or six minutes his eyelids quivered and soon dropped. I closed
+them, suggesting sleep; and directly he was in the sound hypnotic sleep.
+I then presented the two pictures again&mdash;the bad and the good
+course&mdash;and suggested that they would always be present, distinct in in
+his mind, that he would dislike the <i>wrong</i> course and desire to avoid
+it, and choose the <i>good</i> one. I suggested definitely that he would be
+kind and considerate to his mother, and obey her as well as me. I
+repeated these suggestions very positively, let him sleep ten minutes,
+and repeated them again, and then awoke him by counting.</p>
+
+<p>"The effect of this treatment was very marked; his whole manner at home
+was changed, and he became comparatively docile and manageable.</p>
+
+<p>"He came to my office for his next treatment, which was perfectly
+successful. I have given him in all six treatments, and the improvement
+has been maintained <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>[<a href="./images/220.png">220</a>]</span>and increased. He is not yet by any means perfect,
+but his general behavior is changed, and I am suggesting such definite
+improvements in his conduct, and impressing such pictures upon his mind,
+as I think will help to develop his better nature and qualities. He is a
+lover of flowers, and on two occasions has brought some of his own
+choosing to me. He has lost none of his boyishness; he is full of life;
+is mischievous, playing tricks even upon his mother; but he is
+affectionate and generally obedient. His will is not broken, but he has
+self-control, and he is far more considerate of others than formerly. In
+short, he is a fair example of one of the educational uses of hypnotism
+and suggestion."</p>
+
+<p>The only other case I will quote is one of night terrors.</p>
+
+<p>"A little girl, five years of age, went soundly to sleep when first put
+to bed, but after two or three hours she awoke screaming and trembling
+with terror, on account of the hideous black man whom she saw in her
+dream. The impression of the dream was vivid and persistent, and her
+screams kept the household aroused and alarmed for hours every night,
+and this state of things had already continued for months. One day, when
+she was perfectly bright and happy, I placed her in her high chair in
+front of me; put my hands gently upon her shoulders, and asked her to
+look steadily at a trinket easily in her view, and quieted her with
+passes and soothing touches until her drooping eyelids denoted the
+subjective condition. I then commenced in a gentle, sing-song manner to
+suggest that she would go easily to sleep as usual at night, but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>[<a href="./images/221.png">221</a>]</span>that
+she would have no frightful dreams; that she would see the dreadful
+black man no more, but would sleep quietly on the whole night through.
+It was repeated over and over in the same gentle manner.</p>
+
+<p>"That was a year ago; she has not seen the black man since, and her
+sleep and health have been perfect. There was no repetition of the
+treatment."</p>
+
+<p>From these few cases, and many not quoted, it appears evident that we
+have in hypnotism, or suggestion, an agent which, when fully understood,
+will be of great usefulness to parents in the early training of
+children. That it should be used wisely no one will deny.</p>
+
+<p>The question will naturally arise, How is it that a suggestion to a
+child while passive or in the hypnotic sleep is more effective than when
+awake. The answer is not so easy to give; but it is possible that in
+this state the subliminal self, the higher self, or, perhaps, the
+spiritual nature is appealed to; and as the active, every-day nature,
+the conscious self, is now dormant, it receives this appeal more
+seriously. Perhaps a quotation from Prof. Frederic W. H. Myer, who has
+given the subject profound attention, will help to make the subject
+clearer. He says: "In waking consciousness I am like the proprietor of a
+factory whose machinery I do not understand. My foreman, my subliminal
+self, weaves for me so many yards of broadcloth per diem (my ordinary
+vital processes), as a matter of course. If I want any pattern more
+complex, I have to shout my orders in the din of the factory, where only
+two or three inferior workmen hear me, and they shift their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>[<a href="./images/222.png">222</a>]</span>looms in a
+small and scattered way. Such are the confined and capricious results of
+the first, the more familiar stages of hypnotic suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>"At certain intervals, indeed, the foreman stops most of the looms, and
+uses the freed power to stoke the engine and oil the machinery. This, in
+my metaphor, is sleep; and it will be effective hypnotic trance if I can
+get the foreman to stop still more of the looms, come out of his private
+room, and attend to my orders&mdash;my-self suggestions&mdash;for their repair and
+re-arrangment."</p>
+
+<p>To make this a little plainer. The subliminal self, the foreman, is the
+one who manages the machinery of the nervous system, and turns out this
+or that sort of conduct or behavior in the child, or the man or woman,
+as he is told to turn out by the conscious self. But in the hypnotic
+trance this subliminal self can take orders, or suggestions, for other
+kinds of conduct or behavior; alter the action of the brain, so as to
+make another sort of creature; for he is not so occupied then but that
+he can receive these orders. As in the kaleidescope, the pictures
+presented depend entirely on the arrangement of the pieces of glass. So
+in daily conduct, character depends on the combination and activity of
+the brain cells. By suggestion in the hypnotic state we are able, to
+some extent at least, to alter this combination so that new conduct is
+presented.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises, How can the parent make use of this agent in
+altering the nature of a child from one that is not desirable to one
+that is? Probably the best way <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>[<a href="./images/223.png">223</a>]</span>to proceed would be to take it while
+sleeping, and make the suggestion then; for ordinary sleep is not
+different from hypnotic sleep, except in degree. As the child is in the
+act of going to sleep, let the mother, or whoever is to make the
+suggestion, sit by its side, take it by the hand and gently soothe it
+with pleasant words or music, in a firm but agreeable voice. Let her say
+slowly: Now you are going to sleep, sleep, sleep. You will soon be
+sleeping sweetly. How nice it is to sleep and rest our bodies so that we
+can feel well and strong on the coming day. This sleep is going to do
+you a great deal of good. You will not have bad dreams. You will not see
+ugly faces or wake up with a fright. Tomorrow you will wake up
+good-natured, full of life, and will be good boy (or girl, as the case
+may be), and do your best to make mother happy and proud of you. You
+will want to play and enjoy the fresh air and sunshine; relish your
+food; not eat too much, etc., etc., according to the needs of the child.
+If it is timid and fearful of thunder, or dogs, or horses, or other
+harmless things, you can say to it, Now, you will not be afraid any more
+of thunder but like to hear it. This, like all other suggestions, must
+be repeated several times, so as to make an impression. If afraid of
+strangers, say, now, you will not fear men, or persons you don't know;
+repeating it slowly over and over again. If the child uses bad language,
+say, Now you will not want to use bad words any more, and will be
+careful how you speak. If it has a cold, put the hand over the chest and
+say, Now your cold will get well quickly, and not grow worse. If it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>[<a href="./images/224.png">224</a>]</span>has
+the unfortunate habit of wetting the bed at night, even this can be
+broken up, often by one suggestion, and surely by several repeated so as
+to take deep root in the mind. This latter is necessary to produce any
+effect. In case of disease, even serious disease, when a physician is
+necessary, suggestion may be used by the nurse or parents, or the
+physician, if he has learned the art, to advantage; but if the parents
+are anxious or weary, they had better leave it for those who are not
+weary or anxious; otherwise they may transfer their own condition
+instead of one of health. The state of mind and body of the operator
+should be a stable, equable and wholesome one.</p>
+
+<p>The age at which suggestion may be of use is hardly yet known. Certainly
+so soon as the understanding has become developed it may be employed,
+though the language should be simplified for the childish understanding.
+Before this it is of doubtful utility; but some experiments which have
+been made intimate that good health may sometimes be transmitted from a
+healthy person to a very young sick child by thought transference.</p>
+
+<p>Thought transference is the transference from one to another person of
+some feeling, sensation or idea. The person from whom the thought is
+transferred is the <i>active</i> agent, and the one who receives it is the
+<i>passive</i> one. Often this phenomenon takes place spontaneously, as when
+one is in trouble, or at the point of dying, a knowledge of it may
+sometimes be transferred to an intimate friend who is in sympathy. In
+the hypnotic state, thought transference can sometimes be induced
+artificially; and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>[<a href="./images/225.png">225</a>]</span>the point here to be considered is the transference
+to the child of healthy normal sensations to replace the abnormal ones
+which may have taken possession of consciousness and caused trouble.</p>
+
+<p>The important thing always to have in mind in using psychic forces on
+children is to instil natural, or normal, conditions, not unnatural or
+abnormal ones. To this end to produce the best results, the active agent
+should be a normally healthy person, having good common sense, and
+living a normal, natural life. Those with sickly, sentimental or
+fanciful notions, if they try to use suggestion may transfer these
+states to the child, which would do harm rather than good.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>[<a href="./images/226.png">226</a>]</span></p>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<ul class="list">
+<li><a name="Acquired" id="Acquired"></a>Acquired characters, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Acquired characters not transmitted, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Adaptation to environment necessary for health, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Aesthetic sense displayed by animals, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Aesthetic surroundings during gestation, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Air, regarded as food, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Alcohol" id="Alcohol"></a>Alcohol, as a poison, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>Alcohol, effect of, on offspring, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Allen, Joseph A., observations of, as to effects of war on children, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Allen, Grant</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>Amphimixis, theory of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Ancestral <i>ids</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li>Ancestral tendencies, correction of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Animals, practical superiority of man over, what?, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Animal flesh, supposed effect of eating, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Atavism in relation to disease, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Baby, a theoretical, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Bad habits, broken up by suggestion during mesmeric sleep, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Bad temper cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_217">217</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Beauty, reference of sexual selection to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Bees, instincts of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Bérillon, Dr., on beneficial effect of hypnotism over bad habits, etc., <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Birthmarks, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Blood, healthy, purifying influence of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Blood, study of the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>Bones, modification of certain, through sitting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Boys, mortality among larger than with girls, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Breasts, best methods of developing, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a>[<a href="./images/227.png">227</a>]</span>Breasts, defective, women having, incapable of becoming mothers of a virile race, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Breasts, development of, after marriage and parentage, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Breasts, degeneracy of the, and motherhood, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Breeding in and in, Noyes' first principle for race improvement, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Camp life, evils of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Cases of prenatal influences, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Cells, sexual, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Chandler, Jennie</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li>Character, dependence of, on arrangement of nerve cells, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Character, improvement by suggestion, method to be employed by parents for, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Character of children affected by war, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Characteristics, origin of, through sexual selection, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Charles, Havelock</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Chickamauga Camp, prostitution at, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Children acquire special aptitudes from mothers, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Child bearing, best age for, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, breeding of, in Plato's Republic, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li>Children considered as belonging to the State, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, deaths of, in New York city, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, healthy, essentials for having, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, interests of unborn, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, characteristics of, in the Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li>Children in the Oneida Community, care of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, mortality among, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Children, obstacle of war to production and training of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Child training aided by suggestion, <a href="#Page_214">214</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Children, training of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Civil War and how it affected the character of children, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Co-adaptation of parts as evidence of transmission of acquired characters, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Coalescence of sperm and germ cells, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li>Concentrative power, want of, cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Conduct, knowledge of its object, not possessed by animals, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Congenital characters, transmission of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li>
+
+<li>Congenital deformities, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Consanguineous marriages among the Greeks, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Consanguineous marriages, regulations as to, among uncultured peoples, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Consanguineous marriages, effect on offspring, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a>[<a href="./images/228.png">228</a>]</span>Constitution, bodily, improvement of the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>Consumption, causes of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Consumption, tendency to, whether a bar to marriage, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li>Contentment, value of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Continuity of germ-plasm, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Co-operation, hygienic value of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Cope, Prof. E. D.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Cousins, marriage between, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li>Couvade, custom of the, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Crimes, increase of, caused by war, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Darwin, Charles</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Death, causes of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li>Deformities, congenital, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Degeneracy of the breasts and motherhood, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Degeneracy in offspring due to maternal degeneracy evidenced by inability to nurse a child, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Degeneration, evidence of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Development of breasts after marriage and parentage, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Diseases, influence of hygiene over, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Diseases, inheritance of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Diseases which affect offspring, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Disposition spiritualized through marriage of chastity, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Disproportion between accidental causes and effects, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Diversity between offspring and parents, causes of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Domestication of animals, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Doutrebente, Prof.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Drink, influence of, over offspring, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Duncan, J. C. Mathews</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Education, beneficial effects of hypnotism in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Education and heredity, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Education and non-transmission of acquired characters, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li>Education of Spartan children, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Education, Plutarch on, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li>Education, study of laws of evolution, as part of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>Educational uses of hypnotism and suggestion, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Egg. See <i><a href="#Ovum">Ovum</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Eimer, Dr. G. H.</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Embryo, how parental properties communicated to, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Embryology, importance of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a>[<a href="./images/229.png">229</a>]</span>Energy, bodily, use and abuse of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li>Environment, adaptation to, necessary for health, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Epigenesis, theory of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Esquirol on the effects of the French Revolution over children, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Ethics of the body, hygiene as the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Evolution, a superior race produced by, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Evolution, meaning of the term, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Evolution of the horse, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li>Evolution, study of laws of, as part of education, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>Evolutionary theories, conflict of, with humane sentiments, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Example, influence of, over children, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li>Exercise, transmission of effects of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Experiment in race improvement by Noyes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Explanation of the action of hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Family life, abolition of, in Plato's Republic, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Father rule should be combined with mother rule, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Fatherhood, too little importance assigned to, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Feeble constitutions prevent numerous offspring, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Fertilization essential to true germ plasm, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li>Fertilization, nature of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Fison, Lorimer</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Fitness for survival, characteristics of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li>Flat head Indians and heredity, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Flat head and round head tribes, comparison between, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Flat head not transmitted to offspring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Flattening the skull, injurious effect of on health, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Flint, Dr. Austin</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li>Food, how it affects germ plasm, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Food (certain) injurious influence of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Foot, compression of, by Chinese ladies, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Fosterage, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>French Revolution, evil effects of over children, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Galton, Francis</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li>Gemmules, essential to pangenesis, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>Generation, influences over, at time of conception, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Generation, influences over, subsequent to conception, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Generative powers, debilitation of the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Germ plasm and heredity, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>[<a href="./images/230.png">230</a>]</span>Germ plasm, continuity of the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Germ plasm, how affected by food, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Germ plasm, modification of the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li>Germ variations, causes of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li>Gestation (period of) importance of pleasant surroundings during, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Gestation, maternal influence during, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Gestation, strong emotion during, effect of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li>Gestation, uterine disturbances during, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Girls, physical training of, among Spartans, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li>Girls, mortality among, smaller than with boys, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Great mothers, how constituted, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Group marriage of Australian natives, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Hæckel, Ernst</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Harvey</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Haycraft, John Berry</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li>Head flattening, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, action of nature in relation to, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, transmission of, by thought transference, to young sick child, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Healthy localities enable the healthiest offspring to be reared, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, adaptation to environment necessary for, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, ideal of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Health, importance of, in relation to marriage, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hearn, Professor</i>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Hedonism, New, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Hereditary tastes of children, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Heredities, antagonistic, of two parents, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity among Flat-head Indians, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, definition of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity and education, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, evils arising from, may be cured, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, exceptions to law of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity and germ plasm, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, importance of knowledge of, by teachers, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, modification of law of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, preponderating influence of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, rational view of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, spectre of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, theories of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Heredity, transformation of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Hering, Richard</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a>[<a href="./images/231.png">231</a>]</span>Hidery tribes of British Columbia, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>High-pressure, effects of living at, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Hypnotic sleep, differs from ordinary sleep only in degree, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Hypnotic suggestion, value of, as aid to education, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Hypnotism as suggestive therapeutics, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Horse, evolution of the, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li>Human selection, plans for, <a href="#Page_135">135</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Human kind, regarded as a whole, should be benefited by our conduct, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Human race, further improvement of impossible, if marriage relation be regarded only from standpoint of sexual indulgence, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Humane sentiments, conflict of, with theories of evolution, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Husband and wife, tendency to resemble each other, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Huth, A. H.</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Hygiene, modern, as opposed to natural selection, <a href="#Page_142">142</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Hygiene, as the ethics of the body, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Hygiene, promises of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Hygienic laws, punishment for infraction of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+
+<li>Hygienic surroundings, importance of, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Hygienic training, value of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ideal of Health, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Idiots, education of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Illustrative cases of prenatal influence, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Imagination, effect of, on unborn offspring, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Improvement of race. See <i><a href="#Race_improvement">race improvement</a></i>.</li>
+
+<li>Incas of Peru, consanguineous marriages among the, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Income, bodily, importance of living within, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Individual, the, as the beginning and end of the race, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li>Individuality, development of the, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li>Infanticide among Spartans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Infanticide, former general prevalence of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Infanticide in Plato's Republic, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Infanticide not morally permissible, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to the, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Inheritance, organic, wonders of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Injuries during life, transmission of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Injury to health through flattening the skull, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Instinct, explanations of origin of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>[<a href="./images/232.png">232</a>]</span>Instincts of the race for children, loss of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Instruction and education, difference between, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Intelligence affected by head flattening, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Jacob, rods of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Jeune, Lady Mary</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Jowett, Professor B.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Krafft, D. Von Ebing</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Lamarck</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li>Lamarchian theory of transmission, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Language, not transmitted to offspring, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Leeuwenhock</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Limitation of offspring, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Locust, egg-laying instinct of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li>Luxury and parentage, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lycurgus</i>, marriage regulations of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Lyman, Dr. C. W.</i>, on treatment of a baby, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Man, variations undergone by, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li>Man, practical superiority of, over animals, what, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Manufacturing life, unhealthiness of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li>Manufacturing mills, deterioration caused by, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, consanguineous, ideas as to, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage customs among Spartans, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, early, disadvantages of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, importance of health in relation to, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, regulations as to, in Plato's Republic, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage of weak and worthless, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage, a sacred state, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriage of chastity, disposition spiritualized by, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Marriages of affection and passion, difference between, analogous to that between education and instruction, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Mason, Dr. R. Osgood</i>, on beneficial effect of hypnotism in education, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Maternity, avoidance of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li><i>McGee, Dr. Anita Newcomb</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Memory, endowment of reproductive cells with, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Memory, improvement of, by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Mental dullness, curable by suggestion during hypnotic sleep, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>[<a href="./images/233.png">233</a>]</span>Mental emotion of mother, injury to unborn child through, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li>Mesmeric sleep, effect of suggestion during, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Mesmerism, now known as hypnotism, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Method to be employed by parents for using suggestion in child training, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Microbes, selective action of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li>Mind of operator, state of, necessary to successful suggestion, <a href="#Page_224">224-5</a></li>
+
+<li>Modification of certain bones through sitting, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Modification of the organism during descent from first ancestors, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li>Modification of sense of touch, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Modification of toes, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Modification of the whale, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>Molecular structure of sexual cells, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Monogamy, return to, by the Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Moral nature, growth of the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li>Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Motherhood, highest, war an enemy to, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Motherhood and degeneracy of the breasts, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Mothers, not peculiarily the divinely appointed teachers of children, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Musical talent, not transmitted to offspring, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li>Mutilations, not transmissible, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Myer, Prof. Frederic W. H.</i>, on hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><a name="Natural_selection" id="Natural_selection"></a>Natural selection, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li>Natural selection, always operative, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li>Nature, action of, in relation to health, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+
+<li>Nerve cells, constitution of, alterable by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Nervous system, debilitation of the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li>Night terrors cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li>Nipples, deformed, common occurrence of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Nisbet, J. F.</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li>Non-nursing of children a sign of degeneracy, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Normal conditions only should be transferred by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li>Nose molding, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li>Notes, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Noyes, John Humphrey</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Nucleus of cell, essential to reproduction, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li>Nutrition, action of, on germ cells, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li>Nutrition (arrested) organic effect of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>[<a href="./images/234.png">234</a>]</span>Obedience the basis of education among the Spartans, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, effect of alcohol on, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, effect of consanguineous marriage on, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, influence of locality on health of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, injuriously affected by sexual excess of parents, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, inception of, the starting point of stirpiculture, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Offspring, limitation of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><a name="Ovum" id="Ovum"></a>Ovum, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Ovum, the beginning of animal life, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>Ovum, developmental tendency of the, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Ovum, effect of gestation on the, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li>Ovum of different animals, apparent similarity of the, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Paget, Sir James</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Pain, prevention of, in surgical operations, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Pangenesis, experiments in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li>Pangenesis, theory of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li>Panmixia, theory of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li>Paper mill (New England), <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Parentage and luxury, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Parentage and war, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Parentage, responsibility in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Parentage, Plato's restrictions on, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Parentage, sacredness of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li>Parents, how to make use of suggestion in the training of children, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Parents, organic growth of, injuriously affected by sexual excess, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Parental life, influence of, over offspring, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+
+<li>Perfectionists of the Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Phillips, Wendell</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Physical culture, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Physical training of girls among Spartans, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li>Physical weakness may be associated with mental greatness, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Plato, Republic of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Plutarch, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Poisons, actions of, on the sexual cells, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li>Poverty, obstacle of, to production and training of the young, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Preference, as exhibited among animals, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Preference, as exhibited among men, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>Preference, first principle of sexual selection, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>[<a href="./images/235.png">235</a>]</span>Prenatal culture, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Prenatal culture, illustrative cases of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Prenatal influence, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Prenatal influence in telegony, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li>Prenatal influences, cases of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Principles on which sexual selection is based, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+
+<li>Progress in organic life, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Promiscuity regulated in Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Promiscuity regulated in Plato's Republic, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Prostitution, camp life a school for, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Psychical diseases, heredity of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Psychological laws, uncertain effect of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Psychological research, laboratories for, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Quatrefages, M. de</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Race (human) deterioration of the, through hygienic action, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><a name="Race_improvement" id="Race_improvement"></a>Race, improvement of the, aim of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li>Race, improvement of the, based on spiritual sympathy, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, experiment in, of the Oneida Community, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, failure of compulsory attempts at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, Grecian methods for, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, Grecian methods not suited for modern times, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, natural factors in, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Race improvement, State aid to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Race should be thought of before ourselves, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Reproductive function, difference in exercise of, by animals and man, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+
+<li>Responsibility in parentage, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Ribot, Th.</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Romanes, G. J.</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li>Ruin of countries by the burdens of war, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Sacredness of parentage, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>Sampson, mother of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li>Science of true living, hygiene as the, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society's manufacturing mill, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>[<a href="./images/236.png">236</a>]</span>Selection, artificial, by man, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Selection, individual, by Noyes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Selection, natural, <i>see</i> "<a href="#Natural_selection">Natural selection</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Selection, sexual, <i>see</i> "<a href="#Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Selective action of female animals, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Selective action of woman in marriage, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Self-control, importance of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li>Self-consciousness, excessive, cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Self-development, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Sense of touch, modification of, through use, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Sex-instinct, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual cells, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual cells, acquired powers of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual excess injuriously affects both parents and offspring, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual impulse, gratification of the, consistent with the development of the highest mental qualities, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li><a name="Sexual_selection" id="Sexual_selection"></a>Sexual selection, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Sexual selection, action of, among primeval men, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual selection applicable primarily to male characteristics, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li>Sexual selection by women, effect of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Sexual selection, influence of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li>Sick child, transmission of health to, by thought transference, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Sire, previous, influence of, on subsequent progeny, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Sleep, ordinary, differs from hypnotic sleep only in degree, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Smith, Sidney</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Sobriety, importance of, in relation to offspring, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+  <li class="listsubitem"><i>See</i> "<a href="#Alcohol">Alcohol</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Soldiers demand gratification of their passional natures, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Spartans, marriage relations among, <a href="#Page_13">13</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Special aptitudes of child determined by prenatal influences, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>Spectre of heredity, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li><i>Spencer, Herbert</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Spermatozoon, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li>Spiritual nature, appeal to, in hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Spontaneous thought transference, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Standing armies, crushing burden of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>State, aid of the, to race improvement, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>State, children regarded as belonging to the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture. <i>See</i> "<a href="#Race_improvement">Race, improvement of the</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture, meaning of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture, good air and water as factors in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture, Noyes' experiment in, <a href="#Page_37">37</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Stirpiculture, starting point of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>[<a href="./images/237.png">237</a>]</span>Strength as necessary as tenderness to bringing up of children, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Struggle, sexual selection through, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+
+<li>Studious habits transmitted to children, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li>Subliminal self, orders conveyed to, by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion as an aid to child training, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion by parents to children for educational purposes, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, bad habits cured by, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, beneficial effect of, over mental dullness, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion, hypnotic, influence of, in developing self-control, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li>Suggestion, hypnotic, method of, employed by Dr. R. Osgood Mason for educational purposes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Suggestive therapeutics, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Superiority of offspring, where limited, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li>Surgical operations, prevention of pain in, by mesmerism, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li>
+
+<li>Survival of the fittest, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Survival, what constitutes fitness for, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li>Sympathy, spiritual, as the basis of race improvement, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Taxation, burden of, created by war, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Telegony, <a href="#Page_85">85</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Temper, bad, cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li>
+
+<li>Tenderness to be combined with strength in bringing up children, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Theoretical baby, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Thought transference induced artificially in hypnotic state, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Thought transference, nature of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Thought transference, transmission of health by, to a young sick child, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li>Timidity cured by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li>
+
+<li>Toes, modification of the, in man, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li>Touch, modification of the sense of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li>Training of children aided by hypnotic suggestion, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li>Training of children, Plutarch on the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Transformation of heredity, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li>Transitory states of parents, effect of on offspring, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li>Transmission by mother to child of aptitude for hard work, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Transmission by mother to child of artistic and literary tastes, <a href="#Page_204">204</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li>Transmission by mother to child of taste for study of natural history, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li>Transmission by mother to child of taste for surgical nursing, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>[<a href="./images/238.png">238</a>]</span>Transmission of acquired characters. <i>See</i> "<a href="#Acquired">Acquired characters</a>."</li>
+
+<li>Transmission of effects of exercise, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Tylor, E. B.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Twins, resemblance of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Unborn children injured by war, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Unborn children, interests of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Unfit, elimination of the, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li>Unicellular organisms, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li>Uterine existence, disturbances of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Vaccination as a preserver of weak constitutions, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li>Vitality, surplus, production of offspring depends on, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Wake, C. Staniland</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wallace, A. R.</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Wallace, Alfred Russell, on prenatal influences, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li>War and parentage, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>War, effects of, on civilization, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>War, effects of, on unborn children, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>War, enemy to the highest motherhood, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weber, Professor</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Weismann, Professor</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li>Wet nurses, use of, accompanied by physical weakness, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Whale, modification of structure of the, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li>White race, superiority of the, due to consciousness of duty towards the race, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li><i>Wolf, Caspar Frederick</i>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+
+<li>Woman, condition of, among Flat head Indians, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+
+<li>Woman, first duty of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li>Woman not superior to man, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li>Woman, selective action of, in marriage, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+
+<li>Women incapable of love inferior as mothers, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li>Women more numerous than men, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li>Women, preference for certain characteristics in men, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Xenophon</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li><i>Zeigler, Professor</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="notebox">
+<h2><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Page 19: visited her "with great caution and
+apprehension"[quotation mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>Page 25: "that the difference between men and the animals is
+forgotten in them."[quotation mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>Page 62: <i>The Philosophical[original has Philosphical] Journal</i>
+for October 5, 1895</p>
+
+<p>Page 66: come to console him [original has extraneous quotation
+mark]for the pain</p>
+
+<p>Page 82: distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von
+Krafft-Ebings[original has Kraft-Ebings]</p>
+
+<p>Page 84: inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable
+will."[quotation mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>Page 104: develop[original has devolop] other organs than those
+like the ones in which it was formed</p>
+
+<p>Page 109: theories of heredity&mdash;Hæckel's[original has
+Heckel's], for instance</p>
+
+<p>Page 112: without the transmission[original has transmision] of
+the effects of the use</p>
+
+<p>Page 141: to give continuous[original has continous] food,
+warmth and protection</p>
+
+<p>Page 164: the ape, the dog, the cat or other animal."[quotation
+mark missing in original]</p>
+
+<p>Page 164: clear, round germinal vesicle[original has vescicle]</p>
+
+<p>Page 167: they completely[original has competely] efface
+themselves</p>
+
+<p>Page 176: often of an unusually[original has unsually] cheerful
+and hopeful disposition</p>
+
+<p>Page 180: quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence[original
+has abstainence]</p>
+
+<p>Page 182: must bring decay and ultimate extinction.[original
+has comma]</p>
+
+<p>Page 199: children, both born and unborn.[period missing in
+original]</p>
+
+<p>Page 200: capable of resisting the intense excitements[original
+has excitments]</p>
+
+<p>Page 200: dimmed by the relation of such occurrences[original
+has occurrencies]</p>
+
+<p>Page 203: Is this not a grievous[original has grevious] burden</p>
+
+<p>Page 206: [original has extraneous quotation mark]Mrs. B&mdash;&mdash;
+says: "I can trace</p>
+
+<p>Page 207: cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea[original has
+bougianvillea]</p>
+
+<p>Page 210: only 17,314 out of 100,000 died.[original has comma]</p>
+
+<p>Page 213: mind as well as heart,[comma missing in original]
+vigor as well as sympathy</p>
+
+<p>Page 217: gruffly[original has grufly] remarked that I had
+rumpled his hair</p>
+
+<p>Page 217: suggestions have not been repeated since
+May."[original has extraneous quotation mark]</p>
+
+<p>Page 226: number "200" is below the entry for "Air" in the
+original, but it belongs to the entry for "Allen, Joseph A.",
+and has been moved accordingly</p>
+
+<p>Page 228: page numbers for the entry on Darwin have been put in
+numerical order</p>
+
+<p>Page 228: Eimer,[original has period] Dr. G. H., 71, 79 <i>et
+seq.</i>, 90</p>
+
+<p>Page 230: Hæckel[original has Haeckel], Ernst, 109</p>
+
+<p>Page 232: Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to
+the, 71, 73, 77,[comma missing in original] 79</p>
+
+<p>Page 232: Krafft[original has Kraft], D. Von Ebing, 82, 84, 91</p>
+
+<p>Page 232: Leeuwenhock[original has Leeukwenhock], 103</p>
+
+<p>Page 233: Jowett[original has Jewett], Professor B., 25 <i>et
+seq.</i>,[comma missing in original] 34</p>
+
+<p>Page 233: Mason, Dr. R. Osgood, on beneficial effect of
+hypnotism[original has hynotism]</p>
+
+<p>Page 233: Myer[original has Meyer], Prof. Frederic W. H., on hypnotic
+suggestion</p>
+
+<p>Page 235: Quatrefages[original has Quartrefages], M. de, 59</p>
+
+<p>Page 235: Race improvement, natural factors in, 10[original has 1]</p>
+
+<p>Page 235: Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy[original has Geoffory], 68</p>
+
+<p>Page 238: Transmission[original has Tranmission] of acquired
+characters</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6590 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Homo-culture, by Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Homo-culture
+       or, The improvement of offspring through wiser generation
+
+Author: Martin Luther Holbrook
+
+Release Date: November 12, 2010 [EBook #34299]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOMO-CULTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Lisa Reigel, Michael Zeug, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes: Words in italics in the original are surrounded by
+_underscores_. Variations in spelling and hyphenation remain as in the
+original. Ellipses match the original. A complete list of typographical
+corrections as well as other notes follows the text.
+
+
+[Illustration: THE THEORETICAL BABY AT 18 MONTHS.]
+
+
+
+
+                            HOMO-CULTURE;
+
+                                 OR,
+
+                 THE IMPROVEMENT OF OFFSPRING THROUGH
+                          WISER GENERATION.
+
+
+                      BY M. L. HOLBROOK, M. D.,
+        EDITOR OF "THE JOURNAL OF HYGIENE," AUTHOR OF "HYGIENE
+            OF THE BRAIN," "HOW TO STRENGTHEN THE MEMORY,"
+                 "ADVANTAGES OF CHASTITY," ETC., ETC.
+
+
+       A New Edition of "Stirpiculture," Enlarged and Revised.
+
+
+                              NEW YORK:
+                         M. L. HOLBROOK & CO.
+
+                               LONDON:
+                          L. N. FOWLER & CO.
+
+                                1899.
+
+
+                            _Copyright by
+                           M. L. Holbrook._
+                               _1897._
+
+
+                    _Entered at Stationers' Hall._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+During all ages since man came to himself, there have been enlightened
+ones seeking to improve the race. The methods proposed have been
+various, and in accordance with the knowledge and development of the
+time in which they have appeared. Some have believed that education and
+environment were all-sufficient; others that abstinence from
+intoxicating drinks would suffice. A very considerable number have held
+the idea that by prenatal culture alone the mother can mould her unborn
+child into any desired form. The disciples of Darwin, many of them, have
+held that natural and sexual selection have been the chief factors
+employed by nature to bring about race improvement.
+
+No doubt all these factors have been more or less effectual, but the
+time has come for man to take special interest in his own evolution, to
+study and apply, so far as possible, all the factors that will in any
+way promote race improvement. In the past this has not been done. We are
+not yet able to do it perfectly, our knowledge is too deficient, lack of
+interest is too universal, but we can make a beginning; greater
+thoughtfulness may be given to suitable marriages; improved environment
+may be secured; better hygienic conditions taken advantage of; food may
+be improved; the knowledge we have gained in improving animals and
+plants, so far as applicable, may aid us; air, exercise, water,
+employment, social conditions, wealth and poverty, prenatal conditions,
+all have an influence on offspring, and man should be able, to some
+extent, to make them all tell to the advantage of future generations.
+
+Whatever the conditions of existence, man is able by his intellect to
+modify and improve them, and make them favorably serve unborn children.
+
+Herbert Spencer says: "On observing what energies are expended by father
+and mother to attain worldly successes and fulfil social ambition, we
+are reminded how relatively small is the space occupied by their
+ambition to make their descendants physically, morally and
+intellectually superior. Yet this is the ambition which will replace
+those they now so eagerly pursue, and which, instead of perpetual
+disappointments, will bring permanent satisfactions."
+
+If the chapters included in this volume should help to arouse in the
+minds of readers, and especially the younger portion of them, some
+healthy feelings relating to the improvement of offspring it will have
+fulfilled its aim.
+
+Two of them have been given as lectures before societies, the main
+object of which was the discussion of subjects bearing on evolution and
+human progress, and they are included in this volume because they have a
+close relation to the main subject, but the others were written
+especially for this work.
+
+While there may appear in a few cases a slight amount of repetition, the
+author trusts the reader will not consider it as unpardonable.
+
+With these few words I send the work on its mission hoping it will bear
+good fruit.
+
+                                                         M. L. H.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+STIRPICULTURE.
+                                                                 _Page._
+     Plato's Restrictions on Parentage; Lycurgan Laws; Plutarch
+     on the Training of Children; Infanticide Among the Greeks;
+     Group Marriage; Making Children the Property of the State;
+     Grecian Methods Not Suitable to Our Time; Sexual Selection;
+     Difficulties in the Way; An Experiment in Stirpiculture;
+     Intermarriage; Woman's Selective Action; Man's and Woman's
+     Co-operation; The Individual's Rights; Spiritual Sympathy in
+     Marriage;                                                         9
+
+
+PRENATAL CULTURE.
+
+     Jacob's Flocks; An Illustrative Case; Beliefs of Primitive
+     Peoples; Birthmarks Rare; Why Children Resemble Parents;
+     Life's Experiences Affecting Child; Germ-plasm; Congenital
+     Deformities; Psychical Diseases; Telegony; Power of Heredity;
+     Sobriety in the Father; Sacredness of Parentage; Self-control;   55
+
+
+HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.
+
+     Theories; Continuity of the Germ-plasm; A Rational View
+     of Heredity; Heredity and the Education of Children;
+     Intellectual Acquirements; Instinct; Knowledge or Heredity;
+     Individuality; Spectre of Heredity;                             100
+
+
+EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A HEALTHIER RACE.
+
+     Sexual Selection; Human Selection; Natural Selection;
+     Conflict between Evolutionary Theories and our Humane
+     Sentiments; Ideal of Health; Adaptation to Environment;
+     Knowledge; Effects of Living at High Pressure; Girls in
+     Manufacturing Districts; Co-operation: an Example; Hygiene;     130
+
+
+THE GERM-PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.
+
+     What is the Germ-plasm? The Primitive Egg; Fertilization of
+     the Mother-cell Necessary to Produce True Germ-plasm; What
+     Fertilization Does; Its Process; Helps to Explain Heredity;
+     Health of the Germ-plasm Necessary in Stirpiculture; Surplus
+     Vitality Necessary for Producing the Best Children; Duncan's
+     Statistics as to Ages of Parents of Finest Children; Effects
+     of Alcohol on Offspring; Food and the Germ-plasm; Effect
+     of Air and Water on Germ-plasm; Effect of Diseases on
+     Germ-plasm; Every Child Born an Experiment;                     162
+
+
+FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.
+
+     Darwin's Opinions; Race Modifications by Natural Selection;
+     Grant Allen's Views; Spencer's Views on Parental Duties;
+     Limiting Offspring Among the Natives of Uganda; The Fijians;
+     Children of Large Families often Superior to those in Small
+     Families; Some Reasons for this;                                179
+
+
+A THEORETICAL BABY.
+
+     Our First Baby; We had Theories; What Some of Them Were; My
+     Wife's Love for Me; My Sentiments; The Child's Easy Birth;
+     Mother's Rapid Convalescence; The Child's First Bath;
+     Forming Good Habits Early; No Crying at Night; Never Rocked
+     to Sleep; His Bed; Keeping the Stomach and Bowels Right;
+     Colic, Irritability and the Necessity for Diapers
+     Eliminated; Number of Meals Daily; The Infant's Clothing; At
+     One Year Old; Teething Gives Little Trouble; Requires
+     Considerable Water; Learning to Creep, Stand, Walk and Talk
+     by His Own Efforts; Invents His Own Amusements;
+     Companionship With Parents; Mothering; Learning
+     Self-control; Obedience; Playmates;                             184
+
+     Notes                                                           199
+
+
+
+
+STIRPICULTURE.
+
+
+Natural selection, which is the central doctrine of Darwinism, has been
+explained as the "survival of the fittest." On this process has depended
+the progress observable throughout organic nature to which the term
+evolution is applied; for, although there has been from time to time
+degradation, that is, a retrogression, this has had relation only to
+particular forms, organic life as a whole evidencing progress towards
+perfection. When man appeared as the culmination of evolution under
+terrestrial conditions, natural selection would seem almost to have
+finished its work, which was taken up, however, by man himself, who was
+able by "artificial" selection to secure results similar to those which
+Nature had attained. This is true especially in relation to animals, the
+domestication of which has always been practiced by man, even while in a
+state of nature. Domestication is primarily a psychical process, but it
+is attended with physical changes consequent on confinement and
+variation in food and habits. This alone would hardly account, however,
+for the great number of varieties among animals that have been long
+domesticated, and it is probable that actual "stirpiculture" has been
+practiced from very early times. This term is derived from the Latin
+_stirpis_, a stock or race, and _cultus_, culture or cultivation, and it
+means, therefore, the cultivation of a stock or race, although it has
+come to be used in the sense of the "breeding of offspring," and
+particularly of human offspring. It is evident, however, that in
+relation to man this is too restricted a sense, and it must be extended
+so as to embrace as well the rearing and training as the breeding of
+children, in fact, _cultivation_ in its widest sense, in which is always
+implied the idea of improvement.
+
+Stirpiculture in this extended sense was not unknown to the ancients,
+both in theory and in practice. As to the former, the most noted example
+is that of Plato, who, in his "Republic," proposed certain arrangements
+as to marriage and the bringing up of children which he thought would
+improve the race, and hence be beneficial to the State. The State was to
+Plato all in all, and he considered that it should form one great
+family. This idea could not be carried into effect, however, so long as
+independent families existed, and therefore those arrangements had for
+one of their chief aims the abolition of what we regard as family life.
+This Plato thought was the best for the State, and the advantage which
+was supposed to accrue to it by the absence of separate families is
+expressed in a marginal note, which says: "There will be no private
+interests among them, and therefore no lawsuits or trials for assault or
+violence to elders."
+
+
+PLATO'S RESTRICTIONS ON PARENTAGE.--The end would hardly seem to justify
+the means, in these days, at least, when violence to elders is an
+uncommon incident; but how was the community of wives and children by
+which it was sought to be attained to be brought about? It is said, "The
+best of either sex should be united with the best as often, and the
+inferior with the inferior as seldom, as possible." Thus the people were
+to be classified into "best" and "inferior," and while the former were
+to be brought together as often as possible, the latter were not to be
+united at all if it could be avoided. There was no question of marriage
+in either case. In the one, the union was for the purpose of obtaining
+children, and in the other for the simple gratification of the passions;
+for only the offspring of the union between the sexes in the "best"
+class were to be reared. The children of the inferior class were not to
+be reared, "if the flock is to be maintained in first-class condition."
+This infanticide would matter little to the parents, as they had no
+control over their coming together, nor concern with the rearing of
+their offspring. Lots were to be drawn by the "less worthy" on each
+occasion of their being brought together. This was that they might
+accuse their ill-luck and not the rulers, in case their partners were
+not to their liking. The State was to provide not only what men and
+women were to be sexually united, but the ages within which this was to
+be permitted for the purpose of obtaining offspring. For a woman, the
+beginning of childbearing for the State was fixed at twenty years of
+age, and it was to continue until forty. For men, the period of
+procreation is said to be between twenty-five and fifty-five years of
+age. After the specified ages men and women were to be allowed to "range
+at will," except within certain prescribed degrees, but on the
+understanding that no children born to such unions were to be reared. It
+is evident that under such a system the actual relationship between the
+members of the State family could be known only to its rulers; but to
+provide against the union of persons too nearly related by blood, all
+those who were "begotten at the time their fathers and mothers came
+together" were regarded as brothers and sisters. But even brothers and
+sisters might be united "if the lot favors them, and they receive the
+sanction of the Pythian oracle." Thus far for the breeding of children
+laid down in Plato's "Republic." As to the rearing of them, we need only
+say that the children allowed to live were to be placed in the custody
+of guardians, to be appointed by the State from among the most worthy
+of either sex, who were to bring them up in accordance with the
+principles of virtue.
+
+The idea which formed the basis of the regulations as to marriage in the
+"Republic" was carried into practice by Lycurgus in his government of
+Sparta. We are told by Plutarch in his "Lives," that Lycurgus considered
+children not so much the property of their parents as of the State, "and
+therefore he could not have them begotten by ordinary persons, but by
+the best men in it." But he did not attempt to break up the private
+family, as was proposed by Plato. He sought rather to enlarge its
+boundaries by allowing the introduction of a fresh paternal element when
+this could be done with advantage to the State. Thus, he approved of a
+man in years introducing to his young wife a "handsome and honest" young
+man, that she might bear a child by him. Moreover, if a man of character
+became impassioned of a married woman on account of her honesty and
+beautiful children, he might treat with her husband for the loan of her,
+"that so planting in a beauty-bearing soil, he might produce excellent
+children, the congenial offspring of excellent parents." The principles
+which influenced Lycurgus were the same as those sought to be applied by
+Plato, although in a different way. Plutarch says, "He observed the
+vanity and absurdity of other nations, where people study to have their
+horses and dogs of the finest breed they can procure, either by
+interest or money, and yet keep their wives shut up, that they may have
+children by none but themselves, though they may happen to be doting,
+decrepid or infirm." Hence Lycurgus sought to drive away the passion of
+jealousy "by making it quite as reputable to have children in common
+with persons of merit, as to avoid all offensive freedom in their own
+behaviour to their wives."
+
+
+LYCURGAN LAWS.--According to Plutarch, the regulations enforced by
+Lycurgus, so far from encouraging licentiousness of the women, such as
+afterwards prevailed in Sparta, did just the reverse, as adultery was
+not known among them. That the system was beneficial to the State by
+tending to secure healthy offspring is probable; but Lycurgus took other
+means of bringing about this result. His requiring girls to dance naked
+in public was intended to teach them modesty. But we are told further:
+"He ordered the virgins to exercise themselves in running, wrestling and
+throwing quoits and darts, that their bodies being strong and vigorous,
+the children produced by them might be the same; and that, thus
+fortified by exercise, they might the better support the pangs of
+childbirth, and be delivered with safety." Moreover, he provided against
+the propagation of disease and deformation by directing that only such
+children should be reared as passed examination by the most ancient men
+of the tribe. If a child were strong and well-proportioned, they gave
+orders for its education and assigned it one of the nine thousand shares
+of land. Thus infanticide was a recognized part of the Spartan system,
+as it was in that of Plato. The elders of the tribe were very careful
+about the nurses to whom the children were assigned. When seven years
+old, the children were enrolled in companies, where they were all kept
+under the same order and discipline, and had their exercises and
+recreations in common. The boy of best conduct and courage was made
+captain, and their whole education was one of obedience. As for
+learning, Plutarch says they had just what was absolutely necessary; and
+certainly it was not such as could be recommended for imitation in these
+days.
+
+Xenophon, in his essay on "The Lacedemonian Republic," adds little to
+what Plutarch tells us with reference to the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus. He remarks, however, that marriage was not allowed until the
+body was in full strength, as this was conducive "to the procreation of
+a robust and manly offspring." He affirms, also, that those who were
+allowed by arrangement to associate with other men's wives were men who
+had an aversion to living with a wife of their own!
+
+
+PLUTARCH ON THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN.--In his "Morals," Plutarch gives
+a dissertation on the training of children, the first portion of which
+deals with stirpiculture in the limited sense of the term, but is very
+inadequate. Indeed, the only advice he gives is that a man should not
+keep company with harlots or concubines, because children by them are
+"blemished in their birth" by their base extraction; and that no man
+should "keep company with his wife for issue's sake but when he is
+sober," lest he beget a drunkard. The main portion of Plutarch's
+treatise is concerned with the education of children, which is the
+second part of stirpiculture as a system of complete cultivation.
+Introductory to the subject of education he speaks of nursing, to which
+he attaches much importance. Plutarch insists on the necessity of
+mothers nursing their own children; nature, by providing them with two
+breasts, showing them that they can nurse even twins. But if they
+cannot, they are to choose the best nurses they can get, and such as are
+bred after the Greek fashion. For, "as it is needful that the members of
+children should be shaped aright as soon as they are born, that they may
+not afterwards prove crooked and distorted, so it is no less expedient
+that their manners be well fashioned from the very beginning; for
+childhood is a tender thing, and easily wrought into any shape."
+
+After referring to the importance of the choice of good companions for
+a child, Plutarch proceeds to consider the question of education, which
+he speaks of as the matter of most concern. As to education in general,
+he points out that a concurrence of three things is necessary to the
+"completing of virtue in practice," which is the aim of that process,
+that is: Nature, reason or learning, and use or exercise; For, "if
+nature be not improved by instruction, it is blind; if instruction be
+not assisted by nature, it is maimed; and if exercise fail of the
+assistance of both, it is imperfect as to the attainment of its end."
+There cannot be "instruction"--a term which is here used as equivalent
+to "education," although the latter has a wider signification than the
+former, and being equivalent to mental cultivation,--without a teacher,
+and Plutarch says well, "we are to look after such masters for our
+children as are blameless in their lives, not justly reprovable for
+their manners, and of the best experience in teaching. For the very
+spring and root of honesty and virtue lies in the felicity of lighting
+on good education." He is, indeed, so much impressed with its value that
+he affirms: "The one chief thing in this matter--which compriseth the
+beginning, middle and end of all--is good education and regular
+instruction." These two "afford great help and assistance towards the
+attainment of virtue and felicity." He adds: "Learning alone, of all
+things in our possession, is immortal and divine."
+
+Plutarch dwells on various other matters connected with education
+better fitted for his times than ours, but he refers to the importance
+of example in words that are deserving of careful consideration. He
+says: "The chiefest thing that fathers are to look to is, that they
+themselves become effectual examples to their children, by doing all
+those things which belong to them, and avoiding all vicious practices,
+that in their lives, as in a glass, their children may see enough to
+give them an aversion to all ill words and actions. For those that chide
+children for such faults as they themselves fall into unconsciously
+accuse themselves, under their children's names. And if they are
+altogether vicious in their own lives, they lose the right of
+reprehending their very servants, and much more do they forfeit it to
+their sons. . . . . Wherefore we are to apply our minds to all such
+practices as may conduce to the good breeding of our children."
+
+It is not improbable that the marriage regulations ascribed to Lycurgus
+were based on institutions already in existence among the Spartans. From
+the statement of Polybius, that the brothers of a house often had one
+wife between them, it has been inferred that in Sparta the Tibetan form
+of polyandry was practiced. According to Plutarch, another curious
+marriage custom prevailed, showing that the Spartans, who differed in
+various respects from other Greeks, had retained primitive habits.
+Thus, the bridegroom carried off the bride by violence, and for some
+time after this "marriage by capture" he visited her "with great caution
+and apprehension" of being discovered by the rest of the family; the
+bride at the same time exerted all her art to contrive convenient
+opportunities for their private meetings. And this they did, not for a
+short time only, but some of them even had children before they had an
+interview with their wives in the daytime! This custom had much in
+common with the _sadica_ marriages of the early Arabs, who, as we are
+told by Professor Robertson Smith, allowed a woman, while she remained
+with her own tribe, to receive the clandestine visits of a lover. Her
+offspring were recognized as legitimate and became members of the tribe.
+The incident of "capture" could not occur, as it was a general custom in
+ancient Arabia for a husband to live among his wife's kinsfolk.
+
+
+INFANTICIDE AMONG THE GREEKS.--The practice of infanticide, which was
+the only mode by which Lycurgus, or even Plato in his imaginary
+republic, could really insure the existence of a healthy and vigorous
+population, was undoubtedly a survival from primitive times. The
+sacredness of infant life is the result of the high moral tone which has
+accompanied the spread of Christianity; and it may be said to be almost
+unknown outside of the Christian era. Various reasons are assigned by
+different peoples for the practice of infanticide; but one cause
+universally operative is the objection to rearing malformed or unhealthy
+offspring. Savages adopt various modes of improving, according to their
+ideas, the physical appearance of their children. Giving the proper form
+to the nose is considered a very important matter by the native
+Australian mother and by the Polynesian Islanders; as, indeed, it was by
+the ancient Persians, among whom the molding of the nose to the proper
+curve was essential, especially in the royal family. The flat head of
+the American Indian of the northwest coast was at one time considered a
+beauty, and was restricted to the members of the tribe, slaves not being
+allowed to undergo the necessary head compression. The small artificial
+foot of the Chinese lady is another case in point. But however much the
+physical appearance might be altered, no effect could thus be made in
+the general physique of the race. The most easy way of keeping this up
+to a proper standard is to destroy all the infants that possess physical
+defects; and such a course is adopted by many savages, although it is by
+no means the most influential cause of infanticide.
+
+
+GROUP MARRIAGE.--A remarkable system of relationships, with which is
+combined a series of regulations framed with the object of pointing out
+what persons are entitled to enter into the marital relation, is found
+to be prevalent in nearly all uncivilized peoples. The members of a
+tribe are divided into two or more groups, each of which consists of
+persons who are nearly related by blood, and who are forbidden,
+therefore, to intermarry. One of the tribes of Central Australia, the
+Dieyerie, has a legend which explains the marriage system common to them
+and to all the other tribes, as being intended to prevent the evil
+effects of intermarriage between persons very near of kin. The story is
+valuable as showing the opinion entertained by savages as to the effect
+on the race of breeding in and in--a subject to which we may have
+occasion to make further reference. Dr. J. F. McLennan and other writers
+on primitive marriage refer to the practice among certain _civilized_
+peoples of antiquity of what we regard as incestuous marriage, in
+support of the view that in the early history of mankind intercourse
+between the sexes was promiscuous.[21:A] Such an explanation is entirely
+uncalled for, however, as the custom was intended to secure purity of
+blood, that is, blood of a particular line of ancestors. Such marriages
+were known only to a few peoples, and they were evidently of
+comparatively late origin. Whether the purity of blood was attended with
+improvement of the stock may be doubted; as, whatever may have been the
+actual origin of the marriage regulations of the numerous peoples among
+whom the classificatory system of relationship is established, they are
+intended, without question, to prevent the intermarriage of persons who
+are regarded as near blood relations, the general disapproval of which
+must have had some sufficient reason, or, at all events, must have
+originated in ideas supposed to furnish good grounds for it.
+
+
+MAKING CHILDREN THE PROPERTY OF THE STATE.--The principles which were
+embodied in the scheme proposed by Plato, in his "Republic," to bring
+about an improvement in the race are mainly two: First, restriction on
+the formation of procreative unions; second, infanticide. The breaking
+up of private or separate families necessarily resulted from the
+operation of his "marriage" regulations, and was intended to emphasize
+the idea which Plato, like Lycurgus, insisted on, that the children
+belonged to the State. Lycurgus sought to enforce the same idea by
+allowing wives to have intercourse with other men than their husbands,
+thus making children "common" in some sense, while retaining the
+separate family intact. Thus he introduced, or rather it should be said,
+established a modified form of polyandrous marriage; Plato's system, on
+the other hand, being one of mere pairing, as in the breeding of
+animals. In either case the union of very near relations was not
+permitted, that is, between brother and sister, or parent and child. Yet
+Lycurgus allowed marriage between a half-brother and sister by the same
+mother. Curiously enough, this was forbidden by the Athenian law, which
+permitted a brother and sister by the same father only to intermarry.
+The Greek rule, as laid down in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+Antiquities," was that "proximity of blood or consanguinity was not,
+with some few exceptions, a bar to marriage," although direct lineal
+descent was so. Moreover, there was no attempt to enforce consanguineous
+marriages, so as to ensure purity of blood, such as was customary among
+the Incas of Peru, the laws of which required that the oldest son and
+daughter of the sovereign should intermarry because the Incas were
+descended from the Sun, and the Sun had married his sister the Moon, and
+had united in marriage his two first children! A more practical reason
+was found in the rule that the kingdom should be inherited through both
+parents. Hence it was not permitted to mix the blood of the Sun, or
+rather of those who claimed solar descent, with that of men.
+
+
+GRECIAN METHODS NOT SUITABLE TO OUR TIME.--It is evident that the
+principles which governed the ancients in their endeavors to improve the
+race are not capable of application at the present day, under the
+conditions of modern civilization. Instead of placing further
+restrictions on marriage, the tendency now is to loosen those which have
+hitherto existed, although certain regulations, such as relate to age,
+consent, etc., are recognized as necessary for the interests of the
+State. Moreover, greater facilities are given than were formerly allowed
+for dissolving ill-assorted unions, thus getting rid of the excuse for
+the formation of irregular connections. Nevertheless, the interests of
+neither society at large nor of individuals will permit of the
+introduction of the temporary or occasional pairing system, which is a
+return to an animal state, and, therefore, not worthy of the dignity
+implied in the term, marriage, and which is inconsistent with true
+family life. It would be liable to all kinds of abuse, and would become,
+in most cases, a legalized system of prostitution, thus dragging society
+down to a lower level instead of raising it, and tending to the
+deterioration, instead of the improvement, of the race, if not to its
+extinction. As to infanticide, this certainly would not be tolerated by
+public opinion, although it is now largely resorted to under the guise
+of abortion. To legalize child-killing under any circumstances would be
+to offer a premium for murder, even if it were permitted only with the
+express sanction in every case of the officials of the State. There is
+now no justification for such a course, as the education of those who
+appear to be on a mental level with the animals has been carried so far
+that the term "idiot" may soon have to be dropped from our vocabulary.
+
+It must be affirmed, however, that the whole subject of the improvement
+of the race was dealt with by Plato, and, indeed, by the ancients
+generally, in a very crude and superficial manner. This has been well
+pointed out by Professor B. Jowett in the Introduction to his
+translation of Plato's "Republic." Professor Jowett objects generally
+that the great error in the speculations of Plato and others on the
+improvement of the race is, "that the difference between men and the
+animals is forgotten in them." The human being is regarded with the eye
+of a dog or bird fancier, or at best of a slave owner; the higher or
+human qualities are left out. The breeder of animals aims chiefly at
+size or speed or strength; in a few cases, at courage and temper; most
+often the fitness of the animal for food is the greatest desideratum.
+But mankind are not bred to be eaten, nor yet for their superiority in
+fighting or in running or in drawing carts. Nor does the improvement of
+the human race consist merely in the increase of the bones and flesh,
+but in the growth and enlightenment of the mind. Hence there must be a
+marriage of true minds as well as of bodies; of imagination and reason
+as well as of lusts and instincts. Men and women without feeling or
+imagination are justly called brutes; yet Plato takes away these
+qualities and puts nothing in their place, not even the desire of a
+noble offspring, since parents are not to know their own children. The
+most important transaction of social life he who is the idealist
+philosopher converts into the most brutal. For the pair are to have no
+relation to each other but at the hymeneal festival; their children are
+not theirs, but the State's; nor is any tie of affection to unite them.
+Yet the analogy of the animals might have saved Plato from a gigantic
+error if he had not lost sight of his own illustration! For the "nobler
+sort of birds and beasts" nourish and protect their offspring and are
+faithful to one another! It is certainly surprising, as Jowett says,
+that the greatest of ancient philosophers should, in his marriage
+regulations, have fallen into the error of separating body and mind. He
+did so probably through a false notion of the antagonism between the
+family and the State, and hence, as Lycurgus did not aim at destroying
+family life he escaped that error.
+
+And yet there is nothing to show that the marriage regulations of
+Lycurgus had any real effect on the children of the State. That the
+early Spartans were a hardy and courageous people is undoubtedly true;
+but apart from the practice of infanticide, which would necessarily get
+rid of the weak, their character and conduct can be explained by
+reference merely to the system of training, both of youth and maidens,
+which Lycurgus rigidly enforced. Lacedemon was essentially a military
+republic, and its rulers aimed to breed soldiers, rather than men in the
+noble sense in which the term "man" is now used. Indeed, there is
+nothing to show that any compulsory attempt to improve the race has ever
+been successful, apart from the effect which the destruction of feeble
+and deformed offspring may have, and the influence of the severe
+training of those who are allowed to survive.
+
+Nevertheless, the human race has vastly improved since its first
+appearance on the earth, if the teachings of the doctrine of evolution
+are true and applicable to man as well as to the inferior animals. The
+passage from the native Australian to the European is a long one, and
+yet they are supposed to represent a common primitive stock. The steps
+by which the European has been gradually developed, with his special
+characteristics, cannot now be traced; but one of the chief agencies to
+which the result is due is that to which Darwin applied the term,
+"sexual selection." As natural selection has relation to _adaptation_,
+and its aim is "the survival of the fittest," so sexual selection has
+reference to _beauty_, and its object is the perpetuation of the most
+beautiful, according to the taste of the peoples practicing it. Darwin
+was the first to point out the importance of sexual selection for
+certain purposes which, as stated by Professor G. J. Romanes, in his
+"Darwin and after Darwin,"[28:A] "have no reference to utility or the
+preservation of life." The latter writer in treating of the subject
+affirms it is universally admitted that the higher animals do not pair
+indiscriminately, the members of either sex preferring "those
+individuals of the opposite sex which are to them most attractive." Many
+birds and certain mammals clearly display the esthetic sense, which is
+shown by the former particularly in the adorning of their nests with
+colored objects; and it is reflected in the personal appearance of the
+animals themselves. During the pairing season, birds take on their most
+brilliant plumage, and the males take great pains to exhibit their
+charms before the females, actively competing with one another in so
+doing. There is similar rivalry among song birds, who strive to see
+which can best please the females by their singing.
+
+
+SEXUAL SELECTION.--Professor Romanes, after referring to those facts,
+which are considered in detail by his great predecessor, states the
+theory of sexual selection as follows: "There can be no question that
+the courtship of birds is a highly elaborate business, in which the
+males do their best to surpass one another in charming the females.
+Obviously the inference is that the males do not take all this trouble
+for nothing; but that the females give their consent to pair with the
+males whose personal appearance, or whose voice, proves to be the most
+attractive. But, if so, the young of the male bird who is thus
+_selected_ will inherit his superior beauty; and thus, in successive
+generations, a continuous advance will be made in the beauty of plumage
+or of song, as the case may be,--both the origin and development of
+beauty in the animal world being thus supposed due to the esthetic taste
+of the animals themselves."
+
+It is not necessary to refer particularly to the evidence in support of
+the theory of sexual selection. There can be no doubt that it is a most
+important factor in the perpetuation and increase of certain characters,
+those which come within the category of "beautiful," the very existence
+of which proves them to be beneficial to the stock to which the animals
+exhibiting them belong. The fundamental fact is that they have "the
+effect of charming the females into a performance of the sexual act;" an
+opinion which is supported by the more general fact that "both among
+quadrupeds and birds, individuals of the one sex are capable of feeling
+a strong antipathy against, or a strong preference for, certain
+individuals of the opposite sex."
+
+These statements are applicable also to man, with whom the principle of
+sexual selection must have been influential to at least the same degree
+as among the lower animals. It may be expected, indeed, to be more
+influential, as the esthetic taste with which it is associated becomes
+more highly developed with man than with any member of the animal
+kingdom. Even here it is not a question of mere coloration. The theory
+of sexual selection as framed by Darwin is concerned, as Romanes points
+out, not so much with color itself as with the particular disposition of
+color in the form of ornamental patterns. These have a kind of
+_structural_ value, and certain birds, moreover, possess actual
+structural peculiarities, such as ornamental appendages to the beak, the
+only use of which would appear to be to charm the female during
+courtship. We may suppose, therefore, that sexual selection has affected
+not merely what may be termed the superficial characters of man, but to
+some extent, at least, those which have a structural value.
+
+The principle of sexual selection is applicable primarily to the
+characteristics of the male; but Darwin supposes them to have been
+transferred to the other sex, and through them transmitted to the race
+generally. In his "Descent of Man," he remarks of the actual influence
+over the race of that principle: "The nervous system not only regulates
+most of the existing functions of the body, but has indirectly
+influenced the progressive development of various bodily structures and
+of certain mental qualities. Courage, pugnacity, perseverance, size and
+strength of body, weapons of all kinds, musical organs, both vocal and
+instrumental, bright colours and ornamental appendages have all been
+indirectly gained by the one sex or the other, through the exertion of
+choice, the influence of love and jealousy, and the appropriation of the
+beautiful in sound, colour or form; and these powers of the mind
+manifestly depend on the development of the brain."
+
+That sexual selection has actually resulted in modification of human
+physical structure, Darwin thinks can be shown by reference to the
+ancient Persians, whose type was greatly improved by intermarriage with
+the beautiful Georgian and Circassian women. He refers to several
+similar cases, and particularly to the Jollofs of West Africa, whose
+handsome appearance is said to be due to their retaining for wives only
+their most beautiful slaves, the others being sold.
+
+Sexual selection may be operative for the improvement of the race
+through the action of either man or woman, and the conditions of its
+activity are different in either case. As to the action of man, Darwin
+says in relation to primitive peoples: "The strongest and most vigorous
+men--those who could best defend and hunt for their families, who were
+provided with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as
+a large number of dogs or other animals--would succeed in rearing a
+greater average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members
+of the same tribe. There can, also, be no doubt that such men would
+generally be able to select the more attractive women. At present, the
+chiefs of nearly every tribe throughout the world succeed in obtaining
+more than one wife."
+
+With reference to selection by the women, Darwin shows that among
+savages they have much more to say in their marriages than is usually
+supposed. He remarks: "They can tempt the men they prefer, and can
+sometimes reject those whom they dislike, either before or after their
+marriage. Preference on the part of the women, steadily acting in any
+one direction, would ultimately affect the character of the tribe, for
+the women would generally choose, not merely the handsomest men,
+according to their standard of taste, but those who were at the same
+time best able to defend and support them. Such well-endowed pairs would
+commonly rear a larger number of offspring than the less favored."
+Darwin adds: "The same result would obviously follow in a still more
+marked manner if there were selection on both sides, that is, if the
+more attractive, and at the same time more powerful men were to prefer,
+and were preferred by, the more attractive women. And this double form
+of selection seems actually to have occurred, especially during the
+earlier periods of our long history."
+
+The investigations of Darwin as to the operation of sexual selection had
+reference chiefly to the modification of physical characters. He did not
+altogether lose sight, however, of its possible influence in affecting
+for the better the mental characteristics of the race. He concludes his
+enquiry by the remark that "Man might by selection do something, not
+only for the bodily constitution and frame of his offspring, but for
+their intellectual and moral qualities. Both sexes ought to refrain from
+marriage if they are in any marked degree inferior in body or mind; but
+such hopes are Utopian, and will never be even partially realized until
+the laws of inheritance are thoroughly known. Every one does good
+service who aids towards this end."
+
+It is in the application of the principle of sexual selection to the
+mental characteristics of man, that any real improvement of the race,
+viewed as consisting of human beings and not of mere animals, must be
+brought about. Beauty of physical form and feature is of importance in
+human relations only so far as it is associated with beauty of mind and
+character, that is, with high intellectual and moral attainments. That
+these often go together is true, but it is not always the case. Grant
+Allen says: "To be sound in wind and limb; to be healthy of body and
+mind; to be educated; to be emancipated; to be free, to be
+beautiful--these things are ends towards which all should strive, and by
+attaining which all are happier in themselves, and more useful to
+others." But physical and intellectual perfection are not always found
+together, as was observed by Darwin, when he mentioned among the causes
+which interfere with the physical action of sexual selection the fact
+that men are largely attracted by the mental charms of women. Professor
+Jowett affirms truly that "Many of the noblest specimens of the human
+race have been among the weakest physically. Tyrtaens or AEsop, or our own
+Newton, would have been destroyed at Sparta, and some of the fairest and
+strongest men and women have been among the wickedest and worst." Hence,
+he properly infers that "Not by the Platonic device of uniting the
+strong and the fair with the strong and the fair, regardless of
+sentiment and morality, nor yet by his other device of combining
+dissimilar natures, have mankind gradually passed from the brutality and
+licentiousness of primitive marriage to marriage Christian and
+civilized."
+
+The truth of this inference cannot be denied, because to leave out of
+view considerations of sentiment and morality would fatally vitiate any
+scheme for the improvement of the human race. But Professor Jowett
+affirms that, "We do not know how by artificial means any improvement in
+the breed can be effected." The problem is no doubt a complex one. As he
+points out, a child has usually thirty progenitors only four steps back,
+and whatever truth there may be in the inheritance of special physical
+characters, "We have a difficulty in distinguishing what is a true
+inheritance of genius or other qualities, and what is mere imitation or
+the result of similar circumstances. _Great men and great women have
+rarely had great fathers and mothers._" Professor Jowett thinks, indeed,
+that too much importance may be ascribed to heredity. He says: "The
+doctrine of heredity may seem to take out of our hands the conduct of
+our lives, but it is the idea, not the fact, which is really terrible to
+us. For what we have received from our ancestors is only a fraction of
+what we are or may become. The knowledge that drunkenness or insanity
+has been prevalent in a family may be the best safeguard against their
+recurrence in a future generation. The parent will be most awake to the
+vices or diseases in his child of which he is most sensible within
+himself. The whole of life may be directed to their prevention or cure.
+The traces of corruption may become fainter, or be wholly effaced; the
+inherited tendency to vice and crime may be eradicated. And so heredity,
+from being a curse, may become a blessing. We acknowledge that in the
+matter of our birth, as in our nature generally, there are previous
+circumstances which affect us. But on this platform of circumstances, or
+within this wall of necessity, we have still the power of creating a
+life for availment by the reforming energy of the human will."
+
+There is much truth in these remarks of Professor Jowett, but they do
+not affect the argument in favor of the possibility of bringing about an
+improvement in the race if the proper means are adopted. It would not be
+any wiser for the strong and healthy to marry with the sick and weak,
+because the latter happen to be highly intellectual or moral, than to
+marry with the strong and healthy if these physical characters are
+united with mental weakness or immorality. There is a consensus of
+opinion at the present day, that what should be aimed at is the union of
+physical perfection with that of intellect and character, in the
+persuasion that steps towards this end will ultimately lead to the
+general improvement of the human race.
+
+
+DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY.--The difficulty is to devise and carry out some
+scheme for the purpose which shall be both feasible and agreeable to
+public sentiment. The latter consideration would prevent any attempt at
+active stirpiculture under State direction, although the State might
+indirectly affect the result by subsidiary regulations as to marriage
+and training of children. There is nothing, however, to prevent the
+systematic efforts of private individuals, and in such cases the causes
+which Darwin cites as interfering with the physical action of sexual
+selection would not operate. The most systematic experiment in
+stirpiculture of modern times was that originated by John Humphrey Noyes
+at the Oneida Community, in central New York, from 1868 to 1879. A paper
+on this experiment was read by Anita Newcomb McGee before the American
+Science Association in August, 1891, which was published in "The
+American Anthropologist," 1891, and the following facts are taken from
+that paper.
+
+
+AN EXPERIMENT IN STIRPICULTURE.--Noyes was the founder of a religious
+sect, the members of which, owing to their desire for freedom from sin,
+were called Perfectionists. Holiness was the first principle of their
+creed, and Noyes thought to transmit that condition from one generation
+to another by a process of stirpiculture. To overcome the "selfishness"
+of monogamic marriage he devised a "system of regulated promiscuity,
+beginning at earliest puberty, and by a method of his own invention he
+separated the amative from the propagative functions." Its first
+principle was that of a judicious in and in breeding, with occasional
+mingling of foreign blood, as in stock-raising. The second principle
+adopted was that of "careful selection of individuals for breeding
+purposes. Genealogies were studied and medical histories compiled." A
+committee, headed by Noyes, selected the holiest members who were free
+from physical defects, intellectual and other considerations being given
+less weight at first, although in later years they received more
+consideration. The parents were of all ages, but the father was always
+older than the mother. Some sympathy between the persons mated was
+always required; and if a proposition for union came from two
+individuals it was allowed if no objections were found. Noyes held that
+uncle and niece are as much related as father and daughter, because
+brothers have identical blood, and that cousins are in the same relation
+to each other as half brothers. In the Oneida Community uncles and
+nieces twice paired, and it is noticeable that a considerable proportion
+of the children had Noyes' blood on one or both sides. The founder
+himself had nine children in the Community, to which belonged also his
+brother, his two sisters and their children. As to the care of the
+children, this belonged exclusively to the mothers for the first nine
+months, after which for a further nine months they took charge of their
+offspring at night only. When eighteen months old, the children were
+transferred to a separate department which was managed by those who had
+shown themselves specially fitted for the work.
+
+Let us see what was the result of Noyes' experiment. Of the sixty[39:A]
+children born, five died at or near childbirth from unforeseen causes
+depending upon the mother. All the others were alive at the date of Mrs.
+McGee's communication, except a boy who was reared in spite of weakness,
+and died from a trifling malady when about sixteen years of age. All the
+children were strong and healthy, the boys being tall--several over six
+feet--broad-shouldered and finely proportioned; the girls robust and
+well-built. It is remarkable, that among the children between five and
+nine years of age, thirteen were boys and six only were girls. With
+reference to their intellectual ability, it is stated by Mrs. McGee
+that, of the oldest sixteen boys, ten were in business, chiefly employed
+as clerks, foremen, etc., in the manufactories of the joint stock
+company. The eleventh was a musician of repute; another a medical
+student; one passed through college and studied law; one was a college
+senior, and one entered college after winning State and local
+scholarships, and gave great mathematical promise. The sixteenth boy was
+a mechanic, and the only one employed in manual labor. Of the six girls
+between eighteen and twenty-two years, three are said by Mrs. McGee to
+be especially intellectual. The mothers of these children usually
+belonged to the classes employed in manual labor, while the fathers,
+with the exception of the Noyes family and half a dozen lawyers, doctors
+and clergymen, were all farmers and mechanics. It is noteworthy that, as
+a rule, the fathers were the intellectual superiors of their mates, "and
+enquiry develops the fact, known in the Community, that in these cases
+the children are markedly superior to the maternal stock."
+
+When this system of complex marriage had been in operation twenty years,
+the desire to return to the old system of monogamy arose, and it became
+so strong in the Community that its founder retired from it, and on
+August 26, 1879, complex marriage was renounced, although nominally "in
+deference to public sentiment." Twenty-five couples who had been married
+before entering the Community again became husband and wife, and twenty
+marriages between other individuals took place within four months after
+the abandonment of the stirpicultural experiment. There were then in the
+Community two hundred and sixteen adults and eighty-three children under
+twenty years of age.
+
+So far as the real object which the founder of the Oneida Community had
+in view in his marriage system, it was undoubtedly a failure, as of the
+offspring, in spite of their early doctrinal training, only a very few
+are church members, and but one is a Perfectionist. This is the son of
+an uncle and a niece, both of Noyes' blood. From a physical and
+intellectual standpoint the experiment would seem to have given promise
+of success, but it continued too short a time to be of much scientific
+value. The result may be stated in the words of Mrs. McGee, who says
+that the complete failure to perpetuate the church through stirpiculture
+"would seem to indicate that, while our race would doubtless be greatly
+benefited by more attention to laws of breeding, yet to attempt
+promulgation of a belief by this means alone is only to court defeat. In
+spite of the energy and magnetism of so remarkable a man as Noyes, in
+spite of his long-continued efforts, and just when success seemed within
+his grasp, his one misjudgment of human nature bore fruit, the neglected
+instinct of monogamy arose in its might and crushed to nothing the whole
+structure, and he, the builder, went last of all. With the close of his
+life, April 13, 1886, ended a unique and interesting history."
+
+
+INTERMARRIAGE.--We have seen that the founder of the Oneida Community
+permitted the intermarriage of uncle and niece, although he considered
+them related as nearly as father and daughter. This question of the
+intermarriage of near blood relations is an important one in its bearing
+on the question of stirpiculture, and as already mentioned, it has
+engaged the attention of nearly all the lower races of mankind. It has,
+indeed, been provided against by the marriage restrictions of most
+uncultured peoples, and their systems of relationship clearly point out
+what persons are within the permitted limits of marriage. It appears to
+be the general rule that the children of two brothers or of two sisters,
+whether own or tribal, cannot intermarry, but that the children of a
+brother and those of a sister may be thus united, although sometimes
+this is not allowed where own brother and sister are concerned.[42:A]
+
+The question of the effect on offspring of consanguineous marriages was
+some time ago particularly enquired into by Mr. A. H. Huth, who, after a
+consideration of all the information available, came, in his work, "The
+Marriage of Near Kin," to the following conclusions:
+
+"1--That any deterioration through the marriage of near kin, _per se_,
+even if there be such a thing in the lower animals, is impossible in
+man, owing to the slow propagation of the species.
+
+"2--That any deterioration through the chance accumulation of an
+idiosyncrasy, though more likely to occur in families where the marriage
+of blood relations was habitual, practically does not occur oftener than
+in other marriages, or it would be more easily demonstrated.
+
+"3--That, seeing the doubt, to say the least of it, which exists
+concerning the effect for harm of marriages between near kin, and on the
+other hand the certainty that whenever and wherever marriage is impeded
+a direct and proportionate impulse is given to the practice of
+immorality, it is advisable not to extend the prohibition against
+marriage beyond the third collateral degree, and to permit all marriages
+of affinity excepting those in the direct ascending or descending line."
+
+There appears to be no doubt that what are regarded among Christian
+peoples as incestuous marriages are not desirable. How far marriage
+unions between first cousins are advisable depends, as appears from Mr.
+Huth's remarks, on considerations which affect the question generally.
+If there are any serious physical, intellectual or moral defects on
+either side, no marriage should take place.
+
+
+WOMAN'S SELECTIVE ACTION.--Apart from the question of consanguinity, the
+principles which should govern all marriages is that of sexual
+selection, which should have reference, however, not merely to physical
+characters, but also to mental and moral characteristics. In applying
+this principle, it must be remembered that while man, like the male of
+all animals, does the courting, woman, like all females, makes the
+selection; at least this is the general rule among the most cultured
+peoples. Thus it is evident that woman possesses the power of largely
+influencing the improvement of the human race, and in this fact we may
+see the possibility of this being effected by the operation of general
+social causes, without having recourse to individual experiments, such
+as that undertaken by Noyes, which are necessarily limited in their
+action, and may, after all, have like practical result. _If all women
+could be induced to combine for that end they could probably bring about
+the desired improvement by their own efforts._
+
+On this subject the well-known naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, has some
+judicious remarks in an article on "Human Progress, Past and Future," in
+_The Arena_ for January, 1892. Mr. Wallace, who accepts the views of
+Weismann as to the non-inheritance of acquired characters, thinks that
+the physical and moral evils and degradation attendant on the conditions
+of modern city life will have no permanent effects, when a more rational
+and elevating system of social organization is brought about. The most
+important agency in this social regeneration will be the selective
+action of woman, under the influence of her newly acquired freedom and
+higher education. Says Mr. Wallace: "When such social changes have been
+effected that no woman will be compelled, either by hunger, isolation or
+social compulsion, to sell herself, whether in or out of wedlock, and
+when all women alike shall feel the refining influence of a true
+harmonizing education, of beautiful and elevating surroundings, and of a
+public opinion which shall be founded on the highest aspirations of
+their age and country, the result will be a form of human selection
+which will bring about a continuous advance in the average status of the
+race. Under such conditions, all who are deformed either in body or
+mind, though they may be able to lead happy and contented lives, will,
+as a rule, leave no children to inherit their deformity. Even now we
+find many women who do not marry because they have never found the man
+of their ideal. When no woman will be compelled to marry for a bare
+living or for a comfortable home, those who remain unmarried from their
+own free choice will certainly increase in number, while many others,
+having no inducement to an early marriage, will wait until they meet
+with a partner who is really congenial to them. In such a reformed
+society the vicious man, the man of degraded taste or of feeble
+intellect, will have little chance of finding a wife, and his bad
+qualities will die out with himself. The most perfect and beautiful in
+body and mind will, on the other hand, be most sought and therefore be
+most likely to marry early, the less highly endowed later, and the least
+gifted in any way the latest of all; and this will be the case with both
+sexes. From this varying age of marriage, as Mr. Galton has shown, there
+will result a more rapid increase of the former than of the latter, and
+this cause continuing at work for successive generations will at length
+bring the average man to be the equal of those who are now among the
+more advanced of the race."
+
+We have here the application of the principle of sexual selection in its
+highest sense, although limited in action to women, and it is
+undoubtedly the phase of stirpiculture which will become operative when
+the "emancipation of women" is completed. There is one feature of modern
+society which may retard its operation, and which was referred to by
+Darwin as interfering with the physical effect of sexual selection in
+the past. Wealth is now, more than ever before, an important factor in
+society, and not only man's but woman's choice in matrimony is often
+governed by money considerations. The possession of wealth may be
+evidence of mental astuteness, but not necessarily of high morality, and
+until it ceases to be sought after in marriage it will seriously
+interfere with the improvement of the race on its higher planes.
+
+The sexual selection which Mr. Wallace so ably advocates is to be
+exercised by woman, and hence its efficiency will depend on the fitness
+of woman, not only to choose proper partners in marriage, but to
+communicate the highest physical and mental characters to her offspring.
+She can transmit only what she herself possesses, and she will choose
+that which is in sympathy with her own feelings and desires, so that if
+she is to affect the race beneficially, she must seek first her own
+perfection. Hence the great importance of the woman's movement of the
+present day, the basis of which is the better development of her
+physical, mental and moral faculties, without which she cannot expect to
+have the increased social privileges to which she may aspire. The
+greatest social privilege women can have is to be the chief agent in the
+improvement of the race, and through it the regeneration of society
+itself. Lady May Jeune, in reply to those who think that the present
+relations between mothers and daughters threaten family disruption,
+observes, "That woman was created for the purpose of being the wife and
+mother of mankind no one can deny, and that none of the discoveries of
+science or any attempt to solve the mysteries of life have brought her
+one bit nearer the knowledge of how to unburden herself of these
+responsibilities, is also a fact." This must be true if the race is to
+be continued; for without wives there can be no mothers. Being possible
+mothers, therefore, it is necessary, if the race and society are to be
+improved, that women shall acquire the highest physical, intellectual
+and moral education they are capable of, and if they require the same
+qualities in their husbands, the problem we are considering will be
+solved.
+
+
+MAN'S AND WOMAN'S CO-OPERATION.--We have here the central idea of the
+New Hedonism advocated by Mr. Grant Allen, whose views necessitate the
+active agency of man as well as of woman. This is only reasonable,
+seeing that offspring depend on the co-operation of two factors, and
+that if either of them is defective the offspring must share in the
+defect. "Self-development is an aim of all," says Mr. Grant Allen, "an
+aim which will make all stronger and braver, and wiser, and better. It
+will make each in the end more helpful to humanity. To be sound in wind
+and limb; to be healthy of body and mind; to be educated, to be
+emancipated, to be free, to be beautiful--these things are ends towards
+which all should strive, and by attaining which all are happier in
+themselves, and more useful to others." Hence the New Hedonism teaches
+that "to prepare ourselves for the duties of paternity and maternity, by
+making ourselves as vigorous and healthful as we can be is a duty we owe
+to all our children unborn and to one another." This applies as well to
+"the body spiritual, intellectual and esthetic" as to the physical
+body. Mr. Grant Allen thinks the theory he advocates will introduce a
+new system, which "will not include the selling of self into loveless
+union for a night or for a lifetime; the bearing of children by a mother
+to a man she despises or loathes or shrinks from; the production by
+force, sanctified by law, of hereditary drunkards, hereditary
+epileptics, hereditary consumptives, hereditary criminals. We shall
+expect in the future a purer and truer relation between father and
+mother, parent and child. We shall expect some sanctity to attach to the
+idea of paternity, some thought and care to be given beforehand to the
+duties of motherhood. We will not admit that the chance union of two
+unfit persons, who ought never to have made themselves parents at all,
+or ought never to have made themselves parents with one another, can be
+rendered holy and harmless by the hands of a priest extended to bless a
+bought love, or a bargain of impure marriage. In one word, for the first
+time in the history of the race, we shall evolve the totally new idea of
+responsibility in parentage. _And as part of this responsibility we
+shall include the two antithetical, but correlative, doctrines of a
+moral abstinence from fatherhood and motherhood on the part of the
+unfit, and a moral obligation to fatherhood and motherhood on the part
+of the noblest, the purest, the sanest, the healthiest, the most able
+among us. We will not doom to forced celibacy half our finest mothers._"
+
+
+THE INDIVIDUAL'S RIGHTS.--From the racial standpoint these views are
+just and cannot be controverted, but something must be allowed to the
+individual. The relative position and rights of the race and the
+individual are in a dispute, which has become intensified since the
+development of the theory of evolution. _But the individual is the
+beginning of the race and he should be its end._ Therefore, in seeking
+to improve the race, violence must not be done to the highest sentiments
+of the individual. It is a fact that many highly cultured individuals
+have a repugnance to certain aspects of married life, and this
+repugnance appears to be justified by the further fact that a high state
+of refinement is often attended with loss of physical productiveness.
+One of the most curious results of Galton's enquiries into heredity was
+that wealthy families have a tendency to die out in heiresses, which is
+partly, but not wholly, dependent on the fact that childbearing is more
+often the accompaniment of poverty than of luxurious living.
+
+The personal disinclination to marry attendant on intellectual
+refinement is still more likely to be possessed by those of high
+spirituality. This is quite natural, notwithstanding the statement of
+Mr. Grant Allen, which is undoubtedly true, that the origin and basis
+of all that is best and highest within us is to be found in the
+sex-instinct. Love may have begotten "all higher arts and all higher
+customs," and yet love may in the process itself become sexless, as it
+is when it assumes the noblest form, that of divine charity for our
+fellowmen. As well might we continue to perpetuate in our highest
+actions the nature of the ape-man because we are descendants of this
+creature, as let the idea of sex always rule our thoughts. With the
+individual the physical influence of sex is weakened and finally ceases,
+although it ever remains constant in the race, and hence the influence
+of the idea of sex over the mind of the individual should be similarly
+affected. "In Heaven," said the founder of Christianity, "there is
+neither marrying nor giving in marriage," and in that highest mental
+condition, which is heaven on earth, the sense of sex has ceased to be
+operative, having given place to the spiritual sense which is the
+noblest attribute of man because the last to be developed.
+
+We have here, however, a question between the individual and the race,
+and it does not affect the main contention that the improvement of the
+race, which includes that of the individual, is to be found in the
+application of the principle of selection. This must necessarily be
+chiefly in the hands of women, although both men and women must
+co-operate to bring about the best results, by seeking first of all to
+improve their own natures by physical, intellectual and moral culture.
+The statement of the case according to that principle, and the aim to be
+attained, exhibit the dignity and importance of the subject of
+stirpiculture. Theoretically this is admitted on all hands, and as soon
+as the conditions of the subject are clearly understood there will be no
+practical difficulty in carrying the principle into effect, so that it
+may have its legitimate consequences.
+
+What parents have to realize is the necessity of so training and
+instructing their children that they may become capable of being the
+parents of perfect offspring. The good tree only can bear good fruit.
+But this is not the real starting point of stirpiculture. An essential
+factor, and one that is seldom thought of, is the spirit in which the
+inception of offspring is undertaken. Marriage was to the ancients a
+sacred state, because it was associated with the religion of the
+domestic altar, and because the perpetuation of the family, which was
+its aim, was required by the necessity of having a son to perform the
+sacred rites at that altar after the death of his father. The
+perpetuation of the family was thus a sacred duty, and the consummation
+of marriage partook of this character. According to the ancient Persian
+religion, the union of man and woman is the act most agreeable to God,
+and the act of consummation is directed to be sanctified, and a prayer
+directed to God that He would bless it. Marriage must be conducted in
+this spirit, rather than as a means of gratifying the passions, if the
+happiest results are to be obtained from the application of the
+principle of sexual selection.
+
+
+SPIRITUAL SYMPATHY IN MARRIAGE.--That supposes, however, the existence
+of spiritual sympathy between those who are united in marriage, and this
+sympathy must form the true basis of all improvements in the race. It
+was the neglect of this feature, the want of which must render any
+attempt to carry out Plato's ideas on the subject of marriage futile,
+that put a stop to the experiments undertaken by his latest imitator,
+Noyes. His adherents simply made a return to the monogamy which is the
+heritage of all the Aryan peoples, and which is based on the union of
+two hearts, and not merely of two persons. This is the first application
+of the principle of sexual selection above the animal plane, and it must
+be continued notwithstanding that the range of selection is extended so
+as to embrace also the intellectual and moral planes.
+
+How far the State may ultimately be called on to aid in the improvement
+of the race, in accordance with the ideas we have been considering, is
+doubtful. It can aid very materially in placing restraints on too early
+marriage, and by insisting on the attainment of a proper standard of
+physical training and of mental culture before marriage is entered on.
+There is no reason, moreover, why the State should not interfere to
+prevent the marriage of those who are too near of kin, or who by reason
+of physical or mental ailment, or by their moral defects are not fit
+subjects for the propagation of the race. The objection to this
+interference with personal liberty is so strong, however, that even so
+rational a procedure as preventing the spread, through marriage
+alliances, of disease and crime cannot yet obtain the sanction of public
+opinion. This will be educated with the general improvement of the race
+that must gradually take place through other agencies, and then the
+State will have merely to carry into effect the decrees of the people,
+which will be expressed in no uncertain language when woman has attained
+to the influence to which her own perfected condition will entitle her.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[21:A] Mr. Darwin accepted this view at first; but in a note to the
+second edition of his "Descent of Man" he says: "C. Staniland Wake
+argues strongly against the views held by these three writers on the
+former prevalence of almost promiscuous intercourse." See "Development
+of Kinship and Marriage." Redway, London. 1888.
+
+[28:A] The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago. 1892.
+
+[39:A] It should be sixty-one.
+
+[42:A] See Lorimer Fison, in "The Journal of the Anthropological
+Institute," May, 1895, page 361. The whole subject is exhaustively
+treated by C. Staniland Wake, in his "Development of Kinship and
+Marriage."
+
+
+
+
+PRENATAL CULTURE.
+
+
+In the last preceding chapter we have considered the subject of the
+improvement of the race, especially through the action of sexual
+selection, or, as it may be expressed, selective action in the pairing
+of individuals, whether brought about compulsorily by the controlling
+influence of the State or some other external authority, or by the
+actual choice of one or both of the individuals immediately concerned.
+We have now to deal with the subject of the influence over offspring of
+affections of the individual organisms from whose union such offspring
+is derived.
+
+
+JACOB'S FLOCKS.--The story of Jacob dealing with the flocks of Laban,
+given in Genesis xxx, is usually alluded to in corroboration of the
+belief that offspring may be physically affected before birth, by
+anything which strongly influences the imagination of the mother. Jacob
+is represented as making an agreement with Laban, his father-in-law,
+that Jacob should receive as his hire all the ringstreaked and spotted
+he-goats and all the black she-goats, and also those that were speckled
+and spotted. When this arrangement had been made, Laban sought to
+benefit by it by removing from the flock all the goats that answered to
+that description, and giving them into the care of his sons, leaving the
+rest of the flock in Jacob's charge. This was undoubtedly an attempt on
+the part of Laban to cheat his son-in-law out of his wages, but the
+latter was not to be so cheated, and he adopted a plan which gave him
+the pick of the flock, leaving the feeble goats to his less wily parent.
+
+In describing this operation, the Bible story says: "And Jacob took him
+rods of fresh poplar [or storax tree] and of the almond and of the plane
+tree, and peeled white streaks in them, and made the white appear which
+was in the rods. And he set the rods which he had peeled over against
+the flocks in the gutters in the watering troughs where the flocks came
+to drink; and they conceived when they came to drink. And the flocks
+conceived before the rods, and the flocks brought forth ringstreaked,
+speckled and spotted. And Jacob separated the lambs, and set the faces
+of the flocks toward the ringstreaked and all the black in the flock of
+Laban; and he put his own droves apart, and put them not unto Laban's
+flock. And it came to pass, whensoever the stronger of the flock did
+conceive, that Jacob laid the rods before the eyes of the flock in the
+gutters, that they might conceive among the rods; but when the flock
+were feeble, he put them not in: so the feebler were Laban's, and the
+stronger Jacob's."
+
+Whether or not this incident actually occurred as stated we do not know.
+According to the subsequent part of the narrative, the effect of setting
+up the peeled rods was ascribed to God's interference in his behalf; but
+it is not improbable that we have in the story a reference to ancient
+shepherd lore, based on the superstitious notions still so common in the
+East. In the earlier part of the same chapter is a story relating to
+mandrakes, which were supposed to have influence on human generation.
+Jacob is said to have used three kinds of rods, those of the poplar or
+storax tree, the almond, and the plane tree, which produced
+ringstreaked, speckled and spotted lambs.
+
+The influence exerted by Jacob's rods was of a different character from
+that which is supposed to give rise to the marking of offspring before
+birth, which is not uncommon if we are to accept as true all the cases
+mentioned in books referring to the subject. What occurred took place
+_before_ conception, and not subsequent to it, as in these cases.
+Nevertheless, both classes of phenomena are recognized by so competent
+an authority as M. Th. Ribot, who, in his "Heredity,"[57:A] when
+criticising Dr. Lucas' explanation of the origin of the numerous
+exceptions to the law of heredity, as being due to the operation of the
+law of spontaneity, affirms that there is no law of spontaneity, but
+that all such exceptions may be explained by reference to certain causes
+of diversity. M. Ribot gives three causes of diversity, which are:
+1--Antagonistic heredities of two parents; 2--Accidental causes in
+action at the moment of generation; 3--External and internal influences
+subsequent to conception. He assigns but little importance to causes
+acting after birth, such as diet, climate, circumstances, education,
+physical and moral influences, because, though they may produce serious
+effects, these are not radical. Possibly, however, since the advance
+made in the education of those who are born with defects of the sensory
+apparatus, M. Ribot would somewhat modify his opinion on that point. As
+to the causes which operate at the period of conception, or subsequent
+thereto and before birth, he says, in relation to the latter class, they
+"are all the physical and moral disturbances of uterine existence--all
+those influences which can act through the mother upon the fetus during
+the period of gestation; impressions, emotions, defective nutrition,
+effects of imagination." He adds: "These causes are very real, despite
+the objections of Lucas, who attacks them in order to establish his law
+of spontaneity. We see from examples that between considerable causes
+and their effects there exists an amazing disproportion."
+
+The causes of diversity which operate at the instant of conception
+depend, says Ribot, "less upon the physical and moral natures of the
+parents than on the particular state in which they are at the moment of
+procreation." This fact is referred to by M. de Quatrefages as fully
+proving the universality of the law of heredity, and M. Ribot adds, "It
+enables us to understand that those transitory states which exist at the
+moment of conception may exert a decisive influence on the nature of the
+being procreated, so that often, where now we see only spontaneity, a
+more perfect knowledge of the causes at work would show us heredity."
+
+Professor E. D. Cope, the well-known author of "The Origin of the
+Fittest," would seem to doubt the truth of the stories of birthmarks on
+the ground that "the effect of temporary impressions on the mother is
+not strong enough to counterbalance the molecular structure established
+by impressions oftener repeated throughout much longer periods of
+time."[59:A] And yet there is no doubt that birthmarks do occasionally
+occur, although it is very difficult to obtain properly authenticated
+cases of them.
+
+
+AN ILLUSTRATIVE CASE.--How great is the influence on unborn offspring
+of the mother's mental condition, as well as the effect over them of
+pleasant surroundings, is shown by the following case. A young girl
+attracted attention by her beauty and by the superiority of the type she
+exhibited over that of either of her parents, and on her mother being
+spoken to on the subject she remarked:
+
+"In my early married life my husband and I learned how to live in holy
+relations, after God's ordinance. My husband lovingly consented to let
+me live apart from him during the time I carried this little daughter
+under my heart, and also while I was nursing her. Those were the
+happiest days of my life. Every day before my child was born, I could
+have hugged myself with delight at the prospect of becoming a mother. My
+husband and I were never so tenderly, so harmoniously, or so happily
+related to each other, and I never loved him more deeply than during
+those blessed months. I was surrounded by all beautiful things, and one
+picture of a lovely face was especially in my thought. My daughter looks
+more like that picture than she does like either of us. From the time
+she was born she was like an exquisite rosebud--the flower of pure,
+sanctified, happy love. She never cried at night, was never fretful or
+nervous, but was all smiles and winning baby ways, filling our hearts
+and home with perpetual gladness. To this day, and she is now fourteen
+years old, I have never had the slightest difficulty in bringing her up.
+She turns naturally to the right, and I never knew her to be cross or
+impatient or hard to manage. She has given me only comfort; and I
+realize from an experience of just the opposite nature that the reason
+of all this is because my little girl had her birthright."
+
+The future experience of this lady was, however, of a very different
+nature. She added:
+
+"A few years later I was again about to become a mother, but with what
+different feelings! My husband had become contaminated with the popular
+idea that even more and frequent relations were permissible during
+pregnancy. I was powerless against this wicked sophistry, and was
+obliged to yield to his constant desires. But how I suffered and cried;
+how wretched I was; how nervous and almost despairing! Worst of all, I
+felt my love and trusting faith turning to dread and repulsion.
+
+"My little boy, on whom my husband set high hopes, was born after nine
+of the most unhappy, distressing months of my life, a sickly, nervous,
+fretting child--myself in miniature, and after five years of life that
+was predestined by all the circumstances to be just what it was, after
+giving us only anxiety and care, he died, leaving us sadder and wiser.
+
+"I have demonstrated to my own abundant satisfaction that there is but
+one right, God-given way to beget and rear children, and I know that I
+am only one of many who can corroborate this testimony."
+
+The following case of prenatal culture appeared in _The Philosophical_
+for October 5, 1895, above the signature of "John Allyn," who says:
+
+"About forty years ago I was a neighbor of a young couple who had been
+recently married. They were of fair natural abilities, but not highly
+educated. The wife could play on the piano well and accompany it with
+her voice. The husband was a house-building contractor. Before their
+first child was born the wife was provided with instruments for drawing,
+and interested herself in their use and mathematical calculations
+connected with them. The child proved to be a boy, who took to
+architectural drawing as by instinct. With very little effort he became
+proficient, and is now employed at a high salary by the Southern Pacific
+Railroad as their architect.
+
+"Some years later, before the second child was born, the mother
+interested herself with music with reference to the effect it would have
+on the unborn child. This child proved to be a girl, who is now an
+expert singer, finding ready employment in opera companies. Though not a
+star, she has a superior talent for music which enabled her to take
+advantages of musical training easily."
+
+
+BELIEFS OF PRIMITIVE PEOPLES.--Whenever such cases happen, it is under
+the influence of some very strong emotion, during the period of
+gestation, arising from the action on the nervous system of the mother
+by an external object presented to the sight, the organ of which would
+seem to have an intimate association with the general muscular system.
+There is nothing to show that primitive peoples recognized the action of
+prenatal influence through the senses; but there is a very curious
+custom, which is so widespread at the present time that we may well
+suppose it to have been formerly almost universal, dependent upon the
+imagined effect of the eating of animal flesh. All primitive peoples
+believe that a man acquires physical or mental characteristics from
+animals of whose flesh he partakes. Cannibalism is closely connected
+with this notion, as the man who eats part of the body of a foe is
+thought to become endowed with the victim's courage, strength or other
+special quality. Probably the Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals,
+that is, animals unfit for food, was based on such an idea; and
+certainly the command to abstain from eating blood was thus connected;
+as we are told the blood is the life, and if so, then it must be the
+carrier of vital influences.
+
+The custom above referred to, which is known to ethnologists as _la
+couvade_, or "hatching," supposes injurious action on the organism of
+the child of food eaten by its parents, as appears from the facts
+brought together by Dr. E. B. Tylor in his "Researches into the Early
+History of Mankind." The couvade usually has reference to the period
+immediately following the birth of a child; but among the native tribes
+of South America, where it is more extensively prevalent than elsewhere,
+it is observed while the child is still unborn. Thus, in Brazil,
+according to Von Martius, "A strict regimen is preserved before the
+birth; the man and the woman refrain for a time from the flesh of
+certain animals, and live chiefly on fish and fruits." The peculiarity
+of the couvade custom, and that which gives it its special interest, is
+the fact that it usually concerns the father and not the mother, as
+injury to the child is supposed to be due to the conduct of the former
+rather than of the latter. Thus, among the Land Dyaks of Borneo, "The
+husband, before the birth of his child, may do no work with a sharp
+instrument, except what is necessary for the farm; nor may he fire guns,
+nor strike animals, nor do any violent work, lest bad influences should
+affect the child; and after it is born the father is kept in seclusion
+indoors for several days, and dieted on rice and salt, to prevent not
+his own but his child's stomach from swelling."
+
+Here food abstinence takes place after the birth of the child, but,
+according to Brett, in Guinea "Some of the Acawois and Caribi nations,
+when they have reason to expect an increase of their families consider
+themselves bound to abstain from certain kinds of meat, lest the
+expected child should, in some mysterious way, be injured by the
+partaking of it. The acouri (or agouti) is thus tabooed, lest, like that
+little animal, the child should be meager; the haimara, also, lest it
+should be blind--the outer coating of the eye of the fish suggesting
+film or cataract; the labba, lest the infant's mouth should protrude
+like the labba's, or lest it be spotted like the labba, which spots
+would ultimately become sores."
+
+Another related case, of more recent observation, is that of the
+Motumotu of New Guinea, who say that after conception the _mother_ must
+not eat sweet potato or taro, lest the head of the child grow out of
+proportion, and the _father_ must not eat crocodile or several kinds of
+fish, lest the child's legs grow out of proportion. At Suan, a husband
+shuts himself up for some days after the birth of his first child, and
+will eat nothing.[65:A]
+
+Various explanations of the custom of couvade have been offered, and
+probably C. Staniland Wake is right when he states that it is connected
+with the idea that the father is the real source of the child's
+life.[66:A] As he points out, on the authority of M. Girard-Teulon,
+among the European Basques, even at the present day, a husband enters
+his wife's abode only "for the purpose of reproduction, and to work for
+the benefit of his wife." Mr. Wake remarks that, "With some of the
+Brazilian tribes, when a man becomes a father he goes to bed instead of
+his wife, and all the women of the village come to console him for the
+pain and suffering he has had in making this child." This agrees with
+the idea entertained by so many peoples that the child is derived from
+the father only, the mother being merely its nourisher. When such an
+idea is held, it is not surprising if, as among the Abipones, the belief
+is formed that "the father's carelessness influences the new-born
+offspring, from a natural bond and sympathy of both," or if the father
+abstains, either before or after the child's birth, from eating any
+food, or performing any actions which are thought capable of doing it
+harm. Still more so, if the child is regarded, as is sometimes the case,
+as the reincarnation of the father, a notion which is supported by the
+fact, pointed out by Mr. Gerald Massey, that in the couvade the parent
+identifies himself with the infant child, into which he has been
+typically transformed.
+
+That conclusion agrees with the opinion expressed by Mr. Tylor, that
+the couvade "implicitly denies that physical separation of 'individuals'
+which a civilized man would probably set down as a first principle
+common by nature to all mankind. . . . It shows us a number of distinct
+and distant tribes deliberately holding the opinion that the connection
+between father and child is not only, as we think, a mere relation of
+parentage, affection, duty, but that their very bodies are joined by a
+physical bond, so that what is done to the one acts directly upon the
+other."[67:A] The couvade custom is thus closely connected with the
+question of the special relationship of a child to one or other of its
+parents. Curious notions on this subject have been formed from time to
+time; but the ancients almost universally entertained the idea held by
+the Greeks that "the father, as endowed with creative power, was clothed
+with the divine character, but not the mother, who was only the bearer
+and nourisher of the child." Professor Hearn accepts this view in his
+work, "The Aryan Household," and suggests as the Aryan thought on the
+subject: "A male was the first founder of the house. His descendants
+have 'the nature of the same blood' as he. They, in common, possess the
+same mysterious principle of life. The life spark, so to speak, has
+been once kindled, and its identity, in all its transmissions, must be
+preserved. But the father is the life-giver. He alone transmits the life
+spark, which from his father he received. The daughter receives, indeed,
+the principle of life, but she cannot transmit it."
+
+M. Ribot, who, as we have seen, endorses the popular belief as to the
+possibility of the fetus being affected, during uterine existence,
+through the organism of the mother, reduces all the obscure causes of
+deviation from heredity to two classes. Of these, the first is the
+disproportion of effects to causes, already mentioned; and the second is
+the transformation of heredity. As to the first of these causes, he lays
+it down as a general truth that "the more complicated the mechanism, the
+greater the disproportion between accidental causes and their effects."
+He supports this conclusion by reference to Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's
+researches on the production of monsters, and he affirms that the
+disproportion between cause and effect cannot be foreseen by measuring,
+but is known only by experience, as "psychological laws are analogous
+now to mechanical and now to chemical laws," so that it is impossible to
+proceed by deduction from causes to effects. (Page 207.)
+
+
+BIRTHMARKS RARE.--And yet the very fact that cases of birthmarks are
+comparatively rare, proves the greatly preponderating influence of
+heredity over the constitution of the offspring, modified by the
+disposition of the parents at the time of procreation. Professor Cope
+has some explanatory remarks on that subject which deserve quotation. He
+says--after referring to the hypothesis that growth-force may be,
+through the motive force of the animal, directed to any locality,
+whether the commencement of an executive organ has begun or not--that "A
+difficulty in the way of this hypothesis is the frequently unyielding
+character of the structure of adult animals, and the difficulty of
+bringing sufficient pressure to bear on them without destroying life.
+But, in fact, the modifications must, in most instances, take place
+during the period of growth. It is well known that the mental
+characteristics of the father are transmitted through the spermatozoid,
+and that, therefore, the molecular movements which produce the mechanism
+of such mental characters must exist in the spermatozoid. But the
+material of the spermatozoid is combined with that of the ovum, and the
+embryo is compounded of the animal contents of both bodies. In a
+wonderful way the embryo develops into a being which resembles one or
+both parents in minute details. This result is evidently determined by
+the molecular and dynamic character of the original reproductive cells
+which necessarily communicate their properties to the embryo which is
+produced by their subdivisions." Professor Cope goes on to say, "Richard
+Hering has identified this property of the original cells with the
+faculty of memory. This is a brilliant thought, and, under restriction,
+probably correct. The sensations of persons who have suffered amputation
+show that their sensorium maintained a picture or map of the body so far
+as regards the location of all its sensitive regions. This simulcrum is
+invested with consciousness whenever the proper stimulus is applied, and
+the character of the stimulus is fixed by it. This picture probably
+resides in many of the cells, both sensory and motor, and it probably
+does so in the few cells of simple and low forms of life. The
+spermatozoid is such a cell, and, how or why we know not, also contains
+such an arrangement of its contents, and contains and communicates such
+a type of force. It is probable that in the brain-cell this is the
+condition of memory of locality. If, now, an intense and long-continued
+pressure of stimulus produces an unconscious picture of some organ of
+the body in the mind, there is reason to suppose that the energies
+communicated to the embryo by the spermatozoid and ovum will partake of
+the memory thus created. The only reason why the oft-repeated stories of
+birthmarks are so often untrue, is because the effect of temporary
+impressions on the mother is not strong enough to counterbalance the
+molecular structure established by impressions often repeated
+throughout much larger periods of time."[71:A]
+
+
+WHY CHILDREN RESEMBLE PARENTS.--That children reproduce the general and
+physical and mental characteristics of their parents in combination is
+unquestionable truth, although the particular mode in which they are
+communicated is yet undetermined, notwithstanding the fact mentioned by
+Professor Cope that they are somehow conveyed by the microscopic sperm
+and germ in the union of which the new being has its beginning. Thus
+every individual must possess the general characteristics of the
+primitive human family from which through a vast number of ancestors he
+has descended. And yet at every stage of descent the organism may have
+obtained fresh characters, or at least have undergone some modification.
+As remarked by Dr. G. H. Th. Eimer, "Every character which must have
+been formed through the activity of the organism is an acquired
+character. All characters, therefore, which have been developed by
+exertion are acquired, and these characters are inherited from
+generation to generation. The same holds for all organs atrophied
+through disease--the degree of atrophy is acquired and inherited. In the
+first class we see especially the action of direct adaptation; in the
+second, the results of the cessation of the action. A third class of
+acquired characters is to be traced simply to the immediate action of
+the environment on the organism, and, originally, at the commencement of
+their appearance, all characters must have belonged to this
+class."[72:A] We have here a general argument in opposition to the
+theory propounded by Professor Weismann, that acquired characters are
+not transmissible. Elsewhere (page 382) Dr. Eimer observes: "Phyletic
+growth, or the evolution of the organic world ever into higher and more
+complex forms, or at least into forms of different structure, is, as I
+have said, merely the sum of the processes of growth of the
+ancestors--together with the result of external influences on the forms
+during their development and their existence. This additional
+modification which the individuals as such undergo is--together with the
+influence of crossing--the very cause of the constantly progressing
+evolution. All that the members of a series of individuals directly
+connected by descent acquire constitutes together the material for the
+formation of a new species."
+
+
+LIFE'S EXPERIENCES AFFECTING CHILD.--Unless characteristics acquired by
+an individual, that is, the modifications of the organism due to his
+own life experiences, are capable of being handed down to his offspring,
+it is difficult to see how any progress could be made in the development
+of the race. Weismann's declaration that acquired characters are not
+transmissible was a surprise to the scientific world when first made,
+but it has been accepted by many Darwinians. His conclusion is dependent
+on his doctrine of heredity, which differs from that propounded by
+Darwin, but is by no means new; as its leading ideas, as pointed out by
+Professor G. J. Romanes,[73:A] are largely a reproduction of those of
+Mr. Francis Galton, whose work on heredity attracted much attention when
+first published. The views of Darwin, Galton and Weismann on that
+subject have been compared by Professor Romanes, who explains the
+distinction between them. He says (page 133), after referring to the
+supposed continuity of the germ-plasm, common to the theories of Galton
+and Weismann, but not required by that of Darwin, "The three theories
+may be ranked thus--The particulate elements of heredity all proceed
+centripetally from somatic-cells to germ-cells (gemmules): the
+inheritance of acquired characters is therefore habitual.
+
+"These particulate elements proceed for the most part, though not
+exclusively, from germ-cells to somatic-cells (stirp): the inheritance
+of acquired characters is therefore but occasional.
+
+"The elements in question proceed exclusively in the centrifugal
+direction last mentioned (germ-plasm): the inheritance of acquired
+characters is therefore impossible."
+
+The first of these theories is that of Darwin, and the last that of
+Weismann, whose notion of the continuity of germ-plasm supposes that no
+part of an organism generates any of the formative material which goes
+to make up its offspring. This material is regarded in much the same
+light as the sperm which the male parent confides to the keeping of the
+female, according to the notion of the ancient world above referred to.
+For, as Romanes states (page 26): "In each generation a small portion of
+this substance [germ-plasm] is told off to develop a new body to lodge
+and nourish the ever-growing and never-dying germ-plasm--this new body,
+therefore, resembling its so-called parent body simply because it has
+been developed from one and the same mass of formative material; and,
+lastly, that this formative material, or germ-plasm, has been continuous
+through all generations of successively perishing bodies, which
+therefore stand to it in much the same relation as annual shoots to a
+perennial stem: the shoots resemble one another simply because they are
+all grown from one and the same stock."
+
+Although Professor Weismann denies that acquired characters, that is,
+individual peculiarities arising as the result of personal experience,
+are transmitted, he admits that congenital characters, that is,
+peculiarities with which an individual is born, are transmitted to
+offspring. As congenital characters must, originally, have been
+individual, it is not easy at first sight to perceive Weismann's real
+meaning. It is necessary, therefore, to enter more particularly into a
+consideration of his theory, which he regards as in general accord with
+Darwin's theory of pangenesis. Darwin supposes that all the cells of the
+body continually give off great numbers of _gemmules_, which are
+conveyed by the blood and deposited in the germ-cells of the organism.
+These cells are thus endowed with the power of developing a new organism
+of the same kind, each gemmule reproducing the cell from which it was
+derived. These ultimate vital units are called by Weismann _biophors_,
+but he supposes them not to be the ultimate "bearers of vitality." They
+are said to be arranged in groups to which the term _determinants_ is
+applied, and these groups are combined so as to form ancestral _ids_ or
+germ-plasms. Each determinant, which is made up of perfectly definite
+numbers and combinations of biophors, is the primary constituent of a
+particular cell, or of a group of cells, such as a blood corpuscle. The
+determinants thus "control the cell by breaking up into biophors, which
+migrate into the cell body through the nuclear membrane, multiply there,
+arrange themselves according to the forces within them, and determine
+the histological structure of the cell," impressing upon it its
+inherited specific character. The structure of the cell, and of every
+subsequent stage, exists therefore potentially in the inherited
+structure of the id, and the determination of its character "depends on
+the biophors which the corresponding determinant contains, and which it
+transmits to the cell."
+
+
+GERM-PLASM.--While Weismann regarded germ-plasm as absolutely stable,
+the only mode by which congenital variation could be brought about was
+that of _amphimixis_, or intermingling of individuals in the process of
+generation. As modified, however, by his latest work, "The Germ-plasm, a
+Theory of Heredity," published in 1892, his theory now allows the plasm
+to be capable of modification, and he ascribes that variation to the
+direct effects of external influences on the biophors and determinants
+of the germ-plasm. The instability of this substance is so slight,
+however, that congenital variations cannot be acted on and perpetuated
+by natural selection, and the influence of amphimixis is thus required
+for the purpose. Mr. Herbert Spencer, however, in criticising
+Weismann's theory, declares that "functionally produced modifications of
+structure are transmissible," and he refers in support of his contention
+to the remarkable effect of arrested nutrition on the structure and
+habits of wasps and bees. It especially affects the reproductive organs,
+and hence there is no occasion to call in the aid of amphimixis to
+perpetuate the variations produced, its office being the blending of the
+elements on which the characteristics of offspring depend.
+
+If it be asked how modifications are actually transmitted, we may say
+that it can be only by an affection of the germ-cell. This probably
+takes place by deviations in the structure of what Weismann calls
+determinants, or of groups of determinants, through rearrangement of
+their primary units. The modification would be preceded, however, by a
+corresponding change in the nerve centers concerned in the use or disuse
+of the organs affected. Mr. Spencer shows that under certain conditions
+changes take place in the conduct of certain insects, and that "the
+maternal activities and instincts undergo analogous changes,"[77:A]
+facts which point to a loss of nervous energy and to an intimate
+connection between the nervous system and the reproductive function. Use
+or disuse first increases or diminishes the activity of certain nerve
+centers, and this leads to a modification of the corresponding
+germ-cells. If so, the determinants, instead of being first affected, as
+proposed by Weismann, and thus determining the variations, are in
+reality modified as the result of the functional changes, and are thus
+capable of transmitting these changes to succeeding generations.
+
+In a subsequent article, published in _The Contemporary Review_ for
+October, 1894, Mr. Spencer recapitulates his argument in favor of the
+transmission of acquired characters, and refers to observations made by
+Professor Hertwig and others, which he regards as "showing, firstly,
+that all the multiplying cells of the developing embryo are alike; and,
+secondly, that the soma-cells of the adult severally retain, in a latent
+form, all the powers of the original embryo-cell," facts which he
+rightly considers disproves Weismann's hypothesis of _panmixia_. If this
+is surrendered, then, says Mr. Spencer, "all that evidence collected by
+Mr. Darwin and others, regarded by them as proof of the inheritance of
+acquired characters, which was cavalierly set aside on the strength of
+this alleged process of panmixia is reinstated. And this reinstated
+evidence, joined with much evidence since furnished, suffices to
+establish the repudiated interpretation."
+
+Great stress was laid by Professor Weismann, as evidence in support of
+his theory, on the supposed fact that the inheritance of injuries
+sustained during life has not been proved. Particular attention has been
+paid to this point by Dr. Eimer, in relation to which he remarks: "That
+injuries incurred during life are but seldom transmitted to the
+offspring does not appear to me wonderful: the inheritance of the
+complete form and complete activities of the organism, which took root
+such enormously long periods of time ago, and has been strengthened at
+each generation, will, as a rule, counterbalance in the offspring any
+such injuries incurred only once and not repeated."[79:A] This is the
+same argument as was used, as quoted above, by Professor Cope, to
+disprove the occurrence of birthmarks, and Dr. Eimer goes on to state
+that there are injuries which are not transmitted to offspring, although
+they are constantly repeated, as an instance of which he refers to the
+rupture of the hymen. He adds, however: "In such cases we must presume a
+specially effective power of correlative activity, directed to the part
+affected and residing in the whole organism--the same compensating power
+which leads in lower animals, during the life of the individual, to the
+regeneration of parts which have been lost or artificially removed. But
+these cases do not prove the general proposition that injuries are not
+inherited; they do not prove that even injuries which have been
+repeated during a considerable period are not inherited. Hitherto little
+importance has been attached to the demonstration of the inheritance of
+injuries. Yet single cases of the inheritance of injuries only once
+incurred seem to me to be thoroughly authentic."
+
+
+CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES.--Professor Weismann, in replying to the
+criticisms of Professor Virchow, admitted the existence of a number of
+congenital deformities, birthmarks and other individual peculiarities,
+which are inherited, but he affirms that we do not know from what causes
+they first appeared, and that a great proportion of them proceed from
+the germ itself, and are due, therefore, to alteration of the germinal
+substance. There is no proof of this, however, according to Dr.
+Eimer,[80:A] who appeals to various facts in support of his contention
+that injuries and diseases are inherited. He thinks the degeneration of
+the tail in the higher mammals is a case in point, although it has
+required great periods of time to complete. Among other instances of
+inherited injuries mentioned by Dr. Eimer is one in which a scar over
+the left ear and temple, caused to a girl by being thrown from a
+carriage, was transmitted to her son and grandson, the son of the latter
+also showing absence of hair on the injured spot, although the defect
+gradually disappeared with him, nearly a hundred years after the
+accident. The case of Dr. Nosseler, who inherited from his mother a
+crushed finger joint, caused by an accident which happened two years
+before his birth, would seem to be conclusive proof that injuries are
+transmissible. Dr. Eimer refers also to the breeding of short-tailed
+pointers from dogs whose tails had been artificially shortened; and also
+to Brown-Sequard's experiments with guinea pigs, in which epilepsy was
+inherited by their offspring, who showed also the loss of certain
+phalanges, or even whole toes of the hind feet, the parents having
+suffered a similar loss owing to the division of the sciatic nerve. He
+adds that numerous other instances of the inheritance of injuries have
+been recorded, as "inheritance of the artificially shortened tail of the
+bull, of artificially produced hornlessness in cattle, many cases of
+inheritance in man of curvature in a finger, caused by injury,
+inheritance of the absence of one eye which had been lost by the father
+during life or by disease, etc."
+
+The question of the inheritance of deformities and diseases, and the
+causes of the germ-variations on which it depends, have been considered
+by Zeigler, whose conclusions, as quoted by Dr. Eimer (page 186), are
+too important to be omitted. The causes which Zeigler assigns for the
+origin of such germ-variations are of three kinds. These are: 1--Union
+of sexual nuclei which are not adapted for copulation; 2--Disturbance of
+the copulatory process itself; 3--Injurious influences which affect the
+sexual nuclei or the fertilized ovum at a time when separation of the
+sexual cells from the body cells has not yet occurred. "If the embryo is
+injuriously affected at a later period," says Zeigler, "either a
+malformation or a constitutional anomaly arises, which is not inherited,
+or only the sexual cells are injured, in which case the body-cells
+develop normally, and a disturbance shows itself only in the development
+of the next generation." The union of sexual nuclei not adapted for
+copulation appears, however, to be "the most frequent and most important
+cause of hereditary local malformations as well as of hereditary morbid
+tendencies, or of a defect in any system of the whole organism." If the
+nuclei are altogether unadapted to each other, sterility occurs, as in
+the sexual nuclei of distinct species.
+
+
+PSYCHICAL DISEASES.--Zeigler's conclusions are supported by reference to
+the enquiries of the distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von Krafft-Ebings,
+who has considered the heredity of psychical diseases, and in connection
+therewith mentions three "essential facts" which it is necessary to keep
+in view when dealing with that subject. The first of these facts is
+Atavism, by which "the bodily and mental organization and character can
+be transmitted from the first to the third generation, without any
+necessity that the second and intermediate one should exhibit the
+peculiarities of the first--thus the condition of the life and health of
+the grandparents are of interest for us." Secondly, "Only in rare cases
+is the actual disease transmitted in procreation (congenital insanity,
+hereditary syphilis), as a rule only the disposition thereto. Actual
+disease only occurs when accessory injurious influences produce an
+effect based upon that disposition. . . . We must, therefore, consider
+also the state of health of the relatives (uncles, cousins, aunts), and
+since here also the law of atavism holds good, the possible diseases of
+great-uncles and great-aunts." Thirdly, Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings says,
+"Only exceptionally does the same disease develop in ascendant as
+in descendant lines, in consequence of the transmission of morbid
+dispositions. On the contrary, there exists a remarkable variability in
+the forms of disease which may almost claim the value of a law (the law
+of polymorphism or transmutation)."
+
+This law is referred to by M. Ribot as one of the causes of deviation
+from heredity, and he speaks of it as "transformation." As examples of
+transformation of heredity, Ribot refers to fixed ideas in the
+progenitor, which may become in the descendants "melancholy, taste for
+meditation, aptitude for the exact sciences, energy of will, etc.;" the
+mania of progenitors may be changed in the descendants into "aptitude
+for the arts, liveliness of imagination, quickness of mind,
+inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable will." "Just as real
+insanity," says Moreau of Tours, "may be hereditarily reproduced only
+under the form of eccentricity, may be transmitted from progenitors to
+descendants only in modified form, and in more or less mitigated
+character, so a state of simple eccentricity in the parent--a state
+which is no more than a peculiarity or a strangeness of character--may
+in the children be the origin of true insanity. Thus in transformations
+of heredity we sometimes have the germ attaining its maximum intensity;
+and again, a maximum of activity may revert to the minimum."[84:A]
+
+It should be borne in mind, as mentioned by Von Krafft-Ebings,[84:B]
+that everything which debilitates the nervous system and the generative
+powers of the parents, "be it immaturity or too advanced old age,
+previous debilitating diseases (typhus, syphilis), mercurial treatment,
+alcoholic and sexual excesses, overwork, etc., may give rise to
+neuropathic constitutions, and thereby indirectly to every possible
+nervous disease in the descendants."
+
+
+TELEGONY.--There is one remarkable phenomenon, spoken of by various
+writers as _telegony_, which has an important bearing on the subject of
+the transmission of acquired characters, and shows the action of
+prenatal influence in an unexpected form. It is referred to by Professor
+Romanes, when he says, "It has not unfrequently been observed, at any
+rate in mammals, that when a female has borne progeny to a male of one
+variety, and subsequently bears progeny to a male of another variety,
+the younger progeny presents a more or less unmistakable resemblance to
+the father of the older one."[85:A] This curious fact was considered, in
+relation to plants especially, by Darwin, who affirms, as quoted by
+Romanes, that it is of the highest theoretical importance, as "The male
+element not only affects, in accordance with its proper function, the
+germ, but at the same time various parts of the mother-plant, in the
+same manner as it affects the same parts in the seminal offspring from
+the same two parents. We thus learn that an ovule is not indispensable
+for the reception of the influence of the male element."
+
+The curious phenomenon of telegony is not limited, however, to plants.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer drew attention, in _The Contemporary Review_ for
+March, 1893, to a case which has long been known to horsebreeders, and
+which may be said to have become classic. The facts were brought, by the
+Earl of Morton, to the attention of the Royal Society of Great Britain,
+as long ago as the year 1820. The Earl, who possessed a male quagga,
+said, in a letter to the President: "I tried to breed from the male
+quagga and a young chestnut mare of seven-eighths Arabian blood, and
+which had never been bred from; the result was the production of a
+female hybrid, now five years old, and bearing, both in her form and in
+her colour, very decided indications of her mixed origin. I subsequently
+parted with the seven-eighths Arabian mare to Sir Gore Ouseley, who has
+bred from her by a very fine black Arabian horse. I yesterday morning
+examined the produce, namely, a two-year-old filly and a one-year-old
+colt. They have the character of the Arabian breed as decidedly as can
+be expected, where fifteen-sixteenths of the blood are Arabian; and they
+are fine specimens of that breed; but both in their colour and in the
+hair of their manes they have a striking resemblance to the quagga.
+Their colour is bay, marked more or less like the quagga in a darker
+tint. Both are distinguished by the dark line along the ridge of the
+back, the dark stripes across the forehead, and the dark bars across the
+back part of the legs." Mr. Spencer refers to an analogous case of the
+influence of a wild boar over the subsequent progeny of a domestic sow,
+and it now appears that such effects are not so uncommon as the
+scientific world has supposed.
+
+Professor Romanes made particular enquiries on this subject of
+professional and amateur breeders of animals, and he says most of his
+correspondents "are quite persuaded that it is of frequent occurrence,
+many of them regard it as a general rule, while some of them go so far
+as to make a point of always putting a mare, bitch, etc., to a good
+pedigree male in her first season, so that her subsequent progenies may
+be benefited by his influence, even though they be engendered by
+inferior sires."[87:A] His own more modest conclusion is that the
+evidence he obtained "is enough to prove the fact of a previous sire
+asserting his influence on a subsequent progeny, although this fact is
+one of comparatively rare occurrence."
+
+The English Darwinian met with only one case in which the offspring of a
+woman by a second husband, who was a white man, showed the influence of
+her first husband, who was a negro. Mr. Herbert Spencer would seem to
+have been more successful. In _The Contemporary Review_ for May, 1893,
+Mr. Spencer gives the result of his own enquiries as to the effect on a
+white woman's subsequent progeny of a previous union with a negro, and
+he quotes the opinion of a "distinguished correspondent," that
+information given to him many years ago was to the effect that "the
+children of white women by a white father had been _repeatedly_ observed
+to show traces of black blood, in cases where the woman had previous
+connexion with [i. e., a child by] a negro." Mr. Spencer refers also to
+Professor Marsh as authority for such a case, and to the opinion of
+several medical professors who assured him, through Dr. W. J. Youmans,
+that the alleged result "is generally accepted as a fact." He gives as
+authoritative testimony the following statement by Dr. Austin Flint,
+taken from his "Text-book of Human Physiology:" "A peculiar and, it
+seems to me, an inexplicable fact is, that previous pregnancies had an
+influence upon offspring. This is well known to breeders of animals. If
+pure blooded mares or bitches have been once covered by an inferior
+male, in subsequent fecundations the young are likely to partake of the
+character of the first male, even if they be bred with males of
+unimpeachable pedigree. What the mechanism of the influence of the first
+conception is, it is impossible to say; but the fact is incontestable.
+The same influence is observed in the human subject. A woman may have,
+by a second husband, children who resemble a former husband, and this is
+particularly well marked in certain instances by the color of the hair
+and eyes. A white woman who has had children by a negro may
+subsequently bear children to a white man, these children presenting
+some of the unmistakable peculiarities of the negro race."
+
+This phenomenon would alone seem to answer the question of the
+transmission of acquired characters in the affirmative, for its
+explanation is to be found in the facts brought out by Darwin, as to the
+action of foreign pollen on the structure of the mother plant; in
+relation to which Professor Romanes remarks: "When one variety
+fertilizes the ovules of another not unfrequently the influence extends
+beyond the ovules to the ovarium, and even to the calyx and
+flower-stalk, of the mother plant. This influence, which may affect the
+shape, size, colour, and texture of the somatic tissues of the mother,
+has been observed in a large number of plants belonging to many
+different orders."[89:A] May we not have here the explanation of the
+fact, which has frequently been pointed out, that husband and wife show
+a tendency to grow like each other, both physically and mentally, the
+resemblance after a long married life being sometimes very striking?
+
+
+POWER OF HEREDITY.--The most important fact brought out in the
+discussion of the possibility of the transmission of acquired characters
+is the power of heredity. If organisms did not reproduce their own
+special characteristics, there could be no fixity of form and no order
+in organic nature. Nevertheless, if there were no change by individual
+modification or divergence, in whatever way this may be rendered
+permanent in the race, there could be no evolution. Hence we can say,
+with Dr. Eimer, "Any one who thus completely renders allegiance to the
+supremacy of the principles of the unity of the organic world, who
+rejects everything which contradicts that principle, cannot help
+admitting that in truth, as I assert, the ultimate origin of the various
+kinships in the animal and vegetable kingdom is to be traced to
+individual differences, and that the difference between the former, like
+the latter, must be essentially determined by external conditions, by
+the modification of organic growth."
+
+The causes of diversity which interfere with the action of heredity may
+operate, as we have seen, at the moment of conception, or subsequent to
+conception. The former class of causes is of great importance, in
+accordance with the principle, laid down by M. Ribot, of the
+disproportion of effects to causes, and it is essential, therefore, if
+children are to be well-born, that their parents should be careful that
+at the moment of procreation they are fitted for the performance of so
+serious an act. Mr. J. F. Nisbet in his "Marriage and Heredity" (page
+126), well observes, "Twins usually bear a closer resemblance to each
+other than to their brothers and sisters born at a different period;
+and the reason generally assigned is that they are conceived under
+precisely similar conditions. If so, it follows that the difference
+existing between ordinary members of a family is due to their being born
+at considerable intervals of time and therefore under changed conditions
+on the part of their parents."
+
+
+SOBRIETY IN THE FATHER.--Especially does it concern the father, who is
+the most active agent in reproduction, to see that he is then in a fit
+condition. This is quite apart from the question of the diseased
+condition of the organism treated of by Dr. Von Krafft-Ebings, and
+refers to temporary rather than to continuing causes. Sobriety is in
+this connection of great importance, and, as appears from a passage,
+already quoted, in Xenophon, was insisted on at the time of procreation,
+by the ancients.
+
+Zeigler points out, as quoted by Dr. Eimer, that "substances taken up
+from without, as, for example, poisons, are brought by the blood to the
+sexual cells, and others produced in the body are conveyed to the sexual
+organs."[91:A] It is suggested that alcohol has such an effect, and
+there can be no doubt that a tendency to the drinking habit may be
+implanted in a child by a parent intoxicated at the time of
+procreation, with the possibility of its leading to other evils in
+succeeding generations, ending in the early extinction of the family.
+Nisbet refers to several cases of this character, and remarks (page 112)
+that, "There is a limit to the transmission of abnormal characters,
+either in an original or in a disguised form. Always striving after
+perfection, or rather uniformity of type, Nature either purifies a race
+of its physical and moral defects, or, if the type be too vicious,
+exterminates it, as in the case of the Caesars, the Stuarts, and many
+other historical families." Doutrebente came to the conclusion, however,
+that insanity--and doubtless it is true of other conditions--may be
+worked out of a family by the infusion of healthy blood, except where
+both parents were insane, in which case their offspring will become
+extinct.
+
+The law of Leviticus (chap. x, verse 9) provides, under penalty of
+death, that the priests should not drink wine or strong drink before
+going into the tent of meeting. The more stringent regulations provided
+by this law in relation to intercourse between Jehovah and His people
+require physical and moral perfection in those who approach the deity,
+and they may be studied with advantage at the present day by those who
+wish to aid in the perfecting of the race. The man who had a blemish was
+not allowed to go near the altar of sacrifice, that the sanctuary might
+not be profaned; and the sanctuary of the human organism should no less
+be preserved from profanation.
+
+
+SACREDNESS OF PARENTAGE.--It would be well if the sacred act of
+procreation were performed more often in the spirit of the ancients, who
+regarded marriage as a sacred institution, designed not only for the
+perpetuation of the race, but also for the carrying on of the religion
+of the domestic hearth. The first-born child especially was considered
+to have been sent by the gods, and care was taken, therefore, that it
+should be well-born. Prayer and offerings were made to the spirits
+before the nuptial bed was approached, and everything was done to ensure
+the gift they were asked for should be in every respect worthy of them.
+Among the ancient Hebrews the first-born of "all that openeth the womb"
+was dedicated to Jehovah (Exodus xxxiv, 19), and hence the rights of the
+eldest son could not be defeated by his father: "for he is the beginning
+of his strength" (Deut. xxi, 17).
+
+The disturbance of uterine existence between conception and birth is
+that which has engaged most attention, and the fact that such
+disturbances can take place requires that the expectant mother should be
+protected from anything that can so act on her own organism as to
+prevent the due operation of the law of heredity. The precautions taken
+by primitive peoples in relation to food may have some foundation in
+fact, and any food should be avoided by the enceinte woman which will
+injuriously influence the system, or give rise to organic disturbances
+that may affect the blood by which the embryo is nourished. Emotional
+disturbances are to be no less avoided, as through the nervous system
+they act on the blood itself. How far the action of the emotions can
+influence the physical organism has become a moot question with
+psychologists, who now seem inclined to think that "movements are not
+caused by the emotions, but are aroused reflexly by the object." Thus,
+if the sight of a disagreeable object affects by reflex action the
+muscular system of the mother, it will arouse in her a concomitant
+emotion, which being transmitted to the embryo may act on its muscular
+system, leaving the impression as a birthmark, which may be regarded as
+a reflection from the cerebral nerve center of the mother, whether
+emotion is the cause or effect of muscular movement.
+
+If the unborn child can be affected injuriously by disturbances of the
+mother's environment, it is reasonable to suppose that the child can be
+influenced in the opposite direction by making that environment as
+conducive to the normal activity of the material organism as possible.
+The story of Jacob and Laban, referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter, affords an important lesson as to the surroundings with which
+the wife should be provided. The bedchamber itself may become a means
+of influencing offspring for good or evil, and hence it should contain
+only what is agreeable to the senses, and capable of giving rise to
+pleasant imaginings. Especially should this be the case where a woman is
+of a highly sensitive nature. Impressions received from without depend
+largely for their force and influence, however, on the condition of the
+receptive mind, and beautiful surroundings cannot make up for the want
+of inward harmony. A happy and contented mind is the best guarantee that
+the due action of the law of heredity will not be disturbed at the time
+of conception or afterwards. Thus, bickerings between husband and wife
+must have a disturbing effect, especially if carried into the
+bedchamber. The sage of old said: "Let not the sun go down upon thy
+wrath," and parents should make it a point of duty, for the sake of
+their future offspring, never to let the disputes of the daytime--if
+unfortunately they occur--be carried into the night. The bedchamber is
+the place for mental as well as physical repose.
+
+The surest guarantee against the occurrence of conditions which may
+injuriously affect the future offspring, either at the time of
+procreation, or during the subsequent period of gestation, is to be
+found in the general life of the parents. This will give the general
+impress which affects the disposition of the child as a whole, and it
+will show what are the conditions of the family life under the
+influence of which it was born. The nature of the "home" is thus an
+important factor in determining that of the offspring, and it will
+necessarily be a reflection of the general character of those on whom it
+depends. A noble life in the parent will bear fruit in the physical,
+intellectual and moral character of the child, and although this is true
+in relation to the father as well as to the mother, it is doubly true as
+to the latter, seeing that the mother alone is the bearer and nourisher
+of offspring during the period of gestation. During this period the
+child acquires probably many of the characters which it inherits from
+its mother, and the maternal influence may thus be extended to the
+period of lactation. The importance attached to fosterage, where this
+practice became an established custom, as with the early Irish and
+Arabs, would seem to prove that the characteristics of the nurse were to
+some extent transmitted to the child with the milk. The early Arabs
+regarded the milk-tie as constituting a real unity of flesh and blood
+between the foster mother and the foster child, and between foster
+children, so much so as to be a bar to marriage.
+
+
+SELF-CONTROL.--One very serious matter which should be kept in mind by
+an expectant mother is the duty of exercising self-control. The
+influence of this principle in relation to the general life and conduct
+has been repeatedly pointed out, and it is referred to by Jennie
+Chandler in _The Journal of Hygiene_ for August, 1895, where we are
+told: "The power of self-mastery is believed by scientists to be the
+last one acquired by the human race in the process of evolution, and the
+last powers acquired are not so firmly fixed in our natures as some
+which have been longer in our possession. The result is, it becomes
+deranged more readily than more fixed forces. In many cases,
+self-control has never been acquired at all, and so the person can only
+partly master himself. As a rule, children have little of this power.
+They are like animals. Little by little, as they grow older, it grows,
+and in some it becomes so well developed that it is almost perfect. In
+others, like music in those who never acquire it, or any other faculty,
+it never becomes a potent factor in life."
+
+Dr. Chandler adds, "Woman as well as man needs to learn self-mastery.
+With a large amount of feeling in her nature, it is very hard for her to
+do it, but she should try. Too many of us go through life never making
+any effort to be our own masters. We give way to caprices, whims,
+feelings, follies, far more than is good for our health. Hysteria gives
+us a good example of the loss of self-control. Any uncontrolled passion
+gives an equally vivid example. Men and women often say they can't
+govern themselves; that is admitting they have defects of character
+which are their masters. They ought to make effort and see if they are
+not mistaken. The worst effect of lack of self-control are on the
+health. It allows every kind of bad habit in eating, drinking, dressing,
+sleeping, to gain possession of the person, and the result is a weak
+instead of a strong character."
+
+Considering the effect which the organic disposition of the mother has
+on the future offspring, it is evident that whether a child shall have
+the power of self-control depends very largely on the mother herself,
+and it is all-important, therefore, that she should have and exercise
+that power herself. As Dr. Chandler remarks, "No matter how much you
+have been to school, how many college degrees you have, you are not
+educated till you have a reasonable control of your own nature, and can
+direct your own lives rather than have them directed for you by your
+feelings and emotions." This truth obtains fresh significance when we
+consider that a woman's conduct affects the direction not only of her
+own life, but the lives of her future children, and possibly of
+succeeding generations.
+
+Although much has yet to be done to prove the actual effects on
+offspring of the conduct of its parents, enough is known to establish
+the fact that both the general disposition and the particular conduct of
+father or mother may interfere with the orderly action of the law of
+heredity. This law ensures the inheritance of race and individual
+characters; but when these are good, a noble life will cause the
+tendencies towards good to be still further strengthened in offspring,
+and if they are evil, then the disposition will receive an inclination
+in the opposite direction, or, at least, the further development of evil
+will be arrested. On the other hand, a degrading life will produce bad
+effects on offspring, causing deterioration of the organic disposition
+and strengthening the tendency to evil it may have inherited, or
+weakening its tendencies towards the good.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[57:A] "Heredity." By Th. Ribot (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1875), p.
+201.
+
+[59:A] "The Origin of the Fittest." By E. D. Cope (D. Appleton & Co.,
+New York). Page 408.
+
+[65:A] "Pioneering in New Guinea." By James Chalmers. 1887. Page 165.
+
+[66:A] "Development of Kinship and Marriage." Page 264.
+
+[67:A] "Researches into the Early History of Mankind." Page 292.
+
+[71:A] Cope's "Origin of the Fittest." (Redway, London. 1889.) Page 407.
+
+[72:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A.
+(London, Macmillan & Co., 1890.) Page 86.
+
+[73:A] "Examination of Weismannism." The Open Court Publishing Co.,
+Chicago. 1893.
+
+[77:A] _The Contemporary Review_, September, 1893.
+
+[79:A] "Organic Evolution." Translated by J. T. Cunningham, M. A. Page
+13.
+
+[80:A] "Organic Evolution," page 176.
+
+[84:A] "Organic Evolution," page 211.
+
+[84:B] Op. cit., page 201.
+
+[85:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 77.
+
+[87:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 22.
+
+[89:A] "Examination of Weismannism," page 79.
+
+[91:A] "Organic Evolution," page 187.
+
+
+
+
+HEREDITY AND EDUCATION.
+
+_A Lecture delivered before the Brooklyn Ethical Association._
+
+
+In presenting the subject of heredity and its relation to education, it
+seems to me best to consider first what is meant by the term, and after
+this the views held on the subject by our leading evolutionists, when
+its relation to education will be easier and, I hope, more satisfactory.
+
+In common parlance, heredity is the transmission of any trait or
+peculiarity from the parent to the offspring, as the color of the hair,
+the form of the nose, the tones of the voice; or any disease, or any
+special character that may exist in either parent.
+
+If a horse has a star on its forehead like one of its ancestors, we say
+it is due to heredity. If an ox has color marks on its body like its
+parent, it is a case of heredity. If a human being has a disease which
+his ancestors had, very often he declares he inherited it from them,
+even if it be only a common catarrh. But this is a narrow view of the
+subject, and does not include all that a biologist means when he uses
+this word.
+
+By heredity he understands the production from a fertilized ovum of an
+individual, with all the general characteristics of structure and
+function of body and brain of the species to which it belongs. It means
+that the offspring, however much they may vary in general characters,
+will always be of the same species as the parents. The offspring of dogs
+will be dogs; of wolves, wolves; of negroes, negroes, and of white men,
+white men. Anything less is not heredity in its full sense.
+
+Darwin, whom we all love and honor, says: "The whole subject of
+inheritance is wonderful," and in this he but voices the universal
+sentiment of those who have given any serious consideration to it. Let
+me try to show you how wonderful it is by an illustration. From very
+ancient times the horse has been the constant companion of man. This
+animal, with his splendid muscular system, the most perfect, perhaps, of
+any creature, has for his food and shelter, and not always the best of
+these, rendered mankind almost infinite service. Now, every horse that
+has ever been born into the world began life as a minute ovum, which
+under the microscope presents no appearance of a horse, or any other
+animal, and, strange to say, this ovum is, to all appearance, like the
+ovum of other animals, and no amount of study, without knowing its
+origin, can decide whether it will develop as a dog, an ox, a horse or a
+man. After, however, it has gone through the process of gestation, this
+apparently simple egg becomes an animal of a very complex nature, with
+heart, lungs, brain, eyes, ears, mouth, stomach, and blood vessels, all
+where they should be and ready to perform their functions; with mental
+traits of a peculiar kind which adapt him to the service which man
+requires. Nay more: In the process of the evolution of the horse, little
+by little he has changed in various ways, and many, if not all of these
+changes in his bodily constitution and in his mental characteristics,
+which have been found useful or made him more serviceable to man, his
+greater docility, his increased size, his enormous strength and speed,
+his wonderful beauty, through a wise selection and the weeding out of
+the unfit on the part of the breeder, have been transmitted through
+heredity to his offspring, so that today only a paleontologist can tell
+us if he finds the remains of a primitive horse, that it belongs to the
+same class of animals as the horse of our time.
+
+
+THEORIES.--Our theories of heredity will depend on the extent of our
+knowledge, and especially our knowledge of embryology. In the last
+century knowledge on this subject was very meagre, especially that part
+of embryology which could only be studied with the microscope;
+consequently the views of scientists and others of that time were
+exceedingly crude. The most important was that of Malphigi and Bonnet,
+who maintained that the miniature animal existed in the egg; that
+fertilization by the male element simply furnished it with food for
+growth, and that this was added to and stored up in its interstices.
+Cuvier, Haller and Leibnitz adopted substantially these views. The
+latter found them to support his opinion that everything was the result
+of growth from monads, and that there was no such thing in all nature as
+generation.
+
+Such a theory was very simple, but it explained nothing except the bare
+production of offspring. It gave no clue to their endless variations,
+nor to the fact that they often resembled the father more than the
+mother. According to this theory the offspring should resemble the
+mother, as the complete individual is formed by her and should be in her
+image.
+
+Leeuwenhock, one of the early microscopists, by the aid of his lenses,
+opened a new world to mankind, and discovered the sperm cells to be
+active, living, moving elements, and he gave a death-blow to the belief
+that the perfect organism exists in the ovum; but he went to the
+opposite extreme, and maintained that it exists in the male cell and
+that it is only fed and developed by the female. Even today we find in a
+vague way both these theories held by educated persons.
+
+We are indebted to Harvey in the early part of the eighteenth century
+for advocating the view held by Aristotle, now known as _Epigenesis_,
+and combatting the view of growth from a miniature, but already
+perfectly formed animal, to a visible one. Epigenesis consists in the
+successive differentiation from the relatively homogeneous elements as
+found in the egg, to the complicated parts and structure as seen in the
+offspring.
+
+According to Huxley, this work of Harvey alone would have entitled him
+to recognition as one of the founders of biological science, had he not
+immortalized himself as the discoverer of the circulation of the blood.
+
+Not long after Harvey's publication, Casper Frederick Wolf established
+the theory of epigenesis upon a firm foundation, where it still remains.
+
+The doctrine of _epigenesis_ has very much complicated the whole
+question of heredity. No wonder even so great a mind as that of Darwin
+exclaimed, "The whole subject is wonderful." How can an egg, which in
+structure is comparatively simple, an aggregation of cells, not one of
+which bears the slightest resemblance to any organ in the body, develop
+into the perfect individual? How can this egg, formed in special organs,
+develop other organs than those like the ones in which it was formed?
+How can sexual cells develop brain cells, with their wonderful modes of
+action?
+
+We cannot explain the philosophy of heredity without being able to
+answer these questions; but difficult as is the problem, our biologists
+have made various attempts at an explanation. I cannot go over all the
+various speculations, but only those most intimately connected with the
+subject will be mentioned.
+
+The first is Darwin's own attempt at an explanation by the theory of
+_pangenesis_, or genesis from every part. He saw the necessity of having
+in the sexual cells some power or force to represent the other organs
+and functions of the body, else how could these organs be formed in the
+embryo? Pangenesis was supposed to be accomplished as follows: Every
+organ through its cells gives off _gemmules_. These are inconceivably
+small, too small for any microscopical vision; also inconceivably great
+in numbers, and with great power of growth and multiplication. They pass
+from the various organs in which they are formed to the special sex
+organs for generating the sexual cells; some of them are stored up as
+representatives of the various organs from which they have been given
+off. The consequence is that every egg has in it something from every
+organ in the body of both parents which is able, during gestation, to
+develop into that organ.
+
+According to this theory, for instance, if no gemmules are given off
+from the brain, then no brain can be developed from the egg, and so of
+other organs. As in a representative government, all parts of the
+country send representatives to the capitol to do the bidding of the
+people, so every organ of the body sends representatives to the sexual
+cells to form their respective organs; without them these organs would
+not be formed.
+
+There are many objections to pangenesis, but they need not be named
+here. It occurred to Galton, whose studies in heredity have been more
+prolific of good than those of any other man, to test it by practical
+experiment. If these gemmules are circulating in the blood of animals
+before being stored up in the sexual cells, by transfusing blood from
+one variety of any species to another it ought to affect the offspring
+of this other. For his test cases he chose eighteen silvergrey rabbits
+which breed true, and into their bodies he transfused the blood of other
+different varieties, in several cases replacing one-half of this fluid.
+There were eighty-six offspring bred at once from these silvergrey
+rabbits, and all true silvergreys. The theory did not work. But if it
+did not work in practice, it certainly worked on the intellects of
+biologists everywhere, exactly what Darwin wished; it set them to
+thinking. It acted as a ferment, so to say, and brought forth a rich
+harvest in speculation if not in actual knowledge.[106:A]
+
+
+CONTINUITY OF THE GERM-PLASM.--The only other theory which I shall
+mention is that of Weismann, which has been before the public for more
+than a decade, and it is safe to say it has produced a more profound
+impression upon biologists than all others. It has its basis in what he
+calls _continuity of the germ-plasm_. By the germ-plasm is meant that
+part of the germ cell containing all the chemical and physical
+properties, including the molecular structure, which enables it to
+become, under appropriate conditions, a new individual of the same
+species as the parents. In it lies hidden all the characteristics both
+of the species and of the future individual. In it lies all the
+phenomena of heredity. It is the product of the coalescence of the male
+and female elements requisite for reproduction. Only, however, in the
+nuclear substance is to be found the hereditary tendencies. Now, this
+germ-plasm is _continuous_, that is to say, it contains not only
+material from both parents, but from grandparents and greatgrandparents,
+and so on indefinitely. This germ-plasm is exceedingly minute in
+quantity, but has great power of growth. Not all is used up in the
+production of any individual, but some is left over and stored up for
+the next generation. The germ-plasm might be represented as a long
+creeping root, from which arise at intervals all the individuals of
+successive generations. The amount of ancestral germ-plasm in each
+fertilized ovum is calculated in the same way that stock breeders
+calculate the amount of blood of any ancestor running in any individual.
+For instance: The germ-plasm contributed by the father and mother is
+each one-half; each grandparent one fourth, and so on. Ten generations
+back each ancestor contributes only one part in one thousand and
+twenty-four parts. This continuity has by some been called the
+immortality of the germ-plasm. Theoretically, the original Adam and Eve
+have contributed an infinitesimal part. This probably explains why there
+is so much of the original Adam in most of us. By it we are able to
+explain that wonderful fact of _atavism_, or the appearance of
+characters from a remote ancestor in offspring. Some of the germ-plasm
+from this ancestor by some means has had an opportunity to grow rapidly
+and contribute more than its share in the production of the individual
+in which it appears.
+
+It also enables us to explain the fact that no two individuals are quite
+alike, but that there is constant variation. Each person is the product
+of a multitude of ancestors, and the germ-plasm which produced them is
+never mixed, in quite the same proportion, nor do the different parts
+grow with quite the same vigor.
+
+It was on this theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm that Weismann
+built his doctrine of the non-transmission of acquired characters. On
+this subject he says: "Hence it follows that the transmission of
+acquired characters is an impossibility, for if the germ-plasm is not
+formed anew in each individual, but is derived from that which preceded
+it, its structure, and above all, its molecular constitution, cannot
+depend upon the individual in which it happens to occur, but such an
+individual only forms, as it were, the nutritive soil at the expense of
+which it grows, while the latter possessed its character from the
+beginning, that is, before the commencement of growth." Of this,
+however, I will speak later.
+
+
+A RATIONAL VIEW OF HEREDITY.--I might continue giving other theories of
+heredity--Haeckel's, for instance--or the metaphysical theory, but it is
+hardly necessary. I do not accept in full any of them. Their authors, it
+seems to me, have not worked along the lines of evolution, but have gone
+further than was necessary into the fields of speculation. Darwin, in
+his theory of Pangenesis, admitted this frankly, and yet he clung to the
+idea with great tenacity. If we take the unicellular organisms which
+multiply by division, we may see that heredity is simple. One
+unicellular individual growing larger than is convenient, divides into
+two. Each is like the other. It could hardly be different. Reproduction
+by spores or buds is practically the same thing. The spores or buds are
+minute particles of the parent organism. When it comes to the
+coalescence of the germ and sperm elements from two organisms, the
+phenomena become more complicated, and it is still more so as the animal
+rises in the scale of creation; but I believe the processes of organic
+evolution have gone on so slowly that the sexual cells have acquired the
+power to transmit the whole organism without the necessity of the
+germ-plasm being continued from parent to offspring indefinitely, and
+also without the aid of pangenesis.
+
+The egg has acquired a tendency to develop in a certain direction. Just
+how we cannot tell, further than to say that it was probably the result
+of variation first and natural selection selecting out those variations
+most suitable. It is this tendency to vary that gives rise to many of
+the phenomena of heredity. The subject is, for the present, beyond our
+power to settle satisfactorily, and so hypotheses must be resorted to.
+The sexual cells, comparatively simple in anatomical structure, must be
+highly complex in their molecular structure; and the more highly evolved
+the organism, the more complex becomes this molecular structure. If it
+were possible to study this molecular structure we should be able to
+understand the whole subject far better than is possible now. But this
+is not possible, and there is little hope that we shall ever be able to
+accomplish it.
+
+
+HEREDITY AND THE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN.--The next question which comes
+up for consideration is that of the education of children and its
+relation to heredity. This brings us at once to the problem as to
+whether acquired characters are transmitted to offspring or not. If
+acquired characters are transmitted, the relation of heredity to
+education must be very close and important. If acquired characters are
+not inherited, then heredity and education have a very different
+relation. That acquired characters are transmitted has long been
+believed. It was the belief of Lamarck. He tried to explain the
+structure of the organism by this principle. The illustration of the
+long neck of the giraffe is familiar to every one. It originated by the
+constant stretching of this part to obtain food from the trees. In times
+of scarcity, he had to exert himself in this way still more to reach the
+higher branches. The young of the giraffe had longer necks than their
+parents because of the efforts of the latter in this way. So the keen
+sight of birds, it was argued, was acquired in the same manner. The hawk
+had to exercise his eyes most vigorously to discern his prey at a
+distance, and his offspring inherited this keenness of sight acquired by
+the exercise of his ancestors.
+
+Darwin believed that the effects of the exercise of any part were
+transmitted. He says: "We may feel assured that the inherited effects of
+the use and disuse of parts will have done much in the same direction
+with natural selection in modifying man's structure of body."
+
+We may say that this belief has been held by the common people,
+uneducated in science. They not unfrequently get at truths in a rude way
+long before the scientists do. Many parents tell us their children are
+strongly influenced by some particular occupation of the mother during
+pregnancy. So strong is this belief, that many mothers are in our times
+trying to influence the character of their unborn children by special
+modes of life, by cultivating music or art, or science, in order to give
+the child a love for these pursuits.
+
+It is by Herbert Spencer that this has been most ably presented. Indeed,
+he holds that there is no explanation of evolution without the
+transmission of the effects of the use and disuse of parts. His words
+are: "If there has been no transmission of acquired character there has
+been no evolution."
+
+He also says: "If we go back to the genesis of the human type from some
+lower type of primates, we see that while the little toe has ceased to
+be of any use for climbing purposes, it has not come into any
+considerable use for walking or running. It is manifest that the great
+toes have been immensely developed since there took place the change
+from arboreal to terrestrial habits. A study of the mechanism of walking
+shows why this has happened. Stability requires that the line of
+direction--the vertical line, let fall from the center of gravity--shall
+fall within the base, and the walking shall be brought at each step
+within the area of support, or so near that any tendency to fall may be
+checked at the next step. A necessary result is that _if_ at each step
+the chief stress of support is thrown on the outer side of the foot, the
+body must be swayed so that the line of direction may fall within the
+outside of the foot, or close to it; and when the next step is taken it
+must be similarly swayed in an opposite direction, so that the outer
+side of the foot may bear the weight. That is to say, the body must
+oscillate from side to side, or waddle. The movement of the duck when
+walking shows what happens when the points of support are far apart.
+This kind of movement conflicts with efficient locomotion. There is a
+waste of muscular energy in making these lateral movements, and they are
+at variance with the forward movement. We may infer, then, that the
+developing man profited by throwing the stress as much as possible on
+the inner side of the feet, and was especially led to do this when going
+fast, which enabled him to abridge the oscillations, as indeed we see it
+now in the drunken man. Then there was thrown a continually increasing
+stress upon the inner digits as they progressively developed from the
+efforts of use, until now the inner digits, so large compared with the
+outer, bear the greater part of the weight, and being relatively near
+one another render needless any swaying of the body from side to side in
+walking. But what has meanwhile happened to the outer digits? Evidently
+as fast as the great toes have come more and more into play and the
+small ones have gone more and more out of play, dwindling for--how long
+shall we say?--perhaps 100,000 years." In other and simpler words, the
+great toe of man has wonderfully developed since he began to walk
+upright. This has been from greater use, and the transmission of the
+effects of this use to offspring. The small toe has decreased in size
+proportionately. This we can reasonably infer has been the result of
+disuse, the effects of which were also transmitted to offspring.
+
+A still more remarkable illustration of the effects of use and disuse is
+seen in the sense of touch in different parts of the body. Prof. Weber,
+in his laboratory for experimental psychology, has worked out this
+difference most minutely. He finds that by taking a pair of compasses,
+the points of which are less than one-twelfth of an inch apart, the end
+of the forefinger is not able to distinguish more than one point. Going
+to the middle of the back we have the least discriminating power in the
+skin, for the points must be separated two and one half inches before
+the nerves can decide that there are two. Any one may test this on
+himself. Between these extremes we have many differences. The end of
+the nose has four times as great power of discrimination as the
+forehead. When we come to the tip of the tongue, we find it far excels
+any part of the body in its power of tactual discrimination, it being
+twice that of the forefinger. In every case we find there is greatest
+delicacy of touch in those parts where this sense has been most
+exercised. The tongue is being constantly exercised on our food, on the
+roof of the mouth, the teeth, etc. It is rarely idle. There is in man no
+advantage for his survival, Mr. Spencer asserts, by having such a
+sensitive tongue. He could get on just as well without it. He regards it
+as a case where the exercise of a function has exalted it remarkably,
+and this exaltation has been transmitted to offspring. Natural
+selection, he thinks, is not sufficient to account for it. Natural
+selection only preserves those characters which will give their
+possessor some advantage in the struggle for existence.
+
+Still another argument is drawn from the whale. This monster once lived,
+it is believed, partly on land, probably on low land near water, and
+must have been smaller than now. It had hind legs; but since it has
+lived continuously in the water its tail has so developed as to make a
+far better organ of locomotion, and the legs have dwindled from disuse,
+so that now there is only a remnant left, and this is hidden beneath
+the skin. The tail has become more efficient from use, and this has been
+transmitted so that all whales are born with well developed tails. The
+legs have dwindled for want of use until they have almost disappeared;
+and this effect of disuse has also been transmitted to offspring.
+
+Another illustration is furnished by Havelock Charles, an English
+surgeon, who has spent much time among the Punjab tribes in India, and
+studied them anthropologically. His account is given in "The Journal of
+Anatomy," in a paper on the structure of the skeletons of these people.
+It appears they have facets on the bones, fitting them for the sitting
+posture. These do not develop after birth, but are seen in the fetus. It
+seems hardly possible that these facets could have any other origin
+except by transmission after being acquired by ages of use of sitting
+posture.
+
+Another argument is drawn from the coadaptation of parts. We know that
+the male sheep, likewise the goat, the stag, and the males of many other
+animals, have large horns. They are supposed to be useful in fighting
+with rivals in order to secure as large a number of females as possible.
+Now these large horns require at the same time a greater development of
+the bones of the head to hold them, also larger and stronger vertebrae of
+the neck and back, and larger muscles of these parts to maintain and
+use them effectively. In other words, there must be coadaptation of all
+the parts, otherwise these larger horns would be an incumbrance and
+useless. Now, if we accept the theory of the inheritance of acquired
+characters, this is all simple. The use of the head in butting against
+other males exercises all these parts simultaneously, and they develop
+equally and at the same time. If, however, inheritance has no part in
+the matter, then we must fall back on variation in the germ-plasm and
+natural selection for an explanation; but it is difficult or, as Spencer
+says, impossible to conceive of variation producing large and heavy
+horns on these animals and at the same time coadaptation of all the
+other parts to hold and use them. Sometimes coadaptation does not take
+place, as in the common brook crab, familiar to every country boy. Its
+foreclaws or fingers are out of all proportion to the rest of the leg,
+and its awkwardness is well known. The lobster is another case. Even in
+human beings we have instances of non-coadaptation, as where the head
+and brain are out of proportion to the size of the body, or the reverse.
+I need not multiply instances.
+
+Now, if acquired characters are transmitted, any system of training
+which exists for a considerable time must necessarily appear in the
+structure of the body and in the character. If the training is not in
+accord with the laws of evolution, it causes the race to deviate from
+the true line of progress, and by just so much hinder advancement. If,
+on the other hand, our systems of education conform to correct
+principles, progress is advanced by them.
+
+Quite recently an entirely new theory has grown up, opposed to
+Lamarckianism, and the theory of the transmission of acquired
+characters. It has been before the world little more than a decade and
+has made remarkable progress, though it is too soon to say it has been
+established beyond dispute. Prof. Weismann, its author, is well equipped
+as a biologist to maintain and defend it. I have already stated briefly
+his theory of heredity, namely, that the germ-plasm is continuous from
+parent to offspring. This necessitates a remodeling of commonly accepted
+views, an entire giving up of the Lamarckian belief that use and disuse
+have their effect on progeny. If the germ-plasm continues from one
+generation to another, then it must already have been formed, or at
+least provided for, even before the birth of the parents. They may
+modify it, through growth and nutrition, but not through exercise of any
+function. Prof. Weismann went at the demonstration of his views in a
+thoroughly scientific way by the making of experiments on living animals
+and the collection of facts. From his experiments it is now pretty well
+established that wounds and injuries, which he considers to be acquired
+characters, are not transmitted. No matter for how many generations you
+cut off the tails of dogs, cats, horses or sheep, the effects of this
+removal do not appear in the progeny. Most parents have some mark on the
+body, received in early life, some cut or bruise, some scratch, but
+their children do not inherit them. The famous experiment of cutting off
+the tails of mice, for generation after generation, and then breeding
+from them was one of Weismann's methods of substantiating the theory
+that acquired character is not inherited. The offspring of these
+mutilated mice had as long tails as if those of their parents had not
+been removed. The explanation is, the germ-plasm was not in any way
+affected by the bodily mutilation. The practice of the Flathead Indian
+is another case. The children of parents whose heads have been
+artificially flattened are not affected by it. The small feet of Chinese
+women, made so by binding them and preventing their growth, may also be
+mentioned.
+
+
+INTELLECTUAL ACQUIREMENTS.--Not to depend on such evidence, however, he
+adduces that of a very different character, namely, the non-transmission
+of intellectual acquirements. Language is an example. Although human
+beings have been communicating their thoughts to each other from very
+ancient times by speech, yet every child has to learn how to do this
+for itself. No matter how many languages the parents master, their
+children have to go over all the ground the parents did, make all the
+toil and effort to learn to speak. The children of the most gifted
+linguists, if brought up without coming in contact with those who can
+teach them to talk, will never learn a single word. There are, it is
+claimed, a few cases on record of children who never acquired their
+natural tongue because they had lived among animals and not among human
+beings. They learned to make the same vocal sounds the animals did, no
+more. The environment in this case was everything, the parental
+acquirements nothing.
+
+Music, like language, is also an acquired character, and it is probably
+not transmitted. Our musical geniuses are not the children of great
+musicians, but in most cases the reverse. They seem to spring into
+existence from lowly sources, or at least from parents whose advantages
+for a musical education have been very limited, though generally they
+have had good health, and a climatic environment of a favorable kind.
+Great musical talent usually dies out in any family in a few
+generations, no matter how much it is cultivated, or, if it does not die
+out entirely, it becomes mediocre; and yet the opportunities of the
+children of great musicians, and the ambition of their parents for its
+culture, are usually very favorable.
+
+
+INSTINCT.--In accepting the theory of the non-transmission of acquired
+characters, it becomes necessary to give up prevailing views of the
+origin of instinct. According to the old belief it was a gift of God,
+and not acquired by any effort on the part of its possessor. In speaking
+of the instinct of bees, Sidney Smith says: "_Providence has done it._
+There are the bees, there is the comb, and the honey, get rid of it or
+find some other explanation if you can."
+
+The early evolutionists changed all this, and made instinct the
+inheritance of an oft-repeated act. The young kitten, as soon as old
+enough, hunts for a mouse and catches it without any training. The sight
+of the mouse acts on its nervous system in such a way as to compel it to
+creep up softly, jump on it, toy and play with it, and finally kill and
+eat it. It would have required long practice on the part of its
+ancestors before so wonderful a character could have become fixed. The
+same is true of the setter dog.
+
+The new view is, that instincts arise from variations in the germ-plasm.
+The union of the germ elements of two individuals causes it to vary more
+or less from either parent. These variations will be favorable and
+unfavorable. The unfavorable ones will produce offspring handicapped in
+the struggle for life and they will disappear. The favorable variations
+will produce descendants possessing advantages for survival and leave
+numerous offspring.
+
+It is not easy to accept this view, but I think there are some facts
+that support it. I will advance a few. The hive of the honey-bee
+contains three kinds of insects: the queen, the drones or males, and the
+workers. The queen makes her nuptial flight but once in a life-time, and
+does it from instinct. How can an instinct like this have been acquired
+by being performed but once? The drones are derived from unfertilized
+eggs; yet their instincts are those of the male, not of the female. As
+they have no male ancestors, it seems probable there was in the
+germ-plasm of some queen bee, at a time far back, some change which
+allowed unfertilized eggs to produce males.
+
+The workers are all females, not fully developed sexually on account of
+a diet with too small a proportion of nitrogenous food and containing so
+large a proportion of the hydrocarbons. They inherit from the mother, or
+rather from the germ-plasm, the instinct to gather honey, yet neither
+their male nor female ancestors ever gathered any honey in their lives,
+nor have they for ages. Far back in antiquity the queen, no doubt, did
+gather honey, but the disuse of this instinct has not caused it to
+disappear in the working bee, as it should have done according to the
+Lamarckian theory of disuse causing decay of function. Is there any way
+to account for this, except on the theory that the germ-plasm produces
+working bees as well as the other kinds, irrespective of the habits of
+the queen? Her character in this respect is fixed and does not change.
+Is it unreasonable to think that some time in the past, in some queen
+bee, was formed a germ-plasm capable of producing three varieties, and
+that there was such an advantage in it for survival, that it has been
+continued ever since by natural selection? Queens not able to do this
+have not been selected, left no offspring, and thus the perfection of
+the stock has been assured.
+
+One more case. Some years ago, when interested in agricultural
+entomology, I made a study of the so-called seventeen-year locust.
+Noting the wonderful precision with which the female cuts into a soft
+twig of a tree and lays its eggs in two rows, the thought was suggested
+to me, how can an instinct, used only a few hours, once in seventeen
+years, be acquired by exercise and persist in the offspring seventeen
+years later? Weismann's theory of the origin of instinct from favorable
+variations in the germ-plasm offers, it seems to me, a rational
+explanation.
+
+I do not need to extend illustrations which abound in the insect world,
+especially among the ants, which furnish cases of coadaptation that
+cannot be transmitted, as they do not propagate, so I will not mention
+them here.
+
+Now, if acquired characters _are not_ transmitted to offspring, how
+should these facts affect our methods of educating children?
+
+One advantage will be evident, I think, to all. Erroneous systems of
+training, which do not injure the health, will not appear through
+heredity in the offspring of parents thus wrongly trained, except as a
+result of environment. That is to say, the injury does not become
+congenital--will not be in the blood--and, consequently, it will be less
+difficult to eradicate it and to introduce better systems. This may be
+considered an advantage. But it is not all. If heredity takes place only
+through the germ-plasm, then it seems to me that whatever promotes a
+knowledge of how to maintain it in a high degree of health, and how to
+favor more perfectly natural selection, are subjects with which our
+educators may busy themselves far more than they do. That is to say, the
+study of biology, of life--of the laws of human growth and development,
+and of evolution, will become, more and more, important factors in our
+school curriculum. We can hardly imagine how much our common every-day
+life has been aided by even the slight knowledge of mathematics gained
+by an acquaintance with addition, subtraction, multiplication and
+division. By it we are able to keep our little accounts correctly, and
+neither cheat our creditors nor be cheated by them. Could we not by a
+knowledge of the laws of evolution, and also the laws of growth and
+development, keep our larger account with nature in a far better
+condition? Could we not keep ourselves from being cheated out of our
+health and happiness, and also do something to put an end to physical,
+intellectual and moral deterioration which threatens so many families
+and even races? It seems to me that the time is not far distant when
+these studies will be quite as much attended to as the not unimportant
+ones of arithmetic and grammar.
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF HEREDITY.--Whatever doctrine of heredity prevails, however,
+one thing is certain, some knowledge of the subject will be very useful
+to those who have in care the training of children. To them, often more
+than to the parent, is entrusted the task of developing the character
+and the individuality of the child. Can he do this well if he knows
+nothing of what the bent of the child's genius from ancestral influence
+is? I doubt very much if any of us realize how important it is that this
+individuality should have its proper share of attention. As the
+evolution of society goes on, more and more must there be
+differentiation of our various activities. If every boy and every girl
+can be educated so that to a considerable extent they can follow the
+bent of their genius, _whenever that bent is a normal one_, will not the
+available intellectual and moral energy of society be considerably
+augmented? If you educate a boy which nature intended for a blacksmith
+for a preacher, has not the world lost something? Educate another for a
+blacksmith who should have been a preacher, is there not also a great
+loss? There are a few children who will come out all right, no matter
+how much they are schooled, or whether they have any schooling, so well
+have they been born, but with the majority this is not the case. Now it
+seems to me that the teacher who knows the natures of his pupils, and
+something of their ancestors', can direct their energies more
+satisfactorily than the one who does not. If there are hereditary
+defects of intellect or morals, he can more easily correct them. If
+there are ancestral tendencies to disease through imperfections of
+certain organs, for instance, the lungs or the brain, he can often put
+the child on such a course of physical culture or mental training as to
+lift it above danger, so that it may go through life a useful person
+instead of a feeble one or a lunatic. Even the tendency to crime might
+be averted.
+
+
+INDIVIDUALITY.--If we could educate the young so as to bring out more
+fully their normal individualities we should be able to cultivate in
+them more independence of character. On this subject Prof. Mills says:
+"With all its imperfections, I am bound to say that the individuality
+of the pupils in the old log school-house was often more developed than
+in the city public schools of today, where for a boy to be himself
+frequently brings with it the ridicule of his fellows--a condition of
+things that has its effect afterward on the lad at college. I find that
+this fear of being considered odd,--out of harmony with what others may
+think,--one of the greatest drawbacks to the development of independent
+investigating students at college. The case is still worse for girls.
+When women begin to be really independent in thought, in feeling, in
+action, I shall be more hopeful of the progress of mankind. Happily, the
+dawn of this day is already begun."
+
+We must not forget that there is also a spectre of heredity. It is seen
+under different forms. The physician is often reminded by his patients
+that they have inherited this or that disease from father or mother, or
+an ancestor farther back. Now, there are few diseases which come to us
+directly through inheritance. In a majority of cases they are not
+transmitted. Even consumption is not. If we accept the modern theory of
+its origin, as we must, this plague is the result of germs floating in
+the air being introduced into our bodies by respiration, or in food, or
+through contact with abraided Surfaces. Those with weakened
+constitutions are more liable to it than the strong, and a weakened
+constitution may be inherited, for in this case the germ-plasm will not
+be well nourished and will suffer; but those thus handicapped in the
+race of life will get on far better by endowing themselves with
+knowledge and obeying the laws of life than they can by living under the
+shadow of the great spectre of heredity, and casting anathemas at their
+ancestors for not having done more for them. No doubt most of them have
+done the best they could; and if life is worth living, as most of us
+believe, we owe them many thanks for having brought us into the world.
+
+
+THE SPECTRE OF HEREDITY.--There is a spectre of heredity of a more
+serious nature. It is the spirit of the dead past, with its mighty hand
+on society, on institutions, on modes of life. Wendell Phillips used to
+tell a story, in his anti-slavery addresses, which illustrates the evil
+effect of this inherited spectre. It ran in this wise. In an Eastern
+temple, an idol, in the image of a god, stood calmly on its pedestal. It
+was sacrilege to touch it with human hands; but rats having no such
+feelings of awe in the presence of a deity, began to gnaw about it in
+various places, yet no one was bold enough to remove it to a place of
+safety; and so the rats gnawed on and on, and built their nests within
+the sacred image. In time they loosened it from its firm foundation, and
+one morning, when the worshippers came in to pay their devotions, they
+found their god had fallen prostrate on the floor. So it is sometimes
+with our inherited beliefs. They hold us back from progress like a heavy
+weight. We fear to remove them, for they are sacred inheritances, idols,
+gods, and so our institutions decay, perish.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[106:A] Darwin did not regard this experiment as settling this question.
+He had great affection, so to speak, for this poor, despised theory, and
+believed it would finally be established as in the main true.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION'S HOPEFUL PROMISE FOR A HEALTHIER RACE.
+
+_Given before the Greenacre Conference of Evolutionists._
+
+
+We have most of us in the past looked upon health as a matter of
+inheritance, or temperance and moderation in working, in eating and
+drinking; or as depending on climate; or exercise, or plenty of sleep,
+pure water and a morning bath, or some other secret, one or more of
+which is pretty sure to be in the possession of most persons who have
+lived long enough to have had some experience with those things that do
+them good or harm. All these agencies have great value; but I think few
+of us realize that nature, through the laws of evolution, has long been
+working to produce a brave and strong, healthy and hardy race of men and
+women by other methods than those health habits which most of us value
+so highly.
+
+Nature has been doing this chiefly by two methods, and it seems
+necessary that I should say something about them in order to present my
+subject as I wish to present it. The methods to which I refer are those
+of sexual and natural selection. It is to these two processes that we
+are largely indebted for race improvements--more perfect bodies, more
+active brains, and the high degree of health which a considerable
+portion of the race enjoys.
+
+
+SEXUAL SELECTION.--By sexual selection is meant that preference which
+the male or the female has for certain characteristics of the other sex.
+It also includes the advantages which the stronger and more capable male
+has over the weaker one in obtaining a choice, or, among polygamous
+animals, a larger number of females, thus allowing offspring to be
+generated by the most capable, and preventing the most incapable from
+procuring mates.
+
+The first principle of sexual selection, that of preference, would imply
+a considerable development of the intellect, and some taste, but I do
+not think it has had great influence on the lower forms of life. It is
+difficult to study the preferences of insects, for instance; but I have
+studied the moth of the silkworm, and could never observe that either
+male or female had a choice for any particular mate. They always appear
+to take the first one that comes along. I think this is the conclusion
+come to by those entomologists who have had opportunities for studying
+other insects. The spider might perhaps be studied in this relation to
+advantage, as the female is ferocious, often eating her male suitors
+while they are trying to woo her. Nor do I believe that it is a very
+important matter in many other animals. Certainly among the domestic
+ones--the sheep, the horse, the bull and the cow--a superior male and
+female will mate with inferior ones of the opposite sex, apparently
+without the slightest objection. I have sometimes thought I had observed
+in pigeons a preference, having occasionally seen a male leave his mate
+for a more attractive female; at least one that seemed more attractive
+to me.
+
+When it comes to sexual selection through struggle, no doubt there has
+been great advantage, and it has produced important effects. This occurs
+among polygamous and also among non-polygamous animals, and the strong
+males are certain to secure the largest number of females and,
+consequently, leave the largest number of offspring. This would, no
+doubt, through the laws of inheritance, be beneficial in producing
+animals of greater vigor and more perfect health. But even in this case,
+the males seem to have little preference for any particular female; and
+so while the least vigorous ones would leave few, and many no offspring,
+the least vigorous females would leave nearly as many as the more
+vigorous ones. Still, through pure-blooded males alone, stockbreeders
+tell us, herds of cattle can be brought up to a high degree of
+perfection in three or four generations, even if the females, at the
+beginning of the experiment, are inferior. The first generation would
+be half pure blood; the second three-fourths; the third, seven-eighths,
+and the fourth fifteen-sixteenths, or almost thoroughbred.
+
+When it comes to man, however, the case is different. With him sexual
+selection is more important, and the preference shown by both sexes is
+very marked. Many women have strong prejudices against marrying men with
+certain characteristics, and nothing will induce them to such a union.
+So strong are the desires many of them have for mates with particular
+qualities, that they prefer to remain single rather than marry one not
+possessing these qualities. Through this preference, on the whole, the
+better and those most adapted mate with those most suited to them, and a
+considerably larger class of physically and mentally inferior ones do
+not mate at all, or, if they do, leave few offspring. The idiot would
+stand no chance of securing a mate, although, if left free, he would
+unite with another idiot, like an animal. Such things have happened, and
+the offspring were not idiots, as might have been expected; but they
+were not superior beings. The most deformed in body would, in most
+cases, unless they had mental traits of a high order to counterbalance
+them, rarely find mates. Thus, through this agency, some of the poorest
+specimens of both sexes do not produce offspring, and this raises the
+standard of the health and ability of the race.
+
+There are many characters which have come into existence, it is
+believed, through sexual selection. One is beauty in women, greater
+beauty of form, of hair, of eyes, of grace, fidelity, chastity, power of
+love, etc. These all give pleasure to the opposite sex, and have an
+element of usefulness in them. Whenever these characters have appeared
+in women they have given the possessors a better chance to find a
+partner with superior characters. The same is true of men. Woman being
+debarred from the hardest labor through maternity has found it useful,
+even in early times, to choose men who were strong, brave, courageous
+and capable of defending and caring for her, so far as was possible, and
+thus by sexual selection she has indirectly promoted health and vigor in
+man, for these qualities are inseparable from it.
+
+But the results of sexual selection are by no means perfect. The sexes
+are nearly equally divided, and as polygamy is not to any great extent
+practiced among human beings, with the exception of those already named,
+most men and women can find mates if they wish, even though they may
+have many serious imperfections of body and mind, and from them many
+children will be born physically and mentally incompetent.
+
+There is no doubt that sexual selection is coming more and more into
+play, however. We have abundant evidence of this in the growing
+sentiment against the marriage of those with a tendency to any serious
+disease, as insanity, syphilis, etc. Only a little while ago was
+published an account of a suit for a breach of promise brought by a
+young woman in an English court against her suitor. He, having in view
+the value of a healthy wife, and also of children well endowed
+physically, asked her before the engagement if any of her near relatives
+had died of consumption, and she replied that none had, which he
+afterwards found was not true. On learning of it he refused to marry
+her. I am sorry to say that she won her suit. One of the questions asked
+in court was: "Is it possible that a lover would ask such questions of
+his sweetheart as would be asked of a candidate for life insurance?"
+
+Courtship is such a delightful occupation for the young, that it seems a
+pity to mar it by bringing in questions of health. Yet men and women are
+often such deceivers, and frequently so ignorant, that some way must be
+devised to prevent deception if sexual selection is ever expected to
+have its full influence on race improvement.
+
+
+HUMAN SELECTION.--Under the head of human selection Galton and Wallace
+have made some interesting and valuable suggestions for improving the
+health and quality of man. Mr. Galton proposed a system of marks for
+family health, intellect and morals, and those members of families
+having the highest number were to be encouraged to marry early by state
+endowments sufficient to enable them to make a good start in life, early
+marriages being favorable to large families. It was a bold suggestion,
+savoring too strongly of socialism or state control of marriage to suit
+many of us.
+
+Professor Wallace's plan is that women shall, so far as possible, be
+made independent, so that they will not feel the necessity of marrying
+for a home. Her time might be occupied either in public duties or
+self-culture, or any occupation she might prefer. She should be educated
+to believe it degrading to marry for a home, without love and
+adaptation, and equally wrong to marry her inferior. This would compel
+men to be more manly, to leave off their bad habits and many vices, in
+order to obtain wives; and the idle, selfish, sickly and deformed would
+not easily get them. One difficulty in the way of carrying out this plan
+is the greater number of women in society as it exists today, owing to
+the larger mortality among boys. But by a better hygiene which is likely
+to result from the evolution of the race, this greater mortality of the
+masculine sex is certain in the future to be prevented, and there will
+then be an excess of men instead of women. This will be a real
+advantage, for a scarcity of women would give her a greater influence
+in selection, and the result would be, the worst men would not be able
+to get wives.
+
+Being in a minority, women would be held in higher esteem, be more
+sought for, and have a real choice in marriage by being able to reject
+unsatisfactory suitors, which is certainly not the case now to any
+considerable extent.
+
+Mr. Wallace's plan would not require such early marriages as that of Mr.
+Galton's, and this would be a positive benefit to the physical vigor of
+the children, for we know that the progeny of too early marriages are
+more delicate, and reproduction before bodily maturity lowers the
+standard of health in parents as well as of their offspring. Marriage
+being delayed, and the culture of the mind being more attended to than
+is possible when it is early, would reduce the number of children in any
+family, and this would enable parents to bestow more care upon them. It
+would also prevent, to a limited extent, over-multiplication of the
+race, which is a real evil, for if every couple left three or four
+children the whole world would soon be full, and over-population would
+result in much disease.
+
+Mr. Wallace's scheme has in view the prevention of marriage by the weak
+and worthless. He believes that if this can be done little more will be
+required, for the superior would be the only ones to procreate, and this
+would be quite sufficient in a few generations to produce a strong and
+healthy race. He calls his plan that of "human selection," but it may
+be considered practically as a modification of sexual selection.
+
+
+NATURAL SELECTION.--Natural selection is another process which takes
+place on an enormous scale and constantly among all organisms, whether
+animal or vegetable. Natural selection is the result of the operation of
+certain laws in the natural world which brings about the survival of
+those best fitted for their environment. It is a weeding-out system by
+the destruction of a certain portion, at least, if not all, of the weak
+and the bad, and it occurs because there is such a rapid increase of
+most organisms. We speak of it as the survival of the fittest, but it is
+also, at the same time, the destruction of the unfit.
+
+Mr. Darwin says: "We have seen that man is variable in body and mind,
+and that the variations are induced either directly or indirectly by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws as with the lower
+animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the earth, and must have
+been exposed during his incessant migrations to the most diversified
+conditions. They must have passed through many climates and changed
+their habits many times before they reached their present homes. They
+must have been exposed to a struggle for existence and, consequently, to
+the rigid law of natural selection. Beneficial variations of all kinds
+have been preserved and injurious ones eliminated. If, then, the
+progenitors of man, inhabiting any district, especially one undergoing
+some changed conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the
+one-half including those with the best adapted powers for movement, for
+gaining a subsistence, for self-defence, would, on the average, have
+more offspring than the other and the less well endowed half."
+
+We may have a good object lesson in the elimination of the unfit going
+on about us constantly. In New York City, for 1891, the deaths of
+children under five years of age was 18,112; for 1892 it was 17,577, or
+slightly less. This is more than one-third, but not quite one-half, of
+the total deaths at all ages for these years. A very large proportion of
+these deaths occurred in the tenement house districts, and a very
+natural question arises in the mind: Are the children of those who live
+in tenement houses more unfit to survive than those who live in houses
+in which only one family dwells. No doubt in most cases the children of
+those are most fit who are most able to provide them with hygienic
+surroundings, the better food and most suitable care; such are usually
+the prudent and the capable. The love of children is usually stronger in
+them. The intelligent affection of parents for their young is one of the
+incentives to their best training. It certainly is not nearly so strong
+among the residents of the crowded quarters of a city as among the more
+prosperous. Any one may observe this by going with a company of mothers
+on the excursions of some fresh air society, which may be seen in most
+cities. It is hard to find one of these mothers who shows what we may
+call intelligent affection or intelligent care of her young. Some
+pathetic instances illustrating this might be mentioned.
+
+When it comes to the question of their physical or mental inferiority, a
+cursory inspection is all that is required to show they are far below
+the average. There is a great want of symmetry of body and
+mind--evidence of degeneration. In order to test the strength of
+constitution, which is a good way to get at one form of physical fitness
+for survival, it seems to me, I made a study of the blood of a
+considerable number of these children and found the amount of protoplasm
+in the colorless blood corpuscles deficient. This shows that their power
+to resist disease is slight. It must be borne in mind, however, that a
+strong constitution alone is not evidence of fitness for survival. A
+strong person may not have prudence, foresight, keenness of perception,
+judgment, and many other qualities equally important. The characters
+just mentioned may constitute fitness when there is only a moderately
+vigorous body. Mr. Darwin recognized this when he said: "We should bear
+in mind that an animal possessing great size, strength and ferocity, and
+which, like the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies would not,
+perhaps, have become sufficiently social, and this would effectually
+have checked the acquirement of the higher mental qualities, such as the
+sympathy and love of his fellows. Hence, _it might have been of immense
+advantage to men to have sprung from some comparatively weak but social
+creature_."
+
+Fitness is a complicated condition and not a simple one. It depends upon
+so many external conditions. Fitness in one place would be unfitness in
+another. Still, other things being equal, strength of constitution is a
+very important factor, and must not be left out of consideration. With
+it there is a surplus of material in the body beyond what is required
+for digestion, assimilation, circulation and other bodily functions, to
+enable the parents not only to do hard labor, but also to endow their
+offspring with vigor equal to their own, often greater vigor. The feeble
+individuals will have a small amount of stored up material in their
+bodies which we may designate as physiological capital to give
+continuous food, warmth and protection to their young; they will not be
+so well adjusted to their environment, and, consequently, natural
+selection will cause their non-survival--or their offspring, if not
+immediately, at no distant period.
+
+This doctrine of natural selection has been designated as cruel, harsh,
+inexorable, and under the influence of the human feeling every effort is
+in our time being made to prevent this wholesome check upon the
+processes of nature from having its due influence upon evolution and
+race progress. Modern hygiene undertakes to put an end to disease, to
+save all who are born, to surround them with every influence which can
+favor their health and development. It would stamp out diphtheria,
+scarlet fever, summer complaint, consumption and a host of other
+diseases which now decimate the ranks of the unfit, and often, no doubt,
+of the comparatively fit. This would perpetuate a type of feeble,
+unhealthy persons. There would not be much hope of more perfect health
+for the race if our hygienists could carry out this daring scheme along
+the lines now working. There seems an antagonism between nature's
+methods of bettering the physical condition of the race and the efforts
+of man himself, acting under the guidance of his moral feelings, to
+prevent the action of natural law. Mr. Darwin recognized this, and
+referred to it in his great work, "The Descent of Man," where he says:
+"With savages, the weak in body and mind are soon eliminated, and those
+that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilized
+men, on the other hand, do our utmost to check the process of
+elimination. We build asylums for the imbeciles, the maimed and the
+sick; we institute poor laws; and our medical men exert their utmost
+skill to save the life of every one to the last moment."
+
+"There is," says he, "reason to believe that vaccination has preserved
+thousands who from a weak constitution would have succumbed to smallpox.
+Thus the weak members of civilized communities propagate their kind. No
+one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt but
+this must be highly injurious to the human race. Excepting in the case
+of man himself hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his worst
+animals to breed."
+
+Other evolutionists, in more recent times, have taken a still more
+somber view of this danger of race deterioration through the prevention
+of the full action of the law of natural selection.
+
+Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in a recent work entitled "Darwinism and Race
+Progress," has sounded the alarm in no uncertain tones. He says: "Races,
+therefore, subject to epidemics of a particular fever, suffer selections
+in the hands of the microbes of that fever, and those living are
+survivals, cast in the most resisting mould. It may not be flattering to
+our national vanity to look upon ourselves as the product of the
+selection of the micro-organism of measles, scarlet fever, smallpox,
+etc.; but the reasonableness of the conclusion seems to be forced upon
+us when we consider his immunity from these diseases as compared with
+the natives of the interior of Africa, or the wilds of America, whose
+races have never been so selected, and who, when attacked for the first
+time by these diseases, are ravaged almost to extinction. By
+exterminating these diseases we shall no doubt preserve countless lives
+to the community who will, in their turn, become race producers; but in
+as much as the individuals thus preserved will, in most cases, belong to
+the feebler and less resisting of the community, _the race will not
+become more robust_."
+
+The same author concludes in these words: "In the meantime we may view,
+and not without inquietude, the probability that our statistics, as far
+as they go, indicate that race deterioration has already begun as a
+consequence of that care for the individual which has characterized the
+efforts of modern society. The biologist, from quite another group of
+facts, has independently arrived at conclusions which render this view
+in the highest degree probable."
+
+"Thus, the great English race, once so hardy, so powerful," says this
+modern writer, "by hygiene and better physical conditions, is becoming
+weaker and weaker."
+
+This view of the case is growing largely in England and, perhaps, other
+European countries. There is already some evidence of its truthfulness
+in statistics. The death rate for those in middle life is rather
+increasing than diminishing. This arises from the fact that the great
+number of children who formerly died in infancy have lived, but being of
+more feeble constitutions, they swell the death rate later on. It is
+felt, also, in many educational institutions in the larger number of
+youths who cannot stand the strain and stress of student life. They are,
+high medical authority says, the youth saved from early death by modern
+hygienic and medical care. Formerly, natural selection would have chosen
+them as unfit to survive, and there would have remained alive few
+besides the hardy ones with good constitutions, capable of great strain,
+with great powers of endurance.
+
+It is also shown in the stress of modern competition, in which there are
+multitudes who cannot stand this strain. It is from these, in some
+degree, that we hear the cry for governmental aid. "We must make the
+conditions of life easier for them," say our social reformers, "or they
+will become 'a submerged class.'"
+
+
+CONFLICT BETWEEN EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES AND OUR HUMANE SENTIMENTS.--And
+now I wish to consider another phase of my subject. Those who have
+followed closely what was said concerning natural selection will have
+seen that there appears to be a conflict between evolutionary theories
+and the humane sentiment of the age--a want of correspondence between
+what is being done by natural law and what man is trying to do under the
+inspiration of his loving heart. Can we reconcile this want of
+correspondence? To some extent no doubt we can.
+
+In the first place, the growth of the moral nature has always been held
+in high esteem by every nation and every race. Our moral giants stand
+higher in the scale of being than our great generals or statesmen, even
+in an age when moral culture is at a low ebb. We draw our moral
+inspiration from Buddha, Socrates and Christ rather than from Aristotle;
+their science may be, yes, is, faulty, but their spirit is lofty.
+
+And the moral nature is cultivated in laboring for the good of others,
+in trying to save for a better life the poor, the weak, the distressed.
+All that is required is that we do this work wisely, not unwisely, under
+the guidance of reason, not feelings. We want to prevent these
+calamities rather than cure them.
+
+Another satisfaction arises from the fact that in learning how to
+perfect the lives of the feeble so that they may live longer, we also
+learn how to perfect, in a still higher degree, the lives of the strong,
+or those we call the fit, so that they also will not only live longer,
+but be able to live with much greater satisfaction the complex lives of
+our times.
+
+The knowledge which helps the first may help the second even more than
+the first, for they have better opportunities and can take advantage of
+it. We may also comfort ourselves with the fact that a majority of those
+with feeble constitutions, whose lives have been for a time snatched
+from the operation of the laws of natural selection, will not, after
+all, contribute very extensively to the increase of the population.
+Great powers of generation and numerous offspring rarely go with
+physical weakness. If there are exceptions they are explainable. It is,
+I think, pretty certain that a great majority of such leave few, often
+no offspring. They find their way into places where work is light and
+the pay small, and they cannot afford to marry and care for families,
+and do not do it.
+
+The law of natural selection will continue to work on them so long as
+its action is required, with little regard to the efforts of man to
+abrogate it. Nature works continuously for ages, and she works on every
+part of man, every organ, every function. We may almost say she is
+omnipotent; that she watches for every slight improvement; that she
+knows what to do under every circumstance. Foiled in one direction, she
+has other means, infinite means, for gaining her ends. Man can no more
+put a stop to the operation of natural law than he can put a stop to the
+flow of Niagara. He may turn off a trifle of its water to whirl wheels
+and spindles, but the mighty river flows on until nature makes some
+changes in the watersheds, that make its flow impossible. Man, on the
+other hand, acts on his own body in a finite way. He works mainly for
+immediate, not remote, ends. He changes his methods as his needs change,
+or his knowledge increases. Today he works with limited knowledge of
+hygiene, inspired by old ideas of philanthropy. Tomorrow he may have a
+vastly extended knowledge of this subject and an entirely new social
+science which will enable him to do more good and less harm.
+
+
+IDEAL OF HEALTH.--Let me now consider some of the things necessary to
+give us a greater hope for the future of human health, of ourselves and
+for our children.
+
+The first thing necessary is to get a higher ideal of bodily or physical
+perfection than we have today. Sir James Paget, in a lecture on National
+Health, in 1884, put this in the following words:
+
+"We want," says he, "more ambition for health. _I should like to see a
+personal ambition for health as keen as that for bravery, for beauty, or
+for success in our athletic games or field sports. I wish there was such
+an ambition for the most perfect national health as there is for
+national renown in war, in art or in commerce._" Sir James then gives
+his own ideal. It is for man or woman to be so full of health as to be
+comparatively indifferent to the external conditions of life, and to
+make a ready self-adjustment to all its changes. He should not be deemed
+thoroughly healthy who is made better or worse, more fit or less fit, by
+every change of weather or food, or who is bound to observe exact rules
+of living. It is good to observe rules, and to some they are absolutely
+necessary; but it is better to need none but those of moderation, and,
+observing these, to be willing to live and work hard in the widest
+variations of food, air, climate, bathing and all other sustenances of
+life.
+
+
+ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT.--This sounds very much like saying that to be
+healthy one must be adjusted to his environment; and this is practically
+what Herbert Spencer long before said in his "Principles of Biology."
+Here are his words:
+
+"As affording the simplest and most conclusive proof that the degree of
+life varies as the degree of correspondence, it remains to point out
+that perfect correspondence would be perfect life. Were there no changes
+in our environment but such as the organism had adapted changes to meet,
+and were it never to fail in the efficiency with which it met them,
+there would be eternal existence and universal knowledge. Death by
+natural decay occurs because in old age the relations between
+assimilation, oxidation, and the genesis of force going on in the body
+gradually fall out of correspondence with the relations between oxygen
+and the food and absorption of heat by the environment. Death from
+disease arises either when the organism is congenitally defective in its
+power to balance ordinary internal actions, or when there has taken
+place some unusual external action to which there was no answering
+internal action. Death by accident implies some neighboring mechanical
+changes of which the causes are either unobserved from inattention, or
+are so intricate their results cannot be foreseen, and, consequently,
+certain relations in the organism are not adjusted to the relations in
+the environment. Manifestly, if, to every outer co-existence and
+sequence by which it was ever in any degree affected, the organism
+presented an answering process or act, the simultaneous changes would be
+indefinitely numerous and complex, and the successive ones endless, the
+correspondence would be the greatest conceivable and the life the
+highest conceivable, both in degree and length."
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE.--Another requirement to promote human health is a better
+knowledge of how the constitution of the body may be strengthened, and
+more certitude as to whether such improvements as it may receive by
+hygienic training will be transmitted to offspring. That human health
+may be improved by right training of the body, a better supply of fresh
+air, greater moderation in living, there is not a shadow of doubt; but
+is the constitution itself thus strengthened, or only its original vigor
+conserved and made effective? I have been working on the problem for
+some time by a series of studies on the blood, and especially the amount
+of living matter in the colorless corpuscles, and have satisfied myself,
+from some observations on individual cases, that the original
+constitution of feeble persons can be strengthened in early life, but
+the extent of this strengthening seems somewhat limited. Much original
+research is still required to get at important facts in this direction.
+If some of the study now given to micro-organisms could be devoted to
+this subject it would be most useful. The work might be done in
+connection with our numerous schools of physical culture, now happily
+multiplying, and also in our physiological laboratories.
+
+That any gain to the vigor of the constitution can be transmitted to the
+offspring is very probable. While education and training do not seem to
+affect the germ cells in any marked degree, nutrition does affect them.
+Whether acquired characters in the form of skill, music, language or
+other like things are transmitted or not may still be an open question.
+
+Strengthening the constitution seems to be best accomplished by
+increasing the resources of the body beyond its outgo, so that there
+shall be some gain; and this brings up a very important subject, that of
+the importance of living within the bodily income.
+
+In our fast age we are likely to use up the physiological resources in
+excessive work or dissipation, and so rob our children of their just
+inheritance.
+
+
+EFFECTS OF LIVING AT HIGH PRESSURE.--One generation may, by living at
+high pressure and under specially unfavorable conditions, use up more
+than its share of the living matter of its bodies and draw a bill on
+posterity which the next generation cannot pay. Many of us now have the
+benefit of the calm, unexciting lives of our forefathers. They stored up
+physiological wealth for us; we are using it. The question is, Can we,
+working at high pressure, keep this up during our lives (which, in that
+case, will be on an average rather short), and transmit to the coming
+generation a large supply of living matter for their needs?
+
+How often has it happened in the history of the world that people who
+for generations have exhibited no special genius, have blazed out in
+bursts of national greatness for a time, and then almost died out! We
+ought to take care that this does not happen to us. How often we see a
+quiet country family, whose members have for generations led calm,
+temperate lives, suddenly produce one or two great men and then relapse
+into obscurity. They had by their quiet, inexpensive living stored up
+energy for this purpose. On the other hand, how often have we seen the
+reverse--families whose energies have been used up in overwork or
+sensuality producing offspring below themselves in ability. The true
+rule, however, is neither to waste the bodily energy nor to keep too
+much of it lying idle and producing nothing.
+
+
+GIRLS IN MANUFACTURING DISTRICTS.--We need also a new departure in our
+manufacturing centers. Manufacturing as now conducted is a far less
+healthy occupation than agriculture and horticulture. The reason for
+this is that workmen and workwomen and even children in most mills and
+factories are exposed for hours at a time to an atmosphere which is
+loaded with dust and the debris of cotton, of wool, and often to that
+worst of all dust which comes from shoddy and rags. They are also, in
+many cases, kept away from light, and in cramped positions, and this,
+continued for years, slowly deteriorates the constitution; and if, in
+case of a war, we were obliged to enlist a large army, we should find a
+far less number of able bodied men among the factory workers than among
+the farmers. Let me give you a picture, perhaps one of the very worst
+to be seen anywhere, of a visit to a New England paper mill.
+
+"We left, with a company of ladies and gentlemen, the light of a mellow
+afternoon to climb some steep and dusty stairs under the courteous
+guidance of a superintendent. We had hoped to 'see it all,' 'but that
+was quite impossible,' said our guide, 'since the room where the rags
+are sorted is so dusty that the gowns of the ladies would be ruined.' So
+we contented ourselves with less dangerous rooms. But even about the
+stairway the dust cloud hung heavily, obscuring the sight and choking
+the breath. From the narrow landing the room, into which it was
+impossible to venture, was in full view. It was long and large. From end
+to end were ranged huge boxes, waist high. Fastened to each were two
+inverted swords on whose sharp blades the workers cut the piled-up
+masses of rags, shredding them for the bleaching boiler. All the floor
+was covered with rags, billows upon billows of soiled white pieces, in
+which the toilers stood, their feet buried deep beneath the dirty,
+tattered material.
+
+"Not a word was spoken. Even where we stood speech was difficult, so
+completely did the thick dust fill eyes, mouth and nostrils, choking,
+blinding and exasperating. The effect of this perfect silence was
+oppressive. A certain solemnity hung over the place. Through the fog of
+dust the figures loomed unnaturally large. All the workers were white
+and hollow-cheeked, with great sunken eyes, emphasized by the circles
+underneath. Each woman had bound upon her head some rag, larger or finer
+than the rest, to protect her hair, and the gray-white bands folded
+straight across the forehead showed weirdly in the dim half-light.
+
+"As they stood there in long, silent rows, cutting, _cutting_, CUTTING,
+they looked like the priestesses of some ancient and frightful
+ceremonial. We were glad to escape, to exchange the dust, the grime, the
+wan faces, and the burning eyes for the breath of cool wind, the full
+glow of the sunlight, and the face of nature herself, so many of whose
+human children have no time to know or learn her ways.
+
+"It gave a tragic significance to the memory of those silent workers to
+know that they have but a few years to live."
+
+The same unfortunate condition of things is complained of in Manchester,
+England, one of the greatest manufacturing centers in the world. "The
+heated air of the mills, the dust, lack of light, the employment of
+children," says the London _Lancet_, "are causing vast deterioration and
+a most disastrous effect on the morals of the people. Football is
+popular, but all the players are imported from Scotland. The natives
+simply look on and shout. If they want men for policemen or constables,
+they go to Scotland or Ireland for them. The women and girls are
+equally stunted and feeble." In the manufacturing towns the prospect for
+a strong, healthy race from such material is poor indeed.
+
+
+CO-OPERATION: AN EXAMPLE.--It is difficult to see the remedy for this
+state of things. Probably the evolution of a higher standard of ethics,
+a higher sense of justice, and a more thorough belief that health is a
+duty, may do something. Meantime it is important that the working man
+should do all he can for himself; and perhaps I can do no better than to
+give here a picture of what some of them have done under the inspiration
+of co-operation, not only for their health but for their pockets.
+
+It is a picture of a great manufacturing establishment of the Scottish
+Co-operative Wholesale Society, at Shieldhall, near Glasgow, on the
+Clyde. This society is a federation of all the retail societies of
+Scotland, 238 in number, with a membership of over 150,000 persons. The
+society began on a moderate scale many years ago, but its development
+has been marvelous. In 1887 it started out on a career which has since
+continued, owing to the indomitable energy of one of its members,
+himself a working man. The buildings stand in a very healthy locality,
+the health of the working force being considered of the first
+importance. They seem to have learned that sickness is loss--loss of
+time, of productive energy--and that it is a costly matter. As Mr.
+Beecher once said, "it is the one burden that bends, almost breaks, the
+back of society."
+
+These Scotchmen are realizing, just as far as is possible, the condition
+of a sound mind in a sound body. They recognize the rights of the
+laborer to health, and place him in a position while working, so that
+his body may not deteriorate any more than is natural for it to do as
+age advances. The living machine must not be harmed more than the dead
+machinery. The land consists of 12 acres, and cost $2,500 an acre;
+nearly all of it is covered with fine buildings, in which 19 different
+industries are carried on, many of them on a large scale. Every one of
+these buildings is constructed after modern methods, with every
+requirement, not only for convenience but for health. The workrooms are
+cosy and spacious, well ventilated, warmed in cold weather by steam, and
+lighted by electricity. The best sanitary arrangements known have been
+introduced, and the excellent health of the workmen and workwomen, of
+whom there are over 1,000 of each, tells the story of sanitation.
+
+Two large dining-rooms, one for men and one for women, are provided;
+also two large reading-rooms with all necessary papers, periodicals,
+books and means of amusement. Its only lack is a gymnasium and a field
+for athletic sports, but these may in time be added. Food of the best
+quality is supplied for all who desire it at cost. A dish of oatmeal
+and milk costs three cents; a large scone with tea or coffee, the same;
+Scotch broth or soup, two cents; stewed meat and potatoes, eight cents;
+roast beef or mutton, with potatoes, ten cents; a good and sufficient
+meal need not cost over twelve cents. Standard wages are paid, and two
+and one-half hours less time demanded than in private shops.
+
+Men work fifty-three hours weekly, women forty-four. Most of the latter
+work in the shirt factory, but they do not need to sing Hood's _Song of
+the Shirt_. Sweating is unknown; every worker, from the youngest to the
+oldest, receives his or her share of the profits, which amount to about
+$15,000 yearly.
+
+Here we have an almost ideal manufacturing establishment, and if all
+were such we should have higher hopes for human health in the immediate
+future for our workers in factories. It was the outgrowth, the effort of
+the Scotch, a highly intellectual race, to adjust itself to its
+environment. Necessity and competition acting on them forced them to new
+and better adjustments. Such a result could hardly have been achieved by
+a less hard-headed and practical people, a race on which evolution has
+for ages produced some of its best effects.
+
+
+HYGIENE.--But I fancy you ask me, Is there any hope that in the future
+evolution, and with it adjustment to environment, will carry man so far
+that an ideal state of health will be the lot of all? This is what
+hygiene promises. Is it a vain hope? If we look at what older sciences
+have done for man we find much to encourage us. In astronomy, by the aid
+of mathematics, we can calculate with certitude the date of future
+eclipses. In many other sciences we can make accurate predictions and
+accomplish results of the greatest importance. Indeed, science has
+become almost our only authority. Imperfect as it yet is, we trust it,
+perhaps, too implicitly. The science of hygiene is the youngest of all
+the sciences. Not that the Greeks, the Hebrews, the Hindoos and Chinese
+did not have some practical knowledge on the subject, but it was rude
+and empirical. With the discoveries of micro-organisms as the cause of a
+series of the worst diseases, we have begun to place hygiene alongside
+mathematics and chemistry.
+
+We now know the origin of many diseases which formerly were enveloped in
+mystery. Can we remove them? That is the next task. Hygiene will in the
+future busy itself with this great question. It has, it is believed,
+already made many cities proof, or almost proof, against cholera and
+yellow fever. It will try to make them proof against other contagious
+diseases also, and it will without doubt succeed. But its work will not
+then have been accomplished. We may avoid the causes of disease and
+still be puny creatures. Our great task will be the building up of
+bodies equal to the needs of our environment. This we have, in a small
+way, already begun to do--imitating the ancient Greeks--in our schools
+of physical culture, where the body can be trained up to its best, and
+also in our laboratories for psychological research, in which the
+relation of mind and body are being carefully investigated, where every
+subject connected with every function is being studied, even weariness,
+anger, hope, despair, drink, food, sleep, the weather, and their effects
+on function. The results of such knowledge will prove beyond a doubt
+that the health of the body, as well as of the mind, is of the highest
+importance for success in life, for happiness and usefulness, and that
+we can do much to secure both.
+
+My own personal hope for the future of human health lies in the
+evolution and spread of this gospel of hygiene.
+
+Hygiene interests itself in all that relates to human well-being. It may
+be defined as _the ethics of the body--the science of true living_. It
+promises health to all who obey its laws. It makes no such promise to
+those who disregard them. In the future, no doubt, a higher average of
+health will be the result of our ever-increasing knowledge; and whenever
+we are able and willing to apply this knowledge to our own bodily and
+mental conduct we shall be amply rewarded. This much we can safely
+promise, but no more. On the contrary, the violators of hygienic laws
+will, with their offspring, suffer in the future as in the past, and
+that suffering will be in the form of pain, disease, degeneration,
+premature death.
+
+This may seem hard to many who are sensitive to the pains and sorrows of
+the world, and some have gone so far as to attribute to the author of
+nature, the unknown cause of all things, a character anything but good.
+But this is a very erroneous way of looking at the subject. To discuss
+it fully we should have to consider the question of the mystery of evil,
+which cannot be done here. Suffice it to say, the creation, the
+evolution of the race, is by law. Causes produce their legitimate
+results. If it were not so, our sufferings might be far greater, and no
+progress would result. Let us be thankful that nature is as it is, and
+let us do our best to put our lives in harmony with it. By so doing, we
+may in the end attain all that we strive for.
+
+
+
+
+THE GERM PLASM; ITS RELATION TO OFFSPRING.
+
+
+The germ plasm is a most interesting and remarkable substance. It must
+be interesting, for everything which relates to life and reproduction is
+interesting. It must be remarkable, for out of it, under proper
+conditions, remarkable results are produced. Although our knowledge of
+its nature is very imperfect, yet let us not on this account refuse to
+try to understand what little is known.
+
+In the first place, the germ plasm of animals which reproduce sexually
+is composed of two germ plasms--that of the male, and that of the
+female. That of the male is called the _spermatozoon_ (pronounced
+sper'ma-to-zooen). It is sometimes called spermatozoid; the plural is
+spermatozoa. It is exceedingly small, the smallest of any cell in the
+body, and has the power to move from place to place. These cells are
+produced in enormous numbers, and so far as they have been observed
+under the microscope they differ considerably in power of movement and
+in perfection of development. Considering their small size, they must
+make a very long journey to find the ovum; and if they were only few in
+number, they would rarely succeed; but existing in large numbers, for
+there are millions of them produced in each sexual act of the male, some
+of them are pretty sure to do so, and, probably in most cases, it would
+be those most vigorous and capable of making the journey most direct and
+in the least time.
+
+That of the female is called the _ovum_, or egg; plural, _ova_. Only a
+small number are produced, when compared with the number of the male
+spermatozoa, but there are quite enough for the ends they are to serve.
+They have not the same power of movement, though they do move somewhat
+as the amaeba does. They are also very much larger than the male cells.
+
+The eggs of all mammals look alike as they come from the ovaries, but
+take on some changes afterward. Haeckel says: "Every primitive egg being
+an entirely simple, somewhat round, moving, naked cell, possesses no
+membrane, and consists only of a nucleus and protoplasm. These two parts
+have long borne distinctive names: the protoplasm being called the
+_vitellus_, or yelk, and the nucleus the _germinal vesicle_ (_vesicula
+germinativa_)." The same author also says: "The human egg cannot be
+distinguished from that of most other mammals, either in its immature or
+in its more complete condition. Its form, its size, its composition, are
+approximately the same in all. In its fully developed condition it has
+an average diameter of one-tenth of a line--about the one hundred and
+twentieth part of an inch. If the mammalian egg is properly isolated,
+and held on a plate of glass towards the light, it appears to the eye as
+a very fine point. The normal eggs of most of the higher mammals are of
+almost exactly the same size. They have the same spherical form; always
+the same characteristic covering; always the same clear, round germinal
+vesicle with its dark germinal spot. Even under the highest power of our
+best microscopes there _appears_ to be no essential difference between
+the eggs of a human being and that of the ape, the dog, the cat or other
+animal." This similarity is one of appearance only. There is a
+difference, and of this I shall speak later. It may be asked if the egg
+of a bird is the same as the egg of a mammal. The mature bird's egg, as
+it is laid in the nest, differs materially from that of any mammal; but
+in its miniature form, as found in the hen's ovary, it is also the same.
+The egg of a bird after it leaves the ovary, and as it passes along the
+oviduct, takes on secretions in its passage which it converts into yelk,
+and afterwards a shell is added to give it protection in the external
+world, where it must undergo incubation before it can become a bird; but
+before it takes on its shell it has been fertilized, and this also
+causes other changes. Haeckel says: "After the ripe egg of the bird has
+left the ovary, and has been fertilized in the oviduct, it surrounds
+itself with various coverings which are secreted from the inner surface
+of the oviduct. The thick layer of transparent albumen first forms round
+the yellow yelk; this is followed by the formation of the outer
+calcareous shell, within which is another envelope, or skin. All these
+coverings and additions which are gradually formed round the egg are of
+no importance to the development of the embryo; they are parts which
+have nothing to do with the simple egg cell. Even in the case of other
+animals we often find large eggs with thick coverings. For example, the
+shark's; but even in this case the egg is originally exactly similar to
+those of mammals when in its primitive condition as it comes from the
+ovary. In the case of the bird these additions serve only as food for
+the growing embryo, which, in the case of mammals, is furnished by a
+stream of the mother's blood, making 'stored-up' nutriment unnecessary."
+
+Before, however, we can have _true germ plasm_ the mother cell must be
+fertilized by the male cell. This is true of all the higher plants and
+animals. There are some low plants and animals in which fertilization by
+the male cell is not required. This has been called virginal generation.
+In no mammal is this possible.
+
+How fertilization takes place and what it signifies are both important
+questions which have not been entirely settled, and it almost seems as
+if they could not be settled in some of their details, except in the
+lower forms of life. Nature has so protected the process from
+observation in the higher animals that it cannot be studied in detail;
+but in plants and the lowest animals it has been observed with some
+success, and we may infer that the process is very much the same in the
+higher animals.
+
+Haeckel, in his great work on the Evolution of Man, tells us that "The
+process of fertilization in sexual generation depends essentially on the
+fact that two dissimilar cells meet and blend. In former times the
+strangest views prevailed with regard to this act. Men have always been
+disposed to regard it as thoroughly mystical, and the most widely
+different hypotheses have been framed to account for it. It is only
+within a few years that closer study has shown that the whole process of
+fertilization is extremely simple, and entirely without special mystery.
+Essentially, it consists merely in the fact that the male sperm-cell
+coalesces with the female egg-cell. Owing to its sinuous movements, the
+very mobile sperm-cell finds its way to the female egg-cell, penetrates
+the membrane of the latter by a perforating motion, and coalesces with
+its cell material.
+
+"A poet might find in this circumstance a capital opportunity for
+painting in glowing colors the wonderful mystery of fertilization; he
+might describe the struggles of the 'seed animalcules' eagerly dancing
+round the egg-cell shut up in its many coverings, disputing the passage
+through the minute pore-canals of the chorion, and then of purpose
+burying themselves in the protoplasm of the yelk mass, where, in a
+spirit of self-sacrifice, they completely efface themselves in the
+better 'ego.' But the critical naturalist very prosaically conceives
+this poetical incident, this 'crown of love,' as the mere coalescence of
+two cells! The result of this is, that in the first place the egg-cell
+is rendered capable of further evolution, and, secondly, that the
+hereditary qualities of _both_ parents can be transmitted to the child."
+
+By coalescence is understood, growing together, not mingling as water
+and milk might when mixed. More recent observations indicate that during
+coalescence both the male and female cells throw off some portions of
+their substance. It is also considered that the important part of each
+cell is its nucleus. In it all hereditary characteristics are stored up.
+If the nucleus be absent in either cell these cells cannot reproduce. In
+unicellular, or one-celled, organisms, it has been found in
+multiplication by division, a part of the nucleus must go with each
+half, otherwise the half without a part of it does not grow. In
+experiments in laboratories, artificial division of simple organisms may
+be made, and each fragment will become a perfect creature if only a very
+small piece of the nucleus goes with the separated portion; but if a
+part is cut off without any of the nucleus, then, while it may live on
+for a short time, it can not grow or propagate.
+
+Possibly we have here an explanation of some hereditary phenomena in
+human beings. If there is an unequal division, and more of the male than
+of the female nucleus, the child might, as a result, inherit more of the
+father's than of the mother's characteristics, or the reverse.
+
+What has been so far said about the germ plasm has been to enable the
+reader to possess a degree of intelligence on the nature of
+fertilization, so far as it is known; but from a practical standpoint
+the most important knowledge for those prospective parents who wish to
+practice intelligent stirpiculture is to understand that the health of
+the germ plasm or fertilized ovum depends on the health of the parents.
+By health, I mean the possession of a good constitution, to which will
+be added a strong hold on life, power to do and to endure, and quickly
+to recover from weariness. Disease will be easily warded off in such
+persons, so that there will be generally good health. Such a condition
+of body is usually inherited. It depends on the possession of a large
+supply in the body of living matter--firm muscles, a good heart, lungs
+and digestive organs. Those who are feeble cannot endure much; whose
+heart, lungs and digestive organs are weak; whose hold on life is
+slight, can rarely endow their offspring with these high qualities.
+Their children may live if no great strain comes upon them; but if they
+must take an active part in the struggle and competition going on in the
+world they cannot endure it. Mr. Spencer puts the case very aptly in his
+work on Ethics where he says: "It results that where maternal vigor is
+great, and the surplus vitality consequently large, a long series of
+children may be borne before any deterioration in their quality becomes
+marked; while, on the other hand, a mother with but a small surplus may
+soon cease altogether to reproduce. Further, it results that variations
+in the state of health of parents which involves variations in the
+surplus vitality have their effects on the constitutions of offspring to
+the extent that offspring borne during greatly deranged maternal health
+are decidedly feebler. And then, lastly and chiefly, it results that
+after the constitutional vigor has culminated, and there has commenced
+that gradual decline which in some twenty years or so brings absolute
+infertility, there goes on a gradual decrease in that surplus vitality
+on which the production of offspring depends, and a consequent
+deterioration in the quality of such offspring. This which is _a
+priori_ conclusion is verified _a posteriori_.
+
+"Mr. J. Mathews Duncan, in his work on Fecundity, Fertility, Sterility
+and allied topics, has given results of statistics which show that
+mothers of twenty-five bear the finest infants, and that from mothers
+whose ages at marriage range from twenty to twenty-five years there come
+infants which have a lower rate of mortality than those resulting from
+marriages consummated when the mothers' ages are smaller or greater. The
+apparent slight incongruity between these two statements being due to
+the fact that whereas marriages commenced before twenty and twenty-five
+cover the whole of the period of highest vigor, marriages commenced at
+five and twenty cover a period which lacks the years during which vigor
+is rising to its climax and includes only the years of decline from the
+climax."
+
+This quotation from Mr. Spencer needs a qualifying remark. Mr. Galton,
+in his work on Hereditary Genius, found that the average age of mothers
+of men of the greatest ability was about thirty, and of their fathers
+thirty-five. In such cases, the physical and intellectual strength must
+have been above the average, and, consequently, it continued to a more
+advanced age. Besides, those of great ability mature later.
+
+It may also be added that Duncan's statistics, quoted by Spencer, are
+average statistics gathered from tables of mortality, and include every
+class of persons. Now, average statistics do not apply to individual
+cases, and they would not apply to those highly endowed physically and
+intellectually.
+
+Further, those who are well endowed at birth and whose lives are in
+accordance with hygienic law, that is, those who do not squander their
+physiological resources by sensuality, by intemperance, or by excesses
+of any sort retain their health to a greater age than those whose lives
+are the reverse. Such are of a youthful physiological age, which is not
+altogether determined by the actual number of years they have lived, but
+by very high physiological conditions.
+
+From all this we conclude that a very important rule in the production
+of offspring, if we would have those offspring superior, is to maintain
+a high degree of health--a condition in which there is a surplus of
+physiological capital to produce children with endowments equal to, if
+not superior to, their parents.
+
+Another subject requires treatment here. It is the effect of alcohol on
+offspring. We are yet lacking in statistics giving the facts we need to
+know on this subject; but the general observation of competent persons
+who have had good opportunities to study it may teach us something.
+Alcohol, in its circulation in the blood, penetrates every part; not
+even the germ plasm escapes. Demme studied ten families of drinkers and
+ten families of temperate persons. The direct posterity of the ten
+families of drinkers included fifty-seven children. Of these,
+twenty-five died in the first weeks and months of their lives; six were
+idiots; in five a striking backwardness of their longitudinal growth was
+observed; five were affected with epilepsy, and five with inborn
+diseases. Thus, of the fifty-seven children of drinkers only ten, or
+17.5 per cent., had normal constitutions and healthful growth. The ten
+sober families had sixty-one children, five only dying in the first
+weeks; four were affected with curable diseases of the nervous system;
+two only had inborn defects. The remaining fifty, 81.9 per cent., were
+normal in their constitutions and development.
+
+In this statement we have a graphic object lesson of the evil effects of
+alcohol on the germ plasm. Natural selection had far more to do in
+removing those unfit to survive in the intemperate than in the temperate
+families.
+
+A knowledge of the evil effects of alcohol on the unborn child was known
+to the ancients. The mother of Sampson was warned "not to drink any wine
+or strong drink nor to eat any unclean thing" because she was to
+conceive and bear a son who was to deliver Israel out of the hands of
+the Philistines. Manoah was so interested in what the angel of the Lord
+had said to his wife that he sought an interview with him for further
+confirmation, and asked: "How shall we order the child, and how shall we
+do unto him?" evidently meaning, "How shall we train and educate him?"
+and the same advice was given as before. Whatever view the reader may
+hold as to the inspiration or non-inspiration of the Bible, certainly
+this advice was good. Other examples similar to it are to be found, not
+only in the same book, but in numerous historical works, and also
+abundant evidence in our own time of the evil effects of alcoholic
+drinks on unborn children giving them a tendency to insanity, idiocy and
+other nervous diseases. A whole book might be written on this branch of
+our subject.
+
+To what extent food affects the germ plasm we remain somewhat in
+ignorance. We know that it is from it that the body is nourished, and
+from it also the stored up or surplus matter in our systems is obtained.
+The larger the surplus the more highly will the offspring be endowed
+with energy is a fact clearly set forth by Mr. Spencer. A surplus of
+fatty food stored up in the body, however, cannot be of much service and
+may prove injurious. A deficiency of nitrogenous food would also, it
+seems to me, be an evil. The germ plasm, or its most important part, is
+a highly nitrogenous substance, like all protoplasm, or living matter.
+The highest form of germ plasm, that with a most complex molecular
+structure, would hardly be formed if there was a deficiency of
+nitrogenous matter in the blood.
+
+Air is also food the same as bread is. The activities, the chemical
+changes in the body, are mainly, though not entirely, between the oxygen
+of the air and the carbon and hydrogen of our food. The body is quite as
+much injured by a deficiency of air inhaled into the lungs by exercise
+as by a deficiency of food, though the injury may be of a different
+nature. Physicians and others have long ago observed that the offspring
+of parents living much in the open air and sunlight are healthier and
+stronger than those of parents living in confined spaces, where air and
+light are deficient. Air which is impure, which is loaded with poisonous
+matter, if inhaled for a long time by the mother, lowers the standard of
+her health. In malarious regions, the vigor of the offspring is less,
+and the number who die in infancy greater, than in regions where the air
+and water are pure. Many years ago I remember reading in one of the
+journals devoted to sanitary science published in London, an account of
+a rural town where both air and water were of extraordinary purity, and
+in this town a very large percentage of the children born lived to grow
+to maturity. There is also an isolated region in France, bordering on
+the sea, where both air, water and climate are unusually salubrious,
+and though intermarriage has been practiced for a long time among the
+several thousand inhabitants, the people are remarkably well formed and
+healthy. Similar facts have been observed in other places. They indicate
+to us that a healthful climate, with good air and water, are important
+factors in all true stirpiculture.
+
+While all diseases which exhaust the physiological resources of the
+system are detrimental to the offspring, there are certain ones which
+are peculiarly so. Specific diseases or those resulting from a sensual
+life are the first to be mentioned. If the bodies of either father or
+mother become saturated with the poison, which is probably a germ, then
+the child born of such parents will certainly be infected and either die
+at birth or live only a short and feeble life. It is one of the
+penalties of an impure life--a very severe one, no doubt, but perhaps
+not too severe, that the offspring of the sensualist must suffer the
+penalties for its parent's physiological sins. Medical men have long
+been trying to discover a remedy which will make it safe for a man
+infected with specific disease to marry and become a father, but so far
+they have not had much success. It is doubtful if they ever will.
+
+Epilepsy is another disease which is so often transmitted to children
+that any one of either sex suffering from it had better abstain from
+parentage. If one parent is remarkably healthy, the children may escape
+the severest form of penalty; but even then they may suffer from
+nervousness and other diseases, and rarely enjoy robust health.
+
+The question whether persons who have a consumptive tendency should
+become parents or not has frequently been discussed by sanitarians, but
+never settled. Such persons are frequently intellectual, and often of an
+unusually cheerful and hopeful disposition. They are, in most cases,
+quite prolific. In the female they generally make excellent wives and
+mothers; in the case of the male, they are not uncommonly good providers
+for their families, and also good fathers. Except in the worst cases,
+does the welfare of the race demand that they shall not marry and become
+parents. Probably not. But we must advise them to take the very best
+care of their imperfect bodies; to develop their chests by wise but not
+excessive physical training; to husband their physiological resources
+carefully; not to marry young, nor rear too many children. Excessive
+childbearing is a prolific cause in women of consumption, and excessive
+sexual indulgence is a frequent cause of it in both sexes.
+
+These remarks should not be construed to mean that those who are already
+in the early stages of this disease, or whose families on both sides
+have been deeply affected by it, may become parents. They should not.
+But in the present state of society, we cannot hold men and women up to
+an ideal standard. Some slight risks may be taken, but not too great
+ones. As the race progresses in knowledge, however, we may raise our
+standards, and finally make them so high that no one with a tendency to
+any serious disease which is likely to affect the offspring unfavorably
+shall have any right to contribute to the world's population.
+
+I have mentioned only a few of the many diseases which affect the germ
+plasm unfavorably. It is hardly necessary to extend the list.
+
+One other subject deserves consideration, when I will bring this chapter
+to a close. Every child born into the world is, to a certain extent, an
+experiment. That is to say, the parents cannot predict its sex, nor what
+its chief characteristics will be. These depend on what potentialities
+are stored up in the germ plasm. If this be formed by parents in good
+health, with a surplus of vital force, and a long line of ancestors with
+normal lives, we may believe that if the environment be favorable, the
+child will develop so as to show the same characteristics, perhaps in an
+even higher degree. Whatever variations there are will not be much below
+or above the average line of its ancestors. The congenital characters
+will tend to be transmitted. They are in the germ plasm, even in great
+detail. Whether the acquired ones are transmitted may still be
+uncertain; but whether they are or not, normal right living will be sure
+to have good effects. Obey the laws of life and far better results will
+follow than if they are disobeyed.
+
+
+
+
+FEWER AND BETTER CHILDREN.
+
+
+In the present age suggestions on this subject may seem superfluous. The
+more highly educated and wealthy classes have already sufficiently
+reduced the number of children which they bring into the world. But are
+these offspring any better than they would have been had their parents
+given birth to a larger number?
+
+Mr. Darwin did not think much could be done to improve the race by
+parents limiting the number of their offspring. He would trust to
+natural selection to weed out the unfit, and to sexual selection as an
+aid. He thus describes the probable manner of action of sexual selection
+among primeval men: "The strongest and most vigorous men--those who
+could best defend and hunt for their families; those who were provided
+with the best weapons and possessed the most property, such as a large
+number of dogs or other animals--would succeed in rearing a greater
+average number of offspring than the weaker and poorer members of the
+same tribes. Such men would doubtless generally be able to select the
+more attractive women. . . . If, then, this be admitted, it would be an
+unexplainable circumstance if the selection of the more attractive women
+by the more powerful men of the tribes, who would rear on the average a
+greater number of children, did not, after the lapse of generations,
+_modify the character of the tribes_."
+
+The way in which the tribe would be modified would be by its producing
+better children. Of course among primitive men the richer and more
+powerful had several wives, but it is not likely that the number of
+children by each one was large.
+
+Natural selection is, however, a painful process, necessary, no doubt,
+where ignorance prevails; but if the number of children of each pair
+could be limited and of a superior character, so far as vigor and
+adaptation to environment are concerned, would there not be less need
+for natural selection with all its evils? It seems to us that this would
+be so.
+
+We have already quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence from
+parenthood on the part of the unfit and the duty on the part of the fit
+to become parents, and, theoretically, Mr. Allen is right; but except as
+both of these classes are swayed by duty we would make little progress
+in this way. A majority of mankind think they are the fit. Why should
+they crucify their desires for the benefit of the race? As mankind
+becomes more moral Mr. Allen's views may have a larger influence on
+thought than now; but before that time little can be expected from
+them.
+
+Mr. Spencer says: "We have fallen upon evil times, in which it has come
+to be an accepted doctrine that part of the responsibilities [of
+parenthood] are to be discharged, not by parents, but by the public--a
+part which is gradually becoming a larger part, and threatens to become
+the whole. Agitators and legislators have united in spreading a theory
+which, logically followed out, ends in the monstrous conclusion that it
+is for parents to beget children and for society to take care of them.
+The political ethics now in fashion makes the unhesitating assumption
+that while each man, as parent, is not responsible for the mental
+culture of his offspring he is, as a citizen along with other citizens,
+responsible for the mental culture of all other men's offspring! And
+this absurd doctrine has now become so well established that people
+raise their eyes in astonishment if you deny. But this ignoring of the
+truth, that only by due discharge of parental responsibilities has all
+life on the earth arisen, and that only through the better discharge of
+them have there gradually been made possible better types of life, is,
+in the long run, fatal. Breach of natural law will, in this case, as in
+all cases, be followed in due time by nature's revenge--a revenge which
+will be terrible in proportion as the breach has been great. A system
+under which parental duties are performed wholesale by those who are
+not parents, under the plea that many parents cannot or will not perform
+their duties--a system which fosters the inferior children of inferior
+parents at the cost of superior parents and consequent injury of
+superior children--a system which thus helps incapables to multiply and
+hinders the multiplication of capables or diminishes their capability
+must bring decay and ultimate extinction. A society which persists in
+such a system must--other things equal--go to the wall in the
+competition with a society which does not commit this folly of
+nourishing its worst at the expense of its best."
+
+We have evidence among primitive people that they understand the
+necessity of limiting offspring, and practice it in a perfectly
+healthful way. The natives of Uganda, a region in Central Africa, offers
+an illustration: "The women rarely have more than two or three children;
+the practice is that when a woman has borne a child she is to live apart
+from her husband for two years, at which age children are weaned."
+
+Seaman, speaking of the Fijians, says: "After childbirth husband and
+wife keep apart three and even four years, so that no other baby may
+interfere with the time considered necessary for suckling children."
+
+Some fifty years ago there lived in New York a young couple, strong,
+healthy, ambitious to be rich, and both saving and industrious enough to
+become so under ordinary conditions. The husband was in a business which
+required constant attention; and in order to promote it and save the
+expense of help which he thought he could not afford, he labored nights,
+often up to the hours of twelve and sometimes one o'clock, and then
+arose early and went at it again. His wife sympathized with him in all
+his undertakings, helped him in every way possible, even to the sharing
+of his midnight toils. In no way did either of them spare themselves.
+They knew something of the evils of poverty, and were determined that it
+should not always be their lot. Fortune favored them, and their bank
+account grew larger and larger until they could count the value of their
+possessions as amounting to several million dollars. They lived in a
+fine country seat, and could gratify every wish, so far as food,
+clothing, books and travel were concerned. During their early married
+life, when the strain of work was the greatest, two children were born
+unto them, both boys, and they are alive today; but are they a comfort
+to their parents, and a help in their declining years? Instead of this
+they are both deformed and cripples, unable to help themselves or do any
+labor. Their family physician has told me that the overwork and
+privation of the parents at the time of their birth and before, was
+undoubtedly the cause of the children's inferiority. A younger son born
+after the wife had ceased to toil like a slave, gives some promise of
+being a man of character.
+
+We have here a typical case of strong, healthy parents, with a limited
+number of offspring, yet they were not superior. On the other hand, it
+would be easy to collect a large number of instances where the children
+in large families have had superior endowments. Take Benjamin Franklin
+as an example. He was the fifteenth child of his father, Josiah
+Franklin, and the eighth of the ten children of his mother.
+
+It seems that superiority is a result of great vigor and perfection of
+body and mind and of abundant reproductive power. Where this is absent
+the children will hardly be superior. Yet in both cases a certain degree
+of limitation ought to be advantageous.
+
+In conclusion, let me say what I have indirectly said already. Let the
+strong, the capable and the good rear as many children as they can
+without overburdening themselves in any way, and let the weak, the
+imperfect and the bad rear few or none, but devote their lives to
+perfecting their own characters. In this way the future race will be
+modified for good and not for evil.
+
+
+
+
+A THEORETICAL BABY.
+
+_Reported by request of Dr. Holbrook._
+
+
+It was our first baby. I was making a living as a doctor by writing
+articles on the general care of the health; and my wife before her
+marriage had been a kindergartner, a trainer of kindergartners, and a
+lecturer to mothers on the scientific and expert methods of rearing
+children aright. We believed in the theories we had taught, and our baby
+got nothing else from the start. According to the first applied theory,
+we made our temporary home before the boy began to be, in the Rocky
+Mountains of Colorado; and were a large part of the time either in our
+garden or on horseback, in this perfect outdoor climate. My wife was
+entirely in love with me, and I made each day count for nothing more
+certainly than to deserve and return that sentiment of hers. We lived
+simply but freely, and had next to no anxieties. My wife had practiced
+general gymnastics for years; but for months prior to the birth of her
+boy, she every day went through with a series of special maternal
+gymnastics, by which the muscles that aid in parturition can be made
+strong and entirely to be relied upon. We were rewarded for this outlay
+of time in a delivery that was rapid and easy, without more than an
+ounce of haemorrhage, and everything so perfectly controlled that--except
+for the inconvenience of it--the presence and aid of the physician
+(myself) might have been dispensed with. Recovery was rapid also. My
+wife made no haste to get up, keeping quiet most of the time for two
+weeks, to ensure good milk. But she did a family washing without effort
+after three weeks, and was on horseback again by the sixth week. The
+baby was not severed from his mother till ten minutes after birth
+(ensuring a better blood supply). Then he got no bath, no food, no
+dressing process; but was simply swathed in cotton batting and laid
+aside for six hours in a padded box-bed, surrounded by bottles of hot
+water, and covered with plenty of soft blankets, to sleep and get used
+to his new environment. On the second day we began rubbing him daily
+from head to foot with vaseline. His first bath, with a flannel cloth
+dipped in warm milk diluted with soft water and without soap, came when
+he was a week old, and was followed by the thorough rub with vaseline.
+This bath he has had nearly every day up to date. He has often cried, or
+crowed and begged for this bath; but never cried during its performance,
+except when his clothes were being replaced. On the contrary, he enjoys
+every moment of it.
+
+Feeding began with a meal every hour of the twenty-four, for the first
+week. Then night feeding was reduced to two meals, and he was fed every
+two hours, from four or five o'clock in the morning till nine at night,
+till two months old. About then he began sleeping right through the
+nights; and until three months old was fed every three hours of the day
+time; then for a month he went four hours between his meals. At his
+fourth month began the present regime of four meals _per diem_. Now and
+then he has cried in the night from thirst, and a few spoonsful of cold
+water have sufficed to send him off to sleep again. All in all, I think
+I could count on my fingers the times that he has wakened us out of
+hours, and not once has anyone walked the floor with him. In fact, no
+diversions of this sort have ever been practiced on him. He has never
+been rocked to sleep; whenever cross or fretful in the day, we have
+known that sleep was all he needed, and into his little bed he has been
+promptly plumped, and covered with a loosely knit afghan, tented on a
+light framework, which we call "the extinguisher." Here shut away and
+entirely unnoticed he soon learned to give himself up to his own
+reflections, and then presently to sleep. Thus we have kept down the
+first great nuisance of ordinary infancy, namely, egoism and a habit of
+howling for attention when no attention is really needed. But social
+relations, and those of the gayest, he has constantly with both his
+parents. We take up and make into play with him each idea of his own. We
+have shown him some finger-plays. In the main we leave him to originate
+his own amusements.
+
+From the keeping of stomach and bowels absolutely healthy, by a regular
+and reasonable exercise of their all-important functions, not only has
+the boy been free from irritability, and spontaneously happy and
+self-amused, sometimes quiet, and sometimes jolly to overflowing. But
+the second great nuisance of those ordinarily attending baby-raising,
+namely, sour stomach followed by colic, was eliminated. A secondary
+result of this entire regularity of functioning at the upper end of the
+alimentary canal was that a like regularity set in at the other end.
+That is, at the thirteenth week he began to have but one daily passage
+of faecal matter, and that soon after breakfast. Of the approach of this
+act he notified his mother without fail, and thereafter we had no soiled
+diapers. Movements were received on pieces of old cloth, and cloth and
+all tossed into a pan of ashes, or the fire, when we had one. When, at
+six months, we put him onto cow's milk, mixed with thin graham porridge,
+to supply the extra nourishment demanded by rapid growth, he went up to
+two movements per diem--morning and evening. Thus, the third great
+nuisance of of diaper washing was eliminated, in its more disagreeable
+feature. Eructation of curds, rashes, colic, diarrhoea--these common
+ailments of ordinary babyhood, we have never had a sight of. We believe
+it due solely to strict adherence to the four-meals-a-day plan. These
+consist of an early breakfast, a later breakfast, a dinner about one
+o'clock and a supper between six and seven. The bath comes at any
+convenient time. On pleasant days, even in winter, he is outdoors, well
+wrapped, in a chair, for hours, and often has a long nap there. He was
+provided, by my own needle and penknife, with an ample fur sleeping
+sack, into which he is securely buttoned every evening and laid in his
+box-bed, on a trunk. He never sleeps with his parents. According to the
+coolness or coldness of the nights, additional covering, in the shape of
+soft blankets and shawls, is laid in on the box, their weight supported
+by the edges of the box. He cannot uncover himself, but he can kick
+freely, and use his arms. We dressed him, from the first, in the
+"_Gertrude_" system of baby clothes, introduced by Dr. Grosvenor, of
+Chicago--all woolen princess garments, with shirring strings at the
+lower hems, by which they are made closed bags, ending just below the
+feet; warm, but allowing of kicking _ad libitum_. At five months--it
+being winter time--he went into short clothes, including solid suits of
+warm flannel underwear, shirts, drawers and long snug-fitting stockings.
+He has never had a cold. His muscles, from the first (due to his
+mother's gymnastics), were firm and active, like those of an adult. At
+the fourth week he surprised us by suspending his entire weight from his
+hands and arms one morning. Legs, neck, back and hands particularly have
+developed steadily in power and quickness. There was never any fat
+deposited--that _avant courier_ of so much infant mortality--yet he is,
+and has been all along, a rosy, plump, dimpled baby, or boy, rather, for
+babyhood very early lost its hold on him. Too often children seem
+finally to emerge from the miseries and ailments of a tedious infancy
+and to take on, at last, individuality and distinct character at the
+second or third year. This child, _per contra_, having never had a
+sensation of illness, or of pain, save honest hunger, has seemed to be a
+happy little boy almost from the first, alert or thoughtful, shouting or
+cooing, laughing and crowing, especially after his meals and movements,
+studying the world of things about him by the hour, keenly appreciative
+of colors and of music, and preferring some sorts to others, his face
+crossed by vivid changes of expression, wonder, merriment, surprise,
+reverie--all as perfect at six months as ordinarily seen at three years.
+He has good color from head to foot, is pale when hungry, but the moment
+a bit of food is down expands to his most genial flow of spirits.
+Immediately after his day-time naps his cheeks are regularly flushed and
+rosy. His spirits become more pronounced toward each evening, reaching
+their high-point of talking, laughing, crowing and squealing at just
+about bed-time. He keeps it up for some time after being tucked away for
+the night, till sleep masters him; and begins where he left off early
+next morning. All this is good physiology. So happy day succeeds happy
+day, and we trust and hope that many good tendencies are getting a fair
+start in a harmonious and spontaneous beginning of this great work of
+growing up that we are fostering but not forcing.
+
+
+AT ONE YEAR OLD.--Everything continues as begun. Teething at times
+causes slight transient fretfulness, and more cold water is drunk. The
+bowels remain absolutely regular. The all-night sleep (never "put to
+sleep,") and two day-time naps are unchanged, in all thirteen or
+fourteen hours of sleep _per diem_. On warm days he needs _and gets_
+plenty of cool water to drink, often two-thirds of a pint at a time.
+Talking, standing and creeping he has attained by his own unaided
+initiative (this on principle). As for amusements, he invents his own
+always, except when engaged in social exchange with his father and
+mother, and in these, too, we are careful that he makes at least half
+the advances.
+
+On particular occasions he comes in need of mothering--and gets it. On
+all others he simply lives with two big but highly sympathetic
+playfellows; and he has developed separate lines of play and talk for
+each. Often he chooses to alternate as between two poles of attraction,
+turning his face to his mother's for her sympathy between shouts to his
+father, or _vice versa_. From week to week we notice that the older
+plays are mostly dropped one by one, and fresh ones invented. All,
+however, are real and vivid to him.
+
+In early prospect we have but two more points to compass. Perfect health
+in all respects he has intact. Self-control and self-sufficiency, both
+in amusing himself and in enduring lesser ills, such as bumps and mild
+degrees of hunger, he is getting as fast as growth permits. But
+obedience and responsibility will soon be needed in his repertoire.
+Negative obedience his mother is obtaining already in response to "No,
+no," and shakes of the head. Positive obedience will be the far more
+vital thing to secure--just as soon as he can help in little ways. Here
+we hope to make him responsible as far as can be for the welfare, safety
+and amusement of younger playfellows, whether brother or sister it is
+now too soon to say.
+
+
+AT EIGHTEEN MONTHS.--A cold douche has, for three months past, ended his
+morning bath, regularly given by his father after his sister arrived,
+and his weight became considerable. This douche, poured slowly from a
+dipper until redness set in, has added markedly to his spirits,
+muscular activity and digestive capacity. It causes screaming at the
+moment, but an instant later, as three Turkish towels are wrapped
+closely about him, his exuberance is delightful to see. Coincidently he
+has taken up a selected diet of solid food, including chocolate and
+cooked fruits, and will have but one nap, though often that is a long
+one.
+
+As the child is working out of babyhood, every day counting (as no day
+of half illness in childhood can count), and well into boyhood, the
+single principle already outlined, of leaving the little individuality
+to establish its own activities and socialities, seems sufficient, as
+the illustrations appended, I believe, prove. Doubtless a child that is
+not, day after day, enjoying, and often thrilled by health and life, as
+this little boy is, a child not brought up in an unbroken _camaraderie_
+with both parents, such as he has had, and particularly a child not
+having the send-off of trust and amiable impulse which he received
+before his birth, could not be left to blossom in such wild-flower
+style. Ugly, sulky or "streaky" conduct, jumping perversely out in place
+of good cheer, we have never had to deal with. In fact, we have never
+been able to detect the slightest resentment immediately after punishing
+him for taking forbidden articles, or for raising an outcry over being
+denied sundry things he wanted. His crying when punished is that of pure
+grief, and he is ready at once to nestle down under the hand that had
+spatted disapproval, to be comforted, resuming good spirits two or three
+minutes later on. In the main, simply "No, no!" from either parent, has
+sufficed to stop him in the beginnings of mischief, sometimes resulting
+in cheerful desisting, and sometimes in a little of what we call the
+"grieved cry." But this, too, if it becomes loud or insistent, can be
+hushed by another "No, no," and enable him to regain control of himself.
+With this regained self-control has always come gratefulness for aid in
+the matter, as evinced by extra sweetness and brightness immediately
+after, and eager resumption of some one or other of his plays or calls
+with one or both of us. This may be what is known as discipline. It
+always brings a smile to our faces, however.
+
+Without a break of more than a day or two at a time, we have been able
+to be equally near him all the while, and divide up about equally the
+matters of bathing, feeding, dressing and undressing him. The
+conventional estimate of those standing nearest to a child of,
+
+     1--Mother,
+     2--Nurse,
+     3--Teacher,
+     4--Servants and playmates,
+     5--Older brother or sister,
+     6--Father--the man behind the newspaper,
+
+certainly does not apply here. When I am absent for from three to six
+hours his uneasiness sets in, and grows stronger and stronger, ending in
+repeated expeditions to a short distance along the road, where he stands
+and calls "Vager," "Vager," (Father, Father,) at first hopefully, then
+protestingly, and sometimes at last with indignation or tears. When I
+return--and he listens and catches the first distant sound of hoofs, or
+wheels, or whinny of the left-at-home colts, or voice, or opening
+gate--an eager, beaming face welcomes me from gate or doorway, or even
+several rods down the beaten snow on the road. Once back, things are all
+right in his little domain again, and he goes on, without special
+attention to me, in his series of occupations and plays.
+
+I say "occupations." They are nothing else to him; serious matters that
+he goes about accomplishing. He is at his best when he can help his
+mother at her work--blowing the fire, bringing her kindling, handing her
+clothespins one by one as she needs them, shutting or opening doors on
+request, picking up articles from the floor. But there are many hours
+continuously when he is left to his own devices, which are numerous,
+though many of them he goes through daily, such as feeding the cat,
+visiting his little sister, emptying and refilling the wall-pockets,
+collecting his blocks, and fishing articles off the table with a long
+stick. He has learned, untaught, to get a cloth to open the stove door
+with and save burned fingers; to get and bring clean diapers to his
+mother when he wishes a change; to stoop and lap water out of the pail;
+to stand by his bed and point up at it when wishing his mid-day nap; to
+retreat to a dark corner and drape his handkerchief over his head for a
+brief period towards the close of a day, in lieu of the discarded second
+nap; to scoop bread or biscuit out of a pail hung above his reach, with
+an iron spoon; to lasso peaches toward him with a cord, said peaches
+being in pan on the floor just beyond where he could reach from a little
+gate separating the kitchen and sitting-room. None of these things has
+been taught him. Nothing whatever has been taught him, and especially no
+words and no "tricks." He invents or does without, in all non-essential
+matters, in regular Spartan style. So, in pursuit of his own
+undertakings, he rarely asks for what he would have; just tries and
+tries, day after day, until he succeeds or is beaten. But as he is at
+some new act or plan much of the time when left to himself, he has, we
+are satisfied, independently attained to more of childish accomplishment
+than the most incessant teaching processes could have effected. In doing
+what he does do, for instance, in certain climbing feats, he has slowly
+worked up to, he is both cautious and sure; he rarely tumbles and never
+loses his confidence. Thus for the past two days he has achieved the
+feat of climbing up and standing erect on a little box fourteen inches
+high, where he calls and shouts and roars to us his ecstacy over the
+matter for ten minutes at a time. Today only he has found out how to get
+down alone. Contrast is taken here with the frequent falls and wailings
+of children who are first persuaded into attempts of various sorts, but
+have not worked out a real personal mastery of given acts for
+themselves.
+
+He has quite a vocabulary now of his own invention. The meanings of
+these terms we have learned mostly, and use them to him. Of our
+vocabulary he understands the meanings of a large number of the words
+for things in which he is interested, forty or fifty nouns, and a dozen
+verbs, perhaps. He sings to his mother, and now and then to me, rude
+imitations of the songs he has heard us sing, and his mother he roughly
+accompanies. His inflections of voice have developed to the point of
+entirely expressing many of his emotions; while his expressions of face
+are as much beyond these as the inflections are beyond his stock of
+English--about seven words, and those requiring some exigency to bring
+out.
+
+All this pleases us, because we truly want him to become rich in his own
+life, to subsist and grow in his own home-made lines of feeling and
+thought; and not to learn words, parrot-like, before he has the thought
+formed, and searching, even struggling, for a means by which to convey
+itself. It is dearth of internal life, emotion and unaided thought that
+is in need of replenishment in the average young person, not lack of
+English dictionary terms for things that can be _talked about_, but are
+evidently not intrinsic and personal.
+
+                                               C. W. LYMAN, M. D.
+
+_New Castle, Col._
+
+
+
+
+_NOTES._
+
+
+_War and Parentage._
+
+In the interests of unborn children we should, so far as possible,
+remove from the world those causes which, acting on the mother, either
+directly or indirectly, may injure them by lowering the standard of
+their health, or by altering and debasing their moral and intellectual
+natures. One of the most potent of the causes for harm is war. War has
+generally been regarded as one of the ennobling professions. If we look
+upon it in its most favorable light, all that we can say in its favor is
+that among primitive and barbarous races it has perhaps resulted in the
+preservation and spread of the most capable ones, and that it has at the
+same time welded them together into larger groups, and finally into
+nations, and habituated them to those restraints which are necessary to
+social existence; but we no longer require it for this purpose, and the
+industrial pursuits and the evolution of civilization are so disturbed
+by them that they should cease, and especially should they cease in the
+interest of our children, both born and unborn.
+
+How can war injure children? We have already shown in the chapter on
+Prenatal Culture that when the mother is under the influence of any
+powerful mental emotion, such as fear, depression, anger and similar
+passions during the months in which the child is being developed in her
+womb, there is very great danger of permanent injury to it. Only the
+strongest mothers, those with the most robust health, or who have the
+most stable nerves, those who are rarely thrown off their balance, are
+capable of resisting the intense excitements to which they are subject
+during some of the phases of war.
+
+As I mentioned in my early work on Marriage and Parentage, Esquirol, a
+French historian, gives details of a considerable number of cases of
+children born soon after some of the sieges of the French Revolution,
+which were weakly, nervous and idiotic, on account of the terrible
+strain to which their mothers had been subjected. In every war where a
+city is besieged, even if its women and children are sent away, they
+cannot be altogether free from anxieties and mental strains of a most
+unwholesome nature, and if some of them are soon to become mothers, the
+offspring not yet born must suffer. No one can estimate the vast number
+of children injured under such conditions in the ages past. They have
+been only incidentally referred to in history. The fame and glory of
+conquerors must not be dimmed by the relation of such occurrences.
+
+Joseph A. Allen, in _The Christian Register_, gives the results of some
+of his observations which bear on this subject. He says:
+
+"So much is being said about war and its effects, that I am prompted to
+send you the result of my observations.
+
+"I was in charge of the Massachusetts State Reform School for several
+years, when every inmate (there were between three and four hundred) was
+born before the Civil War--during the time of the great anti-slavery
+agitation, which did so much to educate the moral sense of the people.
+
+"I was again in charge of the same institution _when every inmate was
+born during, or soon after the war, when the mothers were reading,
+talking and dreaming of battles, and of husbands, fathers or brothers
+who had gone to the war_.
+
+"_I found as great a difference in the character of those inmates born
+before and after the Civil War as exists between a civilized and a
+savage nation._
+
+"_Those under my care the second time were much more difficult to
+control, more quarrelsome and defiant, less willing to work or study.
+The crimes for which they were sentenced were as different as their
+characters._
+
+"It was not uncommon for them to be sentenced for breaking and entering
+with deadly weapons.
+
+"This difference was not confined to inmates of reform schools, but it
+was manifest throughout all classes.
+
+"After the war crimes increased rapidly. In Boston garroting was common,
+and was only checked by Judge Russell sentencing all such subjects to
+the full extent of the law.
+
+"Before the close of the Civil War the State Prison at Charlestown,
+under Mr. Gideon Haynes, was, according to Dr. D. C. Wines, D. D., the
+model prison of the United States. Since that time it has been almost
+impossible to maintain proper discipline, owing, no doubt, to the more
+desperate character of the inmates.
+
+"Let us try to trace these effects back to their causes, and prove, if
+possible, that whatsoever a man (or nation) soweth, that shall it also
+reap."
+
+But there are other ways in which war militates against the noblest
+motherhood. Camp life is a school for vice and prostitution. In Camp
+Chickamauga, which is a sample of them all, during the war with Spain on
+account of Cuba, the amount and baseness of the prostitution by the
+soldiers, with both black and white women, exceeded description. In a
+single day forty-one cases of specific disease applied to the physicians
+at the hospitals for treatment. These things were not reported in the
+daily papers; they were too vile. The place was a hot-bed of vice,
+rather than a school of virtue and patriotism. In all European armies it
+is the same. In times of peace, soldiers from the highest to the lowest
+in rank, insist that facility shall be allowed them for the
+gratification of their passional natures. The officers, not being
+permitted to marry unless they or their wives have a certain income,
+keep their mistresses, and not a female servant near a camp is safe. The
+immoral influences here generated spread throughout society, lower the
+standard of morals among both men and women in private life, and
+jeopardize the interests of children born or unborn, morally and
+intellectually, as well as physically.
+
+But there is another view. "Great standing armies," says the Czar of
+Russia, in his note to the Powers, "_are transforming the armed power of
+our day into a crushing burden which the people have more and more
+difficulty in bearing_."
+
+That is to say, the tax imposed upon the individuals of any nation to
+support its army pauperizes or keeps on the verge of poverty a large
+portion of the race. It is war, far more than any other cause, which has
+created the burden of taxation. In some European countries almost every
+man carries a soldier or sailor on his back, that is, he must labor not
+only to support himself and family, but a soldier or sailor who devotes
+his life to a murderous profession. Is this not a grievous burden which
+cripples or paralyzes his life and reacts on his offspring?
+
+Now, the poverty caused by this burden is a serious obstacle to the
+production and training of the young, and especially is this the case in
+the more populous countries--France, Spain and Italy are examples. These
+lands were once the most powerful in Europe; they are so no longer. They
+gloried in war, and spent immense sums of money upon their armies and
+burdened the people with taxes which should have been reserved for the
+use of fathers and mothers in educating and providing for the needs of
+their offspring. War has crushed out the best life of these countries,
+and other nations which follow in the same path will in the end come to
+a similar fate. They may hold out a long time, but not forever. "The
+mills of Gods grind slowly, but they grind exceeding small."
+
+It is because war is an enemy to the highest motherhood that women
+should array themselves against it. It is one of the greatest foes to
+the development and welfare of the children they love so well. Women
+should insist that all governments should settle their differences by
+peaceful rather than by warlike means. The industrial age may have its
+difficulties, but they are not insurmountable. In it the fathers and
+mothers may have the time and the means to study and learn how to
+improve the race through a wiser parentage. I believe that thoughtful
+women, when they come to see the evils of war in their true light, as
+they have seen the evils of prostitution and intemperance, will be its
+greatest foes.
+
+
+_Cases of Prenatal Influences._
+
+Alfred Russell Wallace gives in _Nature_ a few cases of prenatal
+influences sent him by his correspondents. The first experience is from
+a mother residing in Australia. She writes:
+
+"I can trace in the character of my first child, a girl now twenty-two
+years of age, a special aptitude for sewing, economical contriving and
+cutting out, which came to me as a new experience when living in the
+country among new surroundings, and strict economy being necessary, I
+began to try to sew for the coming baby and myself. I also trace her
+great love of history to my study of Froude during that period. Her
+other tastes for art and literature are distinctly hereditary.
+
+"In the case of my second child, also a daughter, I having interested
+myself prior to her birth in literary pursuits, the result has been a
+much acuter form of intelligence, which at six years old enabled her to
+read and enjoy the ballads which Tennyson was then giving to the world,
+and which at the age of barely twenty years allowed her to take her
+degree as B. A. of the Sydney University.
+
+"Before the third child, a boy, was born, the current of our lives had
+changed a little. Visits to my own family and a change of residence to a
+distant colony, which involved a long journey, as well as the work
+incidental to such changes, together with the care of my two older
+children, absorbed all my time and thoughts, and left little or no
+leisure for studious pursuits. My occupations were more mechanical than
+at any other time previous. This boy does not inherit the studious
+tastes of his sisters at all. He is intelligent and possesses most of
+the qualifications which will probably conduce to success in life, but
+he prefers any kind of out-door work or handicraft to study. Had I been
+as alive then as I am now to the importance of these theories, I should
+have endeavored to guard against this possibility; as it is, I always
+feel that it is, perhaps, my fault that one of the greatest pleasures of
+life has been debarred to him.
+
+"But I must not weary you by so many personal details, and I trust you
+will not suspect me of vanity in thus bringing my own children under
+your notice. Suffice it to say that in every instance I can, and do,
+constantly trace what others might term coincidences, but which appear
+to me nothing but cause and effect in their several developments."
+
+Mr. Wallace then gives extracts from other correspondents as follows:
+
+Mrs. B---- says: "I can trace, nay, have traced (in secret amusement
+often), something in every child of mine. Before the birth of my eldest
+girl I took to ornithology, for work and amusement, and did a great deal
+in taxidermy, too. At the age of three years I found this youngster
+taking such insects and little animals as she could find, and puzzling
+me with hard questions as to what was inside of them. Later on she used
+to be seen with a small knife, working and dissecting cleverly and with
+much care and skill at their _insides_. One day she brought me the
+tiniest heart of the tiniest lizard you can imagine, so small that I had
+to examine it through a glass, though she saw it without any artificial
+aid. By some means she got a young wallaby, and made an apron with a
+pocket inside which she used to call her 'pouch.' This study of natural
+history is still of interest to her, though she lacks time and
+opportunities. Still, she always does a little dissecting if she gets a
+chance."
+
+ANOTHER CASE.--"I never noticed anything about P---- for some years.
+Three months before he was born a friend, whom I will call Smith, was
+badly hurt, and was brought to my house to be nursed. I turned out the
+nursery and he lay there for three months. I nursed him until I could do
+so no longer, and then took lodgings in town for my confinement. Now
+after all these years I have discovered how this surgical nursing has
+left its mark. The boy is in his element when he can be of use in cases
+of accident, etc. He said to me quite lately: 'How I wish you had made a
+surgeon of me!' Then all at once it flashed in upon me, but, alas! it
+was too late to remedy the mistake.
+
+"Before the birth of the third child I passed ten of the happiest months
+of my life. We had a nice house, one side of which was covered with
+cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea, a garden with plenty of flowers,
+and a vineyard. Here we lived an idyllic life, and did nothing but fish,
+catch butterflies and paint them. At least my husband painted them after
+I had caught them and mixed his colors. At the end of this time L----
+was born. This child excels in artistic talent of many kinds; nothing
+comes amiss to her, and she draws remarkably well. She is of a bright
+gay disposition, finding much happiness in life, even though not always
+placed in the most fortunate surroundings.
+
+"Before the birth of my next child, N----, a daughter, I had a bad time.
+My husband fell ill of fever, and I had to nurse him without help or
+assistance of any kind. We had also losses by floods. I don't know how I
+got through that year, but I had no time for reading. N---- is the most
+prudent, economical girl I know. She is a splendid housekeeper and a
+good cook, and will work till she drops; has no taste for reading, but
+seems to gain knowledge by suction." Such cases are so numerous that
+they should be collected and scientifically studied.
+
+
+_Luxury and Parentage._
+
+In all ages of luxury, fine ladies try to avoid maternity. They detest
+it in theory only, for women are controlled by the instinct of the race.
+In the circles of which we are speaking, the instincts of the race for
+children have vanished. Life has lost its serious meaning.
+Responsibility of any kind is a mere nuisance, and the idea of bringing
+up a new life, with all its bonds and its charm, is as repellant as the
+idea of a new bonnet is enticing. For such women the world has no use.
+Beautiful, in the great sense, they are not. Incapable, in any great
+way, of either loving or being loved, they are at best the painted
+bubbles on the stream of life. Such women will always be far inferior as
+mothers, and less capable of bringing into the world noble offspring
+than those women in the humble walks of life who live naturally, who
+love the family ties and are fond of the young.
+
+Great mothers must have a certain sort of hardihood which comes from a
+wise physical culture, not necessarily an artificial one,--a life in the
+open air, and the avoidance of all social dissipation.
+
+
+_Degeneracy of the Breasts and Motherhood._
+
+A sign of degeneracy is pointed out by Hegar, who appeals to young men
+on behalf of posterity to choose for wives women with well-developed
+breasts; he quotes statistics to prove inability to nurse a child a sign
+of degeneracy which produces degeneracy in the offspring. Among other
+facts he points out that in a district of his knowledge, which supplies
+a large number of wet nurses to the city, the percentage of men
+incapable of military service amounts to 30 per cent., while in the
+neighboring districts, where the mothers remain at home with their
+families, it is only 18 per cent. He remarks upon the surprising number
+of deformed nipples encountered in the hospitals. Fehling mentions
+"hollow nipples" as occurring in 6.7 of his obstetric cases. He warns
+mothers not to allow the clothing to constrict the growing breasts of
+their daughters, and urges general hygiene as the best method to develop
+them.
+
+In this connection the question may be asked, Is it possible for women
+with defective breasts to become mothers of a virile race of men and
+strong women. In most cases it is not. A defect in this part of their
+nature is evidence of a weakened constitution. It may be said, that the
+breasts do not always develop before marriage and parentage. This is
+true, and if the health is robust, and the constitution and ancestry
+good, the mother will, in most cases, be able to nurse her child. If it
+is known in advance that such cannot be the case, and it may generally
+be known, then the responsibilities of motherhood should be undertaken
+with the greater precaution. In modern times we have far better means of
+bringing up children by hand than formerly. Still, a mother able to
+nurse her own children should always be preferred.
+
+
+_Location of Birth._
+
+In Manchester, England, in 1892, 37,674 boys out of every 100,000 died
+before they reached their fifth year. In healthy districts only 17,314
+out of 100,000 died. About the same condition prevails in other places.
+The lesson it teaches us is, that we should choose a healthy region in
+which to live if we would rear the healthiest offspring.
+
+
+_Evolution._
+
+This word means progress and progress implies improvement, without which
+there could be no evolution; but improvement of the human race will not
+be further possible unless the marriage relation is regarded from a
+higher stand-point than that of sexual indulgence.
+
+The practical superiority of man over animals consists in his knowledge
+of the _aim_ of his conduct. Animals exercise the reproductive function
+instinctively at particular seasons, but man knowingly always; and thus,
+unless the latter subordinates his passion to reason he is worse than a
+brute, as he knows himself to be such.
+
+The difference between the chaste marriage of affection and the unchaste
+marriage of passion, is analogous to that between education and
+instruction, as explained by Elder Evans of the Shaker Community.
+Instruction imparts knowledge, such as is associated in Eastern lore
+with the sexual passion, but education embraces the whole disposition,
+which is rendered more beautiful and spiritual through a marriage of
+chastity, and as thus affected is transmitted to the offspring, who
+exhibit the disposition of their parents at the time of conception.
+Sexual excess not only tends to produce offspring of a weakly
+constitution, but it interferes with the organic growth of the parents.
+It is as wasteful as burning a candle at both ends at the same time.
+
+Parents should bear in mind that the mental plan on which their children
+shall begin life, depends on the desire by which they are governed when
+they beget their offspring; and as desire depends on disposition, they
+should aim at requiring harmony of character and conduct.
+
+If we think less of ourselves and more of the race to which we belong,
+we shall have a better chance of improving both ourselves and the race
+as represented in our offspring.
+
+We are all members of a great organism, which is constituted by the
+whole of human kind, past, present and future, and it is our duty to act
+in such a manner that the whole shall be benefited by our conduct; which
+it cannot be if we are careless as to our own disposition or as to the
+character of our offspring.
+
+Our Aryan ancestors were conscious of their duty towards the race, and
+probably to this fact was largely due the high physical development the
+white race attained. Only by acting in their spirit can we hope to
+maintain the race at its high level or prevent its deterioration and
+decay.
+
+The important influence which the gratification of the sexual impulse
+has had over the development of the aesthetic side of Nature has been
+often insisted on; and there is no reason why its gratification should
+not be attended also with the development of the highest mental
+qualities, if these are made use of in the formation and exercise of the
+marriage relations between the sexes.--C. STANILAND WAKE.
+
+
+_Too Little Fatherhood._
+
+The modern child is threatened not with too much mother but with too
+little father, and this danger is heightened by the sudden release of
+womanhood from the ban of conventionality and of the domineering power
+of physical force. Let her not too readily accept as complimentary to
+herself the church's adoration of Mary. Woman is made of no purer stuff
+than man, her companion, man her father. She cannot transmit from her
+own veins or her companion's veins any purer life stuff, any finer
+impulse to her daughter than she does to her son. We need more fathers
+in the home, more men teachers in our public schools; and if our homes
+and schools are not organized so as to evoke and direct this masculine
+investment, then let them be reorganized. It is not true that mothers
+are peculiarly the divinely appointed teachers of children, that to them
+is especially entrusted the intellectual or spiritual destinies of the
+young. That argument is based upon the analogies of the past; it is a
+reversion to primitive conditions, an illustration of the law of
+atavism, like the return to six fingers and toes in some people, or the
+restoration in others of the muscle that can move the ear. The highest
+reaches of evolution point to a double responsibility and a double
+potency. In the interest of the child, then, let us lift him out of a
+mother rule into a father and mother rule. Let the home be girdled with
+masculine order and justice as well as with feminine love and
+tenderness. Let there be strength as well as tenderness. Let there be in
+it mind as well as heart, vigor as well as sympathy. All these are
+spiritual children which cannot be born except in the bi-sexual
+realm.--REV. JENKIN LLOYD JONES.
+
+
+_The Flat-Head Indians and Heredity._
+
+Amongst the round-head tribes woman holds a higher position, whereas
+amongst the flat-heads she is a mere drudge. In by-gone days it was
+common to see a tired-looking woman walking behind her husband carrying
+a heavy load, while he walked on before with nothing.
+
+Again, the round-heads have a remarkable mythology, while the others
+have a poor affair.
+
+Mr. Dean has informed me that the flat-head, which would be an acquired
+character, is never transmitted to offspring--another argument against
+the Lamarchian theory, that acquired characters are transmitted.
+
+That whatever injures the physical or intellectual health of parents
+tends to degrade their offspring has long been evident. I think we have
+a good race illustration of this in the effects of flattening and
+deforming the skulls of children among the Flat-Head Indians, who for
+centuries followed this precedent. Information has been furnished me by
+special request by Mr. James Dean, of Victoria, B. C., bearing on this
+point. He writes:
+
+"Among the children the mortality seems to be greater with the tribes
+which flatten the heads of their children than in those who do not. I
+have long noticed that there is a very marked intellectual difference
+between them."
+
+The Hidery tribes of Northern British Columbia and Southern Alaska, who
+never flattened their heads, have long been famous for their works of
+art, such as elaborate carvings in wood and stone.
+
+
+_Suggestion as an Aid in the Training of Children._
+
+Within a few years an old subject, that of hypnotism, formerly called
+mesmerism, has received new attention under the name of suggestion, or,
+in medical language, "suggestive therapeutics." It was used in a rude
+way by Mesmer in the cure of disease. Later it was employed much more
+effectively by Braid and others for the same purpose, and especially for
+the prevention of pain in surgical operations. Want of space forbids our
+going into any extended historical detail as to its application for
+these purposes, but a few points will be considered, which bear on the
+subject.
+
+It was found that when a person had contracted a bad habit, as, for
+instance, smoking or drinking, it could often be broken up by placing
+him in the mesmeric sleep, and telling him he would no longer desire to
+continue the habit, but would even loathe them. The habit of sucking the
+thumb, a bad temper, lying, stealing, dullness and lack of ambition,
+etc., were amenable to this treatment. To illustrate: A boy fifteen
+years old, always at the foot of his class, was put into the hypnotic
+sleep, and told that he would be able to study harder and learn his
+lessons better, so as to go to the head. This was continued daily for
+several weeks, and, sure enough, he accepted the suggestion, and
+outstripped every scholar in his class, and kept at the head so long as
+these means were used; but, unfortunately, when they were discontinued
+he relapsed into his first state. The suggestions had not been
+sufficiently thorough to take deep root, and become a part of his
+nature, as might have been the case with a better knowledge as to how to
+use them. So long ago as in 1892 Dr. Berillon, Editor of _The Revue de
+l' Hypnotism_, read a paper before the Second International Congress of
+Experimental Psychology, in which he stated that he had observed the
+beneficial effects of hypnotism in education in some 250 cases,
+including nervous insomnia, night terror, sleepwalking, kleptomania,
+stammering, idleness, filthy habits, cowardice and moral delinquency. He
+also stated that other observers had similar experience. My friend, Dr.
+B. Osgood Mason, of New York, working on the same lines, has had similar
+experiences. I will quote a few illustrative cases furnished by him. The
+first is of a school-girl fifteen years of age, a pupil in one of the
+grammar-schools of New York--intelligent in many ways; a good reader of
+such books as interested her--history, biography, and the better class
+of novels; but for the routine of school studies she had no aptitude,
+and she was constantly being left behind in her classes. She could not
+concentrate her mind upon details which did not specially interest her.
+If she succeeded in learning a lesson she could not remember it, or if
+she remembered it until she arrived at the classroom, when she arose to
+recite, it was instantly gone; her mind became a perfect blank; she had
+not a word to say, and was obliged to sit down in disgrace. She could
+write a good composition, but could never stand up and read it before
+the class. Teachers had been engaged to give her special lessons, so as
+to enable her to pass her preliminary examination, which would allow her
+to come up for entrance to the Normal College. After months of effort
+they reported to the mother that it was utterly useless to go on; it was
+impossible for her to pass her preliminary examination, and they did not
+think it right to take her money without any such expectation. She was
+then brought to me to inquire if anything could be done to help her. I
+proposed hypnotic suggestion. It was then March 30; the first
+examination was in May. I commenced treatment at once. The patient went
+into a quiet, subjective condition, with closed eyes, but did not lose
+consciousness. I suggested that she would be able to concentrate her
+mind upon her studies; that her memory would be improved; that she would
+lose her excessive self-consciousness and timidity, and in their place
+she would have full confidence in herself and be able to stand up
+before the class and recite. She was kept in the hypnotic condition
+one-half hour at each treatment, and the same or similar suggestions
+were quietly but very positively made and repeated at intervals during
+that time. She at once reported improvement in her ability both to study
+and recite. She had six treatments, and on May 25 she reported that,
+greatly to the surprise of her teachers, she had passed her preliminary
+examination with a percentage of 79, which entitled her to come up for
+the college examination. In June she passed her examination for entrance
+to the Normal College with a percentage of 88; entered the College and
+is at present doing well, though the suggestions have not been repeated
+since May.
+
+Another case from the same author was that of a boy "so bad as to be
+perfectly unmanageable, and his temper so outrageous, that his mother
+begged me to come to the house and see if I could do anything with him.
+
+"Having secured _carte blanche_ for whatever course I chose to pursue, I
+went. He was in the back room, his grandmother urging him forward, he
+kicking and resisting. Without speaking, I went directly to him, seized
+him firmly by one wrist, and brought him topsy turvy through two
+intervening rooms, gave him a thorough shaking, and set him down
+violently in a chair. He smoothed down his bang, whimpered a little, and
+gruffly remarked that I had rumpled his hair. I told him I had not
+intended to disturb his hair, but that as he had never obeyed anybody I
+had come to the house for the express purpose of making him obey me, and
+I should most certainly do it. After a few moments I said, quietly, 'Now
+go and lie down on the bed in the next room.' He started, walking toward
+the bed, but when near it he set off on a full run past it and into the
+back room. I brought him back and again ordered him to lie down on the
+bed. He went toward it as if to obey, but suddenly sprang under it, and
+clung to the slats underneath with hands and feet, and hung there like a
+monkey. I dislodged him, pulled him out, gave him a spanking, and
+surprised him by tossing him vigorously upon the bed, with the command
+to lie there quietly until I gave him permission to move. He obeyed.
+Presently I ordered him to go into the front room and sit down again in
+the chair he had before occupied. Again he quietly obeyed, I said: 'All
+right; now you understand you will obey me. I don't want to hurt you. I
+want to be a good friend to you, only you must obey me.'
+
+"I then in a pleasant way gave him a short lesson, picturing to him very
+plainly the course of a boy such as he was, and where it would be likely
+to end; and also showing what he might be if he would change his course.
+I told him I should be at the house again in a day or two, and I should
+expect him to meet me pleasantly, shake hands with me, and do whatever I
+directed him.
+
+"Next day there came a telephone message begging me to come up; M. was
+outrageous again. I went. He was backward in greeting me, but at length
+came and shook hands. I afterward learned that there had not been the
+slightest improvement in his behavior; and the cause of his mother's
+sending for me was his outrageous conduct at the table, when, in a fit
+of anger, he had thrown a plate at his grandmother. I talked to him
+pleasantly a moment, and then said very quietly, 'Now go and lie down on
+the bed.' He did so at once. I sat down beside him, and taking his two
+thumbs firmly in my hands, I said: 'Now, M., I want you to look steadily
+at that little stud in my shirt-front; keep your eyes very steadily
+fixed upon it.' He did so, and I never secured better or more
+concentrated attention from any patient.
+
+"In five or six minutes his eyelids quivered and soon dropped. I closed
+them, suggesting sleep; and directly he was in the sound hypnotic sleep.
+I then presented the two pictures again--the bad and the good
+course--and suggested that they would always be present, distinct in in
+his mind, that he would dislike the _wrong_ course and desire to avoid
+it, and choose the _good_ one. I suggested definitely that he would be
+kind and considerate to his mother, and obey her as well as me. I
+repeated these suggestions very positively, let him sleep ten minutes,
+and repeated them again, and then awoke him by counting.
+
+"The effect of this treatment was very marked; his whole manner at home
+was changed, and he became comparatively docile and manageable.
+
+"He came to my office for his next treatment, which was perfectly
+successful. I have given him in all six treatments, and the improvement
+has been maintained and increased. He is not yet by any means perfect,
+but his general behavior is changed, and I am suggesting such definite
+improvements in his conduct, and impressing such pictures upon his mind,
+as I think will help to develop his better nature and qualities. He is a
+lover of flowers, and on two occasions has brought some of his own
+choosing to me. He has lost none of his boyishness; he is full of life;
+is mischievous, playing tricks even upon his mother; but he is
+affectionate and generally obedient. His will is not broken, but he has
+self-control, and he is far more considerate of others than formerly. In
+short, he is a fair example of one of the educational uses of hypnotism
+and suggestion."
+
+The only other case I will quote is one of night terrors.
+
+"A little girl, five years of age, went soundly to sleep when first put
+to bed, but after two or three hours she awoke screaming and trembling
+with terror, on account of the hideous black man whom she saw in her
+dream. The impression of the dream was vivid and persistent, and her
+screams kept the household aroused and alarmed for hours every night,
+and this state of things had already continued for months. One day, when
+she was perfectly bright and happy, I placed her in her high chair in
+front of me; put my hands gently upon her shoulders, and asked her to
+look steadily at a trinket easily in her view, and quieted her with
+passes and soothing touches until her drooping eyelids denoted the
+subjective condition. I then commenced in a gentle, sing-song manner to
+suggest that she would go easily to sleep as usual at night, but that
+she would have no frightful dreams; that she would see the dreadful
+black man no more, but would sleep quietly on the whole night through.
+It was repeated over and over in the same gentle manner.
+
+"That was a year ago; she has not seen the black man since, and her
+sleep and health have been perfect. There was no repetition of the
+treatment."
+
+From these few cases, and many not quoted, it appears evident that we
+have in hypnotism, or suggestion, an agent which, when fully understood,
+will be of great usefulness to parents in the early training of
+children. That it should be used wisely no one will deny.
+
+The question will naturally arise, How is it that a suggestion to a
+child while passive or in the hypnotic sleep is more effective than when
+awake. The answer is not so easy to give; but it is possible that in
+this state the subliminal self, the higher self, or, perhaps, the
+spiritual nature is appealed to; and as the active, every-day nature,
+the conscious self, is now dormant, it receives this appeal more
+seriously. Perhaps a quotation from Prof. Frederic W. H. Myer, who has
+given the subject profound attention, will help to make the subject
+clearer. He says: "In waking consciousness I am like the proprietor of a
+factory whose machinery I do not understand. My foreman, my subliminal
+self, weaves for me so many yards of broadcloth per diem (my ordinary
+vital processes), as a matter of course. If I want any pattern more
+complex, I have to shout my orders in the din of the factory, where only
+two or three inferior workmen hear me, and they shift their looms in a
+small and scattered way. Such are the confined and capricious results of
+the first, the more familiar stages of hypnotic suggestion.
+
+"At certain intervals, indeed, the foreman stops most of the looms, and
+uses the freed power to stoke the engine and oil the machinery. This, in
+my metaphor, is sleep; and it will be effective hypnotic trance if I can
+get the foreman to stop still more of the looms, come out of his private
+room, and attend to my orders--my-self suggestions--for their repair and
+re-arrangment."
+
+To make this a little plainer. The subliminal self, the foreman, is the
+one who manages the machinery of the nervous system, and turns out this
+or that sort of conduct or behavior in the child, or the man or woman,
+as he is told to turn out by the conscious self. But in the hypnotic
+trance this subliminal self can take orders, or suggestions, for other
+kinds of conduct or behavior; alter the action of the brain, so as to
+make another sort of creature; for he is not so occupied then but that
+he can receive these orders. As in the kaleidescope, the pictures
+presented depend entirely on the arrangement of the pieces of glass. So
+in daily conduct, character depends on the combination and activity of
+the brain cells. By suggestion in the hypnotic state we are able, to
+some extent at least, to alter this combination so that new conduct is
+presented.
+
+The question now arises, How can the parent make use of this agent in
+altering the nature of a child from one that is not desirable to one
+that is? Probably the best way to proceed would be to take it while
+sleeping, and make the suggestion then; for ordinary sleep is not
+different from hypnotic sleep, except in degree. As the child is in the
+act of going to sleep, let the mother, or whoever is to make the
+suggestion, sit by its side, take it by the hand and gently soothe it
+with pleasant words or music, in a firm but agreeable voice. Let her say
+slowly: Now you are going to sleep, sleep, sleep. You will soon be
+sleeping sweetly. How nice it is to sleep and rest our bodies so that we
+can feel well and strong on the coming day. This sleep is going to do
+you a great deal of good. You will not have bad dreams. You will not see
+ugly faces or wake up with a fright. Tomorrow you will wake up
+good-natured, full of life, and will be good boy (or girl, as the case
+may be), and do your best to make mother happy and proud of you. You
+will want to play and enjoy the fresh air and sunshine; relish your
+food; not eat too much, etc., etc., according to the needs of the child.
+If it is timid and fearful of thunder, or dogs, or horses, or other
+harmless things, you can say to it, Now, you will not be afraid any more
+of thunder but like to hear it. This, like all other suggestions, must
+be repeated several times, so as to make an impression. If afraid of
+strangers, say, now, you will not fear men, or persons you don't know;
+repeating it slowly over and over again. If the child uses bad language,
+say, Now you will not want to use bad words any more, and will be
+careful how you speak. If it has a cold, put the hand over the chest and
+say, Now your cold will get well quickly, and not grow worse. If it has
+the unfortunate habit of wetting the bed at night, even this can be
+broken up, often by one suggestion, and surely by several repeated so as
+to take deep root in the mind. This latter is necessary to produce any
+effect. In case of disease, even serious disease, when a physician is
+necessary, suggestion may be used by the nurse or parents, or the
+physician, if he has learned the art, to advantage; but if the parents
+are anxious or weary, they had better leave it for those who are not
+weary or anxious; otherwise they may transfer their own condition
+instead of one of health. The state of mind and body of the operator
+should be a stable, equable and wholesome one.
+
+The age at which suggestion may be of use is hardly yet known. Certainly
+so soon as the understanding has become developed it may be employed,
+though the language should be simplified for the childish understanding.
+Before this it is of doubtful utility; but some experiments which have
+been made intimate that good health may sometimes be transmitted from a
+healthy person to a very young sick child by thought transference.
+
+Thought transference is the transference from one to another person of
+some feeling, sensation or idea. The person from whom the thought is
+transferred is the _active_ agent, and the one who receives it is the
+_passive_ one. Often this phenomenon takes place spontaneously, as when
+one is in trouble, or at the point of dying, a knowledge of it may
+sometimes be transferred to an intimate friend who is in sympathy. In
+the hypnotic state, thought transference can sometimes be induced
+artificially; and the point here to be considered is the transference
+to the child of healthy normal sensations to replace the abnormal ones
+which may have taken possession of consciousness and caused trouble.
+
+The important thing always to have in mind in using psychic forces on
+children is to instil natural, or normal, conditions, not unnatural or
+abnormal ones. To this end to produce the best results, the active agent
+should be a normally healthy person, having good common sense, and
+living a normal, natural life. Those with sickly, sentimental or
+fanciful notions, if they try to use suggestion may transfer these
+states to the child, which would do harm rather than good.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Acquired characters, inheritance of, 71, 73, 77 _et seq._, 79, 90,
+      109, 111, _et seq._
+
+  Acquired characters not transmitted, 213
+
+  Adaptation to environment necessary for health, 149
+
+  Aesthetic sense displayed by animals, 28
+
+  Aesthetic surroundings during gestation, 95
+
+  Air, regarded as food, 174
+
+  Alcohol, as a poison, 91
+
+  Alcohol, effect of, on offspring, 171
+
+  Allen, Joseph A., observations of, as to effects of war on children,
+      200
+
+  _Allen, Grant_, 34, 48, 51, 180
+
+  Amphimixis, theory of, 76
+
+  Ancestral _ids_, 75
+
+  Ancestral tendencies, correction of, 126
+
+  Animals, practical superiority of man over, what?, 210
+
+  Animal flesh, supposed effect of eating, 63
+
+  Atavism in relation to disease, 83
+
+
+  Baby, a theoretical, 185 _et seq._
+
+  Bad habits, broken up by suggestion during mesmeric sleep, 214
+
+  Bad temper cured by hypnotic suggestion, 217 _et seq._
+
+  Beauty, reference of sexual selection to, 28
+
+  Bees, instincts of, 122
+
+  Berillon, Dr., on beneficial effect of hypnotism over bad habits,
+      etc., 215
+
+  Birthmarks, 59, 68, 94
+
+  Blood, healthy, purifying influence of, 92
+
+  Blood, study of the, 140, 151
+
+  Bones, modification of certain, through sitting, 116
+
+  Boys, mortality among larger than with girls, 136
+
+  Breasts, best methods of developing, 209
+
+  Breasts, defective, women having, incapable of becoming mothers of a
+      virile race, 209
+
+  Breasts, development of, after marriage and parentage, 209
+
+  Breasts, degeneracy of the, and motherhood, 208
+
+  Breeding in and in, Noyes' first principle for race improvement, 38
+
+
+  Camp life, evils of, 202
+
+  Cases of prenatal influences, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Cells, sexual, 110, 162
+
+  _Chandler, Jennie_, 97
+
+  Character, dependence of, on arrangement of nerve cells, 222
+
+  Character, improvement by suggestion, method to be employed by parents
+      for, 223
+
+  Character of children affected by war, 201
+
+  Characteristics, origin of, through sexual selection, 134
+
+  _Charles, Havelock_, 116
+
+  Chickamauga Camp, prostitution at, 202
+
+  Children acquire special aptitudes from mothers, 205
+
+  Child bearing, best age for, 170
+
+  Children, breeding of, in Plato's Republic, 11, 12
+
+  Children considered as belonging to the State, 10 _et seq._, 22
+
+  Children, deaths of, in New York city, 139
+
+  Children, healthy, essentials for having, 168
+
+  Children, interests of unborn, 199
+
+  Children, characteristics of, in the Oneida Community, 39
+
+  Children in the Oneida Community, care of, 38
+
+  Children, mortality among, 136
+
+  Children, obstacle of war to production and training of, 203
+
+  Child training aided by suggestion, 214 _et seq._
+
+  Children, training of, 16 _et seq._, 52
+
+  Civil War and how it affected the character of children, 201
+
+  Co-adaptation of parts as evidence of transmission of acquired
+      characters, 116
+
+  Coalescence of sperm and germ cells, 166
+
+  Concentrative power, want of, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Conduct, knowledge of its object, not possessed by animals, 210
+
+  Congenital characters, transmission of, 177
+
+  Congenital deformities, 80
+
+  Consanguineous marriages among the Greeks, 23
+
+  Consanguineous marriages, regulations as to, among uncultured peoples,
+      21, 42
+
+  Consanguineous marriages, effect on offspring, 42
+
+  Constitution, bodily, improvement of the, 150
+
+  Consumption, causes of, 176
+
+  Consumption, tendency to, whether a bar to marriage, 176
+
+  Contentment, value of, 95
+
+  Continuity of germ-plasm, 107, 118
+
+  Co-operation, hygienic value of, 156 _et seq._
+
+  _Cope, Prof. E. D._, 59, 69
+
+  Cousins, marriage between, 43
+
+  Couvade, custom of the, 63 _et seq._
+
+  Crimes, increase of, caused by war, 201
+
+
+  _Darwin, Charles_, 28, 30 _et seq._, 73, 75, 85, 100, 105, 106, 109,
+      141, 179, 184
+
+  Death, causes of, 150
+
+  Deformities, congenital, 80
+
+  Degeneracy of the breasts and motherhood, 208
+
+  Degeneracy in offspring due to maternal degeneracy evidenced by
+      inability to nurse a child, 208
+
+  Degeneration, evidence of, 140
+
+  Development of breasts after marriage and parentage, 209
+
+  Diseases, influence of hygiene over, 159
+
+  Diseases, inheritance of, 80
+
+  Diseases which affect offspring, 175
+
+  Disposition spiritualized through marriage of chastity, 210
+
+  Disproportion between accidental causes and effects, 68, 90
+
+  Diversity between offspring and parents, causes of, 58
+
+  Domestication of animals, 9
+
+  _Doutrebente, Prof._, 92
+
+  Drink, influence of, over offspring, 16
+
+  _Duncan, J. C. Mathews_, 170
+
+
+  Education, beneficial effects of hypnotism in, 215
+
+  Education and heredity, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Education and non-transmission of acquired characters, 124
+
+  Education of Spartan children, 15
+
+  Education, Plutarch on, 17
+
+  Education, study of laws of evolution, as part of, 125
+
+  Educational uses of hypnotism and suggestion, 220
+
+  Egg. See _Ovum_.
+
+  _Eimer, Dr. G. H._, 71, 79 _et seq._, 90
+
+  Embryo, how parental properties communicated to, 69
+
+  Embryology, importance of, 103
+
+  Energy, bodily, use and abuse of, 153
+
+  Environment, adaptation to, necessary for health, 149
+
+  Epigenesis, theory of, 104
+
+  Esquirol on the effects of the French Revolution over children, 200
+
+  Ethics of the body, hygiene as the, 160
+
+  Evolution, a superior race produced by, 130 _et seq._
+
+  Evolution, meaning of the term, 210
+
+  Evolution of the horse, 102
+
+  Evolution, study of laws of, as part of education, 125
+
+  Evolutionary theories, conflict of, with humane sentiments, 145 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Example, influence of, over children, 18
+
+  Exercise, transmission of effects of, 111
+
+  Experiment in race improvement by Noyes, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Explanation of the action of hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+
+  Family life, abolition of, in Plato's Republic, 10
+
+  Father rule should be combined with mother rule, 213
+
+  Fatherhood, too little importance assigned to, 212
+
+  Feeble constitutions prevent numerous offspring, 147
+
+  Fertilization essential to true germ plasm, 165
+
+  Fertilization, nature of, 166
+
+  _Fison, Lorimer_, 42
+
+  Fitness for survival, characteristics of, 140
+
+  Flat head Indians and heredity, 213
+
+  Flat head and round head tribes, comparison between, 213
+
+  Flat head not transmitted to offspring, 213
+
+  Flattening the skull, injurious effect of on health, 214
+
+  _Flint, Dr. Austin_, 88
+
+  Food, how it affects germ plasm, 173
+
+  Food (certain) injurious influence of, 94
+
+  Foot, compression of, by Chinese ladies, 20
+
+  Fosterage, 96
+
+  French Revolution, evil effects of over children, 200
+
+
+  _Galton, Francis_, 46, 50, 73, 106, 135, 170
+
+  Gemmules, essential to pangenesis, 105, 106
+
+  Generation, influences over, at time of conception, 57, 58
+
+  Generation, influences over, subsequent to conception, 58
+
+  Generative powers, debilitation of the, 84
+
+  Germ plasm and heredity, 107, 162
+
+  Germ plasm, continuity of the, 73, 74 _et seq._, 107, 118
+
+  Germ plasm, how affected by food, 173
+
+  Germ plasm, modification of the, 76, 80
+
+  Germ variations, causes of, 81
+
+  Gestation (period of) importance of pleasant surroundings during, 93
+
+  Gestation, maternal influence during, 96
+
+  Gestation, strong emotion during, effect of, 63, 94
+
+  Gestation, uterine disturbances during, 93
+
+  Girls, physical training of, among Spartans, 14
+
+  Girls, mortality among, smaller than with boys, 136
+
+  Great mothers, how constituted, 208
+
+  Group marriage of Australian natives, 21
+
+
+  _Haeckel, Ernst_, 109
+
+  _Harvey_, 103
+
+  _Haycraft, John Berry_, 143
+
+  Head flattening, 20
+
+  Health, action of nature in relation to, 130
+
+  Health, transmission of, by thought transference, to young sick child,
+      224
+
+  Healthy localities enable the healthiest offspring to be reared, 210
+
+  Health, adaptation to environment necessary for, 149
+
+  Health, ideal of, 148
+
+  Health, importance of, in relation to marriage, 135, 168, 171
+
+  _Hearn, Professor_, 67
+
+  Hedonism, New, 48
+
+  Hereditary tastes of children, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Heredities, antagonistic, of two parents, 58
+
+  Heredity among Flat-head Indians, 213
+
+  Heredity, definition of, 100
+
+  Heredity and education, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, evils arising from, may be cured, 35
+
+  Heredity, exceptions to law of, 58
+
+  Heredity and germ plasm, 107
+
+  Heredity, importance of knowledge of, by teachers, 125
+
+  Heredity, modification of law of, 99
+
+  Heredity, preponderating influence of, 69, 89
+
+  Heredity, rational view of, 109
+
+  Heredity, spectre of, 127 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, theories of, 73 _et seq._
+
+  Heredity, transformation of, 83
+
+  _Hering, Richard_, 70
+
+  Hidery tribes of British Columbia, 214
+
+  High-pressure, effects of living at, 152
+
+  Hypnotic sleep, differs from ordinary sleep only in degree, 223
+
+  Hypnotic suggestion, value of, as aid to education, 216
+
+  Hypnotism as suggestive therapeutics, 214
+
+  Horse, evolution of the, 102
+
+  Human selection, plans for, 135 _et seq._
+
+  Human kind, regarded as a whole, should be benefited by our conduct,
+      211
+
+  Human race, further improvement of impossible, if marriage relation be
+      regarded only from standpoint of sexual indulgence, 210
+
+  Humane sentiments, conflict of, with theories of evolution, 145 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Husband and wife, tendency to resemble each other, 89
+
+  _Huth, A. H._, 42
+
+  Hygiene, modern, as opposed to natural selection, 142 _et seq._
+
+  Hygiene, as the ethics of the body, 160
+
+  Hygiene, promises of, 158 _et seq._
+
+  Hygienic laws, punishment for infraction of, 161
+
+  Hygienic surroundings, importance of, 139
+
+  Hygienic training, value of, 151
+
+
+  Ideal of Health, 148
+
+  Idiots, education of, 25
+
+  Illustrative cases of prenatal influence, 60 _et seq._
+
+  Imagination, effect of, on unborn offspring, 55 _et seq._
+
+  Improvement of race. See _race improvement_.
+
+  Incas of Peru, consanguineous marriages among the, 23
+
+  Income, bodily, importance of living within, 152
+
+  Individual, the, as the beginning and end of the race, 50
+
+  Individuality, development of the, 126
+
+  Infanticide among Spartans, 15
+
+  Infanticide, former general prevalence of, 19
+
+  Infanticide in Plato's Republic, 11
+
+  Infanticide not morally permissible, 24
+
+  Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to the, 71, 73, 77,
+      79, 90, 109, 111 _et seq._
+
+  Inheritance, organic, wonders of, 101
+
+  Injuries during life, transmission of, 79 _et seq._
+
+  Injury to health through flattening the skull, 214
+
+  Instinct, explanations of origin of, 121
+
+  Instincts of the race for children, loss of, 208
+
+  Instruction and education, difference between, 210
+
+  Intelligence affected by head flattening, 214
+
+
+  Jacob, rods of, 56
+
+  _Jeune, Lady Mary_, 47
+
+  _Jowett, Professor B._, 25 _et seq._, 34
+
+
+  _Krafft, D. Von Ebing_, 82, 84, 91
+
+
+  _Lamarck_, 111
+
+  Lamarchian theory of transmission, 213
+
+  Language, not transmitted to offspring, 119
+
+  _Leeuwenhock_, 103
+
+  Limitation of offspring, 179 _et seq._
+
+  Locust, egg-laying instinct of, 123
+
+  Luxury and parentage, 208
+
+  _Lycurgus_, marriage regulations of, 13 _et seq._, 22, 27
+
+  _Lyman, Dr. C. W._, on treatment of a baby, 185 _et seq._
+
+
+  Man, variations undergone by, 138
+
+  Man, practical superiority of, over animals, what, 210
+
+  Manufacturing life, unhealthiness of, 152
+
+  Manufacturing mills, deterioration caused by, 158
+
+  Marriage, consanguineous, ideas as to, 21, 42
+
+  Marriage customs among Spartans, 18, 19
+
+  Marriage, early, disadvantages of, 137
+
+  Marriage, importance of health in relation to, 135
+
+  Marriage, regulations as to, in Plato's Republic, 22, 25
+
+  Marriage of weak and worthless, 137
+
+  Marriage, a sacred state, 52
+
+  Marriage of chastity, disposition spiritualized by, 210
+
+  Marriages of affection and passion, difference between, analogous to
+      that between education and instruction, 210
+
+  _Mason, Dr. R. Osgood_, on beneficial effect of hypnotism in
+      education, 215
+
+  Maternity, avoidance of, 208
+
+  _McGee, Dr. Anita Newcomb_, 37
+
+  Memory, endowment of reproductive cells with, 70
+
+  Memory, improvement of, by hypnotic suggestion, 210
+
+  Mental dullness, curable by suggestion during hypnotic sleep, 215
+
+  Mental emotion of mother, injury to unborn child through, 200
+
+  Mesmeric sleep, effect of suggestion during, 214
+
+  Mesmerism, now known as hypnotism, 214
+
+  Method to be employed by parents for using suggestion in child
+      training, 223
+
+  Microbes, selective action of, 143
+
+  Mind of operator, state of, necessary to successful suggestion, 224-5
+
+  Modification of certain bones through sitting, 116
+
+  Modification of the organism during descent from first ancestors, 71
+
+  Modification of sense of touch, 114
+
+  Modification of toes, 112
+
+  Modification of the whale, 115
+
+  Molecular structure of sexual cells, 110
+
+  Monogamy, return to, by the Oneida Community, 40, 41, 53
+
+  Moral nature, growth of the, 146
+
+  Mosaic regulations as to unclean animals, 63
+
+  Motherhood, highest, war an enemy to, 204
+
+  Motherhood and degeneracy of the breasts, 208
+
+  Mothers, not peculiarily the divinely appointed teachers of children,
+      212
+
+  Musical talent, not transmitted to offspring, 120
+
+  Mutilations, not transmissible, 119
+
+  _Meyer, Prof. Frederic W. H._, on hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+
+  Natural selection, 9, 115, 138, 142
+
+  Natural selection, always operative, 147
+
+  Nature, action of, in relation to health, 130
+
+  Nerve cells, constitution of, alterable by hypnotic suggestion, 222
+
+  Nervous system, debilitation of the, 84
+
+  Night terrors cured by hypnotic suggestion, 220
+
+  Nipples, deformed, common occurrence of, 209
+
+  _Nisbet, J. F._, 90, 92
+
+  Non-nursing of children a sign of degeneracy, 208
+
+  Normal conditions only should be transferred by hypnotic suggestion,
+      225
+
+  Nose molding, 20
+
+  Notes, 199 _et seq._
+
+  _Noyes, John Humphrey_, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Nucleus of cell, essential to reproduction, 167
+
+  Nutrition, action of, on germ cells, 151
+
+  Nutrition (arrested) organic effect of, 77
+
+
+  Obedience the basis of education among the Spartans, 15
+
+  Offspring, effect of alcohol on, 171
+
+  Offspring, effect of consanguineous marriage on, 42
+
+  Offspring, influence of locality on health of, 210
+
+  Offspring, injuriously affected by sexual excess of parents, 211
+
+  Offspring, inception of, the starting point of stirpiculture, 52
+
+  Offspring, limitation of, 179 _et seq._
+
+  Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Ovum, 163 _et seq._
+
+  Ovum, the beginning of animal life, 101, 163
+
+  Ovum, developmental tendency of the, 110
+
+  Ovum, effect of gestation on the, 102
+
+  Ovum of different animals, apparent similarity of the, 163
+
+
+  _Paget, Sir James_, 148
+
+  Pain, prevention of, in surgical operations, 214
+
+  Pangenesis, experiments in, 106
+
+  Pangenesis, theory of, 75, 105, 109
+
+  Panmixia, theory of, 78
+
+  Paper mill (New England), 154
+
+  Parentage and luxury, 208
+
+  Parentage and war, 199
+
+  Parentage, responsibility in, 49, 181
+
+  Parentage, Plato's restrictions on, 11
+
+  Parentage, sacredness of, 93
+
+  Parents, how to make use of suggestion in the training of children,
+      222
+
+  Parents, organic growth of, injuriously affected by sexual excess, 211
+
+  Parental life, influence of, over offspring, 95
+
+  Perfectionists of the Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  _Phillips, Wendell_, 128
+
+  Physical culture, 160
+
+  Physical training of girls among Spartans, 14
+
+  Physical weakness may be associated with mental greatness, 34
+
+  Plato, Republic of, 10 _et seq._, 25
+
+  Plutarch, 13, 16 _et seq._
+
+  Poisons, actions of, on the sexual cells, 91
+
+  Poverty, obstacle of, to production and training of the young, 203
+
+  Preference, as exhibited among animals, 131
+
+  Preference, as exhibited among men, 133
+
+  Preference, first principle of sexual selection, 131
+
+  Prenatal culture, 55 _et seq._
+
+  Prenatal culture, illustrative cases of, 60 _et seq._
+
+  Prenatal influence, 112
+
+  Prenatal influence in telegony, 85
+
+  Prenatal influences, cases of, 204 _et seq._
+
+  Principles on which sexual selection is based, 38, 131
+
+  Progress in organic life, 9
+
+  Promiscuity regulated in Oneida Community, 37
+
+  Promiscuity regulated in Plato's Republic, 11
+
+  Prostitution, camp life a school for, 202
+
+  Psychical diseases, heredity of, 82 _et seq._
+
+  Psychological laws, uncertain effect of, 68
+
+  Psychological research, laboratories for, 160
+
+
+  _Quatrefages, M. de_, 59
+
+
+  Race (human) deterioration of the, through hygienic action, 143 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Race, improvement of the, aim of, 36
+
+  Race, improvement of the, based on spiritual sympathy, 58
+
+  Race improvement, experiment in, of the Oneida Community, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Race improvement, failure of compulsory attempts at, 27
+
+  Race improvement, Grecian methods for, 10 _et seq._
+
+  Race improvement, Grecian methods not suited for modern times, 24
+
+  Race improvement, natural factors in, 1
+
+  Race improvement, State aid to, 37, 53
+
+  Race should be thought of before ourselves, 211
+
+  Reproductive function, difference in exercise of, by animals and man,
+      210
+
+  Responsibility in parentage, 49, 181
+
+  _Ribot, Th._, 57, 68, 83
+
+  _Romanes, G. J._, 28, 73, 85, 87
+
+  Ruin of countries by the burdens of war, 203
+
+
+  Sacredness of parentage, 93
+
+  _Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy_, 68
+
+  Sampson, mother of, 172
+
+  Science of true living, hygiene as the, 160
+
+  Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society's manufacturing mill, 156 _et
+      seq._
+
+  Selection, artificial, by man, 9
+
+  Selection, individual, by Noyes, 38
+
+  Selection, natural, _see_ "Natural selection."
+
+  Selection, sexual, _see_ "Sexual selection."
+
+  Selective action of female animals, 28 _et seq._
+
+  Selective action of woman in marriage, 43 _et seq._
+
+  Self-control, importance of, 96
+
+  Self-consciousness, excessive, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Self-development, 48
+
+  Sense of touch, modification of, through use, 114
+
+  Sex-instinct, 51
+
+  Sexual cells, 162
+
+  Sexual cells, acquired powers of, 110
+
+  Sexual excess injuriously affects both parents and offspring, 211
+
+  Sexual impulse, gratification of the, consistent with the development
+     of the highest mental qualities, 212
+
+  Sexual selection, 27 _et seq._, 131 _et seq._
+
+  Sexual selection, action of, among primeval men, 179
+
+  Sexual selection applicable primarily to male characteristics, 30
+
+  Sexual selection by women, effect of, 44 _et seq._
+
+  Sexual selection, influence of, 31, 33
+
+  Sick child, transmission of health to, by thought transference, 224
+
+  Sire, previous, influence of, on subsequent progeny, 86 _et seq._
+
+  Sleep, ordinary, differs from hypnotic sleep only in degree, 223
+
+  _Smith, Sidney_, 121
+
+  Sobriety, importance of, in relation to offspring, 91 _See_ "Alcohol."
+
+  Soldiers demand gratification of their passional natures, 202
+
+  Spartans, marriage relations among, 13 _et seq._
+
+  Special aptitudes of child determined by prenatal influences, 204
+
+  Spectre of heredity, 127 _et seq._
+
+  _Spencer, Herbert_, 4, 77, 78, 85, 87, 112, 115, 149, 169, 181
+
+  Spermatozoon, 162
+
+  Spiritual nature, appeal to, in hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+  Spontaneous thought transference, 224
+
+  Standing armies, crushing burden of, 203
+
+  State, aid of the, to race improvement, 53
+
+  State, children regarded as belonging to the, 10 _et seq._, 22
+
+  Stirpiculture. _See_ "Race, improvement of the."
+
+  Stirpiculture, meaning of, 10
+
+  Stirpiculture, good air and water as factors in, 175
+
+  Stirpiculture, Noyes' experiment in, 37 _et seq._
+
+  Stirpiculture, starting point of, 52
+
+  Strength as necessary as tenderness to bringing up of children, 213
+
+  Struggle, sexual selection through, 132
+
+  Studious habits transmitted to children, 205
+
+  Subliminal self, orders conveyed to, by hypnotic suggestion, 222
+
+  Suggestion as an aid to child training, 214, 221
+
+  Suggestion by parents to children for educational purposes, 223
+
+  Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, bad habits cured by, 214
+
+  Suggestion during mesmeric sleep, beneficial effect of, over mental
+      dullness, 215
+
+  Suggestion, hypnotic, influence of, in developing self-control, 219
+
+  Suggestion, hypnotic, method of, employed by Dr. R. Osgood Mason for
+      educational purposes, 215 _et seq._
+
+  Suggestive therapeutics, 214
+
+  Superiority of offspring, where limited, 184
+
+  Surgical operations, prevention of pain in, by mesmerism, 214
+
+  Survival of the fittest, 9
+
+  Survival, what constitutes fitness for, 141
+
+  Sympathy, spiritual, as the basis of race improvement, 53
+
+
+  Taxation, burden of, created by war, 203
+
+  Telegony, 85 _et seq._
+
+  Temper, bad, cured by hypnotic suggestion, 217
+
+  Tenderness to be combined with strength in bringing up children, 213
+
+  Theoretical baby, 185 _et seq._
+
+  Thought transference induced artificially in hypnotic state, 224
+
+  Thought transference, nature of, 224
+
+  Thought transference, transmission of health by, to a young sick
+      child, 224
+
+  Timidity cured by hypnotic suggestion, 216
+
+  Toes, modification of the, in man, 112
+
+  Touch, modification of the sense of, 114
+
+  Training of children aided by hypnotic suggestion, 221
+
+  Training of children, Plutarch on the, 16 _et seq._
+
+  Transformation of heredity, 83
+
+  Transitory states of parents, effect of on offspring, 59
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of aptitude for hard work, 207
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of artistic and literary tastes, 204
+      _et seq._, 207
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of taste for study of natural history,
+      206
+
+  Transmission by mother to child of taste for surgical nursing, 207
+
+  Transmission of acquired characters. _See_ "Acquired characters."
+
+  Transmission of effects of exercise, 111
+
+  _Tylor, E. B._, 64, 67
+
+  Twins, resemblance of, 90
+
+
+  Unborn children injured by war, 199
+
+  Unborn children, interests of, 199
+
+  Unfit, elimination of the, 139
+
+  Unicellular organisms, 109
+
+  Uterine existence, disturbances of, 58, 68
+
+
+  Vaccination as a preserver of weak constitutions, 143
+
+  Vitality, surplus, production of offspring depends on, 169
+
+
+  _Wake, C. Staniland_, 21, 42, 66
+
+  _Wallace, A. R._, 44, 136
+
+  Wallace, Alfred Russell, on prenatal influences, 204
+
+  War and parentage, 199
+
+  War, effects of, on civilization, 199
+
+  War, effects of, on unborn children, 199 _et seq._
+
+  War, enemy to the highest motherhood, 204
+
+  _Weber, Professor_, 114
+
+  _Weismann, Professor_, 72, 74 _et seq._, 78, 107, 118
+
+  Wet nurses, use of, accompanied by physical weakness, 208
+
+  Whale, modification of structure of the, 115
+
+  White race, superiority of the, due to consciousness of duty towards
+      the race, 211
+
+  _Wolf, Caspar Frederick_, 104
+
+  Woman, condition of, among Flat head Indians, 213
+
+  Woman, first duty of, 47
+
+  Woman not superior to man, 212
+
+  Woman, selective action of, in marriage, 32, 43 _et seq._
+
+  Women incapable of love inferior as mothers, 208
+
+  Women more numerous than men, 136
+
+  Women, preference for certain characteristics in men, 133
+
+
+  _Xenophon_, 15
+
+
+  _Zeigler, Professor_, 81, 91
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+The word "diarrhoea" uses an oe ligature in the original.
+
+The following corrections have been made to the text:
+
+     Page 19: visited her "with great caution and
+     apprehension"[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 25: "that the difference between men and the animals is
+     forgotten in them."[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 62: _The Philosophical[original has Philosphical] Journal_
+     for October 5, 1895
+
+     Page 66: come to console him [original has extraneous quotation
+     mark]for the pain
+
+     Page 82: distinguished psychiatrist, D. Von
+     Krafft-Ebings[original has Kraft-Ebings]
+
+     Page 84: inconsistency in desires, sudden and variable
+     will."[quotation mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 104: develop[original has devolop] other organs than those
+     like the ones in which it was formed
+
+     Page 109: theories of heredity--Haeckel's[original has
+     Heckel's], for instance
+
+     Page 112: without the transmission[original has transmision] of
+     the effects of the use
+
+     Page 141: to give continuous[original has continous] food,
+     warmth and protection
+
+     Page 164: the ape, the dog, the cat or other animal."[quotation
+     mark missing in original]
+
+     Page 164: clear, round germinal vesicle[original has vescicle]
+
+     Page 167: they completely[original has competely] efface
+     themselves
+
+     Page 176: often of an unusually[original has unsually] cheerful
+     and hopeful disposition
+
+     Page 180: quoted Grant Allen as favoring abstinence[original
+     has abstainence]
+
+     Page 182: must bring decay and ultimate extinction.[original
+     has comma]
+
+     Page 199: children, both born and unborn.[period missing in
+     original]
+
+     Page 200: capable of resisting the intense excitements[original
+     has excitments]
+
+     Page 200: dimmed by the relation of such occurrences[original
+     has occurrencies]
+
+     Page 203: Is this not a grievous[original has grevious] burden
+
+     Page 206: [original has extraneous quotation mark]Mrs. B----
+     says: "I can trace
+
+     Page 207: cloth of gold roses and bougainvillea[original has
+     bougianvillea]
+
+     Page 210: only 17,314 out of 100,000 died.[original has comma]
+
+     Page 213: mind as well as heart,[comma missing in original]
+     vigor as well as sympathy
+
+     Page 217: gruffly[original has grufly] remarked that I had
+     rumpled his hair
+
+     Page 217: suggestions have not been repeated since
+     May."[original has extraneous quotation mark]
+
+     Page 226: number "200" is below the entry for "Air" in the
+     original, but it belongs to the entry for "Allen, Joseph A.",
+     and has been moved accordingly
+
+     Page 228: page numbers for the entry on Darwin have been put in
+     numerical order
+
+     Page 228: Eimer,[original has period] Dr. G. H., 71, 79 _et
+     seq._, 90
+
+     Page 230: Haeckel[original has Haeckel], Ernst, 109
+
+     Page 232: Inheritance of acquired characters, question as to
+     the, 71, 73, 77,[comma missing in original] 79
+
+     Page 232: Krafft[original has Kraft], D. Von Ebing, 82, 84, 91
+
+     Page 232: Leeuwenhock[original has Leeukwenhock], 103
+
+     Page 233: Jowett[original has Jewett], Professor B., 25 _et
+     seq._,[comma missing in original] 34
+
+     Page 233: Mason, Dr. R. Osgood, on beneficial effect of
+     hypnotism[original has hynotism]
+
+     Page 235: Quatrefages[original has Quartrefages], M. de, 59
+
+     Page 235: Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy[original has Geoffory], 68
+
+     Page 238: Transmission[original has Tranmission] of acquired
+     characters
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Homo-culture, by Martin Luther Holbrook
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